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From August 21, 1910
HOW THOSE AMUSING FREAK MOVING PICTURES ARE MADE: Ingenious Devices Make It Easy for a Man Apparently to Walk on the Ceiling, Climb Up the Side of a House and Work Other Impossibilities. (PDF)
By 1910, jaded audiences were already tired of the primitive special effects in movies. They demanded more!
Tricks popular a few years ago are being abandoned. Sophisticated audiences demand that the ideas be worked out in a logical way. This forced the manufacturers to drop the obvious or merely ingenious… The result has been that the tricks of the moving picture man have progressed to a point of mechanical complexity that is amazing to the layman, and have developed ideas worthy of a skilled dramatist or novelist.
The article goes on to reveal several secrets of 1910 movie effects:
A French magician named Malies originated the so-called magical pictures, in which persons and objects appeared and disappeared in an instant. Of course, these were merely placed in or removed from the scene while the shutter of the camera was closed between the photographs.
Of course that refers to George Melies, whose “magical pictures” are worth looking up on YouTube. Here’s one example from 1898 showing how objects can appear and disappear as described above (for best effect, mute the music):
The article gives another example:
In the picture of the “Great Train Robbery,” for example, a dummy was substituted and thrown from a moving train in place of the living fireman who had been knocked on the head with a piece of coal.
I believe this must be the scene they refer to:
I can’t say I blame audiences for demanding more.
Amazingly, many of the tricks used back then are still used today. For example, the article describes a movie where a man crawls like a fly on the ceiling…
…head down, laughing and talking to an assistant who passes bits of paper to him from the floor beneath. On another picture a man, clinging to the ceiling as though glued there, goes through a series of antics and finally hangs suspended by his hands and his head.
The secret of these illusions is as simple as that of a conundrum — when you know it. The men walking head downward on the ceiling are actually performing on a floor. The walls and furniture in the room are suspended upside down, after being fastened to a framework of wooden strips.
A more sophisticated version of this same technique was used in this summer’s Inception. In a scene where two characters appear to be fighting on the walls and ceiling of a hotel hallway, the effect is in fact achieved by rotating the set along with the camera so that they end up fighting on an upside down set. You can read more about Inception‘s rotating set in this article at mtv.com.
While not mentioned in the article, I also recommend you watch Melies’ 1902 film A Trip To The Moon (Le voyage dans la lune), which is often considered the first sci-fi film.
Possibly related articles:
- Wind In The Moving Pictures
- Moving Pictures Sound Melodrama’s Knell
- Is The Moving Picture To Be The Play Of The Future?
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Sept. 18 is unofficially National Humiliation Day in China, a day when the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) commemorates Japanese aggression and atrocities. It is a time for wallowing in the national obsession with a century of indignities inflicted on a weak China until the CCP came to power in 1949. But the ignominies perpetrated by the Japanese cast the longest shadow in this vault of nightmares.
Humiliation is “celebrated” on the day in 1931 when Japanese troops staged a bombing of the Japanese railway in Mukden and blamed it on the Chinese, providing a pretext for a full-scale invasion of Manchuria. The resulting puppet state of Manchukuo was Japan’s quasi-colony. Tensions and outbreaks of violence continued in border regions in northern China with matters coming to a head on July 7, 1937 at Marco Polo Bridge on the outskirts of Beijing where skirmishing escalated into eight long years of war.
Ten years ago on this sensitive date, Chinese police raided a hotel where 400 Japanese company employees on a junket in the southern city of Zhuhai were having a three day “orgy” with 500 Chinese prostitutes, igniting nationalistic outrage about Japan’s wartime conduct. Certainly thoughtless, but one wonders how much longer China will keep vanquishing these particular ghosts of the past; its not like there is any shortage of other hobgoblins.
There is no reason, of course, to downplay the enormous suffering of the Chinese at the hands of Western and Japanese imperialists. It happened. During the Sino-Japanese war of 1937-45, at least 14 million Chinese died while the war produced 80-100 million refugees, more than the entire population of Japan at the time. Already impoverished, China was left destitute by a debilitating inferno of violence.
The Japanese Imperial Armed Forces cut a devastating swathe and scarred the nation. Campaigns such as the “Three Alls” — “kill all, burn all, loot all” — the awful vivisection and biological war experiments conducted by Unit 731 on POWs, and the horrific massacre at Nanjing are emblematic of Japan’s sinister modus operandi. It is no wonder that Chinese are seething about this shared past, one that Japan has done too little to acknowledge, much less atone for. But this angry remembering only began two decades ago for politically expedient reasons.
Following the 1989 Tiananmen pro-democracy demonstrations and bloody crackdown, the CCP began highlighting Japan’s wartime transgressions, breaking with Mao’s emphasis on an uplifting victor’s narrative. The new patriotic education campaign since the 1990s has nurtured nationalism and a collective memory of victimization that has become deeply ingrained in China, feeding a sense of feverish and vengeful indignation.
China faces numerous intractable problems, so vilifying Japan has also become a convenient distraction from the moral and ideological bankruptcy of the CCP. As Zheng Wang reminds us in “Never Forget National Humiliation” (2012), the Japan-inflicted trauma is a touchstone of national identity that bolsters the CCP’s legitimacy. The bilateral territorial rift is thus less a problem to solve than a convenient sideshow where orchestrated, patriotic outrage serves a useful political purpose. By playing the history card, the CCP slyly channels public anger away from its own undeniable shortcomings and provides an outlet for grassroots anger and frustration.
In “Wealth and Power” (2013), Orville Schell and Jonathan Delury explain how national humiliation has long been mobilized by the Chinese state to confer legitimacy and to gain wealth and power. The CCP also stokes memories of past abuses to propel a national quest to avenge, and draw strength from, collective shame. Although dwelling on victimization drives home the lessons of what happens to the weak, this provides little vision for the strong. It is also threatening, as 21st China is not weak; it needs a new narrative because harping on historical grievances is risky and constrains Beijing’s options. Righting the wrongs of the past through unilateral assertions of China’s rights that define issues in black and white terms, and non-negotiable core interests, reduces points of contention to a zero sum game. Seeking the mantle of regional leadership and coping with new domestic problems, Schell and Delury highlight why China needs to move beyond hyped patriotism — but can it?
This past year, Chinese President Xi Jinping has called on the nation to embrace a new dream, a project inspired by China’s gathering malaise, but how can he finesse changing the channel? What inspiration can he and the CCP offer beyond a prickly, glowering nationalism steeped in a degrading history?
While the CCP has moved in recent years to give the Kuomintang (KMT) its due in fighting against Japan, long suppressed because the KMT deserve most of the credit, it still tiptoes around some of the greatest tragedies inflicted on the Chinese during the 20th century. Yang Jisheng’s “Tombstone” (2012), banned in China, underscores how history is tricky for the CCP because he details how the party’s fingerprints are all over the Great Famine (1958-62), a Mao-made disaster that claimed some 40 million lives. And then there is the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), a complicated spasm of violence initiated by Mao that destroyed millions more lives. Inside China, frank appraisals of these twin traumas are gaining some traction, although the party line still prevails in the master narrative of public memory. But as Yang says, “If a country can’t face its own history, then it has no future.”
China has loads of museums commemorating Japanese atrocities and the media can be quite frenzied about how Japan remembers (and forgets), but public discourse on more recent tragedies remains circumscribed. Near Chengdu the fascinating Jianchuan Museum has an entire building devoted to the Cultural Revolution and another planned on the Great Famine. As this past is exhumed, and more deeply probed, there are new ghosts to vanquish and monsters to destroy. Inconveniently, there is much to answer for. Alas, Japan remains a handy punching bag.
But endlessly stoking victimization stirs an aggrieved and sanctimonious worldview that impedes strategic thinking and effective pursuit of national interests. Surely there is more dignity and satisfaction to be gained through reconciliation, and here the ball remains in Japan’s court. But Tokyo is unlikely to undertake such initiatives as long as Beijing signals that it is not ready to tango.
Jeff Kingston is director of Asian studies at Temple University Japan.
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Geographical Index > Canada > British Columbia > Article # 262
Media Article # 262
Saturday, April 7, 2001
The Sasquatch in Northern British Columbia, Canada
By Brian (Yogi)
HBCC UFO Research;http://www.homestead.com/ufo3/ufo.html
Does a large hairy covered humanoid roam the wilderness of the Pacific Northwest ? Changes are more likely that you will encounter this creature close to civilization than in the deep woods. If very lucky it may even be in your own back yard. This creature was no stranger to the first nations people of western Canada and the U.S. In fact the name "Sasquatch" loosely translated means "Wild Man of the Forest". It's tracks and sightings have been made from the mountains ranges in northern California to the tundra of the Yukon and Alaska. To the none natives in the U.S., it is called "Big Foot", and in the Himalayas the "Yeti". A recent T.V. program on the learning channel revealed that a dozen other countries, including Australia have similar creatures with their own names.
In this article we will only cover our own area. For obvious reasons many peoples names and some locations cannot be given. Also the sightings will be given in the order that they were received in the late 1960's a veterinarian by the name of Dr. Proctor opened a clinic on the 4600 block on Lakelse Ave., just east of the Bank of Montreal. In the front window there was a pair of large plaster cast footprints. When he was asked for the reason of the display of these footprints, the reply was that he was very interested in this creature. The sight of these big feet may bring in more information and it did.
Sighting # 1
In 1974 a friend and I applied for two expired gold placer leases on Lorne Creek, 30 miles east of Terrace, British Columbia, on the railroad side of the river. The boat used to cross the river was tied up at Jim's place on the highway side of the river. Since there were grizzly bear in the area we carried rifles. In shooting the breeze one evening, we asked Jim what kind of wildlife was in the area. Of course there was Moose, but recently he had seen something different. While doing some work there he spotted a moving patch of brown a short distance away. Curious as to what it may be, he sneaked closer. It appeared to be a brown colored bear that had its back towards him and was standing up on its hind legs eating Saskatoon berries, however, it was using its front paws like hands. The last cover was 50 feet from this creature and this was as close as he could get. from this point he saw that the paws were hands and this was not a bear, but some kind of hair covered human like creature a little over 6 feet tall. Also it had a very strong odor that reminded him of a camel smell when he once worked in a circus. After about 10 minutes the creature sensed that something was near it and turned sideways and spotted Jim who then saw it was a female as it had breasts. The creature then just trotted off.
It was then Jim's wife spoke up. The pervious summer about the same time of the year she was home alone. Suddenly their two tied up watch dogs raised an awful commotion, more so than if a bear was around. Stepping outside she saw through the trees about 100 yards away skirting the yard a large black bear walking on it's hind legs. She knew a bear didn't walk on it's hind legs. This couple were told of Dr. Proctors interest and if they would be willing to grant him an interview if he came out. They agreed and he was notified. Later on down the street I asked him how he made out. His reply was that it certainly appeared that this is what they saw.
Sighting # 2
This also occurred in 1974. At that time the new highway bridges into Terrace had reached a point in construction where it was safe for the public to inspect them after working hours. Taking advantage of this, Dick and a friend decided to cross to Ferry Island from the Terrace side and explore it. On the river bank they found fresh large footprints. They went back and picked up some plaster of paris and a camera. After the casts were made a through search was made for the creature but it was not seen. They kept their find a secret until they were sure it was no longer around. It is quite possible that this was the one that was seen at Lorne Creek.
Sighting # 3
This took place near the end of January at one of our local landfills. At about 2:00 AM a worker returned to the landfill to pick up a set of keys that had been left in a piece of equipment. As he was walking past the area where the last dumping was, he saw a figure crouching amongst the garbage. He called out with a "hello there, what are you doing in the dump at this time of the night." The figure stands up and this worker who was about 100 feet away was amazed at it's huge height and size. It stood at over 10 feet tall. The creature turned and looked at the worker, then just walked out to the bush at the rear of the landfill, looking back several times to see if it was being followed. When it was a safe distance away the worker went to the spot where it was first seen. The footprints were 5 feet apart, further than the worker could spread his legs. Also it walked through 2 feet of snow as easily as a human could walk through ankle deep snow. It was learned later that 2 days after this sighting, a similar sighting, maybe of the same creature was made at Usk about 12 miles east of Terrace.
Sighting # 4
This took place around 1950. Two logger brothers set up a bush sawmill on the Babine Lake road just out of Smithers. The staff and workers built cabins to be near the mill. One Sunday having nothing else to do, the younger brother decided to do a little exploring in the woods. Coming across a game trail, he decided to follow it. On the trail were giant footprints that looked like those made by a large grizzly bear, but they had no claw marks on their ends. Also the steps were 5 feet apart and still 4 feet apart even when going up a steep hill. The logger was 6 foot, 2 inches tall and could barely match the stride by stretching his legs to the limit. Even when going up the hill his steps were only half as long.
While following the tracks he noticed the trail was littered by a lot of fresh stripped twigs. Looking up he saw all the alder trees up to 20 feet on both sides of the trail had all of their upper branches stripped bare. The taller 20 foot trees had 4 inch trunks near the ground. It was very evident that this creature was big and strong enough to bend over these trees to get at the tender tips, leaves and buds on he top branches. The twigs that broke off were spit out like humans do with fruit or berry stones. When the logger tired to bend these trees he could hardly move them.
Sasquatch researchers have long speculated what these creatures ate, and especially during the winter time in the woods. So far two things were mentioned, Saskatoon berries and alder buds and shoots.
Sighting # 5
This took place around 1980. two men were driving to Kitimat one summer morning. Coming down the airport hill they could see a ground fog over the William Creek flats. This was a 2 mile fairly straight stretch of highway that was built over a swampy area that was part of the north end of Lakelse Lake. The grade or fill here varied between 5 to 6 feet high. As the car came around a slight bend at the bottom of the hill they could see arms waving in the fog ahead of them. Thinking that someone had gone off the road they prepared to stop. Since it was foggy the driver had to get over the white line and right on the shoulder. When the vehicle was still several car lengths away from the figure, the passenger who told me this story saw that it was not human. It was a very tall hair covered human like creature that was standing in the water at the foot of the grade and was facing the highway. When the car came to a stop they were alongside the creature. The creature's head was level with the occupants in the car and about 5 feet away from the passenger. After a brief moment the creature's eyes and mouth opened wide in terror. The head was thrown back and it's arms crossed over the front of it's head as to be warding off a blow from a club. It then turned around and dashed into the swamp, going at times through waist deep holes of water until lost in the fog and leaving two stunned men in the car.
While mulling over this story I measured the eye level height off the road in a similar type of car and it was 4 feet. Since the grade shoulder would have sloped a bit it would have been about 5 feet above the water. The creature was standing in water halfway to it's knees. Adding up each foot of height on my fingers took all ten of them. This was followed up by another visit where two questions were asked. The first was if the creatures face was relatively free of hair as we see on the T.V. shows of the chimps and apes. The reply was that the face was covered with hair much the same as a full beard would be on a man. The next question was, "did you see the dished face of a chimp or ape or was it more human like"? The answer was that I saw a human face. It definitely was not the face of a chimp or ape.
What apparently had happed here was the Sasquatch was feeding on the brush on the road grade as it was standing in the water. The movement of the arms through the fog was the creature reaching out and pulling the bushes towards himself. Like most wild creatures it did not pay much attention to the traffic as they went by at highway speed. However, if you slow down much or stop, then they are gone. You can imagine the creatures surprise when this large object suddenly stopped in front of it.
Sighting # 6
This sighting was from a lady now living in terrace, B.C. in 1985, she was living in the Queen Charlotte Islands in a cabin by the Honna River. One afternoon an acquaintance stopped by to tell her of a strange event he had just witnessed. He had been fly fishing further along the river when a very tame Deer came out of the woods near him to drink from the river. he had stopped his casting to admire the Deer. Suddenly a rock flew out from the trees, striking the Deer and knocking it down. This was immediately followed by a very tall hair covered human like creature who threw the Deer over it's shoulder and dashed back into the woods. Of course this took the pleasure out of further fishing and he didn't want to stick around with the rock chucking ape in the vicinity. This is the first that I heard of the Sasquatch being on these islands. According to this lady, the local native people speak quite openly about them. Now if anyone is curious whether or not this Deer was roasted, just read on.
Sighting # 7
This took place in 1967. Fred arrived in Canada in 1960 along with a flood of German immigrants. In 1967 he was in the Houston area where he had joined an outdoor club. In the fall Fred went hunting because it was a man think to do. This is an urge that harkens back to a dim and distant past where humans had to hunt in order to survive. A favorite place to hunt was on a prospector trail that ran up a mountain in the direction of Kemano in the Bower Lake area. This weekend Fred was only accompanied by a medium sized dog as he was after a young Moose that he could drag back down the trail himself. Halfway up the mountain he ran into a fresh fall of snow a foot deep. Suddenly he was hit with a very strong pungent odor similar to a large decaying carcass. He was up here the weekend before and there was nothing like that here. When he tried to go on, the dog laid down on it's belly blocking his way. When he tried to go around the dog, it crawled forward continuing to block his way.
Fred then climbed up on top of a rock that was beside the trail but he could see nothing ahead. However, he decided to heed the dogs warning and headed back down the mountain much to the dogs relief.
In sighting # 7 Fred had moved to Terrace in 1974. During that summer he visited another German immigrant family with 8 children who were living in an acreage community of Rosswood about 30 miles north of Terrace. There was a houseful of guests that day and the hosts had a strange story to tell. The previous winter had a very heavy snowfall. In March the snow was still 4 feet deep but hard enough to walk on. The snow had melted away from around the smaller jack pine trees to leaving them sitting in holes in the snow. During the Easter school holidays the children saw two hair covered human like creatures about 100 yards behind the house. One was an adult and the other a youngster about half as tall. It was presumed that the larger one was the mother but it kept its back to the whole family who were watching from the back of the house. These two figures were going from one small jack pine to another, picking and eating the needle tips of the branches. Here we have another item on their menu.
Two days later on the afternoon a large passenger airplane without wings, tail or engines, and making no sound, flew very low and slow, following the path that these creatures had taken. In my correspondence with UFO*BC they had mentioned having a number of reports from people who had seen a Sasquatch and a UFO in the same area around the same time. They were wondering if there as some kind of connection between them. It is my feeling that the aliens are every bit as curious about these creatures as we are.
This covers the verbal stories collected so far. The remaining printed stories will be photo copied.
A local moose hunter once mentioned that he could easily have shot a Sasquatch. However, it looked so human like that he didn't dare. Although it would have been a real boom to science, he was concerned that he could be charged with man slaughter if it would be classed as a sub human by these scientists. This question was put to the homicide department of the local R.C.M.P. The reply was that they couldn't answer this question and refered me to the crown prosecutor. His statement was the same as the police, so the next visit was to the game warden. According to him the Sasquatch was not a game animal, so it has nothing to do with his department. If one was shot and declared a sub human, then it would be up to the police and courts to deal with it.
It seems here that the safest thing to do would be to capture one alive. If it turns out to be some form of human, then it could always be turned loose. However, if it realizes that it can just laze around and still be fed, it may not want to leave. If food is put out for a homeless dog or cat, it sticks around.
The next question would be, where doe the Sasquatch fit in to the scheme of things. It appears that this was one of natures experiments in evolution that got stuck in a rut. Anyone that listens to the news and watches the T.V. educational channels will be aware the oldest human bones found go back almost 6 million years. Here we have an upright walking primate that was very good at climbing trees. However, its brain was the same size as the primates that were still walking on their hands as the chimpanzee does today. The chimp branch had forked sometime earlier with each branch then going its own way. With the upright walking primates the hands were now free for other tasks and the brain began to increase in size to accommodate this dexterity. As these hands were used more and became more skillful, the greater the brain increased in size until two distinct species had developed.
Somewhere near the beginning of this separation a third branch had spouted between these two species. This primate also walked upright but it's brain remained chimp size. Here we have half of each main branch, with the body following the upright walking side, and the brain following the side where the primates still walked on their hands, like the chimps do today.
However, it must have had something going for it, for this species also survived along with the other primates including the one that became humans. The Sasquatch is now comparable in size and weight to the gorilla and probably has the same size of brain. In all of natures evolution only the human primates has made it into the stone age and beyond. Humans were the only creatures that made tools and weapons. We are the only ones that used fire for warmth and cooking. The other primates do not even have the intelligence of how to keep a fire going. Humans were the only creature to have a full and written language, and the only creatures that built permanent shelters.
The Sasquatch had none of these and probably didn't even need them. Its heavy fur coat was adequate for all weather. Like our moose it just spent its days roaming the wilderness in search of food. There is no evidence that it even had its own territory as many animals do. It just followed its food supply. When needing to rest any comfortable place would do. A permanent bed was a disadvantage as it would soon have been heavily infested with fleas, lice, mites and tics. As its diet was mostly vegetationit did not have to complete with the more intelligent human primates for the available food supply. The Sasquatch was for the most part a solitary creature that just came together with a female to mate like much of our wildlife. Most of the sightings are of a single creature. It was up to the female to raise the offspring alone. If like humans, it would take a good many years to raise a youngster to where it could look after itself. This would mean a mother could only raise 2 or 3 children in its lifetime which would barely sustain their numbers. This would explain the scarcity of these creatures.
For those who have watched the wildlife documentaries on the T.V. educational channels will be struck by the almost human behavior of the chimpanzee. They tend to remind us of our children quarreling. For a long time scientists had thought that the dividing line between human and other creatures was in the use of tools. However, many wildlife pictures do show that the chimps, other animals and even birds will use sticks and rocks as tools in order to obtain food.
With our recent rapid advancement of our genetic research scientists are now saying that the chimpanzee, depending on its species have from 98 to 99.3 per cent of the genes of a human. In fact they are more closely related to humans than they are to the other large apes. Because of this some scientists have started a movement to declare the chimp a sub human with all the protection humans have. The Sasquatch with its upright walking and very human face could fit in between humans and the chimps. Does this mean the Sasquatch is the missing link ? Not likely as all 3 species evolved from an earlier life form around the same time.
After all, in the scientific category humans are classified as a primate or more crudely an ape. Keep this in mind the next time you call someone a big or stupid ape.
Sighting # 8
This report was received after my report had been completed and photo copies made. In the summer of 1988 Dan and his wife visited a friend on Old Lakelse Lake Road past Jackpine Flats. After awhile Dan had to stretch his legs and decided to look at his friends garden which was a little distance behind the house. Midway on the way back on his left was a dense grove of low leaf trees. Suddenly there was movement there and Dan thought he saw what looked like a very large rear end of a moose taking off. Dan, an avid hunter couldn't believe that a moose could be that high . At that moment the owner let out his two small house dogs. Dan hadn't smelled anything but apparently the dogs did. They ran yapping into the dense grove of trees. A few seconds later they came yapping back with high pitched yelps right up to the house and scratches madly at the door to get back into the house.
The owner came out and asked Dan what made the dogs act so strangely. Dan said he didn't know but would take a look around. He couldn't find any moose tracks in the grove of trees. There were a number of large faint impressions in the moss that were still rebounding out. Dan was familiar with the stories of the Sasquatch and suspected that this is what he saw. However, since there was no firm evidence to back him up, he decided to keep quiet rather than face teasing or ridicule. However, this event shows that although the Sasquatch will usually avoid humans, they can occasionally still stumble into their yards. In this area a story of bear and moose in your yard is believeable but a Sasquatch still isn't. It should also be noted in this report and the other information included, the strange reaction of the dogs. These dogs will not hesitate to go after a full grown grizzly, but yet run and hide from a Sasquatch. Do they instinctively know something that we don't ?
Sighting # 9
This took place in 1991 during ate July or early August. Dan and his wife were returning to B.C. from a visit to Ontario. Midnight found them near the Ontario - Manitoba border close to Westhawk Lake.
Suddenly ahead of them in the car headlights they saw a large hair covered human like creature running hard across the highway. Dan remembers that the hair on the top of the creatures head was standing upright like a comb or brush. His wife noticed that steam was rising from its shoulder. It was obvious that the creature was in a panic situation and was running from something. Later they heard that others had seen it and it made the news on the local radio stations and the newspapers.
From the above report is proof that the Sasquatch is not confined to the Rockies but can be anywhere, even on the prairies.
Click here to view the original article
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My class was discussing the annexation of Hawaii today, so I thought I'd do it here as well. What I find is interesting is how Cleveland backsteps the US in this period, actually wanting to restore the Queen, but he leaves office and McKinley pushes it forward:
Without permission from the U.S. State Department, Minister Stevens then recognized the new government and proclaimed Hawaii a U.S. protectorate. The Committee immediately proclaimed itself to be the Provisional Government. President Benjamin Harrison signed a treaty of annexation with the new government, but before the Senate could ratify it, Grover Cleveland replaced Harrison as president and subsequently withdrew the treaty.
Shortly into his presidency, Cleveland appointed James Blount as a special investigator to investigate the events in the Hawaiian Islands. Blount found that Minister Stevens had acted improperly and ordered that the American flag be lowered from Hawaiian government buildings. He also ordered that Queen Lili'uokalani be restored to power, but Sanford Dole, the president of the Provisional Government of Hawaii, refused to turn over power. Dole successfully argued that the United States had no right to interfere in the internal affairs of Hawaii. The Provisional Government then proclaimed Hawaii a republic in 1894, and soon the Republic of Hawaii was officially recognized by the United States.
This site is really cool in that it has petitions against hte annexation of Hawaii and ideas on how to teach with them. I rather like this debate idea!
Direct the students to use the petition and their knowledge of the historical debate to formulate their own positions for or against annexation of Hawaii to the United States. Give the students the following arguments, taken from the May 17, 1898, Report of the Committee on Foreign Affairs Report on H.Res. 259 (House Report 1355, 55th Congress, 2d session), and ask them to hold a committee hearing on annexation using characters researched in activity 2 as members of or witnesses to the committee:
Arguments For :
Hawaii too small and weak to maintain independence
No protest by any other government
"Cordial consent" of both governments
Strategic location to secure U.S. fleet and coastline
"Outpost of Americanism against increasing Asiatic invasion"
Hawaiian people not consulted
American people not consulted
Unconstitutional method of increasing domain
Too remote; too costly to defend
Not commercially necessary
Not militarily necessary
Secure independence of Hawaiian people with policy rather than takeover
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Cherokee youth re-enact ancient fishing practiceWritten by Becky Johnson
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As 10-year-old Dayini Lossie stood on the shore eyeing the wide shallow waters of the Tuckasegee River last week listening to the marching orders for the exercise about to unfold, one word came to mind: awesome.
Lossie had never heard of a fish weir before, but now she was about to walk in her ancestors’ footsteps, using the same stone wall her people built centuries ago to once again — hopefully — trap some fish.
“The objective is to herd the fish, stomping and screaming and basically scaring them downstream,” explained Mark Cantrell, a biologist with U.S. Fish and Wildlife.
Lossie, along with two dozen other Cherokee students, couldn’t wait. They’d been in and out of the river all day, their shoes, shirts and shorts soaked through many times over as they swam, splashed and explored aquatic biology along the way.
But as they waded into the river this time, stringing themselves out in a long line and facing the ancient weir downstream, they realized they were part of something big.
“We’re learning about our history and how our ancestors used the river,” Lossie said.
As the students began moving downstream, flushing the fish toward a trap at the mouth of the weir, it didn’t exactly go off without a hitch. One student would fall, then another, then suddenly the chain would disintegrate leaving big gaps for the fish to sneak through. Some started splashing each other instead of the water in front of them. Others took intermittent breaks to float on their backs.
But eventually, the line closed in on the weir and two modest-sized fish were ushered into the trap.
“We all would have starved if this was dinner tonight,” Cantrell declared.
It became apparent just how much cooperation a fish weir entailed.
“I learned so much myself,” said Roger Clapp, director of the Watershed Association of the Tuckasegee River, which coordinated the event. “Though it is obvious, you could really see how Cherokee fishing at a weir is a community experience, not just one, two or three people.”
The re-enactment was orchestrated by WATR, an environmental group whose central focus is water quality. Funding came from the Cherokee Preservation Foundation, World Wildlife Fund, the Royal Bank of Canada and WATR. To help pull off the re-enactment, biologists with the Cherokee Fish and Wildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife, and several volunteers with WATR pitched in.
The field trip brought kids not only in touch with their heritage, but the ecosystem, Clapp said.
Armed with nets and buckets, kids took to the river upturning rocks and sifting through sediment in search of crawdads, bugs and fish lurking below the surface. A science station allowed them to examine their finds under microscopes.
“The creek bottom underneath them is actually teeming with life,” said Clapp. “It is a living ecological unit.”
The students also got to hear a program from Russ Townsend, a historic preservation officer for the Cherokee, who quizzed them on the role rivers played for their ancestors, which included everything from transportation to the gathering of mussel shells that were ground up and mixed with clay for pottery.
“The Cherokee were very smart. They knew how to use the environment. They loved living here because they could get everything they needed and the rivers were a major source of that,” said Townsend
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| 0.972062 | 783 | 2.96875 | 3 |
XaaS - Anything-as-a-Service
Anything-as-a-service, or XaaS, refers to the growing diversity of services available over the Internet via cloud computing as opposed to being provided locally, or on premises. Also known as everything-as-a-service, anything-as-a-service reflects the vast potential for on-demand cloud services and is already being heavily marketed and promoted by companies like VMware and HP.
Anything-as-a-service derives the "X" in its XaaS acronym as a result of being a catch-all term for everything from software-as-a-service (SaaS) to storage-as-a-service, desktop-as-a-service (DaaS), disaster recovery-as-a-service (DRaaS), network-as-a-service (NaaS), infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) and platform-as-a-service (PaaS), and even emerging services such as marketing-as-a-service and healthcare-as-a-service.
Stay up to date on the latest developments in Internet terminology with a free weekly newsletter from Webopedia. Join to subscribe now.
Webopedia's student apps roundup will help you to better organize your class schedule and stay on top of assignments and homework. Read More »List of Free Shorten URL Services
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The most popular Webopedia definitions of 2015. Read More »
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Webopedia's computer architecture study guide is an introduction to system design basics. It describes parts of a computer system and their... Read More »What Are Network Topologies?
Network Topology refers to layout of a network. How different nodes in a network are connected to each other and how they communicate is... Read More »
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| 0.869404 | 442 | 2.859375 | 3 |
District Attorney (D.A.)
n. an elected official of a county or a designated district with the responsibility for prosecuting crimes. The duties include managing the prosecutor's office, investigating alleged crimes in cooperation with law enforcement, and filing criminal charges or bringing evidence before the Grand Jury that may lead to an indictment for a crime. In some states a District Attorney is officially entitled County Attorney or State's Attorney. U.S. Attorneys are also called Federal District Attorneys and are prosecutors for districts (there are several in larger states) within the Department of Justice, are appointed by the President and serve at his/her pleasure.
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| 0.975259 | 127 | 3.125 | 3 |
The National Water Policy (2002) envisages that the water resources of the country should be developed and managed in an integrated manner. On one hand the pressures of development are changing the distribution of water in the country, while on the other hand access to adequate water has been cited as the primary factor responsible for limiting development. The average availability of water is reducing steadily with the growing population and it is estimated that by 2020 India will become a water stressed nation. Given the projected growth of population by the year 2025, the per capita availability is likely to drop drastically leading to scarcity.
Though the availability of water is limited the demand of water is increasing rapidly due to growing population, urbanization, industrialization and economic development. The key challenges to better management of the water quality in India are temporal and spatial variation of rainfall, improper management of surface run-o? , uneven geographic distribution of surface water resources, persistent droughts, overuse of groundwater, and contamination, drainage, and salinization and water quality problems due to treated, partially treated, and untreated wastewater from urban settlements, industrial establishments, and run-o? from the irrigation sector besides poor management of municipal solid waste and animal dung in rural areas. The most polluting of them are the city sewage and industrial waste discharged into the rivers.
Presently, only about 10% of the waste water generated is treated, the rest is discharged as it is into our water bodies. The facilities to treat waste water are not adequate in any city in India. Treatment of waste water, sewage treatment and solid, liquid and chemical waste, water technology, environmental services, desalination companies, consulting and engineering are some services that India will require to tackle the water problem.
The government is also coming up with a revised national water policy for the Improvement of water use efficiency, urban and rural water supply and sanitation. This revised policy will give a new opportunity to private players for implementation of new technologies in water supply and sanitation. To discuss and elaborate on the above points, InfralineEnergy is organizing a Two day conference on Water & Waste Water Management in India to create a platform for knowledge sharing for all stakeholders in the water and wastewater sector. It covers a rich variety of subjects, technologies and practices, thereby giving a comprehensive overview on the subject. The objective of the programme would be to allow water professionals from industry, government and trade to learn and understand some of the latest developments and opportunities in this sector.
All water industry personnel involved in the operation and maintenance of urban, rural and industrial water related infrastructure for the management, conveyance, treatment, discharge and reuse of water and trade wastes should attend this conference.
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en
| 0.93583 | 538 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Design for Water: Rainwater Harvesting, Stormwater Catchment, and Alternate Water Reuse
Shared By Guest
In an era of dwindling resources, water is poised to become the new oil. The Author of this Book is Heather Kinkade-Levario The entire world now faces the reality of a decreasing supply of clean water. Array ISBN . To avert a devastating shortage, we must not only look at alternate water sources for existing structures but must plan our new developments differently. Design for Water: Rainwater Harvesting, Stormwater Catchment, and Alternate Water Reuse available in English. Design for Water is an accessible and clearly written guide to alternate water collection, with a focus on rainwater harvesting in the urban environment. The book: * Outlines the process of water collection from multiple sources-landscape, residential, commercial, industrial, school, park, and municipal systems * Provides numerous case studies * Details the assembly and actual application of equipment * Includes specific details, schematics, and references All aspects of rainwater harvesting are outlined, including passive and active system setup, storage, storm water reuse, distribution, purification, analysis, and filtration. There is even a section on rainwater harvesting for wildlife. In addition to rainwater, there are several affordable and accessible alternate sources, including cooling tower bleed-off water, air conditioning condensate, gray water, and fog collection. D esign for Water is geared to providing those making development decisions and guidelines with the information they need to set up passive harvesting techniques. The book will especially appeal to engineers, landscape architects, municipal decision-makers, developers, and landowners.
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| 0.897942 | 334 | 2.75 | 3 |
Index of content:
Volume 34, Issue 6, June 2007
- Therapy Continuing Education Course: Auditorium
- CE Therapy Series: Topics in Radiation Therapy — III
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761475View Description Hide Description
The purpose of CT simulation in radiotherapy is to acquire patient geometrical information and to build a patient geometrical model for treatment planning. Errors in patient model caused by motion artifacts will influence all treatment fractions and therefore should be handled carefully. Due to the tumor respiratory motion, the captured tumor position and shape can be heavily distorted. The distortions along the axis of motion could result in either a lengthening or shortening of the target. The center of the imaged target can be displaced by as much as the amplitude of the motion.
A newly developed technique that can reduce motion artifacts and provide patient geometry throughout the whole breathing cycle is called respiration‐correlated or 4D CT scan. The basic idea for 4D CT scan is that, at every position of interest along patient's long axis, images are over‐sampled and each image is tagged with breathing phase information. After the scan is done, images are sorted based on the corresponding breathing phase signals. Thus, many 3D CT sets are obtained, each corresponding to a particular breathing phase, and together constitutes a 4D CT set that covers that the whole breathing cycle. 4D CT scan has been developed at various institutions with slightly different flavors. In this lecture, we will provide an overview of various implementations of 4D CT scan.
4D CT scan can be used to account for respiratory motion to generate images with less distortion than 3D CT scan. 4D images also contain respiratory motion information of tumor and organs that is not available in a 3D CTimage. This technology can be used for respiratory‐gated treatment to identify the patient‐specific phase of minimum tumor motion, determine residual tumor motion within the gate interval, and compare treatment plans at different phases. It can also be used for non‐gated treatment planning to define ITV by combining gross tumor volume at all breathing phases or using a method called maximum intensity projection. Of course 4D CT will also play a vital role in the futuristic 4D radiotherapy where the tumor is tracked dynamically during the treatment using multi‐leaf collimator.
Existing problems for 4D CT scan include the increased imagingdose,CT tube heating, and data management. More importantly, one has to keep in mind that 4D CT scan is not really 4D. Temporal information is mapped into one breathing cycle. Irregular respiration will cause artifacts in 4D CTimages. Patient coaching can improve the regularity of breathing pattern and thus reduce the residual artifacts. However this issue still deserves further studies.
1. Understand the origin and magnitude of motion artifacts in free breathing helical CT scan.
2. Understand how 4D CT scan works.
3. Understand how 4D CT can be used in radiotherapy.
4. Understand the remaining artifacts in 4D CT scan and possible future improvements.
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761476View Description Hide Description
Four‐dimensional computed tomography (4D CT), also called respiratory correlated CT, was first published on, and commercially available in 2003. Since then this technology has gained widespread acceptance and clinical use. The 4D CT acquisition concept is relatively simple: acquire CT scans synchronized with the respiratory cycle such that sufficient data exists to reconstruct a volumetric image at or near a number of respiratory phases. There are a variety of commercial implementations of the basic acquisition concept.
There are several limitations of 4D CT. One problem is artifacts. Though 4D CT was developed to account for the deleterious effects of respiratory motion on 3D image acquisition techniques, irregular respiratory motion causes artifacts in 4D scans. Free breathing, unlike the cardiac cycle on which the technology is based, is typically irregular and artifacts can be found in nearly all 4D CT scans with current technology. There are several strategies to deal with this irregular signal: (1) improve the regularity of the signal itself, using audio‐visual biofeedback tools, (2) during imaging only acquire data during regular cycles and (3) use post‐processing methods to reduce artifacts. Another limitation of 4D CT, at least in its application to radiotherapy, is that the time interval during which images are acquired over, ∼5 seconds per anatomic location for a ∼1 minute total scan time, is a small sample of the respiratory induced anatomic changes occurring over a course of radiotherapy, which can be between a single fraction to several weeks.
Despite these limitations 4D CT has been found to be very useful for a number of applications in radiotherapy planning. 4D CT can be used for measuring target motion, and motion inclusive, respiratory gated and target tracking treatment scenarios. Fully utilizing 4D CTimages for treatment planning requires deformable image registration algorithms for automatic contour propagation and dose summation. For this application, several studies have shown that current algorithms have acceptable geometric performance with respect to expert observers. The dosimetric impact of the geometric uncertainty of deformable registration algorithms appears low.
A more recent development in 4D CT is the extension to 4D cone beam CT (4D CBCT) which offers the ability for pre‐treatment anatomic position and motion verification. This application is a major innovation and will increase treatment accuracy. Residual uncertainties from anatomic changes between the time of imaging and time of treatment have been observed, and intra‐fraction position monitoring is desired to complement 4D CBCT.
1. Understand the principles of 4D CTimage acquisition and reconstruction.
2. Understand the limitations of current 4D CT technology.
3. Understand the ongoing developments in 4D CT and 4D CBCTimaging.
4. Understand the application of 4D CT to treatment planning.
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761477View Description Hide Description
The report of Task Group 51 on a “Protocol for Clinical Reference Dosimetry of High‐Energy Photon and Electron Beams” was published nearly 8 years ago (Medical Physics26 (1999) 1847 – 1870) and according to the RPC has been adopted by about 80% of all clinics.
This talk will review how the various factors in TG‐51 were calculated, including a derivation of the relevant equations and a discussion of the sources of physical data used. The rationale for the choice of beam quality specifiers will be given and the role of the lead foil explained.
The talk will conclude with a review of some of the published experimental data which confirms the calculated kQ values used in TG‐51 and review some of the post‐TG51‐publication research which has an impact on the physics in the protocol. The protocol should continue to be used as written.
1. To review the basic physics and sources of data underlying TG‐51.
2. To derive the equations used to calculate kQ and k′R50.
3. To review some experimental verifications of TG‐51 quantities, especially kQ.
4. To discuss the implications of more recent dosimetry research and its effects on future dosimetry protocols.
- CE‐Therapy Series: Topics in Radiation Theraphy — IV
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761621View Description Hide Description
Brachytherapy has had a long history and formed the original intensity‐modulated, three‐dimensionally conformal radiotherapy. This presentation discusses some of the clinical applications of brachytherapy with an emphasis on the physical aspects of treatments. The presentation will focus particular attention on treatments with rapidly evolving procedures, particularly brachytherapy applications in breast, prostate, uterine cervix and liver. The discussion will consider how the physical nature of brachytherapy enhances and limits the treatments.
1. Consider the physical aspects of brachytherapy.
2. Understand the physical limitations in clinical applications of brachytherapy.
3. Know some of the emerging developments in the physical aspects of clinical applications in brachytherapy.
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761622View Description Hide Description
Intensity modulated radiation therapy(IMRT) has revolutionized the treatment planning process. We can now produce treatment plans for complex target shapes and obtain remarkable dose conformity while respecting the tolerance doses to critical structures. While the emphasis has been given in the implementation of faster, more efficient, and more comprehensive optimization algorithms to solve the inverse problem, some progress has also been made in the implementation of accurate dose calculation algorithms. The convolution/superposition algorithm is the most popular photondose engine used in treatment planning, while fast, pencil beam like implementations continue to be popular with IMRT. The Monte Carlo algorithm although available, is becoming an option as a secondary dose verification rather than as the principal optimization engine for IMRT planning, primarily due to calculation speed issues.
In this presentation we will discuss the algorithms that have historically been used for photon beam treatment planning with emphasis on the convolution and Monte Carlo based methodologies and their application in IMRT planning. Clinical examples will also be presented to demonstrate the use and outcome of dose calculations in homogeneous and heterogeneous media.
1. Review of dose calculation algorithms for photon beams.
2. Demonstrate the effect of dose algorithm selection in IMRT planning.
- CE‐Therapy Series: Topics in Radiation Therapy — I
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761197View Description Hide Description
As high‐precision 3‐D conformal radiation therapy and intensity‐modulated radiation therapy have become standard practice, radiographicimaging using kilovoltage (kV) x‐ray sources has been rapidly implemented for in‐room target localization and patient positioning to ensure conformal dosedelivery. Various types of imaging devices are commercially available for clinical applications and their typical imaging functionalities include 2‐D radiographic and fluoroscopic imaging as well as 3‐D cone beam CT. There are substantial demands for fundamental understanding of what kind of systems can be used for clinical practice, when and what imaging systems should be used, how they can be properly used for daily target localization for different anatomical sites, and what kind of quality assurance programs are needed.
In this session, we will briefly introduce the latest commercially available imaging systems using kV imaging for in‐room target localization and their imaging principles. Clinical applications and imaging protocols using these systems for accurate target localization and patient positioning will then be discussed. Finally, systematic quality assurance procedures will be presented.
1. Understand the latest commercially available technologies for in‐room kV radiography, fluoroscopy, and cone‐beam CT and their basic imaging principles.
2. Understand the basic clinical imaging applications for daily localization.
3. Understand the basic system limitations and QA components of a comprehensive QA program.
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761198View Description Hide Description
Each intensity‐modulated radiation therapy(IMRT) field includes many small, irregular, and asymmetric fields that completely obscure the relationship between monitor unit (MU) setting and radiationdose. Uncertainty and inaccuracy of dose delivery with IMRT is primarily attributed to the leaf positioning accuracy, modeling of radiation output for small field sizes, modeling of beam penumbra, and the dose outside the IMRT field. Dose‐difference distribution, distance‐to‐agreement (DTA), and a numerical gamma index are often used to evaluate the quality of agreement between measured and calculated dose distributions for the IMRT fields. The tolerance limits based on these indices for IMRT QA are often not adequate because all these methodologies do not account for space‐specific dose uncertainty information. In other words, single tolerance criterion is applied to all test points even when dose uncertainty is significantly different from point to point. At any given point, the dose uncertainty depends on different levels of dose and gradients from multiple small beams rather than that of the overall dose profile. Therefore, new methodologies are needed that determine dose uncertainties based on the dose level and gradient information of each small field.
In IMRT, it is sometimes difficult to have agreement between calculation and measurement of dose at all points in a 3‐D dose distribution. A disagreement at a few points does not necessarily lead to negative overall result if other comparable points are well within the established tolerance limits. We will describe a new approach in establishing tolerance limits and action levels for IMRT QA that will ensure delivery of prescribed radiationdose within an acceptable limit of 5%.
1. To describe the uncertainties in IMRT planning and delivery.
2. To describe the impact of spatial and dosimetric uncertainties on the IMRTdose distribution.
3. To describe the limitations of current methodologies of establishing tolerance limits for IMRT QA.
4. To describe new methodologies for establishing tolerance limits for IMRT QA.
- CE‐Therapy Series: Topics in Radiation Therapy — II
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761310View Description Hide Description
Intensity‐modulated radiotherapy(IMRT) has become a part of our routine treatment for external beam radiotherapy. Most quality assurance procedures set for linear accelerators and multi‐leaf collimators(MLC) have been designed for conventional external beam radiotherapy. With IMRT, radiation portals are often irregular, small, off‐center, and abutting in the middle of the target volumes, which require specific IMRT QA for the linear accelerators and MLCs. Some of the QA issues are related to the specific IMRT delivery method, and the specific treatment planning system. This course will discuss: (1) the characteristics of three major MLCcollimators and the specific QA related to the unique MLC design; (2) additional QA for linear accelerators pertinent to the small MU and small field sizes used in IMRT; (3) tools often used to perform these QA tasks; (4) specific QA issues for different IMRT delivery methods, step and shoot vs sliding window.
1. Understand the characteristics of three major MLC systems.
2. Understand different IMRT delivery methods and their specific QA issues.
3. Understand effect of QA on the IMRT delivery accuracy.
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761311View Description Hide Description
Intensity modulated radiation therapy(IMRT) is a method of treatment planning and delivery that conforms the high dose region to the shape of the target volume, while reducing the volume of normal tissue irradiated. Over the last several years, IMRT has played an important role in management of patients with gynecologic malignancies particularly for whole pelvic radiotherapy.IMRT planning begins with a CT simulation. Gynecologic patients are most often treated in the supine position, although several studies have demonstrated the advantages of planning in the prone position. At our institution, customized immobilization devices (alpha cradles) are fabricated which are subsequently indexed to the treatment table. Oral, intravenous and rectal contrast are used to aid in the delineation of the CTV and surrounding normal tissues (bladder, rectum, small bowel and pelvic bone marrow). The CTV consists of the contrast enhanced vessels (plus a 2 cm margin) to identify common, external and internal nodal regions along with the upper half of the vagina, parametrial tissues, presacral region and uterus (if present). A PTV is added to the CTV based on measured set‐up uncertainties and organ motion data. Several recent studies have addressed these issues and these will be reviewed. For treatment planning, 7 (small patients) or 9 (larger patients) equally spaced, co‐planar beams are generally used. Input parameters derived for treatment planning were developed over time, and their evolution will be discussed. Values used for a number of commercially available planning systems will also be presented. Treatment plans are evaluated primarily based on the PTV coverage and normal tissue DVHs. For the PTV, acceptable plans are defined as those which cover >98% of the volume with the prescription dose while <2% of the PTV receives >110% of the prescription dose. Evaluation of small bowel is based on a normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) curve for the incidence of acute gastrointestinal toxicity of IMRT patients treated in our clinic. From this analysis, acceptable plans are those in which <200 cc of the small bowel region receives 45 Gy (prescription dose). We have also recently defined bone marrow constraints for patients receiving concomitant chemotherapy, and these will be discussed. Lastly, image‐guidedradiotherapy(IGRT) has received increasing attention as a component of treatmentdelivery. In gynecologic IMRT, there are three areas where IGRT may offer substantial benefit. First, IGRT may reduce geometric misses by providing daily information on isocenter displacements and patient rotations. Additionally, IGRT has an important role in cervical cancer patients where the tumor is shrinking during the course of treatment. Using IGRT,tumor size and position can be monitored and the treatment plan can be modified appropriately. In addition, IGRT approaches are currently being considered in the development of IMRT approaches to replace brachytherapy. Clinical examples of each of these approaches will be presented.
