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When Do Children Learn About Vertices Faces And Edges In Primary School Children need to be formally introduced to the vocabulary of vertices, faces and edges in Year 2 when studying geometry. However, teachers may make the choice to introduce this vocabulary earlier on. Year 2 pupils should be able to: - identify and describe the properties of 3-D shapes, including the number of edges, vertices and faces The non-statutory guidance states that: - Pupils handle and name a wide variety of common 2-d and 3-d shapes including: quadrilaterals and polygons, and cuboids, prisms and cones, and identify the properties of each shape . Pupils identify, compare and sort shapes on the basis of their properties and use vocabulary precisely, such as sides, edges, vertices and faces. From this point on, the national curriculum does not reference vertices, faces and edges explicitly again, so teachers in other year groups will have to continue to use this vocabulary when looking at shape Edge Definition Illustrated Mathematics Dictionary What Is The Edge Of A Cube Math Fun Library: Question : How does ‘Deduce’ relate to Deduction ? Answer : Deduction is a noun derived from the verb Deduct. If derived from Deduce it means to infer, to draw conclusions by reasoning from given principles. To sieve out all the unnecessary information from a problem and draw out the plain facts In other words, you can think of frequency in an image as the rate of change. Parts of the image that change rapidly from one color to another contain high frequencies, and parts that change gradually contain only low frequencies Recommended Reading: Holt Geometry Homework And Practice Workbook Answer Key What Is Edge In Triangle Edges are the lines that join to form vertices. A square has four edges and four vertices. A triangle has three of both. A square pyramid, a three-dimensional shape, has different numbers of edges and vertices. It has five vertices, or corners, but it has eight edges to join these vertices together. What Is A Face In Math Study Recommended Reading: Holt Geometry Answers What Are Vertices In Math Vertices are the points, or corners, in geometrical and mathematical shapes where two or more lines meet but do not cross, according to Math Open Reference. Vertices can exist in two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes. The singular form of vertices is vertex. Sometimes, the term vertex is also used to describe certain points on quadratic equations. Vertices are often used as a description of the corner of a shape, generally a polygon. However, they can also exist at a point between any two lines which meet and form an angle but do not cross. If the lines cross, the point is considered an intersection and not a vertex. Vertices are a useful way to describe objects and their placement in two-dimensional and three-dimensional spaces. Two-dimensional objects have vertices where their lines meet, and three-dimensional objects have vertices where their planes meet. In this sense, vertices can sometimes be described as the corners of a geometric structure. In mathematics, the term vertex can also refer to the peak of a parabola. A parabola is a curved shape that is generated by graphically representing a quadratic equation. The peak of a parabola is either the highest or lowest point on the curve, depending on whether it opens upwards or downwards. Definition And Meaning Of Vertices And Edges A vertex refers to a single point which joins edges together in a shape. Many individuals also call a vertex as a corner or a point. Furthermore, a vertex is where two lines meet. Every corner which exists in a geometrical shape represents a vertex. The angle is certainly irrelevant to whether or not a corner is a vertex. Furthermore, different shapes would have different numbers of vertices. Also, a square consists of four corners where the meeting of the pair of lines takes place. Hence, a square has four vertices. Moreover, a triangle has three vertices and a square pyramid has five. Edges refer to the lines which join to form the vertices. Furthermore, the outline of a shape is made up by the edges. Also, the creation of an edge takes place when two vertices are joined by a line. This matter can be somewhat confusing. This is because, in some two-dimensional shapes, there will be only as many vertices as there are edges. A square certainly has four edges and four vertices. On the other hand, a triangle comprises of three vertices and edges. A square pyramid has a different number of edges and vertices. Also Check: Holt Geometry Textbook Answers In Mathematics The Largest Question Youll Probably Have Is What Does Coordinate Mean Within this guide well attempt to describe what this means and how it is employed in math. Coordinate is a procedure for translating a pair of coordinates. A few examples of coordinate are translating coordinates which are in relation to meters into the ones which are in terms of feet. They include translating one set of coordinates and translating one set of coordinates. Coordinate can be of a website that writes essays for you two kinds. 1 kind of coordinate is called in, which stands for the x-direction or the x-axis. The other kind of coordinate is y, which stands for the y-direction or its y-axis. Lets go over these two sorts of coordinate. For instance, the coordinate is generally used with the y and x axes. The x axis points at the very top and the y axis points. In math coordinate might be used to tell the length of a lineup. Coordinate may also be used to inform the direction that the line is going, in addition to the number of amounts that it is currently going around the circle, called radians. Coordinate can be used to measure distance force, mass, stress, or quantities. You can use coordinate to describe the areas of polygons, and the angles between the vertices. This is referred to. The surface of a space is also referred to. What does coordinate mean in this circumstance? An orthogonal projection is exactly what it seems like. It refers to a plane in space. Thus, what does discriminate imply at a plane? Vertices In Computer Graphics In computer graphics, objects are often represented as triangulated polyhedra in which the object vertices are associated not only with three spatial coordinates but also with other graphical information necessary to render the object correctly, such as colors, reflectance properties, textures, and surface normal these properties are used in rendering by a vertex shader, part of the vertex pipeline. Read Also: Ccl4 Vsepr Shape Vertices Faces And Edges Vertices, Faces and Edges are the three properties that define any three-dimensional solid. A vertex is the corner of the shape whereas a face is a flat surface and an edge is a straight line between two faces. 3d shapes faces, edges and vertices, differs from each other. In our day-to-day life activities, we come across a number of objects of different shapes and sizes. There are golf balls, doormats, ice-cream cones, coke cans and so on. These objects have different characteristic properties such as length, breadth, diameter, etc., which set them apart from one another. But no matter how different their dimensions are, all of them occupy space and have three dimensions. So they are referred to as three-dimensional Shapes or solids. There are figures that can be represented on a plane and have 2 dimensions, length, and breadth. And they are referred to as two-dimensional or plane figures. In this article, we will discuss the faces, edges and vertex meaning in Maths for the solid objects. Chambers 20th Century Dictionaryrate This Definition: graf, n. a representation by means of lines, exhibiting the nature of the law according to which some phenomena vary: -graph is used as a terminal in many Greek compounds to denote an agent which writes, & c., as telegraph, seismograph, or the thing written, as in autograph, & c.âadjs.Graphâ²ic, –al, pertaining to writing, describing, or delineating: picturesquely described: vivid.âadv.Graphâ²ically.âns.Graphâ²icness Graphiolâ²ogy, the science or art of writing or delineating, or a treatise thereon Graphâ²is, a genus of lichens, remarkable for the resemblance which the fructification assumes to the forms of the letters of Oriental alphabets Graphâ²Ä«te, a mineral, commonly called blacklead or plumbago , largely used in making pencils.âadj.Graphitâ²ic.âns.Graphâ²ium, a stylus Grapholâ²ogy, the science of estimating character, & c., from handwriting.âGraphic arts, painting, drawing, engraving, as opposed to music, sculpture, & c. Graphic granite, a variety of granite with markings like Hebrew characters. Read Also: 4 Goals Of Psychology Example What Does Equidistant Mean In Maths . Accordingly, what is equidistant math? Equidistant pointsDefinition: A point P is equidistant from others if it is the same distance from them. A point is equidistant from other points if the line segments linking it to them are congruent . Secondly, what is a synonym for equidistant? d?s t?nt, ?k w?- In this way, what is the equidistant formula? For example, consider the line segment containing the end points A and B and midpoint P. These points are said to be equidistant if the distance between the point A and P is equal to the distance between the point P and B, that means the point P is the mid point of A and B. How do you find equidistant from 3 points? In other words, it is the point that is equidistant from all three vertices. The circumcenter is constructed in the following way. Again, find the midpoints of the sides of the triangle. Next, construct the perpendicular line to the side that passes through the midpoint of each side. Common Mathematical Symbols And Terminology Skillsyounee What does this mean for you? All of the SL program is part of the HL, unlike how the current Group 5 courses, but similar to IB sciences. So, if you decide to pursue HL and then drop down to SL at a later date, provided your school permits this, you can do so without having to backfill the syllabus What does this mean for the other values? if x = 1, then y must be 2, z It would be tempting to define the valence or degree of the vertices in the graph in Figure 10 as the number of edges at a vertex. However, when one does this, it is not true that the sum of the valences of the vertices of the graph adds to twice the number of edges. In math, a function is a relationship between different mathematical quantities. A simple one might look like this: y = 2x. The Riemann zeta function follows the same basic principles The definition of congruent angles is two or more angles with equal measures in degrees or radians. Congruent angles need not face the same way or be constructed using the same figures . If the two angle measurements are equal, the angles are congruent. If angle B a n g l e B and angle D a n g l e D have the same. A Maths Dictionary for Kids is an online math dictionary for students which explains over 955 common mathematical terms and math words in simple language with definitions, detailed visual examples, and online practice links for some entries Read Also: Sample Space Definition Math What Is The Vertex Of A Parabola When we graph a quadratic equation, we get a parabola. The vertex definition of a parabola is the point where exactly it turns. It is also called the minimum point. When the parabola , opens down the vertex is called the maximum point. The parabola vertex lies at the axis of symmetry. In the standard form, we write the quadratic equation as \ In the standard form, the vertex of the parabola is given by: where D is the discriminant. \ The vertex equation of a parabola is of the form \^2 + k\) The vertex of the parabola is at the coordinate \|Vertex of the parabola\| Graph of \ = 1 – 2x -3\) is as shown below . Find the vertex of the parabola. The coordinates of the vertex are. Note that the parabola will open downward is negative), but the vertex has a positive y-coordinate. \|\ Vertex of the parabola is at \\| Find the vertex of the parabola \^28\) We know that The vertex equation of a parabola is of the form \^2 + k\) where is the vertex. In the given equation, h = 3 and k = – 8 Therefore the vertex of the parabola is \|\ Vertex V of the parabola is at\| Reflections Across The Line Y = X A reflection across the line y = x switches the x and y-coordinates of all the points in a figure such that becomes . Triangle ABC is reflected across the line y = x to form triangle DEF. Triangle ABC has vertices A , B and C . Triangle DEF has vertices D , E , and F . All of the points on triangle ABC undergo the same change to form DEF. Also Check: Draw The Lewis Structure For Ccl4. How Do Vertices Faces And Edges Relate To Other Areas Of Maths Students will use the knowledge of vertices, faces and edges when looking at 2d shapes as well as 3d shapes. Knowing what edges are and identifying them on compound shapes is crucial for finding the perimeter and area of 2d compound shapes. It is an important foundation for later years when dealing with different maths theorems, such as graph theory and parabolas. Vertices Faces And Edges Of Common 3d Shapes How many faces, edges and vertices does a cuboid have? A cuboid has 8 vertices. A cuboid has 12 edges. A cuboid has 6 faces. How many faces, edges and vertices does a cylinder have? A cylinder has 0 vertices. A cylinder has 2 edges. A cylinder has 2 faces and 1 curved surface. How many faces, edges and vertices does a hemisphere have? A hemisphere has 0 vertices. A hemisphere has 1 curved edge. A hemisphere has 1 face and 1 curved surface. How many faces, edges and vertices does a cone have? A cone has 1 vertex. A cone has 1 edge. A hemisphere has 1 face and 1 curved surface. How many faces, edges and vertices does a tetrahedron have? A tetrahedron has 4 vertices. A tetrahedron has 6 edges. A tetrahedron has 4 faces. How many faces, edges and vertices does a sphere have? A sphere has 0 vertices. A tetrahedron has 0 edges. A tetrahedron has 1 curved surface. How many faces, edges and vertices does a prism have? A prism is a solid object, geometric shape or polyhedron where the faces of both ends are the same shape. As such, students will come across many types of prisms throughout their schooling. Common ones include cubes, cuboids, triangular prisms, pentagonal prisms and hexagonal prisms. Read Also: Open Sentence Definition Math
In Part 1, students were asked to find a data graph, analyze it, draw conclusions and create a question about it as part of their assignment. For Part 2, I pulled 5 different data graphs from the paper (bar, circle, line and two that incorporated multiple graphs) and asked the kind of questions they're usually asked on the test: - What's the independent and dependent variables? - What's the trend/pattern/correlation/main idea of the data graph? - Based on the data, which of the following statements is true/a valid conclusion? - Which graph accurately reflects the given data? We also talked about why we need this skill before we started, and I showed them six different questions from their last benchmark where they could use these data graph analysis skills to answer them correctly. Six questions is about a ten percent swing on that test, which is the difference between passing and failing for many students on the bubble. Most importantly, this skill is required across many of our state objectives: (A) The student describes independent and dependent quantities in functional relationships. (D) The student represents relationships among quantities using [concrete] models, tables, graphs, diagrams, verbal descriptions, equations, and inequalities. (E) The student interprets and makes inferences from functional relationships. (C) The student interprets situations in terms of given graphs [or creates situations that fit given graphs]. (D) In solving problems, the student [collects and] organizes data, [makes and] interprets scatterplots, and models, predicts, and makes decisions and critical judgments. (B) Given situations, the student looks for patterns and represents generalizations algebraically. (C) construct circle graphs, bar graphs, and histograms, with and without technology. (B) recognize misuses of graphical or numerical information and evaluate predictions and conclusions based on data analysis. (A) identify and apply mathematics to everyday experiences, to activities in and outside of school, with other disciplines, and with other mathematical topics; (A) make conjectures from patterns or sets of examples and nonexamples For more ideas on using the newspaper in the classroom, check out my book Ten Cheap Lessons: Easy, Engaging Ideas for Every Secondary Classroom. Email me or leave a comment if you have more ideas to share.
- Use web technology to access immigration history - Develop an understanding of the concept of immigration - Develop oral history writing skills, including note-taking and coming up with questions - Read for detail - Use real-world examples as models for writing an oral history - Compare and contrast immigration stories of the past with the present - Compare and contrast immigration through Ellis Island and Angel Island - Use technology to explore a historical place and event - Use graphs and facts to respond to several research-based questions and activities - Whiteboard and markers - Immigration: Stories of Yesterday and Today online activity - Interactive whiteboard, tablets or computers for student use, or a computer and projector to display the online activity - KWL Chart printable or Concept Map printable - Explore Immigration Data online activity - Graph paper or graphing program - Explore Immigration Data: Data-Based Questions and Group Projects printable - Writing paper - Immigration: An Oral History Writing Workshop online activity or Research Papers: A Writing Workshop online activity - Optional: "Relive a Boy's Journey to America" article - Optional: Angel Island: An Asian Pacific American Heritage online activity - Large map of the world - Yarn in multiple colors - Push pins - Optional: Double-sided tape or another way to temporarily attach photos to the map display Hall of Fame and Music From Around the World and Social Studies - Reference materials from the library or online sources - Depending on the grade level and maturity level of each class, activities can be facilitated as independent work, collaborative group work, or whole-class instruction. - If a computer is available for each student, guide students to the activities either through printed URLs on handouts or on the board. - If you are working in a lab, set up the computers to be on the desired websites as students walk into class. If there are fewer computers than students, group the students by reading level. Assign each student a role: a "driver" who navigates the web, a timer who keeps the group on task, and a note taker. If there are more than three students per computer, you can add roles like a team leader, a team reporter, etc. - If you are working in a learning station in your classroom, break out your class into different groups. Have rotating groups work on the computer(s), read printed background information, hold smaller group discussions, write first drafts of their scrapbook, etc. - Optional: If you want students to read Seymour Rechtzeit or Li Keng Wong's immigration stories, print class set of the "Relive a Boy's Journey to America" article or the Angel Island: An Asian Pacific American Heritage Activity. - Optional: You may also want to create a special display for your classroom library in honor of immigration. Check out the Immigration for Grades 6–12 Book List for suggested print materials. Be sure to keep a shelf available for students' oral history scrapbooks or research papers! Activity 1: Immigration Introduction (1–2 days) Step 1: Introduce the topic of immigration to the United States through a class discussion. Use the Discussion Starters below for ideas. Ask students to volunteer any information they may already know about U.S immigration, both in the past and the present. Encourage students to share family stories. Write repeating themes on the board for students to copy down. - What is the definition of immigration? - What are some reasons people immigrate? - Why is America a popular destination for immigrants? - What are the differences between immigrate, emigrate and migrate? - What are some of the obstacles that an immigrant faced in the past? - What are some of the obstacles that an immigrant faces today? - Who were some famous immigrants that made important contributions to America? - What are some controversial issues surrounding immigration today? - What is an illegal immigrant? - What is the process of becoming a legal immigrant? - What may happen if you are an illegal immigrant living in the United States? - How many immigrants does the United States allow each year? - What is the estimated population of illegal immigrants moving to the United States each year? - What does it mean to be "Americanized"? - What is the meaning of assimilation? - What are some creative ways Americans can assist newly arrived immigrants? - What are the pros and cons of assimilation? - What are the pros and cons of Americanization? Step 2: Have students explore the Immigration: Stories of Yesterday and Today online activity, either as a class on the interactive whiteboard or individually on computers or tablets. Hand out copies of the KWL Chart printable or the Concept Map printable for students to fill out as they explore the activity. Optional: You can also assign Seymour Rechtzeit and Li Keng Wong's stories for home or class reading. Activity 2: Explore Immigration Data (1–2 days) Step 1: Review the Explore Immigration Data online activity as a class. Look over the various charts and tables with students. Ask volunteers to describe the kind of information each chart is showing. Have them support findings with examples from each chart. Step 2: Ask students to compare two graphs or charts that give the same information. How are they similar and different? Have students state the advantages and disadvantages to using each one. Step 3: Invite students to create a graph or chart showing the class's immigrant history. Then have students investigate and discuss the following questions, among others, about the immigrant history of your area: - Was your area primarily settled by people from one country? - Why would immigrants have chosen your region in America? Step 4: Have groups of students respond to five questions relating to the immigration data on the Explore Immigration Data: Data-Based Questions and Group Projects printable. Step 5: When groups have finished answering the questions, challenge them to write questions to pose to other groups. Have students explore the immigration timeline for ideas of how they might write interesting questions that relate to world events. Use this activity to visually identify connections students have to other countries in the world. Display a large map of the world. Have students draw self-portraits or bring in photos of themselves. Place the pictures around the border of the map. Have each student stretch a piece of yarn from his or her picture to a country or region where his or her ancestors lived, and secure it with push pins. You may want to color code the yarn by country, continent, or world region. Take time to discuss the finished map. Hall of Fame Invite the class to create a Hall of Fame of immigrants who have made important contributions in the United States. For their Hall of Fame submission, each student should provide a photograph or other likeness of the person, identify his birthplace and when he came to America, and explain in a paragraph his accomplishments. Music From Around the World Work with students to investigate examples of music and literature from other lands that have influenced American writing and music. Have students investigate words, foods, sports, and fashion that have their origins in other countries. Immigration Written Reflection Students will reflect upon and answer the following questions. Convey to students that they are to be thinking about the Immigration online activity's overarching concepts and ideas. - What are some reasons that people have immigrated to the United States? - What can we learn about American attitudes toward immigrants from the experiences of immigrants themselves? - See the Discussion Starters above for a list of interesting questions to use for the written reflection. Oral History and Research Paper Writing Have students complete either the Immigration: An Oral History Writing Workshop or the Research Papers: A Writing Workshop. When students are finished, encourage students to read one another's writing projects. Students can also present their learning to their peers with a PowerPoint presentation, a poster board, or an oral report for the class. Use a writing rubric as a way to assess your students' writing skills. Each of the online writing workshops has its own writing rubric: Oral History Scrapbook Project Writing Rubric and Research Paper Writing Rubric. These rubrics can also serve as models for modified versions that might include your state's writing standards. Take a tour of Ellis Island, explore an interactive immigration timeline, and meet young immigrants in this online activity! PreK–K, 1–2, 3–5, 6–8 Students get a unique firsthand account of what it was like for a young girl to move from a small village in China to the United States in the 1930s. In this multi-faceted activity, students analyze immigration statistics by studying Scholastic's charts and creating their own. Students get a unique view of immigration by interviewing and writing an oral history on an immigrant — this workshop guides them through it.
Extraterrestrial events — the collision of faraway black holes, a comet slamming into Jupiter — evoke wonder on Earth but rarely a sense of local urgency. By and large, what happens in outer space stays in outer space. A study published Wednesday in Science Advances offered a compelling exception to that rule. A team of researchers led by Birger Schmitz, a nuclear physicist at Lund University in Sweden, found that a distant, ancient asteroid collision generated enough dust to cause an ice age long ago on Earth. The study lends new insight to ongoing efforts to address climate change. “We’ve shown that what happens in the solar system can have a big influence on Earth,” said Philipp Heck, a curator of meteorites at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago and an author of the study. “Extraterrestrial events aren’t always destructive. Many people think about meteorites as just dinosaur killers, but we found the opposite. A big collision in the asteroid belt had constructive consequences that led to cooling and biodiversification.” Earth is frequently exposed to extraterrestrial matter; 40,000 tons of the stuff settle on the planet every year, enough to fill 1,000 tractor-trailers. But 466 million years ago, a 93-mile-wide asteroid collided with an unknown, fast-moving object between Mars and Jupiter. The crash increased the amount of dust arriving on Earth for the next two million years by a factor of 10,000. Dr. Schmitz, Dr. Heck and their team found that the dust triggered cooling in Earth’s atmosphere that led to an ice age. In sufficient amounts, extraterrestrial dust can cool Earth by blocking the amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface. Because the dust from the asteroid collision accumulated gradually, the planet cooled gradually, allowing plants and animal species to adapt as sea levels dropped and temperatures declined by as much as 50 degrees Fahrenheit. “Our study is the first time it has been shown that asteroid dust actually helps cool Earth to a dramatic extent,” Dr. Schmitz said. The team derived their evidence from a study of fossil meteorites, extraterrestrial materials that long ago became embedded in Earth’s rocks. They are so rare, Dr. Heck calls them “Mona Lisas.” The first was found in a Swedish limestone quarry in 1952, but it was shelved by an unsuspecting paleontologist and wasn’t properly identified for another 27 years. In 1979, when a mineralogist realized the extraterrestrial origins of the rock, he prompted a systematic search for more in Swedish quarries. Researchers found 130 meteorites over the next two decades. Of these, Dr. Schmitz and his team determined that 129 derived from the same asteroid breakup. The meteorites were analyzed to determine their chemical composition, and their level of cosmic ray exposure was measured to confirm their outer-space origins and pin down when they arrived on Earth. By tracing the increase in the meteorites of certain isotopes, the researchers were able to determine that extraterrestrial dust began to reach Earth about 50,000 years after the asteroid collision. A worldwide ice age began roughly 10,000 years later, during the Ordovician Period. “We’re talking about gentle changes that happened over 2 million years,” Dr. Heck said. “If we could travel back in time, it wouldn’t appear as a catastrophe to us, it would be more like a gentle nudge that led to global change and triggered diversification.” When the team started its research, they hypothesized that the collision might have increased dust levels by a hundredfold. The chemical analysis soon revealed that the dust levels had risen far more, by a factor of 10,000, an increase sufficient to markedly alter Earth’s climate. Dr. Schmitz and his team believe their findings shed light on a mechanism that could eventually be used to counteract global warming. In their paper, they propose that an asteroid could be captured and brought to one of the Lagrange points between the sun and Earth — an unstable zone where the gravitational pull of each is equal — allowing it to produce dust that blocks sunlight. They are not the first scientists to suggest using extraterrestrial dust for global cooling. However, Dr. Heck emphasized that their findings are only a basis for investigation. “Putting a rock into an unstable point that could make it fall into Earth has me worried,” he said. “A small asteroid wouldn’t cause a global extinction, but it could cause a local catastrophe or wipe out a city in the worst case.” At the very least, Dr. Schmitz said, the study will help people appreciate Earth’s connection to the rest of the solar system: “Geologists often think of nothing outside Earth. You have to understand what happens in space to get the full picture of what’s happened on Earth.”
In the 17th century there were various ways in which the king could raise money to finance expenditure. Revenue was collected from a variety of sources - including, for example, the Crown estates, such as those that belonged to the Duchy of Lancaster. In addition, income was received from customs duties and feudal incidents such as wardships. Any increase in the latter was liable to incur political opposition. During the 16th century these traditional sources of income had proved to be inadequate to support the cost of government, and Elizabeth I had resorted to raising money with the consent of Parliament. Although both Elizabeth and the early Stuart kings had intended parliamentary taxation as an 'extraordinary' means of raising money, they came to depend on it - and by the 17th century it had become a very important source of income for the Crown. However, the assessments for such subsidies did not reflect the true incomes of the landowning classes, and the Crown had to rely on loans from the City of London to make up shortfalls in the royal finances. How to raise revenue? Both James I and Charles I became engaged in searches for solutions to their growing financial problems, which were exacerbated by involvement in war. Attempts to raise money by extending customs duties or by seeking funds from Parliament met with opposition and became caught up in the political turmoil of both reigns. They were also seen as a threat to the independence of local communities. In 1626 Charles resorted to taxation without the consent of Parliament in the form of a forced loan, which although successful was unpopular. The Parliament that met in 1628 granted him a subsidy, but only after he had assented to the Petition of Right. During the years from 1629 to 1640, when Charles ruled without Parliament, obscure sources of revenue - such as forest fines - were exploited, as well as customs duties. These measures met with a mixed reception, although the decision in 1635 to extend the tax known as 'ship money' (which had previously been confined to the maritime counties) to inland counties was perceived as unfair, and returns eventually declined. Eventually, lack of money compelled Charles to call a Parliament in 1640. The political disputes of the first half of the 17th century, which ended in civil war and the execution of the king, demonstrated the difficulties surrounding the absence of adequate mechanisms for obtaining consent to taxation. A financial revolution In the wake of the Glorious Revolution of 1689 came a financial revolution. The income of the Crown was restricted and the monarch now relied on Parliament for sufficient funds, even in peacetime. The fact that Britain was almost continuously at war between 1689 and 1714 therefore meant that Parliament met frequently. The level of taxation increased, and taxation became more regular. It was also more widely spread and - because of this and because it was backed by parliamentary approval - it became more acceptable, with little serious opposition. Taxes fell into three main groups: customs duties, 'excises' (taxes on beer, salt, malt and other products), and taxes on property or status (including taxes on land, windows and bachelors). In addition to taxation, money was raised by large-scale borrowing. Despite the general acceptance of the new tax regime, there were aspects that caused discontent. This was particularly true of excises, the collection of which involved officials working under the direction of central government. An attempt by Sir Robert Walpole in 1733 to compensate for reductions in land tax by imposing excise duties, instead of customs duties on tobacco and wine, caused an outcry and he was forced to back down. As Britain became engaged in expensive conflicts, so the number of taxes (especially indirect taxes) multiplied and the middle classes, as well as the poorer members of society, suffered. In these circumstances it became more difficult to impose new taxes in times of peace, despite an army of revenue officers. At the end of the 18th century, when Britain was at war with France, William Pitt's government introduced a tax on income (in 1799) in order to finance the high military costs. Pitt believed that income tax would be regarded as a fairer form of taxation - an idea that has continued to the present day. The American colonies presented a more intractable problem. The Stamp Act passed in 1765 - which levied duties on services such as legal transactions and appointments to public office - met with a storm of protest that challenged Britain's right to tax the colonies while denying them parliamentary representation. Although the Act was repealed in 1766, it was one of the grievances that contributed to the American War of Independence, which began in 1775.
Since the 1986 discovery of high-temperature superconductivity in copper-oxide compounds called cuprates, scientists have been trying to understand how these materials can conduct electricity without resistance at temperatures hundreds of degrees above the ultra-chilled temperatures required by conventional superconductors. Finding the mechanism behind this exotic behavior may pave the way for engineering materials that become superconducting at room temperature. Such a capability could enable lossless power grids, more affordable magnetically levitated transit systems, and powerful supercomputers, and change the way energy is produced, transmitted, and used globally. Now, physicists at the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory have an explanation for why the temperature at which cuprates become superconducting is so high. After growing and analyzing thousands of samples of a cuprate known as LSCO for the four elements it contains (lanthanum, strontium, copper, and oxygen), they determined that this "critical" temperature is controlled by the density of electron pairs--the number of electron pairs per unit area. This finding, described in a Nature paper published August 17, challenges the standard theory of superconductivity, which proposes that the critical temperature depends instead on the strength of the electron pairing interaction. "Solving the enigma of high-temperature superconductivity has been the focus of condensed matter physics for more than 30 years," said Ivan Bozovic, a senior physicist in Brookhaven Lab's Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department who led the study. "Our experimental finding provides a basis for explaining the origin of high-temperature superconductivity in the cuprates--a basis that calls for an entirely new theoretical framework." According to Bozovic, one of the reasons cuprates have been so difficult to study is because of the precise engineering required to generate perfect crystallographic samples that contain only the high-temperature superconducting phase. "It is a materials science problem. Cuprates can have up to 50 atoms per unit cell and the elements can form hundreds of different compounds, likely resulting in a mixture of different phases," said Bozovic. That's why Bozovic and his research team grew their more than 2,500 LSCO samples by using a custom-designed molecular beam epitaxy system that places single atoms onto a substrate, layer by layer. This system is equipped with advanced surface-science tools, such as those for absorption spectroscopy and electron diffraction, that provide real-time information about the surface morphology, thickness, chemical composition, and crystal structure of the resulting thin films. "Monitoring these characteristics ensures there aren't any irregular geometries, defects, or precipitates from secondary phases in our samples," Bozovic explained. In engineering the LSCO films, Bozovic chemically added strontium atoms, which produce mobile electrons that pair up in the copper-oxide layers where superconductivity occurs. This "doping" process allows LSCO and other cuprates--normally insulating materials--to become superconducting. For this study, Bozovic added strontium in amounts beyond the doping level required to induce superconductivity. Earlier studies on this "overdoping" had indicated that the density of electron pairs decreases as the doping concentration is increased. Scientists had tried to explain this surprising experimental finding by attributing it to different electronic orders competing with superconductivity, or electron pair breaking caused by impurities or disorder in the lattice. For example, they had thought that geometrical defects, such as displaced or missing atoms, could be at play. To test these explanations, Bozovic and his team measured the magnetic and electronic properties of their engineered LSCO films. They used a technique called mutual inductance to determine the magnetic penetration depth (the distance a magnetic field transmits through a superconductor), which indicates the density of electron pairs. Their measurements established a precise linear relationship between the critical temperature and electron pair density: both continue to decrease as more dopant is added, until no electrons pair up at all, while the critical temperature drops to near-zero Kelvin (minus 459 degrees Fahrenheit). According to the standard understanding of metals and conventional superconductors, this result is unexpected because LSCO becomes more metallic the more it is overdoped. "Disorder, phase separation, or electron pair breaking would have the reverse effect by introducing scattering that impedes the flow of electrons, thus making the material more resistive, i.e. less metallic," said Bozovic. If Bozovic's team is correct that critical temperature is controlled by electron pair density, then it seems that small, local pairs of electrons are behind the high temperature at which cuprates become superconducting. Previous experiments have established that the size of electron pairs is much smaller in cuprates than in conventional superconductors, whose pairs are so large that they overlap. Understanding what interaction makes the electron pairs so small in cuprates is the next step in the quest to solve the mystery of high-temperature superconductivity.
The German reunification or German unification (in the legal language of German unity ) was formed by the peaceful revolution in the GDR initiated process of 1989 and 1990, the accession of the Democratic German Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany on October 3 led 1990th The German unity thus completed, which has since been celebrated every 3rd October as a national holiday called the Day of German Unity , ended as a result of the Second World War in the Cold War erafour decades of German division . Pointers for this development were the wave of emigration from the GDR , the growing opposition in the GDR and the opening of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, which brought about the final collapse of the GDR's political system . A necessary external prerequisite for German reunification was the consent of the four victorious powers of World War II, which until then still held or claimed responsibility for Germany as a whole under international law . The unity of the two German states was approved by the two-plus-four treaty, or officially the treaty on the final settlement with regard to Germany , and the unified Germany was granted full sovereignty over its internal and external affairs. Significant intermediate stops on the way to German reunification were the Volkskammer election in March 1990 and the State Treaty on Monetary, Economic and Social Union . On September 20, 1990, the People's Chamber of the GDR and the German Bundestag approved the Unification Treaty of August 31, and the Bundesrat the following day . Two German states as heirs of the Second World War The parallel existence of two German states in the second half of the short 20th century of contemporary historical development was due, after the First World War and the Weimar Republic , the takeover of the National Socialists under Adolf Hitler permits and their the Second World War and in the unconditional surrender of leading large German Expansion policy had allowed. Heinrich August Winkler sees the period of German dual statehood structured by a peculiar 12-year rhythm, which ranges from the mutual founding of the state in 1949 to the decisive date of the construction of the Wall in 1961 and the entry into force of the basic treaty between the Federal Republic and the GDR in 1973 to the one with the Mikhail Gorbachev took office in 1985, which spanned a new era of international relations in the East-West conflict . Post-war situation and foundation of the two German states After the German surrender in May 1945, the German Reich was not dissolved or annexed, but the rest of Germany after Poland's shift to the west was taken under the joint responsibility of the allied victorious powers . According to the preliminary agreements made in the anti-Hitler coalition at the Yalta Conference , which were implemented with the June Declaration in 1945 , the victorious powers divided Germany into four zones of occupation : the Soviet , the American , the British and the French . The future four-sector city of Berlin created a corresponding division . The Allies proceeded in the same way in Austria and Vienna . An Allied Control Council , which should also have implemented the decisions of the Potsdam Conference , was to act as the joint administrative organ of the four main victorious powers for Germany as a whole . The Cold War , which began in 1947, brought economic reconstruction aid to the western zones as part of the Marshall Plan and resulted in separate currency reforms in the United Economic Area and the Soviet Occupation Zone (SBZ), came to a head in 1948 with the Berlin blockade and airlift , which in 1949 resulted in the opposing establishment of two German states. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany was created by the Parliamentary Council as a provisional constitution and, according to the preamble, linked to the reunification requirement and, with its execution and promulgation on May 23, 1949, marks the conversion of the previous Trizone into the Federal Republic of Germany, Berlin retained a special status. The German Democratic Republic, whose government immediately claimed the Soviet sector of Berlin as the capital, was founded on October 7, 1949, when the constitution of the German Democratic Republic was passed by transforming the Soviet Zone. The two German states 1949–1961 Under the impression of the division of Germany and the lack of self-determination of the East Germans, the GDR was not recognized by the Federal Republic as a separate state from the start. Rather, a legal position came into play, according to which the German Reich as a state and subject to international law did not perish in 1945, but continued to exist within the limits of 1937 and was merely incapable of acting. The founding of the Federal Republic of Germany thus merely represented a constitutional reorganization of its western part. Due to the lack of free elections or the right to self-determination in the GDR, the West German side established a claim to sole representation of the Federal Republic of Germany for all Germans; in order to give this international emphasis, the so-called Hallstein Doctrine was formulated and strictly applied as the most important instrument . The Federal Republic of Germany did not formally recognize its own citizenship of the GDR until 1990, so that every GDR refugee in the Federal Republic was recognized as a German citizen with equal rights . The German Democratic Republic did not see itself as the successor to the German Reich, but described itself as the first socialist workers 'and peasants' state on German soil. In addition, the GDR negated any historical responsibility and claims for reparation. The government of the GDR signed the Görlitz Agreement of July 6, 1950, which recognized the Oder-Neisse line as the final “German-Polish state border” and was officially referred to as the “Oder-Neisse peace border” in the official GDR language. One day after the signing of the General Treaty between the Federal Republic and the Western Allies, the GDR closed the interzonal border on May 26, 1952. The only loophole left for people who wanted to leave the GDR was Berlin, where such measures were initially neither possible nor seemed due to the city's four-power status . The suppressed popular uprising of June 17, 1953 in the GDR, which also called for reunification and which was subsequently celebrated annually in the Federal Republic as the Day of German Unity , strengthened tendencies towards emigration and flight from the GDR. Until the end of the 1950s, the loss of emigration from the GDR, especially to West Berlin, remained so high that Khrushchev triggered the second Berlin crisis : in the Khrushchev ultimatum named after him, he threatened the USA, Great Britain and France, the Soviet Union would control the GDR Transferred via the connecting routes between the Federal Republic and West Berlin, if an Allied agreement were not reached within six months, with which Berlin would become a Free City. This ultimatum passed without consequences. US President Kennedy had announced his three essentials in a response : the Western Allies should remain in Berlin, their free access there and the preservation of the West Berliners' freedom of rights. The SED regime solved the problem of mass emigration from August 13, 1961 by building the Berlin Wall . German-German relations 1961–1989 After the new division situation - the large flows of refugees had dried up, but there were repeated fatalities during attempts to escape over the Berlin Wall as well as in the rest of the border between the GDR and the Federal Republic - as a lasting reality in everyone's consciousness, things soon broke out in the West increasingly about working towards human relief and cross-border encounters, especially between relatives. As a driving force here functioned especially Willy Brandt , as Governing Mayor of West Berlin it under his responsibility in 1963 pass agreement came with the GDR and the sign of his close advisor Egon Bahr developed concept of "change through rapprochement" as chancellor those new Ostpolitik , which in the early 1970s led to the four-power agreement on Berlin and the basic treaty between the two German states following contractual arrangements with the Soviet Union in the Moscow Treaty and the People's Republic of Poland in the Warsaw Treaty . The German government explicitly pointed out to the Soviet Union its goal of reunification when it signed the Moscow Treaty . In this process, the GDR leadership was primarily concerned with enforcing equal recognition of the GDR as an independent state in the West based on the principle of peaceful coexistence . Heavily indebted and suffering from a notorious shortage of foreign exchange for imports from the West, she tried to gain financial advantages from intra-German relations, be it within the framework of transit agreements , be it in the release of prisoners . The new Ostpolitik begun by the social-liberal government was continued uninterrupted by the Kohl / Genscher government , although it had been fiercely opposed at the beginning of the 1970s. An expression of serious problems in the GDR's state finances was already in 1983 the billion- euro loan for the GDR, which Bavarian Prime Minister Franz Josef Strauss was instrumental in . The GDR government was able to record Erich Honecker's visit to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1987 as a particular success in its efforts to achieve independence and recognition . Under the title “ The dispute of ideologies and common security ”, a joint “culture of dispute” paper had been published by the East German SED and the West German SPD shortly before as a result of several years of deliberations . a. meant: “Neither side may deny the other's right to exist. Our hope cannot be that one system will abolish the other. It is aimed at ensuring that both systems are capable of reform and that the competition between the systems strengthens the will to reform on both sides. " Crisis, peaceful revolution and turning point in the GDR Since the mid-1980s, the loosening of the Iron Curtain has allowed twinning relationships between GDR and West German communities: Eisenhüttenstadt and Saarlouis in 1986 and Schwerin and Wuppertal in 1987. At the same time, the GDR was increasingly in a state of stagnation and crisis. This was due, on the one hand, to the growing national debt , and, on the other hand, to increasing isolation within the Eastern Bloc , as the GDR government rejected any discussion of the reforms initiated by the Soviet Union under Gorbachev under the banner of glasnost and perestroika and now even Soviet publications of the Subjected to censorship. In August 1989, Otto Reinhold , Rector of the Academy for Social Sciences at the Central Committee of the SED and a major opponent of Erhard Eppler at the aforementioned SED-SPD consultations, affirmed what the core question of the "socialist identity of the GDR" was for him by making a difference on all other socialist countries: “They all existed before their socialist transformation as states with a capitalist or semi-feudal order. Their statehood was therefore not primarily dependent on the social order. Unlike the GDR. It is only conceivable as an anti-fascist, as a socialist alternative to the FRG . What right to exist should a capitalist GDR have alongside a capitalist Federal Republic? Of course not. Only when we keep this fact in mind can we clearly see how important it is for us to have a social strategy that is uncompromisingly aimed at consolidating the socialist order. " Wave of emigration and strengthening reform forces In the 40th year after the founding of the state, the SED regime came under pressure from within in two ways: When the willingness of the “ socialist brother states ” to consistently prevent GDR citizens from fleeing to West German embassies or across borders that were still guarded, and the By extraditing GDR state organs, an increasing number of politically and economically frustrated GDR citizens managed to flee to the Federal Republic via third countries . In August 1989, 661 East Germans crossed the border from Hungary to Austria at the Pan-European picnic at Sopron . It was the largest movement of refugees from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built. This opening of the border, propagated by the mass media, then triggered the subsequent events. Three days after the Pan-European Picnic, another 240 people crossed the Austro-Hungarian border. The situation came to a head when Hungarian border troops prevented further crossings by force of arms and several refugees were injured. On the night of September 11, 1989, Hungary opened its border to GDR citizens. In addition to the “We-want-out!” Movement, a “We-stay-here!” Movement was added, which sought to end the SED dictatorship through democratic reforms. Nationwide protests against the fraudulent local elections of May 1989 gave rise to opposition groups such as the New Forum and approaches to forming parties independent of the SED, as in the case of the Eastern SPD . Especially under the umbrella of church institutions , those willing to leave and those motivated to protest found protection and opportunities to develop themselves. Churches were also the starting point of the Leipzig Monday demonstrations , through which state power was brought about in a peaceful way. Fall of the SED dictatorship The “ republic birthday ” on October 7, 1989 took place under very tense circumstances, with protests and police attacks on the sidelines of the festivities in Berlin. Two days later, in Leipzig, the large numbers of threatening emergency services withdrew from the sheer mass of an estimated 70,000 demonstrators without using force. According to Winkler, it was a “new kind of revolution that began with the slogan 'No violence!' reined in and not least because of this she achieved her goal. The 'peaceful revolution' had conscious and unconscious participants: the conscious ones were the founders of the civil rights groups and the demonstrators who began to mass on October 2nd, the unconscious those who left the GDR en masse at the same time. " Continuously exposed to this double, pincer-like pressure, the SED regime collapsed. Important milestones in this were the replacement of Head of State Honecker by Egon Krenz on October 18, 1989, the large-scale demonstration on Berlin's Alexanderplatz on November 4, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the associated opening of the Berlin Wall on the night of September 9-10. November, the control of the newly formed Modrow government by the Central Round Table and the forced dissolution of the Stasi apparatus . The GDR on course for west and reunification With the opening of the Wall and the subsequent mass exploratory visits by GDR residents in the western part of Berlin and in the Federal Republic of Germany, the thrust of the political expression of will in public spaces and on demonstration trains changed. It is recorded speaking in a modification of the slogan “ We are the people !”, Which was aimed at political participation rights and domestic reforms in the GDR, to “ We are one people !”, Which amounted to the demand for the establishment of German unity. Under the special domestic and foreign political circumstances of the time of the fall of the Wall, a resounding impulse was set. Shortly after the fall of the Berlin Wall, the term “reunification” appeared in public parlance in the GDR, but initially as something that would never happen. The Berliner Zeitung reported on November 13th of a telephone conversation between Egon Krenz and Helmut Kohl under the heading “Reunification not on the agenda”. A week later, in an interview with the television station CNN , Krenz turned against speculation that the opening of the German-German borders would one day lead to reunification. Long-term plans of contractual ties and close cooperation, including confederative structures, such as the ten-point plan presented by Chancellor Helmut Kohl on November 28, 1989, quickly proved to be outdated. The economic predicament and political instability in the GDR caused Prime Minister Hans Modrow to embark on a course of “Germany united fatherland”. The date for the free election of a new GDR People's Chamber , which was agreed at the round table , was brought forward from May 6 to March 18, 1990 in view of the ongoing disintegration of the state order. Joachim Gauck , who, as a Rostock member of the New Forum, first won his local comrades-in-arms and at the end of January 1990 in Berlin also the majority of all delegates of this citizens' movement for the idea of German unity, describes his own feelings on the occasion of the vote in the Volkskammer election, which involved voting of 93.4 percent took place: “Then came election day, March 18, 1990. When I had cast my vote, tears ran down my face. I had to turn fifty to experience free, equal and secret elections for the first time. And now I even had the opportunity to help shape the future politically. ”With an overall disappointing result for the politically organized GDR civil rights activists and an election victory for the Alliance for Germany , which was perceived as sensational , Gauck was one of twelve MPs for Alliance 90 in the new People's Chamber . From the Volkskammer election to a currency, economic and social union (March to July 1990) Gauck sat among a total of 409 members in the new People's Chamber , in which the three largest parliamentary groups with 163 seats were the CDU , 88 the SPD and 66 seats the PDS . “And what had been a lie for 40 years,” writes Gauck, “would become truth: a German Democratic Republic. […] But on closer inspection, my joy and pride clouded: around 185 of the new MPs had belonged to the SED or a bloc party in the lost system. ”However, only a few of them were already members of the previous People's Chamber. Although the PDS was politically isolated as a party that emerged from the SED, at least the parties involved in their dealings with one another were united by growing up together in the GDR. Gregor Gysi describes the atmosphere in the Volkskammer meetings as comparatively informal: “People applauded when someone had uttered a clever thought, even if the MP was one of the political opponents. There was no compulsory booing or collective applause from the factions. Voting results were sometimes open. ”It has happened that the government factions of the CDU and SPD clashed because in controversial votes the PDS MPs voted for one side and sometimes for the other. The new Prime Minister was on April 12, 1990, the CDU Chairman Lothar de Maizière , who had already been Deputy Prime Minister in the Modrow government and who had drafted the rules of procedure for the Central Round Table. In his new role, de Maizière got to know the full extent of the dire economic and financial situation in the GDR: “While in West Germany 47 percent of the gross national product went to public budgets and 53 percent to investments, in the GDR it was 85 percent for consumption and only 15 percent for investments. This meant that only the smallest repairs could be paid for and no innovations at all. The entire property of the country (companies, apartments, infrastructure) was out of date, neglected. " Compared to Modrow, de Maizière, as the freely elected Prime Minister for the Kohl government, was now in the role of the indispensable negotiating partner and the main responsible party on the part of the GDR in the unification process. For this, two-thirds majorities were needed in the People's Chamber , so that the government participation of the Eastern Social Democrats in the de Maizière government came into question on both sides and then came about. Course setting and acceleration factors The development that was now taking place on the western side had first been considered by the former head of the Chancellery and then Interior Minister Wolfgang Schäuble . As a close advisor to the Federal Chancellor, he had already expressed his expectation to Kohl in November 1989 that German unity would be achieved within a year, and in mid-December submitted the initially skeptical proposal to the Modrow government to offer the Modrow government an economic and monetary union in mid-December to stop the flow of migrants from the GDR to the Federal Republic. With continued financial hardship and the threat of insolvency in the GDR as well as an unchecked flow of emigrants in January 1990 - meanwhile between two and three thousand people left the GDR every day, so that production in many companies was extremely difficult to maintain - the Federal Republic of the GDR stopped on 7. February 1990 the prospect of economic and monetary union. In Kohl's government statement of February 15, it said: “It is now a matter of sending a clear signal of hope and encouragement for the people in the GDR [...] For the Federal Republic of Germany [...] this means that we are bringing in our strongest economic asset: the Deutsche Mark . In this way, we involve compatriots in the GDR directly and directly in what the citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany have built up and achieved over decades of persistent work. " The number of emigrants was a serious problem not only for the GDR. The federal government also came under pressure from the western federal states and the opposition. Like a bomb had the Leipzig slogan: "Come the D-Mark , we remain, does not come it, let's go to her," in Bonn taken, testified Richard Schröder. As early as November 1989, the Saarland Prime Minister Oskar Lafontaine , future chancellor candidate of the SPD, called for a change in citizenship law with the aim of making it impossible for both emigrants and “ ethnic German ” emigrants from Eastern Europe to have “access to the social security systems of the Federal Republic” do. The GDR and its residents should be offered better help to “stay” than to “leave” on the democracy course they have taken. Due to his success - an absolute SPD majority in the Saarland state elections in January 1990 - Lafontaine found up to 80 percent approval of his position in opinion polls, which in view of the upcoming federal elections in the ranks of the CDU and CSU up to the end of the year made an impression on the party leaders and caused some displeasure with the position represented by Federal Interior Minister Schäuble, who did not want to change the previous admission procedure either before or after the Volkskammer election on March 18, but rather linked its expiry with the implementation of economic and monetary union as soon as possible . In contrast to Lafontaine, Richard Schröder, as the parliamentary group leader of the Eastern SPD, also set great store by the implementation of a currency union. The aim was “to strike a stake on the way to German unity and to make the path irreversible. That was a very important aspect for me. We couldn't be sure how long Gorbachev would last. [...] Better to unite with a ruined economy than with an almost ruined one further on in the Soviet bloc. " The hour of the executive The decision in favor of a monetary union that could be implemented quickly resulted in the distribution of political weights in the unification process, namely a structural dominance of those responsible in the Federal Republic of Germany, as the GDR had economic and administrative expertise for the harmonization of economic and social systems on the basis of the Federal German Naturally, the model was missing. "The Federal Republic took command," says Andreas Rödder succinctly . The German Unity Cabinet Committee set up on February 7, 1990, with its working groups responsible for certain areas, had a coordinating function for the entire process; the detailed design of the political requirements was left to the ministerial bureaucracy, which filled out considerably more room for maneuver than in the usual legislative procedures . Until the government declaration by Lothar de Maizières on April 19, the federal government did not even have a partner who was able to act, so that the important decisions initially came from the West German government and administrative bodies. Some of these were quickly at hand with plans. Thilo Sarrazin , the head of the National Currency Issues Unit, commissioned by Finance State Secretary Horst Köhler on January 26th, presented a concept for the immediate introduction of the D-Mark in the GDR at the conversion rate of 1: 1, combined with the approval of prices and the End of subsidies and a planned economy . First Finance Minister Theo Waigel and then Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl were convinced of this by Köhler . At the time of the offer for a monetary union, the main features of an implementation plan were already in place. Gerd von Scheven , Head of Division in the Federal Ministry of Finance , got billions of D-Marks on the financial market . Hans Tietmeyer , former finance state secretary and member of the Bundesbank board of directors , was entrusted by Kohl with the preparation of the relevant basis for a state treaty between the Federal Republic and the GDR . In the opinion of Claus J. Duisberg, the head of the German Policy Task Force in the Chancellery at the time, the first draft was almost like a submission agreement in substance and language and, as it was not presentable to the new GDR government, had to be revised. Five days after de Maizière's government declaration, on April 24, 1990, both sides set