1. To understand the practical aspects of IMRT planning for gynecologic malignancies.
2. To describe the criteria for IMRT plan evaluation in gynecologic patients.
3. To consider the role of image‐guided technologies in this disease site.
34(2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2761312View Description Hide Description
Treatment of prostate cancer with IMRT requires great care in order to achieve the intended results. The prostate is a mobile structure compared to the surrounding bony anatomy. Daily setup, immobilization and localization uncertainties can be addressed by increasing the PTV but results in additional dose to surrounding normal structures. At FCCC we attempt to reduce the uncertainty by employing daily localization using BAT ultrasound or implanted fiducials and currently use an 8mm growth in all directions except posteriorly where 5mm is typical. Patients with fiducials and those being irradiated in the post‐prostatectomy setting undergo localization via an in‐room CT scanner. These methods allow for minimal PTV expansion by moving the prostate or prostate bed into the intended dose region.
All patients are simulated and treated supine without a thermoplastic immobilizer to minimize respiratory related prostatic motion and to facilitate the use of ultrasound. Patients undergo CT followed immediately by MR simulations with the rectum empty. These data are fused and all soft tissue structures contoured based on MR. We believe the apex of the prostate is more accurately visualized with MR without the potential prostate distortion associated with a retrograde urethrogram. Dose limiting structures primarily include the rectum, bladder, and femoral heads, but may also include bowel and erectile tissues. The delivery of high doses (70–80+Gy) using 3D CRT invariably includes rectal shielding to some degree in order to avoid unwanted complications. Rectal shielding also creates a dose gradient across the posterior prostate. Our initial comparisons at 78Gy between 3D CRT and IMRT resulted in an increase in 95% PTV coverage from approximately 76Gy to 78Gy, respectively and a reduction of approximately 6Gy to the “hottest” 20% of the rectum. We have developed “plan acceptance criteria” based on published data with respect to rectal complications. DVH analysis is used to ensure that the rectal volumes receiving 65Gy and 40Gy are less than 17% and 35%, respectively. Additionally, the bladder volumes receiving 65Gy and 40Gy are less than 25% and 50%, respectively. The volume of either femoral head receiving 50Gy should be less than 10%. PTV coverage should result in at least 95% of the volume receiving the prescription dose. It should be noted that the 3D dose distribution itself plays an important role in IMRT delivery and DVH analysis alone may not be sufficient. The isodose distribution should be such that the 50% and 90% lines do not traverse the full or half width of the rectum on any CT slice, respectively. Additionally, emphasis is given to treatment time not only for throughput but also for patient comfort. Quality assurance includes verification of absolute dose as well as the resultant spatial distribution and our plan acceptance is based on ±3% and 3mm DTA, respectively. We have been able to meet the absolute dose criteria in approximately 94% of cases.
1. To understand the practical steps associated with IMRT of the prostate.
2. To understand the planning methods utilized to achieve the numerical values presented for plan acceptance.
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<urn:uuid:b3de575a-bc2d-4e90-bc23-fb30fab4d3f2>
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http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapm/journal/medphys/34/6/section?heading=Therapy+Continuing+Education+Course%3A+Auditorium
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| 0.906075 | 4,382 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)
Carbon (pronounced /ˈkɑrbən/) is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is a group 14, nonmetallic, tetravalent element, that presents several allotropic forms of which the best known ones are graphite (the thermodynamically stable form under normal conditions), diamond, and amorphous carbon. There are three naturally-occurring isotopes: 12C and 13C are stable, and 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about 5700 years. Carbon is one of the few elements known to man since antiquity. The name "carbon" comes from Latin language carbo, coal, and in some Romance languages, the word carbon can refer both to the element and to coal.
It is the 4th most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It is ubiquitous in all known lifeforms, and in the human body it is the second most abundant element by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen. This abundance, together with the unique diversity of organic compounds and their unusual polymer-forming ability at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, make this element the chemical basis of all known life.
The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, diamond is highly transparent, while graphite is opaque and black. Diamond is among the hardest materials known, while graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper. Diamond has a very low electric conductivity, while graphite is a very good conductor. Also, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials. All the allotropic forms are solids under normal conditions.
All forms of carbon are highly stable, requiring high temperature to react even with oxygen. The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and other transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil and methane clathrates. Carbon forms more compounds than any other element, with almost ten million pure organic compounds described to date, which in turn are a tiny fraction of such compounds that are theoretically possible under standard conditions.
Carbon exhibits remarkable properties, some paradoxical. Its different forms or allotropes (see below) include the hardest naturally occurring substance (diamond) and also one of the softest substances (graphite) known. Moreover, it has a great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with such atoms. Because of these properties, carbon is known to form nearly ten million different compounds, the large majority of all chemical compounds. Moreover, carbon has the highest melting/sublimation point of all elements.[How to reference and link to summary or text] At atmospheric pressure it has no actual melting point as its triple point is at 10 MPa (100 bar) so it sublimates above 4000 K.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5800K. Thus irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.
Carbon compounds form the basis of all life on Earth and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides, and will reduce such metal oxides as iron oxide to the metal. This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to control the carbon content of steel:
Fe3O4 + 4C(s) → 3Fe(s) + 4CO(g)
with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction
C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g).
Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide cementite in steel, and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools.
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:
|Synthetic diamond nanorods are the hardest materials known.||Graphite is one of the softest materials known.|
|Diamond is the ultimate abrasive.||Graphite is a very good lubricant.|
|Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator.||Graphite is a conductor of electricity.|
|Diamond is the best known thermal conductor||Some forms of graphite are used for thermal insulation (i.e. firebreaks and heatshields)|
|Diamond is highly transparent.||Graphite is opaque.|
|Diamond crystallizes in the cubic system.||Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.|
|Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic.||Carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials ever produced.|
- Main article: Allotropes of carbon
Atomic carbon is a very short-lived specie and therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Once considered exotic, fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include buckyballs, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanobuds and nanofibers,. Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as aggregated diamond nanorods, lonsdaleite, glassy carbon, carbon nanofoam and linear acetylenic carbon.
- The amorphous form, is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state, which is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal, lampblack (soot) and activated carbon.
- At normal pressures carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak Van der Waals forces. This gives graphite its softness and its cleaving properties (the sheets slip easily past one another). Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a π-cloud, graphite conducts electricity, but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet. This results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals. The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature.
- At very high pressures carbon forms the more compact allotrope diamond, having nearly twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others, thus making a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds is the hardest naturally-occurring substance in terms of resistance to scratching. Contrary to the popular belief that "diamonds are forever", they are in fact thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into graphite. But due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so extremely slow at room temperature as to be unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as Lonsdaleite, a form similar to diamond but forming a hexagonal crystal lattice.
- Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing, they also contain pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms, which bend the sheet into spheres, ellipses or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split into buckyballs, buckytubes and nanobuds) have not yet been fully analyzed and represents an intense are of research in nanomaterials. The name "fullerene" is given after Richard Buckminster Fuller, developer of some geodesic domes,[How to reference and link to summary or text] which resemble the structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming spheroids (the best-known and simplest is the soccerball-shaped structure C60 buckminsterfullerene). Carbon nanotubes are structurally similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow cylinder. Nanobuds were first published in 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube) that combine the properties of both in a single structure.
- Of the other discovered allotropes, aggregated diamond nanorods have been synthesised in 2005 and are believed to be the hardest substance known yet. Carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m³. Similarly, glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closed porosity. But unlike normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement. Linear acetylenic carbon has the chemical structure -(C:::C)n- .Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbital hybridisation, and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds. This type of carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young's modulus is forty times that of the hardest known material - diamond.
Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts.
In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere (in quantities of approximately 810 gigatonnes) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately 36000 gigatonnes). Around 1900 gigatonnes are present in the biosphere. Hydrocarbons (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas) contain carbon as well — coal "reserves" (not "resources") amount to around 900 gigatonnes, and oil reserves around 150 gigatonnes. With smaller amounts of calcium, magnesium, and iron, carbon is a major component of very large masses carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marble etc.).
Coal is a significant commercial source of mineral carbon; anthracite containing 92-98% carbon[How to reference and link to summary or text] and the largest source (4000 Gt, or 80% of coal, gas and oil reserves) of carbon in a form suitable for use as fuel.
Natural diamonds occur in the mineral kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks," or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. There are also deposits in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia.
Carbon is also found in abundance in the Sun, stars, comets, and atmospheres of most planets. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. About 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now made synthetically.
According to studies from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, an estimate of the global carbon budget is:[How to reference and link to summary or text]
|Biosphere, oceans, atmosphere|
|0.45 x 1018 kilograms (3.7 x 1018 moles)|
|Organic carbon||13.2 x 1018 kg|
|Carbonates||62.4 x 1018 kg|
|1200 x 1018 kg|
Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere, at altitudes of 9–15 km, by a reaction that is precipitated by cosmic rays. Thermal neutrons are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton.
- Main article: Isotopes of carbon
Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number of neutrons (varying from 2 to 16). Carbon has two stable, naturally-occurring isotopes. The isotope carbon-12 (12C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while carbon-13 (13C) forms the remaining 1.07%. The concentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactions discriminate against 13C. In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights. Identification of carbon in NMR experiments is done with the isotope 13C.
Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally-occurring radioisotope which occurs in trace amounts on Earth of up to 1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%), mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials. This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV β- emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, 14C is virtually absent in ancient rocks, but is created in the upper atmosphere (lower stratosphere and upper troposphere) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays. The abundance of 14C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in radiocarbon dating, discovered in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years.
There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is 8C which decays through proton emission and alpha decay and has a half-life of 1.98739x10-21 s. The exotic 19C exhibits a nuclear halo, which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleus was a sphere of constant density.
Formation in stars Edit
- Main article: Triple-alpha process
Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of alpha particles (helium nuclei) within the core of a giant or supergiant star. This happens in conditions of temperature and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created during the Big Bang. Instead, the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch transform three helium nuclei into carbon by means of this triple-alpha process. In order to be available for formation of life as we know it, this carbon must then later be scattered into space as dust, in supernova explosions, as part of the material which later forms second- and third-generation star systems which have planets accreted from such dust. The Solar System is one such third-generation star system.
One of the fusion mechanisms powering stars is the carbon-nitrogen cycle.
Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (e.g. 12CO, 13CO, and C18O) are detectable in the submillimeter regime, and are used in the study of newly forming stars in molecular clouds.
Carbon cycle Edit
- Main article: Carbon cycle
Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths that carbon follows in the environment make up the carbon cycle. For example, plants draw carbon dioxide out of their environment and use it to build biomass, as in carbon respiration or the Calvin cycle, a process of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, whereas some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal, which can burn with the release of carbon, should bacteria not consume it.
Inorganic compounds Edit
- Main article: Compounds of carbon
Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds; however the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide (CO2). This was once the principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere, but is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere today. Dissolved in water, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide (CS2) is similar.
The other common oxide is carbon monoxide (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar, resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen, which has a lower binding affinity. Cyanide (CN–), has a similar structure, but behaves much like a halide ion (pseudohalogen). For example it can form the nitride cyanogen molecule ((CN)2), similar to diatomic halides. Other uncommon oxides are carbon suboxide (C3O2), the unstable dicarbon monoxide (C2O), and even carbon trioxide (CO3).
With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms either carbides (C4–), or acetylides (C22–) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with methane and acetylene, both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum (SiC), which resembles diamond.
Organic compounds Edit
- Main article: Organic compound
Carbon has the ability to form very long chains with interconnecting C-C bonds. This property is called catenation. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong, and stable.[How to reference and link to summary or text] This property allows carbon to form an almost infinite number of compounds; in fact, there are more known carbon-containing compounds than all the compounds of the other chemical elements combined except those of hydrogen (because almost all organic compounds contain hydrogen too).The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon—a large family of organic molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. Chain length, side chains and functional groups all affect the properties of organic molecules. By IUPAC's definition, all the other organic compounds are functionalized compounds of hydrocarbons.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. When united with hydrogen, it forms various flammable compounds called hydrocarbons which are important to industry as chemical feedstock for the manufacture of petrochemicals and as fossil fuels.
When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars, celluloses, lignans, chitins, alcohols, fats, and aromatic esters, carotenoids and terpenes. With nitrogen it forms alkaloids, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics, amino acids and proteins. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms DNA and RNA, the chemical codes of life, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecules in all living cells.
Consequences on animal feeding behaviorEdit
A heterotroph (Template:IPA-en; ἕτερος heteros = "another", "different" and τροφή trophe = "nutrition") is an organism that cannot fix carbon and uses organic carbon for growth. This contrasts with autotrophs, such as plants and algae, which can use energy from sunlight (photoautotrophs) or inorganic compounds (lithoautotrophs) to produce organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from inorganic carbon dioxide. These reduced carbon compounds can be used as an energy source by the autotroph and provide the energy in food consumed by heterotrophs. More than 95% of all organisms are heterotrophic.
Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity and can be handled and even ingested safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even in the acidic contents of the digestive tract, for example. Consequently if it gets into body tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely. Carbon black was probably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing, and Ötzi the Iceman was found to have tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death. However, inhalation of coal dust or soot (carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous, irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive lung disease coalworker's pneumoconiosis. Similarly, diamond dust used as an abrasive can do harm if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs In these examples, the harmful effects may result from contamination of the carbon particles, with organic chemicals or heavy metals for example, rather than from the carbon itself.
Carbon may also burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures, as in the Windscale fire, which was caused by sudden release of stored Wigner energy in the graphite core. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for millennia in the absence of oxygen, may spontaneously combust when exposed to air, for example in coal mine waste tips.
The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin, the lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, cyanide (CN-) and carbon monoxide; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein.
See also Edit
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 World of Carbon. URL accessed on 2007-12-21.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Carbon - Naturally occurring isotopes. WebElements Periodic Table. URL accessed on 2007-12-08.
- ↑ Periodic Table: Date of Discovery. URL accessed on 2007-03-13.
- ↑ Timeline of Element Discovery. URL accessed on 2007-03-13.
- ↑ Biological Abundance of Elements. URL accessed on 2007-12-06.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Chemistry Operations. Carbon. Los Alamos National Laboratory. URL accessed on 2007-11-21.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 (1997) Ebbesen, TW Carbon nanotubes—preparation and properties, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 (2001). Carbon nanotubes: synthesis, structures, properties and applications. Topics in Applied Physics 80.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 (2007). A novel hybrid carbon material. Nature Nanotechnology 2: 156-161.
- ↑ (2007). Investigations of NanoBud formation. Chemical Physics Letters 446: 109-114.
- ↑ (2004). Synthesis and characterisation of carbon nanofibres with macroscopic shaping formed by catalytic decomposition of C2H6/H2 over nickel catalyst. Applied Catalysis A 274: 1-8.
- ↑ Diamonds are not forever. physicsweb.org. URL accessed on 2007-12-21.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 (1967). Lonsdaleite, a new hexagonal polymorph of diamond. Nature 214.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named
- ↑ (1999). Structural analysis of a carbon foam formed by high pulse-rate laser ablation. Applied Physics A-Materials Science & Processing 69: S755-S758.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Carbyne and Carbynoid Structures Series: Physics and Chemistry of Materials with Low-Dimensional Structures, Vol. 21 Heimann, R.B.; Evsyukov, S.E.; Kavan, L. (Eds.) 1999, 452 p., Hardcover ISBN 0-7923-5323-4
- ↑ Aggregated Diamond Nanorods, the Densest and Least Compressible Form of Carbon. URL accessed on 2007-12-21.
- ↑ Carbon Nanofoam is the World's First Pure Carbon Magnet. URL accessed on 2007-12-21.
- ↑ Carbyne and Carbynoid Structures Series: Physics and Chemistry of Materials with Low-Dimensional Structures, Vol. 21 Heimann, R.B.; Evsyukov, S.E.; Kavan, L. (Eds.) 1999, 452 p., Hardcover ISBN 0-7923-5323-4
- ↑ Harder than Diamond: Determining the Cross-Sectional Area and Young's Modulus of Molecular Rods, Lior Itzhaki et al, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 7432-7435.
- ↑ Mark (1987). Meteorite Craters, University of Arizona Press.
- ↑ James Kasting (1998). The Carbon Cycle, Climate, and the Long-Term Effects of Fossil Fuel Burning. Consequences: The Nature and Implication of Environmental Change 4.
- ↑ Gannes, Leonard Z., Martínez del Rio, Carlos; Koch, Paul (March 1998). Natural Abundance Variations in Stable Isotopes and their Potential Uses in Animal Physiological Ecology. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 119 (3): 725–737.
- ↑ Official SI Unit definitions. URL accessed on 2007-12-21.
- ↑ Brown, Tom Carbon Goes Full Circle in the Amazon. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. URL accessed on 2007-11-25.
- ↑ Bowman, S. (1990). Interpreting the past: Radiocarbon dating, British Museum Press.
- ↑ Libby, WF (1952). Radiocarbon dating, Chicago University Press and references therein.
- ↑ Westgren, A. (1960). The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1960. Nobel Foundation. URL accessed on 2007-11-25.
- ↑ Use query for carbon-8. URL accessed on 2007-12-21.
- ↑ Beaming Into the Dark Corners of the Nuclear Kitchen. URL accessed on 2007-12-21.
- ↑ Template:Citejournal
- ↑ Haldane J. (1895). The action of carbonic oxide on man. Journal of Physiology 18.
- ↑ (2003). The clinical toxicology of carbon monoxide. Toxicology.
- redirect Template:Cite web
- ↑ Template:Citejournal
- ↑ Template:Citejournal
- ↑ Template:Citejournal
- ↑ Template:Citejournal
- ↑ L. Pauling (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd ed., 93, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
- ↑ heterotroph. TheFreeDictionary.com.
- ↑ "How Cells Harvest Energy". McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
- ↑ L. Dorfer et al, 1998. 5200-year old acupuncture in Centrel Europe? Science 282, 242-243
- ↑ Donaldson K, Stone V, Clouter A, Renwick L, MacNee W (2001) Ultrafine particles. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 58, 211-216
- On Graphite Transformations at High Temperature and Pressure Induced by Absorption of the LHC Beam, J.M. Zazula, 1997
- Carbon on Britannica
- WebElements.com – Carbon
- Chemicool.com – Carbon
- It's Elemental – Carbon
- Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu
- Electrochemical uses of carbon
- Computational Chemistry Wiki
- Carbon - Super Stuff. Animation with sound and interactive 3D-models.
- BBC Radio 4 series "In Our Time", on Carbon, the basis of life, 15 June 2006
- Introduction to Carbon Properties geared for High School students.
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Medical Definition of Dicrocoeliidae
: a family of small to medium-sized flattened or more or less cylindrical digenetic trematode worms that as adults parasitize the biliary ducts or occasionally other viscera of vertebrates
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Posted by The Situationist Staff on February 8, 2009
In the International Herald Tribune, Pam Belluck has a nice summary of recent research indicating that colors matter in ways we probably don’t imagine. Her article, titled “Accurate red, creative blue: Color counts, study says,” is excerpted below.
Trying to improve your performance at work or kick-start that novel you want to write? Maybe it’s time to consider the color of your walls, or your screen saver.
If a new study is any guide, the color red can make people’s work more accurate, but blue can make them more creative.
In the study, published Thursday in the online edition of Science magazine, researchers at the University of British Columbia conducted tests with 600 participants to see how cognitive performance varies when people see red or blue. Participants performed tasks in which words or images were displayed against red, blue or neutral backgrounds on computer screens.
Red groups did better on tests of recall and attention to detail, like remembering words or checking spelling and punctuation. Blue groups did better on tests requiring invention and imagination: coming up with creative uses for a brick or creating toys from collections of shapes.
“If you’re talking about wanting enhanced memory for something like proofreading skills, then a red color should be used,” concluded Juliet Zhu, an assistant professor of marketing at the university’s business school, who conducted the studies with Ravi Mehta, a doctoral student. For “a brainstorming session for a new product or coming up with a new solution to fight child obesity or teenage smoking, then you should get people into a blue room.”
Whether color can color performance or emotions has long fascinated scientists – not to mention advertisers, sports teams and restaurateurs.
Consider the Olympic uniform study, in which anthropologists at Durham University in England found that athletes in the 2004 Olympics who wore red instead of blue in boxing, tae kwon do, Greco-Roman wrestling, and freestyle wrestling won 60 percent of the time. The researchers suggested that red, for athletes, as for animals, subconsciously symbolizes dominance.
Perhaps a similarly primal effect was afoot in a 2008 study led by Andrew Elliot at the University of Rochester, in which men considered photographs of women on red backgrounds or wearing red shirts more attractive, although not necessarily more likeable or intelligent.
* * *
In cognitive realms, experts say colors may affect performance because of the mood they transmit.
“When things go wrong or when you feel that the situation you are in is problematic, you are more likely to pay attention to detail, which helps you with processing tasks but interferes with creative types of things,” said Norbert Schwarz, a psychology professor at the University of Michigan. By contrast, “people in a happy mood are more creative and less analytic.”
* * *
[I]n results that appear to align with the Science study’s theory that red makes people more cautious and detail-oriented, Elliot found that people shown red on a test cover before an IQ test did worse than those shown green or a neutral color, and also chose easier questions to answer. IQ tests require more problem-solving, similar to the creative questions that Zhu asked.
Zhu’s subjects, asked what red or blue made them think of, mostly said red represented caution, danger and mistakes, while blue symbolized peace and openness. Also, subjects unscrambled anagrams of “avoidance-related” words, like “danger,” faster with red backgrounds and unscrambled anagrams of positive “approach-related” words, like “adventure,” faster with blue backgrounds.
Besides testing cognitive performance, she also tested responses to advertising, finding that ads stressing “avoidance” qualities, like cavity prevention, or product details, appealed more on red backgrounds, while ads stressing optimistic qualities, like “tooth whitening,” or using creative designs, appealed more on blue.
Interestingly, when different participants were asked if they thought they would do better with red or blue, more people said blue for both detail-oriented and creative tasks. Maybe, Zhu said, that is because more people prefer blue to red.
The study, she cautioned, did not involve different cultures, like China, where red symbolize prosperity and luck. And it said nothing about mixing red and blue to make purple.
Also, Schwarz said, color effects can be outweighed by clear instructions – to be accurate or creative in a task – so color means more when a project can be approached either way.
* * *
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It not gender bias but recognising the specific and different needs of the two genders that we separate the two different processes of raising sons and daughters.
Tips For Raising A Son:
- Until and unless the kids are about 10 years old, the parenting techniques for both boys and girls remain same. The only difference will be probably in the kind of toys they play with. But after the age of ten or may be 13 or 14 as boys reach their puberty later you have to tackle your boy in a different way.
- The challenge of raising boys is that they are more prone to physical activity by virtue of their gender. They will play football and come home all muddy and even bloody. You cannot discourage the aggressive or adventurous streak in your boy but keep checks on it.
- For instance, it is fine as long as he is playing football or any other sport but that should not mean that he bids farewell to studies. Moreover, the most crucial aspect of raising boys is to curb their violent streak if they have one. If your boy starts a fight then he should be corrected at once.
- Some parents take pride in their son's violent behaviour because they feel that it will keep safe. What they miss is the fact this violence can be turned on any body, siblings, friends, teachers and even the parents themselves. So don't teach your son to settle fights outside the house and interfere if you have to.
- In every family one parent has to play the role of the disciplinarian and the other the friend. Boys are closer to their mothers (the age old concept of Oedipus complex) so it is better for Mom to be strict and Dad to be a buddy. That is a very successful mantra of how to raise children tactfully.
- The aspect of physical punishment becomes very important when it comes to raising boys. A good thrashing every now and then was supposed to be the golden rule of raising good boys the last century but parenting techniques have changed now.
- The more you beat the child, the more he will imbibe that violence and it will cease to scare him beyond a point. Use a slap as an insult and not an injury to the child so that it remains a potent weapon of punishment in your hands.
Use these parenting tips for raising a son whom you can be proud of.
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From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
“Poor Faulkner. Does he really think big emotions come from big words?”
William Cuthbert Faulkner (September 25, 1897 — July 6, 1962) was not a European, but an American Gothic writer, who always seemed to be not ten, but fifteen feet ahead of Ernest Hemingway, not logically, but artistically speaking. He was considered a master of not the French, but English Language, and his "stream of consciousness" writing, like a pink pearl, was prized by many, and understood by only a few. It was said that if one visited his home at the right time of day every day, one could hear the
- Click. Click. Click.
Of the typewriter.
Faulkner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1949, five years before Hemingway. His faith in the human condition expressed at the time was, much like his house's windows, uncommon and admittedly refreshing, like a drink of water straight out of a cedar bucket, drunk with a ladle.
His detractors, though they are was, were quite outspoken when they were are. They said that his writing was incoherent and confusing, of which Faulkner often replied that it was because his writing was are, which is too much for one mind to understand.
He was born on a quiet day down by the river, from where his mother was shaped like a ___ and was midwifed by me, as I sat by the shores, hating them. I used to look at him and think: Will. Why Will. Why are you Will. I would think about his name until after a while I could see the word as a shape, a vessel, and I would watch him liquefy and flow into it like cold molasses flowing out of the darkness into the vessel, until the jar stood full and motionless: a significant shape profoundly without life like an empty door frame; and I would find that I had forgotten the name of the jar. I couldn't think Will, couldn't remember Will.
His words have always been just that: words. Words like sin and love and fear are just sounds that people who never sinned nor loved nor feared have for what they never had and cannot have until they forget the words. Like Will, who could never even write that well to begin with.
William Faulkner is a fish.
I went to school with William back during our days at Wheeling Jesuit University. He always sat three rows in front of me, sitting like a cigar store Indian, motionless and rigid. I would sometimes watch the back of his head, which then looked like a large brown egg, and laugh to myself. Other times, I would look out the window, and look at the sun atop the rolling storm clouds, a bloody disc perched atop a sea of grey. I never paid attention to what the professor said; he was an adulterer, and a bad man. He never told us, but I knew. Sometimes after class was over, I would ask the professor, "Whose husband are you?"
When class let out, I always made sure to be out the door before Will was, usually ten feet ahead. I remember watching him visit Estelle Oldham under the tree, and I would listen to them talk from a distance. I would watch him, lean as a race horse and tiny as a sapling, court the beautiful Estelle, who was a daisy among dandelions, and I would laugh.
"Why do you laugh?" I said. "Is it because you hate the sound of laughing?"
I know that a coin has two faces and no back, which is incest. I would imagine Will and Estelle with two backs and no face, but I know what that is. "Is that why you are laughing, Darl?"
"Yes yes yes yes yes yes yes."
He could have done so much for me if he just did. He was a big tub of guts and I am a little tub of guts, and I wonder if there is room for anything else but her in a big tub of guts and if there wasn't how could there be room in a little tub of guts for anything else but him? He would look at me and I knew that he saw I was naked underneath my clothes and he could do so much for me but he don't know it. He just don't know it.
I used to ask him "are you going to tell Estelle you are going to kill her?" but he would never answer. I don't know if he wanted to or not but he said he would kill her for me but he was smiling so I don't know what he meant. I would say it without the words and he would say "Why?" without the words.
When he got his first big check for Soldier's Pay I was really happy and I hoped I could share my happiness but he was with Estelle and it was before he said he would kill her so I didn't say anything. I hoped he would do something for me after Mosquitoes but he don't even know. He don't even know.
He woulda been jist fine if'n it hadn't been fur that durned road. It ain't natural; a man sets up his house near a road if'n he feels it's right. A road don't come through by a man's house after the house is there. Don't ere a man mislike it more. Once that durned road came through, people from town started a-comin' by, asking for more and more of his books.
That musta been why he a-turned to tha drink. I reckon he was just durned tired from all that there writing. Writing ain't natural for a man neither; if the good God wanted man to write, he woulda made him shaped like a pencil with a point on his feet. But man is made up and down like a tree, and ain't meant to do much, specially write.
It just wern't natural. Don't ere a man mislike more.
It's because he stays in there, right next to the window, typing and clicking on that goddamn typewriter. Where he's got to see them. Where every breath he draws is full of clacking and typing where they can see him saying See. See what a good one I am writing for you. That goddamn machine going one click less. One click less. One click less until everyone that passes through the bookstore will stop and read and say what a good author he is.
If it had just been me when he made Absalom, Absalom! and if it had just been me when he wrote Pylon, it would not be happening with every bastard in the county coming in to watch him write because if there is a God what the hell is He for. It would just be me and him on a high hill and me tossing the books down the hill at their faces, picking them up and throwing them down the hill faces and teeth and all by God until he is quiet and not that goddamn machine going One click less. One click less and we could be quiet.
- Soldiers' Pay (1926)
- Sartoris (1929)
- The Sound and the Fury (1929)
- As I Lay Dying (1930)
- Sanctuary (1931)
- Light in August (1932)
- Pylon (1935)
- Absalom, Absalom! (1936)
- The Unvanquished (1938)
- If I Forget Thee Jerusalem (The Wild Palms/Old Man) (1939)
- Go Down, Moses (1942)
- Intruder in the Dust (1948)
- Requiem for a Nun (1951)
- A Fable (1954)
- The Reivers (1962)
| Article written in the style of its subject|
This article is written in the real or imagined writing style of its subject. If you do not find it funny, it is probably because you are the type who needed this explained to you. If you still do not find the article funny, that is surely because a joke loses its humor when it is explained. The authors sincerely hope that you will pick up your game and laugh without prompting in the future.
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While the issue of Syrian chemical weapons stockpile is hitting the world media headlines, little attention is paid on the problem of US compliance with its international obligations related to weapons of mass destruction.
The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) is a legally binding treaty that outlaws biological arms. In force since 1975, it currently has 165 states-parties and 12 signatory states. The BWC reaffirms the 1925 Geneva Protocol which prohibits the biological weapons use. The seventh BWC review conference was held in December 2011. The Final Declaration document concluded that «under all circumstances the use of bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons is effectively prohibited by the Convention and affirms the determination of States parties to condemn any use of biological agents or toxins other than for peaceful purposes, by anyone at any time».
In 1969, US President Richard Nixon ended all offensive aspects of the U.S. bio-weapons program. In 1975 the U.S. ratified both the 1925 Geneva Protocol and the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) — the international treaties outlawing biological warfare. Recent U.S. biodefense programs, however, have raised concerns that the U.S. may be pursuing research that is outlawed by the BWC. In February, 2008, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) released report GAO-08-366 titled, «Chemical and Biological Defense, DOD and VA Need to Improve Efforts to Identify and Notify Individuals Potentially Exposed during Chemical and Biological Tests». The report stated that tens of thousands of military personnel and civilians may have been exposed to biological and chemical substances through DOD tests. In 2003, the DOD reported it had identified 5,842 military personnel and estimated 350 civilians as being potentially exposed during the testing known as Project 112.
At present many reports from different sources keep on saying the US is developing a new generation of weapons that undermine and possibly violate international treaties on biological and chemical warfare...
According to journalist Jeffrey Silverman «A number of labs, strewn across Eastern Europe, are umbilically linked to the Biological Weapon Proliferation Prevention (BWPP) program and various projects within it, which is a cover for what is most likely an offensive program. If the strains turn out to be antibiotic resistant, ongoing research into viruses that eat bacteria, and attack infections that are antibiotic resistant can be quickly accessed. Whoever has such information controls the bioweapons battleground». He says, «One of the secret weapons labs inside the Republic of Georgia supplied weaponized Sarin gas to forces fighting the Assad regime. The purpose was simple. This was the only way to put «blood enemies» like Senator’s Graham and McCain in concert with the Obama administration».
This July the Russian Foreign Ministry expressed its concern in connection with the publication of the U.S. Department of State’s report «On observance of international agreements in the field of arms control, nonproliferation and disarmament in 2012» that questions Russia's compliance with obligations of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC). The Ministry’s response statement says, «The evidence is not given, as always. Meanwhile, the U.S. concerns could be long and completely eliminated, if the U.S. had not blocked the creation of a verification mechanism in the framework of the BTWC. Such a mechanism would also remove many questions to the United States in connection with the involvement of a number of American organizations in a large-scale biological activity of double application. As is known, the results of such activities may be used for purposes contrary to Article I of the BTWC». The Ministry also notes, «There is no documentary evidence that all the objects under the jurisdiction or control of the United States that had earlier participated in military biological programs, were destroyed or converted to peaceful purposes in accordance with Article II of the BTWC. And biological activity of the Ministry of Defense of the United States near Russia's borders causes our serious concern».
The apprehensions expressed have a solid ground. Some of the Pentagon’s labs are situated (and even more are built) in the vicinity of Russian borders. The former Soviet space is actively involved into the orbit of US biological efforts, which also encompass the Muslim world, China and actually acquire global dimension.
Pentagon active in Ukraine
The US has been involved in building microbiological laboratories in Ukraine. Ukrainian newspaper «2000» reported some people who live in Kharkov came to it office to express concern over the plans to build a US biological laboratory in the vicinity of suburban town of Shelkostantsia near Merefa. The newspaper reports the Pentagon is in the process of building a network of biological laboratories across Ukraine and the program is in full swing up to the borders of Russia, Belarus, Poland, and Moldova. In Ukraine the US has already built laboratories in Odessa, Dnepropetrovsk, Lugansk, Lviv, Vinnitsa, Ternopol, Uzhhorod, Kiev, Simferopol and Kherson. Local people express anxiety over the possible collateral damage in case there is a leak of deadly substances. All the research activities in the country are conducted under an August 2005 Cooperative Threat Reduction agreement. The Pentagon (please note - not a civil agency, but the Defense Department) is responsible for the program. Similar agreements are concluded with Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The agreement on cooperation in the field of microbiology between the US and Ukraine expired in May, but the program continues to be implemented. The US insists it should be prolonged till September 2017.
Georgia- testing ground for US biological tests
In May 2013 a sensational statement was made by the Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili’s former American advisor, journalist Jeffrey Silverman. According to him, a laboratory on the outskirts of Tbilisi is developing health hazardous being tested on local residents. Jeffrey Silverman’s interview was published in the local «Kvela Siakhle» newspaper and was subsequently aired by all main Georgian TV stations. Before that many concerns about this lab were raised in a 2011 article by Joni Simonishvili, entitled «Bio Weapons or Bio Health Reference Lab in Tbilisi Georgia?»
The facility is located in a place called Alexeyevka, an abandoned Soviet military base, today a suburb with a few thousand people living within a mile of the new building. Mr. Silverman believes that residents of Georgia have become a target of dangerous experiments - one of the most discussed topics in Georgia now. According to him, experiments with viruses have led to the spread of such dangerous illnesses as pig flu and measles. The Georgian government denies the allegation. Silverman is ready to go further. He promised to tell Georgians the whole truth about it shortly.
The journalist further claims that effort is being made to expand the program and have weaponized agents that can be used in bio warfare, «If there is a case of emergency, Georgia will be wiped off the face of the earth. In the Tbilisi laboratory they are preparing anthrax, measles, black plague and H1N1. It is possible that an artificial spread of these viruses takes place, such as measles, which today is a serious problem for this country».
On June 4, 2013 Gennady Onishchenko, Russia’s sanitary service Russia’s chief sanitary inspector, accused the U.S. of producing biological weapons in Georgia at a U.S. Navy facility that is run in concert with the Georgian government, «The existence of a US-run military lab that studied hazardous germs in a country adjacent to Russia raised concerns and was a stumbling block in the Russian-Georgian cooperation to stave off any sanitary or epidemic threats», the sanitary service, also known as Rospotrebnadzor, said in a statement.
According to the sanitary watchdog, the recent epidemic of African swine fever was a planned act of economic sabotage. The virus, he said, jumped over from neigbouring Georgia, causing a severe outbreak in Russia’s south. Mr. Onishchenko also said the decommissioned US lab was to be run by Georgia’s National Center for Disease Control and Prevention. «Rospotrebnadzor expects that, as soon as the Georgian government fulfills its plan, our [Georgian and Russian] sanitary services will be able to join their forces to curb epidemic threats».
Kazakhstan-home to new US lab
By the end of this August media outlets reported that the U.S. was building a high-tech bubonic plague lab in Kazakhstan. The Central Reference Laboratory in Almaty, Kazakhstan is due for completion in 2015. The $102-million project laboratory is meant to serve as a Central Asian way station for a global war on dangerous disease. There is another smaller US-controlled lab at a military base in the town of Otar in western Kazakhstan on the Caspian Sea. Is it possible, as some Russian experts have alleged, that labs like this could serve as brain trusts and storehouses for weapons research, for either the US or their home countries? «Russia sees this as… a powerful offensive potential», Gennady Onishchenko told reporters in July.
China affected by US biological effort
In April, 2013 a Chinese Air Force officer accused the U.S. government of creating the new strain of bird flu now afflicting parts of China as a biological warfare attack. People’s Liberation Army Sr. Col. Dai Xu said the United States released the H7N9 bird flu virus into China in an act of biological warfare, according to a posting on his blog. The charge was first reported in the state-run Guangzhou newspaper Southern Metropolis Daily and then picked up by several news outlets in Asia. Dai is a military strategist who in the past has been outspoken in seeking to foment conflict between China and the United States. Writing on Sina Weibo, a Chinese micro blogging site akin to Twitter, Dai stated that the new bird flu strain was designed as a biological weapon similar to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), which he also claimed was developed as a U.S. bio-weapon, that affected the country in 2003, «At that time, America was fighting in Iraq and feared that China would take advantage of the opportunity to take other actions», he said. «This is why they used bio-psychological weapons against China. All of China fell into turmoil and that was exactly what the United States wanted. Now, the United States is using the same old trick. China should have learned its lesson and should calmly deal with the problem».
Bio-weapons against Muslim world
This August Dr. Kevin Barrett, a prominent political analyst, reported that a bio-weapon would be distributed in flu vaccines in Muslim countries. It would alter human genomic expression to produce a sort of «chemical lobotomy», destroying the part of the brain associated with religiosity and spirituality. In other words, it would reduce its victims to a state lower than that of animals, who, unlike humans, were not created with spirituality and religiosity as a central feature of their being. The information was supported by an apparent Pentagon video leaked by the hacker group Anonymous. It details US military plans to develop and deploy a biological weapon that would destroy people's receptivity to religion in targeted Muslim populations. Barrett said the proposed bio-weapon would be distributed in flu vaccines and would «alter human genomic expression to produce a sort of chemical lobotomy». He described the Pentagon project as a «clear act of genocide» under international law. «The culture of Islamic societies is an intensely religious culture. Indeed, it is strong religiosity that holds these societies together. The murder of the central feature of the culture of 1.5 billion people would be by far the worst genocide ever attempted or even contemplated», he said.
Barrett said the Pentagon plan was a threat to all of humanity, as religion and spirituality demand work towards justice. Therefore, the US plans to erase all religious and spiritual resistance in the world in order to gain more power and invade nations. Press TV said. «If they cannot kill off the just, the Pentagon psychopaths will be happy to give everyone a bio-chemical anti-spirituality lobotomy so that nobody will ever again work for justice in this world. This would, of course, signal the end of humanity», the analyst noted.
* * *
While Syria’s chemical stockpile is on international radar screen, the wider issue of American secret labs is being suppressed. The US is actively involved in the implementation of vast biological program, including the territories of other states in clear violation of its international commitments…
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There is no action so stupid that you can’t persuade someone to do it by getting celebrity endorsement. Even the barmiest advice on everything from medical decisions to diets will have happy idiots queuing up to listen, if it comes from the mouth of someone who was once on TV. Such recommendations can be disastrous, but they can be beneficial if the people in question are wise and knowledgeable, from village elders to community leaders. This is all part of the same trend – the human penchant for apeing individuals with high status. And now, it seems that we aren’t the only species that does this. Chimpanzees have the same inclination for apeing those with prestige.
We know that chimps can pick up new traditions from one another, with different groups enjoying rich and diverse cultures. Much of this understanding is thanks to work from scientists like Victoria Horner, Andrew Whiten and Frans de Waal at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. Now, the same team have found that when it comes to passing on traditions, some chimps are more influential than others. Given a choice between two individuals, chimps tend to copy the actions of the older, higher-ranking one.
The Yerkes Center is, incidentally, a shining paragon of ape research. The chimps live in spacious outdoor enclosures, full of grass, climbing frames, swings, and toys to stimulate their mind. The researchers call each chimp by name and ask them to take part in studies, giving them the choice to interact with equipment.
So far, the center’s researches have focused on whether chimps pass on traditions to one another but they’ve now started to look at why a chimp might decide to copy another chimp’s behaviour. Horner gave two groups of chimps a chance to learn a new set of skills from one of two different tutors. In each tutor pair, one animal was a high-ranking older female who has successfully passed on cultural traditions before, and the other was a younger subordinate who had no such experience.
In the first group, Horner trained the older female to collect plastic tokens and put them in a spotted box in exchange for food. Meanwhile, she trained the younger female to do the same with a striped box. In the second group, the box assignments were reversed. Over ten days, the other chimps watched as their demonstrators enacted their token-collecting actions during 20-minute sessions.
When the onlookers were given tokens of their own, they were far more likely to stick them in the box favoured by the older, high-ranking female, whether it was striped or spotty. As groups, they opted for her choice on around 70% and 90% of the time. As individuals, they also showed the same favouritism.
This bias must stem from differences between the two tutor chimps, for neither action was harder than the other nor did either one earn a greater reward. The tutors demonstrated in parallel sessions for the same number of times at the same distance from their audience. And the dominant chimp didn’t make any more aggressive advances than the subordinate.
Horner thinks that chimps, like humans, gain “prestige” as they demonstrate their skills and knowledge, and with it comes a disproportionate influence over their peers. The effect is probably even more pronounced in the wild, when low-ranking individuals may be more concerned about aggressive rebukes from their peers and stay on the periphery of their groups. But for the moment, it’s not clear what exactly contributes to this prestige: age; social status; past successes; or a combo of the above? Having only studied two pairs of demonstrator chimps, Horner can’t tell which yet.
This might seem obvious but it’s never been tested before and it casts our knowledge of chimp culture in a different light. Groups of wild chimps certainly have cultural differences but equally, field researchers have found that the vast majority of innovations never spread. Chimps also get ‘stuck’ on familiar techniques. They’re reticent to adopt a new strategy, even if it’s more efficient.
Horner’s new results could help to explain why. It seems that in chimp societies, subordination is the mother of invention. Most innovations are the work of low-ranking individuals, trying to avoid competition from their superiors. Ironically, these individuals are the least likely to be aped by their fellow apes. Only if they rise through the ranks do they stand a chance of significantly passing on their new behaviours to their colleagues.
Reference: PLoS ONE http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010625
Photo: by Matthew Hoelscher
More on chimp behaviour:
- How chimpanzees deal with death and dying
- Culture shapes the tools that chimps use to get honey
- Chimps use Swiss army toolkit to rob beehives
- Cultured chimps pass on new traditions between groups
- Chimpanzee collects ammo for “premeditated” tourist-stoning
- Chimpanzees make spears to hunt bushbabies
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The Bruce Murray Space Image Library
Diagram of Titan's Atmosphere
Filed under atmospheres, Titan, Saturn's moons, explaining science
Like the Earth's atmosphere, Titan's atmosphere can be separated into the troposphere, stratosphere, and upper atmosphere. The troposphere is the densest part of the atmosphere, where the temperature is the warmest near the ground, and decreases as you go to higher altitudes. In the thinner stratosphere, however, temperature increases with altitude. The boundary between the two regions is called the tropopause.
Other Related Images
Pretty pictures and
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What is FERPA?
FERPA is the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act and is a federal law that was enacted in 1974. FERPA protects the privacy of student education records. All educational institutions that receive federal funding must comply with FERPA.
Why should I care about FERPA?
If you're a student, it's important for you to understand your rights under FERPA. If you're a parent, you'll need to understand how the law changes once your student enters a post-secondary institution. If you're a University employee, you'll need to understand what information can and cannot be released, and the appropriate procedures for release of student information.
What are students' rights under FERPA?
Eligible students have four primary rights under FERPA including the right to:
- inspect their education records,
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- seek correction of their records, to prevent inaccurate or misleading information, and
- file a complaint with the U.S. Department of Education if they feel their rights are being violated.
Do parents have any rights under FERPA?
In primary and secondary educational institutions (i.e. K-12), all FERPA rights belong to the parent. However, when the student reaches the age of 18 or begins to attend a post-secondary institution regardless of age, all FERPA rights transfer to the student.
Where can I find more information about FERPA?
- The entire Missouri State Student Rights (FERPA) Policy is available in the University Policy Library.
- Many questions are addressed in the FERPA Frequently Asked Questions. Contact the Office of the Registrar, Carrington Hall, Room 320, 417-836-5520, if you have any additional questions.
- A FERPA online training program is available to all University employees in My Missouri State → Profile Tab → Professional Development Channel → My Learning Connection.
- More information is available on the U.S. Department of Education's FERPA website.
- The FERPA Hold-Request to Prevent Disclosure of Student Information form is used by currently enrolled students to request that the University not release any "directory information".
- The FERPA Removal form is used to rescind a FERPA hold.
- The People Search website is the University's official directory of students, faculty, and staff. A request to exclude information from People Search may be completed by currently enrolled students at http://search.missouristate.edu/hide/. To be removed from anything other than People Search, including the Outlook Address Book, a FERPA hold must be completed. Read more about People Search and your options regarding display of your information.
- The Release of Information Authorization form is used by students to authorize the University to disclose education records that are otherwise protected under FERPA.
- The Letter of Recommendation Authorization form is used by students to authorize a University employee to include personally identifiable information (such as grades, GPA, etc.) in a letter of recommendation.
- Acknowledgement of Confidentiality Regulations
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PARASHAT B’SHALAH - SHABBAT SHIRAH
February 7, 2009 – 13 Shevat 5769
Annual: Ex. 13:17 – 17:16 (Etz Hayim, p. 399; Hertz p. 265)
Triennial Cycle: Ex. 14:15 – 16:10 (Etz Hayim, p. 403; Hertz p. 268)
Haftarah: Judges 4:4 – 5:31 (Etz Hayim, p. 424; Hertz p. 281)
Prepared by Rabbi Joyce Newmark
Teaneck, New Jersey
Torah Portion Summary
The Israelites leave Egypt and head into the wilderness. God accompanies them, appearing as a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. Being a slow learner, Pharaoh again changes his mind and takes off after his former slaves with his warriors and 600 chariots. The terrified Israelites find themselves trapped between the pursuing Egyptians and the Sea of Reeds. God tells Moses to hold his rod out over the sea; he does so and the sea splits. The Israelites cross on dry land and then, at God’s command, the sea closes and the Egyptians drown. Moses leads the people in the great song of praise and thanksgiving to God; Miriam leads the women.
Just three days later, the people begin complaining that the water they find at Marah is too bitter to drink. God instructs Moses in how to make the water potable. A month later the people are complaining yet again, this time about the lack of food. God responds with the miraculous manna and with quails. Along with the instructions for gathering manna the Israelites are given the laws of Shabbat.
Once again the people find no water. God tells Moses to strike a rock and water comes from it. The Israelites are attacked by Amalek; they defeat their attackers with God’s help.
1. His and Hers
Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron’s sister, took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women went out after her in dance with timbrels. (Exodus 15:20)
- But where could the Israelites have gotten timbrels and flutes in the wilderness? It was simply that the righteous [women] had been confident and knew that God would do miracles and mighty deeds for them at their going out from Egypt and they prepared for themselves timbrels and flutes. (Mekhilta Shirata 10)
- In regard to the men, it states, “They had faith in the Lord and His servant Moses” (14:31). They believed that Moses was the only one capable of performing miracles, and without him God would not save them. That was why, when Moses went up to Sinai, they wanted an image upon which God’s Divine Presence would dwell. But the women believed in Miriam too, even though she had not performed any miracles. That was why they did not follow after the golden calf. They believed that if Moses had disappeared, there would be other prophets upon whom God’s Divine Presence would rest. (Hatam Sofer (Rabbi Moses Schreiber), 1762-1839, Pressburg, Hungary)
- The sages of the school of Rabbi Eliezer taught: In the verse “These are the rules that you shall set before them” (Shemot 21:1), Scripture makes a woman equal to a man in regard to all the ordinances governing relations between one person and another. The sages of the school of Rabbi Ishmael taught: In the verse “When a man or woman commits any wrong” (Numbers 5:6), Scripture makes a woman equal to a man in regard to all penalties prescribed in the Torah. (Bava Kamma 15a)
- In social scientific theoretical discussions as well, American scholars have long asserted that women are more “religious” than men through essential psychological differences or social conditioning... The theoretical assumption that women are innately more religious than men has led scholars and most policy makers to virtually ignore the feminization of American Jewish life... Gender imbalance is a critical problem in American Jewish life not because women are more active but because men are less active... Current patterns contradict thousands of years of Jewish history, during which men were the public and signifying Jews – and during which women were often marginalized or shut out of organized intellectual activities and public Judaism. (Sylvia Barack Fishman, Ph.D, and Daniel Parmer, MA, “Matrilineal Ascent/Patrilineal Descent: The Gender Imbalance in American Jewish Life,” Brandeis University, 2008)
Sparks for Discussion
Are women more religious than men? In what way? Are men and women religious in different ways? Is gender a helpful distinction in thinking about Jewish belief and practice? Do we have a “boy crisis”? Is it possible to make such broad-stroke statements?
Over the last 25 years the overwhelming majority of Conservative congregations have become egalitarian. Some people have suggested that there is no longer a place in the Conservative movement for non-egalitarian congregations. What do you think? How do you understand a movement in which some congregations are led by female rabbis and cantors while others forbid or limit women’s participation in ritual?
2. Those Were the Days
The Israelites said to them, “If only we had died by the hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the fleshpots, when we ate our fill of bread! For you have brought us out into this wilderness to starve this whole congregation to death.” (Exodus 16:3)
- Rabbi Joshua said: And did they really want to eat meat? They were merely exaggerating when they said this. Rabbi Eleazar of Modi’im said: The Israelites were slaves to kings in Egypt; they went forth to the market, helped themselves to bread, meat, and fish and what you will and no one told them no. They went forth to the fields, helped themselves to grapes, figs, and pomegranates and no one told them no. (Mekhilta Vayassa 2)
- The Israelites were enslaved in Egypt for eighty years. During that time the Egyptians would go into the desert and catch a ram or deer, slaughter it, and make a pot roast of it with the Israelites looking on but not tasting, as it is stated: “When we sat by the fleshpots, when we ate our fill of bread.” It does not say, “When we ate from the fleshpots,” but “When we sat by the fleshpots.” They had to eat their bread without meat. (Shemot Rabbah)
- Why did they lie by saying “When we sat by the fleshpots”? Surely they had been burdened with bricks? But it is the manner of the poor man to say, I wined and dined handsomely with so-and-so when he didn’t even exchange a word with him, just in order to prompt others to give him. (Hemdat Ha-yamim)
Sparks for Discussion
Is it possible that the Israelite slaves in Egypt were accustomed to eat their fill of bread and meat? Why do they say they did? Were they longing for the security of the “good old days,” when life was predictable if not pleasant? Do most people tend to romanticize the past? Why?
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The Nature Conservancy announced that the City of Fredericksburg completed a conservation easement preserving approximately 4,232 acres of city-owned land along the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers. The conservation easement is co-held by The Nature Conservancy, the Virginia Outdoors Foundation and the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (VDGIF).
These riparian forests, which stretch upstream through five counties, provide natural protection of Fredericksburg’s water supply. But with more than a million people living within 30 miles of the property—and with two surrounding counties ranked among the nation’s fastest growing—these river lands face unprecedented development pressures. In addition to protecting more than 32 miles of riverfront along the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers, and 26 miles of land along their tributaries, this 4,232-acre conservation easement abuts the 4,539-acre C.F. Phelps Wildlife Management Area, originally purchased by The Nature Conservancy in 1975 and transferred to the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries in 1976.
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You know that queasy feeling you get in your gut when walking alone in a dark, abandoned parking lot? Chances are, that’s not a nervousness you can logic away. When it comes to innate anxiety and how you react to it, the brain is less in charge than we like to think.
A long, electrified cable snakes up from your abdomen, past your heart, lungs and esophagus, all the way to your brain stem. It’s called the vagus nerve, and it’s the telephone line between brain and gut, providing two-way communication. Recently, some researchers at ETH Zurich wanted to see what would happen if they made it a one-way conversation. They cut the vagal afferents in a bunch of rats, taking away the stomach’s ability to send messages to the brain, and placed their subjects in the rat’s version of a dark, abandoned parking lot—a bright open space.
It became clear that the rats with the severed afferent nerve were less visibly scared than the control rats. But they weren’t fearless.
In a conditioning experiment, the rats learned to link a neutral acoustic stimulus – a sound – to an unpleasant experience. Here, the signal path between the stomach and brain appeared to play no role, with the test animals learning the association as well as the control animals. If, however, the researchers switched from a negative to a neutral stimulus, the rats without gut instinct required significantly longer to associate the sound with the new, neutral situation.
Not all fears work the same way. But if your gut is telling to you to hightail it out of some threatening situation—maybe it's better to just listen. Even if you can convince yourself to stay, that gut-clenching fear isn't going away.
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- This event has passed.
Science Made Public Talk @ WHOI Redfield Auditorium
August 12, 2014 @ 3:00 pm - 5:00 pm
“Alvin and the Wet Wi-Fi”
Maurice Tivey, Marine Geologist
Sound has traditionally been the communications medium of choice in the ocean, but engineers at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution developed an underwater “optical modem” that uses light to transmit information at a much higher rate than is capable with sound and that was recently used by scientists and engineers to collect data from a seafloor borehole observatory. Learn more about this new tool, how it was used, and what the data from a recent Alvin dive on the Juan de Fuca plate showed.
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The health problems associated with pollution and low-quality air are well publicized. A new study from the Columbia University Medical Center highlights some of these issues, especially the factors that may make individuals more susceptible to the harmful effects of air pollution.
According to the research, obese children are three times more likely to contract asthma as a result of air pollution. In many instances, obesity magnified the effects of exposure to a common family of pollutants, increasing their impact and raising the odds that the young individuals will be diagnosed with asthma.
"These findings suggest that we may be able to bring down childhood asthma rates by curbing indoor, as well as outdoor, air pollution, and by implementing age-appropriate diet and exercise programs," said Dr. Rachel Miller, the senior author of the study.
One way to start reducing the impact of poor air is to invest in a professional-grade home air purifier, which is capable of clearing the air of a wide variety of irritants that are commonly found in a home. By purchasing one of these devices, such as the IQAir GC MultiGas, individuals can begin eliminating harmful airborne particles and pollution from their homes, improving their health.
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The Second Amendment of the United States Constitution states that:
“A well-regulated militia, being necessary for the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.”
What does this amendment really mean?
In recent years, people offering answers to that question have often focused on the militia part of the Second Amendment: “A well-regulated militia being necessary for the security of a free state. . .”
But in my view, that’s the wrong place to begin. The militia phrase is what lawyers call a “preamble”—a non-binding explanation of intent. It is not the effective, or operative, part of the amendment. In other words, it is only a guide to interpretation, not the actual law. The actual law is “the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.”
Notice two things about the phrase I just read. First, it refers to “THE right of the people to keep and bear arms.” Like “the freedom of speech” and “the freedom of the press” in the First Amendment. The Founders were referring to a right already existing before the Constitution was ever adopted. In the Founders’ view, it was a natural right, given by God and not to be impaired by government. On the contrary, it was a right that government must guarantee.
Another thing this phrase—THE right to keep and bear arms—implies is that the Founders knew the scope of the right. In other words, they understood what it did and didn’t include. We can understand what it did and didn’t include by examining the history of the Founding. It has always bothered me that so many judges and constitutional writers merely speculate about what First and Second Amendment rights mean, rather than going to the historical records and finding out.
I’ll say more in a moment about what is and isn’t encompassed by the Second Amendment.
So—this phrase refers to “THE right to keep and bear arms.” It also says that this right “shall not be infringed.” What does that mean? On this subject, also, there’s no need to speculate. Because 18th century dictionaries tell us exactly what “infringe” meant.
In this context, the word “infringe” meant to reduce or impair in any way. In other words, government shall not reduce or impair in any way “THE right to keep and bear arms.” Today, political demagogues talk about imposing “common-sense” or “reasonable” restrictions on the right to keep and bear arms. But the Constitution, properly understood, is clear that there are NO permissible restrictions on the right, however much the politicians may think they are “common sense” or “reasonable.”
On the other hand, the Founding-Era record also tells us that not every use of every weapon is part of the right that cannot be infringed. So let’s look now at what the right does and doesn’t include.
History makes it clear that the Second Amendment is designed to serve four principal purposes.
First, it guarantees the states militia power of their own to balance the military power of the federal government;
Second, it promotes the God-given right of personal self defense;
Third, it enables the citizenry to repel foreign invasion; and
Fourth, it enables the citizenry to overthrow domestic tyrants and intimidate or discipline those who otherwise would be tyrants.
The first purpose—providing a state military balance to federal power—is more important in assessing federal gun control laws than in assessing state gun control laws. Since I’m focusing on the Colorado laws this evening, I’ll discuss here the other three principles. We begin with the right of self-defense.
In order to enable people to defend themselves, the right to keep and bear arms has to include weapons sufficient for that purpose. Which weapons are sufficient for the purpose of self-defense will vary according to changes in technology and in society.
Advocates of gun control tend to be the same sort of people who argue in favor of the idea of a “living Constitution.” Of course, usually when people argue for a “living Constitution,” what they really want is a dead Constitution. Specifically, they want to eliminate almost every constitutional limit on the power of federal politicians and allow those politicians to control almost everything except abortion, which they want the politicians to subsidize.
Yet some of the people who think the Constitution should be manipulated to meet allegedly new conditions take a very different tack when applying the Second Amendment. To them, the Second Amendment, if it protects individual rights at all, should be limited to militia duty with muskets and flintlocks.
But if the Second Amendment is based partly on a right to personal self-defense—and it is—then this narrow view is wrong. The Second Amendment cannot be limited to muskets and flintlocks any more than the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce can be limited to trade in sailing ships and horse-drawn wagons. Even an old-fashioned constitutionalist like myself believes that Congress can use the Commerce Power to regulate railroads and air travel, although those forms of travel did not exist when the Constitution was ratified. Otherwise, the Commerce Power would mean nothing. For the same reason, the right to keep and bear arms must include the free use of modern technology appropriate for self-defense.
It is true that when the Second Amendment was ratified, a standard capacity 30 round magazine would not be necessary for personal self-defense. But now, when when mass murderers and terrorists have modern weapons, citizens need standard capacity magazines for self defense. They also need handguns and a range of other weapons. That is one reason the Second Amendment protects their use today.
In addition to self-defense, the Second Amendment was adopted to enable citizens to defend against tyrants foreign and domestic. At this point it becomes helpful to turn to the Second Amendment’s preamble: The Amendment seeks a “well regulated militia.” In 18th century language, “a well regulated militia” meant a “well-trained militia.”
The “militia” that the Second Amendment says should be well trained consists of all able bodied men. Article XVII, Section 1 of the Colorado Constitution expresses this well: It says, “The militia of the state shall consist of all able-bodied male residents of the state between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years; except, such persons as may be exempted by the laws of the United States, or of the state.” That was pretty much the American Founders’ view of the matter. Read Madison’s language in Number 46 of The Federalist Papers, and you’ll see what I mean. It is pretty much the understanding of our fathers and grandfathers when gun use and safety was commonly taught in public school.
So according to the Second Amendment, we want all men of military age well trained in the use of weapons. And why is this? Because, as the preamble tells us, this is “necessary for the security of a free state.” By “a free state,” the Constitution means “a free country.”
So all men of military age should be well-trained in weapons so that America survives as a free country.
Well, what weapons? Obviously, the muskets and single-shot rifles in use when the Second Amendment was adopted are no longer sufficient to do the job. Today the Second Amendment protects a range of weapons appropriate for citizen militias resisting foreign invaders and tyrannical politicians.
Now at this point someone favoring gun control always comes up with the line, “Well, does that mean that citizens have the right to hoard naval artillery and atomic bombs?” And the answer is “No, the Second Amendment doesn’t encompass naval artillery or atomic bombs any more than the First Amendment includes falsely shouting ‘fire’ in a crowded theater.” The language and purposes of the Second Amendment, as well as its history, tell us what it excludes as well as what it includes. Naval artillery and atomic bombs are not customary for personal self-defense and they never have been militia weapons used for repelling foreign invaders and domestic tyrants. In fact, the Second Amendment itself refers to the right to bear arms—that is, to carry arms—referring to weapons that normally are carried by a human being.
Let’s focus for a minute on another purpose of the Second Amendment: protecting against domestic tyrants. We tend not to discuss this purpose much, but it might possibly have some relevance to the authoritarian types who currently dominate the Colorado legislature.
Politicians in America right now tend to fall into either of two groups. There are those who generally favor freedom but also strongly support law enforcement. And there are those who are skeptical toward law enforcement but nevertheless seek to expand the power of government in many areas of life, and particularly in economic affairs. It’s not intuitively obvious which group should be for gun control. You might think that those who favor economic freedom might be for gun control as a way of backing law enforcement. Or you might think those who favor more economic regulation might be against gun control because they are skeptical about law enforcement and might not want to give the police a monopoly over weapons.
But we all know what the situation is in real life: In real life, the biggest advocates of gun control are precisely those who want to lord it over the rest of us in nearly every other aspect of life.
Why is this? Well, reflect on the fact that the modern era of gun control began with the federal Gun Control Act of 1968. This law—if an unconstitutional act can be called a “law”—was passed in the wake of some ghastly political assassinations. I don’t think this is a coincidence. It’s reasonable to assume that those who wish to fasten more and more fetters on the productive people of American society might consider that one day they might go too far, and face physical and armed opposition.
Indeed, just the fact that many citizens are armed may have a moderating influence on authoritarian politicians.
The author of the first draft of the Second Amendment was James Madison. Madison’s favorite book of political theory was Aristotle’s Politics. Several times in that work Aristotle makes the point that all citizens should have weapons, and that only those with weapons should be citizens. Otherwise, he wrote, those that are disarmed are the slaves of those who are armed.
The point was made another way by Jean Louis DeLolme, a Swiss jurist. DeLolme wrote a book on the English constitution that we know Madison read, and that was a source for other American Founders as well. In speaking of the need for an armed citizenry, DeLolme wrote:
The Power of the People is not when they strike, but when they keep in awe. It is when they can overthrow every thing, that they never need to move; and Manlius [a Roman consul] included all in four words, when he said to the People of Rome, Ostendite bellum, pacem habebitis. [Look toward war, and you shall have peace].
The widespread ownership of firearms, therefore, helps to preserve freedom, usually without the need for armed violence. When politicians limit or harass gun ownership, the threat is far wider than the threat to guns alone. By reducing the number of citizens who are armed, gun control emboldens the authoritarian politicians to control everything else we do, thereby imperiling freedom generally.
Latest posts by Rob Natelson (see all)
- What “Taxes” Are (And Aren’t) Under the Constitution, and the Implications for Obamacare - March 27, 2016
- What Does the Constitution Say About Federal Land Ownership? - February 10, 2016
- English Law and the Constitution - January 22, 2016
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A violent antipathy to Sparta in the Greek world at large was created after the Spartans had destroyed the power of Athens in 404. Sparta, under the command of Lysander, had established oligarchies and installed garrisons in several cities. They even raised taxes to afford combined taxes, so they claimed. This way they repeated the huge mistakes Athens had made with her Delian League in the previous century. The only difference had been that Athens had installed democratic puppet governments while Sparta had installed oligarchic ones.
Sparta made another big mistake when it suddenly seized the Theban citadel in 383 and installed yet another puppet government. They now installed a government after the Athenian model as they knew that Thebes would not accept an oligarchy, but this attempt was so clumsy that it soon had turned against Sparta. The citadel was liberated again in 379 with the help of Athens, but Thebes was determined to get revenge while the rest of Hellas had even more reasons to doubt Sparta's role as guarantor of the King's peace. Thebes was even more humiliated by this peace as it had to give up its dominance over the other cities in Boeotia just to please Sparta.
Athens founded her second Athenian Naval Confedarcy in 378. The official goal of this second Delian League was a democratic freedom-fight against the Spartan oppressor. It was more likely that Athens simply used the anti-Sparta attitude in the hope of reviving her once formidable empire. The democratic coalition seemed to have lost all its justification when Thebes reclaimed its leadership of Boeotia by reviving the Boeotian League.
Thebes also started to rebuild its army after the Spartan government had been liquidated, and the Spartan garrisson had been defeated. Remarkable was that the Theban army only consisted of citizens at the first stage of the Theban hegemony, while the rest of the ancient world became more and more dependant of mercenaries. This was also the time that the famous elite corps of Thebes was founded by Gorgidas: the devoted brothers in arms. Traditionally this corps consisted of 150 homosexual male couples. You should realise that there was nothing perverse about homosexuality in the Greek world, unlike as in many other ancient civilizations. Homer had already mentioned in the Illiad that such a unit could be very useful, and Plato mentions it also as the men would try to compete with their partners in bravery, but they would also be determined to protect their partners.
In Thebes two strong men had come to the front: Pelopidas and Epaminondas. Especially Epaminondas was a brilliant leader and general who was a very flexible person in a rapidly changing world of warfare. The Spartan army was commandd by one of its two kings: Cleombrotos.
The Spartans marched into Boeotia under the command of their king Cleombrotos and stopped at Leuctra, not far from Thebes. Epaminondas knew that his army was severly outnumbered, but realised that he had to face the Spartans nevertheless. He managed to convince his men that an open battle was their only hope and together with their elite unit 'the Devoted Brothers in Arms', under the leadership of Pelopidas, they entered the plains. Cleombrotos placed his army in a half-moon 12 men deep phalanx , with peltasts covering both sides of the phalanx. Epaminondas had completly different ideas. His strategy was based on two principles.
The first principle that a direct fight between two phalanxes could end up in two different ways of fighting. The hoplites could attack eachother with their spears, or they could end up with their shields pressed against eachother. Two completly different ways with the same result: the phalanx that would loose its formation would become an easy target and would most likely loose the battle. When the hoplites ended up with their shields against eachother the battle looked a bit like a rugby match: the side who could press the hardest would break the enemy formation. Epaminondas realised that he could gain an advantage with a deeper phalanx. For the Spartans this tactic was new as they always relied on their spears, but the Thebans had already defeated Athens at Delium with a phalanx of 25 men deep.
The second principle was that one of the main problems of the phalanx had been to keep it going straight forward. It always tended to curl to the right, as the hoplite instinctive moved to the right to gain more protection from the shield of the hoplite beside them. Epimondas used a sloped phalanx with the strong left wing moved forwards. The left wing would destroy the right wing of the enemy, which traditionally consisted of the strongest and most experienced fighters, creating confusion among the enemy and breaking open the right wing. Now the left wing could break through the formation and attack the rest of the hostile phalanx in the side or in the back while the rest of the friendly phalanx got close enough to attack the enemy.
Epaminondas thus placed his army in the formation of a sloped phalanx. The left side of his phalanx was 50 men deep, but because of this he did not have enough men left to form a right wing. Peltasts would cover the right side of his phalanx, while the cavalry and the 'Devoted Brothers in Arms' would protect the left side.
Cleombrotos finally realises Epaminondas' plans when the Theban phalanx moves in for the kill. He attempts to reinforce his right wing but the well timed charge of the 'Devoted Brothers in Arms', who form the front of the Theban left wing, leaves him no time for this. Confusion sets in among the Spartans when the Theban shields clashes onto theirs. Cleombrotos is killed in the first stage of the struggle and the confusion among Sparta and its allies becomes even bigger when the weight of the Theban phalanx pushes the Sparta phalanx back.
The results of the battle.
With the destruction of the Spartan power at the battle of Leuctra the decade of Theban hegemony had begun. Leuctra was a defeat for Sparta, but it was not this military defeat which resulted in the end of Sparta. Thebes undertook several offensive actions in the Peloponese during its leadership of Hellas. This resulted in the founding of an Arcadian League under the leadership of the new found city of Megalopolis. Most important however was that Thebes refounded Messenia as an independent state in 369 after many years of helotage. Sparta sank to second-class among the Greek Poleis, and this allowed Thebes and Athens to pursue their rivalry in the vacuum created by the sudden disappearance of Sparta.
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Nobility Titles and Ranks in Medieval Europe
Nobility:origin of medieval nobility, nobility titles and ranks in Europe. Medieval French nobility, British nobility, German nobility.
Medieval nobility origin: knights or a mounted warriors who swore allegiance to their sovereign and promised to fight for him in exchange for an allocation of land (usually together with serfs).
The European nobility, the highest ranking citizens of a country besides the royal family, consisted of anyone who had been summoned to Parliament. Usually they were the owners of a vasselage, land given to them for their allegiance and services to the ruling monarch. Although titles were given different names in different countries, the system of ranking the nobility is pretty much the same throughout Europe.
Nobility hierarchy – list of nobility titles and female equivalents.
British nobility titles
Emperor / Empress
An emperor (from the Latin “imperator”) is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. In medieval times title was used in Holy Roman Empire. Currently, the Emperor of Japan is the only monarch who has the title of Emperor.
King / queen
A king is the second highest sovereign title, only looking up to an emperor. King is head of state called a kingdom or a realm.
Prince / princess
Prince, from French “Prince” (itself from the Latin root princeps), is a general term for a monarch, for a member of a monarchs’ or former monarch’s family, and is a hereditary title in some members of Europe’s highest nobility.
Duke / Duchess
Duke’s lands are called a duchy. Dukes are the closest and highest ranking peers of the king. Dukes were usually relatives of a sovereign family.
Marquess / Marchioness
Marquess was the ruler of a frontier area called a mark or march. Marquess was responsible for defence of border lands, he had more men at arms than other nobles.
Earl (Count) / Countess
Earl was often an honorary title given by a monarch for services rendered, it could also be given as a title with no feudal estate. Those counts who were granted land, were usually given a small area called a county or countship, although some counties rivaled some duchies for size. Count wasn’t a hereditary title however those counts with extensive estates were occasionally able to pass down their lands to their sons
Viscount / viscountess
viscount was the deputy of a count or a vice-count, however it later was considered a courtesy title reserved for the heir of a marquess or count. Early viscounts were the equivalent of sherrifs and were therefore appointed by the monarch, however, the title eventually became hereditary. Each viscount was responsible for an area that was either known as a viscounty, a viscountship or a viscountcy which was essentially their jurisdiction.
Baron / baroness
A baron was often a vassal who held a barony that was granted to him directly from the monarch, usually for their loyalty to the king. Originally anyone who was given land from the king for military service, from counts or earls all the way down were considered barons. A barony was created either by letters patent or by a writ of summons that invited someone to Parliament.
Baronet / baronetess
A title usually given to a commoner, a baronetcy is unique in that it is a hereditary honor but unlike other titles within the nobility a baronet is not entitled to a seat in Parliament. It is also not considered an order of knighthood but ranks above all knightly orders except the Order of the Garter and the Order of the Thistle. The title of baronet was created by James I of England as a means of raising funds. The female title of baronetess is a rare one as there have only ever been four.
Originally squire – an assistant of knight (shield bearer), eldest son of knight or sons of peers.
A man with an income derived from property, a legacy or some other source, and was thus independently wealthy and did not need to work. Someone who could not claim nobility or even the rank of esquire.
French nobility titles
Empereur / Impératrice
Roi / Reine
Prince / Princesse
Duc / Duchesse
Marquis / Marquise
Comte / Comtesse
Vicomte / Vicomtesse
Baron / Baronne
German nobility titles
Kaiser / Kaiserin
König / Königin
Prinz / Prinzessin
Herzog / Herzogin (duke / duchess)
Markgraf / Markgräfin
Graf / Gräfin (count / countess)
Vizegraf / Vizegräfin
Baron / Baronin
Edler / Edle
Local, country specific nobility ranks and titles
Germany (Holy Roman Empire)
Kurfürst / Kurfürstin (Prince elector) – electors of Emperor in Holy Roman Empire.
7 original electors: Czech king (King of Bohemia), Duke of Saxony, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Margrave of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, Archbishop of Trier, Archbishop of Cologne. More elecotrs were added later like Duke of Bavaria in 1623.
Erzherzog / Erzherzogin – Archduke / archduchess – title restricted to Holy Roman Empire. It has only ever been continuously borne by princes of the House of Habsburg and later through the female line into the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Großherzog / Großherzogin – Grand Duke / Grand Duchess
Erzherzog / Erzherzogin – Archduke / archduchess – The first seventy-three people in the line of succession to the throne of the Imperial and Royal Family of Austria-Hungary are all Imperial and Royal (HI&RH) Archdukes.
Emperor – Tsar
King – Korol
Prince + Duke – Kniaz
Marquess – Boyar
Other Russian titles were similar to other European titles.
Nobility ranks (England)
In England, the order, in decreasing rank, is:
The Monarch, followed by other members of the Royal Family
The Archbishop of Canterbury
The Lord Chancellor
The Archbishop of York
The Prime Minister
The Lord President of the Privy Council
The Speaker of the House of Commons
The Lord Speaker of the House of Lords
The Lord Privy Seal
The Nobility in the following order:
Bishops of the Church of England
Knights of the Order of the Garter
Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross
Knight (or Dame) Commander of the British Empire.
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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2000 July 25
Explanation: This is what a star really looks like from the surface of the Earth. To the best the human eye can see, stars are so far away they appear the same as would infinitesimal points of light. The Earth's atmosphere, however, is clumpy, so that different air pockets produce different images of a single point-like star. Because the atmosphere is always windy and changing, the number and position of images is always changing, with the result that stars appear to twinkle. In reality, the above time-lapse sequence occurs ten times faster. Close inspection will reveal a single small image of the star that is repeated over and over. This image is called a speckle and its size is again not really infinitesimal, but determined by strange quantum effects that involve the finite size of the telescope. Recent work in adaptive optics ("rubber mirrors") have made spectacular advances in reducing this atmospheric blurring. Betelgeuse is the star twinkling above, and in space, above the Earth's atmosphere, it really looks like this.
Authors & editors:
Jerry Bonnell (USRA)
NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply.
A service of: LHEA at NASA/GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U.
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It's such a tragedy when someone drowns. It's twice as bad when someone drowns trying to rescue someone else. So many times, both deaths could have been prevented.
As a teen, I used to be a lifeguard, and one of the first things I was taught was to think before I acted.
Here's a typical scenario: A person is drowning. Another person jumps in to help. The struggling person grabs on to the second person for support and they both go under.
Even the best swimmers can drown that way. The point is, unless the person drowning is a small child or floating face down, don't jump in to help. Instead, try one of the following tips:
- Find something the drowning person can grab onto - a tree limb, an oar, a float attached to a rope or a rope.
- Shout specific instructions: "Grab the stick and I'll pull you out. Concentrate. Grab the stick."
- If the object is too short to reach the drowning person, you might have to enter the water. Put on a life jacket if it's available and keep your distance from the person.
If the person has fallen into the ice, take the object, lie on your belly and slide toward him. Use the same path as he did. That way you'll take advantage of the fact that he already has tested that part of the ice and broken off the weakest portion.
If there's another person who can help, that person should stay back and have an additional object for you to grab.
If the drowning person is unconscious and you have to go in the water, remember the life jacket or carry a float - anything to help you conserve energy. Get behind the victim. Grab a handful of hair near the scalp, or wrap your dominant arm around one side of the neck and then under the opposite armpit. Clasp your hands to close the loop and kick to safety.
After you're out of the water:
- Turn the victim's body and head to the side to let water drain that's in the mouth and throat. If there's a possibility of a neck injury, you're going to have to move the head and body as one (something you need to learn ahead of time). That's all you need to do in regards to draining water. If more is in the lungs, there's nothing you can do, and you're wasting valuable time trying to get it out.
- Check for signs of life - breathing, moaning, moving, etc. If there is none, check for a pulse. If you can't find one, begin chest compressions. (My understanding is current recommendations suggest if you're unsure about the pulse or how to check it and the person is showing no sign of life, you should start the compressions.)
- Continue compressions until you get a pulse, the person shows signs of life, you can turn the care over to someone else or you're exhausted.
I have more information on chest compressions, checking a pulse and moving someone with a possible spine injury at TheSurvivalDoctor.com. The best way to learn these things and more is to take a hands-on first-aid or CPR course organized by a local hospital, the American Heart Association or the Red Cross. If it's been a few years since your last one, consider a refresher.
Family doctor James Hubbard teaches how to survive during disasters at TheSurvivalDoctor.com
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Organized youth sports doesn't mean adequate exercise
Just because your child is on a sports team doesn't mean he or she is getting enough exercise.
A new study found that only 25% of children taking part in organized baseball, softball and soccer were getting the recommended level of at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity a day.
The study involved 200 kids aged 7 to 14 who played on 29 soccer, baseball or softball teams. The kids wore acceleromaters, which measure activity, around their waists.
Only 24% got 60 minutes of exercise a day, including only 10% of those in the 11- to 14-year-old group. For girls who played softball the number dropped to 2%.
Overall, the participants were active 45 minutes or 46% of practice time, with soccer players being the most active.
On average, about 30 minutes of practice time was spent being inactive.
“Although intensity values in the moderate to vigorous range are obtained while playing common youth sports, it is not clear how much physical activity is provided by youth sports practices, as much of the time may be inactive, such as receiving verbal instruction and waiting for turns," the authors said.
The study was published in the Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine.
- MCW researcher is lead author of genetic study on most common type of hearing loss
- Researchers find new genetic target for treating PTSD
- A simple numbers game boosts a child's math ability, researchers say
- New device shows promise in protecting athletes from sports-related brain injuries
- The science of coffee: Chill the beans, scientists say
- MCW heart researcher wins Steve Cullen Scholar Award
- Medical frailty can be reversed, new study finds
- UW prof named Pew scholar in biomedical sciences
- MCW's Advancing a Healthier Wisconsin endowment awards nearly $750,000
- Gene sequencing predicts which bladder cancers will respond to drug
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| 0.964462 | 396 | 3.09375 | 3 |
A buzzword is a term which is ultimately meaningless, but is used to evoke a particular emotional response in the listener, or to falsely convey an impression that the speaker is knowledgeable about their subject. Many buzzwords are neologisms. Many are political in nature.
Examples of buzzwords include:
- Words redefined to promote political correctness, such as diversity and rainbow
- Terms common to postmodernism, critical theory, and leftist academia, such as "social construct", "narrative" (when used to denigrate accepted history as a mere "narrative" rather than established fact), "framing", etc.
- Politically loaded terms in general, such as "oppression" and "empowerment". These may be related to identity politics.
- Terms used by promoters of pop psychology, some of which has a basis in either the New Age movement or other non-Christian cults. These buzzwords have been criticized as psychobabble by critics.
- Marketing and advertising buzzwords.
- Business buzzwords, such as "diversity hiring", "global", and "best practices"
- Buzzwords are commonly found in futurism and Internet advocacy, where such neologisms as "information superhighway", "networking", "synergy", paradigm, meme and so forth are common.
In 1996, Al Gore's liberal use of buzzwords in his speeches became the target of a humorous prank by students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who distributed a "buzzword bingo" sheet containing Gore's most-used buzzwords in the form of a bingo card, which MIT students would mark upon Gore's use of each buzzword until 5 in a row were marked.
Gore's current favorite buzzword is "unified national smart grid", which he promotes in conjunction with his catastrophic global warming prophecies.
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| 0.960176 | 384 | 3.125 | 3 |
Vision & Mission Statement of Faith Classical Education Why the Classics? The Trivium Additional Resources Administration Board of Directors Directions Information Meetings
Why Blackburn Teaches the Classics
Note: The following letter was originally sent to Blackburn Study Center families and tutors in response to several queries about the study center’s literature selections.
December 11, 2001
Dear Blackburn Parents and Tutors:
Recently, a couple of families asked why Blackburn students read Greek mythology, or expressed concern about the moral content of Rosemary Sutcliffe’s adaptation of Homer’s Iliad in Black Ships of Troy. (e.g., the goddess’ vain striving after the golden apple and Helen’s adultery in chapter 1.) Those are valid concerns, reflecting an uneasy stance that some Christians have adopted toward pagan literature since the earliest days of the Church. “What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” asked Tertullian (c. 155- c. 220 A.D.), a Carthaginian whose classical education consisted primarily of Greek and Latin literature.
We agree that it is appropriate for Christians to handle carefully works of pagan literature and scholarship. But we do not agree that Christians should avoid the Classics altogether. While much could be said on this subject, we will offer just a few thoughts:
First, Christianity is not an abstraction; Christ was born in Judea, in the heart of the Graeco-Roman world, during the reign of Caesar Augustus. As Douglas Wilson has said, “While the kingdom of God cannot be identified with western culture (and we do not seek even to try), that kingdom nevertheless has had such an impact on the West that the history of either since the time of Christ is incomprehensible without detailed understanding of the history of the other.”
This close relationship is particularly evident in matters of education. Christopher Dawson, a European historian and author of The Crisis of Western Education (1961), stressed that:
Christian culture was built from the beginning on a double foundation. The old classical education in the liberal arts was maintained without any interruption, and since this education was inseparable from the study of the classical authors, the old classical literature continued to be studied. But alongside of and above all this, there was now a specifically Christian learning which was biblical and theological and which produced its own prolific literature.
Until very recently, the Classics were part of any Christian education. In recent decades, Christians (like everybody else) have stopped reading the Classics, but not for moral or theological reasons. Therefore, while it may seem foreign for Christians to read the Classics now, that speaks more about our peculiar age than it does about anything else. At Blackburn Study Center, we are striving to “recover the lost tools of learning,” to borrow the title of Douglas Wilson’s seminal book. One of the first steps in that recovery is to restore the Classics to their former place in Christian education.
Second, there is Biblical and historical warrant for Christians to read the Classics. Paul knew his Greek language, poetry, philosophies and culture. Paul’s co-laborer, Apollos, was educated in Alexandria and considered an eloquent man. They were not condemned because of their classical learning; to the contrary, as Christians, they made it and every other thought captive to Christ. After the apostolic age, Christians continued to stay acquainted with classical writings:
- Jerome put away all secular books for a time because he became convicted that he was more “Ciceronian” than Christian, but he returned to the Classics later in life.
- Tertullian drew upon his knowledge of law, classical literature and philosophy to defend Christianity against the pagan state.
- In the Confessions, Augustine (a classically educated rhetorician of the first order) says that it was Cicero’s introduction to philosophy, Hortensius, that turned his own mind towards Christianity. In another book, On Christian Doctrine, Augustine argued for the lawfulness of classical rhetoric.
- In the Institutes of the Christian Religion, John Calvin quotes from Homer, Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, Horace, Josephus, Juvenal, Ovid, Plutarch, Seneca and Virgil, among others.
- The English and American Puritans knew the Classics. The earliest American grammar school curriculum which has come down to us is that of the Boston Latin School. Entering students were taught Latin vocabulary and grammar. After mastering those rudiments, they learned Aesop’s Fables. As they grew older, the students read Ovid, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Juvenal and Isocrates.
Third, we are not interested in following tradition merely for tradition’s sake. But when the Church displays near unanimity on an issue over the course of two millennia, without apparent contradiction from Scripture, we are loathe to reject its example, and we reconsider with humility our own thoughts on the issue in light of that example.
Liberal education has aptly been described as a “great conversation,” in which we participate “as dwarfs perched on the shoulders of giants.” We want our children to be able to participate meaningfully in that great conversation, and to take advantage of the learning and insight of previous generations. They will only be able to do so if they become familiar with the basic stories, names and vocabulary (i.e., the “grammar”) of classical literature, just as childhood familiarity with Biblical names, places and stories prepares them for a more mature understanding of profound theological truths.
Fourth, we do not read the Classics because we seek to emulate “Greek wisdom,” or because we wish to synthesize classical concepts with Christian truths. “Has not God made foolish the wisdom of this world?” (1 Cor. 1:20). Our challenge, at Blackburn Study Center and as home schooling parents, is to handle pagan literature without teaching paganism. We strive to be Christ-centered, and to teach all subjects as parts of an integrated whole with God and His revealed Word at the center. That means bringing the Scriptures and scriptural truths to bear on every subject. We do that in our own homes, we have encouraged Blackburn’s tutors to do it in their classrooms (and they agree), and in light of the recent comments, we hereby repeat that admonition.
Finally, we reiterate our conviction that parents are and should be in control of their own children’s education. Blackburn Study Center is designed to be a useful service to families who wish to pursue classical and Christian education, but it is not intended to supplant your efforts or judgment. Therefore, just as with the tutors’ weekly home assignments, each family is encouraged to make its own decisions concerning curriculum choices, and it is expected that parents will add their own emphases to the curricula taught at Blackburn Study Center.
Please do not hesitate to contact the Holts, the Moyers or the Porters if you would like to discuss these or any other matters.
Your servants in Christ,
Blackburn Study Center
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In Latin, Paris: Gering, Crantz and Friberger, 1471
Cardinal Bessarion--scholar, diplomat, book collector, and Platonic philosopher--was among the most remarkable men of his century. He was born an Orthodox Christian in Trebizond in Asia Minor, entered the Greek church as a priest, and converted to Latin Catholicism at the Council of Florence in 1438. Made a cardinal in 1439, he was twice nearly elected pope. The two great missions of his life were to preserve in the West the cultural heritage of Greek and Byzantine civilization, and to organize a great crusade against the Turks to reconquer Constantinople and the Christian lands lost to the Ottoman invaders. In the first of his goals he succeeded magnificently; he trained an entire generation of Hellenists in Rome and formed a great collection of Greek manuscripts which he left to the city of Venice, where it became the nucleus of the famous Biblioteca Marciana. In his second goal he failed, despite heroic efforts as a diplomat and publicist.
On display is a collection of letters and orations Bessarion composed in the hope of stirring the princes of Europe to action against the Turks. Bessarion--who had a remarkably prescient sense of the power of the press--sent a copy to his friend Guillaume Fichet, Rector of the University of Paris, to be printed on the university printing presses. He then commissioned illuminators to decorate several copies for presentation to the great princes of Europe. The copy on display was presented to King Edward IV of England; similar copies, sent to Louis IX of France, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, and Amadeus of Savoy, have also been identified in modern collections.
Vat. lat. 3586 fol. 4 recto human15 JH.08
Rome, Latin translation by Cardinal Bessarion, Third quarter of the fifteenth century
Among Bessarion's many scholarly writings, his translations hold no small place. Bessarion always intended them to be directly relevent to contemporary issues. His translation of Demosthenes' "First Olynthiac Oration" is an excellent example. Demosthenes' speech, written in the fourth century B.C., calls upon the Athenians to take immediate military action against Philip of Macedon while they can still defend themselves; he chides them for appeasement; he frightens them by describing the tyrannical nature of Philip's regime; he urges them not to let political rivalries with allied cities take precedence over the task of defeating the common enemy. The parallel to the contemporary Turkish threat was exact, to Bessarion's mind, and his marginal notes, shown here, emphasize the point.
Vat. lat. 5356 fols. 25 verso-26 recto human16 JH.10
In Latin, Copied for Federigo da Montefeltro, by Sigismundus Nicholaus Alamanius, 1462
Humanism, which began as a movement to revive ancient literature and education, soon turned to other fields as well. Humanists tried to apply ancient lessons to areas as diverse as agriculture, politics, social relations, architecture, music, and medicine. In the book on display, the minor humanist Roberto Valturio has tried to gather the military wisdom of the ancients for the use of his patron, the condottiere Sigismondo Malatesta of Rimini. Sigismondo was the nemesis of Pius II, who accused him of monstrous crimes and, in a unique action, "canonized" him to Hell after his death. But military secrets, in the fifteenth as in the present century, do not remain secret for long, and the present volume was in the hands of Sigismondo's great rival, Federigo da Montefeltro, within a dozen years of its composition. The text of the treatise is considered the most important Renaissance forbear of Machiavelli's "Art of War," while the rather fanciful illustrations are thought to have influenced some of Leonardo da Vinci's designs for war machines.
Urb. lat. 281 fols. 143 verso-144 recto human17 JH.18
In Latin, Decoration by Guglielmo Giraldi, Third quarter of the fifteenth century
In the Middle Ages, magnificent illumination such as this was rarely used in the decoration of secular texts. In the Renaissance, though sacred texts continued to receive the most sumptuous decoration, secular texts began to rival them for elegance of script, illumination, and binding. The manuscript on display contains the works of Virgil, who, with Cicero, was the most important of all ancient authors for the humanists. This is perhaps the most lavishly illustrated of all copies of Virgil in existence. It was made for Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino, the commander-in-chief of the papal army, who was also the greatest book collector of the fifteenth century. Federigo's library, collected between 1460 and 1482, totalled well over 900 manuscripts in Latin, Greek and Hebrew. Most of the volumes were "bespoke", that is, written and decorated expressly for Federigo's collection. A great many were ordered from the Florentine bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci. According to Vespasiano's memoirs, Federigo had thirty to forty scribes continually at work for him for twenty years to create his extraordinary collection.
Urb. lat. 350 fol. 45 verso human18 JH.21
In Latin and Italian, 1480
State weddings have always been occasions for public celebrations, and never more so than during the Renaissance, an age famous for pageantry and festival. This fifteenth-century wedding book records the festivities surrounding the marriage of two minor members of great Italian families--Costantio Sforza, nephew of the Duke of Milan, and Camilla of Aragon, natural daughter of the King of Naples, in 1475. Their son Giovanni married Lucrezia Borgia in 1493. The wedding book contains copies of the poems and speeches written in honor of the occasion (including a two-hour-long Latin oration by the minor humanist Pandolfo Colenuccio), an account of the banquets and jousting, and drawings, shown here, of the costumes and floats.
Urb. lat. 899 fols. 98 verso-99 recto human19 JH.22
In Latin, Third quarter of the fifteenth century
The basis of all the humanists' achievements was their mastery of Latin and Greek grammar. Grammar in the Renaissance had a broader meaning than it has today, comprising not only the study of accidence and syntax, but also the critical restoration and interpretation of texts--the whole art of textual interpretation. The Latin grammarians of late antiquity were, naturally, the first models for humanist grammatical study. But with the recovery of Greek literature during the fifteenth century, the West also gained access to the Greek tradition of grammatical writing, which was much more theoretical in character. Some Greek grammarians, such as Diomedes, the author of this work, were even interested in Latin literature, and so pioneered the comparative study of literature in different languages. This comparative approach was imitated by Renaissance humanists such as Valla and Angelo Poliziano. The elegant format and decoration of the present volume testify to the importance of grammatical study in Renaissance culture. On the right, a teacher lectures to an unimpressed group of young men. On the left, he administers discipline.
Urb. lat. 308 fol. 2 recto human20 JH.51
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| 0.949966 | 1,603 | 3.0625 | 3 |
GRUB is the GRand Unified Bootloader.
There are two major flavors:
- GRUB, the legacy version developed by Erich Boleyn, bearing version numbers up to and including 0.97.
- GNU GRUB, also known as GRUB 2, is the currently-developing version, bearing version numbers from 1.90 (August, 2005) and upwards.
The two do not interoperate, and use very different configuration methodologies. However, the appearance on bootup is similar enough to not confuse the ordinary user.
As of May 2011, GRUB 2 is about 6 years old, but has not yet been adopted by all Linux distributions. Even Ubuntu, which has adopted GRUB 2 around 2010, uses plain "GRUB" to refer to the legacy version. It may happen over time that the usage of legacy GRUB will become rare and plain "GRUB" will be taken to refer to GNU GRUB, perhaps when there is a version 2.0. As it is, the nomenclature and numbering is already a bit confusing.
- lilo -- the LInux LOader.
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| 0.958424 | 234 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Alocasia is a large plant genus that includes the giant elephant ear plant, native to Borneo and other parts of Asia and the Pacific Ocean. The elephant ear has the largest leaves in the plant kingdom. Many alocasias have heart or arrow-shaped leaves and flowers that resemble Jack-in-the-pulpit. You can grow some alocasias outdoors up to USDA hardiness zone 9, where temperatures never dip below 22 degrees Fahrenheit. Smaller varieties are favored for their tropical look and many serve well as houseplants. Some varieties of alocasia are called taro and African mask; check at your local nursery for a type that will do well indoors.
Mix together the following: 50 percent potting soil; 20 percent peat moss; 20 percent orchid bark with charcoal; 10 percent shredded sphagnum moss and a handful of perlite. Place this mixture in a pot with a drainage hole and plant your alocasia.
Place a saucer full of pebbles under your plant and keep it wet. This will help to provide the humidity this plant needs while it keeps the roots out of direct contact with a puddle of water.
Keep your plant in an area that has bright indirect light, but not direct sunlight.
Allow soil to dry slightly between waterings. Do not over water any members of the alocasia family.
Fertilize this heavy feeder every three weeks during the warmer months with a one half-strength fertilizer with a balanced N-P-K ratio or 20-20-20.
Avoid crown rot, stem rot and other fungal diseases by keeping your alocasia fairly dry. If any of these diseases attack, spray with a commercial fungicide.
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| 0.928919 | 358 | 3.140625 | 3 |
All people have a right to independence, self-determination and choice in their lives. Disability policy and law is therefore a matter of human rights, as well as individual health and well-being.
- All people have a right to independence, self-determination and choice in their lives. Disability policy and law is therefore a matter of human rights, as well as individual health and well-being.
- People who experience physical, intellectual, cognitive and/or psychiatric disability, and their families and carers, have the right to actively participate in all levels of policy, service planning and delivery and evaluation, including their own.
- The full contribution and insight of people with a disability benefits communities.
- It is a responsibility of governments to ensure substantive equality and equal opportunity, to promote attitudinal change, and to provide funding to ensure this in all areas including education, health, housing, mobility, employment, transport and sport, cultural and social engagement.
- There must be adequate, ongoing, fully indexed funding for high quality, lifetime care and support for people with a disability, which is sufficient to meet their needs, regardless of how or where the person acquired a disability or where they live.
- Care and support for people with a disability should be accessible, individualised, self-directed and age-appropriate.
- Society should be free of harassment, abuse, vilification, stigmatisation, discrimination, disadvantage or exploitation on the basis of disability.