the time horizon for monetary union: As early as the GDR local elections on May 6, citizens should foresee what to expect; the Bundesbank in turn saw itself technically capable of converting the currency in the GDR on July 1, 1990. Economic upheaval in the GDR A currency union without a corresponding restructuring of the GDR economic system was out of the question for the federal government and the political forces that support it. Market-economy structures, free pricing and the privatization of state-owned companies were consequently to the side effects of the unification process. The " Establishment for the fiduciary administration of public property" , founded by the Modrow government on March 1, 1990, was to become the most important funding instrument of the economic upheaval, which was to serve the conversion of state-owned combines , businesses and institutions into corporations . Western capital was still left out, an orientation corrected by the trust founding resolution of the People's Chamber of June 17, 1990. When the law came into force on July 1, 1990, the Treuhandanstalt took over 7894 state-owned companies with four million employees, around 40 percent of the total workforce, as well as an area covering more than half of the GDR. This also included power stations and mining companies, extensive estates with agricultural and forestry operations as well as hotels and restaurants and even circuses. "In practice, the Treuhandanstalt was responsible for the vast majority of the GDR economy," writes Duisberg. Only 2 percent of the establishments were assessed as capable of operating profitably; 48 percent were thought to be developable in this sense; 25 percent were considered to be capable of renovation, with some reservations, 21 percent necessary to shut down (30 percent eventually became). It was not possible to fall back on previous experience with regard to the transfer of a central administration or planned economy into a market economy. The trust management committed itself to the motto: "privatize quickly - resolutely renovate - carefully shut down". There was a lack of reliable knowledge about the East German economy in the West; There was no time for a careful inventory: "The actual experiences quickly deviated from the original expectations." The productivity of the GDR economy in the year of reunification was less than a third compared to that of West Germany. This was based in large part on a showpiece of GDR social policy: the right to work as a general guarantee of employment. Because associated with this was an uneconomical overemployment in many companies and administrations and as a result “low work motivation and almost insurmountable obstacles to adapting companies to changed production and market conditions.” The immediate transition to a market economy at all levels therefore turned out to be for many people Shock experience. “In 1990, the GDR economy suddenly lost almost all of its customers, namely domestic customers, because GDR citizens only wanted to buy western goods. It lost many foreign customers from the east because the socialist economic association RGW decided in Sofia at the beginning of 1990 to convert internal trade to foreign exchange. As a result, Hungarians preferred to buy Japanese cars than GDR cars. And they lost their West German customers because the goods from the East were no longer available as cheap products (e.g. IKEA ) when wages in the East had to be paid with West money . " In addition, the competitiveness of GDR companies was impaired in the unification process by rising wage costs: under the impression of the discussion about the currency union, the employees of the east German companies implemented a wage increase of around 20 percent in the second quarter of 1990 and in the first 15 months after the currency union another 50 percent. The conversion course in the socio-economic field of tension The increasingly obvious low labor productivity and weakness of the GDR economy caused the Bundesbank and the Federal Ministry of Finance to move away from the planned 1: 1 currency conversion. On March 29, 1990, the Central Bank Council passed a resolution, according to which the conversion was to be carried out mainly in the ratio of 2 East Marks to 1 DM . (The ratio of 4.3 to 1 could even be considered a market rate.) However, this contradicted the promises made by all parties in the Volkskammer election campaign and led to outrage and protest demonstrations in the East German population. The tenor of the demonstrations held in East Berlin and several GDR cities: “One to one, or we will never become one!” Halving net wages (an average of 854 marks from 1988) would have meant that wages in the east were initially mostly less than a fifth the western wages would have been. A major advocate of the 1: 1 course in this situation was Federal Labor Minister Norbert Blüm , who had already written to Kohl on March 27 and warned that “a conversion rate below the ratio of 1: 1 would lead to profound social upheavals as well as destabilizing political consequences. " The politically responsible in the GDR consistently stuck to the demand for a 1: 1 conversion. The chairman of the Eastern SPD Markus Meckel made his party's participation in government dependent on it; Prime Minister de Maizière also committed himself to this and described such an exchange ratio in his government declaration of April 19, 1990 as fundamental. With regard to a 1: 1 conversion of all private assets of an estimated 190 billion marks, however, an inflation- driving excess of money was feared on the west side , and with a 1: 1 valuation of corporate debts, on the other hand, the financial ruin of countless companies that now expect the usual capital market interest when servicing their debts had. From the internal compromise search by the Federal Government and the Bundesbank as well as the subsequent negotiations between the two heads of government, the final regulation arose on May 2, 1990: Current income and pension payments were converted at a ratio of 1: 1; Savings and liabilities (including corporate debts) generally 2: 1. Excepted from this and again converted 1: 1 were private savings balances in certain amounts, differentiated according to age: 2,000 marks per child up to 14 years of age; 4,000 marks for people up to 59 years of age and 6,000 marks for those who are even older. Social union in desire and reality In addition to the monetary union and the ongoing market-economy transformation, the third element in the First State Treaty between the Federal Republic and the GDR was the social union. Business circles and the Bundesbank had initially raised concerns that the full transfer of the social security systems to the GDR could hinder private investments and the restructuring of the economic structure; but the forces involved in this, from the Federal Ministry of Labor , the trade unions, the social democrats and the people's chamber parties, retained the upper hand. In view of the many and far-reaching changes in living conditions, it was ultimately a matter of providing the East Germans with a new form of social support, since the manageable and regulated existence of the past was coming to an end. De Maizière, as head of government, had the following typical career path of a GDR citizen born near the combine in mind: “When he was born, he went to the combine’s own day care center, and after three years he switched to the combine’s own kindergarten. If he was sick, he went to the combine polyclinic . In the summer he visited the holiday camp that belonged to the combine, and then spent 14 days with his parents in the combine's own holiday facility. His life expectancy was straightforward, almost like a rail vehicle: 14 years of age, youth consecration with a moped gift and Trabant registration; 16 years of age skilled worker qualification; 20th year of life End of NVA service and entry into full working life. After attending the company's own vocational school, the takeover into the company was secured. And if he didn't steal silver spoons, he stayed there. It was considered dishonorable to quit his job. You just didn't change. This was followed by an early marriage because only one couple could apply for a shared apartment, which they had to wait eight years for anyway. " The employment rate of women of working age in the GDR was 81% in 1989, which is far higher than that in West Germany . It was promoted through paid leave within the framework of a baby year and through a wide range of childcare facilities. The social charter drafted by the Central Round Table and approved by the People's Chamber on March 7, 1990, served as an orientation basis for those responsible in the GDR in the negotiations on the social union . The aim was to achieve unity by means of a “mutual reform process of both German security systems”, which should result in a higher level of social security overall. Among other things, demands were made to preserve the right to work, an apartment with effective rental protection, free training and further education and health care. With the combination of West German social benefits with social security based on the GDR model resulting from the Social Charter, however, the question of financing remained open. This was heavily criticized on the West German side and denounced as an expression of a lack of a sense of reality. Under GDR conditions, the situation of pensioners, disabled people, disabled people and surviving dependents, i.e. those who were not directly involved in the production process, was in acute need of improvement: “The old age and disability pensions from compulsory insurance offered nothing more than a largely leveled basic provision at a very low level, which did not lead to complete impoverishment only because of the high level of subsidies for the basic necessities. [...] The average household income of East German pensioners in 1983 was nominally only a quarter, taking into account the differences in purchasing power it was about a third of the West German level. ”With the transfer of the western pension law, the eastern pensions rose from 30% to 40% of the average earned income to 70 % after 45 years of contributions. Overall, the social union also led to the transfer of the West German social security system to the GDR, although some more favorable regulations, e.g. B. were retained for women. After the State Treaty was finally adopted in the Volkskammer with 302 votes to 82, in the Bundestag with 444 to 60 votes and in the Bundesrat against the votes of Saarland and Lower Saxony on June 22, the date of entry into force on July 1, 1990 from West and East Germans use the D-Mark as their common currency. External requirements of the unification process Both German governments are convinced that the key to German unity in foreign policy lay in Moscow, even during the Modrow government and the Central Round Table. There, on February 10, 1990, Gorbachev made the basic concession to the federal government that the Germans in East and West themselves had to know which way they wanted to go. You have the right to strive for unity. In the Soviet press 11 days later he emphasized the responsibility of the Four Powers, to which the Germans could not simply submit their agreements for approval, the "immovability" of post-war borders in Europe and the necessity of embedding reunification in the creation of a new pan-European security structure. On February 2nd, Federal Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher approved the State Department's proposal to define the external framework for the unification process in two-plus-four negotiations . When the representatives of Italy and the Netherlands called for their own participation in the negotiations on German unity at the meeting of the foreign ministers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact on February 13 in Ottawa , the two-plus-four constellation was already so firmly anchored among those involved, that Genscher was able to vigorously reply to his colleagues: “You are not part of the game!” From then on, however, two months passed before the GDR representative with Markus Meckel, the GDR representative for these negotiations, was able to begin official business at all. The course had already been set in this field before the GDR side was able to make an effective contribution. From the central round table there was the idea of a demilitarized status for a unified Germany. The peace movement of the GDR was an important gathering point of the early SED opposition, not least in the protection of the churches. The new foreign ministry under the leadership of the theologian Meckel went to work with idealism and creative standards, not just wanting to play the role of Bonn's junior partner and vicarious agent. With ideas about a pan-European security order, neutrality and overcoming the bloc thinking, one saw oneself closer to the goals of Gorbachev than to those of the federal government. Overall, however, there was not only a lack of international and diplomatic experience, but also, in view of acute economic weakness and the foreseeable limited scope of effects, of real influence. Establishing a common position for the West Among the Western powers still jointly responsible for the German question, the governments of France and Great Britain , who feared a future dominance of Germany and a disruption of the European balance, were not very impressed by the prospect of a unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic . Since the founding of the empire at the time of Bismarck , the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher argued , Germany has "always fluctuated in unpredictable ways between aggression and self-doubt". In essence, Germany is more of a destabilizing force in the European structure. In the end, French President François Mitterrand made a similar statement. Although he granted Germans the right to self-determination , he did not see them as being entitled to “upset the political realities in Europe”. As if to underline the French precautions taken in this regard, Mitterrand made a state visit to the GDR from December 20-22, 1989, and concluded a long-term trade agreement with the Modrow government . The US administration under George HW Bush took another, ultimately decisive, position by advocating German unity at an early stage and linking this to the requirement that a reunified Germany should belong to the NATO alliance. At the end of February 1990 at Camp David, Bush reached an understanding with Chancellor Kohl on the common line in the two-plus-four negotiations, whereby Bush was also able to inform Thatcher's consent. The British government mistrusted Gorbachev's vision of a pan-European peace order with the dissolution of the alliance blocs and did not want to jeopardize close relations with the USA. For France, however, one of the main objectives was to continue European integration by way of economic and monetary union , to which the German government had promised a fundamental readiness, while Great Britain refused. “Both powers finally saw that the internal unification process in Germany could not be stopped, since the Soviet Union would ultimately not veto German unity, and that in this situation their security interests would best be served by integrating a united Germany into NATO. " As early as January 1990, the European Community (EC), under French Commission President Jacques Delors, laid the groundwork for the GDR's swift admission to the EC, with Delors also expressly advocating German unity. Before the European Parliament he declared the GDR to be a special case to which the provisional freeze on enlargement did not apply. At a special summit in Dublin on April 28, the heads of state and government of the EC welcomed the impending unification of Germany and assessed it as a positive factor for the future development of the community. With its mainly economic support, the European Commission in particular also involved the smaller EC member states in the German unification process. Alliance question and finality of the German borders While there was agreement among the Western powers before the People's Chamber election in March regarding the promotion of German unity and the membership of a united Germany in NATO, it remained open for the time being whether the Soviet Union was ready to accept what was hardly expected in early 1990 has been. In the Moscow negotiations on February 10, Gorbachev brought up a non-alignment based on the model of India or China and made it clear that he would not accept a weakening of the Warsaw Pact in the balance of power with NATO as a result of German unity. Initially, Chancellor Kohl had doubts about the American line in this regard and was quoted on January 18 with differences of opinion vis-à-vis Washington: "But he thinks that the American view could change if the relationship between NATO and the Warsaw Pact changes." In direct contacts with Bush at Camp David, Kohl committed himself to the American line of unrestricted all-German NATO membership as the western negotiating goal (with a military transitional arrangement for the GDR area), while Genscher's mediating position of limited NATO responsibilities for the GDR had previously been agreed -Territory supported. After that, however, Kohl advocated the new course in part with the specific statement that he was not prepared to risk membership of the NATO alliance for German unity. The Soviet stance on this question was changeable and fluctuating, so that the German government was increasingly optimistic that it would be able to push through the western line. Before the start of the two-plus-four negotiations, Gorbachev issued the motto: “Germany must not join NATO and that's that.” A few weeks later, however, he agreed with George Bush at consultations in Washington on May 31 when he said : "The US clearly advocates membership of the united Germany in NATO, but if Germany makes another choice, the US will not intervene against it, but will respect it." This concession was greeted with surprise by everyone, including within the Soviet negotiating delegation itself In the following weeks, in consideration of the upcoming CPSU party congress at the beginning of July, when the impression of weakness in foreign policy was to be avoided, the Soviet pace on the alliance question was again tougher. At the second meeting of foreign ministers as part of the two-plus-four conferences on June 22, 1990, the 49th anniversary of the Nazi German attack on the Soviet Union , Eduard Shevardnadze called for a five-year transition period for both parts of Germany to remain in the respective alliance systems, while the GDR delegation under Meckel wanted to establish a future European security order as a key subject of negotiations. Both were in clear contrast to Western interests and positions. With the unification of the two German states in 1990, the final recognition under international law of the Oder-Neisse border as the Polish western border was on the agenda, as the question of border regulation in the east had never been finally clarified in the absence of a peace treaty . There was no sensible alternative to this, as all negotiating partners in the Federal Republic of Germany demanded it early on - US President Bush had made his approval of reunification directly dependent on it. On the West German side, this question was kept in suspense for a long time; on the part of the GDR, the recognition of the " Oder-Neisse peace border " was already available from 1950. The post-communist Mazowiecki government made this a condition of their consent to German unity. Kohl, on the other hand, was able to rely on a Federal Constitutional Court ruling from 1973, according to which the German-Polish border could only be recognized by a unified and completely sovereign Germany. According to Rödder, there was an incompatibility of international law and political levels of argumentation, overlaid by external demands and internal considerations. On the one hand, Kohl held up the border recognition as a counterweight to possible Polish reparation claims ; mainly, however, were his reservations about the consideration of the displaced as an important electoral clientele of the Union parties . Not only the governments of Poland and the Soviet Union, but also the Western powers, the GDR government and the coalition partner FDP with Federal Foreign Minister Genscher stood against Kohl's immobility on this question. What was meant as an important concession was the agreement of the coalition factions on a Bundestag resolution of March 8, 1990, according to which, soon after the Volkskammer elections, both German parliaments should declare that, with a view to German unity, the inviolability of the borders vis-à-vis the Republic of Poland would be affirmed and soon by one all-German government would also be contractually sealed. Neither Tadeusz Mazowiecki nor Mitterrand were satisfied with that either , but jointly demanded further securities and Poland's participation in the two-plus-four talks, which in turn angered Kohl. At the end of May, in a letter to de Maizière, he expressed concern about the further course of action on this issue after the GDR negotiators had introduced an unsettled draft treaty into the trilateral talks with Poland. In the Bundestag debate on June 21, 1990, Kohl ensured final clarity within his own ranks and externally, in which he declared: "Either we confirm the existing border, or we are wasting our chance for German unity today and for now." was ripe for a final and permanent reconciliation with the Polish people; what was possible between Germans and French could and must also be possible between Germans and Poles. From the ranks of the MPs close to the expellees, only 15 votes against came when the Bundestag - and in an identical resolution the People's Chamber the next day - declared their will that the course of the border between the unified Germany and Poland be finally confirmed by an international border treaty would. Balance of interests with the Soviet Union The five-year transitional arrangement advocated by Shevardnadze in the second round of the two-plus-four negotiations on June 22nd, which was seen as a clear setback to the previous signals from the Moscow leadership, underscored the need for political interests To meet Gorbachev and his colleagues in order to be able to conclude the German unification process, which has got underway with monetary union, in a timely manner, also in terms of foreign policy. Western government centers are convinced that this could only succeed with Gorbachev and the reform forces who supported him in the Soviet Union. But Gorbachev was already in great difficulty with his 1990 reform project. The economic restructuring made hardly any progress, and shortages of supply were noticeable; and the first signs of disintegration occurred in the Soviet Union, in particular as a result of the Baltic states' striving for independence. While the US Senate clearly supported the Baltic right to self-determination and the endeavor to detach itself, the German government was very careful not to alienate Gorbachev in any way. Foreign Minister Genscher had already warned us to change course at the beginning of 1987: “Let's not sit with crossed arms and wait for what Gorbachev will bring us! Rather, let us try to advance and shape development on our part ... Firmness is required, but a politics of strength, striving for superiority, arming in the corner must once and for all belong to the thinking categories of the past - also in the West. ”During the unification process in 1990, Genscher was more prepared than Kohl to accept a greater reduction in troops in the Bundeswehr and a special military status for the GDR in the wake of reunification. Since the beginning of the two-plus-four negotiations, both sides have been striving for a "package solution" with regard to the balance of interests, whereby the granting of the unity and sovereignty of Germany for the Soviet side should both preserve power and be economically and financially profitable. As early as January 1990, an urgent Soviet request for food aid had been used as an opportunity to improve the political climate. Kohl advocated this help with the sentence that if Gorbachev fell, one could forget about reunification. The advocacy of economic aid in favor of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe at the world economic summit in Houston (July 9-11, 1990) was justified by Kohl in advance in the CDU federal executive committee with the assessment that for the USSR the question of future economic relations would ultimately be more important than NATO Belonging to Germany. Kohl responded positively to Shevardnadze's request on the eve of the first two-plus-four round, who urgently asked for credit assistance. Negotiations about this were conducted by Horst Teltschik and representatives of major German banks on May 14th in Moscow, also directly with Gorbachev, to whom Kohl made a loan offer of DM 5 billion on May 22nd. With reference to the restoration of German unity, the Chancellor told the bankers, concerned about the creditworthiness and solvency of the Soviet Union, that the farmer was in a position to bring the harvest into the barn in good time before the approaching thunderstorm. The real grain harvest in the GDR was very plentiful in the summer of 1990: twelve million tons with only seven million GDR self-consumption. In August, the farmers made preparations to set fire to the fields - from de Maizière's point of view one of the most dramatic moments of his reign: “I thought the country would perish if it continued like this.” With the help of the federal government, grain sales to Russia were then organized. "It was actually a gift to the Russians, who were not solvent." The London NATO summit of the heads of state and government on 5/6 March is an important step on the way to making united Germany's membership of NATO acceptable to the Soviet Union. July 1990, which decided on a new, defensive orientation of the alliance and invited the members of the Warsaw Pact to come to an agreement on renouncing the threat and use of force. This political reorientation of NATO meant at the same time a foreign policy success and an additional gain in prestige for Gorbachev at the CPSU congress held at the same time in Moscow, which cemented his position, which had previously become questionable. The West later deviated from the reluctance to expand NATO to the east that had been promised by the Soviet Union in the course of these negotiations , which aroused resentment in Russia. After that Gorbachev was ready to wipe clean the German question, which he had not mentioned at all in his speech at the party conference. During negotiations and talks in Moscow and in Gorbachev's Caucasian homeland on July 15 and 16, which took place in a relaxed atmosphere and in some cases in a private atmosphere, Gorbachev was very accommodating to the German delegation under the leadership of the Chancellor on all unanswered questions: the immediate Unified Germany was allowed to remain in NATO, which was necessary for the consent of the USA, whereby the scope of the Western defense alliance should not extend to GDR territory for a transitional period until the complete withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1994. The end of the four-power responsibility was granted without transition and at the same time as the unification . The upper limit of the all-German armed forces was fixed according to Kohl's ideas at 370,000. Horst Teltschik rated Gorbachev's admission that parts of the Bundeswehr had already been stationed in GDR territory and in Berlin during the course of unification and integrated into NATO with the withdrawal of the Soviet armed forces as “sensational”. Troop withdrawal regulation and attainment of full sovereignty As he did with Bush at the end of May, Gorbachev made the central decisions on Germany's policy single-handedly in July 1990 when he met the West German delegation led by Kohl. The phenomena of disintegration within the Warsaw Pact had meanwhile progressed. By July 1990, important member states had come to the conclusion that NATO membership of a united Germany was preferable to neutralization. The maintenance of a military outpost through the continued presence of Soviet troops on GDR territory made less and less sense under these circumstances, even for the Soviet Union, which was in the process of reform. The overall package of the German-Soviet reconciliation of interests following the agreements of the Caucasus meeting in July consisted of five contracts that had to be negotiated in detail: a German-Soviet general contract, the contract on the stationing and withdrawal of Soviet troops, and the transfer agreement on this associated costs, a general economic contract and the two-plus-four contract. The necessary urgency in view of the date of the unification, which was scheduled for October 3rd, strengthened the Soviet negotiating position, especially on the issue of troop withdrawal: the faster the withdrawal, the more expensive it could be paid for. With initial calculations and proposals for offers of 4–6 billion DM on the German side, Kohl was confronted with Soviet demands for a housing construction program, for transport costs and retraining measures for the Soviet military totaling 18.5 billion DM. Gorbachev left no doubt that the German goals could not be reached with the eight billion DM initially offered by Kohl and eleven billion DM after the talks were postponed. An agreement was finally reached on September 10 for twelve billion DM, spread over four years, plus an interest-free loan of three billion DM with a five-year term. While the highly problematic development of Soviet perestroika and the resulting precarious position of Gorbachev in the West were known and helped determine action, with the military intervention of Iraq in Kuwait on August 2, 1990, a process came into play that opened the window of opportunity. , the time window for establishing German unity, also limited for Teltschik with regard to the USA. In view of the immediate energetic engagement of the USA in Kuwait, one can consider oneself lucky that nothing important otherwise withdrew attention from the German question during the first half of the year and that the foreign policy framework of the unit has already been clarified: “I wonder if it is us would have succeeded in enforcing the necessary decisions at the American-Soviet summit, the special NATO summit and the world economic summit so smoothly if, for example, the Gulf conflict had started two months earlier. " On the eve of the signing of the Two-Plus-Four Treaty in Moscow, the negotiating situation came to a head again when Great Britain and the USA demanded that their own troops should be able to carry out NATO maneuvers in GDR territory before the Soviet troops withdrew. Only after Genscher's nocturnal intervention with US Secretary of State James Baker finally brought a diplomatic solution. Thus, on September 12th, the negotiations were mutually agreed and the treaty on the final settlement with regard to Germany was signed , which finally defined the united Germany within the borders of the GDR and the Federal Republic, guaranteed its free decision on membership of the alliance, excluded NBC weapons , Established troop strengths for the German armed forces and regulated the Soviet troop withdrawal until 1994. Since the four powers suspended their rights and obligations with a declaration of October 1, 1990, Germany was a sovereign state from the beginning after unification. The way to the Unification Treaty Immediately after the monetary union came into force, domestic German negotiations on a second state treaty began on July 6, 1990, which, at the request of the GDR representatives, should not be called that. The impression of secondary importance should be countered and the term Unification Treaty expresses the fact that the GDR, unlike the monetary union, had to contribute something of its own. The main persons responsible for the contract negotiations on the western side were Federal Interior Minister Wolfgang Schäuble and for the GDR the Parliamentary State Secretary to Prime Minister Günther Krause , who had already represented the GDR side in the negotiations on the First State Treaty and was also the CDU parliamentary group leader in the Volkskammer. The result of the negotiations not only had to be coordinated with Krause and de Maizière, but also required two-thirds majorities in the People's Chamber, in the Bundestag and in the Bundesrat. It was therefore important for Schäuble to successfully involve the representatives of the western federal states in the negotiations, especially since the SPD-led states now had a majority in the Bundesrat. Country interests were u. a. to be taken into account in financial regulations and in the future distribution of votes in the all-German Bundesrat, in the negotiation of an electoral law for the first federal elections after unification and in the capital issue. Other important subjects of negotiation concerned the constitutional form of the association, the partial continued application of GDR law, the clarification of property issues and reimbursement claims, the reorganization of administration and educational institutions in GDR territory and the handling of the Stasi inheritance. Constitutional options in the field of political power According to the Basic Law, two paths to German unity could be taken under constitutional law, namely the accession of the GDR to the Federal Republic of Germany according to Article 23 or the replacement of the original provisional Basic Law by a new common constitution according to Article 146 GG old version and a merger of the GDR and the Federal Republic. Large parts of the GDR civil rights and opposition movement campaigned for the second alternative and a referendum on the new constitution, as well as the West German left, the Greens and many social democrats. However, this far more time-consuming and complicated path had little chance of being realized from the start. The Volkskammer election in March, the de Maizière government's commitment to swift and responsible implementation of German unity on the basis of Article 23 of the Basic Law, old version, and the monetary, economic and social union that was implemented immediately, left a new all-German for negotiation, public debate and voting Constitution no space. So everything ran towards the unification plan, which Federal Interior Minister Schäuble pursued with Kohl's support from the beginning. As part of the cabinet committee "German Unity", which was set up on February 7, 1990, Schäuble headed the "State Structures and Public Order" working group and formed a separate "German Unity" working group in the Interior Ministry. “My stipulation for the task force was that we - without knowing the way or the time of German unification - had to work to ensure that we would not be unprepared in the event of an emergency. I considered it irrelevant whether the unity would be prepared by a unification treaty or whether it would come about suddenly and legally unprepared immediately after the Volkskammer election, for example in the event of a crisis that came to a head, whatever the reason. In any case, the law of the Federal Republic of Germany had to be transferred to the GDR, if necessary in stages with restrictions and reservations, regardless of whether this transfer was agreed in advance by contract or was to be passed by the legislature as transitional legislation afterwards. The Ministry of the Interior was in charge of this transition, so we had to prepare for it. Finally, I also told my employees that you should always think about faster development. If you had prepared yourself for the faster development, you were also prepared for the slower variant. " In fact, there was always the possibility that the GDR could unilaterally declare its accession in accordance with Art. The DSU made such a move on June 17, 1990. After a memorial event in the Konzerthaus on Berlin's Gendarmenmarkt , the main speaker Manfred Stolpe warned something new as a result of the unification process that had to be implemented quickly: “The West is coming to the GDR, but the The GDR is also coming to the West ”, the DSU applied to the People's Chamber on the same day to resolve the GDR's immediate accession to the Federal Republic of Germany. Against the majority of the House, however, the motion did not make it onto the agenda, was referred to the responsible committee and put on the back burner there. One of the basic strategic negotiating positions represented by Schäuble was the restriction of the regulatory matter to what is immediately necessary so that the unification agreement could be concluded in good time and with the necessary two-thirds majorities in the three legislative chambers. He took this line both in the first round of negotiations on July 6th against de Maizière, who u. a. Proposals to expand the Basic Law to include the state goals of the right to work and environmental protection , as well as to continue to face Western social democratic country representatives and the departmental employees of the various ministries involved in transition regulations, who tried to reach agreement that had failed until then. Re-establishment of the states on the territory of the GDR The GDR was restructured by an administrative law of July 23, 1952, by dividing the GDR states into districts to be created on the basis of district boundaries and transferring the tasks of the previous state governments to the administrations of the new regional administrations . With the resulting end of federalism in the GDR, the political structures in both parts of Germany differed considerably from that point on. With the aim of promoting local self- government, the political centralism of the SED regime was replaced by the new Modrow government in the period of upheaval after the opening of the border in November 1989 . Although around three quarters of the previous municipal elected officials remained in office for the time being, with the involvement of local citizens' committees, a new municipal constitution with a mixture of various West German regulations and emphasized plebiscite elements in the form of citizen participation and referendums was passed on May 17, 1990 . With the establishment of party and state associations and demonstrations existing until 1952 were official national colors already reactivated before the People's Chamber on 22 July 1990. The ländereinführungsgesetz was adopted (LEG). The law contained resolutions on: - Repeal of the aforementioned law on the creation of districts of July 23, 1952, - Foundation of the states of Brandenburg , Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania , Saxony , Saxony-Anhalt , Thuringia and - Granting of state powers for Berlin, the capital of the GDR. With 3 October 1990 accrued in compliance with ländereinführungsgesetz provided the GDR new countries and from the union of its western and eastern part of the new state of Berlin. The new federal states were not yet able to act. It was not until the state elections of October 14, 1990 that they got parliaments that also functioned as state constituent assemblies.Unification Treaty in the still valid All-German federalism and financial equalization Partnerships with western federal states have been set up as a start-up aid for the newly established five eastern states. The cooperation existed with North Rhine-Westphalia for Brandenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg and Bremen for Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg for Saxony, Lower Saxony for Saxony-Anhalt and Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate for Thuringia. In the unification process, the Western aid partners also represented their own political interests by keeping their own contribution to the financing of the unit as low as possible and avoiding a push of centralization from the federal side. This also applied to the inclusion of the new federal states in the system of state financial equalization , which demands aid from the economically strong states for the weaker ones. So that the relatively weak western federal states would not also change from recipients to donors in the federal state financial equalization in view of the even worse starting position of the new states, the five new ones were excluded from this redistribution system until 1994/95. In return, the old federal states took half of the debt for the German Unity Fund , which was supposed to cover the new federal states' financing needs. As early as May 1990, they refused any additional cost sharing. The agreement on the distribution of votes in the future all-German Bundesrat was similarly problematic . According to the key that was valid until then, the weights in the Federal Council would have shifted in favor of the smaller federal states with fewer populations. With 20 of a total of 65 votes, the four large West German states could no longer have formed a blocking minority in decisions with a two-thirds majority. After some back and forth, the solution was to grant the large federal states six votes instead of the previous five: with 24 of 68 votes, they had the blocking minority again. Reunified City of Berlin The reunified city of Berlin formed its own state in the future and became the federal capital , especially since Bonn was only designated as the provisional capital of the Federal Republic in 1949 . In the unification treaty, Berlin was recognized as the new capital, but no resolution on the future seat of the Bundestag and government. In the first round of negotiations on the Unification Treaty, de Maizière declared Berlin's function as a capital city to be a basic condition for acceptance of the Unification Treaty. On the other hand, there was an extensive rejection of the western state governments, which, with the exception of the Berlin Senate, wanted almost unanimously to keep parliament and government in Bonn. The compromise formula stated that the decisions of the legislative bodies on this issue would only be made after the election of the first all-German Bundestag and after the establishment of the full rights of participation of the new states. In the capital city resolution in 1991, the Bundestag decided, after a controversial discussion, to make Berlin the seat of parliament and government and to complete their move by 1999, whereby all ministries should also keep an official seat in Bonn. Berlin was the only city in Germany that was divided by the wall and had to 'grow together' immediately. Not only did the people from West Berlin and East Berlin meet here immediately after the fall of the Wall, the problems also quickly emerged: “In view of the political dimensions, the economic consequences of the change process were almost ignored at the beginning. That changed quickly [...] when the economic disaster of the GDR became clear. The appalling balance was not limited to the production sector, but equally to the entire housing industry. In particular, the situation in the inner-city districts of old buildings in East Berlin was alarming. " For Berlin and the region, the "Urban Renewal Expert Group" of the Provisional Regional Committee "summarized an overview for the area with 1.57 million apartments, a" renovation requirement for approx. 178,000 apartments in the housing stock built up to 1918 ". For the city it was determined: “High vacancy rates, approx. 25,000 apartments in East Berlin, approx. 8,000 in the Prenzlauer Berg district alone, i.e. approx. H. almost twice as much as in West Berlin as a whole at the beginning of the 1980s, when the squatting and disputes over housing policy reached their peak; Decades of neglected maintenance and advanced deterioration of a large part of the old building fabric, lack of urgently needed building materials; no cost-covering management of the houses from the current rental income; Urban renewal without citizen participation, demolition of historically valuable buildings, "dictation of the plan" without consideration of social structures and individual needs. " Against this background and in view of the necessary urgency, "the Senate decided on February 6, 1990, the 'unscheduled provision of funds to promote urgent urban renewal measures in the greater Berlin area' in the amount of 25 million DM for measures to be implemented in 1990 and 1991." The award was "tied to the condition that complementary funds are made available from East Berlin for the renovation measures." Thus, a total of "a construction volume of approx. 60 million DM was activated." Reorganization of law and administration in the acceding area The prospect of accession under Article 23 of the Basic Law (old version) did not mean that all of the law applicable in the GDR was immediately null and void with the completion of the unification. Rather, one of the particularly time-consuming accompanying activities in the negotiation of the Unification Treaty was to check which of the many existing federal German laws and ordinances had to be applied across Germany when the unification was implemented. This task could only be carried out by the respective ministerial administrations across departments. Since there was no codified collection for GDR law , the comparison of the respective material was all the more difficult; it happened in coordination with the respective departments on the part of the GDR. After the negotiations had commenced, a fundamental decision was increasingly needed as to whether GDR law should initially continue to apply and federal German law should only apply if necessary until further notice or, conversely, whether federal law should be the norm and GDR law the exception. While Schäuble preferred the former variant, corresponding to the Saarbeitritt 1957, because he hoped that a comparatively low density of regulations would lead to a faster harmonization of living conditions. a. the concern that in the accession area , for example, environmental protection would then be left behind. The Federal Ministry of Justice, employers and Federal Labor Minister Blüm took the opposite position. The latter favored the second alternative as a signal for the establishment of an efficient social insurance system based on the German model, which had begun with the social union, and expected that it would make it easier for the GDR to adapt to EC law . Federal Finance Minister Waigel did not stand in the way of the costs that were already associated with this in the short term. The attitude of GDR negotiator Günther Krause, who had previously agreed with Schäuble, changed in the second round of negotiations on the unification agreement at the end of July 1990. Schröder says: “The adoption of the western order was decided by the last people's chamber, which emerged from free elections. It is therefore a blatant disregard for the popular will of the East Germans when it is claimed that the West has imposed its order on the East, as I have often heard from West Germans. " On the east side, Schäuble had been told that a civil code for a centralized, planned economy and a dictatorship was unsuitable for a market economy with independent economic action by the citizens. That decided the matter. Similar to the economic and legal system, administrative and educational institutions in the GDR were also put to the test in the course of the intra-German contract negotiations. According to Duisberg, the figures presented by the GDR delegation caused concern on the West German side: a total of 1.74 million employees in public administration, plus the railway employees (252,000), the post office (229,000) and the NVA (183,000). According to Schäuble, the 1.74 million civil servants in the GDR corresponded to more than three times the number of civil servants and salaried employees employed in the public service in the comparably large federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Considerable downsizing seemed inevitable to him so that the financial performance of the federal and state governments would not be strangled. Schäuble countered Basic Law to the derivation of a far-reaching obligation to take on GDR employees, which was based on Article 36 of the Basic Law, taking quotas into account, which ties access to public offices to suitability, qualifications and professional performance. The Federal Foreign Ministry, which saw no opportunity to take on GDR diplomats, and other ministries as well, suggested a central personnel trustee agency as an instrument for implementing the reduction in administrative positions. According to Schäuble, such an institution would have resulted in the Ministry of the Interior being responsible for all public administration personnel in GDR territory. "A single department could never cope with the task of accommodating over two million people in the federal administration, newly created states and municipalities or - to a large extent - dismissing them from the public service." Schäuble prevailed that each department "has to take responsibility for the personnel incumbent on it and has to create transition rules." The states were responsible for employees in future state responsibility, in the transitional period the so-called state spokespersons under the supervision of the Federal Minister of the Interior. For those individually affected by dismissals, however, this was not a comforting circumstance. It cost the unified Germany the previously secure job, to which West Germans often moved up in higher positions. Richard Schröder rejects the talk of the colonization of the East by the West: “In truth, it was the company workforce and teaching staff, community councils and citizens' assemblies that successfully replaced the previous directors and mayors in autumn 1989 and brought about the first change of elite. That was an east-east elite change. West Germans weren't even in sight. " With the takeover of the Western order, a Western need for specialists arose quite naturally. “One can complain about that as the incapacitation of the East Germans. Nobody likes to sit in an airplane when they are told: The pilot is still learning. " Reorganization of ownership Since collective property had a clear priority over the private property of individuals in the state socialism of the GDR , especially in the area of the economy, but also with real estate as required, the property relations in the GDR also required a new regulation in the course of the unification process. “As a result of collective and individual expropriations as well as other state interventions of all kinds, a situation arose in the GDR in which not only the property relations were difficult to understand, but property rights themselves had largely lost their old meaning. Rights to the property and the building on it often fell apart without this being clearly recognizable. Also the land registers were mostly inadequate. As far as there was still private home and property, in many cases it was more of a burden than assets due to forced rent and extensive dismissal protection. In this respect, ownership was less important than the right of use; this alone was of real value. " Since it could not stay with these conditions in unified Germany, the problem arose of how to deal with the expropriations that had taken place in the East German past without compensation in the creation of a property system corresponding to the conditions in the Federal Republic of Germany . There was room for political decision-making on this question, since the property guarantee according to GG did not automatically extend retrospectively to the GDR before its accession. On the West German side, the stipulation was developed that in 40 years of the GDR new economic and social circumstances had arisen that could not be easily reversed if they did not want to replace some of the old injustices with new ones. It depends on socially acceptable compromises taking into account the interests of all parties involved. Neither the stipulation of the GDR compulsory measures until 1989 nor their complete reversal by May 1945 can be seen as feasible in this sense. Two to be considered separately phases there were regarding the implemented expropriation measures: the phase of the Soviet occupation authority from 1945 to 1949 and the time of the Soviet-backed SED rule in East Germany from 1949 to 1989. In December 1989, during a visit by Chancellor Kohl in Dresden at In a meeting with Modrow, a joint commission on property issues was agreed upon, in whose negotiations the Soviet Union was included. There, as in the two-plus-four negotiations, the Soviet Union demanded that the inviolability of its measures as the occupying power be guaranteed, especially on land and property issues. “In the summer of 1990, the People's Chamber wanted to pass a prisoner compensation law that should also compensate political prisoners between 1945 and 1949. We did not want to address the legitimacy of the judgments. Nevertheless, the Soviet side protested immediately and threatened to halt the two-plus-four process if we passed this law. ”Schäuble saw the greatest determination on this issue on the part of the GDR and in particular with de Maizière, who declared that the GDR would become Do not sign a treaty that wants to go back to the land reform and added: “No political group in the GDR will ever sign that. There are no majorities for this. " State secretaries Günther Krause for the GDR side and Klaus Kinkel for the federal government were charged with looking for a consensus formula . The joint declaration of June 15, 1990 finally stated: “The governments of the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic see no possibility of revising the measures taken at the time. The government of the Federal Republic of Germany takes note of this with regard to historical developments. She is of the opinion that a future all-German parliament must reserve the right to make a final decision on any state compensation payments. " A more differentiated solution was sought for the 40 years of GDR history between 1949 and 1989. This involved expropriations in the state's interest with only minimal compensation, confiscated real estate and assets from GDR refugees, and landowners living in West Germany who bought their properties Foreclosure and foreclosure had also often lost to the state. Opposite the previous owners there were large numbers of bona fide owners of expropriated or compulsory administration properties who had erected a building on it with official approval, often in the form of a garden house-like dacha , which, however, often also served as a permanent apartment when expanded. “Such a private refuge was the dream of many; and those who were lucky enough to fulfill it spared no effort to make their possessions as beautiful and comfortable as possible. Only those who knew how difficult it was to get building materials in the GDR - often only with connections or for money from the West - could gauge what energy, time and manpower had been put into it. But this world, on which the heart - and a piece of life work - of many little people hung, was now seriously threatened in not a few places by return claims from previous owners. " In the above-mentioned joint declaration of June 15, 1990, contrary to the interests of the majority on the GDR side as well as on the part of the Western Social Democrats , it was stated that the property should be returned to the former owner or his heirs. This regulation should not apply where land or buildings were subject to commercial or public use, were used in residential or housing construction or had been acquired "honestly" by third parties. Richard Schröder writes in retrospect: “At first there was great excitement about the principle of return before compensation in the east. Scandalous individual cases of West Germans standing on the doorstep and explaining to the residents without legal basis that the house belonged to them and that they had to move out as soon as possible - others immediately placed their caravan on 'their' property - went through the press like wildfire and mobilized fears of displacement. As a result, the principle of 'return before compensation' was perceived as a preference for West Germans, some of whom had long since forgotten grandma’s houses. Others had always been aware of the loss of their parents' home. But a lot of East Germans also benefited from it. I also got our parents' house back with my siblings. " In practice, according to Richard Schröder, regulating the property issue has turned out to be very complicated, "because new groups of cases kept popping up and tenants and nature conservation should be taken into account." More old than new owners are likely to have been disappointed by the case law. "Whether you call this rule 'return before compensation with many exceptions' or 'compensation before return with many exceptions' makes little difference." The Modrow government had taken precautions against the "fear of the sell-off" that was spreading in the GDR by initiating the sale of expropriated real estate on favorable terms by means of a law of March 7, of which the privileged persons of the old SED regime in particular preferred benefited. In the negotiations on the Unification Treaty, the GDR undertook not to sell land with unresolved ownership claims until further notice. Disposals from the time after Honecker's fall on October 18, 1989 should be reviewed, which was also directed against the law of the Modrow government of March 7th. According to Klaus Schroeder , the scheduled review had little effect: "So were z. B. the houses of the supply facilities of the Council of Ministers (UEM) sold to nomenclature cadres, the conspiratorially used buildings of the MfS to members of the repressive apparatus. How many pieces of land and real estate came into the hands of deserving comrades at low cost and are still there cannot be quantified. The latest ruling by the Federal Constitutional Court, which declared the Modrow decree to be illegal, does not seem to have changed much. " The Berlin House of Representatives has virtually legalized the former purchases, according to Schroeder; Municipalities would have ensured that the aforementioned transactions would continue to apply in the long term by means of subsequent notarizations and the waiver of the exercise of their right of first refusal. "The bottom line is that the only thing that remains is the realization that the formerly privileged were able to secure their old advantages to a considerable extent after a system change." Dealing with the Stasi legacy Among the most controversial fields in the German-German unification process, the legacy of the part Stasi -Apparates (Stasi) whose official resolution as early as the turn of time had been enforced long before the March elections for the new People's Chamber in cooperation of opposition forces rounds at the central table with protesters and citizens' committees all over the GDR. Still in the process of dissolution and disintegration, quite a few MfS employees managed, since the end of 1989, to divert some of the hidden resources that this apparatus of power had at their disposal for their own further use, including money, land, real estate, technical equipment, etc. a. m. A memorandum from the central finance department of the MfS of December 13, 1989 recommended that the employees should better have sums of money transferred from the Sparkasse to the department, because high cash payments by members of the Office for National Security (AfNS, temporary MfS successor organization under the Modrow government ) were already noticed at civil savings banks. So the year of the unification process was also one of the old "clans", the elite functionaries of the disintegrating state apparatus, who helped each other to put aside or rededicate what could still be "saved" or what one could get hold of: "It is about the appropriation of land, dubious reorganization of cooperative and cooperative economic units in private hands, uncontrolled spin-offs from large companies as well as all kinds of asset transfers. Such clusters use the relationships in the administrations that have not yet been renewed, with the legal staff that has not been replaced, they practice Pressure on confessors and previous owners or pay with shares and hush money. " However, the handling of the extensive written remains of the Stasi was less favorable for the MfS full-time staff and supporters. The energetic action taken by the opposition forces against the Stasi objects had made a decisive contribution to the fact that a large part of the files relating to the GDR-wide spying operations was preserved. What was to happen in the unified Germany was controversial in East and West. Since the MfS had recruited employees not only in the GDR but also in West Germany, there were many people on both sides who were interested in the inaccessibility, if not the destruction of the Stasi files. In the agreements on the unification treaty, a restrictive approach to this Stasi legacy became apparent. Federal Minister of the Interior Schäuble as the western negotiator took the position that one should judge cautiously, especially as an outsider, where “a large part of the people tried to make the best of their lives for themselves without getting too entangled in personal guilt. In case of doubt, each of us in the West would not have behaved differently if we had had to live in the GDR during those forty years. ”Schäuble pleaded for concentrating on“ the serious cases of real guilt ”. He wanted to put mutual espionage out of pursuit as a "division-related crime". The Stasi files should be placed under the control of the Federal Archives in Koblenz "under the strict supervision of the data protection officer". GDR negotiator Krause initially agreed to this. On the other hand, the reaction of many members of the People's Chamber was different, to whom the obstruction of the citizens' committee in securing the Stasi material under the Modrow government had seemed to thwart the investigation and favor the perpetrators. “And after the Volkskammer election the situation did not get better, but worse, as the new Interior Minister Peter-Michael Diestel declared that a citizens' committee was no longer necessary. He quickly blocked their access to the archive and sent the committee members the discharge notices for the end of June 1990. " From mid-June there was a special committee of the People's Chamber to dissolve the Stasi, chaired by Joachim Gauck. The work of the citizens' committees should continue on a parliamentary basis. "The State Dissolution Committee set up by Modrow, which the de Maizière government had taken over without any problems, tried to escape our control to a large extent, and the Minister of the Interior covered it." The Stasi officers turned out to be a special challenge for Gauck and his colleagues special commitment (OibE). These were covert MfS forces who held security-relevant positions in the economy, police and army and were supposed to secure the survival of the Stasi as a secret reserve in case of emergency. “Although the Stasi’s electronic data carriers with personal information had been destroyed by a decision of the round table in March 1990, we were able to compile a list of almost 2000 OibE. It was not our aim to denounce these people - there were still no regulations on how to deal with the Stasi files - but we absolutely wanted to remove them from their posts. " From a political perspective, the Stasi committee pursued the goal of sifting through the files and making them accessible for political, legal and historical processing. Immediately a "law on the security and use of personal data of the former MfS / AfNS" was launched and passed almost unanimously in the People's Chamber on August 24, 1990. The restrictive handling of the Stasi material envisaged for the Unification Treaty and its planned submission to the Federal Archives met with concentrated resistance both inside and outside the People's Chamber. On September 4th, Bärbel Bohley and Wolf Biermann, among others, occupied the former MfS headquarters in East Berlin as a protest and even went on a hunger strike on September 12th. Gauck turned to Krause with the express information that the CDU parliamentary group in the Volkskammer did not agree with the contractually stipulated regulation. The former parliamentary group leader of the Eastern SPD Richard Schröder reminds that many of his group colleagues made their approval of the unification agreement dependent on the western promise that the Stasi files would be accessible. "The commitment came one hour before the decisive meeting of the People's Chamber." The compromise negotiated with Gauck in Bonn on September 18 was to add an additional clause to the Unification Treaty, according to which the Bundestag should pass a law closely following the People's Chamber decision immediately after the unification . Gauck himself was elected on September 28, 1990 in the People's Chamber as the "special commissioner of the federal government for the administration of files and files of the former Ministry for State Security". When the Stasi Special Committee's report on its work results was due in the last working session of the People's Chamber on September 29, 1990, there was a long and highly emotional argument about whether and in what way the names of members of the Stasi were known should be given. This was vehemently demanded by the parliamentary groups of the SPD and Bündnis 90, but decidedly rejected by CDU representatives. The responsible examination board refused to give names, citing confidentiality. Members of the Alliance 90 / Greens started a sit-in strike in front of the bureau table. After the session was interrupted, the People's Chamber Vice President Reinhard Höppner negotiated a compromise with both sides: The names of the 15 main offenders should be named, but those named should be given the opportunity to explain. However, lists with all 56 accused had already been leaked to the journalists outside the meeting room. "Those affected protested their innocence or declared, asking for pity, how they got into this situation. Some also defended their activity. These performances were rather embarrassing for the audience. They did not help to establish the truth. Later it turned out that many bad cases had not been named, but some people had been wrongly on the list. " Even after the introduction of the monetary, economic and social union, which was technically flawless, there was no political stabilization in the GDR. In the summer months of July and August 1990, the grand coalition broke up with the first liberals leaving the cabinet de Maizière, with the dismissal of the ministers for finance, economy and agriculture by the prime minister and with the subsequent departure of all SPD ministers. These signs of disintegration were accompanied by what was perceived as such a drastic rapid decline in the GDR economy that de Maizière visited Chancellor Kohl on August 1 at his vacation spot on Lake Wolfgang , in order to urge him to join the unification date as early as possible and for all-German elections on October 14 : Agriculture in the GDR seemed to be on the verge of collapse, and the pension payments were considered to be no longer affordable - despite the financial aid of 14 billion DM agreed in the First State Treaty. An election date for federal elections before December 2, however, failed due to one necessary two-thirds majority in the Bundestag. However, the earliest possible day after the final two-plus-four conference, October 3, 1990, was set as the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic. For the first all-German elections on December 2, 1990, a new electoral law adapted to the changed circumstances was needed. The existing five percent threshold , which decides whether a party is represented or not in the German Bundestag, proved to be problematic . Clear competitive disadvantages for the newly founded parties in the far less populous GDR were to be expected, provided that there had not already been mergers with West German parties. An electoral contract initialed by Schäuble and Krause on August 2, which combined a five percent hurdle for the entire German electoral area with the possibility of list connections (for example from CSU and DSU ), failed in the Volkskammer because of the necessary two-thirds majority. The Federal Constitutional Court finally decided on September 9, 1990 that only a separate five percent threshold clause for the areas of the former GDR and the old Federal Republic was permissible for this first all-German federal election. On October 1, the federal government introduced a corresponding bill to the Bundestag. The regulation for the protection of unborn life turned out to be a serious complication, which led to a postponement of the initialing of the unification treaty and its possible failure. In the old Federal Republic of Germany there was an indication regulation for abortions at the time, while in the GDR any termination within the time limit regulation was permitted. At least for a transitional period, the GDR side insisted that the deadline regulation should continue to apply in the new federal states. On the German side, the question arose as to whether West German women would be able to have an abortion in the course of the transition period according to the "crime scene principle" in the territory of the new federal states (this favored the ruling party FDP as well as the SPD ) or whether after the "residence principle" favored by the CDU and CSU would continue to apply to all West German pregnant women. The last hour's agreement was based on the “crime scene principle”, albeit with a transition period shortened from five to two years. The unification treaty initialed by Schäuble and Krause in the Federal Ministry of the Interior in Bonn on August 31, 1990 at 2:08 a.m. after approval by both government cabinets was signed by both on the same day at 1:15 p.m. in East Berlin's Kronprinzenpalais , so that he could go through the legislative procedure in time with a view to the GDR's accession date on October 3, for which the People's Chamber had voted 294 against 62 on August 23, 1990. The almost 1000-page German-German contract was supplemented by an “Agreement on Implementation and Interpretation” on September 18, 1990. The modalities of the accession of the GDR were u. a. regulated as follows: - Completion of German unity on October 3, 1990, the future day of German unity ; the five new states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia become states of the Federal Republic of Germany; - the People's Chamber sends 144 members to the German Bundestag; Plenipotentiaries are sent to the Federal Council (until a government is formed after the first state parliament elections) with an advisory vote; - Berlin becomes the capital of Germany (with the restriction: "The question of the seat of parliament and government will be decided after the establishment of German unity"); - Continued validity of the expropriations carried out during the Soviet occupation; - Remaining of the Stasi files in the former GDR territory (i.e. no transfer to the Federal Archives ); - various legal transitional regulations in the accession area . In its 36th session, the People's Chamber of the GDR voted for the Unification Treaty on the morning of September 20, 1990 with 299 against 80 votes, on the same day the Bundestag with 442 against 47 votes and the next day the Bundesrat voted unanimously. Celebrations for the completion of the agreement on October 3, 1990 The restoration of the national unity of Germany was accompanied nationwide by a large number of festive events and activities, the center of which on October 2 and 3 was the events in the east and west of the now common capital Berlin. The determination of October 3rd as the date of unification and thus the future day of German unity had been made in the People's Chamber. Farewells after four decades of separated past As the last day in GDR history, October 2nd was a day of farewells marked by very different emotions, not just at the East Berlin evening event in the concert hall on Gendarmenmarkt, but in the early afternoon when the Berlin Senate met the three western city commanders in the Farewell to the Philharmonic . Their special function as the bearer of supreme power in the western half of the city now came to an end. According to Claus J. Duisberg, they made it clear that it was not easy for them to withdraw from these positions of protecting powers, which were both lucrative for high military officials and which have long been quiet. "I thought I felt a touch of sadness among the Berliners, too, because for them a time was coming to an end when West Berlin had recently lived quite well as a structure supported by Bonn, but otherwise quasi-autonomous." In a televised address, Federal Chancellor Kohl emphasized the important role played by the Western allies in the unification process, the prerequisites that Gorbachev created for this and the decisive part of the democratic protest movement against the SED regime in the course of the peaceful revolution. Regarding the internal social perspectives in the united Germany, he expressed the expectation that the difficult road ahead would be successfully passed if solidarity and willingness to make sacrifices came to fruition. The economy was never better prepared for reunification than at that point in time. Added to this is the diligence and willingness of the East Germans to perform. "Through our joint efforts, through the policy of the social market economy, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia will have blossomed landscapes in just a few years." The development of mutual understanding of West and East Germans for each other and the overcoming of a way of thinking that continues to divide Germany into “over there” and “over there”. In the concert hall on Gendarmenmarkt, in addition to the performance of Beethoven's 9th Symphony under Kurt Masur, the outgoing Prime Minister de Maizière gave a speech in which he combined a look back at 40 years of GDR history with a view of a unified Germany. Wall, barbed wire and state security would have degenerated socialism to a club, he quoted Václav Havel . To the applause of the audience, de Maizière extensively paid tribute to the protagonists of the peaceful revolution of autumn 1989. In the future one would have to deal with the hopefully changed conditions of freedom, democracy, the rule of law and social justice, which should be valued higher than the material advantages, which understandably so easily came to the fore after many hardships. The basic law, which is in high regard, is responsible for freedom. “Freedom is the best promoter of our individual abilities; it is also one of the greatest tests of human character. Realizing it for yourself and at the same time for the common good is a fascinating task for all of us. Not what we were yesterday, but what we want to be together tomorrow, unites us in the state. From tomorrow on there will be a united Germany. We have waited a long time for it, we will shape it together, and we are looking forward to it. " Unification after midnight Late in the evening of October 2, a huge crowd gathered on the Republic Square in front of the Reichstag building to celebrate the time of unification there. A nationwide church bells discussed in advance on the occasion of German unity did not occur due to resistance in the Evangelical Church ; but on October 3rd at 0:00 a.m. parallel to the hoisting of the federal flag, the ringing of the freedom bell donated by American citizens in 1950 was broadcast from the Schöneberg town hall before Federal President Richard von Weizsäcker announced in front of the microphones: “Germany's unity is complete. We are aware of our responsibility before God and people. We want to serve world peace in a united Europe. " Then the German national anthem was sung by a wind choir, and there was also fireworks. Departure to a new Germany In church terms, the day of reunification was celebrated in the morning with a central ecumenical service in the St. Mary's Church , which is the oldest still used preaching church in the historic city center of Berlin. Karl Lehmann, chairman of the German Bishops' Conference , spoke on the one hand of the chances and as yet unforeseeable new possibilities of unity, but also pointed out problems: “Many are at a loss and cannot find their way around. What worked right and bad, but was at least familiar, no longer exists, and the promising new is often not yet convincingly there. Many people have been thrown into learning processes that leave them no time. Unemployment threatens many. It is difficult to live with a state that is running out. [...] The weight of a prosperous and successful Federal Republic (see above) can weigh heavily on the other, who has to feel that he has been pushed back into the preschool class again and again. The help of the haves, no matter how well meant, can become unreasonable for those who depend on it. " Again in the Berlin Philharmonic, Federal President von Weizsäcker had scheduled a state act for October 3, 1990 , in which, in addition to himself, Sabine Bergmann-Pohl , President of the GDR People's Chamber, who was the last head of state of the GDR, Rita Süssmuth , President of the Bundestag, and Walter Momper gave speeches as the Governing Mayor of Berlin. In his address, like de Maizière on the previous evening, von Weizsäcker emphasized that the unification of Germany should be seen as part of a pan-European historical process aimed at a new peace order for the continent. The Germans wanted to serve this goal; their unity was dedicated to it. “We now have a state that we ourselves no longer see as provisional and whose identity and integrity are no longer contested by our neighbors. Today the united German nation finds its recognized place in Europe. " For the process of internal unification that has just begun, the Federal President demanded above all mutual respect. It is the systems that produce varying degrees of success, not the people. Every life has its meaning and its own dignity. “No part of life is free, especially not one in need.” The Germans in the GDR are now exposed to a process of conversion that brings “often superhuman demands” with it. Even among those who welcomed the fall of the SED regime and the freedom it had gained, there were people who were reluctant to “replace almost all elements of their own life overnight with something new and unknown”. With regard to the inheritance of the Stasi, too, von Weizsäcker turned against simply shaking off the past. To put on a cloak of oblivion over them, he called humanly unreasonable and legally unbearable. “Law and order take their course. When dealing with files, the necessary data protection must not be used to protect offenders. But nobody will fail to recognize the doubtfulness of the means of education. In a system that cannot do without lies, files can also lie. ”In addition, however, there is a political-ethical responsibility without the possibility of punishment:“ Guilt goes further than criminal liability. ”The goal, however, is justice that is not about retribution, but about reconciliation and inner peace. Against the "in the marketing language of contemporary political communication" widespread notion that nothing should be taken from anyone in the course of the unification process and that it was only a matter of distributing growth, the Federal President pointed out that this would only postpone the necessary sharing into the future would, for some, outside of their own life expectancy. But there is no getting around the realization: “To unite means to learn to share. German unity will not be financed with high-yield bonds alone. " At the end of his address, von Weizsäcker expressed the conviction that the human success of unity does not depend crucially on government contracts, the constitution or legislation, but on the willingness to be open and caring for people. In Ernest Renan's sense, it is the “plebiscite of every day” from which “the character of our community” will emerge. “We can combine the established constitutional patriotism on the one hand with the human solidarity on the other to form a powerful whole. We know how much more difficult it is for other races on earth at the moment. We have a common will to accomplish the great tasks that our neighbors expect of us. History gives us the chance. We want to perceive it with confidence and trust. " The next day, for the first time since 1932, an all-German parliament met in the Reichstag building. According to the Unification Treaty, the Bundestag now also had 144 members elected by the People's Chamber. Five members of the former de Maizière government were appointed and sworn in as the new Federal Minister for Special Tasks , including the last Prime Minister of the GDR himself. - Bridge of German Unity (new building 1989–1992, inaugurated on October 3, 1992) in Würzburg - Renaming of the Saale bridge Rudolphstein in "Bridge of German Unity" (Bj. 1937) - Permanent exhibition Unity in Freedom (since December 2012) in the Genscher-Haus in Halle (Saale) - National monument sculpture park German unity - Chronicle of the division of Germany - Forging of the German Empire (1871), first German unification - Unit price (citizen price) - Costs of German unity - Transport projects German unity - Central investigation team for government and association crime - Interest Adjustment Act - Arnd Bauerkämper (Ed.): Double contemporary history: German-German relations 1945–1990. Dietz, Bonn 1998, ISBN 3-8012-4090-8 . - Klaus Bittermann (Ed.): Together we are unbearable. Reunification and its consequences . Edition Tiamat , Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-923118-42-2 (= Critica diabolis , Volume 27). - Kai Diekmann , Ralf Georg Reuth: Helmut Kohl: I wanted Germany's unity . Ullstein, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-548-36264-8 . - Robert Grünbaum : German Unity. An overview from 1945 to today . 2nd revised edition, Metropol, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-940938-94-7 . - Lothar de Maizière : advocate of unity. A conversation with Christine de Mazières. Argon, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-87024-792-4 . - Walter Franz Schleser : On the long road to German unity: GDR refugees in Hungary and Austria before a peaceful revolution in their homeland. A contemporary witness report on the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989. WF Schleser, Vienna 2010, . - Claus J. Duisberg: The German year - interior views of the reunification 1989/1990 . wjs, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-937989-09-9 . - Stephan Eisel: The decision to join the GDR People's Chamber . In: Historisch-Politische Mitteilungen , ed. from the Konrad Adenauer Foundation , St. Augustin 2005. - Vladimiro Giacché: Connection: The German Unification and the Future of Europe , Laika-Verlag, Hamburg 2014, German Edition, ISBN 978-3-944233-26-0 . - Mikhail Gorbachev : How it was: German reunification. Ullstein, Berlin 1999, ISBN 3-550-07005-5 . - Petra Heß , Christoph Kloft (ed.): The fall of the wall - 20 years later . Rhein-Mosel-Verlag, Zell / Mosel 2009, ISBN 978-3-89801-045-0 . - Ilko-Sascha Kowalczuk : The takeover. How East Germany became part of the Federal Republic. Beck, Munich 2019, ISBN 978-3-406-74020-6 . - Hanns Jürgen Küsters , Daniel Hofmann (ed.): German Unity: Special Edition from the files of the Federal Chancellery 1989/90. Oldenbourg, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-486-56361-0 . - Gerhard Lehmbruch : The German Association: Cold start or false start? A review of the unification process ( online ). - Tilman Mayer (Ed.): 20 Years of German Unity. Successes, ambivalences, problems (= series of publications by the Gesellschaft für Deutschlandforschung, Vol. 97), with greetings from Angela Merkel and Thomas de Maizière, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-428-13416-8 . - Ehrhart Neubert : Our revolution. The history of the years 1989/90 . Piper, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-492-05155-2 . - Alexander von Plato: The unification of Germany - a world political power game: Bush, Kohl, Gorbachev and the secret Moscow protocols. Federal Agency for Civic Education , Bonn 2003, ISBN 3-89331-462-8 . - Gerhard A. Ritter : The price of German unity. The reunification and the crisis of the welfare state. Beck, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-406-54972-1 . - Andreas Rödder : Germany united in a fatherland. The story of the reunification. Beck, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-56281-5 . - Andreas Rödder: History of German reunification. Beck, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-406-62233-5 (Beck'sche series 2736). - Wolfgang Schäuble , Dirk Koch (eds.), Klaus Wirtgen (preface): The contract. How I negotiated about German unity. DVA, Stuttgart 1991, ISBN 3-421-06605-1 . - Klaus Schroeder : Unity price. A balance sheet. Hanser, Munich / Vienna 2001, ISBN 3-446-19940-3 . - Klaus Schroeder: The changed republic. Germany after reunification. Vögel, Stamsried 2006, ISBN 3-89650-231-X (= Berlin & Munich , Vol. 4). - Richard Schröder : The most important misconceptions about German unity. Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau / Basel / Vienna 2007, ISBN 978-3-451-29612-3 . - Horst Teltschik : 329 days. Inside views of the agreement . Siedler, Berlin 1991, ISBN 3-88680-424-0 . - Werner Weidenfeld , Karl-Rudolf Korte (ed.): Handbook on German Unity: 1949–1989–1999. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1999, ISBN 3-593-36240-6 . - Philip Zelikow, Condoleezza Rice : The golden hour of diplomacy. German unity and the end of the division of Europe. Ullstein, Munich 2001, ISBN 3-548-26561-8 . - Joachim Jauer: Identifier D. Peaceful detours to German unity , Camino, Stuttgart 2015, ISBN 978-3-460-50001-3 . - Thomas Großmann: Television, Revolution and the End of the GDR , Wallstein, Göttingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8353-1596-9 (plus dissertation , FU Berlin , 2013). - Detlev Brunner, Michaela Kuhnhenne, Hartmut Simon (Eds.): Unions in the German Unification Process - Possibilities and Limits in Times of Transformation , transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2017, ISBN 978-3-8376-4219-3 . - German stories: ways to unity - German reunification on the information portal for political education - Picture gallery ( memento from October 6, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) on tagesschau.de - Reunification - the churches did not believe in it (pro-medienmagazin.de, 2014) - Departure and unity: online documentation on the last government of the GDR Documents, interviews, videos, photos - Timeline: Peaceful Revolution and Reunification Information from the Federal Government Commissioner for the New Federal States - Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung: Literature for the day: 14. – 16. July 1990 - The violence of the unification , neo-Nazi attacks that took place on October 2 or 3, 1990, i.e. directly before or on the day of the unification of the two German states. - See Kurt Sontheimer / Wilhelm Bleek / Andrea Gawrich : Basic features of the political system in Germany. Munich 2007, p. 91. - See the full official title of the Unification Treaty or about BauNVO . - Recording of the press conference on GDR travel regulations on November 9, 1989. Youtube video. - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, reviewed edition, Munich 2002, p. 447 f. - Hans J. Reichhardt (Ed.): The emergence of the constitution of Berlin. A documentation. On behalf of the President of the Berlin House of Representatives. Vol. II, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1990, online p. 2028 . - Werner Weidenfeld , Karl-Rudolf Korte : Handbook on German Unity 1949–1989–1999. Campus, Frankfurt am Main / New York 1999, pp. 286 f., 408. - Damian van Meli: " Flight from the Republic". Flight and emigration from the Soviet occupation zone / GDR 1945 to 1961. Oldenbourg, Munich 2006, p. 36. - Letter on German unity. documentarchiv.de - Quoted from Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west . Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, reviewed edition, Munich 2002, p. 487 f. - Manfred Görtemaker : History of the Federal Republic of Germany. From the foundation to the present. CH Beck, Munich 1999, p. 725. - Otmar Lahodynsky: Pan-European Picnic: The dress rehearsal for the fall of the wall. In: Profile from August 9, 2014. - Andreas Rödder : Germany united fatherland - the history of reunification. 2009, p. 73 ff. - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, revised edition, Munich 2002, p. 513. - Reunification not on the agenda. In: Berliner Zeitung, November 13, 1989. - The GDR is and will remain socialist. In: Berliner Zeitung, November 20, 1989. - Claus J. Duisberg describes the situation at the turn of the year 1989/1990: “The government increasingly lost authority, subordinate bodies ignored their orders and proceeded as they saw fit. In addition, there were acts of revenge against former officials. Even in the tightly managed armed forces, discipline was loosening; Soldiers, including officers, no longer appeared on duty and even applied to the Bundeswehr. "(Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 127) - Joachim Gauck: Winter in Summer - Spring in Autumn. Memories. Munich 2009, pp. 228, 231. - Joachim Gauck: Winter in Summer - Spring in Autumn. Memories. Munich 2009, p. 235. - Gregor Gysi: That's it. Far from it! Autobiographical Notes. Düsseldorf 1995, p. 168: “I went forward and commented on the process. The PDS would now find itself in a unique historical situation. Whenever the SPD and CDU voted against each other, we could decide who we wanted to discredit. " - Lothar de Maizière 1996, pp. 65, 70. - Lothar de Maizière 1996, p. 97 f. - The SPD parliamentary group chairman in the People's Chamber Richard Schröder notes: “When the eastern SPD parliamentary group - against the resistance of the party executive - joined the grand coalition, an ice age broke out among the friendly members of the Bündnis 90 / Greens parliamentary group. They had warmly invited us beforehand to join the opposition as if we were still living in the GDR. ”(Richard Schröder 2007, p. 163) - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 20. - Klaus Schroeder 2000, p. 116. - Klaus Schroeder 2000, p. 117. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 114. - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, revised edition, Munich 2002, p. 527. - Stefan Reinecke: 30 years of the fall of the Berlin Wall: intellectual allotment gardening . In: taz . November 2, 2019, ISSN 0931-9085 ( taz.de [accessed November 3, 2019]). - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, pp. 72-78. Schäuble finally found his course confirmed in the following: “On Friday, June 29, 1990, the last day on which there was still a procedure for registering emigrants in the Federal Republic of Germany, 14 emigrants were still registered. For comparison: in the period up to March 18, weekly more than 15,000. "(Ibid., P. 78) - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 115. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 209. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 263. - Andreas Rödder 2009, pp. 210, 225. - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, pp. 191, 193. - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, revised edition, Munich 2002, p. 568. - "However, this original trust was not up to its task and was partly staffed with questionable staff. If they had been able to act, the so-called national wealth would have been given to SED comrades, just as the SED tried trickily with its wealth (4 billion East German marks ). "(Richard Schröder 2007, p. 125) - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 214. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 130 (with reference to Wolfram Fischer, Herbert Hax and Hans Karl Schneider (eds.): Treuhandanstalt. Daring to the impossible. Research reports. Berlin 1993, p. 138); Klaus Schroeder 2000, p. 143. - Andreas Rödder 2009, pp. 304, 306. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 165 f. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 18. - Klaus Schroeder 2000, p. 128. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 117, with reference to Wolfgang Herles: We are not a people. A polemic. Munich 2004. - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 194. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 302; Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 202 f. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 13 f. - Lothar de Maizière 1996, p. 153 f. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 170 f. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 189 f .; Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 186 f. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 168 f. - Horst Teltschik 1991, pp. 140, 155; Claus J. Duisberg 2005, pp. 144-146. - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 141 f .; Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, reviewed edition, Munich 2002, p. 449 f. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 228 f .; Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 44 f. - Quotations from Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 45 f. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 15. - Horst Teltschik 1991, pp. 159-161. - Historical deal: Mitterrand demanded euros in return for the unit , Spiegel Online , September 25, 2010, accessed on July 10, 2011. See also Andreas Rödder (2014): Wunschkind Euro (FASZ January 12, 2014 p. 25) - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 58. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 61. - The Washington Post ; quoted n. Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, reviewed edition, Munich 2002, p. 551. While still in Camp David on February 24th, Kohl “to the horror of Bush raised the question of whether a united Germany, like France, could not be a member of the alliance without belonging to its military organization. "(Ibid.) - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 245 f. - Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 239. - Quotations from Andreas Rödder 2009, pp. 231, 248. - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, revised edition, Munich 2002, p. 581. - Werner Weidenfeld, Karl-Rudolf Korte: Handbook on German Unity 1949–1989–1999 , Campus, Frankfurt am Main / New York 1999, p. 297. - Hans-Ulrich Wehler , German history of society, vol. 5: Federal Republic and GDR 1949–1990 , CH Beck, Munich 2008, p. 334. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 236 f .; Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, revised edition, Munich 2002, p. 552. - Horst Teltschik notes under the date March 6, 1990: “From my point of view, the Union has crossed the Rubicon for the final recognition of the Polish western border. The Chancellor comes back from the meeting in a good mood. He feels like a winner. After he became massive, he prevailed. That is necessary from time to time. I consider the whole thing to be an enormous waste of energy. "(Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 168) - Horst Teltschik 1991, pp. 171, 253 f. - Stenographic Report, p. 17144 - Stenographic Report, p. 17145 - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 244. - Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 286. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 230: “Even after agreeing to German reunification in February 1990, the Soviet leadership was still able to act as a veto player. She held a trump card in her hand with the alliance question, because the West had set itself an extraordinarily high negotiating goal with the all-German membership in NATO. This gave Moscow the opportunity to either buy expensive concessions or to block the entire process. " - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 62. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 250; Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 100 f. The delivery should contain 120,000 tons of meat. - Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 204. - Horst Teltschik 1991, pp. 221, 230-234, 243; Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 250 f. - Lothar de Maizière 1996, p. 80. - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, reviewed edition, Munich 2002, p. 586 f. - The behavior of the West was later perceived on the Russian side in all political camps as a breach of treaty. Cf. Uwe Klußmann, Matthias Schepp, Klaus Wiegrefe : Absurd imagination . In: Der Spiegel . No. 48 , 2009, p. 46-49 ( Online - Nov. 23, 2009 ). - Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 294; Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 255. - Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 338. - "Neither the Supreme Soviet or the government, neither the Defense or Presidential Council, nor the Federation Council, not to mention the Politburo or the Secretariat of the Central Committee, Gorbachev had received power for the decisions he made," says Valentin Falin (quoted in . n. Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the "Third Reich" to reunification. Fifth, reviewed edition, Munich 2002, p. 588). - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 56. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 260 f. - “That phone call was really dramatic. Gorbachev tried surprisingly hard to exert pressure to get the Chancellor to make further financial concessions. He was visibly disappointed with the offer of eight billion DM. But this also made it clear that the financial package for Gorbachev is a central component of the overall result that he wants and probably has to show at home. I am sure that our offer cannot be the last word. "(Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 360) - Horst Teltschik: “This ends a very difficult conversation that was only successful in the end because the financial offer was increased. Fortunately, the Ministry of Finance had prepared this additional proposal and submitted it to the Federal Chancellor in good time. The responsible State Secretary Horst Köhler is not only an outstanding expert, but also a top civil servant who thinks politically. ”(Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 362 f.); Andreas Rödder comments: "The fact that the German performance was beyond what the Ministry of Finance has put as the limit of German solvency was in a way just a foretaste: The unification of Germany should require completely different amounts of money in the future." (Andreas Rödder 2009, P. 262) - Horst Teltschik 1991, p. 346. - Announcement of the Allies' "declaration of suspension" on their rights of reservation ( memento of June 11, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) of October 2, 1990 - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 49. - Claus J. Duisberg confirms Krause: “It was obvious that he was the engine of the unification policy, which he also had the personal ambition to bring to a successful conclusion. [...] In negotiations he was wide awake and quick to react, very precise and determined in what he wanted [...] ”(Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 243). Schäuble paid great tribute to his partner when negotiating the contract: “With the unbelievable number of topics, he never lost sight of the essentials. Even the most complicated legal contract problems could not shake him. His professional competence also justified a considerable self-confidence, which enabled him to meet his unbelievable wealth of responsibilities in 1990. "(Schäuble 1991, p. 142) From initial difficulties with the not always considerate West German humor towards the - sometimes disparagingly as" amateurs Richard Schröder reports “apostrophized - East German politicians after the reunification. When he met Gerhard Schröder for the first time in 1990 on the SPD executive committee, he greeted him with the words: "I'll ask Austria whether they'll take you under Article 23." (Richard Schröder 2007, p. 161; to the "Laienspielschar" Reinhard Höppner : Miracles have to be tried out. The road to German unity. Berlin 2009, p. 108) Gerhard Schröder denies this representation, Richard Schröder , Der Spiegel from February 26, 2007. - Wording of the old version of Art. 23 GG valid until 1990: “This Basic Law initially applies in the area of the states of Baden, Bavaria, Bremen, Greater Berlin, Hamburg, Hesse, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein , Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern. In other parts of Germany it is to be put into effect after their accession. " - Wording of the old version of Art. 146 GG valid until 1990: "This Basic Law loses its validity on the day on which a constitution comes into force that has been freely decided by the German people." - Helmut Quaritsch : The people's right to self-determination as the basis of German unity. In: Josef Isensee and Paul Kirchhof (eds.): Handbook of the constitutional law of the Federal Republic of Germany. Volume XI: International Relations . CF Müller, Heidelberg 2013, p. 136 f., Rn. 38. - Cf. Ursula Münch : 1990: Basic Law or New Constitution? , Federal Agency for Civic Education , September 1, 2008. - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 54. “But nothing of our preparations was allowed to leak out. Otherwise there would have been a public storm. We would have been accused: You are already preparing the connection, although those over there have not even voted in the first free election on their new People's Chamber. That was our risk. But I preferred to take this risk than to be left empty-handed in the worst-case scenario. "(Ibid. P. 151) - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 222 f .; Claus J. Duisberg, at that time head of the German policy working group in the Federal Chancellery and won over by Schäuble during the preparatory work for the unification agreement for the Ministry of the Interior (ibid. P. 219), emphasizes that the problem of spontaneous accession persisted and points out that some Parts of the GDR, i.e. districts or districts, could spontaneously have declared their accession: “According to the wording of Article 23, the Basic Law should have come into force there immediately, which would have raised a number of problems. The competence of the organs which had made such a declaration would certainly have been highly doubtful; the political unpleasantness of the situation would not have diminished, but rather increased. ”(ibid. p. 222). - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 135. “I have always insisted on the principle that it is now about unity and not about changing something for the Federal Republic on this occasion.” (Ibid. P. 156) So too The opinion of Richard Schröder, the chairman of the Eastern SPD parliamentary group in the Volkskammer at the time, for whom it was and still is an alien demand, "on the occasion of German reunification in 1990, not only the East but also the West should be turned inside out." (Richard Schröder 2007 , P. 34) - Law on the further democratization of the structure and functioning of state organs in the countries of the German Democratic Republic. Publication in documentarchiv.de - See Scientific Services of the German Bundestag (ed.): The countries in the GDR. Materials No. 110 May 1990. - Wording of the version of the Introduction Act as amended on September 13, 1990. Publication on verfassungen.de , accessed on December 10, 2012. - Annex II, Chapter II, Section II of the Unification Agreement https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/einigvtr/BJNR208890990BJNE025000301.html - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 335: “According to Article 1 of the Unification Treaty, the GDR was replaced on October 3rd in a 'legal second' by its newly formed states, which came under the scope of the Basic Law. Thus, on the day of German unification, the countries were already legally existent, but not yet capable of acting. With the state elections on October 14, 1990, they got parliaments that also functioned as state constituent assemblies. " - North Rhine-Westphalia cooperated with Brandenburg; Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg and Bremen were responsible for Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania; Saxony was supported by Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, Saxony-Anhalt by Lower Saxony and Thuringia by Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate (Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 336). - "Here the path had already been taken to finance the unit primarily at the expense of the federal government." (Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 338) - "A formulation that would have stipulated an obligation for the approval of the federal government would not have been accepted by the Bundestag and would have meant the end for Berlin; the opposite would have failed in the Bundesrat. "(Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 216) - Urban renewal Berlin; Experiences, examples, perspectives; SenBauWohn, 1990 ( Memento from February 6, 2013 in the Internet Archive ). - Iris Spielmann: Focal points of future urban renewal in Berlin and the region in: Various authors: Urban renewal Berlin. Ed .: Senate Department for Building and Housing, Berlin 1990, p. 86. - Both quotations: Borgelt, This, Keckstein: The 25-million program in: Urban renewal Berlin , 1990, p. 101 f. Also: experiences, examples, perspectives , SenBauWohn, 1990. - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 151 f. - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 242 f .; Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 152 ff. "The construction of the Federal Republic in the fifties and sixties was only possible because the leeway at that time was greater in an even less delicately spun legal costume." (Ibid. P. 153) - Gerhard A. Ritter 2006, p. 243. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 151. - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 273: “Krause was also aware that considerable cuts would be necessary here and that the main aim was to find socially acceptable forms. For the federal administration, however, he strived for a strong mix-up and sought to derive a far-reaching obligation to take over, including quotas , from Basic Law, and in this context also particularly criticized the well-known negative attitude of the Foreign Office against the takeover of GDR personnel. " - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 273; Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 199 f. - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 201: “It makes sense that most of my colleagues supported this idea. In this way the defense minister would have got rid of his problem with the National People's Army and the finance minister would have got rid of his duty of care for customs officers. There was a heated argument. " - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, pp. 201-203; In summary: “We have created the conditions for a reasonably socially acceptable downsizing. Even if many, probably even most of the roughly two million employees in the public administrations of the former GDR belonged to the SED, they must still have a fair chance of finding themselves in the process of German unity. They too belong to the united Germany, and we want to give them a chance for a better future too. [...] Each case must be decided for itself. There is no automatic mechanism for layoffs. I have defended this principle from the beginning and I am glad that we kept it up. "(Ibid. P. 203 f.) - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 154. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 152 f. With regard to the layoffs and personnel changes in the higher education sector, Schröder points out that research in the GDR was concentrated in academies, where there were “a considerable number of reputable specialists”, while this was the case with teaching staff at universities, regardless of the special course of study Marxist-Leninist basic canon was part of the compulsory workload and research did not play a major role, "was the case much less often." - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 199. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 326. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 147. In the aftermath, Andreas Rödder considers the Soviet position to be less decisive: “Not to reverse the land reform from the time before 1949 in reunified Germany was obviously a Soviet petitum - but not a real causa major and certainly not a sine qua non . The question was obviously not even discussed at the highest level in Moscow and was represented much less resolutely than the question of membership in an alliance, in which Bonn overcame much greater resistance. "(Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 329) - Quoted from Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 104. - Quoted from Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 328. - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 198. “Houses that belonged to West Germans were placed under state administration (without changes in the land register), but often encumbered with forced mortgages and, in the event of 'overindebtedness', also transferred to public property, i.e. expropriated. Some have handed over their apartment building to the state without compensation because they could not afford the maintenance costs. "(Richard Schröder 2007, p. 137) - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 205. - Quoted from Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 327. Richard Schröder emphasizes: “The de Maizière government has decided that 'the honest acquisition' ('honest' means: according to the then applicable provisions, without corruption) of such expropriated land is protected, that there is no return to the previous owner, but compensation. That still applies today. A second important exception was decided in the People's Chamber: In the case of investment projects, the previous owner should only be compensated so as not to hinder them. The third exception: land expropriated by German Jews by the Nazis was to be returned. The GDR hadn't done that. "(Richard Schröder 2007, p. 137) - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 139. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 140. - Andreas Rödder 2009, p. 325 f. "The fact that the interior minister of the de Maizière government also bought a villa at a preferential price throws a single spotlight on a connection between personal enrichment and another form of 'sell-out' in the declining GDR, largely beyond the view of the public and academia." ( Andreas Rödder ibid. P. 326) - Klaus Schroeder 2001, pp. 153, 161. - Klaus Schroeder 2006, p. 163. - Neubert 2008, p. 399. - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, pp. 267–269, 274. Schäuble, who, according to his own admission, has also thought about the unseen complete destruction of the Stasi files, invokes a misunderstanding on the part of the public with regard to the responsibility of the Federal Archives: “The files would not have been Koblenz are to be outsourced. The Federal Archives would have locked up the files after unification within the former GDR area, collected from the districts in Berlin, in order to make the control more secure. Abuse would have been excluded. "(Ibid. P. 274) - Joachim Gauck: Winter in Summer - Spring in Autumn. Memories. Munich 2009, p. 238. - Joachim Gauck: Winter in Summer - Spring in Autumn. Memories. Munich 2009, p. 238 f. - Joachim Gauck: Winter in Summer - Spring in Autumn. Memories. Munich 2009, p. 239 f. The best- known name among the OibE was Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski , who had fled to the West in December 1989. - Richard Schröder 2007, p. 155. - Joachim Gauck: Winter in Summer - Spring in Autumn. Memories. Munich 2009, p. 244 f. - Reinhard Höppner: You have to try miracles. The way to German unity. Berlin 2009, p. 134 f. Almost two decades later, Höppner sums up: “We have not been able to deal adequately with the legacy of the State Security Service and its accomplices. In view of the nervousness that prevailed during the last days of the GDR, one could hardly expect that the People's Chamber would set a good example of how to deal with our past. ”(Ibid. P. 135) - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 158; Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, reviewed edition, Munich 2002, p. 591 ff. - In order to achieve entry into the Bundestag with a five percent threshold clause that is uniform for the entire German electoral area without additional votes from the old federal states , parties in GDR territory alone should have received 22.39% of the votes. The PDS was the relatively strongest among them, with 16.4% in the March election to the People's Chamber. (Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 85 f.) - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, revised edition, Munich 2002, p. 599. - 30th meeting of the 10th People's Chamber of the GDR: People's Chamber decision on the accession of the GDR to the Federal Republic, followed by a personal declaration by Gregor Gysis (PDS) (5'11 ″) - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 230 ff., 309. - Agreement on the Unification Treaty of August 31, 1990, September 18, 1990 , source: Bulletin of the Press and Information Office of the Federal Government No. 112, September 20, 1990. - 36th meeting of the 10th People's Chamber of the GDR: Vote on the Unification Treaty (1'16 ″) - Wolfgang Schäuble 1991, p. 311. - Claus J. Duisberg 2005, p. 303. - 20 Years of German Unity - Government documents and declarations from the years 1989 to 1991. ( Memento from June 5, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Written version of the televised address by Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl on October 2, 1990, accessed on October 3, 2015. - Written version of the television broadcast from the Konzerthaus Berlin: Address by Prime Minister de Maizière on October 2, 1990. - Neubert 2008, p. 437. - Heinrich August Winkler: The long way to the west. Second volume: German history from the “Third Reich” to reunification. Fifth, revised edition, Munich 2002, p. 601. - Karl Cardinal Lehmann : Catholic Church in United Germany. Comments on the unification process ( memento of July 18, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 174 kB). Opening speech at the meeting of the Commission for Contemporary History on October 23, 2009 in Erfurt, p. 18. - 20 Years of German Unity - Government documents and declarations from the years 1989 to 1991. ( Memento from June 5, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Address by the Federal President on the Day of German Unity, State Act in Berlin on October 3, 1990, accessed on October 3 2015.
10 Ways to Teach Subtraction using Cuisenaire Rods Even if you don't use Cuisenaire rods to teach subtraction, these language tips will set you up for success. In this guide of 10 Ways to Teach Subtraction with Cuisenaire, I lay a clear path for teaching subtraction that even makes for an easy transition into division later. I use simple progressive language, meaningful tasks and playful context that helps move students from the concrete to the abstract. Language and tasks are two areas that offer flexibility in teaching subtraction to students. In this guide, I use those two areas to provide a variety of ways to teach subtraction with Cuisenaire Rods. This variety provides deep conceptual understanding of subtraction and its relationship to addition and division. Before we look at this progression for teaching subtraction with Cuisenaire rods, I need to explain why I use rod color names versus the number names. General to Specific There is one reason to use color names: to give students room to observe and focus on general concepts about subtraction to deepen conceptual understanding. A student steeped in conceptual understanding of broad math concepts is able to streamline math facts and gains a strong foundation for division and fractions. Basically, it prepares them to delve into more specific relationships like math facts with greater ease. The following tasks provide ample opportunity for students to explore general concepts such as the relationship between addition and subtraction and the shared composition and decomposition of numbers. However, the language and tasks below convert easily to numbers, so no matter which way you choose to teach, this guide is still useful. Let's dive into the language of teaching subtraction with Cuisenaire rods. Language of Subtraction Subtraction is just take-away, right? Take away is the common language used when presenting subtraction to young children. It is easy default to this language because we can easily provide context for the student to see and observe the" taking away" of objects from a group. I do not staunchly oppose this method. However, there are other ways to present subtraction that provide students with context for general mathematical ideas. The following tasks connect students to the relationship between addition and subtraction. There are two key pieces of language to present this idea, missing addend and the difference between numbers. When teaching subtraction with Cuisenaire Rods, the focus is on length. It is the missing length that makes train one equivalent to train two. It is the missing addend. Set up your Cuisenaire Rods with two trains side by side. "Train one" is two rods long and "train two" is one rod long equal in length to "train one." Read the trains to the student. For instance, red plus dark green is the same length as tan. Then remove the dark green. Ask the child which rod has been removed. After the student responds, read the trains. Red plus “the missing rod” is the same length as tan. Ask the student, “What is that missing rod?” Repeat this exercise a few times or over a course of a week before introducing the next task. There are several variations of this exercise below to keep this exercise interesting. Come back to this task even after introducing the subsequent tasks. For more missing rod activities, check out Math Task Cards and Play Mats for Module 1. How much more? The next step is to introduce the language of “how much more?” Set up two rods of different lengths side by side (not end to end). Ask the student, “how much more do I need to make the smaller length the same as the larger length?” Repeat this activity changing out the rods. Let students choose the rods for themselves. Choice is a key factor in internal drive and puts responsibility on the student to take charge of their education. The language of “how much more” with the use of the Cuisenaire rods will give them added context to understand the relationship between subtraction and addition. While we are emphasizing the missing addend, the student becomes aware that the missing rod can be described in more than one way. What’s the difference? The difference is the next way to teach subtraction using Cuisenaire Rods. The task remains the same as before, but the language changes. Set up two rods of different lengths side by side (not end to end). Tell the student the task today is to find the difference between the two rods. What is the difference in the two lengths? Explain to the student that the difference is the space between the larger rod and the smaller rod that could be filled with a missing rod. When the student finds the rods, describe the rod. The dark green rod is the difference of between tan and red. As you repeat the task, change the language every so often. The difference between tan and red is dark green. The language is moving the equal sign around to develop a fluent understanding of mathematical notation. Read more about it here. The Difference of Language The language of difference builds upon the context and language of “how much more.” However, this time the language changes the mathematical notation. The previous language (missing rod and how much more) emphasizes addition (2 + __ = 8). Looking for the difference paves the way for the written notation of subtraction. (t – r = d or 8 – 2 = 6) The difference of tan and red is dark green. A predictor for mathematical success lies in reading meaning into mathematical notation. Using the task of missing addend but changing the language helps students see the connection between addition and subtraction. Students use that general idea to streamline the memorization of math facts. For those who dread the kill and drill method, you are right to dread it. It is inefficient use of energy to memorize all those facts. A student with a strong understanding of important mathematical relationships have less to memorize. Stand-alone facts are simply harder to maintain. Whereas a conceptual understanding steeped in interrelated ideas creates more connections in the mind providing not only for memorization of math facts, but deeper number fluency. Subtraction with Cuisenaire Rods Once the student perceives the relationship between subtraction and addition, the student is ready to add the word subtraction to their vocabulary. The teacher may introduce it as take away and then add the terminology of subtraction and minus. Ask the student to build a two rod train equivalent to black. If the student needs the black rod to ensure their train is equivalent, let them have it. However, remove it once they are sure. Then read the train, "Yellow plus red equals the length of black." Then remove (subtract) a red and read, "The length of black minus (subtract/take away) a red equals a yellow." Repeat this activity. Then let the student create their own subtraction sentences. Subtraction to Division Okay, I have one more language tip for teaching subtraction with Cuisenaire rods. Often you hear of repeated addition, but rarely do you hear repeated subtraction. Yet, this piece of language paves the way for division. Set up the task with one orange rod. Ask the student, "how many times can a light green be subtracted from the orange rod?" The student uses the rods to see. The student may build a train underneath or overlay the orange rod with as many light greens that fit. When the student is finished, ask, "What is left over?" or "What rod fits in the remaining space?" With a hands-on manipulative like Cuisenaire rods and the right language, it is easy to transition from understanding the relationship between addition and subtraction to understanding the relationship between subtraction and division. Progression in language and tasks makes this simple. True fluency though means a student transverses between the language and tasks with ease. Don't be afraid to go back and forth within the progression. This will help the student to deepen their fluency and understanding. Let’s look at a variety of meaningful tasks and playful context for the simple language of subtraction. The Missing Chicks Okay, so I may be a fan of Peg plus Cat and those cute little chicks. In this exercise, the students start with staircases and find the missing rods to complete the staircase to reach those mischievous chicks. The language for this task is the missing addend, but we layer in a story to capture student imagination. Story is a great bridge for taking the concrete presentation of the rods and moving the student to the abstract. Through narration, the student discovers that finding that right size Lego to fill in their latest wall to their new hobbit hole is a form of subtraction and addition. You can use both the language of the missing rod or “how much more” interchangeable for this activity. This activity is in Math Task Cards and Play Mats for Module 1. Lock and Key The mind is hardwired for story. This activity connects student’s hunger for story with subtraction. Students build locks and the find a key to unlock the lock. The lock is composed of 3 rods. Two rods are the same length. One is the top of the lock and the other is the bottom. The middle rod is shorter these two other rods. The key fits inside to make the shorter rod of the lock the length of the rest of the lock. The language used is the missing addend. It’s a great alternative to missing chicks and simple missing addend tasks. Read more about this activity here. Pick up PDL's Lock and Key Subtraction activity HERE. Exploring and Building Staircases You can also explore the language of difference through staircases. Task students to build staircases with difference of a red rod. This emphasizes that the difference of two is found amongst many numbers. Students note that both 8 – 6 and 9 – 7 have a difference of two. The student realizes subtraction points to a relationship between numbers and that more than one number has this relationship. Understanding common difference prepares the student to manipulate numbers to make difficult problems easier to solve. Mathematical competency lies in fluency. Deep fluency relies on students perceiving these general ideas shared amongst numbers. Staircases emphasize the shared relationship of common difference amongst number more than any other task. Cuisenaire rods naturally make squares and rectangular shapes. Students enjoy variety. Structure studies provide this variety. Task students with building 2 rectangles using Cuisenaire Rods. Explore the difference of those structures. Uncover which rods are needed to make the smaller structure the same as the first. I encourage layering structures on top of one another to compare difference whenever possible. Other times it might not be possible. Working back and forth between the language of difference and missing addend solidifies that relationship between addition and subtraction. Don’t be afraid to change up the language. For more structure studies, check out my Math Journal pages. There are a lot of opportunity to explore subtraction with Cuisenaire rods and these pages give variety and context for exploration. A Side Note on the Benefits of Laziness Large structure comparisons are great for moving kids to the abstract, so let students build BIG! It can be tedious and cumbersome to manipulate the rods for finding differences. This forces the student to record their structures using symbols and numbers. Let students figure out on their own how to order the information. If students struggle with this, remind them to use what they know. If they lack confidence, remind the student about a similar instance. Maybe narrate that event to them to see if it reminds them of anything that maybe useful in ordering the information. Or if you are keeping a math journal, flip open to that page. An important note about the brain: it is mass consumer of energy. Therefore, it is always working towards efficiency. This sometimes appears to be laziness. However, this desire to do less work is an excellent quality if harnessed for efficiency. It means that your student’s work appears at first to take the longest possible way. Overtime, that student looks for opportunities to do the problem in a way that requires less effort. Trust the laziness of your student to work towards efficiency. It isn’t necessary to hand every algorithm to the student from the beginning. Their laziness leads to their own algorithms. Students have a deeper conceptual understanding of algorithms that they create for themselves. And if you do choose to eventually show them an algorithm, their previous struggles give them a stronger appreciation for it. So at least let them struggle for a little bit. Measure and Compare Another activity for teaching subtraction with Cuisenaire rods is connecting the student’s world to math through measuring. Students find their world interesting. Use Cuisenaire rods to measure their interesting world. There is no need for me to inspire you. Just ask your students to measure for the length of whatever they like with the rods. A toy, a book, a chair, a wall, maps, each other…. the ideas are endless. Don’t forget to get out that balance scale. How many Cuisenaire rods do you need to make the scale balance with Larry Boy? Record results and explore the differences. All these activities develop curiosity in students for the math that is available in the world around them. Cuisenaire rods, stories and simple tasks make math a tangible and useful language to explore and manipulate. Math becomes a conversation worth having and this approach is vital to cultivating a lifelong love for math. Providing plain language and enjoyable context paves the way for students to find mathematics useful and interesting. If you found this post helpful, be sure to subscribe to get more free content, printables and inspiration to teach math well.
NEW YORK - NASA announced it has discovered water on the sunlit surface of the Moon. NASA’s Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) on Monday said that this indicates that water may be distributed across the lunar surface, and not limited to cold, shadowed places. The water was reportedly discovered in the Clavius Crater. This is said to be one of the largest craters visible from Earth and it is located in the Moon’s southern hemisphere. Data from here revealed water in concentrations of 100 to 412 parts per million – about a 12-ounce bottle of water – in a cubic meter of soil spread across the lunar surface. “We had indications that H2O – the familiar water we know – might be present on the sunlit side of the Moon,” said Paul Hertz, director of the Astrophysics Division in the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “Now we know it is there. This discovery challenges our understanding of the lunar surface and raises intriguing questions about resources relevant for deep space exploration.” The new discovery brings up new questions on how water is created and how it persists on the harsh, airless lunar surface, NASA said. With the upcoming manned Artemis mission to the moon, the agency is said to be eager to learn all it can about the presence of water. “Prior to the SOFIA observations, we knew there was some kind of hydration,” said Casey Honniball, the lead author who published the results from her graduate thesis work at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa in Honolulu. “But we didn’t know how much, if any, was actually water molecules – like we drink every day – or something more like drain cleaner.” The results of SOFIA's findings are reportedly built on years of previous research examining the presence of water on the Moon. “Without a thick atmosphere, water on the sunlit lunar surface should just be lost to space,” said Honniball, who is now a postdoctoral fellow at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “Yet somehow we’re seeing it. Something is generating the water, and something must be trapping it there.” Get breaking news alerts in the FOX5NY News app. Download for FREE! NASA said that several forces could be at play in the delivery or creation of the water found. For example, micrometeorites raining down on the lunar surface, carrying small amounts of water, could deposit the water on the lunar surface upon impact. It is also possible that the Sun’s solar wind delivers hydrogen to the moon and causes a chemical reaction with oxygen-bearing minerals in the soil to create hydroxyl. Radiation from the bombardment of micrometeorites then transforms the hydroxyl into water. They said they believe the water could be trapped in tiny beadlike structures in the soil that form out of the high heat created by micrometeorite impacts or they could be hidden between grains of lunar soil and sheltered from the sunlight. SOFIA will reportedly complete follow-up flights to look for water in additional sunlit locations and during different lunar phases to learn more about how the water is produced, stored, and moved across the Moon.