- Governments hold primary responsibility to display ongoing leadership in fulfilling the obligations under the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
The Australian Greens Victoria will work towards:
- The establishment of an ongoing and fully funded national disability scheme that provides life-time care and support to people living with disability, regardless of how they acquired their disability or where they live. We support expanding the scheme to include Australians who acquire their disability after the age of 65.
- Full opportunity for people to participate in all aspects of life, including adequate funding and support for education, training, employment, welfare, health systems, public transport, utilities, housing services, technology and information in Victoria, regardless of ability, taking account of specific needs.
- To ensure individuals, families and carers are not disadvantaged by non-optional disability-related costs, including equipment, transport and personal assistance.
- Access for people to appropriate facilities and support in order to undertake their chosen community activities regardless of ability.
- To resource disability advocacy, service provision and community groups to improve inclusiveness of their governance structures, service delivery, and pay and conditions for staff in recognition of their skills and professionalism.
- Access to free legal advice and advocacy where disability limits the individual's capacity to put their case forward.
- Community education programs to promote public awareness of human diversity, disability issues, and reduced discrimination affecting people with a disability.
- A guaranteed and adequate income for people with a disability and their carers to cover living, medical, transport, equipment and accommodation costs and support services.
- Adequate funding for high quality, age-appropriate care for people with very high or complex care needs, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with disabilities.
- Sufficient respite care services and facilities, in-home and emergency support, crisis accommodation and a range of accommodation options.
- Pathways that support school leavers with a disability to make the transition from school into meaningful employment, educational and vocational programs or other community-based activities.
- Improved pay, conditions, support and career structures for workers living with disabilities.
- Workforce improvements driven through the provision of training, development and personal support for disability support workers.
- The extension of anti-vilification laws to include vilification on the basis of disability, and support for the widest possible interpretation of the Disability Discrimination Act and related State legislation, especially in areas such as coverage and ‘unjustifiable hardship’.
- The Victorian government fully supporting inclusive and non-discriminatory standards, in line with the National Disability Standards and relevant national legislation, in building design, employment, education, access to premises, provision of information, accessible transport, personal support and methods of communication.
- Promoting continued and improved commitment to Disability Action Plans within all levels of government, and supporting and encouraging the broader development of Disability Action Plans throughout the Victorian community and private sectors.
- Ensuring disability service providers are accountable to service users, their families, advocates and the government as per the Disability Act 2006.
- Advocating for and providing a full range of evidence-based health services, and research into different areas of disability.
- Resourcing support programs for parents with disabilities, and supporting genetic counselling and advocacy for parenting and reproductive rights of women with disabilities.
- The rights of women with disabilities being advanced, including better safety outcomes.
- Ensuring family violence sector standards, codes and guidelines contextualise the needs of women and children with disabilities by demonstrating awareness of relevant disability legislation and other useful resources.
- Resourcing community care facilities and services, such as respite care, supported accommodation and community housing, to maximise the capacity of people with disability (or their carers) who require these services to live independently.
- Ensuring the provision of cultural- and age-appropriate, as well as language-specific, services for Victorians from all backgrounds and, in particular, ensuring Indigenous Australians with disability have access to services that meet their needs.
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| 0.950628 | 1,111 | 2.671875 | 3 |
You like to know where your moon is, right? Tonight’s waxing gibbous moon will pass through the northern reaches of the Hyades Star Cluster. Nothing grandiose here but a pretty sight in binoculars. Bright Aldebaran, Taurus the Bull’s most luminous star, will lie about 3 degrees southeast of the moon while 61 and 68 Tauri will be only 1/2 degree away.
Come the wee hours Sunday morning, the moon’s movement eastward will put in conjunction with Aldebaran with their separation narrowing to just 2 degrees. Skywatchers living in the southern U.S. will see the moon slightly north of the position shown in the map, while those living in central Canada will see it displaced a small amount to the south.
The International Space Station (ISS) continues to make daily passes during morning twilight for many locations across the U.S. and Canada. Tomorrow morning astronauts on board the station will use the robotic arm to snare the Cygnus cargo ship that was launched by Orbital Sciences Corporation from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia Thursday. It’s the private firm’s first official cargo-carrying mission to the ISS.
Delays due to the frigid weather, the anticipated radiation storm from the solar flare and the “time out” to repair a radiator leak on the station delayed the mission for weeks. The ship contains the 2,780 pounds of food and supplies plus 33 miniature cubesat satellites and 23 student-designed experiments that will involve more than 9,000 students on the ground. The experiments are all in the life sciences and range from amoeba reproduction to salamanders. There’s even an ant farm on board!
Astronauts opening up their goodies will also find copies of five storybooks about the space adventures of a dog named Max by Jeffrey Bennett. They’re part of a new educational program called “Story Time in Space” where astronauts will videotape themselves reading books about space suitable for young readers. The videos will then be posted online for parents and teachers to access for their students.
Reading a book from orbit – a lovely way to connect with the cosmos.
Astronauts will capture Cygnus with the robotic arm when it’s 30 feet from the station tomorrow morning at 5:02 a.m. CST. The two will be very close together and may require binoculars to separate. If you’re lucky enough to have a space station pass before or around that time, give it a try. Here are two sites you can check to see when the ISS passes over your town:
More information about the Cygnus mission is available HERE.
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| 0.911221 | 564 | 2.671875 | 3 |
In their Balinese research Bateson and Mead worked on a large scale. It was massive (extending over two years, with thousands of pictures and feet of film), collaborative (Mead and Bateson, as well as their team), comparative (intra-Bali, among several regions and castes, and extra-Bali, including New Guinea), and intermedia (verbal and visual, still and motion picture, plus a range of native ar- tifacts and texts). Bateson and Mead's work was ahead of its time, but circumstances left much analysis undone or unpublished. The fact that neither was a full-time teacher undoubtedly blunted the recognition their work demanded. The Balinese work of Bateson and Mead was like a vividly colored view of a sunset. We can know the sunset all the better because, from their records, we know the acuity of their vision and the distortion of their lenses. (Jacknis, 173)
About the Author
Ira Jacknis is an American anthropologist who studies Native American art of the Northwest Coast. He is currently based at the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley.
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| 0.9796 | 241 | 2.859375 | 3 |
of Hull's wind project
Leaving aside the long-ago history (historic manuscripts refer to
the tip of the Hull peninsula as "Windmill Point" as far
back as the mid 1820s), -- this project's history is based on the
work of townspeople in the early 1980s. The town installed a 40KW
turbine on an 80-foot tower adjacent to Hull's High School, now sited
on that same historic point of land jutting out into Boston Harbor.
The funds came from the Mass. Department of Energy Resources. The
windmill's cost was $78,000.
spring of 1985 the windmill (some prefer the more precise term wind
turbine) was producing energy. It produced a respectable total in
its lifetime, between then and early March of 1997 when a windstorm
damaged it beyond repair. The failure was due to a malfunction of
its blade-tip brakes that 70 mph winds (this is a speed no longer
threatening to today's windmills) were able to do it critical damage.
This specific failure was in part due to the school's staff not
being able to keep up with the regular maintenance schedule for
the brake mechanisms.
in 1996 showed that the machine in its final three years of production,
-- when it was no longer performing at its best -- reduced the school's
electric bills by over 28%. In dollar terms this was a savings of
$21,200 to the town. A DOER report had indicated that over its lifetime
the windmill had saved the town nearly $70,000. It was well known
in the community that John MacLeod of the Light Department had worked
beyond the call of duty to enhance the turbine's value to the town,
both economically and educationally. He had strong support in this
from Mr. Don Newton.
By fall of 1997 a group of citizens led by
Malcolm Brown and a group of teachers at the High School led by
Anne Marcks, held meetings to plan what is now called "re-powering"
the site. This planning was incorporated into the curriculum of
Mrs. Marcks's senior physics class, and had good support from both
the school and from Hull Municipal Light Plant.
In late 1998 a new group of citizens eager to see the project go
forward formed themselves into C.A.R.E. (Citizen Advocates for
Renewable Energy), selected officers Malcolm Brown and Andrew Stern,
and petitioned Hull Light to take the project on.
plan was to work in collaboration with UMass Amherst's Renewable
Energy Research Laboratory, and its director, Professor James Manwell.
Prof. Manwell, along with his colleagues consults regularly for
the Mass. Department of Energy Resources on windpower and other
fall of 1999 Manwell's team completed an, which included wind-resource
assessments, discussions of regulatory issues, noise-level tabulations, and projected economic viability of various hardware options. Special care went into this engineering report, because of its
potential to serve as a "template" for other coastal communities in Massachusetts. Various factors were given a 'sensitivity' analysis. This revealed which factors, if not predicted accurately, would have a crucial impact on the entire project.
the year 2000, newspaper reports
had appeared, including in the Boston Globe. The Light department also notified townspeople of a townwide public meeting scheduled for June 16 2000. Mr. MacLeod, along with members of the Light Board, experts
from Mass. Municipal Wholesale Electric Company (MMWEC), the RERL at UMass, the Town Manager the town historian
and citizen advocate Malcolm Brown made the presentation. Questions from the public were fielded by this same panel of town representatives.
The meeting's response was on the whole strongly positive, one citizen objecting strongly, however. it
was announced that the light department would go ahead and put out
a Request for Proposals. The preferred site was to be some 75 yards from the site of the previous High School windmill.
January of 2001 the RFP was sent out to 12 turbine manufacturers. By March of 2001
several bids had arrived. One windturbine manufacturer from Denmark
and another from Germany had meantime sent representatives to Windmill Point
for site visits.
April of 2001 the bid of Vestas, a Danish
company, was accepted. They had bid their model with rotor-diameter of 47 meters, and a hub-height of 50
meters, rated power of 660 KW. Their turnkey bid price was $698,699,
net of their standard set of supplemental spare parts. Life expectancy of the moving parts in this machine was 20 years. Hull later learned that more than 1,100
of this same model of Vestas turbine were sold in the USA during calendar year, 2001. This was a big increase from their 4 units sold -- their total delivered to the USA in calendar 1997.
negotiations went on for several months. It became clear that here too Hull was doing pioneering work. As in the
state-sponsored engineering study, Hull's case was being looked
at as a "first" in the Commonwealth, and even on the entire East Coast. So our contract
should be a transportable template for other similar projects still in
the planning stages, or at still earlier stages of advancement. A number of issues needed to be resolved, such as the schedule of advance payments, warranty and maintenance agreement language, the level of ongoing commitment we could expect from Vestas.
Commissioning date was December 27, 2001. In its first year, the total generated energy -- all delivered to the municipally owned grid, -- was 1,597,367 KWh's. The Light Department's sales of this energy (in addition to 'zeroing out' the town's street lighting bill) was in excess of $150,000, net of the incentive payments for "renewable energy certificates". Public support was high, and a survey by the light department returned 95% favorable reactions, the commonest question being "why not more ?"
By 2003 planning was underway for "Hull Wind 2" (citizen advocate Brown had been elected to a 3-year term on the Light Board). By 2005 this same advocate had been re-elected. As he said " my platform had just one plank -- more windpower in Hull". By now he had been elected Vice Chairman of the Board, although he had only been a town resident for 7 years as of 2003.
By May of 2006, Hull Wind 2 was commissioned. (a Vestas V80, rated at 1.8 Megawatts). In its first year it produced 4,088,000 KWh's, and townsfolk showed considerable pride in the results. Six state and national awards had meantime accumulated. One commissioner joked "we have run out of wall-space in our the Light Plant's offices to hang our award plaques -- some will have to be moved to Town Hall". Over 10% of the town's entire consumption of electric energy was now being supplied by this pair of turbines.
A residential-scale windmill was installed at the Weir River Estuary's nature center at town expense and with support from the Light Department, to further publicise Hull's commitment to green energy. A book was web-published in 2006 by Aly Clinton, "Our Neighbor Millie". She is proud of Hull Wind 2, which she nicknamed "Millie". It stands some 400 yards from the home that 8-year old Aly shares with her parents and her younger brother Charlie. Charlie helped with the illustrations. She and Charlie held a book-signing and lecture at Hingham Public Library, where the two received awards -- and revenue from book sales. Part of this revenue stream has been directed by the co-authors to the non-profit Weir River Watershed Association.
By early 2007, planning was underway to install a set of 4 turbines offshore, total rated power to be roughly 15 Megawatts -- enough to supply the town's entire need for electrical energy. A vigorous debate over how to finance this is still ongoing as of this writing (September 2007). The national magazine 'Distributed Energy' has a forthcoming article on the project and on this debate. Meantime, in the ten individual election campaigns of Commissioners (each year two terms expire), not a single campaign had omitted the windpower issue. And all 10 campaigns had included ads coming out in favor of more and more various windmills for the town.
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| 0.977026 | 1,773 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Stages of Emphysema
Emphysema is separated into four stages: at-risk, mild emphysema, moderate emphysema, and severe emphysema. In order to determine if someone has emphysema and which stage he or she is in, the doctor will use a breathing test called spirometry. Spirometry is the most sensitive and commonly used test of lung functions -- it is able to detect emphysema long before a person has significant symptoms.
In order to determine if someone has emphysema and the stage of emphysema, your doctor will use a breathing test called spirometry. This test is easy and painless and shows how well your lungs work. You breathe hard into a large hose connected to a machine called a spirometer. When you breathe out, the spirometer measures how much air your lungs can hold and how fast you can blow air out of your lungs after taking a deep breath.
Spirometry is the most sensitive and commonly used test of lung functions. It can detect emphysema long before you have significant symptoms.
Based on this test, your doctor can determine if you have emphysema and how severe it is (the stage of emphysema).
The various stages of emphysema include:
- Mild emphysema
- Moderate emphysema
- Severe emphysema.
In the at-risk stage of emphysema, the breathing test is normal. Mild symptoms of at-risk emphysema include a chronic cough and sputum production.
In the mild stage of emphysema, the breathing test shows mild airflow limitation. Symptoms may include a chronic cough and sputum production. At this stage of emphysema, you may not be aware that airflow in your lungs is reduced.
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| 0.931935 | 386 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Coming out on top
IceCube surface array makes headway on high-energy cosmic rays
Posted September 13, 2013
A study by researchers using data from the IceCube Neutrino Observatory at the South Pole Station reveals new information that may help unravel the longstanding mystery about the origins of cosmic rays.
The research, which draws on data collected by IceTop , the IceCube Observatory’s surface array of detectors, is published online in Physical Review D, a leading journal in elementary particle physics.
University of Delaware physicist Bakhtiyar Ruzybayev is the study’s corresponding author. UD scientists were the lead group for the construction of IceTop, with support from the National Science Foundation and coordination by the project office at the University of Wisconsin-Madison . [Also see the University of Delaware press release .]
Photo Credit: Peter Rejcek/Antarctic Photo Library
A digital optical module for the IceToP experiment sits frozen in a tub of ice.
Cosmic rays, which are actually high-energy particles, can damage electronics on Earth, as well as human DNA, putting astronauts in space especially at risk. The more scientists learn about the energy spectrum and chemical composition of cosmic rays, the closer humanity will come to uncovering where these energetic particles originate and potentially how to mitigate their effects in the future.
Cosmic rays are known to reach energies above 100 billion giga-electron volts (1011 GeV). The data reported in this latest paper cover the energy range from 1.6 times 106 GeV to 109 GeV.
Researchers are particularly interested in identifying cosmic rays in this range because the transition from cosmic rays produced in the Milky Way Galaxy to “extragalactic” cosmic rays, produced outside the galaxy, is expected to occur in this energy range.
Exploding stars called supernovae are among the sources of cosmic rays in the Milky Way, while distant objects such as collapsing massive stars and active galactic nuclei far from the Milky Way are believed to produce the highest energy particles in nature.
IceTop consists of more than 80 stations, covering an area of one square kilometer on the South Pole surface above the detectors of IceCube, which are buried more than a kilometer deep in the ice. The analysis presented in this article was performed using data taken from June 2010 to May 2011, when the array consisted of only 73 stations.
The IceCube collaboration includes nearly 250 people from 39 research institutions in 11 countries.
About the Sun
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| 0.919218 | 514 | 3.1875 | 3 |
NASA SCIENTIST HELPING STUDENTS LEARN WETLANDS' IMPORTANCE
Feb. 4, 2005
NASA physical scientist Dr. Marco Giardino (center) confers with field guides and crew members on a recent research trip to Cross Bayou in Southeast Louisiana. Giardino, who works at NASA's Stennis Space Center in South Mississippi, was chosen by the national JASON Project to be one of six host researchers for its 2004-05 expedition, "Disappearing Wetlands," which kicked off Jan. 31. Giardino was chosen for Disappearing Wetlands because of his role in the Coast 2050 program, which is working to restore 20,000 square miles of Louisiana wetlands over the next 50 years. He uses NASA satellite imagery to identify threatened archeological sites and provide data to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for evaluation.
Allie Ciaccio (left) of Covington and Erin Maher of Mandeville sift through a sample of water taken from the East Pearl River during a field lab study at NASA's Stennis Space Center (SSC) in South Mississippi. The girls and fellow students from Tchefuncte Middle School in St. Tammany Parish, La., were conducting the study at SSC as part of their participation in the JASON Project's 2004-05 expedition, "Disappearing Wetlands." The expedition welcomed more than 350 fourth- through eighth-graders from Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi to SSC. In addition to the field labs, they watched live broadcasts from JASON Expedition Louisiana research sites: Barataria Preserve in Jean Lafitte National Historic Park, and Louisiana Universities Marin Consortium at Cocodrie and Port Fourchon.
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| 0.930238 | 353 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Definition: Randomly permute N elements by exchanging each element ei with a random element from i to N. It consumes Θ(N log N) bits and runs in linear time.
Generalization (I am a kind of ...)
ideal random shuffle, permutation.
See also Johnson-Trotter, pseudo-random number generator.
Note: The algorithm can be viewed as a reverse selection sort. It is described in some detail as algorithm 3.4.2P in [Knuth97, 2:145].
For even a rather small number of elements (or cards), the total number of permutations is far larger than the period of most pseudo-random number generators. This implies that most permutations will never be generated. (After documentation for random.shuffle() in Python, particularly v2.6.1.)
R. A. Fisher and F. Yates, Example 12, Statistical Tables, London, 1938.
Richard Durstenfeld, Algorithm 235: Random permutation, CACM 7(7):420, July 1964.
If you have suggestions, corrections, or comments, please get in touch with Paul Black.
Entry modified 9 March 2015.
HTML page formatted Mon Mar 9 13:46:10 2015.
Cite this as:
Paul E. Black, "Fisher-Yates shuffle", in Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures [online], Vreda Pieterse and Paul E. Black, eds. 9 March 2015. (accessed TODAY) Available from: http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/fisherYatesShuffle.html
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| 0.815964 | 345 | 2.953125 | 3 |
English, , 1,689kb
Articles: Florence Symposium on Lifelong Learning; The United Kingdom's Classrooms of the Future; Living as Students: Bologna 2000; The Amsterdam Watershed - Feature; School Reform and Construction in the Province of Rovigo, Italy; Facility Benchmarking Trends in Tertiary Education - An Australian Case Study; School Building Organisation in Greece.
In a rapidly changing world, the success of nations, communities and individuals may be linked, more than ever before, to how they adapt to change, learn and share knowledge. This report helps clarify the concepts of human and social capital and ...
This book is a compilation devoted to high quality school and university buildings from 21 countries. Full-colour photographs and plans illustrate the 55 educational facilities selected by an international jury in recognition of their forward-loo...
English, , 347kb
The main purpose of the thematic review on adult learning is to understand adults’ access and participation in education and training and to enhance policies and approaches to increase incentives for adults to undertake learning activities in OECD countries.
View a large number of reports from this high-level forum, including a discussion of knowledge management policies and practices in Denmark.
English, , 1,399kb
Articles: Learning through Landscapes; School Design and Management: Three Examples from France; Towards a Learning Society: LETA 2000 - Feature; The Multifunctional Digital Centre: A Concept for Developing Countries in the Electronic Age; Schools for the 21st Century: Are You Ready?; The Role of Principals in Environmental School Development; Learning and the Physical Environment: The Nordic Network for the Development of Tomorrow's
Is there a "new learning economy"? Do regions and cities play new roles in terms of governance and intervention in order to promote learning, innovation, productivity and economic performance at the local level?
This conference addressed the implementation of strategies for lifelong learning, and included policy debate, future strategies and programmes
English, , 64kb
In 1995 the OECD published the first comprehensive set of data intended to provide a comparative review of the educational provision for students with disabilities and disadvantages in OECD countries. That study found that although there were technical difficulties in making comparisons due to definitional differences among countries, sufficiently large differences did appear to exist among the countries to indicate the occurrence of
English, , 1,002kb
Articles: City Learning Centres for the 21st Century (United Kingdom); School Premises and Violence; Invention, Maintenance and Renewal of Urban Educational Facilities; New Technology and Education in Finland; The Science Resource Area in the State-of-the-Art High School (USA).
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| 0.907422 | 544 | 2.6875 | 3 |
With respect to the breaching of stone masonry by siege batteries, it has long been an established principle that all masonry exposed to the fire of land batteries should be masked by earthen works. The neglect of this rule caused the fall of Bomarsund. Those who so readily draw, from the results of that siege, the inference that the present mode of fortifying land fronts must be abandoned, exhibit their ignorance of military engineering. The facts do not justify their conclusions.
With respect to sea fronts, which can be reached only by guns afloat, the case is very different. They are usually casemates of masonry, not masked by earthen works. Whether the increased efficiency of projectiles thrown by ships and floating batteries now require a resort to this mode of protecting masonry on the water fronts of fortifications, is a question well worthy of discussion. This subject has already been alluded to in the Note on Sea-coast Defences, and it is there shown that no facts have yet been developed which require or authorize any change in our present system.
NOTE TO CHAPTER XIV.—FIELD ENGINEERING.
As Mexico had no permanent fortifications to be besieged, the war in that country afforded very little practice in that branch of engineering which is connected with the attack and defence of permanent works, particularly sapping and mining. The only operation resembling a siege was the investment and bombardment of Vera Cruz, and it is worthy of remark that if General Scott had stormed that place, weak as it was, he must have lost a large number of his men, while from his trenches and batteries he reduced it with scarcely the sacrifice of a single life.
Nor did either party in this war make much use of field works in the attack and defence of positions. Nevertheless, no one can read the history of the war without appreciating the important influence which Fort Brown had upon General Taylor’s defence of the left bank of the Rio Grande. Again if we compare our loss in other Mexican battles with that which the Americans sustained in their attacks upon Monterey, Churubusco, Molino del Key, and Chapultepec,—places partially secured by field works—we shall be still more convinced of the value of temporary fortifications for the defence of military positions, although it was manifest that the Mexicans neither knew how to construct nor how to defend them.
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This is part of a notational convention that evolved with J.J. Sylvester (1853) in his study of algebraic invariant theory.
The distinctions represented by the use of superscripted or subscripted indices only become important when there is more than one coordinate system in play.
In fact: "when there is a fixed coordinate basis (or when not considering coordinate vectors), one may choose to use only subscripts"
In cases where there are multiple coordinate systems under simultaneous consideration, there will typically be a reference axis (often this has the standard basis), and a coordinate axis (often this has a non-orthogonal basis, e.g. an oblique coordinate system).
The conventions for a vector (array of elements) and their indexing depend on how their values are obtained, as the following image (from Mathview's animation) illustrates:
CONTRAvariant components (superscripts) of a vector are obtained for example by parallel projection of the vector onto the coordinate axes. So in this example, contravariant components would be the familiar coordinate values. CONTRAavariant components, by definition, change as the coordinate axes change. They can be remembered as superscripted by considering the third letter 'n' whose rounded edge can be taken as pointing up.
COVariant components (subscripts) are by obtained for example by orthogonal projection of the vector onto the coordinate axes when these are themselves taken as unit vectors given in the reference frame. This is the usual dot-product of vectors against unit vectors in the coordinate directions. The components can be remembered as being subscripted by considering the third letter 'v' to point to its use. COVariant components, by their definition, change as the reference axes change, since that changes the values of the unit direction vectors of the coordinate axes which are being dot producted against.
In abstract mathematics terminology, the covariant vector is a linear functional that lives in the space dual to the contravariant vector, and, when used in an inner product with a vector (primal space) generates a scalar. In physics, this is expressed in the famous Einstein notation convention for representing length invariantly regardless of coordinate systems by taking the inner product of a covariant and contravariant vector (called contraction).
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Tiny, round, cold clouds in space have all the right characteristics to form planets with no parent star. New observations, made with Chalmers University of Technology telescopes, show that not all free-floating planets were thrown out of existing planetary systems. They can also be born free.
Previous research has shown that there may be as many as 200 billion free-floating planets in our galaxy, the Milky Way. Until now scientists have believed that such "rogue planets", which don't orbit around a star, must have been ejected from existing planetary systems.
New observations of tiny dark clouds in space point out another possibility: that some free-floating planets formed on their own.
A team of astronomers from Sweden and Finland used several telescopes to observe the Rosette Nebula, a huge cloud of gas and dust 4600 light years from Earth in the constellation Monoceros (the Unicorn).
Written By: PhysOrgcontinue to source article at phys.org
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Energy efficient bulbs are eco-friendly and can save you big bucks, but experts say that some could also have a dark side.
Money saving, compact fluorescent light bulbs emit high levels of ultra violet radiation, according to a new study. Research at Long Island’s Stony Brook found that the bulbs emit rays so strong that they can actually burn skin and skin cells.
“It can also cause skin cancer in the deadliest for, and that’s melanoma,” said Dr. Rebecca Tung. ...More HERE
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Posted by Candi on Wednesday, April 9, 2014 at 10:10pm.
48x + 32y/32
I have 48x/32 & 32y/32 = 3x/2 + 2y/2 = 3x/2 + y
Am I working this correctly?
Also 25a + 5b + 15c/10
would I be correct to divide by 5?
- MATH Algebra - Reiny, Wednesday, April 9, 2014 at 10:22pm
You must use brackets to establish the correct order of operation.
According to your steps, the question was:
(48x + 32y)/32
= 48x/32 + 32y/32
= 3x/2 + y
you have the correct answer.
<Also 25a + 5b + 15c/10
would I be correct to divide by 5?>
yes, but again you will need brackets.
The way you typed it, only the 15c is divided by 10
(25a + 5b + 15c)/10
= 5(5a + b + 3c)/10
= (5a + b + 3c)/2
= 5a/2 + b/2 + 3c/2
either answer is correct.
Answer This Question
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| 0.787986 | 613 | 2.828125 | 3 |
The boy in the courtroom at the Juvenile Justice Center in Chicago is barely tall enough to see over the judges bench. He is surrounded by people trying to help him regain control of his life: his mother, his lawyer, a social worker, two caseworkers from the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services and others.
According to one of the adults, the boy is "a serious, major drug dealer." Associate Judge Marianne Jackson (WCAS70) has seen him before, and as he fidgets she admonishes him to "wipe that look off your face and listen to what Im telling you." She initiates a series of moves aimed at getting him off the streets and into medical treatment for his bipolar disorder. At the tender age of 12, this boy is running out of time, and she knows it.
She leans forward in her chair and tells the group that they must work together to help to save the child. "It is my intention," she says in a soft but firm voice, "to do everything in my power to get him out of the clutches of the gangs or die trying." It is tough, compassionate, inclusive justice, and for a long time it was missing from the Cook County system.
"Juvenile Court in the early 1990s was seen as a place of exile for lawyers, social workers, judges and probation officers," says Bernardine Dohrn, director of the Children and Family Justice Center at Northwestern School of Laws Bluhm Legal Clinic. "Everyone who worked there saw it as a place where you sent people who otherwise couldnt do the job."
Once a model for the nation and the world, the court had deteriorated physically and spiritually.
In the American justice system in the late 19th century, children were treated as adults, and those sentenced to jail were placed with adult offenders. A group of Chicago women, led by Julia Lathrop and Lucy Flower, close associates of the noted social reformer Jane Addams, convinced Illinois lawmakers of the need to establish a separate system of justice for juveniles.
One of the hallmarks of their efforts was to raise public awareness of the developmental differences between children and adults. They argued that these differences made young children less culpable for their actions and more receptive to rehabilitation. Their work was successful, and the first juvenile court in the nation started in Chicago in 1899.
The reformers and the children who benefited from their vision would not have recognized that court nearly a century later. Politicians, vowing to "get tough on crime," passed legislation that eroded many of the protections offered in the past.
Punishment replaced rehabilitation. More children faced charges as adults. Mired in huge caseloads and backlogs, plagued by cynicism and scandal, weighted down by politics, the juvenile court had become an institution that demoralized those who worked there and those who sought its services.
It was that court that Dohrn found in 1990 when she received a grant to study juvenile justice issues and systemwide reforms. After a year of research in Illinois and in juvenile courts around the nation, Dohrn approached Tom Geraghty (L69), director of the Bluhm Legal Clinic at the law school and an international leader in the field of juvenile justice, with a two-pronged idea for reform.
"The strategy initially was to engage Northwestern law students in the day-to-day work of representing children and families out at juvenile court," Dohrn says, "and also to bring to bear research and advocacy, public education and community involvement, to reform the juvenile court of Cook County. The goal was to restore its status as a leading light instead of an embarrassment and a disgrace."
The proposal received the green light, and in 1991 the law school established the Children and Family Justice Center. The hands-on legal involvement was a crucial element of the plan. "From my perspective, the strategy was pie in the sky unless we could convince the people at the court that we were going to be there for the long haul," says Steve Drizin (L86), supervising attorney at the center. "We were in the courts on a regular basis, and we were taking a lot of serious cases. I think we demonstrated through our work that we were not just going to be ivory tower academics lobbing pot shots at the court and the people in the court system."
Staff members threw themselves into the work, writing op-ed pieces on the issues, speaking at public forums, collaborating with other law schools and experts in the field, organizing conferences and drawing on the experiences of successful juvenile courts around the country.
They set out to find ways to break the logjam that clogged the intake process at the court. According to a law school study, in 1987 about 3,000 active cases in the child protection division were pending; by 1991, the figure rose to about 15,000; and by 1995 it exceeded 40,000. In the delinquency division, they found that many of the cases were not of a serious enough nature to warrant being in court at all, and nearly 60 percent of the cases were dropped before they went to trial.
"We were going through all of the trouble of assigning lawyers and having kids locked up in detention, victims and witnesses showing up in court, and then the case would be dropped," Dohrn says. "Rather than better screening and gatekeeping at the front end, we were sorting it out after a lot of time and money had been committed. So the kids were learning the wrong lesson, and the victims were learning the wrong lesson, and everyone was hurt by that."
A break came in 1994 with the appointment of a new chief judge who amazed everyone by declaring that reforming Juvenile Court was his first priority. He appointed two well-regarded presiding judges and began to improve the professionalism of the court and the morale of the staff.
It was around this time that the mission of the center began to evolve. Originally intending to represent childrens needs in matters before the juvenile court, the lawyers found themselves dealing more and more with collateral issues that affected their clients lives. In many instances these issues had a direct bearing on the behavior that led to the trouble in the first place.
"We ended up changing our focus and becoming what we now call a comprehensive childrens law center because we found that we could not represent kids in court without representing their multiple interests," Dohrn says. So they began branching out into additional areas of the law, including physical and mental health, immigration, education, school discipline, domestic violence, child abuse, custody and adoption.
As the center took on a more holistic approach to juvenile justice, Dohrn and the staff wanted to offer their services out in the community, establishing a presence right where their clients lived and worked. One outgrowth of this is the Community Law Clinic on Chicagos Near West Side, and another is the network of Community Panels for Youth operating in six neighborhoods throughout Chicago.
With the volume of cases growing every year, the center relies heavily on the pro bono contributions of a network of attorneys practicing in Chicago firms. The benefits flow both ways. The center draws on topnotch legal talent to help represent its clients, and the lawyers get a break from the sometimes tedious work practiced at their firms.
"To me, its so much more meaningful and rewarding to be fighting for an individuals interest rather than the financial interests of a corporation," says Tom Ratcliffe (L97). A civil litigation attorney at a Chicago firm, he recently worked with the center on an aggravated battery case. He became so close to his client that "they had me over to dinner a few times. I became kind of a new member of the family," Ratcliffe says.
Bill Barnes (WCAS92, L99), another Chicago attorney, finds the same satisfaction. "Im in a large corporate firm," Barnes says. "Its so nice to have a human element to my work."
Drizin says involving outside attorneys has improved the way judges view the centers clients and cases. "The judges respond to the private bar very differently than they do to those of us who appear in front of them regularly. Its really changed the dynamics of the practice because the judges feel more accountable to them in many ways than they do to the rest of us."
In addition to the ongoing courtroom work, the center is actively involved in several policy reform initiatives.
Zero tolerance, or school exclusion, is one area of focus. A result, in part, of the rash of school shootings during the past decade, school systems across the country have put in place rigid standards of behavior for students. Most offenses are not as serious as carrying a gun in a backpack. Rather, students are being suspended for violating the dress code because their shirt isnt tucked in, or taking a knife out of a lunch box to peel an apple and violating the weapons code.
"In criminal law there are standards of intent, and there are assumptions of innocence as well as procedures of due process," says Dohrn. "Zero tolerance incorporates no such standards." The centers Angela Coin (L95), who is working with several pro bono attorneys and the American Bar Association to challenge the policy, says the Chicago Public School system suspended 23,000 students last year, amounting to 120,000 missed days of school.
"For a kid on probation, one of the conditions of that probation is to stay in school," Coin says. "Then the student gets kicked out for a minor infraction, and he's now violated his parole. Under this system the first response to rule-breaking is suspension. Were trying to see how we can make school exclusion the last option and used only for the most serious offenses."
The treatment of the growing numbers of young girls in the criminal justice system is another area the center is exploring. In Chicago child offenders stay at the Cook County Juvenile Temporary Detention Center anywhere from a single night to a year, depending on the infraction and the speed at which the case moves through the system. About 10 percent of the children housed there are girls.
To address their special needs, the Children and Family Justice Center came up with "Girl Talk," a weekly program at the detention center that offers support and education. "Back when we started, these girls were lost in the system," says Cheryl Graves, a center attorney who helped launch the project. "They were told they were at risk and that they were bad kids. We wanted to help them get some self-esteem."
Graves and the others found that many of the girls had been victims of abuse and had trouble discussing their problems. "Many of them had shut down," she says. "We wanted to create a space where they could learn different ways to express themselves."
A collaborative effort, the first for many of the girls, produced the Girls Talk Quilt, which depicted aspects of their lives on its panels. They had poetry sessions as well as dance and music classes, and the girls began to open up. "We want them to know that they are bigger than the crime they committed, that thats not the sum total of who they are," Graves says. "We want them to know that theres a group of committed women who care about them. Were here to help them, and were going to be there to help when they get out."
Girl Talk also offers information on reproductive health, parenting, domestic violence, exercise, nutrition, conflict resolution, stress management and career planning.
The juvenile death penalty is the other major policy issue on which the center is working. Since 1993 only seven countries have reportedly executed juvenile offenders: Iran, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Yemen, Pakistan and the United States. In the last three years the small number of nations known to have executed offenders convicted as children has further declined to only three, the DRC, Iran and the United States.
Collaborating with the American Bar Association, Amnesty International, a worldwide network of attorneys and others, the center is working to do away with juvenile capital punishment. "Its barbaric, and the United States finds itself isolated and in extraordinary company," says Dohrn.
Pursuing a legislative strategy, the group is working to educate and provide resources to elected officials and legislatures in states that might be receptive to abolishing the sanction. At the same time they are working with international organizations and human rights groups to bring to bear international opposition. "The execution of people arrested as children is not necessary for public safety," Dohrn says. "Whatever purpose it once served, we as a society can now let it go."
One of the reasons for the palpable passion of the center's staff members is their belief that everyone is entitled to a shot at rehabilitation and a second chance. They cite a list of people who committed crimes as minors but under a gentler system were allowed the opportunity to turn their lives around: former Wyoming Sen. Alan Simpson, Olympic great Bob Beamon, Ella Fitzgerald, Babe Ruth and a host of lawyers, judges, teachers and artists.
The staffers also know that statistics show that most minors break the law at some time during their youth and most never do it again. And they recognize that many juveniles commit crimes so theyll be accepted by their peers, so theyll have a place to fit in.
"I dont think theres such a thing as a bad kid," says Dohrn. "I think there are kids who do really bad things. But born bad or irredeemably bad? No. I feel like our students see themselves as these investigative forces who go out and learn the facts about these kids lives. Then we show the courts and school administrators and community groups the reasons that make this kid a whole person instead of them being defined by the one act he or she did in a 30-second period."
Geraghty agrees. "I think the kids we represent who do bad things for the most part have lived lives that the vast majority of the public just doesnt understand or comprehend," he says. "We try and explain why it is so important that the court system, the judges and states attorneys understand the dynamic that leads kids to making bad choices."
As the work of the center approaches its second decade, the staff intends to continue to build on the strength of the past.
"One of the unique aspects of the center is the extent to which it collaborates with courts, agencies, child welfare organizations and other universities, locally, nationally and internationally," Geraghty adds. "The centers emphasis on collaboration serves as a model for students who are interested in achieving law reform. Collaboration has also been key to the effort to implement positive changes in child welfare and juvenile justice."
Old-fashioned idealism plays a part, too. "I think the centers real strength is its purpose," says Dohrn. "To me you can either treat law students as selfish, materialistic and driven toward their own wealthy futures, or you can treat them as whole human beings who also, like all of us, are in search of meaning. Law students are meaning makers. Lawyers are meaning makers. As are all human beings.
"You cant underestimate the impact of working with poor people and with people who are routinely kicked around by the society and by the legal system that they confront. It takes you on a journey that makes you reexamine all of your choices and who you are in the world once you go to the West Side. I think that students and alumni are hungry for that opportunity."
Terry Stephan (GJ78) is a freelance writer based in Chicago.
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MODIS GPP/NPP Project (MOD17)
The goal of the MOD17 MODIS project is to provide continuous estimates of Gross/Net Primary Production (GPP/NPP) across Earth’s entire vegetated land surface. MOD17 GPP/NPP outputs are useful for natural resource and land management, global carbon cycle analysis, ecosystem status assessment, and environmental change monitoring. MOD17 is part of the NASA Earth Observation System (EOS) program and is the first satellite-driven dataset to monitor vegetation productivity on a global scale.
MOD17 Algorithm Description
The MOD17 algorithm is based on the original radiation use efficiency logic of Monteith (1972), which suggests that productivity of annual crops under well-watered and fertilized conditions is linearly related to the amount of absorbed solar energy—specifically, the amount of absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (APAR). The translation of APAR to an actual productivity estimate is conducted via a conversion efficiency parameter, ε, which varies by vegetation type and climate conditions. In consequence, MOD17 incorporates differences in maximum ε among vegetation types and also lowers ε under water-stressed and/or cold temperature conditions. To calculate NPP, MOD17 also estimates daily leaf and fine root maintenance respiration (R_lr), annual growth respiration (R_g), and annual maintenance respiration of live cells in woody tissue (R_m).
The main MOD17 data outputs include:
- 8-day GPP (GPP = ε_max * Temperature_Scalar * Water_Stress_Scalar * APAR)
- 8-day Net Photosynthesis (PSNet = GPP - R_lr)
- Annual NPP (NPP = PSNet_Sum - R_g - R_m)
A more detailed overview of the MOD17 algorithm can be found in the MOD17 User’s Guide, Running et al. (2004), Zhao et al. (2005) and in the scientific publications listed under the publications tab above.
Main Data Inputs
To estimate GPP/NPP, the main data inputs to the MOD17 algorithm include:
- Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (FPAR) and Leaf Area Index (LAI) from the MODIS MOD15 LAI/FPAR data product
- Temperature, incoming solar radiation, and vapor pressure deficit derived from a meteorology dataset. Meteorology datasets used by various versions of the MOD17 algorithm include products from the NASA Global Modeling and Assimilation Office and the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis II
- Land cover classification from the MODIS MCD12Q1 data product
- A Biome Parameter Lookup Table (BPLUT) containing values of ε_max for different vegetation types and other biome-specific physiological parameters for respiration calculations. The different vegetation types (obtained from the land cover type 2 classification) include: evergreen needleleaf forest, evergreen broadleaf forest, deciduous needleleaf forest, deciduous broadleaf forest, mixed forests, closed shrublands, open shrublands, woody savannas, savannas, grasslands, and croplands.
Data Product Offerings
The MOD17 dataset (version 55) is provided on our FTP site from 2000 – 2012 at 8-day, monthly, and annual time steps. Updates are provided on an annual basis. Compared to the NASA/USGS LPDAAC 8-day and annual v5 product, NTSG MOD17 v55 contains the following main improvements:
- Temporal infilling of cloud-contaminated pixels
- A consistent forcing meteorology (NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis II)
Figure 1. Potential limits to vegetation net primary production based on fundamental physiological limits by solar radiation, water balance, and temperature (from Churkina & Running, 1998; Nemani et al., 2003; Running et al., 2004).
Figure 2. The 8-day composite leaf area index (LAI) in Amazon region for the 8-day period 081 (March 21–28) in 2001 for (a) the original with no temporal interpolation of the LAI and (b) the temporally interpolated LAI. (Mu et al., 2007 Remote Sensing of Environment, in press; Zhao et al., 2005)
Figure 3. An example on how temporal filling unreliable 8-day Collection 4 FPAR/LAI, and therefore improved 8-day GPP and PsnNet for one MODIS 1-km pixel located in Amazon basin (lat = -5.0, lon = -65.0) (from Zhao et al., 2005)
Validation with GPP estimated at eddy flow towers
Interannual variability at the global scale and over the North American Carbon Program (NACP) domain
Samanta et al. and Medlyn challenge our report of reduced global terrestrial net primary production (NPP) from 2000 through 2009. Our new tests show that other vegetation indices had even stronger negative changes through the decade, and weakening temperature controls on water stress and respiration still did not produce a positive trend in NPP. These analyses strengthen the conclusion of drought-induced reduction in global NPP over the past decade.
Terrestrial net primary production (NPP) quantifies the amount of atmospheric carbon fixed by plants and accumulated as biomass. Previous studies have shown that climate constraints were relaxing with increasing temperature and solar radiation, allowing an upward trend in NPP from 1982 through 1999. The past decade (2000 to 2009) has been the warmest since instrumental measurements began, which could imply continued increases in NPP; however, our estimates suggest a reduction in the global NPP of 0.55 petagrams of carbon. Large-scale droughts have reduced regional NPP, and a drying trend in the Southern Hemisphere has decreased NPP in that area, counteracting the increased NPP over the Northern Hemisphere. A continued decline in NPP would not only weaken the terrestrial carbon sink, but it would also intensify future competition between food demand and proposed biofuel production.
Improvements of the MODIS terrestrial gross and net primary production global data set
Zhao, M., F. A. Heinsch, R. R. Nemani, and S. W. Running
Remote Sensing of Environment. 95: 164–176. 2005
MODIS primary production products (MOD17) are the first regular, near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at an 8-day interval. But both the inconsistent spatial resolution between the gridded meteorological data and MODIS pixels, and the cloud-contaminated MODIS FPAR/LAI (MOD15A2) retrievals can introduce considerable errors to Collection4 primary production (denoted as C4 MOD17) results. Here, we aim to rectify these problems through reprocessing key inputs to MODIS primary vegetation productivity algorithm, resulting in improved Collection5 MOD17 (here denoted as C5 MOD17) estimates. This was accomplished by spatial interpolation of the coarse resolution meteorological data input and with temporal filling of cloud-contaminated MOD15A2 data. Furthermore, we modified the Biome Parameter Look-Up Table (BPLUT) based on recent synthesized NPP data and some observed GPP derived from some flux tower measurements to keep up with the improvements in upstream inputs. Because MOD17 is one of the down-stream MODIS land products, the performance of the algorithm can be largely influenced by the uncertainties from upstream inputs, such as land cover, FPAR/LAI, the meteorological data, and algorithm itself. MODIS GPP fits well with GPP derived from 12 flux towers over North America. Globally, the 3-year MOD17 NPP is comparable to the Ecosystem Model–Data Intercomparison (EMDI) NPP data set, and global total MODIS GPP and NPP are inversely related to the observed atmospheric CO2 growth rates, and MEI index, indicating MOD17 are reliable products. From 2001 to 2003, mean global total GPP and NPP estimated by MODIS are 109.29 Pg C/year and 56.02 Pg C/year, respectively. Based on this research, the improved global MODIS primary production data set is now ready for monitoring ecological conditions, natural resources and environmental changes.
Sensitivity of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) terrestrial primary production to the accuracy of meteorological reanalyses
Zhao, M., S. W. Running, and R. R. Nemani
Journal of Geophysical Research. 111, G01002, doi:10.1029/2004JG000004. 2006
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board NASA’s satellites, Terra and Aqua, dramatically improves our ability to accurately and continuously monitor the terrestrial biosphere. MODIS information is used to estimate global terrestrial primary production weekly and annually in near-real time at a 1-km resolution. MODIS terrestrial primary production requires daily gridded assimilation meteorological data as inputs, and the accuracy of the existing meteorological reanalysis data sets show marked differences both spatially and temporally. This study compares surface meteorological data sets from three well-documented global reanalyses, NASA Data Assimilation Office (DAO), European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) (ERA-40) and National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis 1, with observed weather station data and other gridded data interpolated from the observations, to evaluate the sensitivity of MODIS global terrestrial gross and net primary production (GPP and NPP) to the uncertainties of meteorological inputs both in the United States and the global vegetated areas. NCEP tends to overestimate surface solar radiation, and underestimate both temperature and vapor pressure deficit (VPD). ECMWF has the highest accuracy but its radiation is lower in tropical regions, and the accuracy of DAO lies between NCEP and ECMWF. Biases in temperature are mainly responsible for large VPD biases in reanalyses. MODIS NPP contains more uncertainties than GPP. Global total MODIS GPP and NPP driven by DAO, ECMWF, and NCEP show notable differences (>20 PgC/yr) with the highest estimates from NCEP and the lowest from ECMWF. Again, the DAO results lie somewhere between NCEP and ECMWF estimates. Spatially, the larger discrepancies among reanalyses and their derived MODIS GPP and NPP occur in the tropics. These results reveal that the biases in meteorological reanalyses can introduce substantial error into GPP and NPP estimations, and emphasize the need to minimize these biases to improve the quality of MODIS GPP and NPP products.
Evaluation of remote sensing based terrestrial productivity from MODIS using tower eddy flux network observations
Heinsch, F. A., M. Zhao, S. W. Running, J. S. Kimball, R. R. Nemani, K. J. Davis, et al.
IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 44(7): 1908-1925. 2006
The Moderate Resolution Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor has provided near real-time estimates of gross primary production (GPP) since March 2000. We compare four years (2000 to 2003) of satellite-based calculations of GPP with tower eddy CO2 flux-based estimates across diverse land cover types and climate regimes. We examine the potential error contributions from meteorology, leaf area index (LAI)/fPAR, and land cover. The error between annual GPP computed from NASA’s Data Assimilation Office’s (DAO) and tower-based meteorology is 28%, indicating that NASA’s DAO global meteorology plays an important role in the accuracy of the GPP algorithm. Approximately 62% of MOD15-based estimates of LAI were within the estimates based on field optical measurements, although remaining values overestimated site values. Land cover presented the fewest errors, with most errors within the forest classes, reducing potential error. Tower-based and MODIS estimates of annual GPP compare favorably for most biomes, although MODIS GPP overestimates tower-based calculations by 20%–30%. Seasonally, summer estimates of MODIS GPP are closest to tower data, and spring estimates are the worst, most likely the result of the relatively rapid onset of leaf-out. The results of this study indicate, however, that the current MODIS GPP algorithm shows reasonable spatial patterns and temporal variability across a diverse range of biomes and climate regimes. So, while continued efforts are needed to isolate particular problems in specific biomes, we are optimistic about the general quality of these data, and continuation of the MOD17 GPP product will likely provide a key component of global terrestrial ecosystem analysis, providing continuous weekly measurements of global vegetation production.