Homework on rational numbers Since this is homework, you should complete this worksheet individually. As usual with home- work, I don’t mind if you share ideas with each other, but you copying each other’s work is cheating. We have talked about the rational numbers in class and have reviewed rational arithmetic in class along with the reasons for it. In this worksheet, you will investigate some properties of the First, recall the Definition. A rational number is a number of the form m/n where m and n are integers and n ≠ 0. As in class, we will denote the set of rational numbers with Q. First, we will look at fundamental properties of addition on Q . Q is closed under addition. This means that when we add two rational numbers, the result is also a rational number. Here is the justification. Let x and y be rational numbers. (The shorthand notation for this is to say x, y ∈ Q. The symbol ∈ means “element of.”) This means that there exist some integers m, n, p, q such that n, p ≠ 0 and x = m/n and y = p/q. We want to convince ourselves that x + y is also a rational number. To be a rational, we must be able to write it as a quotient of two integers (with the denominator not 0 of course). So let’s see if that is really possible. We know that to add fractions, we first need to bring them to a common denominator . We can use nq, as it is a common multiple of n and q. So That certainly looks like a quotient , but is it a quotient of two integers? We know m and q are integers, so their product must also be integer. Similarly, n and p are integers, so their product must also be integer. Hence mq + np is the sum of two integers , and is therefore itself an integer. That takes care of the numerator . The denominator is nq which is a product of two integers and is therefore integer. That’s good. But could it be 0? A product is 0 when one of its factors is 0. We know that n, q ≠ 0, and so their product cannot be 0. This shows x + y is a quotient of two integers, and the one at the bottom is not 0. So x + y is indeed a rational number. Addition of rational numbers is commutative. That is if x, y ∈ Q, then x + y = y + x. Always. Here is why. Again, since x, y ∈ Q, we know that there exist some integers m, n, p, q such that n, p ≠ 0 0 and x = m/n and y = p/q. Now as we computed above. What about y + x? Since mq and np are integer numbers and we know addition is commutative on the integers, mq + np = np + mq. Therefore Addition of rational numbers is associative. This means that for any x, y, z ∈ Q, we have (x+y)+z = x+(y +z). You probably don’t think very much of this, except possibly “Of course, how could it be any other way?” Well it could be. There are algebraic systems and operations which are not associative. They are hard to work with. Associativity is a very useful property even if we take it for granted in lower mathematics . We can justify associativity in much the same way as commutativity. If x, y, z ∈ Q, then there exist integers m, n, p, q, r, s such that n, q, s ≠ 0 and x = m/n, y = p/q, and z = r/s. Now go ahead and compute (x + y) + z. (x + y) + z = Similarly, compute x + (y + z) x + (y + z) = Explain why the two results are the same. The number 0 is an additive identity in Q. This means that if x ∈ Q, then x + 0 = x. (Also 0 + x = x, but since addition is commutative, this is the same thing anyway.) This is easy enough to see. Since x ∈ Q, there exist integers m, n such that n ≠ 0 and x = m/n. Now Now, you might think, what is the point of all this, I’ve known ever since 3rd grade that adding 0 to a number does nothing. Perhaps so, but what you probably knew was that your 3rd grade teacher assured you this was so. Our goal is to understand the reasons why mathematics works the way it does, and remembering what your 3rd grade teacher told you is good, but is not really a reason why math is the way it is. In other words, the reason why 0 is an additive identity is not because your 3rd grade teacher said so. Every rational number has an additive inverse, which is also a rational number. This means that if x ∈ Q then there exists a number y ∈ Q such that x + y = 0. (Also y + x = 0, but this is the same thing because of commutativity.) Of course, we normally denote such a number y by −x and we even know, form experience at least , that So go ahead, convince me (and yourself) that is indeed additive inverse of x by adding it to x and showing that you get 0. Now convince me that is a rational number. (That is it satisfies the definition of a rational Multiplication of rational numbers Multiplication has very much the same properties of addition. I will list them and ask you to justify them. The justifications are similar to those we gave about the properties of addition, only they are a little simpler . Q is closed under multiplication. Multiplication of rational numbers is commutative. Multiplication of rational numbers is associative. The number 1 is a multiplicative identity in Q. Every nonzero rational number has a multiplicative inverse, which is also a rational Subtraction and division These don’t have so many nice properties. It is still true that Q is closed under subtraction. You could justify this using a very similar argument to the one we had for closure under addition. Try it: Actually, a quicker way to do it is to note that x−y = x+(−y) and we already showed that the additive inverse of a rational number is a rational number and the sum of two rationals is rational. So as long as x, y ∈ Q, x − y must be rational. Otherwise, subtraction is not commutative or associative, does not have an identity (no 0 does not work because even though x − 0 = x, 0 − x ≠x), and therefore subtractive inverses cannot exist either. Here is an easy challenge for you: show that subtraction is not commutative on Q by finding two rational numbers x and y such that x − y ≠ y − x. Looking at division, it doesn’t take long to notice that Q is not closed under division. The problem is the number 0. If we remove it, the set of nonzero rational numbers (this is usually denoted as Q* ) is closed under division. Justify this. Finally, division is not commutative or associative, has no identity and therefore no inverses
Melting glaciers contribute to sea-level rise, but measuring their mass loss over time is difficult. An analysis of satellite data on Earth's changing gravity field does just that, and delivers some unexpected results. Glaciers and ice caps are pivotal features of both water resources and tourism. They are also a significant contributor to sea-level rise. About 1.4 billion people are dependent on the rivers that flow from the Tibetan plateau and Himalayas1. Yet significant controversy2 and uncertainty surround the recent past and future behaviour of glaciers in this region. This is not so surprising when one considers the problem in hand. There are more than 160,000 glaciers and ice caps worldwide. Fewer than 120 (0.075%) have had their mass balance (the sum of the annual mass gains and losses of the glacier or ice cap) directly measured, and for only 37 of these are there records extending beyond 30 years. Extrapolating this tiny sample of observations to all glaciers and ice caps is a challenging task that inevitably leads to large uncertainties. In an article published on Nature's website today, Jacob and colleagues3 describe a study based on satellite data for Earth's changing gravity field that tackles this problem. Their results have surprising implications for both the global contribution of glaciers to sea level and the changes occurring in the mountain regions of Asia. Melting glaciers are an iconic symbol of climate change. On the basis of the limited data mentioned above, they seem to have been receding, largely uninterrupted, almost everywhere around the world for several decades4. Scaling up the small sample of ground-based observations to produce global estimates is, however, fraught with difficulty. Size, local topography, altitude range, aspect and microclimate all affect the response of individual glaciers in complex ways. Even the seasonality of changes in temperature and precipitation strongly influence the glaciers' response, and those that terminate in a lake or ocean behave differently again. Nonetheless, until recently there was little alternative to some form of extrapolation of the terrestrial observations to large regions and numbers of glaciers. One such high-profile assessment5 concluded that, during the period 1996–2006, the mass loss from glaciers and ice caps (GICs) increased steadily, contributing a sea-level rise of 1.1 ± 0.24 millimetres per year by 2006. In this study5, the authors concluded that GICs had been the dominant mass contributor to sea-level rise over the study period, and they extrapolated their results forward to argue that this would also be the case in the future. Then along came the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), which consists of a pair of satellites that have been making global observations of changes in Earth's gravity field since their launch in 2002. They have been used in various studies to examine the changing mass of the great ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland6 and several other large glaciated regions7. But, so far, the data have not been analysed simultaneously and consistently for all areas. The difficulty with doing this is that GRACE measures the gravity field of the complete Earth system. This includes mass exchange and/or mass redistribution in the oceans, atmosphere, solid Earth and land hydrology, in addition to any changes in GIC volume. To determine the latter, it is clearly essential to be able to separate it from the other sources of mass movement that affect the gravity field. A second, related issue is the effective resolution of the observations. The GRACE satellites are sensitive to changes in the gravity field over distances of a few hundred kilometres. They cannot 'see' the difference between the signal from one glacier or small ice cap and another. To isolate the GIC signal from others at the surface, Jacob and colleagues defined units of mass change — called mass concentrations, or mascons — within each of their 18 GIC regions (including the European Alps; Fig. 1). Each region might have many tens of mascons defining the geographic extent of significant ice volume within the sector3. Combined with global models of land hydrology and atmospheric-moisture content, the authors were able to isolate the GIC mass trends over the eight-year (2003–10) period of the observations. What they found was unexpected. First, the contribution of GICs (excluding the Antarctica and Greenland peripheral GICs) to sea-level rise was less than half the value of the most recent, comprehensive estimate8 obtained from extrapolation of in situ measurements for 2001–05 (0.41 ± 0.08 compared with 1.1 mm yr−1). Second, losses for the High Mountain Asia region — comprising the Himalayas, Karakoram, Tianshan, Pamirs and Tibet — were insignificant. Here, the mass-loss rate was just 4 ± 20 gigatonnes per year (corresponding to 0.01 mm yr−1 of sea-level rise), compared with previous estimates that were well over ten times larger. By a careful analysis, the authors discounted a possible tectonic origin for the huge discrepancy, and it seems that this region is more stable than previously believed. What is the significance of these results3? Understanding, and closing, the sea-level budget (the relative contributions of mass and thermal expansion to ocean-volume change) is crucial for testing predictions of future sea-level rise. Estimates of the future response of GICs to climate change are, in general, based on what we know about how they have responded in the past. A better estimate of past behaviour, such as that obtained by Jacob and colleagues, will therefore result in better estimates of future behaviour. Discussion of the demise of the Himalayan glaciers has been mired in controversy, partly because of basic errors2, but also because of the dearth of reliable data on past trends. Given their role as a water supply for so many people1, this has been a cause for concern and an outstanding issue. Of course, eight years is a relatively short observation period. Some of the regions, such as the Gulf of Alaska, experience large inter-annual variations in mass balance that are mainly due to variability in precipitation7. This is also true for the High Mountain Asia region3, and, as a consequence, a different measurement period could significantly alter the estimated trend for this sector. Furthermore, some areas, such as the European Alps and Scandinavia, have been relatively well monitored, and thus constrained, using other approaches. Nonetheless, Jacob and colleagues have dramatically altered our understanding of recent global GIC volume changes and their contribution to sea-level rise. Now we need to work out what this means for estimating their future response. Immerzeel, W. W., van Beek, L. P. H. & Bierkens, M. F. P. Science 328, 1382–1385 (2010). Cogley, J. G., Kargel, J. S., Kaser, G. & van der Veen, C. J. Science 327, 522 (2010). Jacob, T., Wahr, J., Pfeffer, W. T. & Swenson, S. Nature http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10847 (2012). Kaser, G., Cogley, J. G., Dyurgerov, M. B., Meier, M. F. & Ohmura, A. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, L19501 (2006). Meier, M. F. et al. Science 317, 1064–1067 (2007). Velicogna, I. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L19503 (2009). Luthcke, S. B., Arendt, A. A., Rowlands, D. D., McCarthy, J. J. & Larsen, C. F. J. Glaciol. 54, 767–777 (2008). Cogley, J. G. Ann. Glaciol. 50, 96–100 (2009). About this article Snow Cover Mapping Using Polarization Fraction Variation With Temporal RADARSAT-2 C-Band Full-Polarimetric SAR Data Over the Indian Himalayas IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing (2018) IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters (2017) Elevation changes measured during 1966–2010 on the monsoonal temperate glaciers' ablation region, Gongga Mountains, China Quaternary International (2015) Regional sea level change in response to ice mass loss in G reenland, the W est A ntarctic and A laska Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans (2015)
- calculate a single variable (density, mass or volume) from the density equation - calculate specific gravity of an object, and - determine whether an object will float or sink given its density and the density of its surroundings. Density is the mass of an object divided by its volume. Density often has units of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Remember, grams is a mass and cubic centimeters is a volume (the same volume as 1 milliliter). A box with more particles in it will be more dense than the same box with fewer particles Hide Density is a fundamental concept in the sciences; you will see it throughout your studies. It is used quite often in identifying rocks and minerals since the density of substances rarely changes significantly. For example, gold will always have a density of 19.3 g/cm3; if a mineral has a density other than that, it isn't gold. You probably have an intuitive feeling for density in the materials you use often. For example, sponges are low in density; they have a low mass per unit volume. You are not surprised when a large sponge is easy to lift. In contrast, iron is dense. If you pick up an iron skillet, you expect it to be heavy. Students, and even teachers, often confuse mass and density. The words heavy and light on their own refer to mass, and not density. A very large sponge may weigh a lot (have a high mass), but its density is low because it still weighs very little per unit of volume. For density, you also need to consider the size, or volume, of the object. How do I determine density? Density is not something that is directly measured. Typically if you want to know the density of something you will weigh it and then measure its volume. Hide You collect a boulder and take it back to the lab, where you weigh it and find its mass to be 1000 g. You then determine the volume is 400 cm3. What is your boulder's density? Hide Density is mass divided by volume, In this case the mass is 1000g and the volume is 400 cm3, so you divide 1000g by 400 cm3 to get 2.5 g/cm3. Another tricky thing about density is that you can't add densities. If I have a rock that is made up of two minerals, one with a density of 2.8 g/cm3, and one with a density of 3. 5 g/cm3, the rock will have a density between 3.5 and 2.8 g/cm3, not a density of 6.3 g/cm3. This is because both the mass and the volume of the two minerals will be added, and so when they are divided to get the density the result will be between the two. Typical densities for gasses are on the order of thousandths of grams per cubic centimeter. Liquids often have densities of about 1.0 g/cm3, and indeed, fresh water has a density of 1.0 g/cm3. Rocks often have a density around 3 g/cm3, and metals often have densities above 6 or 7 g/cm3. How do I calculate specific gravity? To calculate the specific gravity (SG) of an object, you compare the object's density to the density of water: Calculating the Density of an Object By Steven Holzner In physics, density is the ratio of mass to volume. Any solid object that’s less dense than water floats. Density is an important property of a fluid because mass is continuously distributed throughout a fluid; the static forces and motions within the fluid depend on the concentration of mass (density) rather than the fluid’s overall mass. - Density is mass (m) divided by volume (V), so here’s the formula for density: - In the MKS (Meter-Kilogram-Second) system, the units are kilograms per cubic meter, or kg/m3. Say you have a whopper diamond with a volume of 0.0500 cubic meters (that’s a cube that’s about 1 foot on each side, so it’s truly a whopper). You measure its mass as 176.0 kilograms. So what’s its density? Plugging in the numbers and doing the calculations gives you your answer: So the density of diamond is 3,520 kg/m3. That’s pretty dense. You can see a sample of the densities of common materials in the table. Note that ice is less dense than water, so ice floats. Generally, solids and gases expand with temperature and therefore become less dense. This table includes the density of water at 4°C as a reference point because the density of water varies with temperature. The densities of the gases generally have a stronger dependence on temperature than the solids do, though. \|Gold (near room temperature)\|\|19,300\| \|Mercury (near room temperature)\|\|13,600\| \|Silver (near room temperature)\|\|10,500\| \|Copper (near room temperature)\|\|8,890\| \|Diamond (near room temperature)\|\|3,520\| \|Aluminum (near room temperature)\|\|2,700\| \|Blood (near body temperature)\|\|1,060\| \|Water (4 degrees Celsius)\|\|1,000\| \|Ice (0 degrees Celsius)\|\|917\| \|Oxygen (at 0 degrees Celsius, 101.325 kPa)\|\|1.43\| \|Helium (at 0 degrees Celsius, 101.325 kPa)\|\|0.179\| How to Calculate the Density of Solids or Liquids – Video & Lesson Transcript Density is a measure of how compact the mass in a substance or object is. The density of an object or substance can be calculated from this equation: density in kilograms per meter cubed is equal to mass in kilograms, divided by volume in meters cubed (p = m / v). So density could be described as the number of kilograms that 1 meter cubed of substance weighs. When two materials are mixed together, the density is what determines which one will rise and which one will sink. This tells you whether objects sink or float and explains why cold fronts sink below warm fronts in weather patterns. Understanding density is an important step in understanding the world around us. Calculating Density of Solids or Liquids When you're asked to calculate density, you need to use a combination of the density equation we've already introduced and an understanding of volume. For example, you might not be given the actual volume of the material or object to put into the density equation. Instead, you may be given the measurements of the object and be expected to figure out the volume yourself. The volume of a cube or cuboid is length times width times height (L * W * H). So if you needed to calculate the density of a cube, you would first measure the length of one of the sides. Let's say that the length of our cube turned out to be 3 meters. You would first need to calculate the volume by multiplying 3 by 3 by 3 (V = 3 * 3 * 3). You would also need to put the cube on a scale to measure its mass. Last of all, you would divide your volume by your mass to get the density of the cube (p = m / v). But what if the material isn't a solid? What if it's a liquid? This Example Shows How to Calculate Density Density is the measurement of the amount of mass per unit of volume. In order to calculate density, you need to know the mass and volume of the item. The mass is usually the easy part while volume can be tricky. Simple shaped objects are usually given in homework problems such as using a cube, brick or sphere. The formula for density is: This example problem shows the steps needed to calculate the density of an object and a liquid when given the mass and volume. - Density is how much matter is contained within a volume. A dense object weighs more than a less dense object that is the same size. An object less dense than water will float on it; one with greater density will sink. - The density equation is density equals mass per unit volume or D = M / V. - The key to solving for density is to report the proper mass and volume units. If you are asked to give density in different units from the mass and volume, you will need to convert them. Question 1: What is the density of a cube of sugar weighing 11.2 grams measuring 2 cm on a side? Step 1: Find the mass and volume of the sugar cube. Mass = 11.2 gramsVolume = cube with 2 cm sides. Volume of a cube = (length of side)3Volume = (2 cm)3Volume = 8 cm3 Step 2: Plug your variables into the density formula. density = mass/volumedensity = 11.2 grams/8 cm3density = 1.4 grams/cm3 Answer 1: The sugar cube has a density of 1.4 grams/cm3. Question 2: A solution of water and salt contains 25 grams of salt in 250 mL of water. What is the density of the salt water? (Use density of water = 1 g/mL) Step 1: Find the mass and volume of the salt water. This time, there are two masses. The mass of the salt and the mass of the water are both needed to find the mass of the salt water. The mass of the salt is given, but the only the volume of water is given. We've also been given the density of water, so we can calculate the mass of the water. densitywater = masswater/volumewater masswater = densitywater·volumewatermasswater = 1 g/mL · 250 mLmasswater = 250 grams Now we have enough to find the mass of the salt water. masstotal = masssalt + masswatermasstotal = 25 g + 250 gmasstotal = 275 g Volume of the salt water is 250 mL. Step 2: Plug your values into the density formula. - density = mass/volumedensity = 275 g/250 mL - density = 1.1 g/mL Answer 2: The salt water has a density of 1.1 grams/mL. If you're given a regular solid object, you can measure its dimensions and calculate its volume. Unfortunately, the volume of few objects in the real world can be measured this easily! Sometimes you need to calculate volume by displacement. How do you measure displacement? Say you have a metal toy soldier. You can tell it is heavy enough to sink in water, but you can't use a ruler to measure its dimensions. To measure the toy's volume, fill a graduated cylinder about half way with water. Record the volume. Add the toy. Make sure to displace any air bubbles that may stick to it. Record the new volume measurement. The volume of the toy soldier is the final volume minus the initial volume. You can measure the mass of the (dry) toy and then calculate density. In some cases, the mass will be given to you. If not, you'll need to obtain it yourself by weighing the object. When obtaining mass, be aware of how accurate and precise the measurement will be. The same goes for measuring volume. Obviously, you'll get a more precise measurement using a graduated cylinder than using a beaker, however, you may not need such a close measurement. The significant figures reported in the density calculation are those of your least precise measurement. So, if your mass is 22 kg, reporting a volume measurement to the nearest microliter is unnecessary. Another important concept to keep in mind is whether your answer makes sense. If an object seems heavy for its size, it should have a high density value. How high? Keep in mind the density of water is about 1 g/cm³. Objects less dense than this float in water, while those that are more dense sink in water. If an object sinks in water, your density value better be greater than 1! Need more examples of help with related problems? How to Calculate the Density of a Solution Updated March 13, 2018 By Robert Preston The density of a solution is a relative measurement of the mass of an object compared against the space that it occupies. Finding a solution's density is a simple task. Once measurements have been taken to determine the volume and mass of the solution, it is easy to calculate the density of the solution. Measure the mass of a beaker in grams. Fill the beaker with the solution being measured. Read the volume of the solution in the beaker and record. Measure the mass of the filled beaker in grams. Subtract the mass of the empty beaker from the mass of the filled beaker to determine the mass of the solution. Divide the mass of the solution by the volume of the solution. home / other / density calculator Please provide any two values to the fields below to calculate the third value in the density equation of . The density of a material, typically denoted using the Greek symbol ρ, is defined as its mass per unit volume. \|ρ =\|\|where: ρ is the density m is the massV is the volume\| The calculation of density is quite straightforward. However, it is important to pay special attention to the units used for density calculations. There are many different ways to express density, and not using or converting into the proper units will result in an incorrect value. It is useful to carefully write out whatever values are being worked with, including units, and perform dimensional analysis to ensure that the final result has units of . Note that density is also affected by pressure and temperature. In the case of solids and liquids, change in density is typically low. However, when regarding gases, density is largely affected by temperature and pressure. An increase in pressure decreases volume, and always increases density. Increases in temperature tend to decrease density since volume will generally increase. There are exceptions however, such as water's density increasing between 0°C and 4°C. Below is a table of units in which density is commonly expressed, as well as the densities of some common materials. Common Density Units Density of Common Materials How can I calculate density of a solid? - Density is a comparison of the mass of an object and the volume of that object. - #D = (mass)/(volume) or D = m/V# - This equation can be rearranged algebraically to solve foray of the values. - #D = m/V or DV = m or V =m/D# - Let us look at two sample problems. A rectangular prism has a mass of 42.0 grams and has dimensions of 2 cm in width, 6 cm long and 0.5 cm in height. What is the density of this object? Volume of a rectangular prism is #l x h x w# # 6.0 cm x 0.5 cm x 2.0 cm = 6.0 cm^3# - Now the density is #(mass)/(volume)# - #D = (42 g)/(6.0 cm^3)# - #D = 7.0 g/(cm^3)# A rectangular prism has a mass of 42.0 grams and has dimensions of 2 cm in width, 6 cm long and 0.5 cm in height. What is the density of this object? Volume of a rectangular prism is #l x h x w# # 6.0 cm x 0.5 cm x 2.0 cm = 6.0 cm^3# - Now the density is #(mass)/(volume)# - #D = (42 g)/(6.0 cm^3)# - #D = 7.0 g/(cm^3)# A cylinder has a mass of 33.0 grams and has a diameter of 4 cm and measure 3.0 cm in height. What is the density of the cylinder? Volume of a cylinder is # (3.14) r^2h# # (3.14) (2cm)^2(3.0cm) = 37.68 cm^3# Now the density is #(mass)/(volume)# #D = (33.0 g)/(37.68 cm^3)# - #D = 0.876 g/(cm^3)# - I hope this was helpful. How to Calculate the Density of a Solid Mass: Learn how to measure the mass of an object using a triple beam balance Mass vs. Weight: Mass and weight are often confused by many students. Learn the difference and try some challenging problems. Volume: Measure volume using a graduated cylinder. Density of a Solid: Learn to calculate the density of an unknown solid from knowing its mass and volume. Density of a Liquid: Learn to calculate the density of an unknown liquid from knowing its mass and volume using a graduated cylinder and triple beam balance. Learn what a hydrometer is, and what it can do. Density Challenge: Great page for gifted and talented students! Some excellent challenging problems. Assessment: Twenty questions on mass, volume and density (two levels of difficulty). Your test is marked online. - Science Project Ideas: Ideas for science projects using mass, volume and density concepts learned from this module. - Mass Volume Density Lab Exercise: Problem: What is the relationship between water pressure and depth of water? - An Integrated Math Science and Art (STEAM) Activity- Mass, Volume Density Activity using the Gates Project from Central Park NYC. By Becky Kleanthous\| Last update: 22 August 2019 If you've ever been fooled by the old question, 'Which weighs more: a pound of feathers or a pound of lead?' then you wouldn't be alone. Although the feathers and the lead both weigh exactly the same (um, a pound), their density is wildly different, and we can sometimes mentally conflate weight and density – even though they're different concepts. So – hey – don't feel dense. Read on to find out exactly what density is, how it works, and how to calculate density. What is density? Density is the mass per volume – not just the straight-up mass. So if the question was, 'Which weighs more: a 500ml jug full of feathers or a 500ml jug full of lead?' then the answer would be the lead. For an equal amount of space it takes up (volume), lead weighs much more than the feathers (mass). Density can also be thought of as how compacted or compressed a substance is. A pound of feathers is filled with airy space, so it's not very dense at all, while a pound of lead feels much more solid, so it's more dense. This is why you should never comment on your Auntie Mabel's sponge cake by describing it as dense: she was probably going for something a little more airy. Density is also what makes things float or sink. When you mix two or more substances, the most dense substance sinks to the bottom, whilst the least dense substance is more buoyant and floats to the top. Try mixing oil and water and see how they separate into layers, with the less dense oil on top. How do you calculate density? Always keep an eye on your units: it's standard to use g or kg per cm³ or m³, so use our unit converters if your measurements are in different units. To calculate density, you divide the mass by the volume: Density = Mass ÷ Volume
Every child has the right to be supported by their parents and community to grow, learn, and develop in the early years, and, upon reaching school age, to go to school and be welcomed and included by teachers and peers alike. Inclusive education means different and diverse students learning side by side in the same classroom. Inclusive education values diversity and the unique contributions each student brings to the classroom. In an inclusive setting, every child feels safe and has a sense of belonging. They enjoy field trips and after-school activities together. They participate in student government together. And they attend the same sports meets and plays.Students and their parents participate in setting learning goals and take part in decisions that affect them. And school staff have the training, support, flexibility, and resources to nurture, encourage, and respond to the needs of all students. And we are here to help exactly this: training to support the needs of all students. Who are we? ELINA – an Incubation of HLC, is an advisory and referral centre for children Elina’s vision is to create an equitable space for ALL children in all components of the society we live in. Elina uses a network of specialists to assist with the inclusion of children with additional needs. This may include children with diagnosed disabilities, challenging behaviour or social and emotional difficulties. We liaise with therapists as well as other allied professionals.Elina also supports families and educators with advice about their children’s development. We are a growing network of professionals in the field of inclusion & disability which includes Occupation Therapists, Speech Language Pathologists, Art therapists, Psychiatrists, Psychologists, Teachers,Schools & Special Educators. We promote changes to policy and practice in a variety of ways, including the following: - Being a referral point to a variety of professional services a child with needs may require. - Enabling communication among the various professionals who work with the child - Working with schools to enable inclusive practices - Building a large network of professionals who work in the field of inclusion - Building capacity among the professionals by organising workshops and trainings What is this training about? Enabling learning in an inclusive classroom Inclusive education is about looking at the ways our schools, classrooms, programs and lessons are designed so that all children can participate and learn. Inclusion is also about finding different ways of teaching so that classrooms actively involve all children. It also means finding ways to develop friendships, relationships and mutual respect between all children, and between children and teachers in the school. Inclusive education is a way of thinking about how to be creative to make our schools a place where all children can participate. Creativity may mean teachers learning to teach in different ways or designing their lessons so that all children can be involved. While session 1 of our training held in February focussed on “Learning through Movement”, this training will touch upon how we shall enable such an environment for our learners to benefit by understanding about executive functions. What is executive function? “The executive functions are a set of processes that all have to do with managing oneself and one’s resources in order to achieve a goal.” Executive function “is an umbrella term for the neurologically based skills involving mental control and self-regulation” (Cooper-Kahn, Dietzel, 2008, p. 10). - able to hold on to information while considering other information - able to shift focus from one event to another - able to think about multiple concepts simultaneously These are just some of the skills of executive function: a set of skills that help direct the management of information and behavior. Executive function and it’s relevance to learning: Consider that today, with increased access to the Internet and more people uploading professional and amateur “how to” videos and direction sheets, you can locate information on nearly any topic you wish to pursue. If you search for “subtraction with regrouping,” you’ll find a wealth of resources. If you search for “light and shade in oil painting,” “basketball jump shot,” “how to use a gluestick,” or “balancing chemical equations,” you’ll likewise have no lack of resources. Many of the skills and concepts students need to learn are readily available through a variety of sources on the Internet. This is far different from the accessibility to content that was available just a decade ago. What is important, however, is that you can identify a reliable source, and that requires executive function. Physical access to content through lessons does not equal the cognitive access that leads to learning. Without the skills of executive function, a learner cannot access the information needed to transform thinking and produce powerful learning. Executive function is, therefore, the coveted missing link to student achievement.” While an effective lesson and great materials may be necessary to learning, they are not sufficient to ensure learning. They will be to little or no avail with a student who lacks executive function.The key to unlocking content and ensuring a pathway to long-term memory is through executive function. Who is our expert facilitator for the day? Ms. Aarti C.Rajarathnam will be conducting a training for all of us schools on enabling inclusion. Aarti is a multifaceted, intuitive and inspiring psychotherapist and a best- selling author who reaches out to people through her counselling sessions, television shows and newspaper columns on psychology and creative education. She is trained in CBT, Client centered therapy, Transpersonal Psychology and Neuro linguistic programming and uses an eclectic model to support children and adults through the therapeutic process.She is an Innovative Curriculum and Education Design Consultant and has been instrumental in designing innovative classrooms and curriculum models in India and abroad. She has set up schools for children in the rural areas of India to cater to the needs of first generation learners to ensure that their educational and nutritional needs are met. She developed and implemented a model of reaching out to children affected by the disaster through art, music, play and drama. She nurtured more than a 1000 young students through an innovative and scientifically sound curriculum that integrated the principles of psychology, education, science and spirituality very effectively. She works closely with children with Learning Disabilities, Developmental Disabilities and Pervasive Developmental Disorders like Autism. Aarti has trained and ably mentored teachers, School Leaders, professionals, parents, students, volunteers and HR teams on a wide range of topics and has truly made a difference and a major contribution in each one of these projects. She is an inspiring speaker and has been invited across the globe to share her insights on creative education and psychology.She is an inspiring speaker and has been invited across the globe to share her insights and experiences in the fields of creative education and psychology. Be with us on April 26, 2019 by registering now using the form below. (If your are registering for more than one participants, please fill the form individually) The payment of Rs.1500/- towards the training may be transferred online to: The Ratnakar Bank Ltd., T. Nagar IFS Code: RATN0000113 Beneficiary Name: VIDYOTHSAHI EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE TRUST Current Account no: 409000202812 (Lunch and tea will be provided at the venue)
TK students develop their oral language and vocabulary through games and play. Teachers focus on phonological awareness activities to lay a strong foundation for reading and writing. Students practice reading and writing letters to communicate through writing. Letter formation is formally developed using Zaner-Bloser manuscript materials. Young readers engage in poems, songs, shared readings, and read alouds. Kindergarten – 2nd Literacy instruction in the primary grades balances phonics and decoding instruction with literature studies to develop thoughtful, engaged, and fluent readers. Students receive individualized spelling, phonics, and vocabulary instruction during word study. Students progress through the developmental spelling continuum using Words Their Way materials. Our younger students practice decoding, fluency, and comprehension in guided reading groups. Students enjoy the many leveled books from the Fountas and Pinnell Classroom Guided Reading collection, along with shared readings and read alouds. Young writers develop writing fluency, mechanics, and writer’s craft following the Writing Units of Study from Columbia University’s Teachers College. The units include a variety of narrative, information, and opinion writing. Handwriting is formally developed using Zaner-Bloser manuscript materials. 3rd – 5th As upper elementary students are inspired to become deep thinkers, independent readers, and eloquent writers, they are immersed in a variety of texts to learn about comprehending more difficult material. Students read and analyze engaging text sets following the Reading Units of Study from Columbia University’s Teachers College. While reading a particular genre, students develop their writing of that same genre following the Writing Units of Study. The units include a variety of narrative, information, and opinion writing. Upper elementary students also receive individualized spelling, phonics, and vocabulary instruction during word study. Students progress through the developmental spelling continuum using Words Their Way materials. Handwriting is formally developed using Zaner-Bloser cursive materials TK – 2nd Through exploration and guided practice, skill-building activities, games, centers, and numeracy integrated with other subject areas, students come to see that math is everywhere in their world. Math instruction gives students the tools they need to be able to use math in their everyday lives. Students work at mastering concepts through a variety of instructional presentations, incorporating visual, auditory, technological, kinesthetic, concrete, and abstract methods for all different types of learners. Problem-solving activities encourage them to use logical thinking and to look for many ways to find answers. The main areas of focus are number sense, computation, algebraic thinking, geometry, measurement, and graphing. 3rd – 5th Students are encouraged to use a variety of strategies, including written practice, small group activities, skill drills, and games, to foster mathematical intuition and understanding. The math program stresses problem-solving and real-life applications, and mathematical processes are applied across the curriculum so that students begin to see the power of mathematics in their lives. Topics explored include numeration, operations and computation, patterns, algebraic thinking and algebra readiness, fractions, decimals, measurement, and geometry. TK – 2nd In science, students begin to understand the world we live in by exploring earth, health, life, and physical science. Using hands-on experiments, center activities, discussions, literature, field trips, and projects, teachers encourage students to think critically and to apply their scientific understanding to the world around them. Topics studied include plants and animals, weather, matter, geology, and astronomy. The classroom experience is supplemented with Science Lab. Students attend Science Lab twice weekly, performing a variety of experiments and activities. 3rd – 5th Science classes encourage students to explore the world around them as they focus on the systems and patterns that provide order to it. In order to cultivate students’ scientific understandings and skills, teachers rely on a mixture of instructional strategies: demonstrations, hands-on experiments, discussions, videos, readings, guest speakers, projects, and field trips. In addition to their regular classroom instruction, students also work in the science lab to further apply their skills and knowledge. They use technology to research hypotheses, analyze data, and present findings. TK – 2nd The primary goal of social studies is to encourage students to explore their world. Students learn about geography and different cultures and begin to recognize and appreciate similarities and differences among cultural groups. Group discussions, projects, and hands-on activities provide opportunities for students to examine communities and to practice respect and responsibility. 3rd – 5th Students work towards an understanding of the world around them and their roles within it. By examining communities, both near and far, as well as present and past, students come to understand geographic, political, economic, and social concepts and systems. Then, they are able to make comparisons across place and time using their knowledge and experiences. In 4th and 5th grades, students study North Carolina history and United States history, respectively. They begin to hone in on the details of specific areas and start connecting the past with their present. The Spanish program encourages students to make connections between the Spanish language and cultures and their own language and cultures. Students at all grade levels sing, dance, move, draw, read, and write as they develop Spanish language skills and understanding. Conversational Spanish is a strong focus as well. In addition, math, social studies, literacy, music, and art are integrated into the Spanish curriculum. This course exposes students to a variety of media, techniques, and artists’ works. There is a focus on elements of art and the principles of design, as well as an effort to integrate art into the academic subjects. For example, fourth graders create perspective drawings and models with scale factors as they learn about proportions in math. In order to foster an appreciation for art, artworks are connected to artists and art history movements. The TDS music program focuses on the development of musical literacy through hands-on, student-centered, discovery-based learning. Students develop skills in collaboration, problem-solving, and creativity through singing games, composition, and playing instruments. Music appreciation is developed through listening, responding, and analyzing music. Students have the opportunity to perform at various school events, including two whole school performances each year. In addition to weekly music class, 3rd-5th-grade students can participate in a Lower School Chorus. Lower School and Middle School Chorus ensembles perform at multiple events throughout the school year, including a Winter and Spring Concert. The primary goal of TDS physical education curriculum is to promote fitness and healthy lifestyles. Students participate in a movement-based curriculum as they are challenged to understand the relationships involving self, space, equipment, and others around them. Inclusive activities promote the refinement of skills and the introduction of combination skills involved in more complicated activities and games. Group activities, cooperative games, and problem-solving are integrated into more physically demanding situations, allowing students to challenge their skills while building their concept of self. The intramural program at Triangle Day School offers Lower School students an extracurricular opportunity to build athletic skills through recreational activities and cooperation in order to prepare them for their future in sports. Physical exercise and sports play an important role in the life of the school, enriching students’ experiences and enhancing the school community. Triangle Day School’s library supports the entire learning community with a collection of more than 6,500 titles in distinct lower and middle school spaces. TK – 5th grade students come to the library for a weekly lesson and check-out opportunity. All students have access to flexible and independent exploration to meet their individual learning needs and curiosities. The library strives to maintain a current, inclusive, and diverse collection responding to the curriculum and recreational needs of our students and teachers. The library works collaboratively with teachers to instill a lifetime love of reading and seeking of information. Help the library expand its collection while also supporting our local independent seller, The Regulator Bookshop. You can donate a gift certificate or select a title from the TDS wishlist. Our librarian, a certified school media specialist, Kimbie Sprague, serves as a ready resource to all! Field Trips and GFGA A TDS education extends far beyond our campus. Students of all ages take trips to reinforce the curricular program. First graders explore a cave to rock pan during their study of geology in science. Third graders attend the NC Symphony and are challenged to identify specific instruments and particular patterns within the music. Triangle Day School takes advantage of the vast educational opportunities around the area, as trips are carefully planned with purpose and curricular connections. Overnight trips include the fourth-grade beach trip to Beaufort, NC, and the Great Fifth Grade Adventure (GFGA). A signature Lower School experience, the GFGA is planned by our 5th graders. Each student plans an educational trip with a researched budget, activities, itinerary, transportation, lodging, logistics, food, etc. within a certain driving radius. Then, students present their trips to the rest of the class using a poster, PowerPoint, or other methods. All students then vote to determine the class destination! Past trips took students to Boston, Philadelphia, Charleston, and Baltimore.
Halftone is the reprographic technique that simulates continuous tone imagery through the use of dots, varying either in size or in spacing, thus generating a gradient-like effect. "Halftone" can also be used to refer specifically to the image that is produced by this process. Where continuous tone imagery contains an infinite range of colors or greys, the halftone process reduces visual reproductions to an image that is printed with only one color of ink, in dots of differing size (amplitude modulation) or spacing (frequency modulation). This reproduction relies on a basic optical illusion: the tiny halftone dots are blended into smooth tones by the human eye. At a microscopic level, developed black-and-white photographic film also consists of only two colors, and not an infinite range of continuous tones. For details, see film grain. Just as color photography evolved with the addition of filters and film layers, color printing is made possible by repeating the halftone process for each subtractive color—most commonly using what is called the "CMYK color model". The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create another optical effect—full-color imagery. Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades. One of the well known attempts was by Stephen H. Horgan while working for the New York Daily Graphic. The first printed photograph was an image of Steinway Hall in Manhattan published on December 2, 1873. The Graphic then published "the first reproduction of a photograph with a full tonal range in a newspaper" on March 4, 1880 (entitled "A Scene in Shantytown") with a crude halftone screen. The first truly successful commercial method was patented by Frederic Ives of Philadelphia in 1881. Although he found a way of breaking up the image into dots of varying sizes, he did not make use of a screen. In 1882, the German Georg Meisenbach patented a halftone process in England. His invention was based on the previous ideas of Berchtold and Swan. He used single lined screens which were turned during exposure to produce cross-lined effects. He was the first to achieve any commercial success with relief halftones. Shortly afterwards, Ives, this time in collaboration with Louis and Max Levy, improved the process further with the invention and commercial production of quality cross-lined screens. The development of halftone printing methods for lithography appears to have followed a largely independent path. In the 1860s, A. Hoen & Co. focused on methods allowing artists to manipulate the tones of hand-worked printing stones. By the 1880s, Hoen was working on halftone methods that could be used in conjunction with either hand-worked or photolithographic stones. The most common method of creating screens—amplitude modulation—produces a regular grid of dots that vary in size. The other method of creating screens—frequency modulation—is used in a process also known as stochastic screening. Both modulation methods are named by analogy with the use of the terms in telecommunications. Resolution of halftone screens \|Typical halftone resolutions\| \|Screen printing\|\|45–65 lpi\| \|Laser printer (300dpi)\|\|65 lpi\| \|Laser printer (600dpi)\|\|85–105 lpi\| \|Offset press (newsprint paper)\|\|85 lpi\| \|Offset press (coated paper)\|\|85–185 lpi\| The resolution of a halftone screen is measured in lines per inch (lpi). This is the number of lines of dots in one inch, measured parallel with the screen's angle. Known as the screen ruling, the resolution of a screen is written either with the suffix lpi or a hash mark; for example, "150 lpi" or "150#". The higher the pixel resolution of a source file, the greater the detail that can be reproduced. However, such increase also requires a corresponding increase in screen ruling or the output will suffer from posterization. Therefore file resolution is matched to the output resolution. Multiple screens and color halftoning When different screens are combined, a number of distracting visual effects can occur, including the edges being overly emphasized, as well as a moiré pattern. This problem can be reduced by rotating the screens in relation to each other. This screen angle is another common measurement used in printing, measured in degrees clockwise from a line running to the left (9 o'clock is zero degrees). Halftoning is also commonly used for printing color pictures. The general idea is the same, by varying the density of the four secondary printing colors, cyan, magenta, yellow and black (abbreviation CMYK), any particular shade can be reproduced. In this case there is an additional problem that can occur. In the simple case, one could create a halftone using the same techniques used for printing shades of grey, but in this case the different printing colors have to remain physically close to each other to fool the eye into thinking they are a single color. To do this the industry has standardized on a set of known angles, which result in the dots forming into small circles or rosettes. The dots cannot easily be seen by the naked eye, but can be discerned through a microscope or a magnifying glass. Though round dots are the most common used, there are different dot types available, each of them having their own characteristics. They can be used simultaneously to avoid the moiré effect. Generally, the preferred dot shape is also dependent on the printing method or the printing plate. - Round dots: most common, suitable for light images, especially for skin tones. They meet at a tonal value of 70%. - Elliptical dots: appropriate for images with many objects. Elliptical dots meet at the tonal values 40% (pointed ends) and 60% (long side), so there is a risk of a pattern. - Square dots: best for detailed images, not recommended for skin tones. The corners meet at a tonal value of 50%. The transition between the square dots can sometimes be visible to the human eye. Digital halftoning has been replacing photographic halftoning since the 1970s when "electronic dot generators" were developed for the film recorder units linked to color drum scanners made by companies such as Crosfield Electronics, Hell and Linotype-Paul. In the 1980s, halftoning became available in the new generation of imagesetter film and paper recorders that had been developed from earlier "laser typesetters". Unlike pure scanners or pure typesetters, imagesetters could generate all the elements in a page including type, photographs and other graphic objects. Early examples were the widely used Linotype Linotronic 300 and 100 introduced in 1984, which were also the first to offer PostScript RIPs in 1985. Early laser printers from the late 1970s onward could also generate halftones but their original 300 dpi resolution limited the screen ruling to about 65 lpi. This was improved as higher resolutions of 600 dpi and above, and dithering techniques, were introduced. All halftoning uses a high frequency/low frequency dichotomy. In photographic halftoning, the low frequency attribute is a local area of the output image designated a halftone cell. Each equal-sized cell relates to a corresponding area (size and location) of the continuous-tone input image. Within each cell, the high frequency attribute is a centered variable-sized halftone dot composed of ink or toner. The ratio of the inked area to the non-inked area of the output cell corresponds to the luminance or graylevel of the input cell. From a suitable distance, the human eye averages both the high frequency apparent gray level approximated by the ratio within the cell and the low frequency apparent changes in gray level between adjacent equally spaced cells and centered dots. Digital halftoning uses a raster image or bitmap within which each monochrome picture element or pixel may be on or off, ink or no ink. Consequently, to emulate the photographic halftone cell, the digital halftone cell must contain groups of monochrome pixels within the same-sized cell area. The fixed location and size of these monochrome pixels compromises the high frequency/low frequency dichotomy of the photographic halftone method. Clustered multi-pixel dots cannot "grow" incrementally but in jumps of one whole pixel. In addition, the placement of that pixel is slightly off-center. To minimize this compromise, the digital halftone monochrome pixels must be quite small, numbering from 600 to 2,540, or more, pixels per inch. However, digital image processing has also enabled more sophisticated dithering algorithms to decide which pixels to turn black or white, some of which yield better results than digital halftoning. Digital halftoning based on some modern image processing tools such as nonlinear diffusion and stochastic flipping has also been proposed recently. - Ben-Day dots - Dot gain - Error diffusion - Pulse-width modulation - Raster image processor (RIP) - Oversampled binary image sensor Significant academic research groups - Electronic Imaging Systems Laboratory at Purdue University - Embedded Signal Processing Laboratory at UT Austin - Campbell, Alastair. The Designer's Lexicon. ©2000 Chronicle, San Francisco. - McCue, Claudia. Real World Print Production. ©2007, Peachpit Berkeley. - Twyman, Michael. Printing 1770–1970: an illustrated history of its development and uses in England. Eyre & Spottiswoode, London 1970. - LIFE. "100 Photographs That Changed the World". Time, Inc. August 25, 2003, p 18. - Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. p 141. ISBN 0-471-29198-6. - August Hoen, Composition for etching stone, U.S. Patent 27,981, Apr 24, 1860. - August Hoen, Lithographic Process, U.S. Patent 227,730, May 15, 1883. - August Hoen, Lithographic Process, U.S. Patent 227,782, May 18, 1880. - Gaurav Sharma (2003). Digital Color Imaging Handbook. CRC Press. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-8493-0900-7. - Halftone Line Screens in Printing "Use of halftone line screens for printing digital images on press". (last checked on 2009-04-20) - Kay Johansson, Peter Lundberg & Robert Ryberg, A Guide to Graphic Print Production. 2nd ed. Hoboken: Wiley & Sons, p. 286f. (2007). - Linotype History - 1973–1989 - Shen, Jackie (Jianhong) (2009). "Least-square halftoning via human vision system and Markov gradient descent (LS-MGD): Algorithm and analysis". SIAM Rev. 3 51: 567–589. doi:10.1137/060653317. - Web Browser's Guide to Digital Halftoning - Halftone Screens and Dots - Dr. Daniel Lau's Website about halftoning - "The Rasterbator": Software that allows creation of large halftone type posters - Image Halftoning Toolbox for MATLAB by V. Monga, N. Damera-Venkata and B. L. Evans - Halftone screens at the Wolfram Demonstrations Project - Creating halftone shading with Adobe Photoshop - An Easy Method for Making Custom Halftones in Adobe Photoshop - A visual guide to traditional halftones and their creation
A multi-core processor is an integrated circuit that uses two or more individual processors, or cores, to handle data. The cores can be attached to one integrated circuit or incorporated into separate dies in a chip package. Each core has its own cache and each has a separate capacity to process data. The advantage of a multi-core processor is increased speed. A traditional, single-core processor stores some data in its cache, and when data outside the cache is required, it has to be retrieved from other places like random access memory (RAM). When this happens, the processor speed slows down to the maximum speed of the RAM or other storage device. This speed is usually much slower than the maximum processor speed. Multi-core processors are faster because each core can handle its own stream of data. While multi-core processors still selectively cache data and retrieve non-cached data from other storage locations, the additional core or cores can continue executing commands and receiving information at normal processor speed while another processor is retrieving needed information from slow storage devices. This way, the entire system doesn’t have to slow down while data is retrieved. A multi-core processor is particularly valuable for multitasking, where more than one program each serves its own set of data for processing. The separate data streams can be handled by different cores, increasing overall processing speed. For a single software program to take advantage of multi-core technology, it must have simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT) that allows it to send parallel sets of instructions for the multiple cores to use. The first commercially available multi-core processor was the dual-core processor. There are also multi-core processors with four, six and eight cores. Many motherboards, however, are incapable of handling this many cores. Multi-core systems can be homogenous, using all identical cores, or heterogeneous, using non-identical cores. Although multi-core processors are intended to increase overall speed and performance, not all programs take advantage of multi-core processing technology. Many programs and even some operating systems lack the SMT needed to use more than one processing core. Operating systems that use multi-core processing are not always designed to maximize multi-core processing potential, so the full processing capability often goes unrealized. A multi-core processor tends to produce more heat than a single-core processor, causing heat management challenges. The amount of heat produced by a processor tends to rise exponentially with each additional core. High temperatures can cause processors to overheat, creating operational problems and safety risks. Processor manufacturers have had to invest considerable time and technology into creating solutions to the thermal challenges presented by multi-core processors.
« ΠροηγούμενηΣυνέχεια » An acute angle is that which is less than a right angle. XIII. “ A term or boundary is the extremity of anything." XIV. A figure is that which is enclosed by one or more boundaries. XV. A circle is a plane figure contained by one line, which is called the circumference, and is such that all straight lines drawn from a certain point within the figure to the circumference, are equal to one another. the centre, and terminated both ways by the circumference. XVIII. A semicircle is the figure contained by a diameter and the part of the circumference cut off by the di XIX. “A segment of a circle is the figure contained by a straight line, and the circumference it cuts off.” Rectilineal figures are those which are contained by XXI. Trilateral figures, or triangles, by three straight lines. Quadrilateral figures, by four straight lines. Multilateral figures, or polygons, by more than four straight lines. angle is that which has three equal sides. XXV. An isosceles triangle is that which has only two sides equal. XXVI. A scalene triangle is that which has three unequal sides. XXVII. A right-angled triangle is that which has a right angle. three acute angles. has all its sides equal, and all its angles An oblong, or rectangle, is that which has all its angles right angles, but has not all its sides equal. A rhombus is that which has all its sides equal, but its angles are not right angles. A rhomboid is that which has its op posite sides equal to one another, but all its sides are not equal, nor its angles right angles. XXXIV. Any other four-sided figure, besides these, is called a XXXV. Parallel straight lines are such as are in the saine plane, and which, however far produced either way, do not meet. Let it be granted, that a straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point. II. That a terminated straight line may be produced to any length in a straight line. III. And that a circle may be described from any centre, at any distance from that centre. 1. Things which are equal to the same thing, are equal to one another. III. If equals be taken from equals, the remainders are equal. IV. If equals be added to unequals, the wholes are unequal. V. If equals be taken from unequals, the remainders are VI. Things which are double of the same, are equal to one another. VII. Things which are halves of the same, are equal to one another. VIII. Magnitudes which coincide with one another, that is, which exactly fill the same space, are equal to one another. Two straight lines cannot enclose a space. All right angles are equal to one another. XII. “ If a straight line meet two straight lines, which are “ in the same plane, so as to make the two interior “ angles on the same side of it, taken together, less “ than two right angles, these straight lines being “ produced, shall at length meet upon that side on “ which are the angles which are less than two “ right angles."
An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. To be referred to as electronic, rather than electrical, generally at least one active component must be present. The combination of components and wires allows various simple and complex operations to be performed: signals can be amplified, computations can be performed, and data can be moved from one place to another. Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of wire, but today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic techniques on a laminated substrate (a printed circuit board or PCB) and solder the components to these interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or IC, the components and interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically a semiconductor such as silicon or (less commonly) gallium arsenide. An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuit, a digital circuit, or a mixed-signal circuit (a combination of analog circuits and digital circuits). The most widely used semiconductor device in electronic circuits is the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor). Breadboards, perfboards, and stripboards are common for testing new designs. They allow the designer to make quick changes to the circuit during development. Analog electronic circuits are those in which current or voltage may vary continuously with time to correspond to the information being represented. Analog circuitry is constructed from two fundamental building blocks: series and parallel circuits. In a series circuit, the same current passes through a series of components. A string of Christmas lights is a good example of a series circuit: if one goes out, they all do. In a parallel circuit, all the components are connected to the same voltage, and the current divides between the various components according to their resistance. The basic components of analog circuits are wires, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, and transistors. (In 2012 it was demonstrated that memristors can be added to the list of available components.) Analog circuits are very commonly represented in schematic diagrams, in which wires are shown as lines, and each component has a unique symbol. Analog circuit analysis employs Kirchhoff's circuit laws: all the currents at a node (a place where wires meet), and the voltage around a closed loop of wires is 0. Wires are usually treated as ideal zero-voltage interconnections; any resistance or reactance is captured by explicitly adding a parasitic element, such as a discrete resistor or inductor. Active components such as transistors are often treated as controlled current or voltage sources: for example, a field-effect transistor can be modeled as a current source from the source to the drain, with the current controlled by the gate-source voltage. An alternative model is to take independent power sources and induction as basic electronic units; this allows modeling frequency dependent negative resistors, gyrators, negative impedance converters, and dependent sources as secondary electronic components.[ clarification needed ][ citation needed ] When the circuit size is comparable to a wavelength of the relevant signal frequency, a more sophisticated approach must be used, the distributed-element model. Wires are treated as transmission lines, with nominally constant characteristic impedance, and the impedances at the start and end determine transmitted and reflected waves on the line. Circuits designed according to this approach are distributed-element circuits. Such considerations typically become important for circuit boards at frequencies above a GHz; integrated circuits are smaller and can be treated as lumped elements for frequencies less than 10GHz or so. In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values, to represent logical and numeric values.These values represent the information that is being processed. In the vast majority of cases, binary encoding is used: one voltage (typically the more positive value) represents a binary '1' and another voltage (usually a value near the ground potential, 0 V) represents a binary '0'. Digital circuits make extensive use of transistors, interconnected to create logic gates that provide the functions of Boolean logic: AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR and combinations thereof. Transistors interconnected so as to provide positive feedback are used as latches and flip flops, circuits that have two or more metastable states, and remain in one of these states until changed by an external input. Digital circuits therefore can provide logic and memory, enabling them to perform arbitrary computational functions. (Memory based on flip-flops is known as static random-access memory (SRAM). Memory based on the storage of charge in a capacitor, dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is also widely used.) The design process for digital circuits is fundamentally different from the process for analog circuits. Each logic gate regenerates the binary signal, so the designer need not account for distortion, gain control, offset voltages, and other concerns faced in an analog design. As a consequence, extremely complex digital circuits, with billions of logic elements integrated on a single silicon chip, can be fabricated at low cost. Such digital integrated circuits are ubiquitous in modern electronic devices, such as calculators, mobile phone handsets, and computers. As digital circuits become more complex, issues of time delay, logic races, power dissipation, non-ideal switching, on-chip and inter-chip loading, and leakage currents, become limitations to circuit density, speed and performance. Digital circuitry is used to create general purpose computing chips, such as microprocessors, and custom-designed logic circuits, known as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs). Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), chips with logic circuitry whose configuration can be modified after fabrication, are also widely used in prototyping and development. Mixed-signal or hybrid circuits contain elements of both analog and digital circuits. Examples include comparators, timers, phase-locked loops, analog-to-digital converters, and digital-to-analog converters. Most modern radio and communications circuitry uses mixed signal circuits. For example, in a receiver, analog circuitry is used to amplify and frequency-convert signals so that they reach a suitable state to be converted into digital values, after which further signal processing can be performed in the digital domain. An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical components or a model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements. An electrical circuit is a network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. Linear electrical networks, a special type consisting only of sources, linear lumped elements, and linear distributed elements, have the property that signals are linearly superimposable. They are thus more easily analyzed, using powerful frequency domain methods such as Laplace transforms, to determine DC response, AC response, and transient response. Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and matter. An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal. It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one. Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics. As the name suggests, microelectronics relates to the study and manufacture of very small electronic designs and components. Usually, but not always, this means micrometre-scale or smaller. These devices are typically made from semiconductor materials. Many components of normal electronic design are available in a microelectronic equivalent. These include transistors, capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and (naturally) insulators and conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices. Unique wiring techniques such as wire bonding are also often used in microelectronics because of the unusually small size of the components, leads and pads. This technique requires specialized equipment and is expensive. A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital multimeters have a numeric display, and may also show a graphical bar representing the measured value. Digital multimeters are now far more common due to their lower cost and greater precision, but analog multimeters are still preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly varying value. Capacitive coupling is the transfer of energy within an electrical network or between distant networks by means of displacement current between circuit(s) nodes, induced by the electric field. This coupling can have an intentional or accidental effect. Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) is a logic family built from bipolar junction transistors. Its name signifies that transistors perform both the logic function and the amplifying function ; it is the same naming convention used in resistor–transistor logic (RTL) and diode–transistor logic (DTL). In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter is a system that converts a digital signal into an analog signal. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) performs the reverse function. Resistor–transistor logic (RTL) is a class of digital circuits built using resistors as the input network and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) as switching devices. RTL is the earliest class of transistorized digital logic circuit used; other classes include diode–transistor logic (DTL) and transistor–transistor logic (TTL). RTL circuits were first constructed with discrete components, but in 1961 it became the first digital logic family to be produced as a monolithic integrated circuit. RTL integrated circuits were used in the Apollo Guidance Computer, whose design was begun in 1961 and which first flew in 1966. A gyrator is a passive, linear, lossless, two-port electrical network element proposed in 1948 by Bernard D. H. Tellegen as a hypothetical fifth linear element after the resistor, capacitor, inductor and ideal transformer. Unlike the four conventional elements, the gyrator is non-reciprocal. Gyrators permit network realizations of two-(or-more)-port devices which cannot be realized with just the conventional four elements. In particular, gyrators make possible network realizations of isolators and circulators. Gyrators do not however change the range of one-port devices that can be realized. Although the gyrator was conceived as a fifth linear element, its adoption makes both the ideal transformer and either the capacitor or inductor redundant. Thus the number of necessary linear elements is in fact reduced to three. Circuits that function as gyrators can be built with transistors and op-amps using feedback. A Colpitts oscillator, invented in 1918 by American engineer Edwin H. Colpitts, is one of a number of designs for LC oscillators, electronic oscillators that use a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C) to produce an oscillation at a certain frequency. The distinguishing feature of the Colpitts oscillator is that the feedback for the active device is taken from a voltage divider made of two capacitors in series across the inductor. Electronic filters are a type of signal processing filter in the form of electrical circuits. This article covers those filters consisting of lumped electronic components, as opposed to distributed-element filters. That is, using components and interconnections that, in analysis, can be considered to exist at a single point. These components can be in discrete packages or part of an integrated circuit. An electronic component is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to affect electrons or their associated fields. Electronic components are mostly industrial products, available in a singular form and are not to be confused with electrical elements, which are conceptual abstractions representing idealized electronic components. A linear integrated circuit or analog chip is a set of miniature electronic analog circuits formed on a single piece of semiconductor material. An open collector is a common type of output found on many integrated circuits (IC), which behaves like a switch that is either connected to ground or disconnected. A test probe is a physical device used to connect electronic test equipment to a device under test (DUT). Test probes range from very simple, robust devices to complex probes that are sophisticated, expensive, and fragile. Specific types include test prods, oscilloscope probes and current probes. A test probe is often supplied as a test lead, which includes the probe, cable and terminating connector. A linear circuit is an electronic circuit which obeys the superposition principle. This means that the output of the circuit F(x) when a linear combination of signals ax1(t) + bx2(t) is applied to it is equal to the linear combination of the outputs due to the signals x1(t) and x2(t) applied separately: CircuitLogix is a software electronic circuit simulator which uses PSpice to simulate thousands of electronic devices, models, and circuits. CircuitLogix supports analog, digital, and mixed-signal circuits, and its SPICE simulation gives accurate real-world results. The graphic user interface allows students to quickly and easily draw, modify and combine analog and digital circuit diagrams. CircuitLogix was first launched in 2005, and its popularity has grown quickly since that time. In 2012, it reached the milestone of 250,000 licensed users, and became the first electronics simulation product to have a global installed base of a quarter-million customers in over 100 countries. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to electronics: \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Electronic circuits .\|
Symmetries are very important in physics. For example, symmetries in wave functions are often quite helpful to understand the physics qualitatively. As an example, the hydrogen molecular ion is mirror symmetric around its midplane. This midplane is the plane halfway in between the two nuclei, orthogonal to the line connecting them. To roughly understand what the mirror symmetry around this plane means, think of the midplane as an infinitely thin mirror. Take this mirror to be two-sided, so that you can look in it from either side. That allows you to see the mirror image of each side of the molecule. Simply put, the mirror symmetry of the ion means that the mirror image looks exactly the same as the original ion. (If you would place the entire molecule at one side of the mirror, its entire mirror image would be at the other side of it. But except for this additional shift in location, everything would remain the same as in the case assumed here.) Under the same terms, human beings are roughly mirror symmetric around the plane separating their left and right halves. But that symmetry is far from perfect. For example, if you part your hair at one side, your mirror image parts it at the other side. And your heart changes sides too. To describe mirror symmetry more precisely, take the line through the nuclei to be the -axis. And take to be zero at the mirror. Then all that the mirror does mathematically is replace by . For example, the mirror image of the nucleus at positive is located at the corresponding negative value. And vice-versa. The effect of mirroring on any molecular wave function can be represented by a “mirror operator” . According to the above, all this operator does is replace by : By definition a wave function is mirror symmetric if the mirror operator has no effect on it. Mathematically, if the mirror operator does not do anything, then must be the same as . So mirror symmetry requires The fundamental reason why the ion is mirror symmetric is a mathematical one. The mirror operator commutes with the Hamiltonian . Recall from chapter 4.5.1 what That can be seen from the physics. The Hamiltonian consists of potential energy and kinetic energy . Now it does not make a difference whether you multiply a wave function value by the potential before or after you flip the value over to the opposite -position. The potential is the same at opposite values, because the nuclei at the two sides of the mirror are the same. As far as the kinetic energy is concerned, if it involved a first-order -derivative, there would be a change of sign when you flip over the sign of . But the kinetic energy has only a second order -derivative. A second order derivative does not change. So all together it makes no difference whether you first mirror and then apply the Hamiltonian or vice-versa. The two operators commute. Also according to chapter 4.5.1, that has a consequence. It implies that you can take energy eigenfunctions to be mirror eigenfunctions too. And the ground state is an energy eigenfunction. So it can be taken to be an eigenfunction of too: To answer that, apply twice. That multiplies the wave function by the square eigenvalue. But if you apply twice, you always get the original wave function back, because . So the square eigenvalue must be 1, in order that the wave function does not change when multiplied by it. That means that the eigenvalue itself can be either 1 or 1. So for the ground state wave function , either It may be noted that the state of second lowest energy will be antisymmetric. You can see the same thing happening for the eigenfunctions of the particle in a pipe. The ground state figure 3.8, (or 3.11 in three dimensions), is symmetric around the center cross-section of the pipe. The first excited state, at the top of figures 3.9, (or 3.12), is antisymmetric. (Note that the grey tones show the square wave function. If the wave function is antisymmetric, the square wave function is symmetric. But it will be zero at the symmetry plane.) Next consider the rotational symmetry of the hydrogen molecular ion around the axis through the nuclei. The ground state of the molecular ion does not change if you rotate the ion around the -axis through the nuclei. That makes it rotationally symmetric. The big question is again, why? In this case, let be the operator that rotates a wave function over an angle around the -axis. This operator too commutes with the Hamiltonian. After all, the only physically meaningful direction is the -axis through the nuclei. The angular orientation of the axes system normal to it is a completely arbitrary choice. So it should not make a difference at what angle around the axis you apply the Hamiltonian. Therefore the ground state must be an eigenfunction of the rotation operator just like it is one of the mirror operator: You might of course wonder about the rotational changes of excited energy states. For those a couple of additional observations apply. First, the number must be proportional to the rotation angle , since rotating twice is equivalent to rotating it once over twice the angle. That means that, more precisely, the eigenvalues are of the form , where is a real constant independent of . Second, rotating the ion over a full turn puts each point back to where it came from. That should reproduce the original wave function. So an eigenvalue for a full turn must be 1. According to the Euler formula, that requires to be an integer, one of ..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, .... For the ground state, will have to be zero; that is the only way to get equal to 1 for all angles . But for excited states, can be a nonzero integer. In that case, these states do not have rotational symmetry. Recalling the discussion of angular momentum in chapter 4.2.2, you can see that is really the magnetic quantum number of the state. Apparently, there is a connection between rotations around the -axis and the angular momentum in the -direction. That will be explored in more detail in chapter 7.3. For the neutral hydrogen molecule discussed in chapter 5.2, there is still another symmetry of relevance. The neutral molecule has two electrons, instead of just one. This allows another operation: you can swap the two electrons. That is called “particle exchange.” Mathematically, what the particle exchange operator does with the wave function is swap the position coordinates of electron 1 with those of electron 2. Obviously, physically this does not do anything at all; the two electrons are exactly the same. It does not make a difference which of the two is where. So particle exchange commutes again with the Hamiltonian. The mathematics of the particle exchange is similar to that of the mirroring discussed above. In particular, if you exchange the particles twice, they are back to where they were originally. From that, just like for the mirroring, it can be seen that swapping the particle positions does nothing to the ground state. So the ground state is symmetric under particle exchange. It should be noted that the ground state of systems involving three or more electrons is not symmetric under exchanging the positions of the electrons. Wave functions for multiple electrons must satisfy special particle-exchange requirements, chapter 5.6. In fact they must be antisymmetric under an expanded definition of the exchange operator. This is also true for systems involving three or more protons or neutrons. However, for some particle types, like three or more helium atoms, the symmetry under particle exchange continues to apply. This is very helpful for understanding the properties of superfluid helium, [18, p. 321].
Percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using the percent sign, “%”. For example, 45% (read as “forty-five percent”) means 45 out of 100, or 45/100. Percentages can be used to express numbers greater than 100%. For example, 125% (read as “one hundred and twenty-five percent”) means 125/100, or 1.25. Percentages can be represented using a decimal notation, such as 0.45 or 45.0%. They can also be represented using a fractional notation, such as 45/100 or 45%. In the decimal notation, the number before the percent sign represents a quantity out of 100, while in the fractional notation, the number after the percent sign represents a quantity out of 100. What is 30% of 3000 30% of 3000 is 900. To calculate this, first convert 30% to a decimal by removing the percent sign and dividing by 100: 30/100 = 0.3. Then, multiply 0.3 by 3000 to get 900. Benefits of Expressing Numbers as Percentages There are many benefits to expressing numbers as percentages. First, it is a way of making numbers easier to understand. For example, 45% is much easier to understand than 0.45 or 45/100. Second, percentages can be used to make comparisons between numbers. For example, if one number is twice as large as another, we can say that it is 200% of the size of the other number. Third, percentages can be used to make estimates. For example, if we want to estimate what 30% of 3000 is, we can round each number to the nearest 10 and then multiply: 30% of 3000 is approximately 3 times 100, or 300. Tips for Working with Percentages There are a few things to keep in mind when working with percentages. First, make sure to use the correct percent sign. The percent sign (%) is used to express numbers as percentages, while the per mille sign (‰) is used to express numbers as parts per thousand. Second, be careful when using percentage points. Percentage points are the difference between two percentages, and are often used to express changes over time. For example, if the percentage of people who smoke cigarettes decreases from 20% to 10% over the course of a year, we would say that the smoking rate decreased by 10 percentage points. Finally, remember that 100% means “the whole thing,” while 100% percent means “100 out of 100.” How to spend your money wisely There are a few things to keep in mind when it comes to spending your money wisely. First, make sure you have a budget. A budget will help you track your spending and make sure you are not overspending. Second, be mindful of your purchases. Ask yourself if you really need something before you buy it. Third, use coupons and discounts. You can often save money on your purchases by using coupons and looking for discounts. Finally, be patient. Impulse buying can lead to regret later on. If you take your time and think about your purchases, you are more likely to make wise spending decisions. Pros and cons of using percentages There are both pros and cons to using percentages. On the plus side, percentages can be a helpful way to make numbers easier to understand. They can also be used to make comparisons between numbers, and to make estimates. On the downside, percentages can be easily misused. For example, it is important to use the correct percent sign, and to be careful when using percentage points. Additionally, 100% does not necessarily mean “the whole thing.” It is important to be aware of these potential pitfalls when working with percentages.
How Do Gases Respond to Changes in Temperature and Pressure? THE ATMOSPHERE CONSISTS LARGELY OF GASES, with lesser amounts of liquids, such as drops of water, and solids, such as dust and ice. By nature, gases expand easily or contract in volume in response to changes in temperature and pressure. Variations in temperature and resulting changes in pressure are the main drivers of motion in the atmosphere. How Does a Gas Behave When Heated or Cooled? The quantity of insolation entering the atmosphere exhibits considerable spatial variability, especially as a function of latitude, and temporal variations on both daily and seasonal time scales. These variations in insolation in turn lead to differences in temperatures. How do the gases in the atmosphere respond to changes in temperature? 1. Consider what happens when we want to make a hot-air balloon rise. Typically, a propane-powered burner heats ambient air, causing the air to expand in volume. This increase in volume inflates the balloon. Since the same amount of gas now occupies a much larger volume, the density of the heated air is less than the density of the surrounding air, so the balloon rises. So, as air increases in temperature, it tends to increase in volume and become less dense. 2. The figure below shows how a quantity of gas responds to either an increase in temperature (heating) or a decrease in temperature (cooling). The starting condition is represented by the cube of gas on the left. 3. An increase in the temperature of a gas means more energetic molecules, so a larger volume is needed to accommodate the same amount of gas. 4. If a gas cools, the molecules within it have less kinetic energy (motions) and can therefore be packed into a smaller volume. The gas has a higher density and will tend to sink. 5. This example shows that temperature and volume of a gas are directly related — in fact they are proportional if pressure is held constant. Such a proportional relationship means that if temperature is doubled, volume doubles too. If temperature decreases by half, volume does too. This specific relationship is called Charles's Law, which is one of the fundamental laws governing the behavior of gases, and it explains why a hot air balloon rises. What Happens When a Gas Is Compressed? If a gas is held at a constant temperature but forced to occupy a smaller volume, the pressure of the gas increases. Pressure is proportional to the number of collisions of the molecules. If the same gas fills a larger volume, the pressure decreases. In both cases, if we instead change the pressure, the volume of the gas will adjust accordingly. A material, like a gas, that can be compressed, is said to be compressible. 1. Molecules of gas in the sealed container in the left canister are under pressure, represented by the two weights resting on top. At some temperature, the molecules have a fixed amount of energy, and some of the moving molecules are hitting the moveable lid, resisting the downward force of the attached weight. 2. Removing a weight reduces the downward pressure on the gas. However, the gas retains its same average energy level (temperature) and therefore exerts the same upward force on the moveable lid as before. The upward force from the gas molecules exceeds the downward force of the weight and so raises the lid, increasing the volume occupied by the gas. In this way, a decrease in pressure results in an increase in volume, if the gas does not change temperature. 3. Increasing the downward pressure by adding weight on the original canister causes the lid to slide down. This increase in pressure causes a decrease in volume. As the gas is compressed into a smaller volume, the number of the molecules impacting the lid increases. When this upward force from the gas molecules equals the downward force from the weight, the lid stops moving, and the volume and pressure of the gas stop changing. 4. The relationship between pressure and volume of a gas, under conditions of constant temperature, is inversely proportional — if pressure increases, volume decreases. If pressure decreases, volume increases. Either pressure or volume can change, and the other factor responds accordingly, changing in the opposite direction by a proportional amount. That is, if the volume is cut in half, the pressure doubles. If the volume doubles, the pressure is cut in half. This inversely proportional relationship between pressure and volume, under constant temperature, is called Boyle's Law. How Are Temperatures and Pressures Related? Since Charles's Law relates volume to temperature, and Boyle's Law relates volume to pressure, we might suspect that we can relate temperature and pressure. Combining Charles's Law and Boyle's Law leads to the Ideal Gas Law, which relates temperature, pressure, and density (mass divided by volume). Basic aspects of the Ideal Gas Law help explain the processes that drive the motion of matter and associated energy in the atmosphere. 1. We can represent the Ideal Gas Law with a figure, with words, or with an equation. We begin with this figure, which expresses the two sides of the equation. On one side of the equation (the left in this figure) is pressure. On the right side of the equation are density and temperature. What the Ideal Gas Law states is that if we increase a variable on one side of the equation (like increasing pressure), then one or both of the variables on the other side of the equation have to change in the same direction — density or temperature have to also change, or perhaps both do. 2. Examine this figure and envision changing any one of the three variables (pressure, density, and temperature), and consider how the other two variables would respond to satisfy the visual equation. 3. What happens if pressure increases? If temperature does not change, then density must increase. If pressure increases but density does not change, then temperature has to increase. Alternatively, temperature and density can both change. This three-way relationship partly explains why temperatures are generally warmer and the air is more dense at low elevations, where the air is compressed by the entire weight of the atmosphere, than at higher elevations, where there is less air. Higher pressure often results in higher temperatures. 4. What does the relationship predict will happen if a gas is heated to a higher temperature? If the density does not change, the pressure exerted by the gas on the plunger must increase. If the pressure does not change, the density must decrease. This is because density and temperature are on the same side of the equation, so an increase in one must be matched by a decrease in the other — if the other side of the equation (pressure) does not change. The relationship indicates that heated air can become less dense, which allows it to rise, like in a hot air balloon. 5. The Ideal Gas Law can also be expressed by the equation to the right: P = R p T where P is pressure, R is a constant,p is density (shown by the greek letter rho), and T is temperature. Note how this equation roughly corresponds to the figure above. How Can Differences in Insolation Change Temperatures, Pressures, and Density in the Atmosphere? The way gas responds to changes in temperature and pressure is the fundamental driver of motion in the atmosphere. Since temperature changes are largely due to insolation, we can examine how insolation affects the physical properties of gas and how this drives atmospheric motion. 1. The Sun is the major energy source for Earth's weather, climate, and movements of energy and matter in the atmosphere and oceans. In the figure above, insolation strikes Earth's surface (land or water), which in turn heats a volume of gas in the overlying atmosphere. 2. The increase in temperature results in expansion of the gas because of the increased kinetic energy of the molecules in the gas, which is an increase in volume. If the same number of gas molecules occupy more volume, the density of the air decreases (the air becomes less dense). 3. The increase in volume can result in a decrease in pressure (less frequent molecular collisions). As a result, the air mass is now less dense than adjacent air that was heated less. The more strongly heated and expanded air rises because it is less dense relative to surrounding air (which was not heated as much and so is more dense). 4. As the heated, less dense air rises, adjacent air flows into the area to replace the rising air. The end result is a vertical and lateral movement of air within the atmosphere — vertical motion within and above the rising air, and lateral motion of surrounding air toward the area vacated by the rising air. 5. In this way, the response of gas to changes in temperature, pressure, and density (or volume), as expressed by the gas laws, is the primary cause of motion in the atmosphere. Variations in insolation cause changes in temperature, pressure, and density, which in turn cause air to move within the atmosphere.
An Overview of Inflation Inflation is usually estimated by calculating the inflation rate of a price index, usually the Consumer Price Index. The Consumer Price Index measures prices of a selection of goods and services purchased by a “typical consumer”. The inflation rate is the percentage rate of change of a price index over time. For instance, in January 2007, the U.S. Consumer Price Index was 202.416, and in January 2008 it was 211.080. The formula for calculating the annual percentage rate inflation in the CPI over the course of 2007 is The resulting inflation rate for the CPI in this one year period is 4.28%, meaning the general level of prices for typical U.S. consumers rose by approximately four percent in 2007. Other widely used price indices for calculating price inflation include the following: Producer price indices (PPIs) which measures average changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any eventual increase in the CPI. Producer price index measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be “passed on” to consumers, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity. In India and the United States, an earlier version of the PPI was called the Wholesale Price Index. Commodity price indices, which measure the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the “all in” cost of an employee. Core price indices: because food and oil prices can change quickly due to changes in supply and demand conditions in the food and oil markets, it can be difficult to detect the long run trend in price levels when those prices are included. Therefore most statistical agencies also report a measure of ‘core inflation’, which removes the most volatile components (such as food and oil) from a broad price index like the CPI. Because core inflation is less affected by short run supply and demand conditions in specific markets, central banks rely on it to better measure the inflationary impact of current monetary policy. Other common measures of inflation are: GDP deflator is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for US GDP, defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure. Regional inflation The Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US. Historical inflation before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology. Asset price inflation is an undue increase in the prices of real or financial assets, such as stock (equity) and real estate. While there is no widely accepted index of this type, some central bankers have suggested that it would be better to aim at stabilizing a wider general price level inflation measure that includes some asset prices, instead of stabilizing CPI or core inflation only. The reason is that by raising interest rates when stock prices or real estate prices rise, and lowering them when these asset prices fall, central banks might be more successful in avoiding bubbles and crashes in asset prices. Issuing in Measuring Measuring inflation in an economy requires objective means of differentiating changes in nominal prices on a common set of goods and services, and distinguishing them from those price shifts resulting from changes in value such as volume, quality, or performance. For example, if the price of a 10 oz. can of corn changes from $0.90 to $1.00 over the course of a year, with no change in quality, then this price difference represents inflation. This single price change would not, however, represent general inflation in an overall economy. To measure overall inflation, the price change of a large “basket” of representative goods and services is measured. This is the purpose of a price index, which is the combined price of a “basket” of many goods and services. The combined price is the sum of the weighted average prices of items in the “basket”. A weighted price is calculated by multiplying the unit price of an item to the number of those items the average consumer purchases. Weighted pricing is a necessary means to measuring the impact of individual unit price changes on the economy’s overall inflation. The Consumer Price Index, for example, uses data collected by surveying households to determine what proportion of the typical consumer’s overall spending is spent on specific goods and services, and weights the average prices of those items accordingly. Those weighted average prices are combined to calculate the overall price. To better relate price changes over time, indexes typically choose a “base year” price and assign it a value of 100. Index prices in subsequent years are then expressed in relation to the base year price. Inflation measures are often modified over time, either for the relative weight of goods in the basket, or in the way in which goods and services from the present are compared with goods and services from the past. Over time adjustments are made to the type of goods and services selected in order to reflect changes in the sorts of goods and services purchased by ‘typical consumers’. New products may be introduced, older products disappear, the quality of existing products may change, and consumer preferences can shift. Both the sorts of goods and services which are included in the “basket” and the weighted price used in inflation measures will be changed over time in order to keep pace with the changing marketplace. Inflation numbers are often seasonally adjusted in order to differentiate expected cyclical cost shifts. For example, home heating costs are expected to rise in colder months, and seasonal adjustments are often used when measuring for inflation to compensate for cyclical spikes in energy or fuel demand. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques in order to remove statistical noise and volatility of individual prices. When looking at inflation economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or special indices, such as the core inflation index which is used by central banks to formulate monetary policy. Most inflation indices are calculated from weighted averages of selected price changes. This necessarily introduces distortion, and can lead to legitimate disputes about what the true inflation rate is. This problem can be overcome by including all available price changes in the calculation, and then choosing the median value. General Effects of Inflation An increase in the general level of prices implies a decrease in the purchasing power of the currency. That is, when the general level of prices rises, each monetary unit buys fewer goods and services. The effect of inflation is not distributed evenly in the economy, and as a consequence there are hidden costs to some and benefits to others from this decrease in the purchasing power of money. For example, with inflation, lenders or depositors who are paid a fixed rate of interest on loans or deposits will lose purchasing power from their interest earnings, while their borrowers benefit. Individuals or institutions with cash assets will experience a decline in the purchasing power of their holdings. Increases in payments to workers and pensioners often lag behind inflation, especially for those with fixed payments. Increases in the price level (inflation) erodes the real value of money (the functional currency) and other items with an underlying monetary nature (e.g. loans and bonds). However, inflation has no effect on the real value of non-monetary items, (e.g. goods and commodities, gold, real estate). High or unpredictable inflation rates are regarded as harmful to an overall economy. They add inefficiencies in the market, and make it difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term. Inflation can act as a drag on productivity as companies are forced to shift resources away from products and services in order to focus on profit and losses from currency inflation. Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of money discourages investment and saving. And inflation can impose hidden tax increases, as inflated earnings push taxpayers into higher income tax rates unless the tax brackets are indexed to inflation. With high inflation, purchasing power is redistributed from those on fixed nominal incomes, such as some pensioners whose pensions are not indexed to the price level, towards those with variable incomes whose earnings may better keep pace with the inflation. This redistribution of purchasing power will also occur between international trading partners. Where fixed exchange rates are imposed, higher inflation in one economy than another will cause the first economy’s exports to become more expensive and affect the balance of trade. There can also be negative impacts to trade from an increased instability in currency exchange prices caused by unpredictable inflation. High inflation can prompt employees to demand rapid wage increases, to keep up with consumer prices. Rising wages in turn can help fuel inflation. In the case of collective bargaining, wage growth will be set as a function of inflationary expectations, which will be higher when inflation is high. This can cause a wage spiral. In a sense, inflation begets further inflationary expectations, which beget further inflation. People buy consumer durables as stores of wealth in the absence of viable alternatives as a means of getting rid of excess cash before it is devalued, creating shortages of the hoarded objects. If inflation gets totally out of control (in the upward direction), it can grossly interfere with the normal workings of the economy, hurting its ability to supply goods. Hyperinflation can lead to the abandonment of the use of the country’s currency, leading to the inefficiencies of barter. A change in the supply or demand for a good will normally cause its relative price to change, signaling to buyers and sellers that they should re-allocate resources in response to the new market conditions. But when prices are constantly changing due to inflation, price changes due to genuine relative price signals are difficult to distinguish from price changes due to general inflation, so agents are slow to respond to them. The result is a loss of allocative efficiency. Shoe leather cost High inflation increases the opportunity cost of holding cash balances and can induce people to hold a greater portion of their assets in interest paying accounts. However, since cash is still needed in order to carry out transactions this means that more “trips to the bank” are necessary in order to make withdrawals, proverbially wearing out the “shoe leather” with each trip. With high inflation, firms must change their prices often in order to keep up with economy-wide changes. But often changing prices is itself a costly activity whether explicitly, as with the need to print new menus, or implicitly. According to the Austrian Business Cycle Theory, inflation sets off the business cycle. Austrian economists hold this to be the most damaging effect of inflation. According to Austrian theory, artificially low interest rates and the associated increase in the money supply lead to reckless, speculative borrowing, resulting in clusters of malinvestments, which eventually have to be liquidated as they become unsustainable. Keynesians believe that nominal wages are slow to adjust downwards. This can lead to prolonged disequilibrium and high unemployment in the labor market. Since inflation would lower the real wage if nominal wages are kept constant, Keynesians argue that some inflation is good for the economy, as it would allow labor markets to reach equilibrium faster. Debtors who have debts with a fixed nominal rate of interest will see a reduction in the “real” interest rate as the inflation rate rises. The “real” interest on a loan is the nominal rate minus the inflation rate. (R=n-i) For example if you take a loan where the stated interest rate is 6% and the inflation rate is at 3%, the real interest rate that you are paying for the loan is 3%. It would also hold true that if you had a loan at a fixed interest rate of 6% and the inflation rate jumped to 20% you would have a real interest rate of -14%. Banks and other lenders adjust for this inflation risk either by including an inflation premium in the costs of lending the money by creating a higher initial stated interest rate or by setting the interest at a variable rate. Room to maneuver The primary tools for controlling the money supply are the ability to set the discount rate, the rate at which banks can borrow from the central bank, and open market operations which are the central bank’s interventions into the bonds market with the aim of affecting the nominal interest rate. If an economy finds itself in a recession with already low, or even zero, nominal interest rates, then the bank cannot cut these rates further (since negative nominal interest rates are impossible) in order to stimulate the economy – this situation is known as a liquidity trap. A moderate level of inflation tends to ensure that nominal interest rates stay sufficiently above zero so that if the need arises the bank can cut the nominal interest rate. The Nobel Prize winning economist James Tobin at one point argued that a moderate level of inflation can increase investment in an economy leading to faster growth or at least a higher steady state level of income. This is due to the fact that inflation lowers the real return on monetary assets relative to real assets, such as physical capital. To avoid this effect of inflation, investors would switch from holding their assets as money (or a similar, susceptible-to-inflation, form) to investing in real capital projects. See Tobin monetary model Causes of Inflation Historically, a great deal of economic literature was concerned with the question of what causes inflation and what effect it has. There were different schools of thought as to the causes of inflation. Most can be divided into two broad areas: quality theories of inflation and quantity theories of inflation. The quality theory of inflation rests on the expectation of a seller accepting currency to be able to exchange that currency at a later time for goods that are desirable as a buyer. The quantity theory of inflation rests on the quantity equation of money, that relates the money supply, its velocity, and the nominal value of exchanges. Adam Smith and David Hume proposed a quantity theory of inflation for money, and a quality theory of inflation for production. Currently, the quantity theory of money is widely accepted as an accurate model of inflation in the long run. Consequently, there is now broad agreement among economists that in the long run, the inflation rate is essentially dependent on the growth rate of money supply. However, in the short and medium term inflation may be affected by supply and demand pressures in the economy, and influenced by the relative elasticity of wages, prices and interest rates. The question of whether the short-term effects last long enough to be important is the central topic of debate between monetarist and Keynesian economists. In monetarism prices and wages adjust quickly enough to make other factors merely marginal behavior on a general trend-line. In the Keynesian view, prices and wages adjust at different rates, and these differences have enough effects on real output to be “long term” in the view of people in an economy. Keynesian economic theory proposes that changes in money supply do not directly affect prices, and that visible inflation is the result of pressures in the economy expressing themselves in prices. The supply of money is a major, but not the only, cause of inflation. There are three major types of inflation, as part of what Robert J. Gordon calls the “triangle model” Demand-pull inflation is caused by increases in aggregate demand due to increased private and government spending, etc. Demand inflation is constructive to a faster rate of economic growth since the excess demand and favourable market conditions will stimulate investment and expansion. Cost-push inflation, also called “supply shock inflation,” is caused by a drop in aggregate supply (potential output). This may be due to natural disasters, or increased prices of inputs. For example, a sudden decrease in the supply of oil, leading to increased oil prices, can cause cost-push inflation. Producers for whom oil is a part of their costs could then pass this on to consumers in the form of increased prices. Built-in inflation is induced by adaptive expectations, and is often linked to the “price/wage spiral”. It involves workers trying to keep their wages up with prices (above the rate of inflation), and firms passing these higher labor costs on to their customers as higher prices, leading to a ‘vicious circle’. Built-in inflation reflects events in the past, and so might be seen as hangover inflation. Demand-pull theory states that the rate of inflation accelerates whenever aggregate demand is increased beyond the ability of the economy to produce (its potential output). Hence, any factor that increases aggregate demand can cause inflation. However, in the long run, aggregate demand can be held above productive capacity only by increasing the quantity of money in circulation faster than the real growth rate of the economy. Another (although much less common) cause can be a rapid decline in the demand for money, as happened in Europe during the Black Death, or in the Japanese occupied territories just before the defeat of Japan in 1945. The effect of money on inflation is most obvious when governments finance spending in a crisis, such as a civil war, by printing money excessively. This sometimes leads to hyperinflation, a condition where prices can double in a month or less. Money supply is also thought to play a major role in determining moderate levels of inflation, although there are differences of opinion on how important it is. For example, Monetarist economists believe that the link is very strong; Keynesian economists, by contrast, typically emphasize the role of aggregate demand in the economy rather than the money supply in determining inflation. That is, for Keynesians, the money supply is only one determinant of aggregate demand. Some Keynesian economists also disagree with the notion that central banks fully control the money supply, arguing that central banks have little control, since the money supply adapts to the demand for bank credit issued by commercial banks. This is known as the theory of endogenous money, and has been advocated strongly by post-Keynesians as far back as the. 1960s. For more details on this topic, see Monetarists. Monetarists believe the most significant factor influencing inflation or deflation is how fast the money supply grows or shrinks. They consider fiscal policy, or government spending and taxation, as ineffective in controlling inflation. According to the famous monetarist economist Milton Friedman, “Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon.” Some monetarists, however, will qualify this by making an exception for very short-term circumstances. Monetarists assert that the empirical study of monetary history shows that inflation has always been a monetary phenomenon. The quantity theory of money, simply stated, says that any change the amount of money in a system will change the price level. This theory begins with the equation of exchange: M is the nominal quantity of money. V is the velocity of money in final expenditures; P is the general price level; Q is an index of the real value of final expenditures; In this formula, the general price level is related to the level of real economic activity (Q), the quantity of money (M) and the velocity of money (V). The formula is an identity because the velocity of money (V) is defined to be the ratio of final nominal expenditure to the quantity of money (M). Monetarists assume that the velocity of money is unaffected by monetary policy (at least in the long run), and the real value of output is determined in the long run by the productive capacity of the economy. Under these assumptions, the primary driver of the change in the general price level is changes in the quantity of money. With exogenous velocity (that is, velocity being determined externally and not being influenced by monetary policy), the money supply determines the value of nominal output (which equals final expenditure) in the short run. In practice, velocity is not exogenous in the short run, and so the formula does not necessarily imply a stable short-run relationship between the money supply and nominal output. However, in the long run, changes in velocity are assumed to be determined by the evolution of the payments mechanism. If velocity is relatively unaffected by monetary policy, the long-run rate of increase in prices (the inflation rate) is equal to the long run growth rate of the money supply plus the exogenous long-run rate of velocity growth minus the long run growth rate of real output. A connection between inflation and unemployment has been drawn since the emergence of large scale unemployment in the 19th century, and connections continue to be drawn this today. In Marxian economics, the unemployed serve as a reserve army of labour, which restrain wage inflation. In the 20th century, similar concepts in Keynesian economics include the NAIRU (Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment) and the Phillips curve. Rational expectations theory Main article: Rational expectations theory Rational expectations theory holds that economic actors look rationally into the future when trying to maximize their well-being, and do not respond solely to immediate opportunity costs and pressures. In this view, while generally grounded in monetarism, future expectations and strategies are important for inflation as well. A core assertion of rational expectations theory is that actors will seek to “head off” central-bank decisions by acting in ways that fulfill predictions of higher inflation. This means that central banks must establish their credibility in fighting inflation, or economic actors will make bets that the central bank will expand the money supply rapidly enough to prevent recession, even at the expense of exacerbating inflation. Thus, if a central bank has a reputation as being “soft” on inflation, when it announces a new policy of fighting inflation with restrictive monetary growth economic agents will not believe that the policy will persist; their inflationary expectations will remain high, and so will inflation. On the other hand, if the central bank has a reputation of being “tough” on inflation, then such a policy announcement will be believed and inflationary expectations will come down rapidly, thus allowing inflation itself to come down rapidly with minimal economic disruption. The Austrian School asserts that inflation is an increase in the money supply, rising prices are merely consequences and this semantic difference is important in defining inflation. Austrian economists believe there is no material difference between the concepts of monetary inflation and general price inflation. Austrian economists measure monetary inflation by calculating the growth of new units of money that are available for immediate use in exchange, that have been created over time. This interpretation of inflation implies that inflation is always a distinct action taken by the central government or its central bank, which permits or allows an increase in the money supply. In addition to state-induced monetary expansion, the Austrian School also maintains that the effects of increasing the money supply are magnified by credit expansion, as a result of the fractional-reserve banking system employed in most economic and financial systems in the world. Austrians argue that the state uses inflation as one of the three means by which it can fund its activities (inflation tax), the other two being taxation and borrowing. Various forms of military spending is often cited as a reason for resorting to inflation and borrowing, as this can be a short term way of acquiring marketable resources and is often favored by desperate, indebted governments In other cases, Austrians argue that the government actually creates economic recessions and depressions, by creating artificial booms that distort the structure of production. The central bank may try to avoid or defer the widespread bankruptcies and insolvencies which cause economic recessions or depressions by artificially trying to “stimulate” the economy through “encouraging” money supply growth and further borrowing via artificially low interest rates. Accordingly, many Austrian economists support the abolition of the central banks and the fractional-reserve banking system, and advocate returning to a 100 percent gold standard, or less frequently, free banking. They argue this would constrain unsustainable and volatile fractional-reserve banking practices, ensuring that money supply growth (and inflation) would never spiral out of control. Inflation in Bangladesh Overview of Inflation in Bangladesh Substantial debate is still going on among economists regarding the causes of inflation. While monetarists view money supply as the only factor causing inflation through the demand channel, many believe in the supply side phenomena as important sources of inflation. According to the latter, movements in cost, either by restraining or easing the supply side, force inflation to move in a similar direction. History is replete with quite a few major examples of inflation that appeared to be the consequences of supply side disturbances. USA is said to have experienced remarkable inflation led by oil-shocks in 1971-74, 1979-80 and 1990 (Dornbush and Fischer 1994). Moreover, recent surge of global inflation is also believed to be an instance of inflation emanating from the oil crisis. In the Bangladesh economy, a series of incidents occurred over the recent couple of years prompting researchers to recognize the significant role of supply side phenomena in fueling inflation in Bangladesh. This policy note attempts to empirically examine the extent to which the recent inflationary Analysis of the Recent Trends in Inflation Figure-1 demonstrates the trends of Bangladesh inflation by depicting month-wise data of general, food and non-food consumer price inflation (annualized 3-month moving average) from FY03 to FY06. The purpose of using 3-month average instead of traditional 12-month in calculating inflation is to capture the dynamics implicit in the recent price data. It is observed from the figure that inflation maintained a highly erratic movement ranging from 14.82 percent in November ’04 to (-) 3.04 percent in February ’06. The volatility of the inflation behavior can be largely attributed to the food sector. The food inflation seems to have severely fluctuated within the range between (-) 6.75 in February ’06 to 21.88 in November ’04. By contrast, the non-food sector inflation showed a relatively steady pattern reflecting less seasonality. The fluctuation in food inflation is, in part, a manifestation of the typical seasonality in food production and the developments in the global commodity market. It would, therefore, be important to recognize the role of the cost/supply side phenomena in explaining Bangladesh inflation. As seen in the Figure-1, the inflation rate was over 5 percent during a significant number of months. It is also evident that the incidence of high food inflation is responsible for this situation. Except for a few instances, food inflation continued to be well above non-food inflation during the whole period. Moreover, whereas non-food inflation hardly exceeded 5 percent, the food inflation was higher than 5 percent almost as a rule. An analysis of the latest trends reveals that general and food inflation simultaneously started declining after November ‘05, reaching the lowest level in February ‘06 and then registering a sharp uptrend to end up with 11.02 and 15.53 percent respectively in the last month of FY06. The non-food inflation, although moderate, followed a similar pattern before reaching 4.3 percent at the end of the period. These trends appear to capture a broader seasonal behavior of prices in Bangladesh at least as seen in the data from FY04 to FY06. The surge in food inflation in the 4th quarter of FY06 does not appear to be related to seasonality, as the behavior of food prices in the comparable period of the previous two years, i.e., FY05 and FY04 indicates little volatility. The actual inflation in the latter dates ranged between 2.67 percent (FY04) and 6.27 percent (FY05). Further exploration of the source of the FY06 (4th quarter) price hike therefore appears urgent. Bangladesh’s consumers’ price index (CPI) inflation rose to 9.06 percent in February 2010, up from 8.99 percent of the previous month; the rate of inflation went up by 0.07 percentage point in February, over that of the previous month, mainly because of the increase in prices of food items. The inflationary pressures on economy has slightly gone up during the period due mainly to the increase in prices of food items in the local market as well as in the global markets. The existing upward trend of inflation might continue in the third quarters but it particularly in food inflationary pressure would decline in the fourth quarters of the current fiscal year due to arrival of new rice crop along with the government’s market intervention. Historical Trends of Inflation and Growth of Economy Bangladesh is the youngest country in the South Asian region. Following the launching of a series of comprehensive stabilization measures, the economy of Bangladesh mostly restored both robust economic growth and macro-economic stability in early 1990s from the backdrop of the deep macro-economic crisis of the period since independence (Bhattacharyya, 2004). In particular, the economy has experienced accelerated economic growth during the early 1990s in comparison with the 1980s. However, after that period, the economy experienced most severe exigency states like increasing inflationary pressures, deteriorating government’s budgetary balances and decreasing foreign exchange reserves (Mahmud, 1997). During the first half of the 1980s the country experienced a double-digit episode of inflation while the growth rate of GDP was below 4-percent level as illustrated in Figure1. The GDP growth rate declined moderately during the second half of 1980s when inflation rate gradually decreased to below 8-percent. However, a moderate rate of inflation and an increasing rate of GDP growth are observed throughout the 1990s. Throughout the first half of the 1990s, inflation rate was, on average, 5.37 percent, while GDP growth rate was 4.06 percent. Although inflation rate increased, on average, to 5.52 percent in the second half of the 1990s, the growth rate of GDP continued to increase. The increasing trend of inflation rate during the latter half of 1990s had been corrected since the beginning of the new decade after 1990s and was observed at 4.14 percent, on average, during 2001 to 2005, when growth rate of GDP was, on average, 5.19 percent. Figure 2 depicts the historical trends of inflation rate and real GDP growth rate of Bangladesh during the period of 1981 to 2005. Although it is unwise to conclude anything simply on the basis of a visual inspection of Figure 2, however, it illustrates more or less an inverse relationship between rate of inflation and GDP growth rate in Bangladesh throughout this period. Moreover, to understand the historical nature of the relationship between inflation and economic growth in Bangladesh more accurately, the sample covering 1981 to 2005 is grouped into 7 observations. Initially, the range of inflation is selected on the basis of the maximum and minimum levels of inflation from the whole sample. For instance, if inflation rate is 3-percent or less, it is assigned at level 3. Similarly, the level is 5, if inflation rate is more than 3-percent but less than or equal to 5-percent. Subsequently, within this range of inflation, average GDP growth rates are calculated against each linear level of inflation. For illustration, what is the average GDP growth rate when inflation rates are 3 percent or less during the period from 1981 to 2005 and so on? In this context, Figure 3 illustrates a positive relationship between inflation and GDP growth up to the inflation rate of 7 percent (approximately) and a negative relationship is observed after that level of inflation rate. Reasons for inflation in Bangladesh Bangladesh has no specific reason of inflation at present. Inflation is increasing more and more for several reasons. But all reasons are not equally important. Some reasons influence more and some reasons influence less. Our economists, businessmen and other involved parties with economics have identified nine reasons of inflation after the observation of last several months. Economist, policy makers and multilateral capital donors have different explanations about the causes of inflation in countries like Bangladesh. A brief look at a few of such explanations merits attention for shaping and re-shaping of appropriate policies to help curb inflation. Here below is a brief critical overview of such explanations. One of the causes of inflation, explained as such, relates to food prices in the international market. Bangladesh being a food importing country, any rise in food prices in the world market can push up the domestic prices of those commodities. In the not too distant past, the prices of essential commodities, like rice, wheat and edible oil, increased significantly in the international markets. So, domestic prices of those items shot up phenomenally then. Then the link between rising prosperity and inflation is sought to be proved by many. Despite all its problems, Bangladesh has been performing well, in terms of economic growth over the last 10 years. Its gross domestic product (GDP) base is not small, in absolute volume terms. It is the 50th largest economy in a sample of 177 countries. Not many developing countries have grown faster than Bangladesh with bigger GDP volumes since the early 1990s. Those who seek to link inflation and GDP growth performance state that the high growth rate of GDP and the per capita GDP in particular has led to the creation of excess demand in the Bangladesh economy. This has resulted in a demand-pull inflation. Then there is the growth of money supply that is directly related to the price situation. ‘Inflation is a monetary phenomenon’, so is explained by a good number of economists as well as some of the donor agencies. It is, thus, stated to be caused by the excessive supply of money in the economy. Bangladesh Bank has otherwise been found to be guided by the monetarist approach to inflation — and that is not without some good reason. If has been following a rather “cautious” monetary policy. Many consider it as a pragmatic step. Wage, the labor cost, is often seen as the key reason behind cost-push inflation. Wage increase without any commensurate increase in productivity kicks off a wage-price spiral, allowing for sustained inflation. Analysis of the movements of nominal wage rate inflation generally gives an idea about the labor cost scenario. The time path of the nominal wage inflation portrayed in Figure-2 suggests that in Bangladesh, the wage inflation has been pretty stable at above 5 percent per annum with some short-term fluctuations over the period from July ‘03 to June ‘06. Under the assumption of little or no improvement of workers’ productivity growth, wage inflation at such high level is an indication of cost escalation over time. However, whether the accelerated cost has translated into inflation is not clearly observable in the figure. An analysis of the correlation matrix presented in Box-1 is useful in exploring the precise link between labor cost and inflation. It is seen from the matrix that wage rate inflation has statistically significant association only with rural food inflation (coefficient of 0.22) at the 10-percent level of significance during the period from FY00 to FY06. It, therefore, appears that wage inflation cannot be a dominant factor in explaining the price behavior in Bangladesh. This is what one would normally expect in a labor surplus environment. Fig: Labor Cost and Inflation (annualized 3-month moving average) Import Cost Typically import occupies a significant place in the Bangladesh economy, accounting for as high as above 20 percent or more of GDP in FY06. At the margin, most of the essential food items (for example, sugar, rice, wheat, onion and edible oil) and, more generally, machineries, intermediate goods and raw materials used in production are imported. Cost of imports can, therefore, be expected to have a substantial influence on domestic inflation directly (through final goods) or indirectly (through intermediate goods). According to available statistics, import price index (MPI) of Bangladesh has continuously soared over time which is reflected by an almost straight upward curve in Figure: Import Cost and Inflation (12-month moving average) Figure-3. The figure also depicts the inflation trend. Comparison among the trends in import price index and inflation provides an observation about the relationship between these indices. It is seen that although during the period from FY97 to FY01 the relationship is somewhat ambiguous, the co-movement from FY01 onward appears robust. To verify this relationship, a separate correlation matrix has been constructed using yearly data for the period from FY01 to FY06. The correlation analysis, presented in the Box-2, reveals that while the relationships between import price index and categories of non-food inflation (urban and rural) are insignificant, the former is found to have economically as well as statistically highly significant association with the categories of food inflation (urban and rural). The positive association is suggestive of the hypothesis that the surge in inflation is in part a supply side phenomenon. Evidently, the reasons for increase in import price are twofold- exchange rate depreciation and increase in international commodity prices. Exchange rate exerts inflationary pressure mainly via import prices. Historically, exchange rate in Bangladesh exhibited steady increase over time. The period average BDT-USD exchange rate was recorded at 61.39 during FY05 in comparison to 40.20 and 50.31 during FY95 and FY00 respectively. The comparable FY06 figure rose to 67.08 as the currency remained under pressure during the first three quarters of the fiscal year. The inflation in the fourth quarter of FY06 (Figure-1) seems to have been prompted by a sharp increase in the exchange rate throughout the second quarter and part of the third quarter of the same fiscal. The contribution of the exchange rate depreciation to inflationary pressure has been attested to by the results of the said correlation analysis (Box-1). Accordingly, exchange rate is seen to be uniformly correlated with all categories of inflation (rural food, rural non-food, urban food and urban non-food) at the 1-percent level of significance, the coefficients being 0.34, 0.29, 0.36 and 0.37 respectively. Being a fundamental input of production, oil constitutes a significant portion of production cost in every sector of the economy. In spite of some recent adjustments in the administered price of energy products, much of the increased cost of imported fuel has not been passed on to end users, especially on diesel and kerosene. However, the correlation analysis (Box-1) provides evidence that an increase in the diesel price (proxy for oil price) stimulates inflation via increases in both food and non-food prices in both urban and rural areas. This is plausibly due to the fact that diesel is used intensively regardless of sector (food or non-food, urban or rural). The correlation coefficients are estimated as 0.36, 0.30, 0.41 and 0.32 for rural food, rural non-food, urban food and urban non-food sector respectively. Production in agriculture and fisheries sectors in Bangladesh is still subject to the whims of nature to a notable extent. It has been claimed that one of the main causes of the high food inflation throughout the FY05 was poor harvest of aus, aman and wheat crops. The yearly production of these three crops went down by 18.12, 14.76 and 22.11 percent respectively in FY05 over the FY04.An instance of price hike due to this fall of production is that the price (per kg) of aman rice rose within the range of BDT 16 to 19 in FY05 from the range of BDT 14 to 16 in FY04. Unfair cartel among the suppliers might seriously hamper the course of the economy by engendering inflation via the creation of a false supply shortage even during a period of robust growth in production. Such an undesirable event allegedly occurred in FY06 when the food inflation remained high (7.76 percent) in the same fiscal year despite the growth in food production (4.49 percentvis-à-vis 2.21 percent in FY05). Monopolistic control of several food items such as sugar, onion, pulses and edible oil by market syndication seems to have led this situation. Obviously such manipulation is a type of supply side disturbance. The above analysis carries an important signal for the policy makers. In an effort to subdue inflation they have to keep a sharp eye not only on the demand phenomena, but also on the cost behavior in the relevant period. Unfortunately, there is hardly any market oriented policy move on the part of fiscal or monetary authorities that can be taken for checking the cost induced inflation. On the fiscal side, although cutting down of the indirect tax on commodities is often proposed as a remedial measure, it only makes a temporary contribution to reducing inflation. Long term continuation of such policy may cause continuous erosion of the government exchequer. Some also argue in favor of government control on wage increases that are not supported by the corresponding increase in productivity to resist wage-price spiral. In Bangladesh, however, the presence of powerful trade unions tends to render the implementation of such control almost impossible. On a positive note, however, our analysis did not find any noteworthy impact of wage growth on inflation. It is widely recognized, however, that government can effectively use its legal powers to break up the market syndication and thus improve competitiveness of the distribution network. On the monetary side, in the absence of any direct controlling instrument, Bangladesh Bank can initiate some case specific counter-action. Bangladesh Bank can take over some responsibilities such as monitoring modalities of Letter of Credit (L/C) operation so that market forces determines the exchange rate in a process that remains free from much speculative transactions. One example of a move in this direction is that the Governor of Bangladesh Bank, in a recent monthly bankers’ meeting, advised the bankers to settle their liabilities against local L/C in foreign exchange through Bangladesh Bank clearing account instead of their nostro account. It is estimated that BDT 200 million worth of foreign exchange will be saved if this advice comes into effect. Though indirectly, Control Mechanism of Inflation Policies to control inflation need to focus on the underlying causes of inflation in the economy. For example if the main cause is excess demand for goods and services, then government policy should look to reduce the level of aggregate demand. If cost-push inflation is the root cause, production costs need to be controlled for the problem to be reduced. Monetary Policy – Interest Rates Since May 1997, the Bank of England has had operational independence in the setting of official interest rates in the United Kingdom. They set interest rates with the aim of keeping inflation under control over the next two years. Monetary policy can control the growth of demand through an increase in interest rates and a contraction in the real money supply. For example, in the late 1980s, interest rates went up to 15% because of the excessive growth in the economy and contributed to the recession of the early 1990s. This is shown in the chart above Higher interest rates reduce aggregate demand in three ways; - Discouraging borrowing by both households and companies - Increasing the rate of saving (the opportunity cost of spending has increased) - The rise in mortgage interest payments will reduce homeowners’ real ‘effective’ disposable income and their ability to spend. Increased mortgage costs will also reduce market demand in the housing market Business investment may also fall, as the cost of borrowing funds will increase. Some planned investment projects will now become unprofitable and, as a result, aggregate demand will fall. Higher interest rates could also be used to limit monetary inflation. A rise in real interest rates should reduce the demand for lending and therefore reduce the growth of broad money. - Higher direct taxes (causing a fall in disposable income) - Lower Government spending - A reduction in the amount the government sector borrows each year (PSNCR) These fiscal policies increase the rate of leakages from the circular flow and reduce injections into the circular flow of income and will reduce demand pull inflation at the cost of slower growth and unemployment. An Appreciation Of The Exchange Rate An appreciation in the pound sterling makes British exports more expensive and should reduce the volume of exports and aggregate demand. It also provides UK firms with an incentive to keep costs down to remain competitive in the world market. A stronger pound reduces import prices. And this makes firms’ raw materials and components cheaper; therefore helping them control costs. A rise in the value of the exchange rate might be achieved by an increase in interest rates or through the purchase of sterling via Central Bank intervention in the foreign exchange markets. Direct Wage Controls – Incomes Policies Incomes policies (or direct wage controls) set limits on the rate of growth of wages and have the potential to reduce cost inflation. The Government has not used such a policy since the late 1970s, but it does still try to influence wage growth by restricting pay rises in the public sector and by setting cash limits for the pay of public sector employees. In the private sector the government may try moral suasion to persuade firms and employees to exercise moderation in wage negotiations. This is rarely sufficient on its own. Wage inflation normally falls when the economy is heading into recession and unemployment starts to rise. This causes greater job insecurity and some workers may trade off lower pay claims for some degree of employment protection. Long-Term Policies to Control Inflation Labour Market Reforms The weakening of trade union power, the growth of part-time and temporary working along with the expansion of flexible working hours are all moves that have increased flexibility in the labour market. If this does allow firms to control their labour costs it may reduce cost push inflationary pressure. Certainly in recent years the UK economy has not seen the acceleration in wage inflation normally associated with several years of sustained economic growth and falling inflation. One reason is that rising job insecurity inside a flexible labour market has tilted the balance of power away from employees towards employers. Supply Side Reforms If a greater output can be produced at a lower cost per unit, then the economy can achieve sustained economic growth without inflation. An increase in aggregate supply is often a key long term objective of Government economic policy. In the diagram below we see the benefits of an outward shift in the short run aggregate supply curve. The equilibrium level of real national income increases and the average price level falls. Supply side reforms seek to increase the productive capacity of the economy in the long run and raise the trend rate of growth of labour and capital productivity. A number of supply-side policies have been introduced into the British economy in recent years. Productivity gains help to control unit labour costs (an important cause of cost-push inflation) and put less pressure on producers to raise their prices. The key to controlling inflation in the long run is for the authorities to keep control of aggregate demand (through fiscal and monetary policy) and at the same time seek to achieve improvements to the supply side of the economy. The credibility of inflation control policies can often be enhanced by the introduction of inflation targets. Many countries operate inflation targets. The number of countries with explicit inflation targets increased almost sevenfold between 1990 and 1998 from 8 to 54. Since October 1992, the British Government has pursued an explicit inflation target for the economy. When Labor came to power in May 1997, they set the target for RPIX inflation at 2.5% (+ or – 1%) for the next five years. The Bank of England Monetary Policy Committee sets interest rates with a view to meeting the inflation target over the next two years. If RPIX inflation moves 1% either side of the 2.5% target, the Governor of the Bank has to write an open letter to the Chancellor explaining the reasons for the inflation undershoot / overshoot and the steps the MPC are taking to bring inflation within the target zone again. Over the last seven years, RPIX inflation in the UK has stayed within 1% of the target measure. The 1990s has seen a return to the low, stable inflation last seen in the 1960s. Advantages of an Inflation Target An effective inflation target can have several economic benefits: - It can reduce inflationary expectations if people believe a low inflation target will be met. This will then reflect in the wage demands of people in work. If employees expect low inflation they may be prepared to accept a slower growth of pay. This reduces the risk of cost-push inflation in the economy. A fall in inflation expectations can cause an inward shift of the Phillips Curve. - A target gives monetary policy a clear anchor and improves the accountability and transparency of economic policy-making. The quarterly Bank of England Inflation Report is a highly detailed assessment of economic trends and the Bank’s best guess about future movements in inflation. All A-Level Economists and Degree students should make a habit of reading it! - Sustained low inflation improves prospects for higher levels of capital investment in both manufacturing and service industries. This is because businesses will not demand such high nominal rates of return on potential investment projects if they believe that inflation will remain low and stable. - A Bank of England report in August 1999 argued that inflation targets have been successful in reducing inflation expectations and improving people’s understanding of the inflation process Potential Disadvantages of An Inflation Target - The main drawback is that a narrow inflation target is risky for an open economy such as the UK. Am open economy relies heavily on exports and imports and imposes few restrictions on free trade between countries. - Fluctuations in the exchange rate and changes in inflation rates in other countries or in the prices of imported goods and services can push the domestic inflation rate higher and lead to increases in interest rates. Higher interest rates have the effect of damaging economic growth and employment. - There is a danger that strict adherence to a tough inflation target may lead to the economy operating well below its long-run productive potential. This can create much higher unemployment – which in itself generates economic and social costs. Fiscal policy involves government expenditure and revenue, through taxes, borrowing and printing money. Anti-inflationary fiscal policy would focus on with- drawing purchasing power from the public so that they spend less, relieving the upward pressure on prices. This can be done by raising taxes and borrowing from the public without spending the proceeds. As the origin of inflation in most developing countries has been increasing government claim on productive resources (required for public sector projects), a decrease in government expenditure leaving taxes undiminished may still be more effective. Fiscal policy is regarded as ‘deliberate manipulation of the relation between government expenditure and government receipts with a view to maneuvering the level of aggregate demand in the desired direction” Manipulation of aggregate demand is not the only way fiscal policy can target inflation. Spending money in a way that increases the supply of goods and services can also help governments check the rising trend in prices. It has been rightly observed that inflation as we know it (i.e. a sustained rise in prices) is a modern phenomenon. The price level was stable for nearly a century till 1914. But a number of factors, among which debt financing of the two world wars was only one, caused most countries to experience rising prices since the middle of the century till the eighties. The same period also saw a phenomenal rise in public spending which globally reached 43% of the GDP by 1980. As a result inflation is commonly perceived as a consequence of rising public expenditure. This, however, may not always be true.4 One has to examine specific cases to arrive at a conclusion. Prevention and Control There are two significant differences between fiscal policies designed to control already existing inflation and those designed to prevent inflation from afflicting an economy which at the time is free of inflation. The first difference relates to time horizon and the speed at which a policy measure is carried out. The second relates to the size of the change required in the relevant variables e.g. government expenditure, taxes, etc. Policies designed to control inflation have to have an impact now. They must be fast acting showing their results in a matter of months. This in turn may require big reduction in government expenditure, large increases in taxes, huge amounts of domestic borrowing etc. Given these measures successfully implemented over a short period of time aggregate demand will decrease and the trend of prices to rise will be checked. The big question is how far it is possible and desirable to do so. Let us have a look at the way government decides how much to spend. Part of government expenditure relates to the core of governance, no government can function without these. They can be reduced if they are inflated but there is a limit to such reduction. Expenditure on salaries and offices of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government come under this category. Reduction in Public Expenditure It is only when we come to the other public goods and the welfare activities of the government that reduction in government expenditure becomes a real possibility. But the actual scope of such reduction depends on the historical path followed by (the increase in) government expenditure. Modern day governments have shown little ability to reduce expenditure on education and health care. For a developing country the idea of reducing expenditure on education and health care is still the less appealing. Reducing the current levels of expenditure on education and health care are nowhere a real option. In fact any attempt to do so would be economically disastrous and politically suicidal for the regime. It has been rightly observed that public expenditure increases as the national output increases. It is very difficult to predict a reduction in public expenditure in an economy where the real output is increasing. Increase in Tax Revenues One should also consider the possibility of tax evasion and even coaxing people to pay ‘donations’ —- over and above taxes — to enable their government do good things for them. The likely gains in revenue terms are however, likely to be more than counterbalanced by two other certain changes. There are certain indirect taxes on basic necessities of life. Then there is mandatory lowering of tariffs and custom duties as part of ones belonging to a world set to reduce them globally. Let us now turn to the other policy measure, withdrawal of purchasing power from the public through increased taxation and domestic borrowing not accompanied by a corresponding rise in public expenditure. This in fact is only a textbook proposition insofar as the developing countries are concerned. These countries are not able to meet even current levels of public expenditure through all the taxes and domestic borrowing they can manage, thereby taking recourse to printing new money. As regards an Islamic economy domestic borrowing ceases to be an option as no interest can be paid to the lenders. A resort to compulsory borrowing free of interest as suggested by some1 would be hardly feasible in political terms. Additional taxation with the sole purpose of withdrawing some purchasing power and freezing it implies that the money should be paid back when the time comes to defreeze it. That makes it akin to compulsory borrowing. There is no empirical evidence of any developing country ever having adopted these policies successfully. Increasing the Supply of Goods and Services That leaves us with the last option noted under the heading fiscal policy: spending money in a way that increases supply of goods and services. This spending does not have to be done by the government itself. Tax reduction that encourages private investment may serve the same purpose. Lowering corporation taxes and lowering or scrapping capital gains taxes, even scaling down the income taxes may boost production by increasing the incentive to work and the incentive to save. Another possible measure is to restructure the subsidies in favor of the intermediate industries whose products are needed for expanding the production of consumer goods. Building the infrastructure — roads, bridges, irrigation systems, electricity and telecommunication, etc. — at public cost and making them available to the private sector at affordable prices has also been a favorite policy of mid-century developmental planning. These can be adopted after due consideration of the lessons from the past. Even though each one of these policies is slow acting and of modest impact their cumulative impact over time would be significant. There can be no definite way to check the rising trend in prices than to arrange for increasing the supply of the very things whose prices are increasing. Fiscal policy has no other way to make a durable contribution to solve the problem of inflation since the two other options examined above are limited in scope and not practical. Unlike the impact of anti-inflationary monetary policy which may be immediate but temporary, the impact of supply increasing fiscal policies is slow but durable. In seems the scope for reducing public expenditure from their current levels is very limited insofar the contemporary Muslim countries are concerned. The same applies to the possibility of withdrawing purchasing power from the public without spending the proceeds. This leaves us with the slow acting option of trying to maneuver public expenditure and taxation in a way that increases the incentives to work, save and invest and / or directly contributes to increasing the supply of goods and services. Economic policies taken by Bangladesh Government The control of inflation has become one of the dominant objectives of government economic policy in many countries. Effective policies to control inflation need to focus on the underlying causes of inflation in the economy. For example if the main cause is excess demand for goods and services, then government policy should look to reduce the level of aggregate demand. If cost-push inflation is the root cause, production costs need to be controlled for the problem to be reduced. - · Procurement and Distribution of Food grains by Public Sector: To increase the operation of the PFDS, the government decided to intensify public sector procurement from domestic sources, import 8 lac metric tonnes of food grains and to increase distribution under non-priced channels such as TR, GR, FFW and VGD. - · One important fiscal measure taken by the government was to reduce import duties and para-tarrifs. The governments decided to withdraw CD on crude edible oil and lentils, as well as continue the duty treatment of rice, wheat, onion, matar dal and chola dal. Zero customs duty on crude edible oil and lentils has also been introduced. - · Subsidy for diesel and Electricity used in Irrigation: Bangladesh Government has decided to provide Tk. 7.5 Billion as an subsidy for diesel used for irrigation purposes and to continue with the 20% subsidy provided for electricity used in irrigation. Inflation was there always and it will be but the fact is the inflation should be controlled it should be kept in a limit. The government of Bangladesh should take necessary steps to keep it under control. Between the two mitigation techniques Bangladesh Government should keep its eye on the underlying reasons behind inflation. Bangladesh can mitigate the rising food price if Government can take necessary steps in increasing the production of food grains in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Govt. also has to increase employment facility by increasing the number of investment in production sector. If more industrialization can be occurred then the GDP will increase and the inflation will be mitigated. Bangladesh bank and also use the monetary weapons that they have over inflation. So, controlling of inflation for short term is not what our country needs to emphasize rather the long-term solution is needed.