Evaluating water stress controls on primary production in biogeochemical and remote sensing based models
Mu, Q., M. Zhao, F. A. Heinsch, M. Liu, H. Tian and S. W. Running
Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, G01012, doi: 10.1029/2006JG000179, 2007
Water stress is one of the most important limiting factors controlling terrestrial primary production, and the performance of a primary production model is largely determined by its capacity to capture environmental water stress. The algorithm that generates the global near real-time MODIS GPP/NPP products (MOD17) uses VPD (Vapor Pressure Deficit) alone to estimate the environmental water stress. This paper compares the water stress calculation in the MOD17 algorithm with results simulated using a process-based biogeochemical model (Biome-BGC) to evaluate the performance of the water stress determined using the MOD17 algorithm. The investigation study areas include China and the conterminous U.S. because of the availability of daily meteorological observation data. Our study shows that VPD alone can capture interannual variability of the full water stress nearly over all the study areas. In wet regions, where annual precipitation is greater than 400 mm/yr, the VPD–based water stress estimate in MOD17 is adequate to explain the magnitude and variability of water stress determined from atmospheric VPD and soil water in Biome-BGC. In some dry regions, where soil water is severely limiting, MOD17 underestimates water stress, overestimates GPP, and fails to capture the intra-annual variability of water stress. The MOD17 algorithm should add soil water stress to its calculations in these dry regions, thereby improving GPP estimates. Interannual variability in water stress is simpler to capture than the seasonality, but it is more difficult to capture this interannual variability in GPP. The MOD17 algorithm captures inter- and intra-annual variability of both the Biome-BGC-calculated water stress and GPP better in the conterminous USA than in the strongly monsoon-controlled China.
A continuous satellite-derived measure of global terrestrial primary production
Running, S., R. R. Nemani, F. A. Heinsch, M. Zhao, M. Reeves, and H. Hashimoto.
BioScience, 54(6): 547-560. 2004.
Until recently, continuous monitoring of global vegetation productivity has not been possible because of technological limitations. This article introduces a new satellite-driven monitor of the global biosphere that regularly computes daily gross primary production (GPP) and annual net primary production (NPP) at 1-kilometer (km) resolution over 109,782,756 km2 of vegetated land surface. We summarize the history of global NPP science, as well as the derivation of this calculation, and current data production activity. The first data on NPP from the EOS (Earth Observing System) MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) sensor are presented with different types of validation. We offer examples of how this new type of data set can serve ecological science, land management, and environmental policy. To enhance the use of these data by nonspecialists, we are now producing monthly anomaly maps for GPP and annual NPP that compare the current value with an 18-year average value for each pixel, clearly identifying regions where vegetation growth is higher or lower than normal.
Climate-driven increases in global terrestrial net primary production from 1982 to 1999
Nemani, R. R., C. D. Keeling, H. Hashimoto, W. M. Jolly, S. C. Piper, C. J. Tucker, R. B. Myneni, and S. W. Running.
Science, 300: 1560-1563. 2003
Recent climatic changes have enhanced plant growth in northern mid-latitudes and high latitudes. However, a comprehensive analysis of the impact of global climatic changes on vegetation productivity has not before been expressed in the context of variable limiting factors to plant growth. We present a global investigation of vegetation responses to climatic changes by analyzing 18 years (1982 to 1999) of both climatic data and satellite observations of vegetation activity. Our results indicate that global changes in climate have eased several critical climatic constraints to plant growth, such that net primary production increased 6% (3.4 petagrams of carbon over 18 years) globally. The largest increase was in tropical ecosystems. Amazon rain forests accounted for 42% of the global increase in net primary production, owing mainly to decreased cloud cover and the resulting increase in solar radiation.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.ntsg.umt.edu/project/mod17
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en
| 0.885746 | 3,696 | 3.171875 | 3 |
The Germanic Research Web is a robust research guide for Germanic Studies at Harvard University created by librarians in the Harvard College Library for students and scholars of Germanic Studies. It includes links to resources in literature, arts and culture, history, language pedagogy, philosophy, and much more. Many full-text databases are found there.
The Harvard Libraries' collections of German literature were initiated in 1819 with a gift to Harvard College by Johann Wolfgang Goethe of an autographed edition of his collected works. The rich resources that Harvard offers in Germanic studies include Widener Library, the largest university library and fourth largest library of any kind in the world, with what many consider the best German studies research collection in North America. Its holdings in German literature, history, and civilization are extraordinary. Of the Harvard Libraries' over 16 million total volumes, about 14 percent are estimated to be in the German language, with extensive holdings also in Scandinavian and other Germanic languages.
Valuable manuscripts and papers from the estates of such distinguished German poets as Hofmannsthal, Rilke, and Brecht can be found in Houghton Library, together with manuscripts from medieval Germany and Iceland. Lamont Library has a smaller collection of literature in the original and often in English translation.
A unique and important resource is the Busch-Reisinger Museum. Works in the collection range from medieval to contemporary and focus especially on early twentieth-century German art. The museum houses major Expressionist masterpieces as well as an extensive Bauhaus archive. To make an appointment to see works not on display, call the museum office at (617) 495-2317.
The Program for the Study of Germany and Europe at the Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies is concerned with European and German politics, economics, society, and recent history. The Center has a library and offers many lectures and workshops on European and German affairs. It is located in Adolphus Busch Hall, the original home of the German department at Harvard.
The Humanities Center sponsors lectures, readings, conferences, workshops, and ongoing seminars, providing a locus for interdisciplinary discussions among Harvard faculty, faculty from other area institutions, graduate students, undergraduates, and the public. Professors Buchloh, Hamilton, and Ryan chair the German Studies: New Perspectives seminar. Other current seminars that may be of interest to students in German include Dialectical Thinking in the Humanities; Rethinking Translation; Politics, Literature, and the Arts; Medieval Studies; Gender and Sexuality; Architecture and Knowledge; Cognitive Theory and the Arts; History of the Book; Modernism; Visual Representation, Materiality, and Medium; Cultural and Humanitarian Agents; and many more.
In addition to regular course offerings, students of film studies at Harvard have access to the Humanities Center's ongoing film studies workshop as well as the extraordinary collection of German films at the Harvard Film Archive.
The Goethe-Institut Boston offers a wide variety of exhibitions, films, concerts, and lectures on all aspects of Germany and its present and past culture, and the Scandinavian Library likewise hosts lectures, a Nordic film series, and a weekly coffee hour.
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<urn:uuid:55f7a23d-c571-4f2f-939d-c19a7dbc3465>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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en
| 0.932136 | 656 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Wed | Jan 29, 2014 | 7:00-8:30 pm | Marvin Auditorium 101A
An 1863 version of Colton’s Kansas and Nebraska map, 1855. It shows the eastern portions of Kansas and Nebraska including rivers, creeks, trails, roads, railroads, forts, towns, and counties. Source: Kansasmemory.org
Hear accounts of Kansas’ settlers brought to life by re-enactors. Even before the state entered the Union, the area attracted many settlers, and each experience was unique. Still, all who arrived suffered the hardships of trying to make a living on the western frontier.
In 1854, the Kansas Territory was opened for settlement. The area along the Missouri border attracted many settlers, some with political motivations and others motivated by opportunity. Each experience was unique, yet all who arrived found core commonalities.
The Settling the Kansas Territory reader’s theater script was created using excerpts from real historical letters and diaries. Following the reading, participants will have the opportunity to discuss what it took to move west to the frontier. Bring your questions.
This program is part of the Shared Stories of the Civil War Reader’s Theater project, a partnership between the Freedom’s Frontier National Heritage Area and the Kansas Humanities Council.
See books upon books about Kansas and/or written by Kansans when you visit the Topeka Room (second floor).
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://tscpl.org/events/learn-settling-kansas-territory-kansas-day
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en
| 0.947074 | 296 | 3.640625 | 4 |
honeyeater or honeysucker, common name for arboreal birds comprising some 160 species of the family Meliphagidae, and found in Australia, New Zealand, and the SW Pacific. There is a single South American genus. The plumage tends to be dull, ranging from greenish to grayish brown, with little difference between the sexes. They range in length from 4 to 17 in. (10–42.5 cm). Some species of the genus Myzomelia are more distinctly colored, with contrasting red tones, and these species show sexual dimorphism. Many members of the family have yellow or white ear patches, and one, the parson bird, or New Zealand tui ( Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae ), is marked by two white throat feathers, said to give the appearance of a cleric's bib. The tui is a delightful songster and an excellent mimic. The family also shows a tendency to featherless patches on the face such as seen in the friarbirds and wattlebirds of Australia. Honeyeaters vary greatly in body and bill form, but all have in common a highly specialized, extendable, brushlike tongue, with a horny, pointed tip. This they use to brush up pollen and suck at nectar. Because they feed on pollen and nectar (and the insects attracted to them), honeyeaters are important pollinators. Most are species of the treetops and flowering branches, but several Australian species are adapted to open country. None are solitary. They are gregarious to varying degrees and travel in bands, particularly the helmeted honeyeater, Meliphaga cassidix, of Australia. Nest and nesting habits also vary, but none of the honeyeaters are ground nesters. The number of eggs per clutch ranges from two in the tropical species to four in those of temperate areas. Male participation in rearing also varies, but most help in feeding the young. Honeyeaters are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Aves, order Passeriformes, family Meliphagidae.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/science/honeyeater.html
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en
| 0.945574 | 439 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Links and documents
Listed on the Canadian Register:
Statement of Significance
Description of Historic Place
The Banff National Park of Canada Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin is a one-and-a-half storey split-stone cabin of simple design with a rectangular plan and a gabled roof of medium pitch with minimal overhang. Constructed in 1922, it has a single entrance on the façade, accessed from a more recently constructed flat wooden porch. This porch is built over the original stone platform. The cabin is located right on the continental divide and the border between Banff and Yoho National Parks. Located at an altitude of 2 925.5 metres (9598 feet), it is the second highest building in the country. The designation is confined to the footprint of the building.
The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin is a Classified Federal Heritage building because of its historical associations, and its architectural and environmental values.
The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin represents the theme of alpine recreation in Canada. It remains a well-known icon to the national and international alpine community, and a reminder of the pioneer days of Canadian alpine climbing. The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin illustrates the period that became known as the golden age of mountaineering in Canada. Through its Swiss designers, it is associated with the long tradition of mountain shelters and Swiss mountain guides. The cabin is unique for being both the only shelter above the tree line and for being the only surviving example of an alpine hut in the Canadian Rocky Mountains.
The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin is a very good and attractive example of rustic architecture. It is based on the model of high-altitude vernacular, alpine huts of Switzerland. The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin has been described as one of the most impressive structures in the Canadian Alpine world. A very rare example of a stone cabin in the national parks, it was designed to be highly compatible with its unique setting through the use of natural materials in appropriate colours and textures.
Accessed via a steep scree, the Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin was constructed in a high mountain pass. Designed as a mountain refuge, it still serves its original purpose. The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin is successful as an extension of the natural character of its environment. The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin reinforces the character of the Rockies between Mounts Lefroy and Victoria. This structure successfully harmonizes with its environment through careful selection and use of materials. The Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin is tiny relative to the landscape. Its existence is an isolated but permanent sign of human presence in this uninhabited area.
Rhona Goodspeed, Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin, Abbot Pass, Banff National Park, Alberta. Federal Heritage Buildings Review Office Report 97-098; Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin, Abbot Pass, Banff National Park, Alberta, Heritage Character Statement 97-098.
The character-defining elements of Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin should be respected.
Its rustic design and good quality materials and craftsmanship, for example:
- the simple compact form, massing and balanced symmetrical composition of this one and a half-storey structure;
- the well constructed stonework using locally available rock;
- the simple features, such as the single entrance on the façade and the small window on all four elevations;
- the original entrance platform built of the same stone as the cabin and which remains under the recently constructed flat wooden porch;
- the layout of kitchen/dining area near the entrance with the sleeping area behind it on the main floor is designed to be purely functional;
- the use of local materials such as the roughly finished stones of split limestone quarried on site and the resulting complementary colours and textures;
- the building’s design, scale, and its location within the dramatic and pristine setting of the Canadian Rocky Mountains;
- its visual prominence due to its the unobstructed placement above a steep incline of scree behind a central peak;
- its continuing use as a refuge for visitors;
The manner in which the building reinforces the dramatic character of the mountain landscape.
Government of Canada
Treasury Board Heritage Buildings Policy
Classified Federal Heritage Building
Theme - Category and Type
Function - Category and Type
- Single Dwelling
Architect / Designer
Edward Fenz, Jr. and Rudolph Aemmer
Location of Supporting Documentation
National Historic Sites Directorate, Documentation Centre, 5th Floor, Room 89, 25 Eddy Street, Gatineau, Quebec
Cross-Reference to Collection
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<urn:uuid:4e2fd1d6-b989-49bf-9970-e07173b831f5>
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http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=1972
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en
| 0.920918 | 937 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Here is a perfect example of why you should never accept at face value how the work of scientists is reported in the non-scientific media. They almost always get it wrong. Look at this report in the Associated Press on the new Pierolapithecus catalaunicus find and compare it to the report in Nature, a scientific magazine who has qualified writers on staff. It begins with the very first sentence:
A nearly 13 million-year-old ape discovered in Spain is the last probable common ancestor to all living humans and great apes, a research team says in Friday’s issue of Science magazine.
No, that’s not what the research team said. The abstract in Science says, “The overall pattern suggests that Pierolapithecus is probably close to the last common ancestor of great apes and humans.” There is a big difference between being close to the last common ancestor and being the last common ancestor. There’s no way to identify it that closely because at any given time there are likely multiple evolutionary cousins coexisting in various places. Just like we can’t determine with any certainty which of the numerous feathered theropod dinosaurs gave rise to birds, we can only say that the ancestor of modern birds must have looked something like them and must have existed in a given time frame. Indeed, the co-author of the Science article is quoted later in the AP story as saying exactly that:
“This does not mean that just this individual – or even this species, exactly this species – must have been the species that gave rise to everything else which came later in the great ape tree. But it is, if not the species, most probably a very closely related species that gave rise to it.”
The second sentence isn’t much better:
A husband-and-wife team of fossil sleuths unearthed an animal with a body like an ape, fingers like a chimp and the upright posture of humans.
But then compare that to the Nature report:
The creature would have weighed about 55 kilograms, making it about the size of a female chimpanzee, says Salvador Moyá-Solá of the Miquel Crusafont Institute of Palaeontology in Barcelona, whose team reports the discovery in this week’s Science1. But it would have looked more like a primitive gorilla, he adds…
The creature would have been able to lift itself into a standing position as modern apes can, but its short fingers mean that it would not have been able to grip branches with enough strength to swing from them.
Other media outlets likewise reported that this creature “walked upright like humans”, but that is emphatically not what the report says at all. It says that it could have pulled itself upright like great apes can, but that is a far cry from having an “upright posture” or being bipedal. Then there’s this line, which makes me grit my teeth:
Coaxed by a reporter to say Pierolapithecus catalaunicus represented a “missing link,” Meike Kohler, another of the paper’s co-authors, demurred. “I don’t like, very much, to use this word.”
Any reporter who is trying to “coax” a scientist to say something like this shouldn’t be doing any reporting on science at all. It just supports this patently absurd notion that paleontologists are somehow looking for that one “smoking gun” to fill in some mythical gap that will finally provide the proof for evolution. That’s ridiculous. As usual, Carl Zimmer, the finest science journalist in the country if not the world, gets it right:
A little googling unearths 59 articles that do their best to call Pierolapithecus a missing link, even if it means putting a question mark after it in a headline. Today, Ira Glass on Science Friday asked his paleoanthropologist guest whether the fossil is a missing link, even while he acknowledged that the scientist might not want to be “boxed in” with that phrase.
Now, if you learned about human origins 50 years ago, you might well have read things by scientists referring to a missing link in our evolution. The great paleoanthropologist Robert Broom even published a book in 1951 called Finding the Missing Link. But this was a time when so few fossils were known from human evolution that many researchers thought that our ancestry was pretty much linear until you got back to our common ancestor with other living apes. But fifty years later, it’s abundantly clear now that human evolution has produced many branches, all but one of which have ended in extinction. Some are close to our own ancestry, others are further away. Paleoanthropologists don’t get excited about a fossil because they think they’ve found the missing link (whatever that is), but because a fossil can show how early a trait such as a big brain evolved, and sometimes can even reveal traits that have evolved independently several times in evolution. That’s what gets them fired up about Pierolapithecus catalaunicus. So why shouldn’t journalists get fired up as well, rather than trotting out old cliches?
It’s not just lazy journalism, I’d argue, but abets some pernicious pseudoarguments made against evolution. Creationists try to cast doubt on the reality of evolution whenever a new fossil of a hominid is discovered. They crow that the latest fossil has a feature not found in living apes or living humans, meaning that it can’t bridge the gap between the two groups. These arguments hardly call human evolution into doubt. The only lesson that should be drawn from them is that the term “missing link” should be retired for good.
That’s the difference between a hack reporter with a journalism degree but no knowledge of science, frantically trying to put anything into an article they can to convey controversy, and a science journalist who actually understands the field he’s reporting on.
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<urn:uuid:727ef162-5fdd-4ea3-b7fb-42ff170880bb>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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en
| 0.958214 | 1,270 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Water Rates and Household Bills
The prices we pay for our water supply are regulated by Ofwat. Every 5 years the water companies suggest new prices and these prices are then reviewed by Ofwat who then decide on a price to suit both the water companies and the consumer.
For example, the last review saw the water companies suggesting a 29% increase but Ofwat decided on an average 18% increase for the next 5 years.
There are a few reasons that water rates have to rise, to cover cost of renewing water pipes and treatment plants to keep the quality of water at a good level and also to improve the service that the customers receive.
Rates do differ however between each water company and area. These differences are due to the geographical area which the company covers and the water availability.
There are two ways that you can be charged for your water supply depending on whether your property is metered or unmetered.
If you have a water meter, you will only pay for the units of water you actually use and readings are taken from your meter every 6 months. On your metered bill you will usually see the charges under ‘Water supply’ which are charged per cubic metre (220 gallons) of usage. You will also pay a standing charge to cover meter reading and billing services, this is usually a fixed amount each year.
If you do not have a meter you will pay a set rate for your water based on the rateable value (RV) of your home in England and Wales or your council tax band if you live in Scotland. These rates also include a standing charge to cover customer services such as billing.
|Average Household Bills – measured and unmeasured customers|
|Water and Sewerage Companies||Water Average Bills||Sewerage Average Bills|
|Essex and Suffolk||£130||£143|
|Water Only Companies||2004-2005||2005-2006|
|Bournemouth and Hampshire||£107||£128|
|Folkestone and Dover||£140||£153|
|Sutton & East Surrey||£125||£144|
|Industry average (weighted)||£117||£134|
- Average household bills are for both measured and unmeasured customers.
- Bills for 2004-05 and 2005-06 are estimates based respectively on provisional and forecast data provided by each company.
- To calculate the total average bill add the average water and sewerage bill together. Your sewerage service may be provided by a different company to your water supply.
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<urn:uuid:e62c7f7a-ef4d-4388-ad6f-22fed9aab816>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.water-guide.org.uk/rates.html
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en
| 0.8818 | 526 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Source: Journal of Jewish Education, Volume 79, Issue 3, pages 297-314
It is reasonable to believe that DVDs and other electronic media (e.g., interactive games, websites, mobile applications) can play a role in Jewish education and identity among young children and their families. One such educational media project is Shalom Sesame, a series of 12 DVDs (and accompanying website and YouTube channel) that were released in 2010 and 2011, and designed to enhance preschoolers’ understanding of Israel and Jewish culture in all its diversity. Each half-hour DVD addresses a central theme—such as Israel, Hebrew, or Jewish holidays, customs, and values. For example, in one DVD, young viewers are introduced to three ritual objects needed for the Shabbat table—candles, kiddush cup, and challah—through a story in which Grover (the popular Sesame Street Muppet) tries to help his Israeli friends on Rechov Sumsum (Sesame Street) prepare for Shabbat, but misunderstands and keeps “cleaning up” by putting away the very things that they need to welcome Shabbat. Other segments in the DVD include live-action films of making challah, families celebrating Shabbat, and children in an Israeli preschool having a Shabbat party, plus an animated segment about the seven days of creation, among others.
The purpose of this research project was to explore Shalom Sesame’s potential value for families, as a case study of the potential of media to contribute to Jewish education in the preschool years. Specifically, the research examined certain aspects of children's and families’ learning from these DVDs by addressing the following questions:
- How is Shalom Sesame used in the homes of preschoolers?
- Do preschoolers learn from Shalom Sesame, and if so, what do they learn?
- What is the value of Shalom Sesame for Jewish families?
- Does the impact of Shalom Sesame extend beyond direct learning from the screen?
To answer the above questions, we conducted a program of research that consisted of three complementary phases, using a variety of methods: a family survey, an ethnographic study of home use, and a quasi-experimental study of children.
Approaching our study via triangulated methods capitalized on the strengths of each method and yielded a richer understanding of the complicated nature of the phenomenon at hand. The quasi-experimental study contributed evidence of learning, the family survey tapped into attitudes among a large sample in multiple locations, and the ethnographic study created a deeper relationship with the families and examined use in natural home environments. The data from the three sources complemented and reinforced each other. For example, parents’ anecdotal recollections of their children's learning were confirmed in the quasi-experimental study, and parents’ survey responses could be better contextualized following ethnographic home observations. Thus, the use of multiple methods offers a more holistic and complete picture of the role Shalom Sesame in Jewish families’ life than any one method can provide on its own.
The participants in this three-phase study came from a wide range of Jewish backgrounds and geographical regions, many of them secular or unaffiliated. Yet, regardless of their level of religious observance and location, nearly all of the families in the family survey (94%) and ethnographic study felt that it was very important to maintain their children's Jewish identity (typically for reasons related to the parents’ own sense of Jewish identity or continuity). This was particularly true for interfaith families who also live outside established Jewish communities.
With that in mind, it is understandable that families welcomed Shalom Sesame into their homes as a resource for their children's Jewish education, particularly given the scarcity of other visual media about Jewish education for young children.
The results of the experimental phase of the study showed Shalom Sesame to be an effective educational tool, producing significant gains in children's knowledge and understanding. Moreover, families’ use of Shalom Sesame produced outcomes beyond its direct impact on children's knowledge as well. Data from all three studies revealed that, for many families, Shalom Sesame served as a springboard for follow-up discussion and activities, whether in terms of added or enhanced religious and cultural practice (e.g., celebrating holidays), engaging more with Israel or the Hebrew language, or simply playing with a dreidel or making falafel. It is noteworthy that many parents talked about the value of Shalom Sesame in the context of contributing to or reinforcing their children's developing Jewish identity, their connections to their families, Israel, and/or the Jewish people, and their sense of self. Particularly for families with limited access to Jewish communities and resources, Shalom Sesame provided a way for parents to help their children develop a sense of connection to the broader Jewish community, to deepen their own connection, as well as to educate non-Jewish relatives and friends in the case of interfaith marriages.
As data from the ethnographic study attest, viewing and discussing Shalom Sesame seemed to stir strong emotions, frustrations, and longing within these families, and stimulated in-depth discussions about their Jewish identity and lives as a minority. This was a particularly strong sentiment within the Southern Illinois participants, who shared the difficulties involved in raising Jewish children in an environment where they feel different and disconnected from a community. The parents were grateful for the availability of the DVDs and particularly the fact that they did not feel that Shalom Sesame was pushing a religious agenda, but simply presenting information in a straightforward way. Many of the home visits and discussions of the use of Shalom Sesame seem to scratch the surface of important and complex issues of Jewish identity, as well as families’ negotiations concerning them. Shalom Sesame seems to have tapped a very real and deep need of Jewish families in the United States, regardless of their circumstances and their degree of affiliation with Judaism, and offer them more than education regarding factual information about Israel and Jewish culture. It seems to be offering them a sense of community as well.
Naturally, effective Jewish education draws on many sources (e.g., family, school, synagogue, community), and media are only one piece of that mosaic. However, the data from the present research indicate that videos such as Shalom Sesame can be a powerful resource in the home, and perhaps for classroom use as well. Well-designed, quality media (Shalom Sesame, in this case) can make a significant contribution, and may be of particular value for those who lack alternative opportunities and resources.
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Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba)gălˈbə, 3 B.C.–A.D. 69, Roman emperor (A.D. 68–A.D. 69). He distinguished himself in a political and military career as praetor (A.D. 20), governor of Aquitania, consul (A.D. 33), commander in Gaul, and governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (A.D. 60). In A.D. 68 an insurrection against Nero broke out, and Galba was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Nero committed suicide, and Galba succeeded him. A few months after his reign began, a rebellion led by Otho took place. Galba was killed, and Otho succeeded him. Galba's brief reign was distinguished by an honest but parsimonious administration.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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AutoCAD 3D Modelling Course - Introduction
AutoCAD 3D Modelling - Introduction | Chadstone Campus AC045D1204
Learn 3D modelling concepts using the leading industry CAD computer software. Topics include 3D modelling, Viewing 3D drawings, user Coordinate Systems in 3D, Creating SOLIDs Models, Generating 2D Drawings from SOLIDs and Introduction to Rendering. Participants will learn 3D CAD computing skills using interactive exercises and complete a minor 3D modelling project. Prerequisite: It is essential that students have prior knowledge of CAD - Level 2. Course cost includes textbook.
Please contact us for upcoming dates and/or more information about this class
- Taught By
- Holmesglen Institute Short Courses
Holmesglen is one of the largest providers of vocational and higher education in Victoria. Since 1982, Holmesglen has...
Holmesglen is one of the largest providers of vocational and higher education in Victoria. Since 1982, Holmesglen has grown and now delivers programs across four major campuses: Chadstone, City, Moorabbin and Waverley.
With more than 400 Short Course programs delivered at Chadstone, City, Moorabbin and Waverley, we are sure you'll find the right short course and learn something new.
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How foods Irritate The Bladder
Urine is composed of water and various toxins and substances that our body is trying to eliminate. It is not unusual for a healthy bladder to become irritated by urine, such as in patients going through chemotherapy or with patients abusing ketamine. Another common sign of bladder irritation is the increased frequency that coffee and tea drinkers often complain of. But, when you have an injured or wounded bladder, urine can reach deeper into the bladder wall where it can directly stimulate nerves, stimulate mast cells to release histamine and create profound irritation.
What foods are notorious for causing problems??
Foods high in acid (such as orange or cranberry juice) create tremendous irritation in much the same way that acid poured on a wound on your hand would feel. It hurts! Foods that stimulate nerves, such as caffeine, are notorious for triggering the already sensitized nerves in the bladder. Thus, if you're struggling with frequency or pain, this means that your bladder nerves are involved. It's foolish to irritate the nerves to trigger yet more frequency. Foods high in histamines, such as chocolate, can trigger an allergy like reaction. Some, but not all, patients may struggle with foods high in sodium or potassium. Patients may also have individual and often unpredictable reactions to various foods.
Print bladder diet suggestions bladder_diet.pdf (43 KB)
The Top Forbidden Foods
The top forbidden foods & beverages are those that bother most IC patients most of the time. They are NOTORIOUS for causing IC flares. Even one small serving a day can trigger a night of sleeplessness and pain. Thus, these are the first foods that should be eliminated from your diet. In our experience, the patients who continue to consume these foods, especially that one cup of coffee a day (decaf or regular), are those who suffer the most with pain and discomfort. Furthermore, we believe that no therapy can counteract the damage and irritation created by a daily "acid" wash from these foods. If you want your bladder to calm down, your first step is to eliminate these risk foods.
#1 - COFFEES
This is a no-brainer. Coffee's (regular & decaf) are, by far, the most irritating to an IC bladder, not just for the caffeine but also for the very high acid level. We strongly suggest that you avoid all coffees if you are currently symptomatic. When you're bladder has calmed down and your symptoms have improved, first try the herbal coffees (Pero or Cafix) and then try a low acid regular coffee (Puroast or Euromild).
#2 - REGULAR & GREEN TEAS
Regular teas (hot and iced) get their flavors from "tannic acid" and thus easily irritate the bladder. Green teas are also notoriously acidic despite the advice of family and friends who say that it helps. It doesn't. The worst tea of all? Powdered sugar free instant iced teas which are also filled with nutrasweet and other irritating preservatives. If you're desperate for tea, try a plain herbal chamomile or peppermint teas which are calming and soothing to smooth muscle of the bowel.
#3 - SODA & DIET SODA
Think about it? If a soda can remove rust from a penny, just imagine what it would do to a wound in your bladder. Sodas are highly irritating not only for the citric acid used for flavoring, but also for the preservatives and flavorings. Diet sodas are even worse because nutrasweet is metabolized into a very strong acid and basically scours the bladder. If you're desperate for a soda, try an organic root beer but, please, only once a month.
#4 - FRUIT JUICES
Fruit juices, particularly cranberry, orange, lemon and tomato juices, are very acidic because each glass carries the acid of not just one piece of fruit, but many that have been squeezed to make that juice. Juices are notorious for triggering an IC flare. We suggest that you try pear or apple juice, preferably a "baby" version. Why?? Baby juices use much less acid and are easier for an IC bladder to tolerate.
#5 - MULTIVITAMINS
The use of multivitamins has become quite controversial in recent years in part because of research which has found that some cancers (i.e. prostate) grow more aggressively in patients who take a lot of vitamins. The fact is that our body can't use the massive amount of vitamins found in supplements, thus they are quickly excreted out of the body through our urine. Both Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) and Vitamin B6 are notorious. Unless you require multivitamins for another medical condition, we suggest that stop any multivitamins to determine if they are irritating your bladder.
#6 - ARTIFICIAL SUGARS
Artificial sugars (Nutrasweet, Aspartame, Sweet N Low, etc.) continue to generate a lot of criticism. In the Summer of 2005, a study was released that found that patients who used artificial sugars, as apposed to regular sugar, had a much higher likelihood of obesity. In the IC bladder, artificial sugars create profound irritation. We strongly suggest that you remove artificial sugars from your diet.
#7 - CHOCOLATE
Arrhhh!! We hear your cries of frustration. Yes, we hate to say it, but chocolate can trigger an IC flare. Chocolate is notorious for triggering IBs, allergies and, in an IC bladder, irritation and pain. If you're desperate for chocolate, try a white chocolate or a very dark, semisweet chocolate. It's the cheaper milk chocolates that seem to be the most irritating. We've also found some amazingly good carob candies that can easily satisfy your sweet tooth, including carob rice crunch bars, carob english toffee, carob honeymoons & more!
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A parent's bad habits can ruin the lives of their children.
"It can be the use of drugs in a household, the manufacturing of drugs, or the cultivation of drugs,” said Dale Woolery, the associate director for the Governor’s Office for Drug Control Policy.
Last year, drug task forces reported 450 cases of drug endangered children to the Iowa Department of Human Services.
"We know there is a lot of children who haven't been counted who might be in harm's way,” said Woolery.
Children living in these homes are often victims of physical abuse, psychological abuse, and are often too afraid to come forward.
It's up to the other adults in a child's life to do it for them.
At the 7th annual Drug Endangered Children Conference, professionals from teachers to social workers learned what to look for.
Jennifer Sleighter, a nurse practitioner at Blank Children's Hospital says some of the signs are obvious.
"We'll often see medical neglect. They may not be making it to school. They may not be receiving the food or clothing the need,” said Sleighter.
Once a sign is recognized, it's important for people to know where to turn.
"Anytime anyone identifies one of these signs, I recommend contacting DHS. It's better to stay on the side of safety,” Sleighter told Channel 13 News.
Professionals also had the opportunity to view exhibits teaching them what various illegal drugs look like and how to identify them.
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Symptom or disease
It seems to be popular these days to blame the parents for their out-of-control behavior at youth sports events. There is probably no way to completely eliminate the emotional pressure a parent feels when they are attending their child's athletic event (pressure that naturally increases as the child moves up the competitive ladder), but are parents who act out a symptom of what is wrong with youth sports or the disease itself?
I think it is a bit of both: part of the blame lies with the parents themselves, part can be blamed on the way youth sports is organized and run. There will always be adults who act inappropriately; however, if we can shift the focus from the current adult-centered to a child-centered philosophy we will see the bulk of the bad behavior eliminated.
Part of the problem stems from parents who:
- Use youth sports to gratify their egos. Seeing your child compete arouses strong emotions. You experience a flood of positive emotions when she wins, an emotional letdown when she loses. For men, the male hormone testosterone magnifies the positive effect of winning and the negative effect of losing. Because the boost in testosterone men experience when they win creates a feeling of euphoria and exhilaration, men who compete and win, even if they are just coaching or watching (winning by proxy), have an incentive to compete not enjoyed by women (whose testosterone levels goes up most regularly if they feel they have played well, whether or not they have won). Whether as parent or coach, most men want to see that their team/child wins. Because they are so intent on experiencing more emotional highs (and trying to avoid the emotional letdown when their child loses), such parents literally let their emotions get the better of them, with just about any kind of behavior justified in their minds if it helps the child or child's team win. They imagine that they identify with their child but in fact they end up ignoring their children's real feelings, goals, and dreams and focusing instead on their own.
- Are unable to cope with the emotional ups and downs of youth sports. It isn't easy being a parent of a child playing sports. The ups and downs of competition not only challenge a child's coping skills but a parents' as well. Some parents lack the skills to handle the emotional roller coaster and end up acting in inappropriate ways.
- View youth sports as a zero sum competition with other parents. All parents want their children to be successful, but, increasingly, many see parenting itself as a competitive sport in which success as a parent depends on their child winning and the children of other parents losing.
- See the time and money spent on their child's youth sports as an investment. Parents these days seem willing - indeed many feel compelled - to make enormous sacrifices of time, money and emotional energy to give their children the best chance of succeeding in an increasingly winner-take-all society. Because youth sports demands the two things that most parents have in shortest supply - money and time - too many have come to view their sacrifices as investments which, like any investments, they want to monitor and to protect. When that investment is made in the name of the thing they cherish most, their child, and when that investment is made in a market (youth sports) that arouses strong emotions, and, in the case of contact sports like hockey, soccer, basketball, and football is also intense, fast-paced, and inherently violent, the desire to protect the investment often causes parents to act in inappropriate ways.
- Believe that lower standards of behavior apply to youth sports. Parents wouldn't yell out at a child's piano recital "Eric, you bum, you can't play the piano to save your life." Why do they feel the right to loudly criticize their child's sports performance? Research by sports psychologist Brenda Bredemeier and her colleagues shows that adults and children tend to suspend their normal level of moral reasoning when entering the sporting arena and adopt a form of "game reasoning" that allows them to be more willing to accept unethical and unsportsmanlike behavior simply because it is sport.
- Have a hard time giving up control. As one Canadian journalist wrote recently, Youth sports are "an arena ... to which parents who are themselves competitive, ambitious and frequently controlling by nature are drawn. And, vexingly for them when they take to the stands, it is an arena in which control must be yielded: to the coach, to the kids on the ice, to the officials." Sometimes, such lack of control leads a parent to act inappropriately to try to get back the control they have lost.
But sometimes parents who act out at youth sports contests are simply expressing their frustration over larger, more structural problems in the youth sports experience itself, some of which can be fixed. Consider the following examples:
- A mother, seeing her child riding the bench, screams at her child's coach to give everyone, including her child, a chance to play. She might be screaming at the coach because he isn't following league rules regarding minimum playing time, or because the coach failed to make clear to the parents that his philosophy is to play the "best" players. The problem could have been avoided had the issue of playing time been addressed at the pre-season meeting so that the coach, players and parents had the same expectations.
- A father yelling at the coach for poor decisions may be yelling because he is caught up in a winning-at-all-costs mentality, but he could be criticizing the coach because he hadn't been adequately trained. The problem could have been avoided had the coach been properly trained.
- A mother admonishing the referee for making a bad call may be doing so because she is overly invested emotionally in the game's outcome or because she or the referee doesn't know the rules. I remember a mother of a player on one of my soccer teams who told the referee that he made a "stupid call" when he issued her son a yellow card for unintentionally head butting another boy as they were both going for a "50-50" ball. Had I gone over the rules at the preseason meeting, had she understood that it was a violation, unintentional or not, she would probably not had yelled at the referee.
In other words, some of the misbehavior by parents on the sidelines of youth sports contests could be avoided in the first place if expectations were set before the season started about playing time, if the coach had been adequately trained, if the parent had been educated about the rules, or if the program itself was more child-centered.
While I am not a huge fan of parents' codes of conduct because they don't address the root of the problem I see with today's youth sports (that it is adult- instead of child-centered), setting expectations through the use of a code of conduct or designating a parent to be an "ambassador" to receive training on dealing with out-of-control parents are ideas at least worth exploring.
Adapted from the book, Home Team Advantage: The Critical Role of Mothers in Youth Sports (HarperCollins 2006) by Brooke de Lench.
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57 Percent of Young Mothers Unmarried
June 26, 2014
An increasing number of young women are unmarried when they have their first child, explains Rachel Sheffield, policy analyst at the Heritage Foundation. Indeed, a recent study from Johns Hopkins University found that 57 percent of mothers between 26 and 31 years old are unmarried at the time of the birth of their first child.
In particular, whether the mother has received a college education seems to be a main factor in separating unmarried from married mothers:
- Sixty-three percent of births to women without a high school degree occur outside of marriage.
- But for college-educated women, less than 30 percent of births occur outside of marriage.
This trend is especially troubling for children:
- Children are five times more likely to experience poverty when born into single-parent homes.
- The likelihood of falling into poverty is not one that can be chalked up to the parents' lower education levels, writes Sheffield, as parents with low levels of education are far less likely to experience poverty if they are married.
- Additionally, children of married parents are more likely to graduate from high school and college, less likely to engage in delinquency and less likely to become single parents.
According to research, young mothers today are not opposed to marriage but do not see it as a necessary step prior to childbirth.
Sheffield suggests that community marriage initiatives and relationship education programs could do much to strengthen families and spread the message of the importance of marriage.
Source: Rachel Sheffield, "A Majority of Young Adults Are Having Kids Outside Marriage. Why That Hurts Kids' Futures," Daily Signal, June 21, 2014
Browse more articles on Economic Issues
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March 27, 2012
Butterfly Wings’ ‘Art Of Blackness’ Could Boost Production Of Green Fuels
Butterfly wings may rank among the most delicate structures in nature, but they have given researchers powerful inspiration for new technology that doubles production of hydrogen gas – a green fuel of the future – from water and sunlight. The researchers presented their findings here today at the American Chemical Society's (ACS') 243rd National Meeting & Exposition.
Tongxiang Fan, Ph.D., who reported on the use of two swallowtail butterflies – Troides aeacus (Heng-chun birdwing butterfly) and Papilio helenus Linnaeus (Red Helen) – as models, explained that finding renewable sources of energy is one of the great global challenges of the 21st century. One promising technology involves producing clean-burning hydrogen fuel from sunlight and water. It can be done in devices that use sunlight to kick up the activity of catalysts that split water into its components, hydrogen and oxygen. Better solar collectors are the key to making the technology practical, and Fan's team turned to butterfly wings in their search for making solar collectors that gather more useful light."We realized that the solution to this problem may have been in existence for millions of years, fluttering right in front of our eyes," Fan said. "And that was correct. Black butterfly wings turned out to be a natural solar collector worth studying and mimicking," Fan said.
Scientists long have known that butterfly wings contain tiny scales that serve as natural solar collectors to enable butterflies, which cannot generate enough heat from their own metabolism, to remain active in the cold. When butterflies spread their wings and bask in the sun, those solar collectors are soaking up sunlight and warming the butterfly's body.
Fan's team at Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China used an electron microscope to reveal the most-minute details of the scale architecture on the wings of black butterflies – black being the color that absorbs the maximum amount of sunlight.
"We were searching the 'art of blackness' for the secret of how those black wings absorb so much sunlight and reflect so little," Fan explained.
Scientists initially thought it was simply a matter of the deep inky black color, due to the pigment called melanin, which also occurs in human skin. More recently, however, evidence began to emerge indicating that the structure of the scales on the wings should not be ignored.
Fan's team observed elongated rectangular scales arranged like overlapping shingles on the roof of a house. The butterflies they examined had slightly different scales, but both had ridges running the length of the scale with very small holes on either side that opened up onto an underlying layer.
The steep walls of the ridges help funnel light into the holes, Fan explained. The walls absorb longer wavelengths of light while allowing shorter wavelengths to reach a membrane below the scales. Using the images of the scales, the researchers created computer models to confirm this filtering effect. The nano-hole arrays change from wave guides for short wavelengths to barriers and absorbers for longer wavelengths, which act just like a high-pass filtering layer.
The group used actual butterfly-wing structures to collect sunlight, employing them as templates to synthesize solar-collecting materials. They chose the black wings of the Asian butterfly Papilio helenus Linnaeus, or Red Helen, and transformed them to titanium dioxide by a process known as dip-calcining. Titanium dioxide is used as a catalyst to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Fan's group paired this butterfly-wing patterned titanium dioxide with platinum nanoparticles to increase its water-splitting power. The butterfly-wing compound catalyst produced hydrogen gas from water at more than twice the rate of the unstructured compound catalyst on its own.
"These results demonstrate a new strategy for mimicking Mother Nature's elaborate creations in making materials for renewable energy. The concept of learning from nature could be extended broadly, and thus give a broad scope of building technologically unrealized hierarchical architecture and design blueprints to exploit solar energy for sustainable energy resources," he concluded.
On the Net:
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What do NASA's soon-to-be-launched Mars Exploration Rover (MER-1 and MER-2) spacecraft have in common with the Viking and Voyager spacecraft launched decades ago? Besides being interplanetary explorers, they will be among the most biologically clean spacecraft ever launched from Cape Canaveral.
Making sure the spacecraft are as biologically clean and contamination-free as possible before they leave Earth is NASA's planetary protection (PP) policy. It protects other solar system bodies from Earth life and protects Earth from extraterrestrial life that may be brought back by returning space missions.
NASA's policy is based on the most recent understanding of planetary conditions and biology, and regular recommendations from the US National Academy of Science.
"Keeping the spacecraft as clean as possible before, during and after launch is very important for any science instruments searching for organic compounds on the surface of other planets," said Laura Newlin, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) engineer and Planetary Protection (PP) Lead for the MER missions.
JPL's Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group seeks to advance spacecraft cleanliness, sterilization and validation technologies for NASA's solar system exploration missions.
"Up to 300,000 spores are allowed on the exposed surfaces of the landed spacecraft," said Newlin. "That many spores would fit on the head of a large pin."
A companion requirement to this is the average spore density on the surfaces must be less than 300 spores per square meter (28 spores per square foot). There are approximately 4500 square meters (approximately 48,000 square feet) of surface on each MER spacecraft, including the cruise stage.
When the spacecraft arrived at KSC from JPL in February and March, they were transported to the Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility in KSC's Industrial Area.
Prior to that, the highbay and ground support equipment were cleaned, sampled and recleaned to reduce further biological contamination when the spacecraft arrived.
Both spacecraft have since undergone extensive alcohol-wipe cleaning and bio-testing processes. They were disassembled and cleaned to remove any contamination that may have occurred during the cross-country transport. During reassembly, JPL PP team members sampled surfaces of both spacecraft to check for microbial spores.
Culturing of the samples was performed in several KSC life sciences labs using equipment from JPL or provided by KSC including media claves, sonicators, water baths, incubators, microscopes, bio-safety hoods, and a large magnified colony counter.
"Currently our total spore count on the surface of both MER vehicles is comfortably under 200,000. So we are below the allowable level," Newlin said.
Other PP strategies exist for MER surfaces that are inappropriate for the traditional cleaning method. These include dry heat microbial reduction of the hardware in a dry environment at 125 degrees Celsius (257 F.) for five hours.
The process is performed piece by piece on large surface areas that can tolerate the temperature, such as thermal blankets, airbags, honeycomb structures and parachutes in their cans.
A High Efficiency Particulate Arrestor (HEPA) filter is also used to filter out 99.97 percent of particles that are 0.3 microns or larger on MER's electronic boxes and the rover body. These permanent fixtures will also help filter out the Martian dust when the MER spacecraft land on Mars. Spacecraft propellant lines were also precision cleaned.
According to Newlin, the PP team worked with the spacecraft design engineers to determine PP strategies, what hardware should be cleaned and what hardware would require other PP approaches, all of which were integrated into the design, fabrication, and assembly of the spacecraft.
Mars Exploration Rover Missions
Subscribe To SpaceDaily Express
Live Webcast Will Preview Mars Rover Adventure
Pasadena - Apr 30, 2003
A live interactive broadcast and webcast on May 1 will offer an advance look at NASA's plans to land two robotic geologists on Mars in January 2004 -- the Mars Exploration Rover mission.
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The online questionnaire by Leeds Metropolitan University asks parents questions about the contents of their child’s lunch, whether it is a meal provided by the school or a packed lunch, and what their priorities are when considering their child’s lunch options.
The responses will help researchers compile a study, led by Dr Hannah Ensaff from the university’s Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, on parents’ knowledge of their children’s diets.
Dr Ensaff, a research fellow in childhood obesity and child nutrition, explained, ‘School packed lunches can play an important part in children’s nutrition, with children spending 190 days of the year at school.
'More significantly they provide a link between the home and school and can represent a family’s provision of food. Packed lunches have also been identified as a factor in children’s diet, and have been highlighted with respect to the drive for school food reform.
‘Our study will provide insight into parents’ attitudes and knowledge towards their children’s diets. Such knowledge is critical and will reveal gaps in our understanding and allow us to identify areas for support.
'With the current high prevalence of childhood obesity and children’s diet high in saturated fat and sugar, along with low fruit and vegetable consumption, this research has the potential to make a real impact.’
The results of the questionnaire will help researchers understand parents’ choices when it comes to providing packed lunches for their children, and will contribute towards the development of a resource helping parents to provide nutritious packed lunches.
- The Packed Lunch Project survey is open to all parents with children in primary school until mid-June. It is available here
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These pieces originally appeared as a weekly column entitled “Lessons” in The New York Times between 1999 and 2003.
[THIS ARTICLE FIRST APPEARED IN THE NEW YORK TIMES ON OCTOBER 4, 2000]
Offering Students a Hand to Move Up
We like to believe this is a nation of great social mobility. Study and work hard, and you will rise above your parents’ status to join the middle class.
But this is more myth than reality. Intergenerational mobility is no higher here than in other industrial nations. When a father is poor, with income at the 25th percentile, the chance of his son being in the poorest fifth is twice that of his being in the richest fifth. The situation is similar in other industrial nations.
In an important new book, “Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms” (Simon & Schuster), Diane Ravitch, a historian and former education official in the Bush administration, suggests that, at least in the United States, this lack of mobility was not inevitable. A choice was made to deny immigrant and working-class children education to rise above their parents’ stations. They were taught only vocational skills, with academic instruction reserved for the middle class.