Introduction to Computer Information Systems/The System Unit - 1 Data and Program Representation - 2 The System Unit - The Motherboard and CPU - 3 The System Unit - Memory, Buses, Ports - 4 How the CPU Works - 5 How the CPU Works - 6 Improving the Performance of Your Computer - 7 References Data and Program Representation Digital data and numerical data Most computers are digital computers which use a specific language to communicate within itself in order to process information. If there are programs running in the background or a person is typing up a word document for example, the computer needs to be able to interpret the data that is being put into it by the human as well as communicate to working components within itself. This language that digital computers use is called binary code and is a very basic form of language composed of only two figures; 1 and 0. Whereas the English language is composed of 26 figures which we commonly call the alphabet, computers use a language composed of only two figures, hence its name Binary Code. Binary literally means two and refers to anything that consists of, involves, or indicates two. The language known as Binary Code operates on a system of 1's and 0's strung together. Each 1 or 0 is referred to as a "bit." "Bits" are the smallest unit of data that a binary computer can recognize and every action, memory, storage, or computation that is done through a computer is composed of them. From playing music through your speakers to cropping a photograph, to typing up a document and preparing an important presentation all the way down the line to browsing the internet or picking up on a wifi signal in your area, everything uses "bits" to complete the task needed. "Bits" string into larger lines of information the way letters string into words and then sentences. When eight "bits" are compounded in this way they are then referred to as a "byte". "Bytes", which are made up of "bits", are commonly used when referring to the size of the information being provided. For example, a song that is downloaded may contain several kilobytes or perhaps even a few megabytes if it is a whole c.d. and not just a single track. Likewise, pictures and all other documents in general are stored on the computer based on their size or amount of bytes they contain. The amount of information that can be stored onto a computer is also shown or displayed in bytes as is the amount left on a computer after certain programs or documents have been stored. Since bytes can be extremely long, we have come up with prefixes that signify how large they are. These prefixes increase by three units of ten so that a Kilobyte represents 1,000 bytes, a Megabyte represents 1,000,000 bytes or one million bytes, a Gigabyte represents 1,0000,000,000 or one billion bytes, etc. Computers components have become so small that we can now store larger and larger amounts of data bytes in the same size computers resulting in the use of other larger prefixes such as Tera, Peta, Exa, Zetta, and Yotta. Below is a chart outlining the name of the prefix used and powers of ten they symbolize. Digital Data Representation, otherwise known as how the computer interprets data, is a key concept to understanding computer data processing, as well as overall functioning. Data is represented by particular coding systems. The computer recognizes coding systems- rather than letters or phrases that the user of a computer views. The actual process of the computer understanding coding systems is called digital data representation. A digital computer operates by understanding two different states, on or off. This means that the data is represented by numbers- 0’s and 1’s, and is known as a binary computer. The binary code is a very basic coding system for computers to comprehend. An advantage to digital data computing lies behind the binary coding systems. Although the binary code has become decreasingly popular in the professional, recreational fields due to an increase in technology, they still provide a use in programming. Digital data creates a simple way to duplicate and transfer information accurately from computer to computer, which is why it is still used today. The terminology for the smallest unit of data is a bit, which consists of a single numeric value,0 or 1. Bytes, on the other hand, consist of groupings of multiple groupings of bits. Bytes allow the computer hardware to work more quickly and efficiently. (from the SI page on Wikipedia): Representing data in a way that can be understood by a digital computer is called Digital Representation and Binary Code is the most commonly used form of this. Binary Code is a Numerical Representation of data that uses only 1 and 0 to represent every possible number. Mathematics uses 10 symbols ranging from 1 TO 0 and include 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as well. This Numerical Representation of data is called the decimal numbering system because it uses ten symbols. As shown on the chart, the prefix deci symbolizes ten. In both systems, the position of each digit determines to which power that number is raised. In the deci-mal system each digit is raised by ten so that the first column equals 1 (10^1) or ten raised to the zero power, the second column equals 10 (10^2) or ten raised to the first power, the third column equals 100 (10^3) or ten raised to the third power and so on. However, since Binary Code only operates with two symbols, each digit is a power of two instead of ten. In binary the first column equals 1 (2^0) or two raised to the zero power, the second column equals 2 (2^1) or two raised to the first power, the third column equals 4 (2^2) or two raised to the second power, the fourth column equals 8 (2^3) or two raised to the third power, and so forth. Because the Binary system takes advantage of so few symbols, the result is that more positions for digits are used to express the same number than in decimal form, leaving long lines of information for even the simplest expressions. There are a few different coding systems, EBCDIC, ASCII and Unicode. EBCDIC (extended binary coded decimal interchange code) was created for use in mainframes, developed by IBM. The code uses a unique combination of 0’s and 1’s, 8-bits in length, which allows for 256 different combinations. ASCII ( American standard code for information interchange) was created for a more personal use. ASCII uses a 7 bit code, though there is an extended code which adds an extra bit, which nearly doubles the amount of unique characters the code can represent. however Unicode is a much longer string of code, between 8 and 32 bits. With over one million different possibilities, every language can be represented with this code, every mathematical symbol can be represented, every punctuation mark, and every symbol or sign from any culture. Unicode is universal. With using 0’s and 1’s to represent different data, it has become fit for any language used all over the world. This code is replacing ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) because the characters in this code can be transformed into Unicode, a much more practical system for data. ASCII is known as the alphabet code, and its numbering codes range from 0 all the way to 127 considered to be a 7 bit code. Alphabets vary from language to langue, but 0’s and 1’s can be understood worldwide. These codes apply to binary coding systems, meaning the computer understands two states of either On or Off. The problem with Unicode is that it is not compatible with each computer system used today. Windows 95/98 does not have the ability to run Unicode while other Windows such as NT and 2000 are closer to being able to. There is a program Sun Microsystem’s Java Software Development Kit which allows you to convert files in ASCII format into Unicode. While Unicode is a huge improvement for coding systems today, it cannot process all symbols that are possible, leaving room for new systems to one day take its place. One type of multimedia data is graphics data. These data are of still images, and can be stored in the form of a bitmap image file. A bitmap image is a type of graphic that contains pixels, or picture elements, that are arranged in a grid-like pattern. Each pixel is made up of a specific group of numbers which corresponds to the color, and the color’s intensity. Although there are a few other key factors when determining the detail quality of an image, pixels play an important role. An image with many pixels allows there to be more potential of higher quality in that image. However, this doesn’t mean that more pixels in an image definitely results in a higher quality picture. When shopping for digital cameras consumers must be aware of the amount of megapixels, or pixels by the million, the cameras in front of them have. Today, an average person wishing to take decent and basic everyday pictures will be satisfied with about an 8 megapixel camera. In fact, many new smartphone cameras use 8 megapixels, like the Apple iPhone 5C, a popular smartphone released in September 2013. Someone with different intentions of using images, perhaps for making high definition prints, will require a camera with more megapixels. This would allow for their prints to be large, but with appropriate and exceptional quality. Audio Data is very similar to graphics data in that it is understood in pieces. Instead of using pixels, however, audio data uses samples. Audio data is usually recorded with an input device such as a microphone or a MIDI controller. Samples are then taken from the recording thousands of times every second and when they are played back in the same order, they create the original audio file. Because there are so many samples within each sound file, files are often compressed into formats such as MP3 or MP4 so that they take up less storage space. This makes them easier to download, send over the internet, or even store on your MP3 player. Video data is also similar to graphic and audio data, but instead of using pixels or samples, video data is recorded with the use of frames. Frames are still images that are taken numerous times per second and that when played simultaneously, create a video (most films are recorded using twenty-four frames per second). Similar to audio data, because video data contains so much information, the files can be compressed, making it possible for full length movies containing thousands of frames to be stored on optical discs. The System Unit - The Motherboard and CPU "The motherboard can be thought of as the "back bone" of the computer." This quote is from the article Motherboard. Inside the system unit contains the motherboard. The motherboard is the "glue" of the computer. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drive, optical drives, video card, and sound card together. The front of the motherboard are peripheral card slots. The slots contain different types of cards which are connected to the motherboard. The left side of the motherboard contain ports. The ports connect to the monitor, printer, keyboard, mouse, speakers, phone line, and network cables. Like many of the components of computers, motherboards have not always been as advanced as they are today. Motherboards on early PCs did not have many integrated parts located directly on the board. Instead, most of the devices, such as display adapters and hard disk controllers, were connected through expansion slots. As technology advanced, more and more devices were built in directly to the board itself. At first, this began to create problems as manufacturers began to find that if one of the devices on the motherboard was faulty or in some way damaged, that the entire motherboard must be replaced. This led manufactures to change the design in a way that allowed them to remove faulty parts easily and replace them, especially parts that are growing and changing so quickly, such as the RAM or CPU. Today, a motherboard comes equipped with many parts working in conjunction with each other. One can find anything, from back up batteries, keyboard and mouse connectors, to cache memory chips, in close proximity to the CPU. The computer is able to do tasks faster as its components continue to be closer to one another. The advancement of technology has allowed for these parts to become smaller and more powerful, allowing more surface area on the motherboard to fit more devices. It is common today to find even audio and video components built into it as well. With technology moving as fast as it is, one may wonder what a motherboard will be capable of containing in the near future. The CPU is the abbreviation for the central processing unit. The computer needs the CPU in order to function correctly. It is known as the brains of the computer where the calculations occur. The microprocessor and the processor are two other names for the central processing unit. The Central processing unit attaches to a CPU socket on the motherboard. A common CPU is called the multi-core CPU. This specific type of CPU is efficient because it allows computers to work on more than one task at a time. Also, these multi core CPU's experience less over heating than the original CPU which causes much less problems to the computer. A typical CPU is two by two inches. History of the CPU The first CPU ever made was the Intel 4004, which was designed by Federico Faggin. After ten months of Faggin and his colleagues working on the chip, it was released by Intel Corporation in January 1971. Even though this first generation, 4-bit microprocessor could only add and subtract, it was a major breakthrough in technology. The amazing quality was that all of the processing was done on one chip, as opposed to prior computers which had a collection of chips wired together. This invention lead to the first portable electronic calculator. While technology has advanced quite a bit since 1971, old technology is not as “out-of-date” as one thinks. There are still CPU chips made in the 1970’s and 1980’s that are still being used today. Personal computers, such as PC’s and Mac’s, use faster, more up-to-date CPU’s because the users run many programs at the same time. However, the more simple computers embedded in cars, printers, and microwaves can still use the older forms of microprocessors. For example, one famous CPU was the MOS 6502, made in 1975, and it was still being used in many appliances up until 2009. Control processing units are the key component in any computer, and thus sometimes the simpler styles work best. The System Unit - Memory, Buses, Ports Memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips and is used to store data and programs on a temporary or permanent basis. There are two main types of memory storage which are random- access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM). Inside the system unit, ROM is attached to the motherboard. Random-access memory can read data from RAM and write data into RAM in the same amount of time. RAM is measured in bytes and includes the cache memory and registers. It is volatile which means that it loses the information/data stored on it when the power is turned off. In order to retrieve an important file at a later date, one needs to store it on a separate, non-volatile, storage medium (such as a flash drive or hard-drive) so that, even though the information is erased from RAM, it is stored elsewhere. RAM has different slots where it stores data and keeps track of addresses. Read-only memory cannot be written to and is non-volatile which means it keeps its contents regardless of whether the power is turned off or not. Flash memory (solid-state) is starting to replace ROM. It is also a non-volatile memory chip that is used for storage on devices, like mobile phones, tablets, digital cameras, etc. This type of memory can often be found in the form of flash drives, SD cards, and Solid-State hard drives. The reason for this is so that the data can be quickly updated over time while taking up a smaller amount of physical space in comparison to its precursors. Flash memory is also more resistant to outside forces, such as electro-magnetic fields or shock, than other memory alternatives such as traditional hard-drives. Cache memory is a specific kind of memory that allows a computer to perform certain tasks much more quickly. A good analogy from HowStuffWorks compares the computer to a librarian, data to books, and cache to a backpack. Suppose somebody walks into a library and asks the librarian for a copy of the book Moby Dick. The librarian goes back into the room full of books, grabs that book, and gives it to the reader. Later that day, the reader returns, having finished the book, and gives it back to the librarian, who returns it to the same storage room. Then, a second reader walks in asking for the same book, Moby Dick. The librarian has to get up and go all the way back to the room in order to get the book he was just handling, which is a waste of time. Instead, suppose the librarian had a backpack that could store up to 10 books. When the first person returns Moby Dick, the librarian puts it into his backpack instead (after making sure the backpack doesn't have 10 books in it already.) Then, when the second person comes in requesting that same book, the librarian can just check his bag, get the book out, and hand it to the second person without having to walk all the way back into the other room. Cache memory functions like that backpack. It stores previously accessed data in a specific area with a limited amount of memory so that the processor can get this data much more quickly. Ports are on the outside of the system unit and they are used to connect hardware devices. There are physical ports and virtual ports. A physical port is a physical connection to a computer where data is transferred. It is when something is physically plugged into the computer or some other device. Virtual ports allow software applications to share hardware resources without having to physical connect to each other or to interfere with one another. Parallel ports are most often used with a keyboard, printer or mouse, but these are more commonly known as legacy ports instead. Each port has a certain connector to plug it into the computer. Different type of ports would be power connectors, VGA monitor port, USB ports, Firewire port, HDMI port, Network port, audio ports, and empty slots. The connectors would be Monitor (VGA, HDMI), USB, Firewire, network, and audio connector. Each port has also a different purpose and connector. Almost all PCs come with a serial RS-232C port or a RS-4222 port and they are used for connecting a modem, mouse, or keyboard. They also have parallel ports that are used to connect printers. These are also considered USB ports because they are physical ports and which standardize communications between computers and peripheral. USB ports were created in the mid 1990’s; USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. There are also network ports used to connect a computer to a network. Ethernet was developed in the 1980s and it is a system for connecting a number of computer systems to form a local area network. A serial port is used to connect modems to personal computers. The term “serial” signifies that data sent in one direction always travels over a single wire within the cable. The last main kind of port is the FireWire, which are used to connect FireWire devices to the computer via a FireWire connector. These are used with mostly digital video cameras and other multimedia devices. A Thunderbolt port connect peripheral devices through that cable. These ports allow for you to connect more devices to your computer and is very fast. Thunderbolt ports use hardware controllers I/0 protocols onto one efficient protocol with the use of just one cable. I/O technology is input and output is a device that that transfers the data to the computer peripherally (a CD-ROM would be an example of an I/O technology).This port lets there to be full bandwidth for both directions of the port, thus allowing the user to faster and more efficient with the ports it has to connect. This type of technology allows for people to plug in as many devices they could use on their computer and not slowing any of those devices down. The thunderbolt port is also small so it is easy to travel with as well. Power supply unit Computers need power. There are two main functions the PCUs are responsible of. The first is to convert the type of electrical power available at the wall outlet such as110V 60Hz AC (alternating current) or 230v 50Hz AC to the type the computer circuits can use. The other crucial task is to deliver low voltages to each device due their requirements. The converting currents could be represented either by built in PSU (desktops, servers, mainframes) or by the separate power supply adapters for computers with rechargeable batteries inside (laptops, tablets). Three main voltages are used to power computer : +3.3v, +5v, and +12v DC, Usually, the +3.3 or +5 voltages are being used by logic circuits and some digital electronic components (motherboard, adapter cards, and disk drive logic boards) while the motors (disk drive motors and any fans) use the +12v power. The power supply must provide a good, steady supply of DC power for the proper system operation. Devices that run on voltages other than these must be powered by onboard voltage regulators. For example the CPUs operate 1.5V and 2V and require very stable power with high power consumption. Ethernet Cable in Theatre A commonly used cable today is Ethernet cable. You a probably most familiar with its use involving the internet in your home, mostly going from your modem, to another computer of to a Wi-Fi router. However, the use of Ethernet cable has been instrumental in the changing would of technical theatre. Before its introduction, the most common computer cables used in theatre were DMX and XLR, for lighting and sound respectively. This issue with this is that each cable can only carry the information for one device, be that a microphone or light. In addition, if these cables are stored improperly, they can corrupt the information being transmitted. Ethernet is much smaller, and can transmit far more data. Also, there is less of a danger regarding storing cable. Ethernet, combined with new operating system and equipment, has made thing far more efficient. For example, an analog board must have one XLR cable go to each microphone, so if you wanted to run 40 microphones, you must have 40 channels available on your soundboard. Also, the size of a cable with 40 smaller lines inside it can reach a one-inch diameter, and can weigh several hundred pounds. Now, a digital soundboard can control up to 100 microphones on a single Ethernet cable. How the CPU Works CPU Architecture and Components As previously discussed on this page, the CPU is a complex piece of the computer made up of many parts. The way these parts all fit together inside the CPU is different in each processor but they mainly contain the same parts from device to device. The most abundant part in the CPU would be the transistor. Modern CPU's typically hold several hundred million transistors with some of the more high-end computers holding over a billion, and for good reason. Calculations in a computer can be performed thanks to the combination of transistors turning off or on. Besides these transistors, there are several parts that make up the CPU. Some of these include the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) and floating point unit (FPU), the control unit, and the prefetch unit. The ALU is the part of the CPU that deals with the mathematics involving whole numbers and any functions done with those numbers. The FPU takes care of the mathematics with other numbers like fractions, or numbers with decimal places. These two parts work hand in hand, using arithmetic and logical processes, to allow you to perform basically any function you perform on your computer. The control unit takes charge in controlling where and when information is transferred to and from the CPU. When information leaves the control unit, it is usually sent to the ALU/FPU where it can be converted into a process. The prefetch unit, as its name implies, fetches data before it is needed. It uses a sequence of processes to guess what information will be needed next, and have it readily available before the time it needed. Other components of the CPU include the cache, the decode unit, and the bus interface unit. The cache serves as high-speed memory for instructions that the CPU would like to access faster, in other words instructions that the CPU would rather avoid retrieving from RAM or the hard drive. The decode unit, just as it sounds, decodes instructions. Once the prefetch unit fetches data, the data goes through the decode unit so the instructions can be understood by the control unit. The bus interface unit allows communication between the the core and other CPU components. Think of it as literally a bus, taking information from one place and transporting it somewhere else. How the CPU Works The Internal Clock Every computer actually has two different clocks. One is the virtual or system clock that runs and is displayed whenever the computer is on and running. The other is a real-time clock or hardware clock that runs continuously, and is responsible for tracking the correct time and day. This device does not count time in days and hours for example. Instead it just runs a counter at times per second. As far as the century goes, it is the job of the BIOS, the Basic Input-Output System, to track this and save it in the non-volatile memory of the hardware clock. These two clocks run independently on each other. The system clock is physically a small quartz crystal that can be found on the motherboard. It also helps synchronize all computer functions by sending out signals- or cycles- on a regular basis to all parts, much like a person’s heartbeat. Hertz is the unit of measure used to count the number of cycles per second. For example, one megahertz is one million ticks of the system clock. This clock is very important to the CPU because the higher the CPU clock speed, the more instructions per second it could process. Since the entire system is tied to the speed of the system clock, increasing the system clock speed is usually more important than increasing the processor speed. PCs in the past only had one unified system clock with a single clock, which drove the processor, memory, and input/output bus. However, as technology advanced, the need for a higher speed, and thus multiple clocks, arose. Therefore, a typical modern PC now has multiple clocks, all running at different speeds to enable any data to “travel” around the PC. Furthermore, two CPUs with the same clock speed will not necessarily perform equally. For instance, if an old microprocessor required 20 cycles to perform a simple arithmetic equation, a newer microprocessor can perform the same calculation in a single clock tick. Therefore, even if both processors had the same clock speed, the newer processor would be a lot faster than the old. As mentioned previously, a CPU serves as a great example for the synchronization that the system clock performs. To synchronize, most CPUs start an operation on either the falling edge, when the clock goes from one to zero, or the rising edge, when the clock goes from zero to one. All devices, such as a CPU, synchronized with the system clocks run at either the system clock speed or at a fraction of the system clock speed; therefore, the CPU is unable to perform tasks any faster than the clock. For example, during each system clock tick, a CPU clock speed of 2 GHz allows the CPU clock to “tick” 10 times, executing one or more pieces of microcode. This ability to process multiple pieces of microcode at one time is known as superscalar. The Machine Cycle A machine cycle is a term often used when discussing the clock. It has four main parts- fetch, decode, execute, and store. The machine cycle occurs whenever a CPU processes a single piece of microcode. The fetch operation requires the program instruction to be fetched from either the cache or RAM, respectively. Next, the instructions are decoded so that the ALU or FPU can understand it, known as the decode operation. Then, the execute operation occurs when the instructions are carried out. Finally, the data or result from the ALU or FPU operations is stored in the CPU’s registers for later retrieval, known as the store operation. A fifth possible step in the cycle is the register write back operation, which occurs in certain CPUs. The RISC CPU, which stands for reduced instruction set computer processing unit, is an example that uses the fifth step of the machine cycle. Machine cycles can only process a single piece of microcode, which forces simple instructions, like addition or multiplication, to require more than one machine cycle. In order to make computers faster, a system known as pipelining has been created. Originally, one machine cycle would have to finish processing a single instruction before another instruction could be carried out through a second machine cycle. With pipelining, as soon as an instruction passes through one operation of the machine cycle, a second instruction can start that operation. For example, after one instruction is fetched and moves on to decoding, the CPU can fetch a second instruction. This invention allows for multiple machine cycles to be carried out at the same time, which boosts the performance of the computer. Also, because of how fast the CPU can work with pipelining, it can be measured in millions of instructions per second. Typical CPU Components (continued) To round up the simplified inventory of a CPU's guts, we have the decode unit, the registers and internal cache memory, and the bus interface unit. Of the remaining three sections of a CPU, the decode unit is easiest to understand because its job immediately follows the job of the prefetch unit. After the prefetch unit collects the data, the decode unit decodes the data into a language that is easier for the ALU/FPU to understand. It does that by consulting a ROM memory that exists inside the CPU, called microcode. The registers are used during processing; they're groups of high-speed memory located within the CPU that can be accessed by the ALU and FPU, or for other assorted optimization purposes. While the registers provide the fastest speed of memory, their space is extremely limited. In the cases where the small register space isn't good enough, there are the caches to save the day. The cache is used by the CPU for memory which is being accessed repeatedly, speeding up the access time and having a slightly larger storage than the register. The bus interface unit does exactly what it sounds like; it buses the data back and forth, connecting the core of the CPU to interact with other components. Another aspect of the CPU is improving processing performance. In the past most CPUs designed for desktop computers had only one single core, so the only way to improve performance was to increase the speed of the CPU; however, increasing the speed also caused the CPU to heat up. So now a days CPU have multiple cores in order to increase the performance. In an article by Sebastian Anthony on Extreme Tech on September 10, 2014 he explains how the new Apple iPhone 6 CPU will be able to perform faster. The new Apple iPhone is going to have a new A8 SoC. It is going to have more transistors, which if you recall, are small devices made of semiconductor material that acts like a switch to open and close electrical circuits. This new A8 chip will have about 2 million transistors according to the article Mr. Anthony wrote. Mr. Anthony states, “The A8 SoC will, according to Apple, be about 25% faster than its predecessor in CPU tasks.” As of now, this information is coming from graphs and information that Apple has shared. The thing to know and realize is that companies are constantly striving to improve performance and reworking the architecture of the CPU can improve the performance. Improving the Performance of Your Computer Add More Memory and Buy a Larger or Second Hard Drive When it comes to technology, there is no question that newer is better. New systems are able to process faster, store more, and run more applications at once. However, it is obviously not within everybody’s means to just run out and purchase the newest and greatest technology the minute it hits the market. Technology is expensive, and therefore it is important to know your options. For example, if you have a computer that is a couple of years old, it is not unreasonable to assume that the hard drive and memory on the system are starting to slow down. However, what many people may not know is that buying a new computer is not the only solution to the problem. You can add memory to your old system simply by purchasing a new memory card and installing it into the computer hardware. By doing this, you are saving money and buying yourself a little bit more time with the computer. Another way to speed up your computer with out having to invest in a whole new one is by buying a second hard drive. When the original hard drive starts to fill up, one can simply purchase either an internal or external hard drive for the computer and drastically increase the operating speed. Upgrade To A Solid-State Drive Since solid-state drives (SSDs) are hard drives that use flash memory technology instead of hard disk platters they have no moving parts. They also no longer make noise, consume less power thus generating less heat, and are much faster than hard drives. Since they are much faster than hard drives, the performance of the computer would also be improved. Running programs, opening files, saving things to the disk, even browsing the web will be much faster. Also with a mechanical hard drive, physical heads have to move around to read data from the disk while in a solid-state drive data can be read and written on any location thus there is no penalty in performance. Not only are solid-state drives faster but they have also become less expensive that upgrading to them is much more affordable and reasonable. Even further, installing solid-state drives is not too difficult or complex. It is basically the same as installing regular hard drives. Also if the decision of upgrading to solid-state drives seems a little too final, it is possible to just add a solid-state drive alongside the hard drive. Thus not only having more space, but also having the ability to keep the old mechanical drive. Upgrade Your Internet Connection If your system seems to be running poorly while using the internet, you may have to upgrade your internet connection. Upgrading your internet connection may become more costly but there is a significant change in the processor. Your first step would be to discuss any upgrades or check if the provider needs to be enhanced in any way. Then find a browser that is suitable for your connection type. With that being stated, you can change the settings on the router in order to speed up the internet connection. In order to prevent your internet connection becoming slower, it’s highly suggested to have a password in order to access the internet. In addition, every computer owner should provide maintenance to their computer in order to prevent viruses or any bugs the computer may receive but it also prevents an internet connection from being slow. In order to do so, keep up with upgrading and cleaning the computer because the more the computer is trying to maintain, the slower the internet connection may become. In order for computers to operate at their maximum efficiency, users must be aware of the importance of system maintenance because, over a period of time, one may notice a reduction in system performance. This can be attributed to a number of common factors that lead to the degradation in performance. One major reason is hard drive fragmentation. As more programs are installed onto the hard drive, the pieces of the files that are on those programs take longer to be located. The longer pieces of the program become shorter and fragmented, leading to a longer waiting period for the user as the computer searches for these scattered pieces. Related to this, although not nearly as detrimental to system performance as fragmentation, is the cluttering of pieces and references to uninstalled programs in the operating system. For Windows users, this occurs in the Registry. After the user uninstalls a program, there are references to that program left behind in the Registry that can possibly impact performance. However, performance is not necessarily the issue here. For example if the user is going to update the system by switching from an Nvidia graphics card to an AMD one, it might be a good idea to not only uninstall all drivers and related programs but also to clean the Registry of any references to the Nvidia drivers and software (in order to avoid possible conflicts when the AMD card is installed). This will ensure a “clean” install of both the hardware and software components. A free registry cleaner utility one can use is CCleaner. Temporary files (e.g. from web browsers and installation programs) can take up valuable storage space if they are not removed after extended periods of times. Also, users should be aware of the programs they are installing and decide which specific programs are to run at startup. Too many programs can slow down the initial startup time of the computer because it must launch program after program. Only those programs that are necessary should be included, and to check for this, click Start (in the lower-left Windows icon) and enter the command msconfig in the search tab. This will open the System Configuration window. Programs that run at startup are listed under the Startup tab. Here the user can enable or disable programs, which can affect startup time. Another important factor in determining system performance is the corruption of system files by malware. Viruses, worms, trojans, spyware, and other forms of malware can infect a system by various means, so it is important for the user to be aware and defensive. Anti-virus programs and other security software provide protection from malware, so it is recommended that a user has some sort of program installed and regularly scans the system for any traces. Lastly, dust can accumulate in and on heatsink fans (e.g. processor and graphics card), case fans, ports, power supplies, and motherboards. Every internal component can accumulate dust, and this can be a major issue for system integrity because dust acts as an insulator by trapping heat. Fans with too much dust do not operate efficiently because the fins do not spin quickly, which further exacerbates the heating problem. Not only that, but dust can also cause electrical shorting of the circuits, which can irreversibly damage components. To clean the computer, power off the system, which includes turning off the power supply. It should not be connected to any source. Then open the case and use a can of compressed air to blow out the dust wherever it may be. The goal is to rid the case of any remnants of dust. Following this and the other tips listed above will help ensure reliable performance and a longer lifespan for the computer. The challenge of making computers faster and more efficient has brought new ideas to the table of technology. One such idea is nanotechnology, which uses microscopic components only nanometers in length. Carbon nanotubes are already being used in technology today in products such as lithium ion batteries because of their great performance conducting electricity. Other nanotechnology includes nanoparticles and nanosensors. Another idea that has received increased recent attention is quantum computing. These computer’s go beyond regular computers’ binary system using qubits, which can be either a 1, a 0, or both simultaneously. Although these computers are only able to perform seemingly simple tasks like sudoku puzzles as of recently, their potential is outrageous for tasks such as encryption. Optical computing is another form of future technology which uses light waves to transfer data. Since the in fared beams do not interfere with each other, optical computers can be much smaller and more efficient that electronic computers. In fact, once optical computers have been mastered the computers will be able to process information at the speed of light using very little power at all. In years to come, the extraordinary power of supercomputers is predicted to be available in more common computers using technology like terascale computing to process at incredible speeds. Application Software: Programs that enable users to perform specific tasks on a computer, such as writing letters or playing games. Computer: A programmable, electronic device that accepts data input, performs processing operations on that data, and outputs and stores the results. Data: Raw, unorganized facts. Information: Data that has been processed into a meaningful form. Computer Network: A collection of computers and other hardware devices that are connected together to share hardware, software, and data, as well as to communicate electronically with one another. Hardware: The physical parts of a computer system, such as the keyboard, monitor, printer, and so forth. Internet Appliance: A specialized network computer designed primarily for Internet access and/or e-mail exchange. Operating System: The main component of system software that enables a computer to operate, manage its activities and the resources under its control, run application programs, and interface with the user. Output: The process of presenting the results of processing; can also refer to the results themselves. Software: The instructions, also called computer programs, that are used to tell a computer what it should do. Storage: The operation of saving data, programs, or output for future use. URL: An Internet address (usually beginning with http://) that uniquely identifies a Web page. Web browser: A program used to view Web pages. World Wide Web (WWW): The collection of Web pages available through the Internet. Web server: A computer that is continually connected to the Internet and hosts Web pages that are accessible through the Internet. 1) What is the key element of the CPU? 2) What are the connectors located on the exterior of the system unit that are used to connect external hardware devices? 3) What is an electronic path over which data travels? 4) _________ are locations on the motherboard into which _________ can be inserted to connect those cards to the motherboard. 5) What is used to store the essential parts of the operating system while the computer is running? 6) The ______________________ consists of a variety of circuitry and components that are packaged together and connected directly to the motherboard 7) A _________ is a thin board containing computer chips and other electronic components. 8) The main circuit board inside the system unit is called the ___________ . 9) Before a computer can execute any program instruction, such as requesting input from the user, moving a file from one storage device to another, or opening a new window on the screen, it must convert the instruction into a binary code known as ____________. 10) In order to synchronize all of a computer's operations, a __________ is used. 1) Transistor 2) Ports 3) Bus 4) Expansion slots, Expansion cards 5) RAM 6) Central Processing Unit 7) Circuit Board 8) Motherboard 9) Machine Language 10) System Clock
Skills to Develop - Describe the unique anatomical and morphological features of flatworms, rotifers, Nemertea, mollusks, and annelids - Describe the development of an extracoelomic cavity - Discuss the advantages of true body segmentation - Explain the key features of Platyhelminthes and their importance as parasites - Describe the features of animals classified in phylum Annelida Animals belonging to superphylum Lophotrochozoa are protostomes, in which the blastopore, or the point of involution of the ectoderm or outer germ layer, becomes the mouth opening to the alimentary canal. This is called protostomy or “first mouth.” In protostomy, solid groups of cells split from the endoderm or inner germ layer to form a central mesodermal layer of cells. This layer multiplies into a band and then splits internally to form the coelom; this protostomic coelom is hence termed schizocoelom. As lophotrochozoans, the organisms in this superphylum possess either a lophophore or trochophore larvae. The lophophores include groups that are united by the presence of the lophophore, a set of ciliated tentacles surrounding the mouth. Lophophorata include the flatworms and several other phyla. These clades are upheld when RNA sequences are compared. Trochophore larvae are characterized by two bands of cilia around the body. The lophotrochozoans are triploblastic and possess an embryonic mesoderm sandwiched between the ectoderm and endoderm found in the diploblastic cnidarians. These phyla are also bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that a longitudinal section will divide them into right and left sides that are symmetrical. It also means the beginning of cephalization, the evolution of a concentration of nervous tissues and sensory organs in the head of the organism, which is where it first encounters its environment. The flatworms are acoelomate organisms that include many free-living and parasitic forms. Most of the flatworms are classified in the superphylum Lophotrochozoa, which also includes the mollusks and annelids. The Platyhelminthes consist of two lineages: the Catenulida and the Rhabditophora. The Catenulida, or "chain worms" is a small clade of just over 100 species. These worms typically reproduce asexually by budding. However, the offspring do not fully attach from the parents and, resemble a chain in appearance. All of the remaining flatworms discussed here are part of the Rhabditophora. Many flatworms are parasitic, including important parasites of humans. Flatworms have three embryonic tissue layers that give rise to surfaces that cover tissues (from ectoderm), internal tissues (from mesoderm), and line the digestive system (from endoderm). The epidermal tissue is a single layer cells or a layer of fused cells (syncytium) that covers a layer of circular muscle above a layer of longitudinal muscle. The mesodermal tissues include mesenchymal cells that contain collagen and support secretory cells that secrete mucus and other materials at the surface. The flatworms are acoelomates, so their bodies are solid between the outer surface and the cavity of the digestive system. Physiological Processes of Flatworms The free-living species of flatworms are predators or scavengers. Parasitic forms feed on the tissues of their hosts. Most flatworms, such as the planarian shown in Figure 28.3.1, have a gastrovascular cavity rather than a complete digestive system. In such animals, the “mouth” is also used to expel waste materials from the digestive system. Some species also have an anal opening. The gut may be a simple sac or highly branched. Digestion is extracellular, with digested materials taken in to the cells of the gut lining by phagocytosis. One group, the cestodes, lacks a digestive system. Flatworms have an excretory system with a network of tubules throughout the body with openings to the environment and nearby flame cells, whose cilia beat to direct waste fluids concentrated in the tubules out of the body. The system is responsible for the regulation of dissolved salts and the excretion of nitrogenous wastes. The nervous system consists of a pair of nerve cords running the length of the body with connections between them and a large ganglion or concentration of nerves at the anterior end of the worm, where there may also be a concentration of photosensory and chemosensory cells. There is neither a circulatory nor respiratory system, with gas and nutrient exchange dependent on diffusion and cell-cell junctions. This necessarily limits the thickness of the body in these organisms, constraining them to be “flat” worms. Most flatworm species are monoecious, and fertilization is typically internal. Asexual reproduction is common in some groups. Figure 28.3.1: The planarian is a flatworm that has a gastrovascular cavity with one opening that serves as both mouth and anus. The excretory system is made up of tubules connected to excretory pores on both sides of the body. The nervous system is composed of two interconnected nerve cords running the length of the body, with cerebral ganglia and eyespots at the anterior end. Diversity of Flatworms Platyhelminthes are traditionally divided into four classes: Turbellaria, Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda (Figure 28.3.2). As discussed above, the relationships among members of these classes is being reassessed, with the turbellarians in particular now viewed as a paraphyletic group, a group that does not have a single common ancestor. Figure 28.3.2: Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into four classes. (a) Class Turbellaria includes the Bedford’s flatworm (Pseudobiceros bedfordi), which is about 8–10 cm in length. (b) The parasitic class Monogenea includes Dactylogyrus spp. Dactylogyrus, commonly called a gill fluke, is about 0.2 mm in length and has two anchors, indicated by arrows, that it uses to latch onto the gills of host fish. (c) The Trematoda class includes Fascioloides magna (right) and Fasciaola hepatica (two specimens of left, also known as the common liver fluke). (d) Class Cestoda includes tapeworms such as this Taenia saginata. T. saginata, which infects both cattle and humans, can reach 4–10 meters in length; the specimen shown here is about 4 meters. (credit a: modification of work by Jan Derk; credit d: modification of work by CDC) The class Turbellaria includes mainly free-living, marine species, although some species live in freshwater or moist terrestrial environments. The ventral epidermis of turbellarians is ciliated and facilitates their locomotion. Some turbellarians are capable of remarkable feats of regeneration in which they may regrow the body, even from a small fragment. The monogeneans are ectoparasites, mostly of fish, with simple lifecycles that consist of a free-swimming larva that attaches to a fish to begin transformation to the parasitic adult form. The parasite has only one host and that host is usually only one species. The worms may produce enzymes that digest the host tissues or simply graze on surface mucus and skin particles. Most monogeneans are hermaphroditic, but the male gametes develop first and so cross-fertilization is quite common. The trematodes, or flukes, are internal parasites of mollusks and many other groups, including humans. Trematodes have complex lifecycles that involve a primary host in which sexual reproduction occurs, and one or more secondary hosts in which asexual reproduction occurs. The primary host is almost always a mollusk. Trematodes are responsible for serious human diseases including schistosomiasis, a blood fluke. The disease infects an estimated 200 million people in the tropics, leading to organ damage and chronic symptoms like fatigue. Infection occurs when the human enters the water and a larva, released from the primary snail host, locates and penetrates the skin. The parasite infects various organs in the body and feeds on red blood cells before reproducing. Many of the eggs are released in feces and find their way into a waterway, where they are able to reinfect the primary snail host. The cestodes, or tapeworms, are also internal parasites, mainly of vertebrates (Figure 28.3.3). Tapeworms live in the intestinal tract of the primary host and remain fixed using a sucker on the anterior end, or scolex, of the tapeworm body. The remaining body of the tapeworm is made up of a long series of units called proglottids, each of which may contain an excretory system with flame cells, but contain reproductive structures, both male and female. Tapeworms do not possess a digestive system; instead, they absorb nutrients from the food matter passing them in the host’s intestine. Proglottids are produced at the scolex and gradually migrate to the end of the tapeworm; at this point, they are “mature” and all structures except fertilized eggs have degenerated. Most reproduction occurs by cross-fertilization. The proglottid detaches from the body of the worm and is released into the feces of the organism. The eggs are eaten by an intermediate host. The juvenile worm infects the intermediate host and takes up residence, usually in muscle tissue. When the muscle tissue is eaten by the primary host, the cycle is completed. There are several tapeworm parasites of humans that are transmitted by eating uncooked or poorly cooked pork, beef, and fish. Figure 28.3.3: Tapeworm (Taenia spp.) infections occur when humans consume raw or undercooked infected meat. (credit: modification of work by CDC) The rotifers are a microscopic (about 100 µm to 30 mm) group of mostly aquatic organisms that get their name from the corona, a rotating, wheel-like structure that is covered with cilia at their anterior end (Figure 28.3.4). Although their taxonomy is currently in flux, one treatment places the rotifers in three classes: Bdelloidea, Monogononta, and Seisonidea. The classification of the group is currently under revision, however, as more phylogenetic evidence becomes available. It is possible that the “spiny headed worms” currently in phylum Acanthocephala will be incorporated into this group in the future. The body form of rotifers consists of a head (which contains the corona), a trunk (which contains the organs), and the foot. Rotifers are typically free-swimming and truly planktonic organisms, but the toes or extensions of the foot can secrete a sticky material forming a holdfast to help them adhere to surfaces. The head contains sensory organs in the form of a bi-lobed brain and small eyespots near the corona. Figure 28.3.4: Shown are examples from two of the three classes of rotifer. (a) Species from the class Bdelloidea are characterized by a large corona, shown separately from the whole animals in the center of this scanning electron micrograph. (b) Polyarthra, from the class Monogononta, has a smaller corona than Bdelloid rotifers, and a single gonad, which give the class its name. (credit a: modification of work by Diego Fontaneto; credit b: modification of work by U.S. EPA; scale-bar data from Cory Zanker) The rotifers are filter feeders that will eat dead material, algae, and other microscopic living organisms, and are therefore very important components of aquatic food webs. Rotifers obtain food that is directed toward the mouth by the current created from the movement of the corona. The food particles enter the mouth and travel to the mastax (pharynx with jaw-like structures). Food then passes by digestive and salivary glands, and into the stomach, then onto the intestines. Digestive and excretory wastes are collected in a cloacal bladder before being released out the anus. Watch this video to see rotifers feeding. Rotifers are pseudocoelomates commonly found in fresh water and some salt water environments throughout the world. Figure 28.3.5 shows the anatomy of a rotifer belonging to class Bdelloidea. About 2,200 species of rotifers have been identified. Rotifers are dioecious organisms (having either male or female genitalia) and exhibit sexual dimorphism (males and females have different forms). Many species are parthenogenic and exhibit haplodiploidy, a method of gender determination in which a fertilized egg develops into a female and an unfertilized egg develops into a male. In many dioecious species, males are short-lived and smaller with no digestive system and a single testis. Females can produce eggs that are capable of dormancy for protection during harsh environmental conditions. Figure 28.3.5: This illustration shows the anatomy of a bdelloid rotifer. The Nemertea are colloquially known as ribbon worms. Most species of phylum Nemertea are marine, predominantly benthic or bottom dwellers, with an estimated 900 species known. However, nemertini have been recorded in freshwater and terrestrial habitats as well. Most nemerteans are carnivores, feeding on worms, clams, and crustaceans. Some species are scavengers, and some nemertini species, like Malacobdella grossa, have also evolved commensalistic relationships with some mollusks. Some species have devastated commercial fishing of clams and crabs. Nemerteans have almost no predators and two species are sold as fish bait. Ribbon worms vary in size from 1 cm to several meters. They show bilateral symmetry and remarkable contractile properties. Because of their contractility, they can change their morphological presentation in response to environmental cues. Animals in phylum Nemertea show a flattened morphology, that is, they are flat from front to back, like a flattened tube. Nemertea are soft and unsegmented animals (Figure 28.3.6). Figure 28.3.6: The proboscis worm (Parborlasia corrugatus) is a scavenger that combs the sea floor for food. The species is a member of the phylum Nemertea. The specimen shown here was photographed in the Ross Sea, Antarctica. (credit: Henry Kaiser, National Science Foundation) A unique characteristic of this phylum is the presence of a proboscis enclosed in a rhynchocoel. The proboscis serves to capture food and may be ornamented with barbs in some species. The rhynchocoel is a fluid-filled cavity that extends from the head to nearly two-thirds of the length of the gut in these animals (Figure 28.3.7). The proboscis may be extended or retracted by the retractor muscle attached to the wall of the rhynchocoel. Figure 28.3.7: The anatomy of a Nemertean is shown. Watch this video to see a nemertean attack a polychaete with its proboscis. The nemertini show a very well-developed digestive system. A mouth opening that is ventral to the rhynchocoel leads into the foregut, followed by the intestine. The intestine is present in the form of diverticular pouches and ends in a rectum that opens via an anus. Gonads are interspersed with the intestinal diverticular pouches and open outwards via genital pores. A circulatory system consists of a closed loop of a pair of lateral blood vessels. The circulatory system is derived from the coelomic cavity of the embryo. Some animals may also have cross-connecting vessels in addition to lateral ones. Although these are called blood vessels, since they are of coelomic origin, the circulatory fluid is colorless. Some species bear hemoglobin as well as other yellow or green pigments. The blood vessels are connected to the rhynchocoel. The flow of fluid in these vessels is facilitated by the contraction of muscles in the body wall. A pair of protonephridia, or primitive kidneys, is present in these animals to facilitate osmoregulation. Gaseous exchange occurs through the skin in the nemertini. Nemertini have a ganglion or “brain” situated at the anterior end between the mouth and the foregut, surrounding the digestive system as well as the rhynchocoel. A ring of four nerve masses called “ganglia” composes the brain in these animals. Paired longitudinal nerve cords emerge from the brain ganglia and extend to the posterior end. Ocelli or eyespots are present in pairs, in multiples of two in the anterior portion of the body. It is speculated that the eyespots originate from neural tissue and not from the epidermis. Animals in phylum Nemertea show sexual dimorphism, although freshwater species may be hermaphroditic. Eggs and sperm are released into the water, and fertilization occurs externally. The zygote then develops into a planuliform larva. In some nemertine species, a pilidium larva may develop inside the young worm, from a series of imaginal discs. This larval form, characteristically shaped like a deerstalker cap, devours tissues from the young worm for survival before metamorphosing into the adult-like morphology. Phylum Mollusca is the predominant phylum in marine environments. It is estimated that 23 percent of all known marine species are mollusks; there are over 75,000 described species, making them the second most diverse phylum of animals. The name “mollusca” signifies a soft body, since the earliest descriptions of mollusks came from observations of unshelled cuttlefish. Mollusks are predominantly a marine group of animals; however, they are known to inhabit freshwater as well as terrestrial habitats. Mollusks display a wide range of morphologies in each class and subclass, but share a few key characteristics, including a muscular foot, a visceral mass containing internal organs, and a mantle that may or may not secrete a shell of calcium carbonate (Figure 28.3.8). Figure 28.3.8: There are many species and variations of mollusks; this illustration shows the anatomy of an aquatic gastropod. Which