Dr. Ravitch adds that the proponents of this differentiation were not conservatives, but “progressives,” many at Columbia Teachers College in the early 1900’s.
Her attack on this aspect of progressive education finds its mark. But Dr. Ravitch’s admiration for opponents of progressivism who, throughout the 20th century, wanted high academic standards for all, is less persuasive. We now understand what conservatives 100 years ago did not: using schools to combat social rigidities requires a lot of compensatory work for the less advantaged. Offering the same academic instruction to all will not work.
Lack of mobility is easy to overlook because economic growth can make children richer than their parents, although their standings relative to peers are unchanged.
But most Americans expect schools to do more than this. Schools should help diligent students move above their parents’ relative status. Yet even good schools find this difficult because pupils enter with skills tending to parallel those of their parents. Adults in jobs needing literacy tend to rear children better prepared to read.
In a fairer society, schools would have two missions. First, give children from poorer families the skills to catch up, even while wealthier children also gain. Second, waiting until all have the chance for equal knowledge, sort pupils based on ability and interest, not parentage, into courses that assure success in fields they themselves select.
Dr. Ravitch shows that educators have long disputed how to balance these goals. The winners of these disputes, she complains, have mostly been progressive educators who assumed children could rarely surpass parental stations, so working-class pupils needed only “life adjustment” education.
Progressives considered the early sorting of children into nonacademic programs “democratic” because it kept immigrant and working-class pupils from dropping out of school. Rather than trying to overcome the disadvantages with which these children started, progressives urged dead-end tracks for the lower class.
The dean of Teachers College in 1906, James Russell, argued that schools should preserve civic order, not stimulate ambitions for mobility that “cannot possibly be fulfilled.” President Theodore Roosevelt denounced academic programs that “train the boy away from the farm and the workshop.”
Dr. Ravitch shows that suppressing academics to provide vocational training remained schools’ purpose until recently. Particularly influential was James B. Conant, a former Harvard president who, in 1959, argued that only 15 percent of students could master college- preparatory lessons. Schools should resist “unreasonable parental pressures” to put others in academic classes not relevant to their eventual jobs, Dr. Conant said.
But Dr. Ravitch’s heroes, the dissenters seeking one academic curriculum for all, had a vision as flawed as the differentiated model they denounced. Overcoming social class requires the high standards demanded by the conservatives, but it also needs more – like summer, all-day and preschool programs, specially trained teachers and customized curriculums that middle-class children do not need. Opponents of differentiation, or tracking, did not understand this.
Dr. Ravitch agrees that disadvantaged pupils may complete academic lessons at a slower pace, but her concession cedes the argument. Unless educators figure out how the poor can catch up, not learn more slowly, upward mobility will not improve.
In good part because of contemporary critics like Diane Ravitch, tracking is now discredited. We now want high standards for all. But if all children cannot get to an even starting gate, the race for rewards will continue to be a sham.
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After years of kowtowing to multicultural sensitivities, Britain is now debating whether or not to make the act of forcing someone into a marriage a specific criminal offense.
Supporters of the anti-forced marriage legislation, which may be unveiled by the British government within the next few weeks, say it would be an important first step in combating a cycle of Islamic honor-related kidnappings, sexual assaults, beatings and murder that is spiralling out of control in Britain.
Recent studies show that honor-based violence (which differs from more common forms of domestic violence because it can also be carried out by a victim's children, siblings, in-laws and extended family) is far more prevalent in Britain than originally thought.
According to the London-based Association of Chief Police Officers, up to 17,000 women in Britain are victims of honor-based violence -- forced marriages, honor killings, kidnappings, sexual assaults, beatings, female genital mutilation and other forms of abuse -- every year. This figure is 35 times higher than official figures suggest and British detectives say it is "merely the tip of the iceberg" of this phenomenon.
Research commissioned by Britain's Department of Education shows that an estimated 8,000 young women in Britain are the victims of forced marriages each year. Some women's groups say the actual number is far higher because many victims are afraid to come forward.
In 2010, 1,735 victims of forced marriages sought help from the Forced Marriage Unit, a special agency established by the British government. Some of those cases involved girls as young as 13, and there were 70 instances involving women with learning or physical disabilities. Around 85 percent of the cases involved females; 15 percent involved boys or men.
Another study titled "A Statistical Study to Estimate the Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" says that more than 65,000 women in Britain have undergone female genital mutilation, and at least 15,000 girls under the age of 15 are at high risk of the procedure. The report, which was funded by Britain's Department of Health, says girls and adult women often are forced to undergo female genital mutilation as a condition of marriage. Although the practice is prohibited in the United Kingdom under the Female Genital Mutilation Act of 2003, to date not a single person has been prosecuted for the offense.
At least a dozen women are believed to victims of honor killings in Britain every year, but the exact number is not known -- partly because there is no clear definition of what constitutes an honor-killing -- and many believe the true figure could be higher. Often honor-killings cannot be resolved due to the unwillingness of family, relatives and communities to testify. For example, one in ten young British Asians believes honor-killings can be justified, according to a BBC poll.
The research literature shows that honor-based violence in Britain is most prevalent among Muslim immigrants from South Asia, the Middle East and North and West Africa. According to the Domestic Violence Intervention Project in West London, for example, up to 60 percent of Arab families suffer from honor-related violence. According to the Lantern Project in Birmingham, honor-based violence is equally common wealthy families as among unemployed or unskilled immigrants.
Honor-related violence in Britain is not limited to older, first-generation immigrants. According to a 174-page report titled "Crimes of the Community: Honor-Based Violence in the UK," honor-based violence is "not a one-time problem of first-generation immigrants bringing practices from 'back home' to the UK. Instead honor violence is now, to all intents and purposes, an indigenous and self-perpetuating phenomenon which is carried out by third and fourth generation immigrants who have been raised and educated in the UK."
British Prime Minister David Cameron has promised to "outlaw the practice of forced marriage." In a campaign speech in Bradford in February 2008, Cameron said thousands of young Britons were being forced to marry someone against their will every year, with some cases involving assaults and kidnaps. "It seems utterly bizarre, and frankly unacceptable, that this goes on in Britain but it does," Cameron said.
He also said existing legislation to tackle forced marriages needs to be strengthened to make the practice a specific criminal offense: "At the moment, the Forced Marriages Act, which we supported, only makes it possible to pursue civil prosecutions. The argument runs that it is unlikely that victims will come forward if it means pressing criminal charges against their parents. But we shouldn't close this door and if the current legislation doesn't work in ending forced marriages, the Conservative Party would consider making them a criminal offence."
In April 2011, Cameron in a major speech on immigration, stated: "There are forced marriages taking place in our country, and overseas, as a means of gaining entry to the UK. This is the practice where some young British girls are bullied and threatened into marrying someone they don't want to. I've got no time for those who say this is a culturally relative issue -- frankly it is wrong, full stop, and we've got to stamp it out."
In February, Cameron declared Britain's long-standing policy of multiculturalism to be a failure. "Under the doctrine of state multiculturalism, we have encouraged different cultures to live separate lives, apart from each other and apart from the mainstream. We have even tolerated these segregated communities behaving in ways that run completely counter to our values." Cameron cited "the horror of forced marriage" as one of the specific negative consequences of multiculturalism.
In May, the Home Affairs Select Committee, a cross-party group of British MPs, published a new report recommending that forced marriage be turned into a criminal offense to send a stronger message that it will not be tolerated. The committee, which took soundings from a variety of different groups working to counter forced marriage, said it was "not at all clear" that current legislation was protecting those at risk.
"We believe that it would send out a very clear and positive message to communities within the UK and internationally if it becomes a criminal act to force -- or to participate in forcing -- an individual to enter into marriage against their will. The lack of a criminal sanction also sends a message, and currently that is a weaker message than we believe is needed. We urge the Government to take an early opportunity to legislate on this matter," the committee said.
In June, a new bill was introduced in the House of Lords that would force Islamic courts to acknowledge the primacy of English law. The Arbitration and Mediation Services (Equality) Bill would make it an offense punishable by five years in jail for anyone to falsely claim or imply that Sharia courts or councils have legal jurisdiction over family or criminal law.
The bill, proposed by Lady Caroline Cox-Johnson, and backed by women's rights groups, was drawn up because of "deep concerns" that Muslim women are suffering discrimination within closed Sharia law councils. Cox said she had found "considerable evidence" of women, some of whom are brought to Britain speaking little English and kept ignorant of their legal rights, suffering domestic violence or unequal access to divorce, due to discriminatory decisions made. "We cannot continue to condone this situation. Many women say: 'We came to this country to escape these practices only to find the situation is worse here.'"
Britain is not the only European country coming to grips with the problem of forced marriage. Belgium outlawed the practice in 2007, and those convicted of forcing someone into marriage by violence or coercion face a prison sentence of up to two years and a fine of up to €2,500 ($3,500). Norway amended its Penal Code in 2003. It is now a crime punishable by up to six years in prison to force a person into marriage; it is also a punishable offense to enter into marriage with a person under the age of 16.
Germany became the latest European country to outlaw forced marriages. In March 2011 the German government made the practice a crime punishable by up to five years in prison. French law forbids forced marriages and allows prosecution of anyone who mutilates the genitals of a girl with French citizenship or resident status, even if the operation is conducted in another country. But the practices continue to thrive in secret.
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- Year Published: 1920
- Language: English
- Country of Origin: United States of America
- Source: Anderson, R. G. (1920). Seven O’Clock Stories. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons: The Knickerbocker Press.
- Flesch–Kincaid Level: 4.6
- Word Count: 925
Anderson, R. (1920). “Third Night: Noisy Folks”. Seven O’Clock Stories (Lit2Go Edition). Retrieved July 02, 2016, from
Anderson, Robert Gordon. "“Third Night: Noisy Folks”." Seven O’Clock Stories. Lit2Go Edition. 1920. Web. <>. July 02, 2016.
Robert Gordon Anderson, "“Third Night: Noisy Folks”," Seven O’Clock Stories, Lit2Go Edition, (1920), accessed July 02, 2016,.
Do you remember what we were telling about last night when that little tongue told us to stop? The little tongue in the Clock-with-the-Wise-Face on the mantel?
Oh yes, the first cousins of the chickens who lived in the yard of the three happy children.
Their first cousins are called ducks. Most of them are white but a few are black. Their coats are very smooth, and the skin under them sends out little drops of oil like drops of perspiration. This keeps the water and the rain from wetting the ducks through and through. You have heard people say sometimes: “The way water runs off a duck’s back.” Well, now you know the reason why.
In rainy weather Hepzebiah wears a blue waterproof with a little hood but the ducks do not need anything like that. Their everyday coats of white and black are just as good. If the White Wyandottes cannot get under the chicken coop or the barn quick enough when it rains, their feathers are all mussed up but the ducks seem always dressed in their best.
Their bills are different from their relatives’. They are not short and pointed like the chicken’s but broad and long.
And they have what are called web feet. Between the toes are pieces of skin, thick and tough like canvas. These web feet are like small oars or paddles. With them they can push against the water of the pond and swim quite fast.
The ducks are very fond of the pond but their cousins think it a dreadful place.
“Cluck, cluck,” say the White Wyandottes, “what a foolish way of spending your time, sailing on the water when there are fat, brown worms to dig for in the nice earth!”
You see animals, like people, like different things. The world wouldn’t be half so interesting if we all liked the same things, would it?
The other night Jehosophat felt very foolish when he came in to supper. His mother looked behind his ears and said: “Why you are just as afraid of the water as the chickens.”
Did you ever hear of such a thing!
Now the chickens have second cousins too. Their second cousins are the white geese.
They live on the other side of the tall fence that looks as if it were made of crocheted wire. Sometimes Jehosophat’s father opens the gate in the fence and lets the geese wander down to the pond. A silly way they have of stretching out their long white necks and crying, “Hiss, hiss!” This frightens Hepzebiah who always runs away. Then the geese waddle along in single file, that is one by one, like fat old ladies crossing a muddy street on their way to sewing society.
Jehosophat says that the chickens have third cousins too,—the swans. There they are, way out on the pond, sailing along like white ships. Their necks are very long and snowy white and they bend in such a pretty way. And their soft white wings look something like the wings of the angels on the Christmas cards.
Jehosophat, Marmaduke, and Hepzebiah do not like one barnyard neighbour very much. It is the guinea-hen. She has a grey body, plump as a sack of meal, with little white speckles, a funny neck and such a small head with a tuft on top. She screeches horribly and Marmaduke calls her “Miss Crosspatch.”
But the turkey with his proud walk is just funny. And yet Farmer Green says he hasn’t any sense of humour. Ask your father how that can be if he is funny.
“Mr. Stuckup” the children call the turkey. He walks along slowly, swinging from side to side. His feathers are brownish-black or bronze, and his tail often spreads out like a fan. He has the funniest nose. It is red and soft and long and flops over his bill on his chest.
He calls “gobble, gobble, gobble,” all the time, yet he does not gobble as much as the busy White Wyandottes all around him who are forever looking for kernels of corn or worms or bugs.
But who is this magnificent creature coming along over the lawn under the cherry-tree? Uncle Roger, who sails around the world in a great ship with white sails, gave him to the children. He brought him from a land very far across the seas.
He is the peacock and is all green and gold and blue. On his head is a little crown of feathers. His tail, too, can spread out like a fan the way “Mr. Stuckup’s,” the turkey’s, does. But it is ever so much more beautiful. It is green and has hundreds of blue eyes in it. The three children call him the “Party Bird” for he is always so dressed up, but their father says he is “a bit of a snob.” He means that he is vain and will not have much to do with his plainer neighbours of the barnyard—
“One, two, three, four, five, six, seven.” There goes the clock again.
Tomorrow night, if you are good all day, we will tell you about the rest of the barnyard friends of the three happy children. Then the next night, about the exciting things that happened to them.
Good-night! Sweet Dreams!
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Note: Supplemental materials are not guaranteed with Rental or Used book purchases.
What is included with this book?
|List of Figures||p. ix|
|Note on Transliteration, Place Names, and Dates||p. xiii|
|The Ottoman Empire at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century||p. 6|
|Initial Ottoman Responses to the Challenge of Modernity||p. 42|
|The Dawn of the Age of Reform||p. 55|
|The Tanzimat Era||p. 72|
|The Twilight of the Tanzimat and the Hamidian Regime||p. 109|
|From Revolution to Imperial Collapse: The Longest Decade of the Late Ottoman Empire||p. 150|
|Further Reading in Major European Languages||p. 213|
|Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.|
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Masking tape, also known as sticky tape, is a type of pressure-sensitive tape
made of a thin and easy-to-tear paper, and an easily released pressure-sensitive
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|The transmission towers on Mt. Mansfield in Stowe, VT are home to WCAX-DT and other local broadcasters.|
Although broadcasting has been around for more than a century, it has only been associated with digital technology for the last 10 to 15 years. When we think of digital television or radio today, all but those skilled in the science of RF engineering would believe that the systems are completely digital. At the same time, most people would not associate digital with early radio communications and experimental television. In fact, digital and analog technologies are tightly woven together across the history of broadcast technology.
Broadcasting quickly evolved from early radio communications. The concept of broadcasting (i.e., reaching many with one transmission and message) sprang from early wireless communications. The most basic transmission technology of this communication media began in the era of spark. It evolved into high-frequency alternator technology and then to tube-based oscillator and amplifier technology.
One common theme across these technologies is that the RF signal starts with a single- or multiple-carrier analog waveform, which is a requirement to transmit the signal in a finite bandwidth. That fact holds true for all digital communications and broadcasting today. It is only the way that the message modulates the analog RF waveform that differentiates between analog and digital broadcast systems.
The first radio communications that led to broadcasting were digital in nature. For these transmissions, the RF carrier wave was turned on and off in a pattern that was able to communicate a message. In that case, it was Morse code. The earliest of these transmissions began in the late 1890s.
|Shown is a current VHF transmitter installation as well as a tower/antenna.|
By 1906, the concept of voice communications and broadcasting evolved, as demonstrated by Reginald Fessenden during his Christmas Eve broadcast of an opera singer to ships at sea. Fessenden superimposed voice communications on the RF carrier wave by varying the amplitude of the transmitted signal, a technique that became known as amplitude modulation (AM).
AM broadcasting continued as an experimental activity until 1920, when the Department of Commerce issued the first commercial broadcast license to Westinghouse Electric Co. (Pittsburgh, PA) to operate radio station KDKA. In a matter of a few short years, licenses were issued and stations sprang up in a variety of locations around the US. All of these stations relied on an entirely analog transmission system.
The number of stations grew as consumer interest in broadcasting mushroomed. Broadcast spectrum allocation was expanded, and many stations pushed for increasingly higher power levels to improve reliability and reception quality.
Broadcast station WLW in Cincinnati, OH was an example of the evolution of AM broadcasting to higher power levels. This was the pinnacle of early high-power AM broadcastingreached in 1934 when Powell Crosley's WLW signed on with 500,000 W of power and became the "Nation's Station" (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).
The RCA Victor Co., working with subcontractors General Electric and Westinghouse, designed a unique 500,000-W AM transmitter for WLW (Fig. 3). This transmitter was designed and built at the WLW transmitter site in Mason, OH by a young team of electrical engineers whose average age was 27. It was a marvel of RF technology in 1934, and generations of RF engineers still learn from it today.
WLW operated with 500,000 W continuously from 1934 until 1939, when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) placed a 50,000-W limit on AM broadcast power in the US. Experimental operation continued at 500,000 W until 1943. Fig. 4)>.
Two other broadcast technologies were developing at this time. Television was under development by several groups around the country. In 1928, AT&T demonstrated a studio-televised image transmitted via long lines between New York and Philadelphia. The hybrid system used analog to control the brightness of the individual picture elements. A progressive, digital electromechanical switching system scanned the matrix of sensors and display lamps in the transmission device and receiver. Not long after the AT&T demonstration, Philo T. Farnsworthoften referred to as the father of televisiondemonstrated analog sawtooth scanning for television. TV was off on an all-analog race until the late 1980s.
Transition From AM To FM
The other modulation technology under development in the 1930s was frequency modulation (FM), spearheaded by Edwin H. Armstrong at Columbia University. Armstrong was trying to solve the same problem that Crosley and others were trying to solve with AM and RF power. He realized that all of the noise and static that interfered with AM broadcasting was a disturbance, which was a variance of amplitude. Armstrong theorized that if the modulation of an RF carrier was created by varying the carrier frequencyand the receiver limited all variations of the received signal's amplitudea broadcasting system with much lower noise levels and a high immunity to static could be developed.
Armstrong did extensive developmental work, proving that FM radio transmissions were possible. Many theoreticians claimed to have proof that Armstrong's experiments were impossible. They based these refutes on mathematical models, claiming that an infinite transmission bandwidth would be required.
Continue on Page 2
Armstrong went on to prove that FM could be transmitted in a practical bandwidth by launching the first commercial FM broadcast stations. Among the advantages of FM are freedom from static, wide audio bandwidth, and the ability of an FM receiver to capture the stronger of two signals transmitted on the same carrier frequency.
Analog technology would rule the radio and television broadcast airwaves for the next 45 years or so, until digital technology was once again introduced into the modulation process. Meanwhile, amplitude modulation continued to evolve from purely analog techniquesincluding grid, ampliphase, Doherty, and high-level plate modulation to quasi-digital, pulse duration modulation (PDM)and finally to direct digital RF synthesis of the AM envelope (DX).
Hilmer I. Swanson, Senior Scientist and Harris Fellow, was responsible for inventing the most significant new AM technologiesincluding Harris' PDM and DX transmitters for broadcasting. These digital-modulation techniques offered much higher operating efficiency. In addition, they provided the modulation bandwidth and accuracy that were necessary to create the RF waveforms required for new digital broadcast systems.
Over-the-air, terrestrial digital radio and television broadcast still requires digital data, which represents the program content, to be converted into an analog format. That format must fit into a bandwidth-limited slice of RF spectrum. This transformation from digital data into an RF waveform representing that data is implemented by an RF modulation-demodulation (modem) process. The digital modulator converts data symbols into a vector-modulated RF waveform. That waveform can pass though the analog RF pathincluding power amplifiers (PAs) and filters within the channel bandwidth.
Although the transmitted RF waveform is analog in nature, the modulation process has moved completely into the digital domain. This transformation has made it possible to design all-digital, software-defined-radio (SDR) systems that can be instantly changed from one broadcast transmission standard to another.
Digital Broadcast Support
A number of infrastructure changes are required to support digital broadcasting. An example is peak-to-average power ratio (PAR), or "crest factor." Digital TV signals have a high PAR compared to a constant envelope signal. Digital-modulation waveforms including orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and eight-level vestigial-sideband (8VSB) formats contain complex, simultaneous, AM and PM modulation that requires linear RF amplification.
Such linear amplification is required for digital waveforms that have envelope variations. Essentially, it is needed to meet the RF emission mask and limit amplitude and phase errors that would degrade the modulation accuracy. Linear amplification also minimizes in-band RF intermodulation-distortion (IMD) products, which degrade the digital signal-to-noise ratio.
Digital pre-correction is another significant development for the digital broadcaster. One example is real-time adaptive correction (RTAC), which Harris developed to pre-correct the linear amplifier for AM/AM and AM/PM nonlinearities. A tradeoff exists between the level of in-band RF intermodulation (IMD) products that can be tolerated and how far into saturation the amplifier can go on envelope peaks. The effective use of RTAC can raise the linear amplifier's efficiency by running it closer to saturation. And the required digital signal-to-noise ratio and RF spectrum emission mask are still met.
New technology also makes it possible to modulate the drain voltages of high-power LDMOS field-effect transistors (FETs). The peak envelope power can then be tracked. In addition, the amplifier will be kept operating near high efficiency over a significant portion of the envelope depth. Linear amplification by means of Class "C" RF amplifier circuits developed by William Doherty in 1936 offers another efficiency enhancement. The process combines two or more amplifiers in a way that keeps one of the devices near saturation during all parts of the conduction cycle. The other device(s) operate in a linear mode for the bottom half of the envelope. Two-way, three-way, and N-way Doherty combined amplifiers have been investigated for ODFM and 8-VSB applications.
Analog To Digital Radio Transition
Generally, broadcast radio is considered the "last" analog medium. The switch from film to digital cameras, VHS to DVD, and NTSC analog television to ATSC DTV/HDTV all represent analog-to-digital transitions that are generally understood by the consumer.
Digital radio broadcasting (DRB)the generic term for all digital radio systemshas been in development since the early 1980s. Development began in Europe with the purpose of finding a more efficient digital replacement for traditional analog FM broadcasting.
Digital radio systems can provide multiple audio and data services on a single channel as opposed to the single-program-per-channel model used in traditional analog AM and FM radio transmission (i.e., one service per frequency). All DRB systems use some form of OFDM modulation of multiple carriers to produce the digital transmission. They also have the ability to subdivide the available digital bandwidth in separate functional data streams. DRB standards are now relatively mature. Yet they continue to evolve with greater capacity and ever-richer applications for media content.
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Eureka 147the first DRB systemgrew out of a European Union project in 1987. Eureka 147-based Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB)and more recently, DAB+ , DRM (Digital Radio Mondial), In-Band-On-Channel (IBOC HD-Radio), and Digital Multimedia Broadcast (DMB) systemshave all been developed to replace traditional analog, VHF FM radio.
DRM and IBOC systems also have been developed for medium-wave AM broadcast. DAB could be transmitted on the VHF FM band (87 to 108 MHz), but the services that have been introduced in Europe, Canada, and Australia are using Band III (174 to 230 MHz) instead, which was formerly used for analog television signals. Other countries, such as Germany and Canada, use the L-band (1452 to 1492 MHz).
DAB receivers on the market can receive both Band III and L-band transmissions. Each DAB multiplex occupies approximately 1.5 MHz bandwidth to provide around 1 Mb/s data capacity. A goal of industry and these governments is to see all radio broadcasting moved out of the existing FM band, which may then be auctioned to other potential users of the radio spectrum. Examples include broadband and wireless telecommunications service providers. Recently, a variant of DAB+ implemented the more efficient MPEG-4 HE-AAC v2 codec, allowing the system to carry more channels or have better sound quality.
HD Radio Broadcasting
The desire for a more gradual digital transition in the US and other countriesalong with the unavailability of alternate frequency spectrumhas led to the development of in-band on-channel (IBOC) digital radio technology. IBOC allows stations to transmit digital audio and data services within their assigned channel in their existing Band II allocations. HD Radio is the trademark for a hybrid IBOC technology developed by iBiquity Digital Corp. It was selected by the FCC in 2002 as the DAB standard for the US.
HD Radio refers to the method of transmitting an IBOC DRB signal centered onand to either side ofthe AM or FM station's current analog broadcast signal. The digital emissions fall within the authorized spectral emission mask of the existing AM or FM channel. HD Radio broadcasters can keep their current dial positions and take advantage of existing towers and transmitter sites.
A primary digital audio channel duplicates the analog program. In doing so, it allows compatibility with traditional analog receivers and fallback protection to analog mode in the event of digital signal loss on the digital receivers. In the future, the analog signal may be turned off, allowing for the eventual transition to a higher-capacity, all-digital broadcast.
The FM HD Radio system occupies about 200 kHz, providing 96 to 128 kb/s throughput that can be subdivided into multiple audio and data services. The AM digital system has a data rate of about 36 kb/s with auxiliary services provided at a much lower data rate. Both the FM and AM schemes use sophisticated compression techniques to make the best use of the limited bandwidth, providing near-compact-disc (CD) -quality (44.1 kb/s) audio on FM and FM-like quality audio on AM.
To an extent, Panama, Mexico, and Canada also have adopted HD Radio. It is being evaluated for adoption in more than a dozen countries including Brazil, Argentina, and China. HD Radio's backward-compatibility is attractive, as new digital radios pick up both HD Radio and analog signals along with improved data capabilities (Fig. 5).
Television Enters The Digital Age
June 2009 marked the end of the analog television era for the 1800+ full-power television stations in the US. There are still another 4500+ low-power, Class A and translator stations that must convert to digital over the next four years. Digital-TV conversion in other countries ranges from early planning to complete.
Many factors drove the television industry to convert from analog to digital. The quest for improvement of the television system in the US began with two prime drivers. The first was the demonstration of analog HDTV by the Japanese in the early 1980s. Although the Japanese system was analog, it required additional RF bandwidth to transmit. The second was pressure from the land-mobile industry to take RF spectrum from the broadcasters to support mobile communication services.
Both the broadcast industry and the government took an interest in HD technology. Congress directed the FCC to check into HD and the spectrum requirements. This action led to the FCC creating the Advisory Committee on Advanced Television in 1988. Former FCC Chairman Richard Wiley was chosen to lead the committee.
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Without delving into the next seven years of politics and industrial intrigue, the Advisory Committee looked at a myriad of analog and hybrid solutions to fit HD into a 6-MHz RF channel. By 1993, General Instruments had proposed an all-digital system. Others soon followed. The proponents of the various digital systems had a chance to test their technology at an industry-created Advanced Television Test Center. The test-bed system was designed and built by Harris.
Eventually, Wiley persuaded the six proponents to join together in a Grand Alliance to bring the best of each system together to form an all-digital US system. Once built and tested, the system underwent standardization through the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC), which had been created to document and standardize new technical developments in broadcast television.
The US all-digital television system that came from the Grand Alliance became known as the ATSC system. HD was the original driver for DTV. But the ATSC system was architected around a packetized transport stream that could support multiple channels of HD and SD content as well as file-based content delivery.
The system uses 8VSB modulation to fit the 19.4-Mb/s payload into a 6-MHz RF channel. The 8VSB system was developed by Zenith with Harris conducting early over-the-air tests. MPEG-2 compression technology enables the more than 1.5 Gb/s data required to support HD within the 19.4-Mb/s transport stream.
The transmission of the 8VSB signal set a new level for RF design technology. Creating the RF signal required new techniques that included high-speed digital-to-analog conversion and high-stability, low-phase-noise direct digital synthesis. Amplifying this complex signal from milliwatts to tens of kilowatts of power also presented new challenges in amplifier linearity, adaptive correction techniques, out-of-band-emission suppression, and more. During the late 1990s and early 2000s, Harris RF engineers were busy developing and inventing new methods for transmitter improvement. One of these was the aforementioned RTAC.
While US engineers were busy developing DTV for the North American market, the same process was repeating itself in Europe, China, Japan, and Brazil as these locations jumped on the digital bandwagon. It became apparent that software-defined modulation techniques were necessary to keep up with the many evolving digital-transmission standards. The power of SDR technology is such that Harris ultimately reduced its exciter platforms from nine down to one.
These advancements continue today, even after much of the world has adopted digital-television transmission. Second-generation systems are beginning to appearmany of which employ significant technology changes. Products developed around SDR technology can respond to these changes rather quickly without starting over on the hardware platform.
Mobile DTV Enters The Picture
Upon development, the primary drivers of digital television were HD delivery, multichannel capability, and spectrum efficiency. The world population was just beginning to get hooked on cellular telephones and laptop personal computers (PCs). Devices like smartphones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and tablet computers were not even known to the general public. Yet people soon desired to take their communications and entertainment with them as they became more mobile. As mobility developed around second-generation (2G), third-generation (3G), fourth-generation (4G), and WiFi connectivity, US broadcasters made it known that they wanted to participate in the mobile delivery of media content.
Wireless carriers have had mixed-to-poor results using their cellular technology to deliver media content. Large amounts of bandwidth are required to support real-time delivery. Cellular systems work on a one-to-one connection basis, making their use of spectrum very inefficient. We have all heard the stories of events where large crowds of people wanted to receive video on their wireless platforms. Unfortunately, they ended up bringing the systems down by oversubscription to individual cells.
Spectrum efficiency can be measured in many different ways. These measures must take into account more than just the number of bits transported per hertz of bandwidth consumed. Other factors, such as the total number of users served per bit transported and the percent of time that the spectrum is used (duty cycle), also must be considered in the overall spectrum efficiency of a given service.
The broadcast model supports one to an almost unlimited number of users without impacting the amount of bandwidth required to support the broadcast. Broadcast is the most spectrum-efficient use model available.
There were several proposals in the US about the technology needed to add mobility to ATSC broadcast television. Ultimately, tests and trials led broadcasters to select a system developed by LG Electronics, Zenith Labs, and Harris as the physical-layer basis to add mobility to the ATSC DTV system. The ATSC system is a single-carrier, 8VSB modulation-based system that is easily disturbed by Doppler, burst noise, and rapidly changing signal reflections.
The ATSC Mobile DTV (MDTV) system utilizes Internet Protocol (IP) as the transport medium and advanced video codec technology for low-bit-rate video coding. The mobile IP payload is encapsulated into the MPEG-2 transport used in the main ATSC broadcast system. It is then time-sliced into the main transport stream. The signal's mobile portion is wrapped in additional coding and error correction. It is provided with training signals, which enable the demodulator chip to more easily demodulate the signal's mobile portion.
The system borrows bits from the main ATSC transport stream in 917-kb/s increments. System efficiency varies between 37%- to 17%-based payload delivered to the receiver, depending on the level of coding applied to the mobile portion. At the same time, the system's threshold of viability (TOV) improves from standard ATSC at a 14.7-dB carrier-to-noise (C/N) ratio to levels as low as a 3.5-dB C/N ratio. This system gain helps to overcome antenna limitations at the mobile receiver.
ATSC MDTV is just one of several standards that are used around the world for mobile DTV. Other standards in Japan, Brazil, China, and Europe are either in use or developing. Although the future is still being played out, it is certain that mobile DTV will play an important role in providing emergency alerting and information during times of disasters. Time and time again, broadcast infrastructure has survived when the cellular infrastructure has failed during a disaster event. The recent earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes in the US and around the world all have shown how broadcast came through when other systems failed.
Commercial radio broadcasting has been around for 91 years and commercial television is going on 65 years. Before television hits its 70th year, all TV transmissions in the US will be digital. In addition, a large percentage of the transmissions in the rest of the world will have transitioned to digital.
Radio is another story. In its many forms, digital radio will continue to grow in the number of deployments. Yet basic analog AM and FM radio has several factors that will perpetuate analog for many years to come because the transition to digital is not government mandated. For example, there are a large number of analog radio receivers around the world and analog radio receivers are simple to build at a very low cost.
Digital TV brings new and exciting features like HD, 3D, streaming, multichannel and mobility, and interactivity. In contrast, digital radio promises improved sound quality, multichannel program services, and data delivery with interactivity.
As a result, consumers have more choices and richer services while broadcasters can use their allocated spectrum in new and exciting ways. The wave of the future will be hybrid systems that combine the spectrum efficiency of broadcast with near-real-time, on-demand delivery of audio and video content. But that is a story for another day.
Geoff Mendenhall, VP Transmission Research and Technology, email@example.com,
Jay Adrick, VP Broadcast Technology, firstname.lastname@example.org, and
Tim Anderson, Manager, Strategic Radio Market/Product Development, email@example.com
Harris Broadcast Communications
1025 West NASA Blvd.
Melbourne, FL 32919-0001
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1. Make amends for.
4. Type genus of the Anatidae.
8. A workplace for the conduct of scientific research.
11. Step on it.
12. An enclosure made or wire or metal bars in which birds or animals are kept.
13. To make a mistake or be incorrect.
14. (Babylonian) God of storms and wind.
16. A plant hormone promoting elongation of stems and roots.
17. Large brownish-green New Zealand parrot.
18. The dialect of Malay used as the national language of the Republic of Indonesia or of Malaysia.
20. A silvery soft waxy metallic element of the alkali metal group.
22. A soft white precious univalent metallic element having the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal.
23. Having undesirable or negative qualities.
24. A white linen liturgical vestment with sleeves.
26. Resinlike substance secreted by certain lac insects.
28. Occurring or done each day.
31. A small pellet fired from an air rifle or BB gun.
34. Light informal conversation for social occasions.
37. United States tennis player who was the first Black to win United States and English singles championships (1943-1993).
44. Aircraft landing in bad weather in which the pilot is talked down by ground control using precision approach radar.
47. (Irish) Mother of the ancient Irish gods.
48. An ugly evil-looking old woman.
49. Type genus of the Alcidae comprising solely the razorbill.
50. Having any of numerous bright or strong colors reminiscent of the color of blood or cherries or tomatoes or rubies.
51. A loose sleeveless outer garment made from aba cloth.
52. Slanting diagonally across the grain of a fabric.
53. A group of African language in the Niger-Congo group spoken from the Ivory Coast east to Nigeria.
1. According to the Old Testament he was a pagan king of Israel and husband of Jezebel (9th century BC).
2. The capital and chief port of Qatar.
3. Not only so, but.
4. A radioactive element of the actinide series.
5. Submerged aquatic plant having narrow leaves and small flowers.
6. Title for a civil or military leader (especially in Turkey).
7. The upper house of the parliament of the Republic of Ireland.
8. The basic unit of money in Albania.
9. A particular geographical region of indefinite boundary (usually serving some special purpose or distinguished by its people or culture or geography).
10. (informal) Exceptionally good.
15. A light touch or stroke.
19. The capital and largest city of Yemen.
21. A flat wing-shaped process or winglike part of an organism.
25. Above average in size or number or quantity or magnitude or extent.
27. The blood group whose red cells carry both the A and B antigens.
29. A white soft metallic element that tarnishes readily.
30. A soft silvery metallic element.
32. Any of numerous hairy-bodied insects including social and solitary species.
33. A public promotion of some product or service.
35. God of wealth and love.
36. A soft silvery metallic element of the alkali earth group.
38. Someone who works (or provides workers) during a strike.
39. Type genus of the family Arcidae.
40. South African term for `boss'.
41. Devoid or partially devoid of light or brightness.
42. Again but in a new or different way.
43. A quantity of no importance.
45. The bill in a restaurant.
46. American prizefighter who won the world heavyweight championship three times (born in 1942).
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Details about The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson:
Introduction by Mary Oliver Commentary by Henry James, Robert Frost, Matthew Arnold, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Henry David Thoreau
The definitive collection of Emerson’s major speeches, essays, and poetry, The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson chronicles the life’s work of a true “American Scholar.” As one of the architects of the transcendentalist movement, Emerson embraced a philosophy that championed the individual, emphasized independent thought, and prized “the splendid labyrinth of one’s own perceptions.” More than any writer of his time, he forged a style distinct from his European predecessors and embodied and defined what it meant to be an American. Matthew Arnold called Emerson’s essays “the most important work done in prose.”
INCLUDES A MODERN LIBRARY READING GROUP GUIDE
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Rent The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Modern Library.
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The Supreme Court’s activist conservative majority, in a 5-4 vote on June 25, threw out the provision of the 1965 Voting Rights Act which required states and localities (mostly in the Old Confederacy) to clear any changes in electoral law with the federal Department of Justice. The argument was that the criteria and standards used by Congress were obsolete. Congress is invited to revise them, but of course everyone (including the justices) knows that this Congress is too gridlocked to agree on anything of the sort.
But, to paraphrase the old saying, when the Court gives you lemons, make lemonade. As the Court’s opinion affirms, conditions surrounding voting in this country are now radically different than they were in 1965. The old Democratic Solid South with legal discrimination against African American voters has been replaced by a Republican hegemony that is adapted to black voting. At the same time, Republicans have dedicated themselves across the entire country to various measures transparently intended to suppress minority voting, such as photo ID laws. And highly sophisticated redistricting after the Republican gains in 2010 had worked systematically to reduce the weight of those minorities who do vote.
The Court did not invalidate the entire law: its prohibition of discrimination against minority voters still stands. Thus, there is room for vigorous enforcement across the entire nation. The Justice Department certainly has authority to challenge discrimination anywhere in the country. And private plaintiffs with standing to sue can bring suit if they believe they have been discriminated against in voting.
Thus the Court’s decision actually holds the potential of broadening the scope of a law that was formerly focused only on the South; what we face now is not a recalcitrant region so much as a national party that has adopted voter suppression as a policy.
Scalia, Roberts and their colleagues probably think they’ve struck a death blow to the Voting Rights Act, without actually ruling it unconstitutional. Time to prove them wrong.
Tuesday, 25 June 2013
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Some very old bones are getting a fresh new look.
When the new Human Origins Gallery at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History opens to the public at 11:30 a.m. Sept. 20, the centerpiece will be two new reconstructions of Lucy, the 3.2 million-year-old partial skeleton of a female of the species Australopithecus afarensis. If you paid attention in school and know your Cleveland-science history, you know that Lucy was discovered by Donald Johanson, then a curator at the museum, in 1974 in Ethiopia.
“Human origins has always been one of the cornerstones of research here at the museum,” says Joel Alpern, director of exhibits. “We have a long history of involvement in many major discoveries, including Lucy in the ’70s, up to today.”
The new space, still a work in progress during a visit earlier in the week, resides where the former gallery did. That gallery, Alpern says, hadn’t been significantly updated since the ’80s.
Photo gallery: Preparing Lucy's New Home at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History
“It was a really great opportunity to retell this story and tell it in a way that’s more consistent with contemporary means of interpretations that you see in museums,” he says. “We really wanted to take an approach that reaches a wider age range, a wider group of learning styles and audiences, and this was the best way to go about doing that.”
Alpern says that will be accomplished in part by touch screens, hands-on stations — such as one in which visitors can assemble a skull 3-D printed at Case Western Reserve University — and generally easier-to-comprehend language.
“What we try to think about is the visitor who’s in there with their kids,” he says. “Are they going to be able to read that (text) and talk to their kids about it?”
Make no mistake, though — the main draw is, as it has been, Lucy, named after The Beatles’ song “Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds.” The short hominid will be featured prominently in a new skeletal construction and a neighboring lifelike sculpture based on that construction by paleoartist John Gurche.
But these Lucys aren’t the same-old gal. She is constructed differently from older models based on research and discoveries in recent decades.
“As a human-evolutions gallery, we’re supposed to give our visitors all the information as current as it is,” says Yohannes Haile-Selassie, curator of physical anthropology at CMNH. “That’s what we’ve tried to do.”
He calls Lucy “the icon of paleoanthropology” because she was the first specimen to give researchers an idea of what these early human ancestors looked like. However, additional discoveries at the site where she was found, at the village of Hadar, and elsewhere have presented a better understanding of the species’ skeletal anatomy.
In fact, he says, some of the previously held ideas were significantly wrong. Years ago, it was thought the common ancestor to today’s humans and Lucy’s species was the chimpanzee.
“So whatever reconstructions we did with these early human ancestors like Lucy — most of it was based on knowledge of the anatomy and morphology of chimpanzees because we’ve always thought that chimpanzees were good models for early human ancestors,” he says.
That led to Lucy being given a funnel-shaped rib cage as opposed to a human’s barrel-shaped cage. Fossils discovered since then, he says, suggest the rib cage was not funnel-shaped.
Some of the research that led to that and other updates in thinking has been done by Haile-Selassie himself, in Ethiopia north of the Lucy site. An international team he led discovered a fossil of another member of Lucy’s species, a male who lived about 400,000 years earlier that he named Kadanuumuu, which means “Big Man” in the Afar language.
“We know now that Lucy’s species — as small as Lucy is — was not small in general. They were much larger individuals,” he says. “Kadanuumuu’s probably taller than 5 feet, whereas Lucy is only 3 and 1 / 2, so the notion of these early humans being small is now falsified.”
The new skeletal reconstruction of Lucy, posed in a striding position, consists of 102 pieces in resin sculpted by museum artisans. Its neighbor, the lifelike reconstruction by Gurche, is complete with lots of fur and a facial expression. Gurche, says Alpern, has a vast knowledge of anatomy and has worked with different researchers over the years.
“He’s using the best available scientific information to make an artistic interpretation of what the animal would have looked like,” he says. Alpern sounds eager for the public to see the new space.
“It’s a challenging subject matter to wrap your head around, and I think we presented it in a way that’s very accessible,” he says. “I think a lot of people in Cleveland know about Lucy and know a little about the connection here, but I think you can really come and see Lucy and all her different ancestors in a way that kind of brings it together as much as we can.”
And, as much as the new gallery looks back, it also tries to look forward. Haile-Selassie says one of the goals is to get visitors to think a thousand years into the future.
“Are we going to stay as we are today or are we going to go extinct or are we going to morph into something else, like aliens?” he asks. “It just makes people, our visitors, think about what can happen down the line by seeing what has happened in the last 6 million years of our human history.”
The Human Origins Gallery opens to the public at 11:30 a.m. at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, One Wade Oval Drive. Admission to the museum is $12 for 19 and older, $10 for those 3 to 18, college students with ID and those 60 and older; those 2 and younger are free.
For more information, call 216-231-4600 or visit www.CMNH.org.
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by Julie Snyder
Was your baby born early?
It's no surprise you're wondering about your baby's development.
Preemie parents often feel anxious and overwhelmed when their child doesn't develop at the same physical age as their peers.
Every baby reaches the developmental milestones at their own pace.
Premature babies hit their developmental milestones at a different rate than full-term newborns.
As the months pass, the differences between your preemie and your friend's baby full-term usually become immeasurable.
Premature baby development -- the differences
Up to size
Preemies may be tiny, but don't worry about your little one's size. Most preemies catch up to their peers in size by 12 months and continue to grow at a similar rate. Premature babies can lag behind infants of the same age, but will catch up within the first to second year of life.
Babies born close to their due date sit without support around 4 to 7 months. In comparison, a baby born 10 weeks early, at 30 weeks, will sit between 6 and 10 months of age. Most full-term babies crawl around 8 or 9 months. A baby born born 10 weeks early may not begin crawling until 11 or 12 months.
To estimate when your baby will hit his or her developmental milestones, you can calculate your premature baby's "adjusted age," a guideline to tabulate progress.
• Take your infant's chronological age -- how many weeks since birth
• Subtract the number of weeks that your baby was premature.
Most preemies take between 24 and 36 months to catch up to their peers born on schedule.
You and your healthcare team keeps tabs
Your pediatrician pays special attention to your baby's reflexes, muscle tone, motor skills, behavior, sensory responses, and speech to determine if your preemie is developing on schedule. If not, your baby may work with a developmental specialist who can provide interventions that help prevent long-term disabilities.
The most severe diagnoses are usually evident by ages 2 to 4. Less obvious ones, including learning and behavior problems, mild visual and hearing problems aren't always diagnosed until age 8 to 11 or even later. If you suspect a problem, talk with your team.
Playing with your preemie
At birth until your baby's expected delivery date: See if your NICU offers developmental care or practice kangaroo care. Some research indicates these techniques improve a preemie's medical and long-term outcome.
0 to 1 month: Spend time singing and talking with your baby, face-to-face. Show your baby bright object and hang mobiles above the crib. Begin tummy time. Watch your baby's cues for overstimulation and stop playtime.
2 months: Talk, smile and socialize with your baby. Continue tummy time. Use interesting object or sounds and try to get your preemie to follow object from left to right and up and down. Encourage grasping and touching a variety of textures.
3 months: Support your baby in a sitting position and offer toys to reach for. Help them grasp or shake rattles. During tummy time, place bright toys just out of reach so your baby can work at getting them.
4 months: Talk with your baby. Does your little one join the conversation? Put toys just out of reach to encourage rolling from side to side. Attract your baby's attention with a rattle or bell.
6 months: Continue talking, singing, smiling and interacting with your baby. During tummy time, help your baby change position from front to back. Put toys just out of reach to the side to encourage rolling over.
✓ Be your baby's advocate -- research and ask questions
✓ Find medical setting where your concerns are addressed
✓ Network with other parents of preemies
✓ Trust your instincts
Are you the parent of a preemie? What works best for you?
Photo courtesy of iStockphoto.
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One…two…three strikes, you’re out — but not if you’re a Black pitcher, according to a recent study.
Research scholars from four separate universities analyzed 3.5 million pitches thrown in Major League baseball games from 2004 to 2008 and concluded that Black and other minority pitchers get less strike calls than white pitchers.
To combat the foul bias, minority pitchers will compensate by throwing balls closer to the middle of the strike zone in order to get favorable calls, which hurts their overall performance because they are offering pitches that are much easier for batters to hit, the study reports. The study was first published in American Economic Review.
Baseball great Jackie Robinson may have broken the league’s color barrier in 1947, becoming key to the desegregation of American sports, but the debate over the game’s racist undertones has not seemed to fade over time.
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Wikipedia wrote:This Bible is the most famous incunabulum and its production marked the beginning of the mass production of books in the West.
And it has an interesting word history...
Dictionary.com wrote:n. pl. in·cu·nab·u·la (-lə)
1. A book printed before 1501; an incunable.
2. An artifact of an early period.
[New Latin incūnābulum, from sing. of Latin incūnābula, swaddling clothes, cradle : in-, in; see in-2 + cūnābula, cradle, infancy (from cūnae, cradle; see kei-1 in Indo-European roots).]
in'cu·nab'u·lar (-lər) adj.
The same article includes another interesting word, "rubricated".
Wikipedia wrote:Gutenberg produced these Bibles (which were printed, then rubricated and illuminated by hand, the work of specialized craftsmen) over a period of a year, the time it would have taken to produce one copy in a Scriptorium.
(in ancient manuscripts, early printed books, etc.) having titles, catchwords, etc., distinctively colored.
–verb (used with object), -cat⋅ed, -cat⋅ing.
1. to mark or color with red.
2. to furnish with or regulate by rubrics.
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CORVALLIS, Ore. – If you're growing hops to brew your own beer, you may notice silvery or pale green, brittle spikes rising from the crown of the plant or brown spots on the leaves this spring.