of the following statements about the anatomy of a mollusk is false? - Mollusks have a radula for grinding food. - A digestive gland is connected to the stomach. - The tissue beneath the shell is called the mantle. - The digestive system includes a gizzard, a stomach, a digestive gland, and the intestine. Mollusks have a muscular foot, which is used for locomotion and anchorage, and varies in shape and function, depending on the type of mollusk under study. In shelled mollusks, this foot is usually the same size as the opening of the shell. The foot is a retractable as well as an extendable organ. The foot is the ventral-most organ, whereas the mantle is the limiting dorsal organ. Mollusks are eucoelomate, but the coelomic cavity is restricted to a cavity around the heart in adult animals. The mantle cavity develops independently of the coelomic cavity. The visceral mass is present above the foot, in the visceral hump. This includes digestive, nervous, excretory, reproductive, and respiratory systems. Mollusk species that are exclusively aquatic have gills for respiration, whereas some terrestrial species have lungs for respiration. Additionally, a tongue-like organ called a radula, which bears chitinous tooth-like ornamentation, is present in many species, and serves to shred or scrape food. The mantle (also known as the pallium) is the dorsal epidermis in mollusks; shelled mollusks are specialized to secrete a chitinous and hard calcareous shell. Most mollusks are dioecious animals and fertilization occurs externally, although this is not the case in terrestrial mollusks, such as snails and slugs, or in cephalopods. In some mollusks, the zygote hatches and undergoes two larval stages—trochophore and veliger—before becoming a young adult; bivalves may exhibit a third larval stage, glochidia. Classification of Phylum Mollusca Phylum Mollusca is a very diverse (85,000 species) group of mostly marine species. Mollusks have a dramatic variety of form, ranging from large predatory squids and octopus, some of which show a high degree of intelligence, to grazing forms with elaborately sculpted and colored shells. This phylum can be segregated into seven classes: Aplacophora, Monoplacophora, Polyplacophora, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, and Scaphopoda. Class Aplacophora (“bearing no plates”) includes worm-like animals primarily found in benthic marine habitats. These animals lack a calcareous shell but possess aragonite spicules on their epidermis. They have a rudimentary mantle cavity and lack eyes, tentacles, and nephridia (excretory organs). Members of class Monoplacophora (“bearing one plate”) posses a single, cap-like shell that encloses the body. The morphology of the shell and the underlying animal can vary from circular to ovate. A looped digestive system, multiple pairs of excretory organs, many gills, and a pair of gonads are present in these animals. The monoplacophorans were believed extinct and only known via fossil records until the discovery of Neopilina galathaea in 1952. Today, scientists have identified nearly two dozen extant species. Animals in the class Polyplacophora (“bearing many plates”) are commonly known as “chitons” and bear an armor-like eight-plated shell (Figure 28.3.9). These animals have a broad, ventral foot that is adapted for suction to rocks and other substrates, and a mantle that extends beyond the shell in the form of a girdle. Calcareous spines may be present on the girdle to offer protection from predators. Respiration is facilitated by ctenidia (gills) that are present ventrally. These animals possess a radula that is modified for scraping. The nervous system is rudimentary with only buccal or “cheek” ganglia present at the anterior end. Eyespots are absent in these animals. A single pair of nephridia for excretion is present. Figure 28.3.9: This chiton from the class Polyplacaphora has the eight-plated shell that is indicative of its class. (credit: Jerry Kirkhart) Class Bivalvia (“two shells”) includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and geoducks. Members of this class are found in marine as well as freshwater habitats. As the name suggests, bivalves are enclosed in a pair of shells (valves are commonly called “shells”) that are hinged at the dorsal end by shell ligaments as well as shell teeth (Figure 28.3.10). The overall morphology is laterally flattened, and the head region is poorly developed. Eyespots and statocysts may be absent in some species. Since these animals are suspension feeders, a radula is absent in this class of mollusks. Respiration is facilitated by a pair of ctenidia, whereas excretion and osmoregulation are brought about by a pair of nephridia. Bivalves often possess a large mantle cavity. In some species, the posterior edges of the mantle may fuse to form two siphons that serve to take in and exude water. Figure 28.3.10: These mussels, found in the intertidal zone in Cornwall, England, are bivalves. (credit: Mark A. Wilson) One of the functions of the mantle is to secrete the shell. Some bivalves like oysters and mussels possess the unique ability to secrete and deposit a calcareous nacre or “mother of pearl” around foreign particles that may enter the mantle cavity. This property has been commercially exploited to produce pearls. Animals in class Gastropoda (“stomach foot”) include well-known mollusks like snails, slugs, conchs, sea hares, and sea butterflies. Gastropoda includes shell-bearing species as well as species with a reduced shell. These animals are asymmetrical and usually present a coiled shell (Figure 28.3.11). Shells may be planospiral (like a garden hose wound up), commonly seen in garden snails, or conispiral, (like a spiral staircase), commonly seen in marine conches. Figure 28.3.11: (a) Snails and (b) slugs are both gastropods, but slugs lack a shell. (credit a: modification of work by Murray Stevenson; credit b: modification of work by Rosendahl) The visceral mass in the shelled species displays torsion around the perpendicular axis on the center of the foot, which is the key characteristic of this group, along with a foot that is modified for crawling (Figure 28.3.12). Most gastropods bear a head with tentacles, eyes, and a style. A complex radula is used by the digestive system and aids in the ingestion of food. Eyes may be absent in some gastropods species. The mantle cavity encloses the ctenidia as well as a pair of nephridia. Figure 28.3.12: During embryonic development of gastropods, the visceral mass undergoes torsion, or counterclockwise rotation of anatomical features. As a result, the anus of the adult animal is located over the head. Torsion is an independent process from coiling of the shell. Can Snail Venom Be Used as a Pharmacological Painkiller? Marine snails of the genus Conus (Figure 28.3.13) attack prey with a venomous sting. The toxin released, known as conotoxin, is a peptide with internal disulfide linkages. Conotoxins can bring about paralysis in humans, indicating that this toxin attacks neurological targets. Some conotoxins have been shown to block neuronal ion channels. These findings have led researchers to study conotoxins for possible medical applications. Conotoxins are an exciting area of potential pharmacological development, since these peptides may be possibly modified and used in specific medical conditions to inhibit the activity of specific neurons. For example, these toxins may be used to induce paralysis in muscles in specific health applications, similar to the use of botulinum toxin. Since the entire spectrum of conotoxins, as well as their mechanisms of action, are not completely known, the study of their potential applications is still in its infancy. Most research to date has focused on their use to treat neurological diseases. They have also shown some efficacy in relieving chronic pain, and the pain associated with conditions like sciatica and shingles. The study and use of biotoxins—toxins derived from living organisms—are an excellent example of the application of biological science to modern medicine. Figure 28.3.13: Members of the genus Conus produce neurotoxins that may one day have medical uses. (credit: David Burdick, NOAA) Class Cephalopoda (“head foot” animals), include octopi, squids, cuttlefish, and nautilus. Cephalopods are a class of shell-bearing animals as well as mollusks with a reduced shell. They display vivid coloration, typically seen in squids and octopi, which is used for camouflage. All animals in this class are carnivorous predators and have beak-like jaws at the anterior end. All cephalopods show the presence of a very well-developed nervous system along with eyes, as well as a closed circulatory system. The foot is lobed and developed into tentacles, and a funnel, which is used as their mode of locomotion. Suckers are present on the tentacles in octopi and squid. Ctenidia are enclosed in a large mantle cavity and are serviced by large blood vessels, each with its own heart associated with it; the mantle has siphonophores that facilitate exchange of water. Locomotion in cephalopods is facilitated by ejecting a stream of water for propulsion. This is called “jet” propulsion. A pair of nephridia is present within the mantle cavity. Sexual dimorphism is seen in this class of animals. Members of a species mate, and the female then lays the eggs in a secluded and protected niche. Females of some species care for the eggs for an extended period of time and may end up dying during that time period. Cephalopods such as squids and octopi also produce sepia or a dark ink, which is squirted upon a predator to assist in a quick getaway. Reproduction in cephalopods is different from other mollusks in that the egg hatches to produce a juvenile adult without undergoing the trochophore and veliger larval stages. In the shell-bearing Nautilus spp., the spiral shell is multi-chambered. These chambers are filled with gas or water to regulate buoyancy. The shell structure in squids and cuttlefish is reduced and is present internally in the form of a squid pen and cuttlefish bone, respectively. Examples are shown in Figure 28.3.14. Figure 28.3.14: The (a) nautilus, (b) giant cuttlefish, (c) reef squid, and (d) blue-ring octopus are all members of the class Cephalopoda. (credit a: modification of work by J. Baecker; credit b: modification of work by Adrian Mohedano; credit c: modification of work by Silke Baron; credit d: modification of work by Angell Williams) Members of class Scaphopoda (“boat feet”) are known colloquially as “tusk shells” or “tooth shells,” as evident when examining Dentalium, one of the few remaining scaphopod genera (Figure 28.3.15). Scaphopods are usually buried in sand with the anterior opening exposed to water. These animals bear a single conical shell, which has both ends open. The head is rudimentary and protrudes out of the posterior end of the shell. These animals do not possess eyes, but they have a radula, as well as a foot modified into tentacles with a bulbous end, known as captaculae. Captaculae serve to catch and manipulate prey. Ctenidia are absent in these animals. Figure 28.3.15: Antalis vulgaris shows the classic Dentaliidae shape that gives these animals their common name of "tusk shell." (credit: Georges Jansoone) Phylum Annelida includes segmented worms. These animals are found in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater habitats, but a presence of water or humidity is a critical factor for their survival, especially in terrestrial habitats. The name of the phylum is derived from the Latin word annellus, which means a small ring. Animals in this phylum show parasitic and commensal symbioses with other species in their habitat. Approximately 16,500 species have been described in phylum Annelida. The phylum includes earthworms, polychaete worms, and leeches. Annelids show protostomic development in embryonic stages and are often called “segmented worms” due to their key characteristic of metamerism, or true segmentation. Annelids display bilateral symmetry and are worm-like in overall morphology. Annelids have a segmented body plan wherein the internal and external morphological features are repeated in each body segment. Metamerism allows animals to become bigger by adding “compartments” while making their movement more efficient. This metamerism is thought to arise from identical teloblast cells in the embryonic stage, which give rise to identical mesodermal structures. The overall body can be divided into head, body, and pygidium (or tail). The clitellum is a reproductive structure that generates mucus that aids in sperm transfer and gives rise to a cocoon within which fertilization occurs; it appears as a fused band in the anterior third of the animal (Figure 28.3.16). Figure 28.3.16: The clitellum, seen here as a protruding segment with different coloration than the rest of the body, is a structure that aids in annelid reproduction. (credit: Rob Hille) The epidermis is protected by an acellular, external cuticle, but this is much thinner than the cuticle found in the ecdysozoans and does not require periodic shedding for growth. Circular as well as longitudinal muscles are located interior to the epidermis. Chitinous hairlike extensions, anchored in the epidermis and projecting from the cuticle, called setae/chaetae are present in every segment. Annelids show the presence of a true coelom, derived from embryonic mesoderm and protostomy. Hence, they are the most advanced worms. A well-developed and complete digestive system is present in earthworms (oligochaetes) with a mouth, muscular pharynx, esophagus, crop, and gizzard being present. The gizzard leads to the intestine and ends in an anal opening. A cross-sectional view of a body segment of an earthworm (a terrestrial type of annelid) is shown in Figure 28.3.17; each segment is limited by a membranous septum that divides the coelomic cavity into a series of compartments. Annelids possess a closed circulatory system of dorsal and ventral blood vessels that run parallel to the alimentary canal as well as capillaries that service individual tissues. In addition, these vessels are connected by transverse loops in every segment. These animals lack a well-developed respiratory system, and gas exchange occurs across the moist body surface. Excretion is facilitated by a pair of metanephridia (a type of primitive “kidney” that consists of a convoluted tubule and an open, ciliated funnel) that is present in every segment towards the ventral side. Annelids show well-developed nervous systems with a nerve ring of fused ganglia present around the pharynx. The nerve cord is ventral in position and bears enlarged nodes or ganglia in each segment. Figure 28.3.17: This schematic drawing shows the basic anatomy of annelids in a cross-sectional view. Annelids may be either monoecious with permanent gonads (as in earthworms and leeches) or dioecious with temporary or seasonal gonads that develop (as in polychaetes). However, cross-fertilization is preferred in hermaphroditic animals. These animals may also show simultaneous hermaphroditism and participate in simultaneous sperm exchange when they are aligned for copulation. This combination video and animation provides a close-up look at annelid anatomy. Classification of Phylum Annelida Phylum Annelida contains the class Polychaeta (the polychaetes) and the class Oligochaeta (the earthworms, leeches and their relatives). Earthworms are the most abundant members of the class Oligochaeta, distinguished by the presence of the clitellum as well as few, reduced chaetae (“oligo- = “few”; -chaetae = “hairs”). The number and size of chaetae are greatly diminished in Oligochaeta compared to the polychaetes (poly=many, chaetae = hairs). The many chetae of polychaetes are also arranged within fleshy, flat, paired appendages that protrude from each segment called parapodia, which may be specialized for different functions in the polychates. The subclass Hirudinea includes leeches such as Hirudo medicinalis and Hemiclepsis marginata. The class Oligochaeta includes the subclass Hirudinia and the subclass Brachiobdella. A significant difference between leeches and other annelids is the development of suckers at the anterior and posterior ends and a lack of chaetae. Additionally, the segmentation of the body wall may not correspond to the internal segmentation of the coelomic cavity. This adaptation possibly helps the leeches to elongate when they ingest copious quantities of blood from host vertebrates. The subclass Brachiobdella includes species like Branchiobdella balcanica sketi and Branchiobdella astaci, worms that show similarity with leeches as well as oligochaetes. Figure 28.3.18: The (a) earthworm, (b) leech, and (c) featherduster are all annelids. (credit a: modification of work by S. Shepherd; credit b: modification of work by “Sarah G...”/Flickr; credit c: modification of work by Chris Gotschalk, NOAA) Phylum Annelida includes vermiform, segmented animals. Segmentation is seen in internal anatomy as well, which is called metamerism. Annelids are protostomes. These animals have well-developed neuronal and digestive systems. Some species bear a specialized band of segments known as a clitellum. Annelids show the presence numerous chitinous projections termed chaetae, and polychaetes possess parapodia. Suckers are seen in order Hirudinea. Reproductive strategies include sexual dimorphism, hermaphroditism, and serial hermaphroditism. Internal segmentation is absent in class Hirudinea. Flatworms are acoelomate, triploblastic animals. They lack circulatory and respiratory systems, and have a rudimentary excretory system. This digestive system is incomplete in most species. There are four traditional classes of flatworms, the largely free-living turbellarians, the ectoparasitic monogeneans, and the endoparasitic trematodes and cestodes. Trematodes have complex lifecycles involving a molluscan secondary host and a primary host in which sexual reproduction takes place. Cestodes, or tapeworms, infect the digestive systems of primary vertebrate hosts. The rotifers are microscopic, multicellular, mostly aquatic organisms that are currently under taxonomic revision. The group is characterized by the rotating, ciliated, wheel-like structure, the corona, on their head. The mastax or jawed pharynx is another structure unique to this group of organisms. The nemertini are the simplest eucoelomates. These ribbon-shaped animals bear a specialized proboscis enclosed within a rhynchocoel. The development of a closed circulatory system derived from the coelom is a significant difference seen in this species compared to other pseudocoelomate phyla. Alimentary, nervous, and excretory systems are more developed in the nemertini than in less advanced phyla. Embryonic development of nemertine worms proceeds via a planuliform larval stage. Phylum Mollusca is a large, marine group of invertebrates. Mollusks show a variety of morphological variations within the phylum. This phylum is also distinct in that some members exhibit a calcareous shell as an external means of protection. Some mollusks have evolved a reduced shell. Mollusks are protostomes. The dorsal epidermis in mollusks is modified to form the mantle, which encloses the mantle cavity and visceral organs. This cavity is quite distinct from the coelomic cavity, which in the adult animal surrounds the heart. Respiration is facilitated by gills known as ctenidia. A chitinous-toothed tongue called the radula is present in most mollusks. Early development in some species occurs via two larval stages: trochophore and veliger. Sexual dimorphism is the predominant sexual strategy in this phylum. Mollusks can be divided into seven classes, each with distinct morphological characteristics. [link] Which of the following statements about the anatomy of a mollusk is false? - Mollusks have a radula for grinding food. - A digestive gland is connected to the stomach. - The tissue beneath the shell is called the mantle. - The digestive system includes a gizzard, a stomach, a digestive gland, and the intestine. Annelids have a: - a true coelom - no coelom - none of the above Which group of flatworms are primarily ectoparasites of fish? A mantle and mantle cavity are present in: - phylum Echinodermata - phylum Adversoidea - phylum Mollusca - phylum Nemertea The rhynchocoel is a ________. - circulatory system - fluid-filled cavity - primitive excretory system Describe the morphology and anatomy of mollusks. Mollusks have a large muscular foot that may be modified in various ways, such as into tentacles, but it functions in locomotion. They have a mantle, a structure of tissue that covers and encloses the dorsal portion of the animal, and secretes the shell when it is present. The mantle encloses the mantle cavity, which houses the gills (when present), excretory pores, anus, and gonadopores. The coelom of mollusks is restricted to the region around the systemic heart. The main body cavity is a hemocoel. Many mollusks have a radula near the mouth that is used for scraping food. What are the anatomical differences between nemertines and mollusks? Mollusks have a shell, even if it is a reduced shell. Nemertines do not have a shell. Nemertines have a proboscis; mollusks do not. Nemertines have a closed circulatory system, whereas Mollusks have an open circulatory system. - phylum of vermiform animals with metamerism - tentacle-like projection that is present in tusks shells to catch prey - specialized band of fused segments, which aids in reproduction - shell shape coiled around a horizontal axis - wheel-like structure on the anterior portion of the rotifer that contains cilia and moves food and water toward the mouth - specialized gill structure in mollusks - (also, pallium) specialized epidermis that encloses all visceral organs and secretes shells - jawed pharynx unique to the rotifers - series of body structures that are similar internally and externally, such as segments - phylum of protostomes with soft bodies and no segmentation - calcareous secretion produced by bivalves to line the inner side of shells as well as to coat intruding particulate matter - phylum of dorsoventrally flattened protostomes known as ribbon worms - fleshy, flat, appendage that protrudes in pairs from each segment of polychaetes - larval form found in some nemertine species - shell shape coiled around a vertical axis - larval form found in phylum Nemertea - tongue-like organ with chitinous ornamentation - cavity present above the mouth that houses the proboscis - coelom formed by groups of cells that split from the endodermal layer - chitinous projection from the cuticle - first of the two larval stages in mollusks - second of the two larval stages in mollusks The OpenStax College name, OpenStax College logo, OpenStax College book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the creative commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University. 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In math, a pattern is defined as a sequence of repeating objects, shapes or numbers. We can relate a pattern to any type of event or object. A pattern has a rule that tells us which objects belong to the pattern and which objects do not belong to the pattern. Let’s look at some examples of patterns: In the above image, the rule that is followed is that the circle is in the odd places and the rectangle is in the even places. So, the next figure in the pattern will be: Patterns exist all around us. We can find a pattern in the trees, in the window frames, on the floor, in our clothes, etc. One such real-life example is the zebra pattern. Patterns can be finite and infinite. A finite pattern is a finite sequence in which we know the first term and the last term. For example: In the pattern 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, the first term is 3 and the last term is 15. An infinite pattern is a sequence in which we know the first term but we don’t know the last term. For example: In the pattern 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, ………; the first term is 3 but we don’t know where the pattern is going to stop. Rules of Pattern For creating a complete pattern, a certain set of rules need to be considered. For applying these rules, we should first understand the nature of the sequence and the difference between the two consecutive numbers given in the pattern. Some amount of guesswork is required and then we check to see whether the rule works throughout the whole pattern. The patterns can be formed using three categories: The type of pattern in which the rule keeps repeating over and over is called a repeating pattern. It is generally common in letter and shape. In a growing pattern, the numbers are placed in the increasing form or each number is greater than the previous number, then the pattern is known as a growing pattern. Example: 44, 50, 56, 62, … In a shirking pattern, the numbers are placed in the decreasing form or each number is smaller than the previous number. Example: 40, 35, 30, 25 … Types of Patterns There are 3 types of pattern: - Shape Pattern - Letter Pattern - Number Pattern 1. Shape Pattern When a group of shapes are repeated, the pattern or sequence is known as a shape pattern. Shape patterns follow a certain sequence or order of shapes, i.e., they are repeated. The shapes can be simple shapes like circles, squares, rectangles, triangles, etc., or other objects such as arrows, flowers, moons, and stars. In the above pattern, the arrow is getting rotated at 90° and changes its color. Or, we can say that each colored shape is getting repeated after 2 shapes. 2. Letter Pattern A sequence that consists of letters or English alphabets is known as a letter pattern. A letter pattern establishes a common relationship between all the letters. For example: A, C, E, G, I, K, M… In the above pattern, one letter has been removed after every alphabet. 3. Number Pattern The most common type of pattern in mathematics is the number pattern, where a list of numbers follows a certain sequence based on a rule. There are different types of number patterns: Another name for arithmetic pattern is algebraic pattern. In such a pattern, the sequences are based on the addition or subtraction of the terms. If we know two or more terms in the sequence, then we can use addition or subtraction to find the arithmetic pattern. Example 1: In the pattern 65, 64, 63, 62, 61, we are subtracting the consecutive numbers by 1 or each number gets decreased by 1. Example 2: In the pattern given below: Each number is getting increased by 5. A sequence of numbers that are based on multiplication and division is known as a geometric pattern. If we are given two or more numbers in the sequence, we can easily find the unknown numbers in the pattern using multiplication and division operations. Example 1: Simran has $\$10$ as her savings in the first month. In the second month, her savings doubled. So, now she has 10 x 2= $\$$20. Again, in the third month her savings doubled. Now she has 20 x 2= $\$$40. So the pattern here is $\$$10, $\$$20, $\$$40. Example 2: In the pattern given below, each number is getting divided by 5. 3125, 625, 125, 25, 5 A sequence of numbers in which each number in the sequence is obtained by adding the two previous numbers together is known as the Fibonacci series or pattern. This sequence starts with 0 and 1. We add the two numbers to get the third number in the sequence. The sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 is the Fibonacci pattern. The pattern that is followed here is 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 1 = 2 , 1 + 2 = 3 , 2 + 3 = 5, 3 + 5 = 8. Triangular Number Pattern The representation of the numbers in the form of an equilateral triangle arranged in a series or sequence is known as a triangular number pattern. The numbers in the triangular pattern are in a sequence of 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45 and so on. The numbers in the triangular pattern are represented by dots. Also, the pattern can be described as 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 2 = 3, 3 + 3 = 6, 6 + 4 = 10, 10 + 5 = 15 and so on. Square Number Pattern In the square number pattern, each number is a square of consecutive natural numbers. The pattern is written as: $1^2,2^2,3^2,4^2,5^2$,…= 1, 4, 9, 16, 25… Also, the pattern can be 1 + 3 = 4, 4 + 5 = 9, 9 + 7 = 16, 16 + 9 = 25 and so on. Basically, we add consecutive odd numbers in the sequence. Cube Number Pattern In a cube number pattern, each number is the cube of consecutive natural numbers. The pattern is written as: $1^3,2^3,3^3,4^3,5^3$…= 1, 8, 27, 64, 125… The above number patterns are the ones that are commonly used. There are more number patterns. For example: odd number pattern, even number patterns, multiples pattern, etc. Example 1: What will be the next shape in the pattern? Solution: The pattern is 2 ovals and a square and the same pattern is being repeated. The next shape in the pattern will be an oval, i.e.: Example 2: Complete the pattern: 10, 13, 16, 19, ____, ____ So, next numbers will be 19 + 3 = 22, 22 + 3 = 25 Example 3: Complete the pattern: AB, BC, CD, DE, ____, ____ Solution: The first term is the combination of first and second alphabets. The second term is the combination of second and third alphabets. The third term is the combination of third and fourth alphabets. The fourth term is the combination of fourth and fifth term. Similarly, the next two terms will be EF and FG. Patterns - Definition With Examples 1Observe the pattern: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12... Which pattern type is this? Each number is greater than the previous number. 2, 4, 6, 8 and so on are the multiples of 2. Also, each number is a consecutive even number. 2Name the type of pattern: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15 We know the first and last term. Also, the pattern can be described as 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 2 = 3, 3 + 3 = 6, 6 + 4 = 10, 10 + 5 = 15 and so on. 3Which term will be next in the pattern? A, AB, ABC, ABCD, _____ The pattern is each consecutive alphabet is added to the previous alphabet. So, the next term in the pattern is ABCDE. 4Which of the following is odd one out in the pattern: 8, 27, 125, 216, 343, 1331 Except 216, all the numbers are the cube of prime numbers. So, 216 is an odd one out. Frequently Asked Questions What is a pattern rule? A numerical pattern can be created based on a formula or rule known as the pattern rule. Pattern rules might use one or more mathematical operations to describe the relation between the consecutive numbers in the pattern. How are patterns used in real life? Some real-life applications of patterns: 1. Music is based on patterns. 2. The creation of rangoli is based on patterns. 3. There are some natural patterns found in waves, lightning, etc. Why are patterns important? Patterns help in predicting what comes next. They also help children in learning logical connections and reasoning skills.
The three fundamental components of a series RLC circuit share the same current because they are connected in series. There are three distinct kinds of loads that can be used in this formulation. In the absence of any of the components, the corresponding value for that element can be set to zero or the associated term can be removed from the formulas (typically the inductor or the capacitor, not the resistor). You can see an example of a series RLC circuit in Figure 1. Keep in mind that it makes no difference which of the three components is displayed first. This means that the two circuits in Figure 2 are interchangeable. In order to solve the circuit at hand, we must apply what we have learned thus far about the relationship between applied voltage, current, and power consumption. If the details of the loads and the applied voltage are known, the simplest question involving a series RLC circuit is determining the current in the circuit. Figure 1 shows a simple circuit with three elements: V (applied voltage), I (common current for all three elements), f (frequency), and R (resistance), L (inductance), and C (capacitance). There are three parts to this circuit, and the applied voltage is shared among them. In this context, VR, VL, and VC represent the voltages across R, L, and C, respectively. Remember that the rules we learned about the connection between current and voltage hold true across the board for each of these voltages. What I mean is, The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current, the voltage across the capacitor is lagging the current by 90° and the voltage across the inductor leading the current by 90°. We’ll give it a shot at displaying these variables as vectors now. Considering that all three components draw the same amount of current, I, the current in the circuit, is the best candidate for representing the vectors. The correct orientation of these vectors is depicted in Figure 3, regardless of their numerical values (since we do not have any number values given yet). One must keep in mind that while the scale for current and voltage can be different, the scale for all identical values (voltages in this case) must be the same. Figure 3 shows that the voltage across R is in phase with the current, the voltage across L leads the current, and the voltage across C lags the current. Because of this, we can’t use algebraic addition to combine R, XC, and XL. The value Z is the vector addition of these three numbers. Z can be calculated once their values are known. Since the effects of a capacitor and an inductor are opposite, their corresponding vectors are also opposite, and the sum of these vectors is always less than the larger value (XC – XL or XL – XC). The two scenarios, depicted in Figure 4, are those in which XC is greater than XL and in which it is smaller. When comparing two numbers, if they are very close to one another, the value of Z that is calculated is the same for both. Z, the impedance value, can be expressed as using the Pythagorean Theorem. (Note that it does not matter if one enters XL – XC or XC – XL). Series RLC Example 1 R = 30 Ω, L = 15 mH, and C = 51 μF make up a series RLC circuit. What is the current in the circuit if the source voltage is 12 V and the frequency is 60 Hz? Both Figure 5a and Figure 4a are equivalent. Due to the fact that the current through a series of three identical components is always the same, the values on any of the triangle’s three sides can be multiplied by the current to obtain a similar triangle to the one in Figure 5b. Since RI = VR, ZI = V, etc., the sides of this triangle all stand in for voltages. In addition, as shown in Figure 5c, the values for the various powers can be reflected in a similar triangle formed by multiplying the sides of this new triangle by I a second time. Figure 5 Similar triangles showing powers, voltages, and their relationships in a series RLC circuit. (a) Circuit resistance versus circuit impedance. (b) The voltage across resistance versus the applied voltage. (c) Circuit active power versus apparent power. The voltages VR, VL, and VC cannot be added algebraically, as shown in Figure 5b. Since vector addition is the only way to combine these voltages because they are out of phase with one another. The connection between virtual reality, virtual reality headsets, and virtual reality headsets with cameras is If we replace V with the actual voltage being used. The second term under the radical represents a difference in values between the voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, but this difference is only apparent because the two voltages are 180 degrees out of phase with one another. Power Factor in Series RLC Circuits The power factor for a series RLC circuit can be calculated using one of the relationships shown in Figure 5a-c. You can tell right away if the circuit is more inductive or capacitive. Consequences of this can be seen in the vector sums XL-XC and VL-VC (see Figure 4). Series RLC Example 2 The components of an RLC circuit are the 20 Ω resistor, the 51 μF capacitor, and the 25 mH inductor, all connected in series. The circuit current is 350 mA, and the applied voltage is 50 V if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz. Each of the three components in a series RLC circuit experiences a voltage that is opposite to the other two. Series RLC Example 3 When 12 V is applied to the circuit in Example 2, what is the voltage across the capacitor? The voltage used in the second example was 20 V. This voltage is split between three parts as shown below: Since nothing has changed in the circuit, the current will be 0.6 times smaller when the applied voltage is 12 V (i.e., 0.6 times less than the previous case). Since then, 0.6 has been subtracted from all voltages. In this case, the voltage across the capacitor is You can now see that it is not always necessary to recalculate everything from scratch. Keep in mind that the 12 V applied voltage is less than the voltage across the capacitor. We don’t anticipate all of the voltages to be lower than the applied voltage, but it’s always possible. Series RLC Example 4 What is the phase angle between the voltage and the current in the circuit of Example 2? The solution can be derived by solving any of the relationships in Equation 3 for the power factor. The optimal choices for R and Z can be found easily. Just knowing that the phase angle is 70 degrees isn’t enough; we also need to specify whether or not the circuit is in a leading or lagging position (i.e., if the current leads the voltage or it lags the voltage). The values of XC and XL provide useful indicators of this. The current is ahead of the voltage if XC > XL, and behind it if XC XL. Series RLC Example 5 The voltage drop across the series RLC circuit is 48 V, with VR at 15 V and VL at 22 V. Where does the capacitor’s voltage stand? Formula 2 suggests that Because VR = 15 V, (VL−VC)2 is determined as (directly from Equation 2) (VL−VC)2 = V2 – VR2 = 482 −152 = 2079 = 45.62 Since there are two possible outcomes, care must be taken when calculating (VL – VC). In addition, this reflects the fact that when you square (VL – VC) or (VC – VL), you get the same answer either way. Thus, ± ( VL − VC ) = 45.6 V There is only one valid solution when VL = 22 V. (The alternative value is negative, which is not valid.) So, VC is worth what it’s worth because VC = 67.6 V The voltage between any two points in a series RLC circuit can be greater than the externally applied voltage.
« AnteriorContinuar » 1. A point is that which is without parts. 2. A line is length without breadth. 3. The extremities of a line are points. 4. A right line, is that which lies evenly between its extremities. 5. A superficies, is that which has only length and breadth. 6. The boundings of a superficies are lines. 7. A plane superficies, is that which lies evenly between its extreme right lines. 8. A rectilineal angle, is the inclination of two right lines to each other, which touch, but do not form one straight line. An angle is designated either by one letter at the vertex; or three, of which the middle one is at the vertex, the remaining two any place on the legs. 9. The legs of an angle, are the lines which make thé angle. 10. The vertex of an angle is the point in which the legs mutually touch each other. 11. When a right line standing on a right line makes the adjacent angles equal, which are ABC and ABD, each of these angles is equal to a right angle, and the right line AB standing on the other, is called the perpendicular. 12. The angle ABC, which is greater than a right angle, is called obtuse. 13. The angle ABD, which is less C than a right angle, is called acute. 14. A plane figure is a plane superficies, bounded on every side by one or more lines. 15. A circle is a plane figure, contained by one line, which is called the circumference; to which from a certain point within the figure, all right lines drawn are equal. 16. That point is called the centre of the circle. 17. A diameter of a circle is a right line drawn through the centre, and both of its extremities terminate in the circumference. 18. A radius is a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference. 19. A semicircle, is the figure which is contained by the diameter and the part of the circumference which the diameter cuts off. 20. A rectilineal figure, is a plane superficies contained by right lines. 21. A triangle is a plane superficies, which is contained by three right lines. 22. An equilateral triangle is that which has three sides equal. 23. An isosceles triangle (or æquicrurum) is that which hath two equal sides. 24. A scalene triangle, is that which hath three unequal sides. 25. A right angled triangle is that which has a right angle. 26. An obtuse angled triangleis that which hath an obtuse angle. 27. An acute angled triangle is that which hath three acute angles. 28. Parallel right lines, are those which are in the same plane, and although produced, never meet. 29. A quadrilateral figure, is a rectilineal figure which is contained by four right lines. 30. A parallelogram, is a quadrilateral figure, whose opposite sides are parallel. 31. A square is a quadrilateral figure, which is equilateral and equiangular. 32. Rectilineal figures which have more than four sides, are called polygons. 1. Let it be granted that a right line can be drawn from any point to another. 2. That a terminated right line can be produced to any distance. 3. That a circle can be described from any centre, with any radius. COMMON NOTIONS, OR AXIOMS. 1. Things which are equal to the same are equal to one another. 2. If equals be added to equals, the wholes will be equal. 3. If from equals, equals be taken, the remainders are equal. 4. If to unequals, equals be added, the wholes are unequal. 5. If from unequals, equals be taken, the remainders are unequal. 6. Things which are double of the same, or of equals, are equal to one another. 7. Things which are halves of the same, or of equals, are equal to one another. 8. Magnitudes which coincide with one another are equal to one another. 9. The whole is greater than its part. 10. Two right lines cannot enclose a space: 11. All right angles are equal to one another. 12. If two right lines, meeting a right line, make the internal angles on the same side less than two right angles; these two right lines, being produced, will meet one another on that side at which the angles are less than two right angles. On a given finite right line (AB) to describe an equilateral triangle. From the centre A, and with the interval AB, describe the circle BCD, (by Post. 3). From the centre B and with the interval BA, describe the circle ACE. From the intersection C, draw the right lines CA, and CB, to the extremities of the given right line AB. (by Post. 1). It is manifest that ABC is a triangle, constructed upon the given right line AB; but it is equilateral; for AC is equal to AB, because they are the radii of the same circle, DCB (by Def. 15). But BC is equal to BA, because they are the radii of the same circle ACE. Therefore, since both AC and BC are equal to the same, AB, they are equal to one another (by Ax. 1); and therefore the triangle ACB is equilateral. SCHOL.-Draw AF and FB, and it can be similarly demonstrated that the triangle AFB is equilateral. From a given point (A) to draw a right line equal to a given finite right line (BC). From the given point A draw a right line AB to either extremity B of the given right line (by Post. 1); upon AB construct an equilateral triangle ADB (by Prop. 1). From the centre B, with the interval BC, describe a circle GCF (by Post. 3), producing DB, till it meets its circum ference in G. From D as a centre, with the interval DG, describe a circle GLO. The circumference of it
where n is the degree of the root. A root of degree 2 is called a square root and a root of degree 3, a cube root. Roots of higher degree are referred by using ordinal numbers, as in fourth root, twentieth root, etc. - 3 is a square root of 9, since 32 = 9. - −3 is also a square root of 9, since (−3)2 = 9. Any non-zero number, considered as complex number, has n different "complex roots of degree n" (nth roots), including those with zero imaginary part, i.e. any real roots. The root of 0 is zero for all degrees n, since 0n = 0. In particular, if n is even and x is a positive real number, one of its nth roots is positive, one is negative, and the rest (when n > 2) are complex but not real; if n is even and x is a negative real, none of the nth roots is real. If n is odd and x is real, one nth root is real and has the same sign as x, while the other (n − 1) roots are not real. Finally, if x is not real, then none of its nth roots is real. Roots are usually written using the radical symbol or radix with denoting the principal square root of , denoting the principal cube root, denoting the principal fourth root, and so on. In the expression , n is called the index, is the radical sign or radix, and is called the radicand. Since the radical symbol denotes a function, it is defined to return only one result for a given argument , which is called the principal nth root of . Conventionally, a real root, preferably non-negative, if there is one, is designated as the principal nth root. A complementary definition of principal root (though not formally defined or universally accepted) is to say that it is always the complex root that has the least value of the argument among all roots; here “argument” is bound to and means the counterclockwise angle in radian between the positive real axis and the line joining the complex number to the origin. - has three cube roots: , and with arguments respectively. Of these, has the least argument and hence in some contexts is considered the principal cube root, while in other contexts is said to be the principal cube root because it is the only real one. - has four fourth roots: and , having arguments and respectively. So is always considered the unique principal fourth root, because it is a positive real, which necessarily has the least argument possible: . An unresolved root, especially one using the radical symbol, is sometimes referred to as a surd or a radical. Any expression containing a radical, whether it is a square root, a cube root, or a higher root, is called a radical expression, and if it contains no transcendental functions or transcendental numbers it is called an algebraic expression. Roots are particularly important in the theory of infinite series; the root test determines the radius of convergence of a power series. Roots can also be defined for complex numbers, and the complex roots of 1 (the roots of unity) play an important role in higher mathematics. Galois theory can be used to determine which algebraic numbers can be expressed using roots and to prove the Abel–Ruffini theorem, which states that a general polynomial equation of degree five or higher cannot be solved using roots alone; this result is also known as "the insolubility of the quintic". Definition and notationEdit An nth root of a number x, where n is a positive integer, is any of the n real or complex numbers r whose nth power is x: Every positive real number x has a single positive nth root, called the principal nth root, which is written . For n equal to 2 this is called the principal square root and the n is omitted. The nth root can also be represented using exponentiation as x1/n. For even values of n, positive numbers also have a negative nth root, while negative numbers do not have a real nth root. For odd values of n, every negative number x has a real negative nth root. For example, −2 has a real 5th root, but −2 does not have any real 6th roots. Every non-zero number x, real or complex, has n different complex number nth roots. (In the case x is real, this count includes any real nth roots.) The only complex root of 0 is 0. The nth roots of almost all numbers (all integers except the nth powers, and all rationals except the quotients of two nth powers) are irrational. For example, All nth roots of integers are algebraic numbers. The term surd traces back to al-Khwārizmī (c. 825), who referred to rational and irrational numbers as audible and inaudible, respectively. This later led to the Arabic word "أصم" (asamm, meaning "deaf" or "dumb") for irrational number being translated into Latin as "surdus" (meaning "deaf" or "mute"). Gerard of Cremona (c. 1150), Fibonacci (1202), and then Robert Recorde (1551) all used the term to refer to unresolved irrational roots. A square root of a number x is a number r which, when squared, becomes x: Every positive real number has two square roots, one positive and one negative. For example, the two square roots of 25 are 5 and −5. The positive square root is also known as the principal square root, and is denoted with a radical sign: Since the square of every real number is a positive real number, negative numbers do not have real square roots. However, for every negative real number there are two imaginary square roots. For example, the square roots of −25 are 5i and −5i, where i represents a number whose square is −1. A cube root of a number x is a number r whose cube is x: Every real number x has exactly one real cube root, written . For example, Every real number has two additional complex cube roots. Identities and propertiesEdit Expressing the degree of an nth root in its exponent form, as in , makes it easier to manipulate powers and roots. Every positive real number has exactly one positive real nth root, and so the rules for operations with surds involving positive radicands are straightforward within the real numbers: Subtleties can occur when taking the nth roots of negative or complex numbers. For instance: - but rather Since the rule strictly holds for non-negative real radicands only, its application leads to the inequality in the first step above. Simplified form of a radical expressionEdit A non-nested radical expression is said to be in simplified form if - There is no factor of the radicand that can be written as a power greater than or equal to the index. - There are no fractions under the radical sign. - There are no radicals in the denominator. For example, to write the radical expression in simplified form, we can proceed as follows. First, look for a perfect square under the square root sign and remove it: Next, there is a fraction under the radical sign, which we change as follows: Finally, we remove the radical from the denominator as follows: When there is a denominator involving surds it is always possible to find a factor to multiply both numerator and denominator by to simplify the expression. For instance using the factorization of the sum of two cubes: Simplifying radical expressions involving nested radicals can be quite difficult. It is not obvious for instance that: The above can be derived through: The radical or root may be represented by the infinite series: with . This expression can be derived from the binomial series. Computing principal rootsEdit and the fifth root of 34 is where here the dots signify not only that the decimal expression does not end after a finite number of digits, but also that the digits never enter a repeating pattern, because the number is irrational. Since for positive real numbers a and b the equality holds, the above property can be extended to positive rational numbers. Let , with p and q coprime and positive integers, be a rational number, then r has a rational nth root, if both positive integers p and q have an integer nth root, i.e., is the product of nth powers of rational numbers. If one or both nth roots of p or q are irrational, the quotient is irrational, too. nth root algorithmEdit until the desired precision is reached. Depending on the application, it may be enough to use only the first Newton approximant: For example, to find the fifth root of 34, note that 25 = 32 and thus take x = 2, n = 5 and y = 2 in the above formula. This yields The error in the approximation is only about 0.03%. Newton's method can be modified to produce a generalized continued fraction for the nth root which can be modified in various ways as described in that article. For example: In the case of the fifth root of 34 above (after dividing out selected common factors): Digit-by-digit calculation of principal roots of decimal (base 10) numbersEdit Building on the digit-by-digit calculation of a square root, it can be seen that the formula used there, , or , follows a pattern involving Pascal's triangle. For the nth root of a number is defined as the value of element in row of Pascal's Triangle such that , we can rewrite the expression as . For convenience, call the result of this expression . Using this more general expression, any positive principal root can be computed, digit-by-digit, as follows. Write the original number in decimal form. The numbers are written similar to the long division algorithm, and, as in long division, the root will be written on the line above. Now separate the digits into groups of digits equating to the root being taken, starting from the decimal point and going both left and right. The decimal point of the root will be above the decimal point of the square. One digit of the root will appear above each group of digits of the original number. Beginning with the left-most group of digits, do the following procedure for each group: - Starting on the left, bring down the most significant (leftmost) group of digits not yet used (if all the digits have been used, write "0" the number of times required to make a group) and write them to the right of the remainder from the previous step (on the first step, there will be no remainder). In other words, multiply the remainder by and add the digits from the next group. This will be the current value c. - Find p and x, as follows: - Let be the part of the root found so far, ignoring any decimal point. (For the first step, ). - Determine the greatest digit such that . - Place the digit as the next digit of the root, i.e., above the group of digits you just brought down. Thus the next p will be the old p times 10 plus x. - Subtract from to form a new remainder. - If the remainder is zero and there are no more digits to bring down, then the algorithm has terminated. Otherwise go back to step 1 for another iteration. Find the square root of 152.2756. 1 2. 3 4 / \/ 01 52.27 56 01 100·1·00·12 + 101·2·01·11 ≤ 1 < 100·1·00·22 + 101·2·01·21 x = 1 01 y = 100·1·00·12 + 101·2·01·12 = 1 + 0 = 1 00 52 100·1·10·22 + 101·2·11·21 ≤ 52 < 100·1·10·32 + 101·2·11·31 x = 2 00 44 y = 100·1·10·22 + 101·2·11·21 = 4 + 40 = 44 08 27 100·1·120·32 + 101·2·121·31 ≤ 827 < 100·1·120·42 + 101·2·121·41 x = 3 07 29 y = 100·1·120·32 + 101·2·121·31 = 9 + 720 = 729 98 56 100·1·1230·42 + 101·2·1231·41 ≤ 9856 < 100·1·1230·52 + 101·2·1231·51 x = 4 98 56 y = 100·1·1230·42 + 101·2·1231·41 = 16 + 9840 = 9856 00 00 Algorithm terminates: Answer is 12.34 Find the cube root of 4192 to the nearest hundredth. 1 6. 1 2 4 3 / \/ 004 192.000 000 000 004 100·1·00·13 + 101·3·01·12 + 102·3·02·11 ≤ 4 < 100·1·00·23 + 101·3·01·22 + 102·3·02·21 x = 1 001 y = 100·1·00·13 + 101·3·01·12 + 102·3·02·11 = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1 003 192 100·1·10·63 + 101·3·11·62 + 102·3·12·61 ≤ 3192 < 100·1·10·73 + 101·3·11·72 + 102·3·12·71 x = 6 003 096 y = 100·1·10·63 + 101·3·11·62 + 102·3·12·61 = 216 + 1,080 + 1,800 = 3,096 096 000 100·1·160·13 + 101·3·161·12 + 102·3·162·11 ≤ 96000 < 100·1·160·23 + 101·3·161·22 + 102·3·162·21 x = 1 077 281 y = 100·1·160·13 + 101·3·161·12 + 102·3·162·11 = 1 + 480 + 76,800 = 77,281 018 719 000 100·1·1610·23 + 101·3·1611·22 + 102·3·1612·21 ≤ 18719000 < 100·1·1610·33 + 101·3·1611·32 + 102·3·1612·31 x = 2 015 571 928 y = 100·1·1610·23 + 101·3·1611·22 + 102·3·1612·21 = 8 + 19,320 + 15,552,600 = 15,571,928 003 147 072 000 100·1·16120·43 + 101·3·16121·42 + 102·3·16122·41 ≤ 3147072000 < 100·1·16120·53 + 101·3·16121·52 + 102·3·16122·51 x = 4 The desired precision is achieved: The cube root of 4192 is about 16.12 The principal nth root of a positive number can be computed using logarithms. Starting from the equation that defines r as an nth root of x, namely with x positive and therefore its principal root r also positive, one takes logarithms of both sides (any base of the logarithm will do) to obtain The root r is recovered from this by taking the antilog: (Note: That formula shows b raised to the power of the result of the division, not b multiplied by the result of the division.) For the case in which x is negative and n is odd, there is one real root r which is also negative. This can be found by first multiplying both sides of the defining equation by −1 to obtain then proceeding as before to find \|r\|, and using r = −\|r\|. The ancient Greek mathematicians knew how to use compass and straightedge to construct a length equal to the square root of a given length. In 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved that an nth root of a given length cannot be constructed if n is not a power of 2. Every complex number other than 0 has n different nth roots. The two square roots of a complex number are always negatives of each other. For example, the square roots of −4 are 2i and −2i, and the square roots of i are If we express a complex number in polar form, then the square root can be obtained by taking the square root of the radius and halving the angle: A principal root of a complex number may be chosen in various ways, for example Using the first(last) branch cut the principal square root maps to the half plane with non-negative imaginary(real) part. The last branch cut is presupposed in mathematical software like Matlab or Scilab. Roots of unityEdit The number 1 has n different nth roots in the complex plane, namely These roots are evenly spaced around the unit circle in the complex plane, at angles which are multiples of . For example, the square roots of unity are 1 and −1, and the fourth roots of unity are 1, , −1, and . Every complex number has n different nth roots in the complex plane. These are where η is a single nth root, and 1, ω, ω2, ... ωn−1 are the nth roots of unity. For example, the four different fourth roots of 2 are In polar form, a single nth root may be found by the formula Here r is the magnitude (the modulus, also called the absolute value) of the number whose root is to be taken; if the number can be written as a+bi then . Also, is the angle formed as one pivots on the origin counterclockwise from the positive horizontal axis to a ray going from the origin to the number; it has the properties that and Thus finding nth roots in the complex plane can be segmented into two steps. First, the magnitude of all the nth roots is the nth root of the magnitude of the original number. Second, the angle between the positive horizontal axis and a ray from the origin to one of the nth roots is , where is the angle defined in the same way for the number whose root is being taken. Furthermore, all n of the nth roots are at equally spaced angles from each other. If n is even, a complex number's nth roots, of which there are an even number, come in additive inverse pairs, so that if a number r1 is one of the nth roots then r2 = –r1 is another. This is because raising the latter's coefficient –1 to the nth power for even n yields 1: that is, (–r1)n = (–1)n × r1n = r1n. It was once conjectured that all polynomial equations could be solved algebraically (that is, that all roots of a polynomial could be expressed in terms of a finite number of radicals and elementary operations). However, while this is true for third degree polynomials (cubics) and fourth degree polynomials (quartics), the Abel–Ruffini theorem (1824) shows that this is not true in general when the degree is 5 or greater. For example, the solutions of the equation cannot be expressed in terms of radicals. (cf. quintic equation) - Bansal, R. K. (2006). New Approach to CBSE Mathematics IX. Laxmi Publications. p. 25. ISBN 978-81-318-0013-3. - Silver, Howard A. (1986). Algebra and trigonometry. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-021270-9. - "Definition of RADICATION". www.merriam-webster.com. - "radication - Definition of radication in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries - English. - "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics". Mathematics Pages by Jeff Miller. Retrieved 2008-11-30. - McKeague, Charles P. (2011). Elementary algebra. p. 470. - B. F. Caviness, R. J. Fateman, "Simplification of Radical Expressions", Proceedings of the 1976 ACM Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation, p. 329. - Richard Zippel, "Simplification of Expressions Involving Radicals", Journal of Symbolic Computation 1:189–210 (1985) doi:10.1016/S0747-7171(85)80014-6. - Wantzel, M. L. (1837), "Recherches sur les moyens de reconnaître si un Problème de Géométrie peut se résoudre avec la règle et le compas", Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées, 1 (2): 366–372.