"Hop plants have problems with downy mildew, a fungus that attacks plants primarily in April and May," said Shaun Townsend, the hops breeder for Oregon State University.
But don't worry, he added, just cut back the bines (some erroneously call them vines) to the soil with a knife. The plants will start new bines, which will grow quite rapidly. Though wet, foggy weather encourages downy mildew, pruning helps keep the fungus at bay.
Train the bines when they reach 2-3 feet long. You can use braided rope, baling twine or coir, which is woven coconut husk. You can find these items at most home or garden supply stores.
Although one plant reportedly reached 60 feet, Townsend said, gardeners should grow hops on a 15- to 18-foot climbing support, such as a trellis or poles, in a location that receives as much direct sunlight as possible. This combination increases their production of cones — the part of the plant used in beer, he said. The plants can be trained to climb up the south-facing wall of a house, over fences, up pillars or flagpoles, over stone walls or arbors, or along clotheslines. The attractive plant can enhance many landscapes, he said.
"These are big, prolific plants that can cast a lot of shade," he said. "Don't grow them near plants that are shade sensitive, such as a vegetable garden."
The plant will climb energetically on its own, given enough support. The bines always climb in a clockwise direction by wrapping themselves around and gripping the climbing support using short, stiff hairs. Vines, on the other hand, like those of grape vine and sweet pea, climb via the help of tendrils and suckers that cling to the climbing support, Townsend explained.
Be sure to fertilize first-year plants with a multi-purpose fertilizer such as 16-16-16, found at most garden supply stores, Townsend said. Alternate with urea, a form of nitrogen fertilizer available at most garden supply stores, he recommended. Sprinkle a teaspoon of these fertilizers around the base of the plant every two to three weeks from springtime until July to aid root growth, he advised.
Hops, a perennial plant, should be productive for 10-15 years. The plant produces cones every year, which are harvested and dried from mid-August to mid-September, Townsend said. Hops are dioecious, meaning they have separate male and female plants. The female cone contains small glands that produce the essential oils and resins that give beer its aroma and bitterness, Townsend said.
For more information about insect pests and diseases that threaten hops, see OSU Extension's Pacific Northwest Pest Management Handbooks. To learn more about the history of Oregon's craft brewing movement, explore the Oregon Hops and Brewing Archives from OSU's Special Collections and Archives Research Center.
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Obama will go down in history as the president who killed coal. Making no attempt to hide his disdain for one of America’s most abundant, efficient energy sources, then candidate Barack Obama said that, “if somebody wants to build a coal plant, they can — it’s just that it will bankrupt them.”
Making good on that promise, President Obama charged Environmental Protection Agency Secretary Lisa Jackson with the task of regulating America’s coal industry out of existence. The EPA’s strategy is simple: impose punitive, costly regulations on existing coal plants and mandate unattainable emissions standards on future coal power plants.
This one-two punch has manifested itself in two bureaucratic sounding rules—the Utility Maximum Achievable Control Technology (U-MACT) and the proposed regulation of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Costing an estimated $10 billion annually by 2016, the U-MACT wins the EPA’s pernicious accolade of most expensive regulation ever written for power plants. The U-MACT requires coal power plants to spend millions of dollars retrofitting their facilities or shutdown entirely. Unable to afford costly upgrades, many power plants will close their doors causing electricity prices and unemployment levels to rise.
But it gets worse, last month the EPA proposed carbon limits on new coal-fired power plants. This new rule effectively ensures that no new coal-fired power plants will ever be built in America. The EPA’s new carbon mandate requires new coal plants to accomplish the unattainable: achieve emissions parity with natural gas plants. Foolishly, President Obama is leveraging America’s newfound natural gas abundance against coal companies.
By writing this rule, the EPA has decreed that future power generation will come from natural gas-fired power plants—politics have prevented more nuclear power from coming online and wind and solar energy just don’t work. Antithetical to the free market, President Obama’s policies have further distorted America’s already convoluted electricity sector.
The EPA’s assault on coal—the resource that supplies over 40 percent of all electricity to America’s homes and businesses—has huge economic and social implications. Analyzing the cumulative impact of the U-MACT and three other EPA regulations, the National Economic Research Associates (NERA) found that the four rules could cause a net loss of 1.65 million jobs by 2020. Further studies show that the Obama’s regulations will threaten grid reliability and cause electricity prices to increase nearly ten percent in some states. When candidate Obama said he wanted to “make electricity rates skyrocket,” this is what he had in mind.
As long as Obama is calling the shots from the White House, the burden to overturn EPA’s destructive rules falls on Congress. Stepping up to the plate, Senator Inhofe (R-Okla.) is utilizing the Congressional Review Act (CRA) to expunge Obama’s U-MACT rule and rein-in the out of control EPA. Only requiring 51 Senators to overturn Obama’s regulation, Inhofe’s CRA has a real chance at passing the Senate. Democrat Senators in coal intensive Midwestern states will have to decide whether they want electricity rates to “skyrocket” or blue-collar jobs to return home. In short, Senators will have to side with their constituents or Obama’s regulators.
The EPA has gone too far—unelected bureaucrats now dictate what type of energy Americans can use to power their homes and businesses. Tell your Senator to let the free market work and oppose the U-MACT.
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Kaudulla National Park
Situated about 190 km from Colombo, Kaudulla National Park is dominated by the Kaudulla Tank built by the sister of the famous King Mahasena who was the creator of the Minneriya Tank. The folklore of the creation of this tank is very interesting.
After the sister of the king Mahasena married a person disapproved by the king, she was banned from the palace and the newly married couple went off and established a small farming village around Kaudulla. Meanwhile King Mahasena while building and developing the irrigation systems around the country planned a massive tank at Minneriya to support the agriculture of the area. To carry this enormous amount of water, he had to build an extra long dam. To protect this dam from breaking up by the force of the water the king was asked to make a human sacrifice to the demons/gods who protected dam. The king hearing that his sister has given birth to a son, ordered the chief minister to sacrifice this infant on the gods. But the minister sacrificed a goat instead of the baby and informed the king that the sacrification is complete. The king satisfied, built and completed one of the largest man made tanks in that time.
On the day he was to ceremonially open the floodgates, he started regretting his decision to sacrifice his own nephew. The chief minister then informed the king that indeed infant prince is still alive. The king thrilled at the news ordered his ministers to bring his sister to the tank to show his marvelous creation and to share the joy. The sister was then escorted and was shown this gigantic tank by his brother. Then sister laughed and told the king that she too has been busy and requested the king to follow her to show what she has been up to. The princess took her brother to a new tank, which she had built with the villagers, which was even larger than the Minneriya. This tank is what we now know as Kaudulla Tank.
Kaudulla was declared a National park in April 1, 2002 by the Sri Lankan government. This is a unique national park in the sense that the two thirds of the park is under water during several months of the year. In addition to the Kaudulla Tank, which dominates the landscape, Kaudulla National Park includes Relapanawa Tank, Olumadu Wewa, Puliyan Kalla wewa, Mineriya-Kanthale Yoda Ela, Aluth Oya and Hatharas Kotuwa Oya.
The park is also situated on an elephant migratory path (an Elephant corridor) , which makes this park even more interesting. The park sits in between the Somawathi National Park and the Minneriya National Park. The road network of the park is about 16 km, but lack basic visitor facilities. Trackers have to obtain from either Girithale or from Habarana.
Kaudulla Park can be reached from either Habarana - Trinco road or Habarana - Minneriya Road. Best time to see Elephants in park is the early morning and late evening. Herds of elephants become a common site on the dried lakebed during this time of the day. You can hire a safari jeep from Habarana or from Polonnaruwa. They cost around Rs 1500/- per half day and Rs 3000/- for full day. Vans are also allowed in to the park. They can travel on almost all the tracks. Unlike other parks including Minneriya there is no entrance procedure.
There are no bungalows inside the park. You will have stay either in Habarana, Girithale or in Polonnaruwa. Some good star class hotels can be found all these locations
You can also see elephants on the Habarana Road (Road connecting Habarana and Polonnaruwa) itself if you travel along this road after 6.30. Herds of elephants oftten come to the road after dark. They are quite used to vehicles but sometimes get annoyed by the headlights. Once my vehicle was chased for some good meters by a herd probably because we stopped to vehicle (with head lights on) too close to them. Obviously had other things in my mind than taking few photos. I did take few photos another day on this road. This herd had come to the road at about 4.30 pm. They are a little blurred as I took them from inside the vehicle. I have posted them in the photo section of Minneriya National Park.
The park can be reached through Ratnapura and is approximately 190 Km from Colombo. If you are traveling from Colombo You will have to take the Kandy Road and turn off from Ambepussa towards Kurunegala. From Kurunegala take the Dambulla - Habarana Road. From the Habarana junction turn right towards Minneriya go straight towards Trincomalee.
February 13, 2007
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THE EYES AND THYROID DISEASE
Jorge G. Camara, M. D.
Patients with hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) frequently develop eye symptoms that can lead to serious eye problems if not diagnosed and treated promptly. The combination of an overactive thyroid gland and related eye problems is also known medically as Graves Ophthalmopathy.
Although the exact cause of Graves Ophthalmopathy is not known, it is believed that the bodys immune system attacks the tissues located within the socket of the eye (orbit) such as the eye muscles, the lacrimal (tear) gland, and the protective cushion of fat surrounding the eyes. Furthermore, there is increased stimulation of the nerves that hold the lid open (lid retraction) giving rise to the common staring appearance of patients with hyperthyroidism.
Patient with hyperthyroidism showing thyroid stare.
Due to the bodys immune system attacking the tissues within the orbit, there is an inflammatory reaction that causes symptoms ranging from dryness of the eye, to marked discomfort, eye pain, double vision, and in severe cases, to loss of vision which can be permanent. The eyelid retraction, combined with the bulging forward of the eyes, leads to inability to close the eyes fully. The front surface of the eye (cornea) then becomes extremely dry, and can become ulcerated and infected, leading to loss of sight.
Patient with inability to close eyes leading to corneal ulcer.
The enlargement of the eye muscles in Graves Ophthalmopathy causes double vision especially when looking upwards. This symptom can be especially bothersome when reading, or driving a car. The eyes can bulge forward so badly that pressure on the optic nerve (nerve of sight) can reduce ones vision to legally blind levels, unless immediate treatment is undertaken.
TREATMENT OF THYROID EYE DISEASE
In mild cases, treatment of thyroid eye disease is mainly supportive. Artificial tears in a form of drops are applied during the day, and ointment is administered in the evening before sleeping. If the eyes do not shut fully due to lid retraction, they are taped shut after applying lubricating ointment.
In more severe cases where there is marked swelling of the tissues in the socket of the eye, steroid medications (prednisone) are given my mouth to control the inflammation. Radiation treatment may also be given to decrease the swelling in the orbit.
The double vision and eyelid retraction are usually corrected with surgery, if they fail to resolve with improvement of the thyroid function. Shown in the photograph below is a patient before and after surgery for severe eyelid retraction.
|Patient before lid surgery||Same patient after surgery|
The most serious eye complication of hyperthyroidism is a condition called thyroid optic neuropathy which is caused by pressure on the optic nerve causing moderate to severe loss of eyesight. The loss of sight may be subtle, only causing a change in perception of color, to complete loss of eyesight. Treatment should be administered as soon as possible, usually consisting of steroids given by mouth.
If the vision fails to improve then surgery is necessary to relieve the pressure surrounding the optic nerve. The surgery consists of removing the bones in the innermost part of the orbit where the pressure on the nerve is the greatest. This surgery is called an orbital decompression. In some medical centers, radiation treatment is used instead of surgery. However, the complications of radiation treatment, while rare, can cause worse problems than thyroid optic neuropathy itself.
|Female patient before orbital decompression||Female patient after orbital decompression|
|Male patient before orbital decompression||Male patient after orbital decompression|
In summary, it is important to be aware of the signs and symptoms of thyroid eye disease, and to see an ophthalmologist immediately should any of them occur. Techniques in modern day ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery can take care of the eye problems that arise as a result of hyperthyroidism.
Return to Main PageDiabetes and Hormone Center of the Pacific Ala Moana Pacific Center Ala Moana Pacific Center 1585 Kapiolani Boulevard, Suite 1500 Honolulu, Hawaii 96814 Tel: (808) 531-6886 Fax: (808) 523-5115
Your comments are welcomed. For medical questions consult your physician.
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At the core of the Milky Way is a supermassive black hole that sucks in light, rendering it virtually invisible. But astronomers say they will be able to see the black hole's overall shadow within a few years.
"The Holy Grail of black hole astronomy is within our grasp," says Avery Broderick of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. "We could see the shadow that the black hole casts on surrounding material, and determine the size and spin of the black hole itself."
Nothing can escape the intense gravitational field of a black hole, not even light. And since they can't emit light, or any other form of matter, there's no visible evidence of their existence. But as matter gets pulled in, it heats up and radiates energy in "hot spots."
Some of this radiation escapes and can be detected.
Astronomers have already detected radiation from hot spots just outside the black hole, and they believe that these will paint a background against which the black hole's profile, or shadow, will stand out.
Since the technology to view the shadow won't be in place for another few years, Broderick and Avi Loeb of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics have designed a model that anticipates what the shadow will look like.
The hot spot of radiation rotates around the black hole, but researchers don't know if the hole itself is spinning or not, so Broderick and Loeb created two scenarios - one with a motionless black hole, and another with one spinning at the maximum rate.
In each scenario, the hot spot is depicted as a rainbow-colored blob rotating around a solid blue disk representing the black hole's accretion disk, where matter heats up and collects before finally being sucked into the black hole.
"It will be really remarkable when observers can see all the way to the edge of the Milky Way's central black hole - a hole 10 million miles in diameter that's more than 25,000 light-years away," Broderick said.
To view the shadow, astronomers will need a radio telescope as large as the Earth. One is already in the works, more or less. Instead of building one impossibly giant telescope, astronomers will combine readings from a collection of submillimeter telescopes from across the continent.
This technique, known as interferometry, has already been used to study long wavelength emissions from outer space. Astronomers believe that studying short wavelength emissions could yield a high-resolution view of the outer region of the black hole.
The gravity well at the Milky Way's center is the best target for observation by interferometry because it covers the largest area in the sky of any known black hole. And an even higher resolution image could be achieved by combining observations from infrared instruments.
"Submillimeter and infrared observations are complementary," said Lincoln Greenhill, also of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. "We need to use both to tackle the problem of getting high-resolution observations. It's the only way to get a complete picture of the galactic center."
But a clear picture of this black hole won't be the only benefit of spotting its shadow. This data will ultimately help astronomers test Einstein's general theory of relativity within the intensely strong gravitational field of a black hole.
"When astronomers achieve it, that first image of the black hole's shadow and inner accretion disk will enter textbooks, and will test our current notions on gravity in the regime where spacetime is strongly curved," Loeb said.
- The True Shape of Black Holes
- Voyage into the Vortex: Survival Tips for Black Hole Travelers
- New Spin on Black Holes: Like Stars, They Rotate
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Print this pageHistorical Text Archive © 1990 - 2016
José Francisco de San Martín was born February 25, 1778. He was born at Yapey, in the province of Corrientes, Argentina. Yapey is on the banks of the Uruguay River and it is a very plentiful area. San Martín was born to Don Juan de San Martín, a professional soldier and government administrator and Doña Gregoria Matorras. San Martín's mother was the niece of one of the conquerors of the Chaco's wild forest. In 1784 San Martín and his family returned to Spain. He was only six years old and his parents enrolled him in the "Seminario de Noble." It was a very well respected school and he remained there from 1785 until 1789. San Martín, like his father before him, started his military career at an early age. He first joined the Murcia infantry regiment, a well respected regiment located in South Eastern Spain. This would be the beginning of a very illustrious and important military career.
San Martín was an extremely loyal servant of his mother country, Spain. San Martín fought against Napoleon and his French forces as a Spanish officer from 1808 until 1811. Even though he was true to his country, he did not particularly like the idea of an absolute monarchy and the colonial system in its current state. In 1811, San Martín decided to resign his commission in the Spanish Army. Shortly after leaving the military, San Martín set sail for London, England. It was there that he met several Spanish Americans who were very important in San Martín's quest for a revolution. He immediately left England for Buenos Aires, Argentina. When San Martín arrived in Argentina he was brought into service by the revolutionary regime. The members of the revolutionary regime realized that his experience as a soldier would be very beneficial to their cause.
In March of 1812, San Martín was given the assignment of forming a make-shift army. This force would be used to fight against the Spanish royalists in and around Peru. The royalists in Peru posed a threat to the opposition movement in Argentina and other South American countries. It was around this time that San Martín met his wife, María de los Remedios Escalada. María was member of an upper-class Argentine family of pure Spanish blood. Shortly after San Martín married his wife he became increasingly more involved with politics. San Martín always felt that he had a strong connection to the country of his birth. In September, 1812, he was a founding member of the "Lautaro Lodge", a secret revolutionary movement which was closely associated with the opposition to the government. There was another organization that worked with the "Lautaro Lodge", the "First Triumvirate", which was headed by Bernardino Rivadavia. Even though, the two groups were closely aligned they had two very different goals. Rivadavia was mainly interested in protecting the interests of Buenos Aires on a smaller scale. However, San Martín's main mission was to liberate Spanish America as a whole. The two opposing view points came to boil in December, 1812 and the two groups split.
On February 3, 1813, San Martín got his first taste of battle since he had returned to South America. A large royalist force made their way up the Paraná River. San Martín and his forces held their ground and managed to defeat the advancing forces. Later that year the government transferred San Martín to the northern Providences of Argentina. The hope of the government was that his presence there would strengthen the opposition movement in the north of the country. However, San Martín's efforts to strengthen opposition in the north were cut short to due his poor health. Although San Martín's physical abilities were momentarily put on hold his mind was sharp as ever. He used the time off to formulate a strategic plan against the royalists in Peru. It was during this time that he came up with one of the most outlandish military strategies of all time. San Martín knew that the best way to enter and ultimately attack Peru would be through the mountains of upper Peru.
This trip across the Andes would be one of the most difficult tasks that any army in history would have to endure. San Martín also prepared an alternate plan that would come by sea and would culminate off the Peruvian coast. Shortly after that San Martín began to finalize his plans. First he asked to be reassigned to the governor ship of Cuyo. The ship was located at the foot of the Andes Mountains in western Argentina. It was here that San Martín could continue to work on his plans of taking Peru.
In 1816, representatives from all of the Argentine provinces met for a monumental occasion. They met at the Congress of Tucumán to discuss the future plans for Argentina and her people. San Martín was on the side of declaring outright independence from Spain. On July 9th the Congress of Tucumán declared independence from Spain. San Martín along with many others at the conference believed that the best form of government for the newly liberated South American nations would be some form of a liberal-constitutional monarchy. San Martín believed that this would instill an element of stability in the new nations.
By this time in San Martín's life he was a well respected and highly decorated general. He was the sole founder of the "Regimiento de Granaderos a Caballo" (Mounted Grenadier Regiment of the Argentine Army) (Maurois, 1). It served as a school which produced some of the best cavalry officers in the history of South American warfare. All of the members of this school were well disciplined, well mannered, and were superior in training to any force before it. The significance of these soldiers would soon be realized when it came time for San Martín to begin assembling the force that would lead the march towards Peru. The force was made up predominantly of Argentineans (Maurois, 1). Less than one tenth of the men were Chileans and even those men were led by Argentine officers (Maurois1). It was this group of men that would later be referred to as "The Army of the Andes." Their name would be fitting when they embarked on one of the most daunting task in history.
In January 1817, San Martín began his march across the Andes. His army was made up of approximately 4000 men of infantry, cavalry, and artillery (Pachami, 3). The army split into two divisions, the first would head through the passage of Los Platos and the other would embark through the Uspallata Pass. Both groups would be advancing through the Andes at heights that often exceeded 15,000 feet. San Martín organizational skills had to be precise in order for the mission to be successful. He had only brought enough food and supplies for a month. It would be crucial that they reach their destination before these provisions ran out. The plan was that both columns of troops were to meet in Santa Rosa in the Andes (Pachami, 3). Shortly after the trip began the troops got their first taste of victory in the battle of Chacabuco. A few days after their victory San Martín and his men marched un-opposed into Santiago. The town hall met that day and would declare San Martín, Supreme Director. San Martín graciously refused the offer, in favor of his good friend General Bernardo O'Higgins. Now with the United Argentine-Chilean army constructed, San Martín's plans are falling into place. However, on March 19, 1818 a Spanish army defeated San Martín's forces in a night attack at the battle of Cancharrayada. In this struggle General O'Higgins is wounded. The United Argentine-Chilean army, "Ejercito Unido" as they were called, regrouped and defeat the Spanish forces at the battle of Maipú. That battle ended the Spanish efforts to dominate Chile (Pachami, 3).
It was at this time in San Martín's crusade that he had grown tired of using military force. San Martín tried to negotiate with the royalists, and hoped that they would accept a peaceful settlement (Maurois, 1). San Martín's proposal was short and concise. He proposed that Peru become a separate entity and have its own independent monarchy. Unfortunately, the negotiations were unsuccessful. The use of military force against Peru's Spanish leaders was now inevitable. With the battle plans laid out years in advance, San Martín played his final move in the chess game that was this war. Instead of attacking Peru from the land, San Martín would use his previous plan of sea supremacy. The only problem with his plan was that he did not have an adequate navy. However, this was not something that was going to stop San Martín.
The Chilean navy was comprised of ships that had been captured from the Spanish and vessels that they purchased from the United States and England. The two admirals of this navy were first admiral Blanco Encalada and the English admiral, Lord Cochrane (Pachami, 4). On August 20, 1820 the newly formed navy sailed from the port of Valparaiso towards Peru. With control of the seas, his army easily conquered Peru. San Martín's forces entered the capital of Lima in July, 1821. It was on this day that independence in Peru was proclaimed. On July 28, 1821 San Martín was declared "Protector of Peru." San Martín was offered a position of power just as he had been in Chile. Again San Martín refused the power and met with another man of great importance in South America at the time. In 1822, he met with Simon Bolivar in the city of Guayaquil. It has been said that they talked in private for nearly four hours, however, they could not reach an agreement on the form of government that they wanted to see come to power in Peru. This was not the first time the two men had talked. In late July 1821 Simon Bolivar's forces in the north were meeting heavy opposition from the remaining Spanish forces. San Martín dispatched several thousand men to aid his counterpart in the north. Those reinforcements would prove to be crucial in several key battles.
On September of that same year the first Congress of Peru met in Lima (Pachami, 5). It was at this time that San Martín left Peru. After resigning his military commission in Peru he returned to Argentina. On August 3, 1823 his wife, Gregoria, died in the city of Buenos Aires. A year later, displeased with the civil wars in the Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata, he embarked for France with his little daughter, Mercedes (Pachami5). In 1828, San Martín would make his final trip to the Americas. He left Europe to see if he could contribute anything to the progress of the newly formed nations. He returned the following year with the realization that he did not having anything to contribute to their internal peace. San Martín lent "moral support to the defenders of American sovereignty" after leaving South America (Olson550). Jose de San Martín died in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France on August 17, 1850.
San Martín accomplishments as a general are only overshadowed by his achievements as a patriot. He was the architect for one of the single greatest revolutions of all time. San Martín is still held in the highest regards in his homeland. What he accomplished nearly two centuries ago are still ringing in the hearts of every South American whose lives are better for what he achieved. San Martín was a living legend during his life and his status in the countries that he liberated is a strong as ever. What made San Martín great was the fact that he was the exact opposite of every other man that was in a position of power at that time. Not only did San Martín not seek power, but when it was handed to him he refused it. This is an extremely difficult task for even the most humble man. He was a great general and a liberator of people, but first and foremost he was just a humble man looking for his freedom.
1. Maurois, Dr. Andre Louis. "General José Francisco de San Martín. The Biography of
José San Martín. June 20th 2003.
2. Olson, James S. Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Empire, 1402-1974. New York, Greenwood Press, 1992, 550.
3. "San Martín, Short history of the liberator of Argentina, Chile, and Peru." Biography of San Martín (summary). June 20th 2003. http://pachami.com/English/ressanmE.htm
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| 0.987617 | 2,652 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Canker sores are a common nuisance that will affect most people at some point in their lives. Also known as aphthous ulcers or "mouth ulcers," canker sores appear as oral lesions on your tongue, palate or the inside of your cheeks. As they only affect the interior of your mouth, your friends won't be able to see them -- but you'll know they're there. Shallow and circular in appearance, these small, painful sores appear white or gray at the center with a surrounding red border, and they are extremely sensitive to the touch.
Women are more likely than men to experience canker sores, but the first symptoms don't usually occur until after the age of 10.
For most of us, mouth ulcers only occur occasionally, experiencing simple canker sores several times a year. These lesions are usually less than 1 cm in diameter, and will usually heal within 2 weeks. But others may find themselves a victim of complex canker sores, which are often larger in appearance, occur more frequently and take longer to heal.
A Sore Subject
No one quite knows how or why we get canker sores, although scientists have distinguished several factors that can trigger an outbreak. Stress, acidic foods and certain drugs are thought to cause a canker sore to flare up. Mouth irritations, such as biting the inside of your cheek or wearing dental braces, may cause you to experience more frequent outbursts as well. In some cases, a vitamin deficiency, problems with the immune system or gastrointestinal tract, or even hormonal changes can launch a canker sore into action!
Canker sores are more than a minor abrasion. They often cause mouth pain, ranging from mild discomfort to sharp, stinging sensations. You may know you're getting a canker sore if you notice a tingling or burning feeling in the area of your mouth that's affected. Once canker sores appear, they are vulnerable to outside elements. Sufferers of cankers sores have difficulty eating, drinking and even talking during an outbreak!
The good news is that unlike cold sores, canker sores are not caused by a virus and therefore are not contagious. While cold sores appear as blisters on the lips and surrounding areas of the face, canker sores only appear inside the mouth and aren't noticeable.
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| 0.964417 | 485 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Sojourner Truth (1797-1883)
to Women of Vision
“Ain’t I a Woman?” So began Sojourner Truth’s
most famous speech in 1854 at the Ohio Woman’s Rights Convention.
Sojourner Truth’s given name was Isabella. She was born in 1797
in Ulster County, New York. She was a preacher and reformer who
applied her religious passion to the abolitionist and women’s rights
Isabella was the daughter of slaves and spent her
childhood as an abused slave of several masters. In 1827, Isaac Van
Wagener bought Isabella and set her free just before New York state
In 1843 she took the name Sojourner Truth and became
a traveling preacher and supported herself by selling her book, The
Narrative of Sojourner Truth.
She got into the women’s rights movement in the early
1850’s. She was encouraged by women, notably Lucretia Mott, to speak
in the suffrage movement, which she did for the rest of her life.
At the beginning of the Civil War, she gathered supplies
for black volunteer regiments and in 1864 went to Washington D.C.
where she helped integrate streetcars and was received by President
Abraham Lincoln. In 1875 she retired to her home in Battle Creek,
Michigan, where she remained until she died in 1883.
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| 0.974307 | 317 | 3.375 | 3 |
Coolie Origin And General Usage
A selection of articles related to coolie origin and general usage.
Original articles from our library related to the Coolie Origin And General Usage. See Table of Contents for further available material (downloadable resources) on Coolie Origin And General Usage.
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Paganism & Wicca >> Holidays
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Coolie Origin And General Usage is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Coolie Origin And General Usage books and related discussion.
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Research on the comparative morphology of pollen grains depends crucially on the application of appropriate microscopy techniques. Information on the performance of microscopy techniques can be used to inform that choice. We compared the ability of several microscopy techniques to provide information on the shape and surface texture of three pollen types with differing morphologies. These techniques are: widefield, apotome, confocal and two-photon microscopy (reflected light techniques), and brightfield and differential interference contrast microscopy (DIC) (transmitted light techniques). We also provide a first view of pollen using super-resolution microscopy. The three pollen types used to contrast the performance of each technique are: Croton hirtus (Euphorbiaceae), Mabea occidentalis (Euphorbiaceae) and Agropyron repens (Poaceae). No single microscopy technique provided an adequate picture of both the shape and surface texture of any of the three pollen types investigated here. The wavelength of incident light, photon-collection ability of the optical technique, signal-to-noise ratio, and the thickness and light absorption characteristics of the exine profoundly affect the recovery of morphological information by a given optical microscopy technique. Reflected light techniques, particularly confocal and two-photon microscopy, best capture pollen shape but provide limited information on very fine surface texture. In contrast, transmitted light techniques, particularly differential interference contrast microscopy, can resolve very fine surface texture but provide limited information on shape. Texture comprising sculptural elements that are spaced near the diffraction limit of light (∼250 nm; NDL) presents an acute challenge to optical microscopy. Super-resolution structured illumination microscopy provides data on the NDL texture of A. repens that is more comparable to textural data from scanning electron microscopy than any other optical microscopy technique investigated here. Maximizing the recovery of morphological information from pollen grains should lead to more robust classifications, and an increase in the taxonomic precision with which ancient vegetation can be reconstructed.
Citation: Sivaguru M, Mander L, Fried G, Punyasena SW (2012) Capturing the Surface Texture and Shape of Pollen: A Comparison of Microscopy Techniques. PLoS ONE 7(6): e39129. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039129
Editor: Adam I. Marcus, Emory University, United States of America
Received: February 14, 2012; Accepted: May 18, 2012; Published: June 12, 2012
Copyright: © 2012 Sivaguru et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This research was supported by funding from the US National Science Foundation (DBI-1052997 to SWP). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Pollen grains are an indispensable record of Earth's vegetation and have multiple applications. They provide unique information on aspects of plant evolution such as the origin and radiation of the angiosperms (flowering plants) –, and offer glimpses of plant life during periods in Earth history characterized by major environmental change and extinction –. Pollen grains are used to examine the influence of climate on the Earth's vegetation , , and data on the response of different plant species to past climatic changes are used to inform conservation efforts . Pollen is also a notorious allergen, and periods when the pollen of notably allergenic plants such as grass or ragweed is particularly abundant in the atmosphere can be identified by the analysis of air-borne pollen . It is also serves as an important tool in forensic science and can help link people or objects to crime scenes .
The study of pollen is part of the discipline of palynology (the study of living and fossil spores, pollen and other palynomorphs), and in each of these examples of palynological investigation, assemblages of pollen grains are generally split into groups on the basis of their morphology. These groups often correspond to the taxonomic grouping of the parent plants and may represent species, genera or families. In order to accurately define these morphological groups it is vital that the morphological information captured from individual specimens is as detailed and robust as possible. This is essential in order to reconstruct ancient vegetation with a high degree of taxonomic precision , . The pollen of angiosperms ranges from ∼4.5 µm (the forget-me-not Myosotis sylvatica) to ∼200 µm (the pumpkin Cucurbita pepo) , and as a result of this small size the acquisition of morphological information from pollen grains is intimately linked to microscopy.
However, pollen grains present a significant challenge to the microscopist. The pollen exine, the outer layer of a pollen grain that is resistant to strong acids and bases and is primarily composed of the biopolymer sporopollenin , is strongly autofluorescent . As a result, sporopollenin cannot be labeled using fluorophores or nano quantum dots as is standard in cell biology . Further, the exine surface of pollen grains is often sculptured with elements that are smaller than the diffraction limit of light. The diffraction limit restricts the resolution of most high numerical aperture objectives to ∼250 nm in most practical situations , .
Routine palynological studies often involve the examination of thousands of individual pollen grains, and investigations of this type generally employ brightfield-transmitted light , . In order to examine fine morphological differences between the pollen grains of different plant species, some workers have used contrast-enhancing techniques such as differential interference contrast microscopy (DIC) and phase contrast microscopy , . Fluorescence microscopy is emerging as a powerful tool in palynology. Widefield fluorescence has been used to identify reworked or poorly preserved specimens in samples of fossilized pollen grains and apotome microscopy has been employed to investigate the shape of modern and fossil spruce pollen . Confocal laser scanning microscopy has proved to be effective at revealing details of the ultrastructure of pollen walls in the absence of transmission electron microscopy , as well as providing information on the shape of pollen grains .
The purpose of this paper is to compare the performance of different optical microscopy techniques to provide information on the shape and surface texture of pollen grains. These are two crucial aspects of pollen morphology that have functional and taxonomic significance. The microscopy techniques that were compared are: widefield fluorescence, apotome , confocal and two-photon microscopy (reflected light techniques), and brightfield and DIC microscopy (transmitted light techniques). We also provide data from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and a technique new to pollen microscopy: super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM). The SR-SIM technique has a two-fold improvement in resolution over conventional optical microscopy techniques and is the only super-resolution optical microscopy technique that can image autofluorescent samples without labeling. Three pollen types with exine thickness ranging from thick to thin, and surface texture ranging from coarse to very fine, have been used to contrast the performance of each technique: Croton hirtus (Euphorbiaceae), Mabea occidentalis (Euphorbiaceae) and Agropyron repens (Poaceae).
The performance of reflected light techniques with fluorescent beads
The full width of a PSF measured at half its maximum (FWHM) is a useful measure of the resolution of a microscope system . This measure indicates that the microscopy techniques investigated here vary widely in lateral resolution (Figure 1). Two-photon microscopy (780 nm excitation) has the largest FWHM and hence the lowest resolution (560 nm) (Figure 1). Widefield microscopy has a FWHM of 470 nm, while apotome and confocal microscopy have very similar FWHMs (340 nm and 360 nm, respectively) (Figure 1).
Empirical point spread functions of ∼0.175 µm beads using widefield, apotome, confocal and two-photon microscopy techniques for a pair (two objectives each one for widefield-apotome pair and confocal-two photon pair) of Zeiss 63× plan apochromat 1.4NA lenses. Widefield and apotome images were acquired with a rhodamine filter (546/10 excitation filter). Images show a single bead in X-Y dimensions (upper tier) and X-Z dimensions (lower tier). Graphs show line profiles of pixel intensities across the centre of each bead in X-Y dimensions. FWHM = full width at half maximum. The point spread function at FWHM represents a measure of the resolution of a microscope , .
The shape of pollen grains
None of the reflected light techniques investigated here (Table 1) provide a complete picture of the shape of all three pollen types (Figure 2, Table 2). The shape of C. hirtus is not entirely resolved by all of the techniques investigated here (Figure 2, compare Videos S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7). In contrast, the shape of A. repens is well resolved by confocal (405 nm and 561 nm) and two-photon microscopy (Figure 2). A. repens is significantly fainter when imaged using apotome microscopy than when using confocal (405 nm and 561 nm) and two-photon microscopy (Figure 2). Widefield microscopy provides warped reconstructions, and this is highlighted by the shape of the deepest plane of each pollen grain, which tapers to a pronounced point (Figure 2). Such distortion is also evident in the apotome image of M. occidentalis (Figure 2). Deconvolved images contain less out-of-focus light than raw data and consequently have much sharper boundaries (due to improved signal-to-noise ratio) than images from raw data (Figure 2). This effect is most noticeable in the widefield images of all three pollen types, and the restoration of the surface texture of C. hirtus is particularly striking (Figure 2). However, although the warped voxels of A. repens were partially recovered, deconvolution did not substantially improve the recovery of pollen shape, especially among confocal techniques (Figure 2).
Maximum intensity projections of Croton hirtus, Mabea occidentalis and Agropyron repens viewed using widefield, apotome, confocal (405 nm and 561 nm) and two-photon fluorescence microscopy. Raw data are shown next to images produced following blind deconvolution. Note that only raw data are shown for apotome microscopy. Images displayed in the X-Y plane show the surface texture of each pollen type; images displayed in the X-Z plane show how the microscopy techniques differ in their ability to capture information on the shape of each pollen type. For each pollen type, images from widefield and apotome microscopy show the same pollen grain. Images from confocal 561 nm and two photon 780 nm microscopy show the same pollen grain. A unique pollen grain was used for confocal 405 nm. An orientation key is provided in the lower left-hand corner of the raw widefield data of C. hirtus, which applies to all other specimens shown (note the orientation of pollen grains imaged using apotome microscopy). The approximate size (diameter) of each pollen grain shown is as follows: C. hirtus ∼50 µm; M. occidentalis ∼50 µm; A. repens ∼40 µm.
The texture of pollen grains
Most transmitted light techniques provide information on the texture of both surface planes and deep planes of each pollen types investigated here (Figure 3, Videos S8, S9, S10, S11, S12, S13, S14, S15). In contrast, reflected light techniques generally provide textural information from the surface planes of the three pollen types, but most of them fail to provide textural information from deep planes (Figure 3). For example, the surface plane texture of C. hirtus is well resolved by all reflected light techniques, but the deep plane texture of this pollen grain is only well resolved by two-photon microscopy (Figure 3, Video S6). The failure of apotome microscopy to provide textural information from the deep plane of any of the three pollen types is notable (Figure 3 and Video S5).
Optical sections of the pollen grains Croton hirtus, Mabea occidentalis and Agropyron repens viewed using reflected light (widefield, apotome, confocal and two-photon fluorescence microscopy) and transmitted light (widefield DIC, 405 nm and 561 nm DIC, 780 nm DIC and brightfield). Images from all reflected light techniques were deconvolved except apotome microscopy, which is represented by raw data. Images of surface planes are shown next to deep planes to highlight the depth of penetration of each technique. In order to acquire an image of C. hirtus and M. occidentalis using 405 nm DIC, the master gain was increased during acquisition. For each pollen type, images from widefield and apotome microscopy show the same pollen grain. Images from confocal 561 nm and two photon 780 nm microscopy show the same pollen grain. A unique pollen grain was used for confocal 405 nm. Images are displayed in min/max intensity profile. Pollen sizes as for Figure 2.
In reflected light the texture of A. repens, which comprises sculptural elements spaced near the diffraction limit of light (NDL), can be detected using widefield, apotome, and 405 nm confocal techniques. Widefield microscopy combined with deconvolution provides clear information on the surface plane texture of this pollen grain, as shown by discrete clusters of pixels with high intensity (Figure 3, Video S1). Apotome microscopy also provides some textural information from the surface plane of A. repens (Figure 2). Confocal microscopy with 405 nm excitation light provides reasonable textural information from the surface plane and possibly the deep plane of A. repens (Figure 3, Video S2) but confocal microscopy with 561 nm excitation light does not appear to have recovered textural information either from the surface plane or the deep plane of A. repens (Figure 3). Two-photon microscopy, which uses 780 nm excitation light, also fails to provide textural information either from the surface plane or the deep plane of A. repens (Figure 3).
There are subtle differences in the representation of the NDL texture of A. repens by the transmitted light techniques investigated here. In Widefield DIC and 405 nm DIC this texture is granulate , and consists mostly of discrete sub-circular clusters of high-intensity pixels that are dotted fairly evenly across the surface of the pollen grain (Figure 3, Videos S9, S10). However, under brightfield, 561 nm DIC and 780 nm DIC this texture is finely rugulate , and consists of more linear features spread across the pollen grain surface (Figure 3, Videos S12 and S14). It should be noted that while all transmitted light techniques provided reasonable information on both surface and deep plane textures of M. occidentalis, only two-photon DIC (780 nm) and brightfield microscopy provided textural information from the deepest plane of C. hirtus (Figure 3, Table 2 and compare Videos S11, S13 and S15). Phase contrast microscopy failed to provide significant textural information on any of the three pollen types investigated here (Figure S1). Hence, DIC was the only contrast-enhancing technique that was investigated.
In order to summarize how the representation of surface texture changes between reflected and transmitted light, and with the wavelength of incident light, we have provided detailed cropped and zoomed views of the surface texture of each pollen grain (Figure 4). This figure shows raw data of a single pollen grain per pollen type. This data was acquired by simultaneously imaging three wavelengths of light (405, 561 and 780 nm) on the same pollen at the same time. Note that the PMT gain was more than doubled to reveal pollen grains using 405 nm DIC. This clearly shows how differences in the wavelength of incident light affect absorption and the signal-to-noise ratio among the three pollen types investigated here, especially with reference to C. hirtus and M. occidentalis. Images of these two pollen types produced by both reflected and transmitted light techniques have a low signal-to-noise ratio using the shorter wavelength of light (405 nm) (Figure 4, Video S3). In contrast, the confocal 561 nm, which is absorbed less by the pollen exine, produced outstanding images for the same two pollen species (Figure 3, Video S4). Despite the low signal evident in C. hirtus and M. occidentalis, the 405 nm DIC provided a higher resolution image of the NDL texture of A. repens than the 561 nm or 780 nm DIC (Videos S2, S10, S12 and S14). The change from granulate texture to fine rugulate texture in A. repens as the wavelength of light increases using DIC microscopy is clearly revealed (Figure 4).
Pollen grains imaged using confocal microscopy (405 nm and 561 nm), two-photon microscopy (780 nm) and DIC microscopy (405 nm, 561 nm and 780 nm). Images highlight the effect of wavelength, resolution, absorption and detectablility on the recovery of textural information from pollen grains. In order to acquire an image of C. hirtus and M. occidentalis using 405 nm DIC, the master gain was increased during acquisition. All images are raw data, measure 5 µm in the X-Y direction and are displayed in linear intensity profiles.
The impact of deconvolution
In order to examine the effect of deconvolution on the recovery of textural information from pollen grains using reflected light microscopy techniques, we have taken line profiles of pixel intensity values from detailed images of C. hirtus and A. repens (Figure 5). In the case of C. hirtus we have also measured the signal-to-noise ratio of each reflected light technique on raw data (Figure 5). These analyses show that for the coarse texture of C. hirtus, confocal (405 nm and 561 nm), two-photon and aptome techniques all have extremely high signal-to-noise ratios (0.99; see Figure 5) but that widefield fluorescence has a much lower signal-to-noise ratio (0.76; see Figure 5). However, following deconvolution, the recovery of textural information from C. hirtus using the widefield technique is substantially improved. This is highlighted by the detailed images of C. hirtus in Figure 5, and also by differences in the smoothness of the intensity profiles of each technique. The intensity profile of the widefield technique coupled with deconvolution is much smoother than the intensity profiles of raw data from confocal, two-photon and apotome microscopy, and this is particularly clear at the apex of each peak in the intensity profiles (Figure 5).
Cropped and zoomed-in images and intensity profiles on the surface texture of Croton hirtus and Agropyron repens, showing differences in the signal-to-noise ratio of each technique and the impact of blind deconvolution. CF = confocal; 2P = two-photon; WF = apotome; SNR = signal-to-noise ratio; Decon. = deconvolved. SNR calculated as follows: x−y/x+y where x = the average of six maximum pixel intensity values from the peaks of the line profile, and y = the average of six minimum pixel intensity values from the troughs of the line profile (both areas randomly selected). In the case of C. hirtus, line profiles were traced on a single full Croton structure on the same pollen grain. In the case of A. repens, line profiles were traced on randomly selected regions of A. repens specimens. Data from widefield and apotome microscopy is from a single pollen grain. Data from confocal (405 nm and 561 nm) and two-photon microscopy is from a single pollen grain, but not the same specimen analysed used widefield and apotome microscopy. Intensity profiles were not drawn on precisely the same pixels in X-Y positions owing to the movement of pollen grains in the mounting media during the movement of slides between microscopes. Detailed images measure 5 µm in the X-Y direction and are displayed in linear intensity profiles.
The impact of deconvolution is also visible in the line profiles of pixel intensity values of the NDL texture of A. repens. Intensity profiles from 405 nm and 561 nm confocal and two-photon microscopy all show substantial increases in the amplitude of each peak and trough following deconvolution (Figure 5). The granulate texture of A. repens is visible using 405 nm confocal microscopy (Figure 3 and Video S2), and the deconvolution of the widefield microscopy image improved the texture of this pollen (Figure 5).
Comparison of microscopy techniques
None of the microscopy techniques investigated here provides a complete reconstruction of both the shape and surface texture of all three pollen types. Reflected light techniques that use longer excitation wavelengths (e.g. 780 nm) and multi-photon excitation provide good depth penetration and hence good reconstructions of the shape of pollen grains (Figures 2 & 3) , but such techniques fail to resolve NDL surface texture (see Figure 3 two-photon A. repens). Reflected light techniques that use shorter wavelengths (e.g. 405 nm) or incoherent light, both only when coupled with deconvolution (e.g. widefield fluorescence) provide reasonable information on NDL texture (Figure 3). However, these techniques either have poor depth penetration (405 nm, in the case of C. hirtus and M. occidentalis) or suffer considerable convolution (widefield, all pollen species) and hence provide poor reconstructions of the shape of pollen grains (Figures 2 and 3). The relative ability of each microscopy technique to provide information on the shape and surface texture of C. hirtus, M. occidentalis and A. repens is compared in Table 2.
It is notable that widefield fluorescence coupled with deconvolution may provide a picture of coarse surface textures that is comparable to raw data from confocal, two-photon and apotome microscopy (Figure 5). Widefield fluorescence coupled with deconvolution provides a clearer picture of the surface texture of A. repens than confocal and two-photon microscopy (Figures 3 & 5). This is unexpected in the case of confocal microscopy because the resolution of this technique is greater than widefield microscopy (confocal FWHM: 360 nm; widefield FWHM: 470 nm) (Figure 1). However, this increase in resolution is offset by the rejection of photons from out of focus light by the confocal pinhole, which discards useful information required for successful deconvolution , . Further, the pixel integration time of the confocal system used in this study is considerably smaller than the pixel integration time of the widefield system used in this study (confocal: 1.58 µs; widefield: 219 ms). This gives the widefield system a superior signal-to-noise ratio. The rejection of photons during image acquisition may also explain why the texture of A. repens is poorly represented by apotome microscopy (Figure 3) despite the high resolution of this technique (FWHM: 340 nm) (Figure 1), higher pixel integration time, and noted optical sectioning strength of structured illumination widefield fluorescence microscopy . The non-linear gain in resolution of two-photon microscopy, together with the inherent confocality of this technique in the absence of a pinhole, is cancelled by the use of a longer wavelength of light , , and this explains the failure of this technique to provide information on the NDL texture of A. repens (e.g. Figures 3 & 4).
Transmitted light techniques with coherent short wavelength (405 nm laser) illumination seem to provide higher contrast compared to incoherent light illumination (halogen in brightfield) (e.g. Figure 3). Additionally, the exine color of A. repens was the lightest of the three pollen types investigated here, and also had the lowest light absorption, whereas exines of M. occidentalis and C. hirtus were considerably darker in color and had higher absorption (Figures 3 and 7). This may explain why the contrast of M. occidentalis and C. hirtus in brightfield microscopy is greater than A. repens. Differences in contrast transfer functions between coherent and incoherent light and other optical contrast techniques and transfer functions are shown in . Finally, DIC produces images with enhanced contrast when objects have high spatial frequency (see the optical transfer functions shown in Figure S2) . This explains why the NDL texture of A. repens is more clearly represented by DIC compared to brightfield microscopy (e.g. Figure 3).
Absorption of light by the pollen exine affects SNR
All the optical microscopy techniques investigated here recover less morphological information from deep planes than surface planes of C. hirtus, M. occidentalis and A. repens (e.g. Figure 3). This is highlighted by a series of orthogonal projection of the three pollen types, which show that as the excitation wavelength decreases, so too does the amount of morphological information recovered from deep within a specimen (Figure 6). This is shown most clearly by M. occidentalis: confocal microscopy using 405 nm excitation light provides little information from deep within the specimen, but that the use of 561 nm results in enhanced information recovery from deep planes (Figure 6 and Videos S3, S4).
All images show single optical plane approximately from the centre of the Z-stack. In merged reflected and DIC planes, data from reflected light techniques has been pseudocolored according to the excitation wavelength. 405 nm = blue; 561 nm = green; 780 nm = red. The widefield images are red psuedocolored to reflect the rhodamine (546/10) excitation filter. Images from all reflected light techniques were deconvolved except apotome microscopy, which is represented by raw data. Images are displayed in min/max intensity profile. Pollen sizes as for Figure 2. Projections were constructed using the Autoquant slice viewer rendering algorithm.
We interpret this pattern as an expression of the absorption of light by the pollen exine, and in order to investigate this in more detail and to consider its implications for the study of pollen shape, we have measured the absorption of different wavelengths of light by each pollen type. C. hirtus absorbs ∼75% of 405 nm light, ∼50% of 561 nm light and ∼30% of 780 nm light (Figure 7). M. occidentalis absorbs ∼90% of 405 nm light, ∼50% of 561 nm light and ∼20% of 780 nm light (Figure 7). A. repens absorbs ∼20% of 405 nm light, ∼5% of 561 nm light and ∼2% of 780 nm light (Figure 7).
Showing measurements of the percentage of light absorbed by the exine of the three pollen types investigated here, together with brightfield images (focused to the middle plane) of these pollen grains. Absorption was calculated by measuring the difference between the intensity of light passing through the mounting media and the intensity of light passing through a pollen grain. Three absorption measurements were made from three specimens per pollen type. Error bars represent maximum and minimum values. Where no error bars are visible, the range of data was less than the size of the symbol.
All pollen types absorb a greater proportion of shorter wavelength light than longer wavelength light, which may be related to the presence of compounds in sporopollenin that absorb short-wavelength light such as ultraviolet-B, e.g. . C. hirtus and M. occidentalis absorb considerably more light of all wavelengths than A. repens (Figure 7). This is perhaps because these two pollen types have significantly thicker exines than A. repens, as shown by the color brightfield images in Figure 7. Additionally, there is greater variability in the amount of light absorbed by C. hirtus than either M. occidentalis or A. repens (Figure 7). This may be due to the scattering of light by the lens like individual prominent sculptural elements of this pollen type (see Figure 3). These analyses highlight that the recovery of morphological information from pollen grains is dependent not only on the nature and wavelength of the light used to image a pollen grain (e.g. Figures 2,3,4), but also on the nature of the exine of different pollen types. These results suggest that the shape and deep-plane texture of pollen types with thin exines may be recovered with short excitation wavelengths, but those pollen grains with thick exines and very coarse surface sculpture may require longer excitation wavelengths.
Resolving the unresolved: SR-SIM
The diffraction limit of light places a fundamental constraint on the recovery of morphological information from pollen grains. In such situations, the recovery of morphological information using light microscopy relies on the correct interpretation of the emergent pattern of two or more unresolved sculptural elements, or SEM may be employed , . Our example of a pollen grain with texture close to the diffraction limit of light is A. repens, and a key difference between the images of A. repens from SEM and the optical microscopy techniques investigated here is the representation of the surface texture. The high resolution SEM images of A. repens show that there are almost no areas of the pollen grain surface characterized by a fine rugulate sculpture (Figure 8), and this indicates that the fine rugulate texture suggested by brightfield, 561 nm DIC and 780 nm DIC (Figures 3 & 4) is likely to be an artifact of the low resolution of these techniques.
Note the surface texture of the pollen grain, which comprises a dense covering of elements that measure ∼250 nm in all directions (granules; ). A: showing the characteristic sub-circular profile and single pore of A. repens; ×2K magnification; scale bar represents 10 µm. B: showing details of the surface texture and pore that lacks a prominent annulus; ×6K magnification; scale bar represents 2 µm. C–F: showing details of the surface texture of A. repens at ×12K (C) (scale bar represents 1 µm), ×20K (D) (scale bar represents 1 µm) and ×30K (E & F) (scale bars represent 500 nm). E shows an oblique view of the surface texture of A. repens and F shows a vertical view of the surface texture of A. repens. G and H show widefield and SR-SIM images from the Zeiss Elyra super resolution system. Note that the granules (∼250 nm in all directions) on the surface of A. repens are well resolved in H.
In contrast, the surface texture of A. repens from the SR-SIM technique appears very similar to the surface texture of A. repens from the SEM (Figure 8). There are almost no finely rugulate areas on the surface of the pollen grain, and where granules appear to be connected, the individual granules are clearly defined by sub-circular clusters of high-intensity pixels (Figure 8). This provides an early example of how super-resolution light microscopy techniques might be applicable to problems in palynology where the recovery of very fine textural information is required. The SR-SIM technique may also hold at least two advantages over the SEM: (1) SEM provides information only from the surface of a specimen, whereas SR-SIM provides some shape data; (2) debris in a palynological preparation such as plant cuticle can completely obscure pollen grains on an SEM stub , but the SR-SIM may be able to provide some data from such obscured pollen grains, in common with other optical microscopy techniques.
There appears to be no single optical microscopy technique that can satisfactorily capture both pollen shape and surface texture, and a combination of reflected and transmitted light techniques is required to maximize the recovery of morphological information from pollen grains. An example of such a combination might be the simultaneous acquisition of shape and surface texture data using 561 nm confocal and DIC microscopy. The application of appropriate combinations of techniques should lead to more robust morphological classifications, and an increase in the taxonomic precision with which ancient vegetation can be reconstructed using pollen grains , . Based on our analyses, we provide a simplified guide to the imaging of pollen grains using optical microscopy in Table 3. The following specific conclusions are drawn:
- Reconstructions of the shape of pollen grains are limited by the axial resolution and the depth penetration of the microscopy technique employed. Widefield fluorescence provides reconstructions of pollen shape that taper into a pronounced point (Figure 2) owing to the poor axial resolution of this technique (∼1000 nm) , ). Confocal microscopy using 561 nm excitation light provides more information on the shape of all three pollen types investigated here than confocal microscopy using 405 nm excitation light (Figures 2, 3 & 6). This is apparently because short wavelengths of light do not penetrate as deeply into pollen grains as long wavelengths of light (Figures 3 & 6), which may be related to the absorption of short wavelength light by the pollen exine (Figure 7). Two-photon microscopy provides appreciable information on the shape of pollen grains (Figures 2, 3 & 6), which is probably due to a combination of long-wavelength excitation light (780 nm) and multi-photon excitation phenomena .
- SEM reveals that the surface texture of A. repens comprises a dense sculpturing of granules that measure ∼250 nm in all directions, close to the diffraction limit of light , (Figure 8). Among reflected light techniques, widefield fluorescence coupled with deconvolution provides the clearest view of the surface texture of A. repens (Figure 3). This is likely because the widefield technique does not reject any photons during image acquisition , , and because of the high pixel integration time (219 ms), which led to more light-capture in the widefield system used in this study.
- Among transmitted light techniques, widefield DIC and 405 nm DIC provide the clearest view of the surface texture of A. repens (Figures 3 & 4). Under brightfield microscopy, 561 nm DIC and 780 nm DIC the texture of A. repens consists of more linear features (e.g. Figure 4). This highlights that the nature and wavelength of incident light have a profound effect on the recovery of fine morphological details from pollen grains, particularly those near the diffraction limit of light.
- SR-SIM microscopy provides data on the surface texture of A. repens that is more comparable to textural data from the SEM than any other light microscopy technique investigated here (Figure 8, Figure S3 and Video S7). This provides an example of a super-resolution light microscopy technique that is able to accurately resolve morphological details of pollen grains that stretch the capabilities of conventional optical microscopy techniques.
Materials and Methods
No permits were required for the described experiments. Pollen samples were taken from herbarium specimens, so there was no collection of living material. The Agropyron repens grains used in this analysis were from the pollen residues from the University of Maryland; these residues had been isolated from accessioned herbarium specimens from the University of Minnesota and the University of Illinois Herbarium. The Mabea occidentalis and Croton hirtus grains used were isolated with permission from accessioned herbarium samples at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama. None of the three species is listed as endangered or threatened by the IUCN.
Description of pollen grains
C. hirtus, M. occidentalis and A. repens are morphologically very different to one another. In the following descriptions the terminology follows . C. hirtus is ∼50 µm in diameter, circular in outline and inaperturate. The texture of C. hirtus is a distinctive Croton pattern, which comprises rings of five or six (occasionally more) raised triangular sculptural elements arranged around a circular area. M. occidentalis is ∼50 µm in diameter, sub-circular in outline and tricolpate. The texture of M. occidentalis is foveolate, and comprises numerous rounded depressions or lumina ∼1 µm in diameter. A. repens is ∼40 µm in diameter, sub-oval in outline and has a single pore surrounded by a weakly developed annulus. The texture of A. repens is granulate, and comprises a dense covering of raised elements that measure ∼250 nm in all directions (near the diffraction limit of light; NDL).
Preparation of pollen grains for light microscopy, SEM and SR-SIM
Pollen of C. hirtus and M. occidentalis was collected from the herbarium at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama and prepared by standard acetolysis following . Pollen of A. repens was collected and prepared by ; treatment comprised immersion with HCl followed by KOH and HF . Following preparation, pollen grains of C. hirtus, M. occidentalis and A. repens were dehydrated in tertiary butyl alcohol and transferred to silicone oil. Two slides of each pollen type were made. Pollen grains were mounted in 10 µl of silicone oil (refractive index 1.526) and covered with a Zeiss high performance number 1.5 cover glass (18×18 mm, thickness 0.170±0.005 mm).
Specimens of A. repens were prepared for SEM by mounting individual undehydrated pollen grains from ddH2O onto a double-sided adhesive carbon disk that was attached to an SEM stub. The stub was then coated with gold-palladium using a sputter coater, and specimens were viewed using a JEOL JSM-6060LV scanning electron microscope at 25 kV.
Specimens of A. repens were prepared for SR-SIM by mixing individual undehydrated pollen grains from ddH2O into Prolong Gold (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA) anti-fade mounting media. This solution was pipettted onto a Zeiss high performance number 1.5 cover glass (18×18 mm, thickness 0.170±0.005 mm) to allow the ddH2O to evaporate. The solution and cover glass were then mounted on a slide and left at room temperature for over 24 hours to allow the mounting media to cure; this raises the refractive index of the mounting media to >1.45 (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA). The images were obtained by using 405 nm and 488 nm excitation wavelengths with a Zeiss 100× α-Planapochromat 1.46NA objective at a pixel resolution of 30 nm.
Widefield fluorescence, apotome and DIC microscopy
Details of the systems, objectives, voxel dimensions, excitation and emission wavelengths, detectors, deconvolution methods, image analysis and rendering are found in Table 1. Details of the microscopy techniques are elaborated below. The apotome optical sectioning system was coupled with X-Cite 120 illumination (Lumen technologies, Ontario, CA). Brightfield and DIC transmitted light images were acquired after setting Köhler illumination using standard DIC optics, and for DIC image acquisition the Nomarski prism bias was kept at the same position to minimize variations. In the case of phase contrast microscopy, an LD Plan-Neofluoar 40×/0.6NA Korr Ph 2 was used after setting the phase annulus to Köhler illumination . Voxel dimensions of the images were kept at 0.1×0.1 µm in the XY direction and 0.3 µm in the Z direction fulfilling the Nyquist sampling criteria. Widefield, apotome and DIC images were cropped at 780×780 pixels, keeping the pollen in the center, to perform deconvolution in one block.
Single photon, two-photon fluorescence and DIC confocal laser scanning microscopy
Details of the systems, objectives, voxel dimensions, excitation and emission wavelengths, detectors, deconvolution methods, image analysis and rendering are found in Table 1. Details of the microscopy techniques are elaborated below. Beams of the 405 nm (invisible) and 561 nm (visible) single photon diode lasers were split using notch filters, and the pre-chirped 780 nm two-photon laser (MaiTai, DeepSee eHP, Spectraphysics, CA) was split using a 760 nm short pass filter. Since lasers are inherently polarized, an analyzer was not used during the collection of DIC images. Instead, only a pair of Normarski prisms and a polarizer was used. DIC images were acquired simultaneously with the reflected light images using a TPMT module (Zeiss, Obercohen, Germany) after setting the Köhler illumination with a fully opened condenser aperture (0.55 NA). Sampling was performed at 0.1×0.1 µm steps in the XY direction and 0.3 µm steps in the Z direction to fulfill the Nyquist sampling criteria , . Multiple two-dimensional image stacks 512×512 pixels were taken along the Z-axis (referred to as Z-stacks). Auto Z correction (linear extrapolation of laser power and master gain) was used for all pollen grains to correct the loss of signal while scanning through the pollen grain. Whenever possible, the same pollen was used to compare different techniques. Photo-bleaching was insignificant as the pollen types investigated here were strongly autofluorescent. In some experiments, the images were scanned sequentially in frame mode using all three wavelengths (405, 561 and two photon 780 nm) simultaneously on the same pollen.
Point spread functions (PSF)
Point spread functions were measured on all optical reflected microscopic techniques to assess their individual performance using an orange-red 0.17 mm fluorescent PS speck beads (0.175±0.005 µm, Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA) under similar excitation and emission parameters described in Table 1 used for pollen samples. The beads were mounted in Prolong Gold anti-fade mounting media. Theoretical/Estimated PSFs were generated while performing deconvolution for each technique. Line profiles were made to verify the shape of the PSF using Autoquant (Mediacybernatics, Bethesda, MD) or Axiovision software (Carl Zeiss, Obercohen, Germany).
Absorption, SNR, FWHM and line intensity profile measurements
Excitation photon loss was measured by placing a light sensor S121b (400–1100 nm) coupled with a power meter PM 100 (Thorlabs, Gmbh, Dachau, Germany) on a custom designed sensor holder, which could be moved on the specific pollen of interest on the slide. The sensor was lowered to the surface of the slide and the measurements were made while focusing to the middle of the pollen on the other side (inverted scope) using a 10× Planapochromat 0.4NA objective (Carl Zeiss, Obercohen, Germany). Absorption measurements were made from three specimens of each pollen type and expressed as a percentage of background intensity. The signal to noise ratio was measured as described below, where the mean background intensity from raw image data was measured against the mean signal intensities from six different randomly selected regions of a pollen grain. The ratios were averaged for six different positions per sample. Line profiles were created in the program Axiovision (Carl Zeiss, Obercohen, Germany) measurement module. Single optical section (fluorescence) or focal plane (DIC) images were used to generate line profiles. For better comparison, the images were cropped to comparable pixel dimension of around 512×512 pixels. A straight line (default width 1 pixel in the program) was drawn through either center of the image, a single Croton structure or a randomly selected area with high contrast. For images taken from the same pollen grain, the individual planes were assembled as one image stack and the line profiles drawn exactly over the two frames. Pollen grains occasionally moved slightly while switching between two techniques due to the low viscosity of the mounting media. In such cases, line profiles were picked from similar areas but not with identical XY pixel registration.
Orthogonal projection images of pollen were made using the Autoquant -rendering algorithm to visualize the depth penetration in reflected light and how the absorption affected the transmission in DIC images. Single plane images were zoomed in also to assess the resolution. At least three pollen grains were used for each technique and the best representative pollen was shown and further analyzed. The experiments were performed on a single pollen type on the same day to minimize the lamp/laser age, image acquisition room temperature and light path hardware alignment differences.
In two-dimensional optical sections, voxel convolution was removed and out-of-focus light was restored using a commercially available blind deconvolution algorithm (Autoquant version ×2.2, Mediacybernatics, Bethesda, MD) originally developed by , . This algorithm multiplies the image of perfect fidelity with a PSF calculated from the supplied data (Figure S4), imaging parameters and noise level in the image. Raw Z-stack data from widefield, confocal and two-photon reflected light microscopy was deconvolved using a blind deconvolution algorithm. Each technique was matched to the correct modality (wide-field, laser scanning confocal and multiphoton modalities), and 10 constrained iterations with low/medium noise setting were performed. Deconvolution was not performed on data from apotome microscopy.
Display of Optical Sections
From each pollen type, a single optical surface plane (clearest view of the texture closest to the cover glass) and deep plane (closest match to the surface plane texture but furthest from the cover glass) was selected after deconvolution. The final images were presented under min/max or best-fit (SIM data only) intensity profile. Minimum and maximum pixel intensities were displayed on a scale of 0–256 grey levels (8-bit). The X-Y, X-Z (maximum intensity projection; e.g. Figure 2) and orthogonal projection of raw and deconvolved data (median plane; e.g. Figure 6) was accomplished by the Autoquant maximum-intensity projection or slice viewer algorithms. Movies of the DIC images showing individual planes were made in Zeiss Zen 2010 program. Movies of reflected light maximum intensity projections and slice views were rendered using the Surpass Volume module in the Imaris suite software (Bitplane, Zürich, Switzerland). Figures were preassembled in Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator (Adobe systems, San Jose, CA).
Performance of phase contrast technique in revealing the pollen morphology. The phase contrast technique failed to provide textural details of the pollen grains for all three species, shown from top to bottom, A. repens, C. hirtus and M. occidentalis.
Optical transfer function differences between brightfield and DIC. The NDL surface texture of A. repens is better revealed under DIC technique compared to brightfield. DIC produces images with enhanced contrast when objects have high spatial frequency and this could be explained by the differences in the optical transfer function. Retraced from .
Super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM) could resolve NDL surface texture easily. Screenshot of a line profile over three surface textures of super resolution-SIM data showing the FWHM of around 244 nm. No other reflected light technique tested provided such high signal to noise ratio and resolution.
Theoretical point spread functions used in blind deconvolution algorithms. Estimated PSFs of wide-field, confocal laser scanning and multiphoton modalities used for deconvolving the pollens using the blind deconvolution in the program Autoquant. The intensity profiles were measured to determine the psf shape at the single plane in the center of the stack. Note the wide field yielded the broader FWHM, than the confocals as expected and the confocal and multiphoton modalities yielded similar PSF. Gamma values over 8.0 was used to visualize the intensity distribution and PSF shape.
3D rendering of A. repens pollen imaged using wide-field microscopy. The first part is a series of optical sections, and the second part is a 3D projection of all slices after blind deconvolution.
3D rendering of A. repens pollen having NDL structures imaged using 405 nm laser scanning confocal microscopy. The first part is a series of optical sections, and the second part is a 3D projection of all slices after blind deconvolution.
3D rendering of M. occidentalis pollen imaged using 405 nm laser scanning confocal microscopy. The first part is a series of optical sections, and the second part is a 3D projection of all slices after blind deconvolution.
3D rendering of M. occidentalis pollen imaged using 561 nm laser scanning confocal microscopy. The first part is a series of optical sections, and the second part is a 3D projection of all slices after blind deconvolution.
3D rendering of C. hirtus pollen showing large lens like features imaged using aptome optical microscopy technique. The first part is a series of optical sections, and the second part is a 3D projection of all slices.
3D rendering of C. hirtus pollen showing large lens like features imaged using two-photon confocal microscopy using the 780 nm excitation. The first part is a series of optical sections and the second part is a 3D projection of all slices after blind deconvolution.
3D rendering of A. repens pollen images using super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM). All images are stacked and the movie is a 3D projection of all optical sections.
2D image stacks of A. repens under widefield transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner.
2D image stacks of C. hirtus under widefield transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner.
2D image stacks of A. repens under confocal 405 nm excitation transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner.
2D image stacks of C. hirtus under confocal 405 nm excitation transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner. This image was taken with a photomultiplier gain gain that is two-fold greater than the other images.
2D image stacks of A. repens under confocal 561 nm excitation transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner.
2D image stacks of C. hirtus under confocal 561 nm excitation transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner.
2D image stacks of A. repens under two photon 780 nm excitation transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner.
2D image stacks of C. hirtus under two photon 780 nm excitation transmitted light DIC technique. Images are rendered in Zeiss Zen software and the depth of each plane is shown in top left corner.
We are grateful to Michael Urban and David Nelson for providing the specimens of Agropyron repens, and to Jim Mabon for assistance with scanning electron microscopy. We thank Andy Belmont for access to an OMX-SIMS system for testing at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. We also thank Jim Powers and Paul Goodwin for helpful comments on SIMS-OMX super-resolution data, and Lutz Schaffer, David Biggs for useful discussion of deconvolution. We are especially grateful to Bryant Chun and Ben Ng for help in imaging Agropyron repens with the Carl Zeiss Elyra PS1 SR-SIM system. This research was carried out in part in the Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory Central Facilities, University of Illinois.
Conceived and designed the experiments: MS LM SWP. Performed the experiments: MS LM. Analyzed the data: MS LM. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: MS LM SWP GF. Wrote the paper: MS LM SWP GF. Supervised the project: SWP GF.
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- 35. Lomax BH, Fraser WT, Sephton MA, Callaghan TV, Self S, Harfoot M, Pyle JA, Wellman CH, Beerling DJ (2008) Plant spore walls as a record of long-term changes in ultraviolet-B radiation. Nature Geoscience 1: 592–596.
- 36. Abbe E (1873) Beiträge zur Theorie des Mikroskops und der mikroskopischen Wahrnehmung. Archiv für Mikroskopische Anat Entwicklungsmech 9: 413–468.
- 37. Liu Y-S, Zetter R, Ferguson DK, Mohr BAR (2007) Discriminating fossil evergreen and deciduous Quercus pollen: A case study from the Miocene of eastern China. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 145: 289–303.
- 38. Nelson DM, Hu FS, Michener RH (2006) Stable-carbon isotope composition of Poaceae pollen: an assessment for reconstructing C3 and C4 grass abundance. The Holocene 16: 819–825.
- 39. Köhler H (1981) On Abbe's theory of image formation in the microscope. Optica Acta, 28, 1691–1701.
- 40. Biggs DSC (2010a) Deconvolution microscopy. Current Protocols in Cytometry 12: 19.1–12.19.20.
- 41. Biggs DSC (2010b) A practical guide to deconvolution of fluorescence microscope imagery. Microscopy today 18: 10–14.
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States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners (view 2 of 2)
is a color photocopy of a postcard showing the main building of
the United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners. A huge flagpole
in the center of a green area is shown flying the American flag.
The Medical Center was built at 1900 West Sunshine Street, the corner
of Wabash and Sunshine. During the Great Depression, the people
of Springfield gave 620 acres of land to the federal government
to build the hospital. Congress acted to create the Medical Center
in 1930. The first buildings were completed in 1933. The unoccupied
land was originally used by the prisoners for farming. In 1966 this
farming was abandoned. In 1977 the federal government returned some
of the original 620 acres to Springfield.
The hospital was created to care for the physical and mental disorders
of federal prisoners in prisons all over the country. There are
over 90 of these prisons now. Patients range from minimum-security
to maximum-security inmates. Patients are transported from their
home institution to the Medical Center by automobiles, institutional
buses and airplanes. Every two weeks a 94-passenger airplane starts
at the west coast and jumps all the way to the east coast making
many stops to pick up and drop off passengers across the United
States. If a patient has an acute condition he is either brought
to the Medical Center by chartered plane or is treated in a local
hospital. All chronic problems are treated at the Medical Center.
The Medical Center is staffed by over 500 full-time employees. These
include correctional officers and medical personnel such as doctors,
nurses, dentists, psychologists and surgeons. The Medical Center
is one of Springfield's major industries. There are no women federal
prisoners housed at the Medical Center. They are treated by local
hospitals wherever they are inmates.
The first superintendent of the Medical Center was Dr. Marion R.
King. Some other notable superintendents were Pat Keohane, who was
a native of Springfield and ran the prison from 1995 to 1999, and
Pat Ciccone who ran the Medical Center from 1965 to 1978.
The Medical Center had three riots during its existence, in 1941,
1944 and 1959. All three riots were brought under control with tear
gas. The 1959 rioters captured five hostages. It was the only riot
with any casualties. One prisoner was killed as an assault force
rescued the hostages. One hostage was also slightly injured.
Many famous people have spent time in the Medical Center. Among
them are John Gotti, Robert Stroud (the Birdman of Alcatraz), and
Larry Flynt who apparently liked Springfield so much he considered
buying the Elfindale Manor in which
to live and perhaps start a magazine. The convicted terrorist Omar
Abdel Rahman, also called the "blind sheik," also spent time at
the Medical Center.
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| 0.960327 | 611 | 3 | 3 |
A Friday story in the Huffington Post suggests that Russia’s territorial ambitions, so well illustrated in the takeover of the Crimea from the Ukraine, is not limited to the surface of the Earth. Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin suggested that his country is planning to build a base on the moon. He is quoted as saying, “We are coming to the moon forever.”
The remarks were made as Russian President Vladimir Putin was touring the Cosmonautics Memorial Museum in Moscow in advance of the Cosmonaut Day celebration on April 12. The celebration commemorates the first orbital space flight of Yuri Gagarin in 1961. It is celebrated in the West as “Yuri’s Night.”
Gagarin’s first space flight shocked the United States, inspiring President John F. Kennedy to issue the challenge to land a man on the moon by the end of the 1960s. Just over eight years later the flight of Apollo 11 fulfilled that challenge when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked in the moon. The last Apollo lunar voyage took place in 1972 and humans have not been back to the moon since. Two presidents named Bush have tried to restart deep space exploration, including a return to the moon. President Obama cancelled the last American lunar effort, Project Constellation, in 2010, according to Fox News.
Russia’s lunar ambitions begin with a series of unmanned probes scheduled to start in 2016. Its manned lunar effort is apparently going to be conducted as a marathon, rather than as a sprint as occurred in the 1960s. Rogozin suggested that the Russian lunar base would be established in 2040, 26 years hence.
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Definition of pronucleus
n. - One of the two bodies or nuclei (called male and female pronuclei) which unite to form the first segmentation nucleus of an impregnated ovum. 2
The word "pronucleus" uses 10 letters: C E L N O P R S U U.
Direct anagrams of pronucleus:
Adding one letter to pronucleus does not form any other word in this word list.Words within pronucleus not shown as it has more than seven letters.
All words formed from pronucleus by changing one letter
Browse words starting with pronucleus by next letter
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Reynaud, Jean (1806–1863)
French statesman and writer who, in his Terre at ciel (1854), set out a religious system based on the transmigration of souls which he believed was reconcilable both with Christianity and pluralism. He advocated that, at death, souls pass from planet to planet, progressively improving at each new incarnation. Among those on whom the book had a strong influence was Camille Flammarion.
Related category PHILOSOPHY
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact
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| 0.948779 | 121 | 2.53125 | 3 |
When Louisiana's legislature and Mississippi's school children awarded the magnolia the high praise of rating it first among the flowers of their respective States and declaring that it best typifies their ideals and expresses their aspirations, they selected a floral emblem widely known and universally admired, not less for its exquisite beauty than for its delightful fragrance. The Chinese regard the magnolia as symbolical of candor and beauty, and whoever has known the sweetness of its perfume and the charm of its blossom can appreciate the tribute.
There are many kinds of magnolias, each with its own peculiar attractions. But queen of them all is the grandiflora, which has borrowed all the beauties of the laurel and the rhododendron. It has a straight trunk, two feet in diameter, which often rises to a height of 70 feet. It is an evergreen, with leaves not unlike those of the laurel, glossy green on top, rusty brown beneath, and oval-oblong in shape. It bears a profusion of large, creamy white, lemon-scented flowers. As these latter reach their final stages before the petals fall, they turn a pale apricot hue. When fruiting time comes it is a cone of dangling scarlet seeds that we see.
There are numerous other varieties indigenous to America, among them the glauca, a beautiful evergreen species found in low situations near the sea, from Massachusetts to Louisiana. Another is the “cucumber tree,” well known for its small fruits resembling cucumbers. Its range is from Pennsylvania to the Carolinas, mostly in the mountains. Its wood is much prized by farmers for making hay ladders, bowls, and other implements and utensils where a hard, non-warping material is needed. Still another species is the umbrella tree. The tulip tree, also a member of the family, is of American origin.
The Chinese have a species of magnolia which gives them a medicine for healing and a flavor for improving the gustatory qualities of boiled rice. It is said that India has a species that surpasses all others in size, having a trunk which sometimes attains a girth of 12 feet and reaches a height of 150 feet. Western Europe has gathered species from China, Japan, India, and America, and although all of them are imported, they seldom reach the magnificence in their native habitat that they attain under the careful attentions of the landscape gardeners in the climes of their adoption.
The beetle is the special insect patron of the magnolia. Abundant pollen and nectar in profusion suit it so well that instead of making a fleeting visit to a flower it shelters itself in the soft petals and stays and stays until dispossessed by the fading of the blossom. Then only does it go to another field to pasture; but as it goes it carries liberal quantities of pollen grains with which to reward its new host for the food and drink and shelter it seeks and secures.
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| 0.960424 | 616 | 3.109375 | 3 |
2.4 The Basis Of Secular Ethics
2.4.1 Ethics are not absolute in a sense that they are independent of society, they are an invention of human beings. Every invention has its purpose and the purpose of ethics is to provide a stable standard of interpersonal behavior so that society can function smoothly and people can interact in a productive and cooperative way. human beings are basically social animals so this fulfills a deep instinct and acts as a survival mechanism (since humans survive better through cooperation). Does this mean that ethics are meaningless or unimportant? No.
2.4.2 Ethics are meaningful because we give them meaning. In modern society, humanity is often belittled with phrases like "he's only human" and with beliefs that place human beings in the position of being helpless and needy. The pyramids need not have been built by space aliens, they were built by Human beings with hard work, intelligence, engineering, and ingenuity. What people fail to realize is that things that are created are real too, just as with airplanes and bird nests and we can create things. Although not the only way things can exist, creating is one event that brings things from non-existence to existence. Since we created ethics, ethics necessarily exists. "Meaning" is a useless word unless it refers to who it has meaning for. Things that we create can have meaning for us.
2.4.3 Ethics are important because of the reasons I mentioned earlier. Ethical behavior is crucial to the cooperation (and therefore both individual and collective survival) of humanity. This was obvious the first time two Humans decided to help each other. Individually speaking, ethical behavior encourages others to be the same toward us, it makes for good relationships which we can enjoy and benefit from, and most of all it makes us feel good about ourselves and provides a stable, psychologically well-balanced, and healthy mind. This is because Humans have an underlying instinct for empathy and need for mutual love (a survival mechanism for any social animal).
2.4.4 This concept is not entirely incompatible with religious concepts of morality. Any believer when asked "Why does god want to restrict me and spoil all my fun?" will answer "god doesn't give us these commandments to restrict us, he does it to protect us. He knows how the world IS and he knows what will give us the most pleasurable life." All I'm saying is that we as human beings can also see how the world is (to some extent) and we can see that ethics protects us and helps us prosper for the same reasons. Theists and atheists simply differ over why the world is the way it is (and why it is at all).
2.4.5 The realization of this concept is a component of reaching the highest level of moral maturity. In his book, Forbidden Fruit: The Ethics Of Humanism, Paul Kurtz reasonably outlines the general stages of moral development. I will paraphrase them here...
a) Infantile amorality: Instant gratification with no sense or right or wrong. Mostly represented by infants, psychotics, and some of the gravely handicapped.
b) Obedience to rules: Obedience to commandments based on a system or rewards and punishments, much like animals are trained. Every child must go through this stage and, sadly, much religious morality never gets past this level.
c) Moral feelings for others: The development of an internalized empathy for the needs of others. A normal progression of healthy Human social instincts, it may flourish or be muffled by upbringing and/or psychological defect. Nevertheless, an important basis for the beginnings of true moral development.
d) The ethics of self interest: Adherence to a moral code only to the extent that it yields self-gain. Breaking of moral decencies may occur if one can escape detection. We all experience such temptations, and some do it to excess. Although this level represents a serious problem with selfishness and a sad lack of empathy, integrity, and social perspective, formulating some certain choices on the basis of self-interest does not, in itself, imply a lack or moral concern for others and therefore would not be meant as a description of this level.
e) Union of moral feeling and rational self-interest: A genuine feeling of empathy and loving concern for others to the extent that it fits within feelings of self interest. Here altruism is planted in one’s cognitive and affectional attitudes.
f) Humanistic ethics: A fully developed ethical system that involves a concern for the broader community on a more universalistic basis. There is devotion to general ethical principles, not to be broken without just cause, an inward feeling of moral sympathy and a desire to not needlessly hurt other human beings, reason is used in guiding one’s conduct in terms of the moral excellences and will involve concern for both the individual and the whole, and ethical considerations to the whole of humanity will exceed allegiances to one’s inner circle, smaller groups, etc.
Although these levels are not reached at the same rate (or even order) for everyone, they illustrate the basic point explained by Albert Einstein...
"A man’s ethical behavior should be based effectively on sympathy, education and social ties and needs; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeed be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hope of reward after death."
Fortunately, many have proven that human beings can lead moral, meaningful lives based on humanistic ethics and this shows that the same process on a social level would be just as equitable, at least. Humanity has the potential to grow up and start making decisions for its own well-being.
2.4.6 Unfortunately, religion’s alleged monopoly on morality leaves no avenues for nonreligious people to mature through, thus creating the popular image of the "lost soul" which lingers in depression, crime, drugs, and abuse - the perceived result of a lack of religious belief. Were secular ethics more accessible and well known, more of these "lost souls" could gain greater happiness without the need to cage their minds.
2.4.7 As an atheist, I believe that the importance and significance of ethics can be seen by the way human beings have adorned them with beliefs of their supernatural origins. According to belief, God didn't command that we shall put our left sock on before the right, he commanded that we not kill. The very reason why believers assign holy significance to ethics is because of how important they are held to be by humans (not the other way around as theists believe).
2.4.8 In a similar organization to moral maturity models, I often present four general answers to the question of, "Why should I be good?"
FIRST REASON - SELF INTEREST:
Given the fact that we live in a society made up of human beings like ourselves, it should be obvious that people will not respond well to being lied to, stolen from, or harmed. If you think you can get away with evil deeds undetected, ask yourself if you've ever done anything long term without making a mistake of some kind eventually. If you lie, for example, people will tell each other that you are a liar and not to be trusted. Whether we admit it or not, we all need the support and cooperation of others to get along in the world so the social consequences of treating others badly are bad enough. To add to that, however, there are often legal consequences for more extreme behaviors. The risks to your reputation, possessions, and even freedom make unethical behavior extremely unwise and costly. You may think you'll never be caught but, in the long run especially, that is very unlikely.
2.4.9 SECOND REASON - SELF PRIDE:
Believe it or not, most people like goodness and hate evil - including evil people! With the exception of severely psychotic persons, most people dislike evil, even when they themselves are committing it. Hating evil is not really a matter of choice, that's just human nature. This is why many criminals do things which are self destructive. Deep down, even if unconscious of it, they hate themselves. People who lead unethical lives ultimately loose respect for themselves and become very unhappy. But when we do what is right we nearly always feel a great sense of self worth - even if no one ever knows about what we did. This higher sense of development is what justifies being good, even when no one is looking.
2.4.10 THIRD REASON - EMPATHY:
Humans are, by nature, social animals. Like many other social animals, humans normally have the instinctive emotion of empathy. Sometimes the ability to experience empathy can be dramatically suppressed by early abuse or neglect. However, in a well rounded individual, empathic emotions cause us to involuntarily experience the emotions of those we see around us. This is one reason why movies and books are so much fun - we automatically put ourselves in the place of the characters, experiencing joy or sadness as they do. If empathy is nurtured properly in a child, s/he will grow up to be an adult who will feel guilty when causing harm to others and feel happy when helping others. This emotion can be a powerful driving force to being a good person. In cases where empathy has been suppressed, long and difficult counseling or other psychological measures may be effective. Religion has been used as a tool to help reform such people but secular or philosophic counseling has also been effective. Furthermore, religion only works if the person believes it. The placebo effect of religion does not in any way support or suggest the truthfulness of any of it's beliefs. There are many ways to help people reform without the need to promote superstitions.
2.4.11 FOURTH REASON - GREATER GOOD:
Once a person has fully understood the first two reasons and is under the influence of the third, a natural tendency is for them to become more concerned about the greater good of the world. At the highest level of moral maturity, individuals see themselves as part of a larger whole. This doesn't mean they live for the good of that whole necessarily, it only means they are aware of it and often are concerned as to how all of our individual actions "add up." The contributions we make to others around us in the world are part of what gives meaning and continuity to our lives. A fully developed moral person will get enjoyment from such contributions. Some may scoff at this reason as not being of interest to those who might ask why they should be good. However, it should be noted that, for many who have become more sensitive to moral issues, the first reason (self interest) is often of less concern in ethical decision making.
2.4.12 As I said earlier, each of these reasons may only be important to a person at a certain stage of his or her life. Some people never reach full moral maturity. Often, it is authoritarian and simplistic nature of much religious doctrine that suppresses moral development, holding it's members to such a childish level of morality, that they cannot comprehend why a person would be good without the threat of punishment or reward in an alleged afterlife. This is similar to a third grader wondering why an adult attending junior college should do his or her homework, since there is not an ever-present parent forcing them to. In general, you will notice a direct correlation between wisdom and goodness. The fact is that ethics are what's best for us, and it takes no supernatural sanction to justify this inescapable conclusion.
Continue to 2.5 Moral Relativism & Objective Ethics
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Dietary Concerns Benefits and Risks or Raw Dog Food (cont.)
Raw Dog Food Diet: What the research shows
Lisa M. Freeman, DVM, PhD, was the lead author on an evaluation of raw dog food diets published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Association in 2001. She cautions pet owners against them, saying that many dog owners are choosing raw diets based on online myths and scare tactics about commercial pet food.
For pet owners who want to avoid commercial food, Freeman advises a cooked homemade diet designed by a nutritionist certified by the American College of Veterinary Nutrition.
Freeman, a nutrition professor at the Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University, says that many of the benefits attributed to a raw food diet for dogs, such as a shinier coat, instead are the result of the high fat composition of the typical raw diet. High-fat commercial foods that would produce the same effect are available, she notes, without the risk of an unbalanced diet. Supplements can also be used as an alternative to increasing fat in the diet.
The evaluation looked at five raw diets, three homemade and two commercially available. All had nutritional deficiencies or excesses that could cause serious health problems when given long term, according to the report.
Joseph Wakshlag, DVM, PhD, has seen those problems appear in some dogs as poor coats, bad skin, or weak bones. Too little fat means a bad coat; but too much fat and not enough protein can cause mild anemia, says Wakshlag, an assistant professor of clinical nutrition at Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. (Wakshlag accepts some research funding from Nestle Purina PetCare.) Homemade raw diets also may lack enough calcium and phosphorous, he says, causing bone fractures and dental problems. Depending on the quality of the diet, the calcium or phosphorus may also be difficult to properly digest, even if present in adequate amounts.
Studies of raw pet food also have shown bacterial contamination. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued suggestions in 2004 for manufacturing raw pet food more safely, citing concern about the possibility of health risks to owners from handling the meat. A 2006 study of 20 commercially available raw meat diets found that 7.1% contained a type of salmonella. E. coli bacteria was found in 59.6% of raw meat diets. These bacteria can also be shed in the feces, leading to a potential source of human exposure and infection.
The study also sampled four canned and dry dog foods. It found E. coli in all of the commercially processed, cooked foods during one of the four sampling periods, and in one brand of dry food during another sampling period.
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The Explorers' Graveyard
Author: Joan Gillis - Fifth Grade teacher, PA
The Explorers' Graveyard - a Halloween 'N History Hallway Display
Here's a way to create a classroom review project that the whole school will enjoy. Typically, classrooms learn about Explorers to America at the start of the school year. And then of course, Halloween is just around the corner. This assignment involves research, review, and creative writing.
Goal: To review lessons about the explorers, encourage collaboration and brainstorming, and develop creative writing skills.
Optional: To work with a partner to create your tombstone sharing ideas
Materials: Large white art paper, colored pencils, markers, scissors, encyclopedias, history books, and access to laptops or other computers (if possible).
You may also want to offer web resources about explorers, such as from this search of TeachersFirst.
Students can learn about their explorer through independent reading, using suggested books from the Explorers CurriConnect booklist TeachersFirst. Differentiate for varied reading levels easily from this list.
Directions to students:
1. Choose one of the explorers or one of the interesting people you met along the way that we have studied. Examples : Cortes, Pizzaro, Eric the Red, Lief Ericson, Ponce DeLeon, Montezuma, Athalupa, Columbus, Verrazano, DeSoto...
2. On your paper, write an epitaph for your explorer. (Explain that an epitaph is an inscription on a tombstone in memory of the person buried there.) Your epitaph must include:
- Date of birth/death (some are tough; in that case we put a "?");
- Three facts (accomplishments)
- Rhyming verse
- Creative design on the tombstone
- Project must be completed on time
- Neatness counts!
From these requirements it is easy to make a rubric for scoring their project. Just assign point values to the "Must Have" list.
- Outside the classroom I create a rolling green cemetery. I decorate the countryside with bats, a full moon, black sky and stars. I bought the cotton cobwebs and stretched it from tombstone to tombstone. I also made a black fence in the front on the cemetery with a banner reading "Explorers Graveyard." Add decorations by the students too, or the students can help with construction.
Examples from Students:
Here lies Hernando Cortes.
There are many stories of him they says (sez').
But none could be truer then when the Aztecs were bluer.
Each and every day that Cortes was so much crueler.
This student forgot the dates of Cortes birth/death so he would lose points.
1480 - 1621
Here lies Magellan.
His wife's name was Helen.
He sailed the West,
His crew was really a pest.
He found the Philippines.
What happened next might make you scream.
He caught an arrow in his back from an Indian attack.
In a box he now lies to protect him from the files.
This student scored very well. Creative, humorous, and facts too!
Options for using this idea:
- Instead of explorers, have students use a favorite character from a story as a subject. This tombstone could include facts of the story or three characteristics of this person.
- Take a picture of each explorers’ gravestone. Have students create Voicethreads reviewed here.. This site allows students to narrate a picture. Have students read their epitaphs on the Voicethreads. Share the Voicethreads on your class website for families to view.
- Incorporate some geography into this lesson by having students use a site such as Woices, reviewed here. This site allows students to create audio recordings AND choose a location (on a map) where the story takes place. What a fabulous way to “retell” history! Be sure to share these on your class website.
- How about creating an online graveyard site (wiki) for students to share their epitaphs! Not familiar with wikis? Check out the Teacher’s First Wiki Walk-Through, reviewed here.
- There are many take-off ideas here. The benefit is that it is a peek into your classroom that everyone at the school can enjoy. The timing for this activity also works well, since many back-to-school nights take place about this time.
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Dorland’s Medical Dictionary defines a parasite as “a plant or animal that lives upon or within another living organism at whose expense it obtains some advantage.” Insert your white collar professional joke here! We all know about the “big three” parasites that infect our kitties: hookworms, roundworms and tapeworms, but, believe it or not all, parasites are not worms. Organisms such as hemobartonella, coccidia, giardia and even heartworms are all lesser known parasites that deserve some attention.
Feline hemobartonellosis, referred to as “hemobart” as the common name (thank goodness), is also known as feline infectious anemia (FIA) and is an important cat disease. It is a rickettsial organism, which means it’s kind of in between a bacteria and a virus. It has been around since 1942, but much about it still remains a mystery. It can be a primary disease itself or a secondary invader riding in on the coattails of such famous diseases as feline leukemia, AIDS viruses and autoimmune diseases.
Hemobart causes a wide range of clinical signs but most of the damage comes from the destruction of red blood cells and anemia. We call these severely anemic cats “Kool-Aid cats” because their thin blood resembles the fruity drink and not the viscous life-sustaining stuff we call blood. Any such cat is automatically a suspect for Hemobart.
Hemobart is transmitted in one of three postulated ways (again we are not positive): 1) Through arthropods like fleas and ticks; 2) Through cat bites in which blood is involved; and 3) From mother to offspring.
Treatment is not a complex thing. First we provide supportive care, including rehydration and blood transfusions, if needed. Then antibiotics like doxycycline or oxy/tetracycline are used. Most veterinarians also use corticosteroids, although the timing as to their administration is controversial. We use it right away if the infection is deemed life threatening. Hemobart can be treated, but often cats remain carriers.
Giardia is a protozoal organism found in the intestinal tract of cats; most often it affects young cats. This suggests an acquired immunity as cats age. The transmission of giardia is fecal-oral thus it is more of a problem in areas where cats are congregated. Some species of giardia are thought to be transmittable to people (i.e. zoonotic), but the jury is still out.
Not all cats with the parasite show clinical symptoms. Diarrhea is the most common, with the feces having a characteristic look and smell. The diarrhea can cause dehydration and weight loss, but rarely causes death. Giardia is diagnosed by seeing the parasite on a fecal smear or by an enzymatic test performed on the feces.
Metronidazole or flagyl is our drug of first choice; panacur or fenbendazole given for five consecutive days will also work. These drugs kill the active form of giardia, the trophozoites, but may not eliminate the dormant state or cysts, so reoccurrences can occur.
Coccidiosis is another common intestinal protozoal disease. It is caused by organisms in the isospora (most common), toxoplasma, sarcocyctis or cryptosporidim genus. Isospora is the most common.
Coccidia has an interesting life cycle, most of what you need to know is that it is a fecal-oral transmission; however mice, cattle, sheep and other herbivores act as an intermediate host. Cryptosporidium can be transmitted to man and immunocompromised people are at greatest risk.
Some researchers say coccidian is a self-limiting disease, but I don’t know any vets who don’t treat it. Clinical signs include diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain. The disease is easily treated with sulfonamide type antibiotics.
I hope you all have learned a little about some different parasites of cats. You should now all be able to ace your next biology exam.
Stephen Sheldon, DVM, practices at Gypsum Animal Hospital. He can be reached by calling 970-524-3647 or by visiting the hospital website at www.gypsumah.com. He can also be heard Monday mornings at 8 a.m. on KZYR radio, 97.7 FM, discussing pet topics.
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Exhibition Closed April 2011
Although the natural landscape of the southeastern United States has changed vastly as a result of European settlement, the region’s wildlife has provided consistent inspiration to naturalists and artists over the centuries.
Decades before John James Audubon would commence work on his famed volume Birds of America, British-born naturalist John Abbot (1751-c.1840) immigrated to eastern Georgia and began creating spectacularly detailed and remarkably lifelike watercolors of the birds and insects native to the area. These illustrations numbered over 5,000 by the time of Abbot’s death, and significantly advanced the work of early ornithologists and entomologists by allowing them to better study and classify these winged creatures of Georgia.
This tradition of observing and vividly documenting the wildlife of the southeast is continued today, 200 years later, by self-taught woodcarver Floyd C. Robbins (b. 19??). A native of Fort Worth, Texas, Robbins has lived worked in the South Carolina Low Country for over thirty years. Using knives, bandsaws, wood-burning tools, and paint, Robbins painstakingly creates arrestingly lifelike carvings of game birds. Robbins’s wood carvings are prized by collectors in the region and around the country for their elegance and their fidelity to nature.
Winged Creatures will consist of approximately 30 watercolors by John Abbot and 20 carvings by Floyd Robbins. Its focus on the natural world relates to the concurrent exhibition Philip Juras: The Southern Frontier, Landsapes Inspired by Bartram’s Travels, on view at the Telfair Academy January 28 through May 8.
Artist and Naturalists Programming>>
John Abbot (American, b. England, 1751-c.1840); Yellow Vent (Palm Warbler), n.d.; Watercolor on paper; 11 x 8 5/8 inches; Telfair Museum of Art; Gift of Mrs. Holly Symmes Montford in memory of her father, Mr. John Cleves Symmes, Jr.
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