UML is a standard language for specifying, visualizing, constructing, and documenting the artifacts of software systems. UML was created by the Object Management Group (OMG) and UML 1.0 specification draft was proposed to the OMG in January 1997. OMG is continuously making efforts to create a truly industry standard. UML stands for Unified Modeling Language. UML is different from the other common programming languages such as C++, Java, COBOL, etc. UML is a pictorial language used to make software blueprints. UML can be described as a general purpose visual modeling language to visualize, specify, construct, and document software system. Although UML is generally used to model software systems, it is not limited within this boundary. It is also used to model non-software systems as well. For example, the process flow in a manufacturing unit, etc. UML is not a programming language but tools can be used to generate code in various languages using UML diagrams. UML has a direct relation with object oriented analysis and design. After some standardization, UML has become an OMG standard. A picture is worth a thousand words, this idiom absolutely fits describing UML. Object-oriented concepts were introduced much earlier than UML. At that point of time, there were no standard methodologies to organize and consolidate the object-oriented development. It was then that UML came into picture. There are a number of goals for developing UML but the most important is to define some general purpose modeling language, which all modelers can use and it also needs to be made simple to understand and use. UML diagrams are not only made for developers but also for business users, common people, and anybody interested to understand the system. The system can be a software or non-software system. Thus it must be clear that UML is not a development method rather it accompanies with processes to make it a successful system. In conclusion, the goal of UML can be defined as a simple modeling mechanism to model all possible practical systems in today’s complex environment. To understand the conceptual model of UML, first we need to clarify what is a conceptual model? and why a conceptual model is required? A conceptual model can be defined as a model which is made of concepts and their relationships. A conceptual model is the first step before drawing a UML diagram. It helps to understand the entities in the real world and how they interact with each other. As UML describes the real-time systems, it is very important to make a conceptual model and then proceed gradually. The conceptual model of UML can be mastered by learning the following three major elements − UML can be described as the successor of object-oriented (OO) analysis and design. An object contains both data and methods that control the data. The data represents the state of the object. A class describes an object and they also form a hierarchy to model the real-world system. The hierarchy is represented as inheritance and the classes can also be associated in different ways as per the requirement. Objects are the real-world entities that exist around us and the basic concepts such as abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism all can be represented using UML. UML is powerful enough to represent all the concepts that exist in object-oriented analysis and design. UML diagrams are representation of object-oriented concepts only. Thus, before learning UML, it becomes important to understand OO concept in detail. Following are some fundamental concepts of the object-oriented world − Objects − Objects represent an entity and the basic building block. Class − Class is the blue print of an object. Abstraction − Abstraction represents the behavior of an real world entity. Encapsulation − Encapsulation is the mechanism of binding the data together and hiding them from the outside world. Inheritance − Inheritance is the mechanism of making new classes from existing ones. Polymorphism − It defines the mechanism to exists in different forms. OO can be defined as an investigation and to be more specific, it is the investigation of objects. Design means collaboration of identified objects. Thus, it is important to understand the OO analysis and design concepts. The most important purpose of OO analysis is to identify objects of a system to be designed. This analysis is also done for an existing system. Now an efficient analysis is only possible when we are able to start thinking in a way where objects can be identified. After identifying the objects, their relationships are identified and finally the design is produced. The purpose of OO analysis and design can described as − Identifying the objects of a system. Identifying their relationships. Making a design, which can be converted to executables using OO languages. There are three basic steps where the OO concepts are applied and implemented. The steps can be defined as OO Analysis → OO Design → OO implementation using OO languages The above three points can be described in detail as − During OO analysis, the most important purpose is to identify objects and describe them in a proper way. If these objects are identified efficiently, then the next job of design is easy. The objects should be identified with responsibilities. Responsibilities are the functions performed by the object. Each and every object has some type of responsibilities to be performed. When these responsibilities are collaborated, the purpose of the system is fulfilled. The second phase is OO design. During this phase, emphasis is placed on the requirements and their fulfilment. In this stage, the objects are collaborated according to their intended association. After the association is complete, the design is also complete. The third phase is OO implementation. In this phase, the design is implemented using OO languages such as Java, C++, etc. UML is a modeling language used to model software and non-software systems. Although UML is used for non-software systems, the emphasis is on modeling OO software applications. Most of the UML diagrams discussed so far are used to model different aspects such as static, dynamic, etc. Now whatever be the aspect, the artifacts are nothing but objects. If we look into class diagram, object diagram, collaboration diagram, interaction diagrams all would basically be designed based on the objects. Hence, the relation between OO design and UML is very important to understand. The OO design is transformed into UML diagrams according to the requirement. Before understanding the UML in detail, the OO concept should be learned properly. Once the OO analysis and design is done, the next step is very easy. The input from OO analysis and design is the input to UML diagrams. As UML describes the real-time systems, it is very important to make a conceptual model and then proceed gradually. The conceptual model of UML can be mastered by learning the following three major elements − This chapter describes all the UML building blocks. The building blocks of UML can be defined as − Things are the most important building blocks of UML. Things can be − Structural things define the static part of the model. They represent the physical and conceptual elements. Following are the brief descriptions of the structural things. Class − Class represents a set of objects having similar responsibilities. Interface − Interface defines a set of operations, which specify the responsibility of a class. Collaboration −Collaboration defines an interaction between elements. Use case −Use case represents a set of actions performed by a system for a specific goal. Component −Component describes the physical part of a system. Node − A node can be defined as a physical element that exists at run time. A behavioral thing consists of the dynamic parts of UML models. Following are the behavioral things − Interaction − Interaction is defined as a behavior that consists of a group of messages exchanged among elements to accomplish a specific task. State machine − State machine is useful when the state of an object in its life cycle is important. It defines the sequence of states an object goes through in response to events. Events are external factors responsible for state change Grouping things can be defined as a mechanism to group elements of a UML model together. There is only one grouping thing available − Package − Package is the only one grouping thing available for gathering structural and behavioral things. Annotational things can be defined as a mechanism to capture remarks, descriptions, and comments of UML model elements. Note - It is the only one Annotational thing available. A note is used to render comments, constraints, etc. of an UML element. Relationship is another most important building block of UML. It shows how the elements are associated with each other and this association describes the functionality of an application. There are four kinds of relationships available. Dependency is a relationship between two things in which change in one element also affects the other. Association is basically a set of links that connects the elements of a UML model. It also describes how many objects are taking part in that relationship. Generalization can be defined as a relationship which connects a specialized element with a generalized element. It basically describes the inheritance relationship in the world of objects. Realization can be defined as a relationship in which two elements are connected. One element describes some responsibility, which is not implemented and the other one implements them. This relationship exists in case of interfaces. UML diagrams are the ultimate output of the entire discussion. All the elements, relationships are used to make a complete UML diagram and the diagram represents a system. The visual effect of the UML diagram is the most important part of the entire process. All the other elements are used to make it complete. UML includes the following nine diagrams, the details of which are described in the subsequent chapters. Any real-world system is used by different users. The users can be developers, testers, business people, analysts, and many more. Hence, before designing a system, the architecture is made with different perspectives in mind. The most important part is to visualize the system from the perspective of different viewers. The better we understand the better we can build the system. UML plays an important role in defining different perspectives of a system. These perspectives are − The center is the Use Case view which connects all these four. A Use Case represents the functionality of the system. Hence, other perspectives are connected with use case. Design of a system consists of classes, interfaces, and collaboration. UML provides class diagram, object diagram to support this. Implementation defines the components assembled together to make a complete physical system. UML component diagram is used to support the implementation perspective. Process defines the flow of the system. Hence, the same elements as used in Design are also used to support this perspective. Deployment represents the physical nodes of the system that forms the hardware. UML deployment diagram is used to support this perspective. It is very important to distinguish between the UML model. Different diagrams are used for different types of UML modeling. There are three important types of UML modeling. Structural modeling captures the static features of a system. They consist of the following − Structural model represents the framework for the system and this framework is the place where all other components exist. Hence, the class diagram, component diagram and deployment diagrams are part of structural modeling. They all represent the elements and the mechanism to assemble them. The structural model never describes the dynamic behavior of the system. Class diagram is the most widely used structural diagram. Behavioral model describes the interaction in the system. It represents the interaction among the structural diagrams. Behavioral modeling shows the dynamic nature of the system. They consist of the following − All the above show the dynamic sequence of flow in a system. Architectural model represents the overall framework of the system. It contains both structural and behavioral elements of the system. Architectural model can be defined as the blueprint of the entire system. Package diagram comes under architectural modeling. UML is popular for its diagrammatic notations. We all know that UML is for visualizing, specifying, constructing and documenting the components of software and non-software systems. Hence, visualization is the most important part which needs to be understood and remembered. UML notations are the most important elements in modeling. Efficient and appropriate use of notations is very important for making a complete and meaningful model. The model is useless, unless its purpose is depicted properly. Hence, learning notations should be emphasized from the very beginning. Different notations are available for things and relationships. UML diagrams are made using the notations of things and relationships. Extensibility is another important feature which makes UML more powerful and flexible. The chapter describes basic UML notations in detail. This is just an extension to the UML building block section discussed in Chapter Two. Graphical notations used in structural things are most widely used in UML. These are considered as the nouns of UML models. Following are the list of structural things. UML class is represented by the following figure. The diagram is divided into four parts. Classes are used to represent objects. Objects can be anything having properties and responsibility. The object is represented in the same way as the class. The only difference is the name which is underlined as shown in the following figure. As the object is an actual implementation of a class, which is known as the instance of a class. Hence, it has the same usage as the class. Interface is represented by a circle as shown in the following figure. It has a name which is generally written below the circle. Interface is used to describe the functionality without implementation. Interface is just like a template where you define different functions, not the implementation. When a class implements the interface, it also implements the functionality as per requirement. Collaboration is represented by a dotted eclipse as shown in the following figure. It has a name written inside the eclipse. Collaboration represents responsibilities. Generally, responsibilities are in a group. Use case is represented as an eclipse with a name inside it. It may contain additional responsibilities. Use case is used to capture high level functionalities of a system. An actor can be defined as some internal or external entity that interacts with the system. An actor is used in a use case diagram to describe the internal or external entities. Initial state is defined to show the start of a process. This notation is used in almost all diagrams. The usage of Initial State Notation is to show the starting point of a process. Final state is used to show the end of a process. This notation is also used in almost all diagrams to describe the end. The usage of Final State Notation is to show the termination point of a process. Active class looks similar to a class with a solid border. Active class is generally used to describe the concurrent behavior of a system. Active class is used to represent the concurrency in a system. A component in UML is shown in the following figure with a name inside. Additional elements can be added wherever required. Component is used to represent any part of a system for which UML diagrams are made. A node in UML is represented by a square box as shown in the following figure with a name. A node represents the physical component of the system. Node is used to represent the physical part of a system such as the server, network, etc. Dynamic parts are one of the most important elements in UML. UML has a set of powerful features to represent the dynamic part of software and non-software systems. These features include interactions and state machines. Interactions can be of two types − Interaction is basically a message exchange between two UML components. The following diagram represents different notations used in an interaction. Interaction is used to represent the communication among the components of a system. State machine describes the different states of a component in its life cycle. The notations are described in the following diagram. State machine is used to describe different states of a system component. The state can be active, idle, or any other depending upon the situation. Organizing the UML models is one of the most important aspects of the design. In UML, there is only one element available for grouping and that is package. Package notation is shown in the following figure and is used to wrap the components of a system. In any diagram, explanation of different elements and their functionalities are very important. Hence, UML has notes notation to support this requirement. This notation is shown in the following figure. These notations are used to provide necessary information of a system. A model is not complete unless the relationships between elements are described properly. The Relationship gives a proper meaning to a UML model. Following are the different types of relationships available in UML. Dependency is an important aspect in UML elements. It describes the dependent elements and the direction of dependency. Dependency is represented by a dotted arrow as shown in the following figure. The arrow head represents the independent element and the other end represents the dependent element. Dependency is used to represent the dependency between two elements of a system Association describes how the elements in a UML diagram are associated. In simple words, it describes how many elements are taking part in an interaction. Association is represented by a dotted line with (without) arrows on both sides. The two ends represent two associated elements as shown in the following figure. The multiplicity is also mentioned at the ends (1, *, etc.) to show how many objects are associated. Association is used to represent the relationship between two elements of a system. Generalization describes the inheritance relationship of the object-oriented world. It is a parent and child relationship. Generalization is represented by an arrow with a hollow arrow head as shown in the following figure. One end represents the parent element and the other end represents the child element. Generalization is used to describe parent-child relationship of two elements of a system. All the languages (programming or modeling) have some mechanism to extend its capabilities such as syntax, semantics, etc. UML also has the following mechanisms to provide extensibility features. Extensibility notations are used to enhance the power of the language. It is basically additional elements used to represent some extra behavior of the system. These extra behaviors are not covered by the standard available notations. In the previous chapters, we have discussed about the building blocks and other necessary elements of UML. Now we need to understand where to use those elements. The elements are like components which can be associated in different ways to make a complete UML picture, which is known as diagram. Thus, it is very important to understand the different diagrams to implement the knowledge in real-life systems. Any complex system is best understood by making some kind of diagrams or pictures. These diagrams have a better impact on our understanding. If we look around, we will realize that the diagrams are not a new concept but it is used widely in different forms in different industries. We prepare UML diagrams to understand the system in a better and simple way. A single diagram is not enough to cover all the aspects of the system. UML defines various kinds of diagrams to cover most of the aspects of a system. You can also create your own set of diagrams to meet your requirements. Diagrams are generally made in an incremental and iterative way. There are two broad categories of diagrams and they are again divided into subcategories − The structural diagrams represent the static aspect of the system. These static aspects represent those parts of a diagram, which forms the main structure and are therefore stable. These static parts are represented by classes, interfaces, objects, components, and nodes. The four structural diagrams are − Class diagrams are the most common diagrams used in UML. Class diagram consists of classes, interfaces, associations, and collaboration. Class diagrams basically represent the object-oriented view of a system, which is static in nature. Active class is used in a class diagram to represent the concurrency of the system. Class diagram represents the object orientation of a system. Hence, it is generally used for development purpose. This is the most widely used diagram at the time of system construction. Object diagrams can be described as an instance of class diagram. Thus, these diagrams are more close to real-life scenarios where we implement a system. Object diagrams are a set of objects and their relationship is just like class diagrams. They also represent the static view of the system. The usage of object diagrams is similar to class diagrams but they are used to build prototype of a system from a practical perspective. Component diagrams represent a set of components and their relationships. These components consist of classes, interfaces, or collaborations. Component diagrams represent the implementation view of a system. During the design phase, software artifacts (classes, interfaces, etc.) of a system are arranged in different groups depending upon their relationship. Now, these groups are known as components. Finally, it can be said component diagrams are used to visualize the implementation. Deployment diagrams are a set of nodes and their relationships. These nodes are physical entities where the components are deployed. Deployment diagrams are used for visualizing the deployment view of a system. This is generally used by the deployment team. Note − If the above descriptions and usages are observed carefully then it is very clear that all the diagrams have some relationship with one another. Component diagrams are dependent upon the classes, interfaces, etc. which are part of class/object diagram. Again, the deployment diagram is dependent upon the components, which are used to make component diagrams. Any system can have two aspects, static and dynamic. So, a model is considered as complete when both the aspects are fully covered. Behavioral diagrams basically capture the dynamic aspect of a system. Dynamic aspect can be further described as the changing/moving parts of a system. UML has the following five types of behavioral diagrams − Use case diagrams are a set of use cases, actors, and their relationships. They represent the use case view of a system. A use case represents a particular functionality of a system. Hence, use case diagram is used to describe the relationships among the functionalities and their internal/external controllers. These controllers are known as actors. A sequence diagram is an interaction diagram. From the name, it is clear that the diagram deals with some sequences, which are the sequence of messages flowing from one object to another. Interaction among the components of a system is very important from implementation and execution perspective. Sequence diagram is used to visualize the sequence of calls in a system to perform a specific functionality. Collaboration diagram is another form of interaction diagram. It represents the structural organization of a system and the messages sent/received. Structural organization consists of objects and links. The purpose of collaboration diagram is similar to sequence diagram. However, the specific purpose of collaboration diagram is to visualize the organization of objects and their interaction. Any real-time system is expected to be reacted by some kind of internal/external events. These events are responsible for state change of the system. Statechart diagram is used to represent the event driven state change of a system. It basically describes the state change of a class, interface, etc. State chart diagram is used to visualize the reaction of a system by internal/external factors. Activity diagram describes the flow of control in a system. It consists of activities and links. The flow can be sequential, concurrent, or branched. Activities are nothing but the functions of a system. Numbers of activity diagrams are prepared to capture the entire flow in a system. Activity diagrams are used to visualize the flow of controls in a system. This is prepared to have an idea of how the system will work when executed. Note − Dynamic nature of a system is very difficult to capture. UML has provided features to capture the dynamics of a system from different angles. Sequence diagrams and collaboration diagrams are isomorphic, hence they can be converted from one another without losing any information. This is also true for Statechart and activity diagram. Class diagram is a static diagram. It represents the static view of an application. Class diagram is not only used for visualizing, describing, and documenting different aspects of a system but also for constructing executable code of the software application. Class diagram describes the attributes and operations of a class and also the constraints imposed on the system. The class diagrams are widely used in the modeling of objectoriented systems because they are the only UML diagrams, which can be mapped directly with object-oriented languages. Class diagram shows a collection of classes, interfaces, associations, collaborations, and constraints. It is also known as a structural diagram. The purpose of class diagram is to model the static view of an application. Class diagrams are the only diagrams which can be directly mapped with object-oriented languages and thus widely used at the time of construction. UML diagrams like activity diagram, sequence diagram can only give the sequence flow of the application, however class diagram is a bit different. It is the most popular UML diagram in the coder community. The purpose of the class diagram can be summarized as − Analysis and design of the static view of an application. Describe responsibilities of a system. Base for component and deployment diagrams. Forward and reverse engineering. Class diagrams are the most popular UML diagrams used for construction of software applications. It is very important to learn the drawing procedure of class diagram. Class diagrams have a lot of properties to consider while drawing but here the diagram will be considered from a top level view. Class diagram is basically a graphical representation of the static view of the system and represents different aspects of the application. A collection of class diagrams represent the whole system. The following points should be remembered while drawing a class diagram − The name of the class diagram should be meaningful to describe the aspect of the system. Each element and their relationships should be identified in advance. Responsibility (attributes and methods) of each class should be clearly identified For each class, minimum number of properties should be specified, as unnecessary properties will make the diagram complicated. Use notes whenever required to describe some aspect of the diagram. At the end of the drawing it should be understandable to the developer/coder. Finally, before making the final version, the diagram should be drawn on plain paper and reworked as many times as possible to make it correct. The following diagram is an example of an Order System of an application. It describes a particular aspect of the entire application. First of all, Order and Customer are identified as the two elements of the system. They have a one-to-many relationship because a customer can have multiple orders. Order class is an abstract class and it has two concrete classes (inheritance relationship) SpecialOrder and NormalOrder. The two inherited classes have all the properties as the Order class. In addition, they have additional functions like dispatch () and receive (). The following class diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above. Class diagram is a static diagram and it is used to model the static view of a system. The static view describes the vocabulary of the system. Class diagram is also considered as the foundation for component and deployment diagrams. Class diagrams are not only used to visualize the static view of the system but they are also used to construct the executable code for forward and reverse engineering of any system. Generally, UML diagrams are not directly mapped with any object-oriented programming languages but the class diagram is an exception. Class diagram clearly shows the mapping with object-oriented languages such as Java, C++, etc. From practical experience, class diagram is generally used for construction purpose. In a nutshell it can be said, class diagrams are used for − Describing the static view of the system. Showing the collaboration among the elements of the static view. Describing the functionalities performed by the system. Construction of software applications using object oriented languages. Object diagrams are derived from class diagrams so object diagrams are dependent upon class diagrams. Object diagrams represent an instance of a class diagram. The basic concepts are similar for class diagrams and object diagrams. Object diagrams also represent the static view of a system but this static view is a snapshot of the system at a particular moment. Object diagrams are used to render a set of objects and their relationships as an instance. The purpose of a diagram should be understood clearly to implement it practically. The purposes of object diagrams are similar to class diagrams. The difference is that a class diagram represents an abstract model consisting of classes and their relationships. However, an object diagram represents an instance at a particular moment, which is concrete in nature. It means the object diagram is closer to the actual system behavior. The purpose is to capture the static view of a system at a particular moment. The purpose of the object diagram can be summarized as − Forward and reverse engineering. Object relationships of a system Static view of an interaction. Understand object behaviour and their relationship from practical perspective We have already discussed that an object diagram is an instance of a class diagram. It implies that an object diagram consists of instances of things used in a class diagram. So both diagrams are made of same basic elements but in different form. In class diagram elements are in abstract form to represent the blue print and in object diagram the elements are in concrete form to represent the real world object. To capture a particular system, numbers of class diagrams are limited. However, if we consider object diagrams then we can have unlimited number of instances, which are unique in nature. Only those instances are considered, which have an impact on the system. From the above discussion, it is clear that a single object diagram cannot capture all the necessary instances or rather cannot specify all the objects of a system. Hence, the solution is − First, analyze the system and decide which instances have important data and association. Second, consider only those instances, which will cover the functionality. Third, make some optimization as the number of instances are unlimited. Before drawing an object diagram, the following things should be remembered and understood clearly − Object diagrams consist of objects. The link in object diagram is used to connect objects. Objects and links are the two elements used to construct an object diagram. After this, the following things are to be decided before starting the construction of the diagram − The object diagram should have a meaningful name to indicate its purpose. The most important elements are to be identified. The association among objects should be clarified. Values of different elements need to be captured to include in the object diagram. Add proper notes at points where more clarity is required. The following diagram is an example of an object diagram. It represents the Order management system which we have discussed in the chapter Class Diagram. The following diagram is an instance of the system at a particular time of purchase. It has the following objects. Now the customer object (C) is associated with three order objects (O1, O2, and O3). These order objects are associated with special order and normal order objects (S1, S2, and N1). The customer has the following three orders with different numbers (12, 32 and 40) for the particular time considered. The customer can increase the number of orders in future and in that scenario the object diagram will reflect that. If order, special order, and normal order objects are observed then you will find that they have some values. For orders, the values are 12, 32, and 40 which implies that the objects have these values for a particular moment (here the particular time when the purchase is made is considered as the moment) when the instance is captured The same is true for special order and normal order objects which have number of orders as 20, 30, and 60. If a different time of purchase is considered, then these values will change accordingly. The following object diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above Object diagrams can be imagined as the snapshot of a running system at a particular moment. Let us consider an example of a running train Now, if you take a snap of the running train then you will find a static picture of it having the following − A particular state which is running. A particular number of passengers. which will change if the snap is taken in a different time Here, we can imagine the snap of the running train is an object having the above values. And this is true for any real-life simple or complex system. In a nutshell, it can be said that object diagrams are used for − Making the prototype of a system. Modeling complex data structures. Understanding the system from practical perspective. Component diagrams are different in terms of nature and behavior. Component diagrams are used to model the physical aspects of a system. Now the question is, what are these physical aspects? Physical aspects are the elements such as executables, libraries, files, documents, etc. which reside in a node. Component diagrams are used to visualize the organization and relationships among components in a system. These diagrams are also used to make executable systems. Component diagram is a special kind of diagram in UML. The purpose is also different from all other diagrams discussed so far. It does not describe the functionality of the system but it describes the components used to make those functionalities. Thus from that point of view, component diagrams are used to visualize the physical components in a system. These components are libraries, packages, files, etc. Component diagrams can also be described as a static implementation view of a system. Static implementation represents the organization of the components at a particular moment. A single component diagram cannot represent the entire system but a collection of diagrams is used to represent the whole. The purpose of the component diagram can be summarized as − Visualize the components of a system. Construct executables by using forward and reverse engineering. Describe the organization and relationships of the components. Component diagrams are used to describe the physical artifacts of a system. This artifact includes files, executables, libraries, etc The purpose of this diagram is different. Component diagrams are used during the implementation phase of an application. However, it is prepared well in advance to visualize the implementation details. Initially, the system is designed using different UML diagrams and then when the artifacts are ready, component diagrams are used to get an idea of the implementation. This diagram is very important as without it the application cannot be implemented efficiently. A well-prepared component diagram is also important for other aspects such as application performance, maintenance, etc. Before drawing a component diagram, the following artifacts are to be identified clearly − Files used in the system. Libraries and other artifacts relevant to the application. Relationships among the artifacts. After identifying the artifacts, the following points need to be kept in mind. Use a meaningful name to identify the component for which the diagram is to be drawn. Prepare a mental layout before producing the using tools. Use notes for clarifying important points. Following is a component diagram for order management system. Here, the artifacts are files. The diagram shows the files in the application and their relationships. In actual, the component diagram also contains dlls, libraries, folders, etc. In the following diagram, four files are identified and their relationships are produced. Component diagram cannot be matched directly with other UML diagrams discussed so far as it is drawn for completely different purpose. The following component diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above. We have already described that component diagrams are used to visualize the static implementation view of a system. Component diagrams are special type of UML diagrams used for different purposes. These diagrams show the physical components of a system. To clarify it, we can say that component diagrams describe the organization of the components in a system. Organization can be further described as the location of the components in a system. These components are organized in a special way to meet the system requirements. As we have already discussed, those components are libraries, files, executables, etc. Before implementing the application, these components are to be organized. This component organization is also designed separately as a part of project execution. Component diagrams are very important from implementation perspective. Thus, the implementation team of an application should have a proper knowledge of the component details Component diagrams can be used to − Model the components of a system. Model the database schema. Model the executables of an application. Model the system's source code. Deployment diagrams are used to visualize the topology of the physical components of a system, where the software components are deployed. Deployment diagrams are used to describe the static deployment view of a system. Deployment diagrams consist of nodes and their relationships. The term Deployment itself describes the purpose of the diagram. Deployment diagrams are used for describing the hardware components, where software components are deployed. Component diagrams and deployment diagrams are closely related. Component diagrams are used to describe the components and deployment diagrams shows how they are deployed in hardware. UML is mainly designed to focus on the software artifacts of a system. However, these two diagrams are special diagrams used to focus on software and hardware components. Most of the UML diagrams are used to handle logical components but deployment diagrams are made to focus on the hardware topology of a system. Deployment diagrams are used by the system engineers. The purpose of deployment diagrams can be described as − Visualize the hardware topology of a system. Describe the hardware components used to deploy software components. Describe the runtime processing nodes. Deployment diagram represents the deployment view of a system. It is related to the component diagram because the components are deployed using the deployment diagrams. A deployment diagram consists of nodes. Nodes are nothing but physical hardware used to deploy the application. Deployment diagrams are useful for system engineers. An efficient deployment diagram is very important as it controls the following parameters − Before drawing a deployment diagram, the following artifacts should be identified − Relationships among nodes Following is a sample deployment diagram to provide an idea of the deployment view of order management system. Here, we have shown nodes as − The application is assumed to be a web-based application, which is deployed in a clustered environment using server 1, server 2, and server 3. The user connects to the application using the Internet. The control flows from the caching server to the clustered environment. The following deployment diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above. Deployment diagrams are mainly used by system engineers. These diagrams are used to describe the physical components (hardware), their distribution, and association. Deployment diagrams can be visualized as the hardware components/nodes on which the software components reside. Software applications are developed to model complex business processes. Efficient software applications are not sufficient to meet the business requirements. Business requirements can be described as the need to support the increasing number of users, quick response time, etc. To meet these types of requirements, hardware components should be designed efficiently and in a cost-effective way. Now-a-days software applications are very complex in nature. Software applications can be standalone, web-based, distributed, mainframe-based and many more. Hence, it is very important to design the hardware components efficiently. Deployment diagrams can be used − To model the hardware topology of a system. To model the embedded system. To model the hardware details for a client/server system. To model the hardware details of a distributed application. For Forward and Reverse engineering. To model a system, the most important aspect is to capture the dynamic behavior. Dynamic behavior means the behavior of the system when it is running/operating. Only static behavior is not sufficient to model a system rather dynamic behavior is more important than static behavior. In UML, there are five diagrams available to model the dynamic nature and use case diagram is one of them. Now as we have to discuss that the use case diagram is dynamic in nature, there should be some internal or external factors for making the interaction. These internal and external agents are known as actors. Use case diagrams consists of actors, use cases and their relationships. The diagram is used to model the system/subsystem of an application. A single use case diagram captures a particular functionality of a system. Hence to model the entire system, a number of use case diagrams are used. The purpose of use case diagram is to capture the dynamic aspect of a system. However, this definition is too generic to describe the purpose, as other four diagrams (activity, sequence, collaboration, and Statechart) also have the same purpose. We will look into some specific purpose, which will distinguish it from other four diagrams. Use case diagrams are used to gather the requirements of a system including internal and external influences. These requirements are mostly design requirements. Hence, when a system is analyzed to gather its functionalities, use cases are prepared and actors are identified. When the initial task is complete, use case diagrams are modelled to present the outside view. In brief, the purposes of use case diagrams can be said to be as follows − Used to gather the requirements of a system. Used to get an outside view of a system. Identify the external and internal factors influencing the system. Show the interaction among the requirements are actors. Use case diagrams are considered for high level requirement analysis of a system. When the requirements of a system are analyzed, the functionalities are captured in use cases. We can say that use cases are nothing but the system functionalities written in an organized manner. The second thing which is relevant to use cases are the actors. Actors can be defined as something that interacts with the system. Actors can be a human user, some internal applications, or may be some external applications. When we are planning to draw a use case diagram, we should have the following items identified. Functionalities to be represented as use case Relationships among the use cases and actors. Use case diagrams are drawn to capture the functional requirements of a system. After identifying the above items, we have to use the following guidelines to draw an efficient use case diagram The name of a use case is very important. The name should be chosen in such a way so that it can identify the functionalities performed. Give a suitable name for actors. Show relationships and dependencies clearly in the diagram. Do not try to include all types of relationships, as the main purpose of the diagram is to identify the requirements. Use notes whenever required to clarify some important points. Following is a sample use case diagram representing the order management system. Hence, if we look into the diagram then we will find three use cases (Order, SpecialOrder, and NormalOrder) and one actor which is the customer. The SpecialOrder and NormalOrder use cases are extended from Order use case. Hence, they have extended relationship. Another important point is to identify the system boundary, which is shown in the picture. The actor Customer lies outside the system as it is an external user of the system. As we have already discussed there are five diagrams in UML to model the dynamic view of a system. Now each and every model has some specific purpose to use. Actually these specific purposes are different angles of a running system. To understand the dynamics of a system, we need to use different types of diagrams. Use case diagram is one of them and its specific purpose is to gather system requirements and actors. Use case diagrams specify the events of a system and their flows. But use case diagram never describes how they are implemented. Use case diagram can be imagined as a black box where only the input, output, and the function of the black box is known. These diagrams are used at a very high level of design. This high level design is refined again and again to get a complete and practical picture of the system. A well-structured use case also describes the pre-condition, post condition, and exceptions. These extra elements are used to make test cases when performing the testing. Although use case is not a good candidate for forward and reverse engineering, still they are used in a slightly different way to make forward and reverse engineering. The same is true for reverse engineering. Use case diagram is used differently to make it suitable for reverse engineering. In forward engineering, use case diagrams are used to make test cases and in reverse engineering use cases are used to prepare the requirement details from the existing application. Use case diagrams can be used for − Requirement analysis and high level design. Model the context of a system. From the term Interaction, it is clear that the diagram is used to describe some type of interactions among the different elements in the model. This interaction is a part of dynamic behavior of the system. This interactive behavior is represented in UML by two diagrams known as Sequence diagram and Collaboration diagram. The basic purpose of both the diagrams are similar. Sequence diagram emphasizes on time sequence of messages and collaboration diagram emphasizes on the structural organization of the objects that send and receive messages. The purpose of interaction diagrams is to visualize the interactive behavior of the system. Visualizing the interaction is a difficult task. Hence, the solution is to use different types of models to capture the different aspects of the interaction. Sequence and collaboration diagrams are used to capture the dynamic nature but from a different angle. The purpose of interaction diagram is − To capture the dynamic behaviour of a system. To describe the message flow in the system. To describe the structural organization of the objects. To describe the interaction among objects. As we have already discussed, the purpose of interaction diagrams is to capture the dynamic aspect of a system. So to capture the dynamic aspect, we need to understand what a dynamic aspect is and how it is visualized. Dynamic aspect can be defined as the snapshot of the running system at a particular moment We have two types of interaction diagrams in UML. One is the sequence diagram and the other is the collaboration diagram. The sequence diagram captures the time sequence of the message flow from one object to another and the collaboration diagram describes the organization of objects in a system taking part in the message flow. Following things are to be identified clearly before drawing the interaction diagram Objects taking part in the interaction. Message flows among the objects. The sequence in which the messages are flowing. Following are two interaction diagrams modeling the order management system. The first diagram is a sequence diagram and the second is a collaboration diagram The sequence diagram has four objects (Customer, Order, SpecialOrder and NormalOrder). The following diagram shows the message sequence for SpecialOrder object and the same can be used in case of NormalOrder object. It is important to understand the time sequence of message flows. The message flow is nothing but a method call of an object. The first call is sendOrder () which is a method of Order object. The next call is confirm () which is a method of SpecialOrder object and the last call is Dispatch () which is a method of SpecialOrder object. The following diagram mainly describes the method calls from one object to another, and this is also the actual scenario when the system is running. The second interaction diagram is the collaboration diagram. It shows the object organization as seen in the following diagram. In the collaboration diagram, the method call sequence is indicated by some numbering technique. The number indicates how the methods are called one after another. We have taken the same order management system to describe the collaboration diagram. Method calls are similar to that of a sequence diagram. However, difference being the sequence diagram does not describe the object organization, whereas the collaboration diagram shows the object organization. To choose between these two diagrams, emphasis is placed on the type of requirement. If the time sequence is important, then the sequence diagram is used. If organization is required, then collaboration diagram is used. We have already discussed that interaction diagrams are used to describe the dynamic nature of a system. Now, we will look into the practical scenarios where these diagrams are used. To understand the practical application, we need to understand the basic nature of sequence and collaboration diagram. The main purpose of both the diagrams are similar as they are used to capture the dynamic behavior of a system. However, the specific purpose is more important to clarify and understand. Sequence diagrams are used to capture the order of messages flowing from one object to another. Collaboration diagrams are used to describe the structural organization of the objects taking part in the interaction. A single diagram is not sufficient to describe the dynamic aspect of an entire system, so a set of diagrams are used to capture it as a whole. Interaction diagrams are used when we want to understand the message flow and the structural organization. Message flow means the sequence of control flow from one object to another. Structural organization means the visual organization of the elements in a system. Interaction diagrams can be used − To model the flow of control by time sequence. To model the flow of control by structural organizations. For forward engineering. For reverse engineering. The name of the diagram itself clarifies the purpose of the diagram and other details. It describes different states of a component in a system. The states are specific to a component/object of a system. A Statechart diagram describes a state machine. State machine can be defined as a machine which defines different states of an object and these states are controlled by external or internal events. Activity diagram explained in the next chapter, is a special kind of a Statechart diagram. As Statechart diagram defines the states, it is used to model the lifetime of an object. Statechart diagram is one of the five UML diagrams used to model the dynamic nature of a system. They define different states of an object during its lifetime and these states are changed by events. Statechart diagrams are useful to model the reactive systems. Reactive systems can be defined as a system that responds to external or internal events. Statechart diagram describes the flow of control from one state to another state. States are defined as a condition in which an object exists and it changes when some event is triggered. The most important purpose of Statechart diagram is to model lifetime of an object from creation to termination. Statechart diagrams are also used for forward and reverse engineering of a system. However, the main purpose is to model the reactive system. Following are the main purposes of using Statechart diagrams − To model the dynamic aspect of a system. To model the life time of a reactive system. To describe different states of an object during its life time. Define a state machine to model the states of an object. Statechart diagram is used to describe the states of different objects in its life cycle. Emphasis is placed on the state changes upon some internal or external events. These states of objects are important to analyze and implement them accurately. Statechart diagrams are very important for describing the states. States can be identified as the condition of objects when a particular event occurs. Before drawing a Statechart diagram we should clarify the following points − Identify the important objects to be analyzed. Identify the states. Identify the events. Following is an example of a Statechart diagram where the state of Order object is analyzed The first state is an idle state from where the process starts. The next states are arrived for events like send request, confirm request, and dispatch order. These events are responsible for the state changes of order object. During the life cycle of an object (here order object) it goes through the following states and there may be some abnormal exits. This abnormal exit may occur due to some problem in the system. When the entire life cycle is complete, it is considered as a complete transaction as shown in the following figure. The initial and final state of an object is also shown in the following figure. From the above discussion, we can define the practical applications of a Statechart diagram. Statechart diagrams are used to model the dynamic aspect of a system like other four diagrams discussed in this tutorial. However, it has some distinguishing characteristics for modeling the dynamic nature. Statechart diagram defines the states of a component and these state changes are dynamic in nature. Its specific purpose is to define the state changes triggered by events. Events are internal or external factors influencing the system. Statechart diagrams are used to model the states and also the events operating on the system. When implementing a system, it is very important to clarify different states of an object during its life time and Statechart diagrams are used for this purpose. When these states and events are identified, they are used to model it and these models are used during the implementation of the system. If we look into the practical implementation of Statechart diagram, then it is mainly used to analyze the object states influenced by events. This analysis is helpful to understand the system behavior during its execution. The main usage can be described as − To model the object states of a system. To model the reactive system. Reactive system consists of reactive objects. To identify the events responsible for state changes. Forward and reverse engineering. Activity diagram is another important diagram in UML to describe the dynamic aspects of the system. Activity diagram is basically a flowchart to represent the flow from one activity to another activity. The activity can be described as an operation of the system. The control flow is drawn from one operation to another. This flow can be sequential, branched, or concurrent. Activity diagrams deal with all type of flow control by using different elements such as fork, join, etc The basic purposes of activity diagrams is similar to other four diagrams. It captures the dynamic behavior of the system. Other four diagrams are used to show the message flow from one object to another but activity diagram is used to show message flow from one activity to another. Activity is a particular operation of the system. Activity diagrams are not only used for visualizing the dynamic nature of a system, but they are also used to construct the executable system by using forward and reverse engineering techniques. The only missing thing in the activity diagram is the message part. It does not show any message flow from one activity to another. Activity diagram is sometimes considered as the flowchart. Although the diagrams look like a flowchart, they are not. It shows different flows such as parallel, branched, concurrent, and single. The purpose of an activity diagram can be described as − Draw the activity flow of a system. Describe the sequence from one activity to another. Describe the parallel, branched and concurrent flow of the system. Activity diagrams are mainly used as a flowchart that consists of activities performed by the system. Activity diagrams are not exactly flowcharts as they have some additional capabilities. These additional capabilities include branching, parallel flow, swimlane, etc. Before drawing an activity diagram, we must have a clear understanding about the elements used in activity diagram. The main element of an activity diagram is the activity itself. An activity is a function performed by the system. After identifying the activities, we need to understand how they are associated with constraints and conditions. Before drawing an activity diagram, we should identify the following elements − Once the above-mentioned parameters are identified, we need to make a mental layout of the entire flow. This mental layout is then transformed into an activity diagram. Following is an example of an activity diagram for order management system. In the diagram, four activities are identified which are associated with conditions. One important point should be clearly understood that an activity diagram cannot be exactly matched with the code. The activity diagram is made to understand the flow of activities and is mainly used by the business users Following diagram is drawn with the four main activities − Send order by the customer Receipt of the order Confirm the order Dispatch the order After receiving the order request, condition checks are performed to check if it is normal or special order. After the type of order is identified, dispatch activity is performed and that is marked as the termination of the process. The basic usage of activity diagram is similar to other four UML diagrams. The specific usage is to model the control flow from one activity to another. This control flow does not include messages. Activity diagram is suitable for modeling the activity flow of the system. An application can have multiple systems. Activity diagram also captures these systems and describes the flow from one system to another. This specific usage is not available in other diagrams. These systems can be database, external queues, or any other system. We will now look into the practical applications of the activity diagram. From the above discussion, it is clear that an activity diagram is drawn from a very high level. So it gives high level view of a system. This high level view is mainly for business users or any other person who is not a technical person. This diagram is used to model the activities which are nothing but business requirements. The diagram has more impact on business understanding rather than on implementation details. Activity diagram can be used for − Modeling work flow by using activities. Modeling business requirements. High level understanding of the system's functionalities. Investigating business requirements at a later stage.
In biology, regeneration is the process of renewal, restoration, and growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms, and ecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage. Every species is capable of regeneration, from bacteria to humans. Regeneration can either be complete where the new tissue is the same as the lost tissue, or incomplete where after the necrotic tissue comes fibrosis. At its most elementary level, regeneration is mediated by the molecular processes of gene regulation. Regeneration in biology, however, mainly refers to the morphogenic processes that characterize the phenotypic plasticity of traits allowing multi-cellular organisms to repair and maintain the integrity of their physiological and morphological states. Above the genetic level, regeneration is fundamentally regulated by asexual cellular processes. Regeneration is different from reproduction. For example, hydra perform regeneration but reproduce by the method of budding. The hydra and the planarian flatworm have long served as model organisms for their highly adaptive regenerative capabilities. Once wounded, their cells become activated and start to remodel tissues and organs back to the pre-existing state. The Caudata ("urodeles"; salamanders and newts), an order of tailed amphibians, is possibly the most adept vertebrate group at regeneration, given their capability of regenerating limbs, tails, jaws, eyes and a variety of internal structures. The regeneration of organs is a common and widespread adaptive capability among metazoan creatures. In a related context, some animals are able to reproduce asexually through fragmentation, budding, or fission. A planarian parent, for example, will constrict, split in the middle, and each half generates a new end to form two clones of the original. Echinoderms (such as the starfish), crayfish, many reptiles, and amphibians exhibit remarkable examples of tissue regeneration. The case of autotomy, for example, serves as a defensive function as the animal detaches a limb or tail to avoid capture. After the limb or tail has been autotomized, cells move into action and the tissues will regenerate. Limited regeneration of limbs occurs in most fishes and salamanders, and tail regeneration takes place in larval frogs and toads (but not adults). The whole limb of a Salamander or a Triton will grow again and again after amputation. In reptiles, Chelonians, crocodiles and snakes are unable to regenerate lost parts. But many (not all) kinds of lizards, geckos and Iguanas possess regeneration capacity in a high degree. Usually, it involves dropping a section of their tail and regenerating it as part of a defense mechanism. While escaping a predator, if the predator catches the tail, it will disconnect. Ecosystems can be regenerative. Following a disturbance, such as a fire or pest outbreak in a forest, pioneering species will occupy, compete for space, and establish themselves in the newly opened habitat. The new growth of seedlings and community assembly process is known as regeneration in ecology. Cellular molecular fundamentals Pattern formation in the morphogenesis of an animal is regulated by genetic induction factors that put cells to work after damage has occurred. Neural cells, for example, express growth-associated proteins, such as GAP-43, tubulin, actin, an array of novel neuropeptides, and cytokines that induce a cellular physiological response to regenerate from the damage. Many of the genes that are involved in the original development of tissues are reinitialized during the regenerative process. Cells in the primordia of zebrafish fins, for example, express four genes from the homeobox msx family during development and regeneration. "Strategies include the rearrangement of pre-existing tissue, the use of adult somatic stem cells and the dedifferentiation and/or transdifferentiation of cells, and more than one mode can operate in different tissues of the same animal. All these strategies result in the re-establishment of appropriate tissue polarity, structure and form.":873 During the developmental process, genes are activated that serve to modify the properties of cell as they differentiate into different tissues. Development and regeneration involves the coordination and organization of populations cells into a blastema, which is "a mound of stem cells from which regeneration begins." Dedifferentiation of cells means that they lose their tissue-specific characteristics as tissues remodel during the regeneration process. This should not be confused with the transdifferentiation of cells which is when they lose their tissue-specific characteristics during the regeneration process, and then re-differentiate to a different kind of cell. Arthropods are known to regenerate appendages following loss or autotomy. Regeneration among arthropods is restricted by molting such that hemimetabolous insects are capable of regeneration only until their final molt whereas most crustaceans can regenerate throughout their lifetimes. Molting cycles are hormonally regulated in arthropods, although premature molting can be induced by autotomy. Mechanisms underlying appendage regeneration in hemimetabolous insects and crustaceans is highly conserved. During limb regeneration species in both taxa form a blastema following autotomy with regeneration of the excised limb occurring during proecdysis. Arachnids, including scorpions, are known to regenerate their venom, although the content of the regenerated venom is different than the original venom during its regeneration, as the venom volume is replaced before the active proteins are all replenished. Many annelids are capable of regeneration. For example, Chaetopterus variopedatus and Branchiomma nigromaculata can regenerate both anterior and posterior body parts after latitudinal bisection. The relationship between somatic and germline stem cell regeneration has been studied at the molecular level in the annelid Capitella teleta. Leeches, members of the Annelid subclass Hirudinid, are incapable of segmental regeneration. Furthermore, their close relatives, the branchiobdellids, are also incapable of segmental regeneration. However, certain individuals, like the lumbriculids, can regenerate from only a few segments. Segmental regeneration in these animals is epimorphic and occurs through blastema formation. Segmental regeneration has been gained and lost during annelid evolution, as seen in oligochaetes, where head regeneration has been lost three separate times. Along with epimorphosis, some polychaetes like Sabella pavonina experience morphallactic regeneration. Morphallaxis involves the de-differentiation, transformation, and re-differentation of cells to regenerate tissues. How prominent morphallactic regeneration is in oligochaetes is currently not well understood. Although relatively under-reported, it is possible that morphallaxis is a common mode of inter-segment regeneration in annelids. Following regeneration in L. variegatus, past posterior segments sometimes become anterior in the new body orientation, consistent with morphallaxis. Following amputation, most annelids are capable of sealing their body via rapid muscular contraction. Constriction of body muscle can lead to infection prevention. In certain species, like Limnodrilus, autolysis can be seen within hours after amputation in the ectoderm and mesoderm. Amputation is also thought to cause a large migration of cells to the injury site, and these form a wound plug. Tissue regeneration is widespread among echinoderms and has been well documented in starfish (Asteroidea), sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea), and sea urchins (Echinoidea). Appendage regeneration in echinoderms has been studied since at least the 19th century. In addition to appendages, some species can regenerate internal organs and parts of their central nervous system. In response to injury starfish can autotomize damaged appendages. Autotomy is the self-amputation of a body part, usually an appendage. Depending on severity, starfish will then go through a four-week process where the appendage will be regenerated. Some species must retain mouth cells in order to regenerate an appendage, due to the need for energy. The first organs to regenerate, in all species documented to date, are associated with the digestive tract. Thus, most of our knowledge about visceral regeneration in holothurians concerns this system. Regeneration research using Planarians began in the late 1800s and was popularized by T.H. Morgan at the beginning of the 19th century. Alejandro Sanchez-Alvarado and Philip Newmark transformed planarians into a model genetic organism in the beginning of the 20th century to study the molecular mechanisms underlying regeneration in these animals. Planarians exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate lost body parts. For example, a planarian split lengthwise or crosswise will regenerate into two separate individuals. In one experiment, T.H. Morgan found that a piece corresponding to 1/279th of a planarian or a fragment with as few as 10,000 cells can successfully regenerate into a new worm within one to two weeks. After amputation, stump cells form a blastema formed from neoblasts, pluripotent cells found throughout the planarian body. New tissue grows from neoblasts with neoblasts comprising between 20 and 30% of all planarian cells. Recent work has confirmed that neoblasts are totipotent since one singe noblest can regenerate an entire irradiated animal that has been rendered incapable of regeneration. In order to prevent starvation a planarian will use their own cells for energy, this phenomenon is known as de-growth. Limb regeneration in the axolotl and newt has been extensively studied and researched. Urodele amphibians, such as salamanders and newts, display the highest regenerative ability among tetrapods. As such, they can fully regenerate their limbs, tail, jaws, and retina via epimorphic regeneration leading to functional replacement of new tissue. Salamander limb regeneration occurs in two main steps. First, the local cells dedifferentiate at the wound site into progenitor to form a blastema Second, the blastemal cells will undergo proliferation, patterning, differentiation and growth using similar genetic mechanisms that deployed during embryonic development. Ultimately, blastemal cells will generate all the cells for the new structure. After amputation, the epidermis migrates to cover the stump in 1–2 hours, forming a structure called the wound epithelium (WE). Epidermal cells continue to migrate over the WE, resulting in a thickened, specialized signaling center called the apical epithelial cap (AEC). Over the next several days there are changes in the underlying stump tissues that result in the formation of a blastema (a mass of dedifferentiated proliferating cells). As the blastema forms, pattern formation genes – such as HoxA and HoxD – are activated as they were when the limb was formed in the embryo. The positional identity of the distal tip of the limb (i.e. the autopod, which is the hand or foot) is formed first in the blastema. Intermediate positional identities between the stump and the distal tip are then filled in through a process called intercalation. Motor neurons, muscle, and blood vessels grow with the regenerated limb, and reestablish the connections that were present prior to amputation. The time that this entire process takes varies according to the age of the animal, ranging from about a month to around three months in the adult and then the limb becomes fully functional. Researchers at Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute at Monash University, have published that when macrophages, which eat up material debris, were removed, salamanders lost their ability to regenerate and formed scarred tissue instead. In spite of the historically few researchers studying limb regeneration, remarkable progress has been made recently in establishing the neotenous amphibian the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) as a model genetic organism. This progress has been facilitated by advances in genomics, bioinformatics, and somatic cell transgenesis in other fields, that have created the opportunity to investigate the mechanisms of important biological properties, such as limb regeneration, in the axolotl. The Ambystoma Genetic Stock Center (AGSC) is a self-sustaining, breeding colony of the axolotl supported by the National Science Foundation as a Living Stock Collection. Located at the University of Kentucky, the AGSC is dedicated to supplying genetically well-characterized axolotl embryos, larvae, and adults to laboratories throughout the United States and abroad. An NIH-funded NCRR grant has led to the establishment of the Ambystoma EST database, the Salamander Genome Project (SGP) that has led to the creation of the first amphibian gene map and several annotated molecular data bases, and the creation of the research community web portal. Anurans can only regenerate their limbs during embryonic development. Once the limb skeleton has developed regeneration does not occur (Xenopus can grow a cartilaginous spike after amputation). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) appear to be required for a regeneration response in the anuran larvae. ROS production is essential to activate the Wnt signaling pathway, which has been associated with regeneration in other systems. Limb regeneration in salamanders occurs in two major steps. First, adult cells de-differentiate into progenitor cells which will replace the tissues they are derived from. Second, these progenitor cells then proliferate and differentiate until they have completely replaced the missing structure. Hydra is a genus of freshwater polyp in the phylum Cnidaria with highly proliferative stem cells that gives them the ability to regenerate their entire body. Any fragment larger than a few hundred epithelial cells that is isolated from the body has the ability to regenerate into a smaller version of itself. The high proportion of stem cells in the hydra supports its efficient regenerative ability. Regeneration among hydra occurs as foot regeneration arising from the basal part of the body, and head regeneration, arising from the apical region. Regeneration tissues that are cut from the gastric region contain polarity, which allows them to distinguish between regenerating a head in the apical end and a foot in the basal end so that both regions are present in the newly regenerated organism. Head regeneration requires complex reconstruction of the area, while foot regeneration is much simpler, similar to tissue repair. In both foot and head regeneration, however, there are two distinct molecular cascades that occur once the tissue is wounded: early injury response and a subsequent, signal-driven pathway of the regenerating tissue that leads to differentiation. This early-injury response includes epithelial cell stretching for wound closure, the migration of interstitial progenitors towards the wound, cell death, phagocytosis of cell debris, and reconstruction of the extracellular matrix. Regeneration in hydra has been defined as morphallaxis, the process where regeneration results from remodeling of existing material without cellular proliferation. If a hydra is cut into two pieces, the remaining severed sections form two fully functional and independent hydra, approximately the same size as the two smaller severed sections. This occurs through the exchange and rearrangement of soft tissues without the formation of new material. Owing to a limited literature on the subject, birds are believed to have very limited regenerative abilities as adults. Some studies on roosters have suggested that birds can adequately regenerate some parts of the limbs and depending on the conditions in which regeneration takes place, such as age of the animal, the inter-relationship of the injured tissue with other muscles, and the type of operation, can involve complete regeneration of some musculoskeletal structure. Werber and Goldschmidt (1909) found that the goose and duck were capable of regenerating their beaks after partial amputation and Sidorova (1962) observed liver regeneration via hypertrophy in roosters. Birds are also capable of regenerating the hair cells in their cochlea following noise damage or ototoxic drug damage. Despite this evidence, contemporary studies suggest reparative regeneration in avian species is limited to periods during embryonic development. An array of molecular biology techniques have been successful in manipulating cellular pathways known to contribute to spontaneous regeneration in chick embryos. For instance, removing a portion of the elbow joint in a chick embryo via window excision or slice excision and comparing joint tissue specific markers and cartilage markers showed that window excision allowed 10 out of 20 limbs to regenerate and expressed joint genes similarly to a developing embryo. In contrast, slice excision did not allow the joint to regenerate due to the fusion of the skeletal elements seen by an expression of cartilage markers. Similar to the physiological regeneration of hair in mammals, birds can regenerate their feathers in order to repair damaged feathers or to attract mates with their plumage. Typically, seasonal changes that are associated with breeding seasons will prompt a hormonal signal for birds to begin regenerating feathers. This has been experimentally induced using thyroid hormones in the Rhode Island Red Fowls. Mammals are capable of cellular and physiological regeneration, but have generally poor reparative regenerative ability across the group. Examples of physiological regeneration in mammals include epithelial renewal (e.g., skin and intestinal tract), red blood cell replacement, antler regeneration and hair cycling. Male deer lose their antlers annually during the months of January to April then through regeneration are able to regrow them as an example of physiological regeneration. A deer antler is the only appendage of a mammal that can be regrown every year. While reparative regeneration is a rare phenomenon in mammals, it does occur. A well-documented example is regeneration of the digit tip distal to the nail bed. Reparative regeneration has also been observed in rabbits, pikas and African spiny mice. In 2012, researchers discovered that at least two species of African Spiny Mice, Acomys kempi and Acomys percivali, are capable of completely regenerating the autotomically released or otherwise damaged tissue. These species can regrow hair follicles, skin, sweat glands, fur and cartilage. Adult mammals have limited regenerative capacity compared to most vertebrate embryos/larvae, adult salamanders and fish. But the regeneration therapy approach of Robert O. Becker, using electrical stimulation, has shown promising results for rats and mammals in general. The MRL mouse is a strain of mouse that exhibits remarkable regenerative abilities for a mammal. By comparing the differential gene expression of scarless healing MRL mice and a poorly-healing C57BL/6 mouse strain, 36 genes have been identified that are good candidates for studying how the healing process differs in MRL mice and other mice. Study of the regenerative process in these animals is aimed at discovering how to duplicate them in humans, such as deactivation of the p21 gene. The regenerative ability of MRL mice does not, however, protect them against myocardial infarction; heart regeneration in adult mammals (neocardiogenesis) is limited, because heart muscle cells are nearly all terminally differentiated. MRL mice show the same amount of cardiac injury and scar formation as normal mice after a heart attack. However, recent studies provide evidence that this may not always be the case, and that MRL mice can regenerate after heart damage. The regrowth of lost tissues or organs in the human body is being researched. Some tissues such as skin regrow quite readily; others have been thought to have little or no capacity for regeneration, but ongoing research suggests that there is some hope for a variety of tissues and organs. Human organs that have been regenerated include the bladder, vagina and the penis. As are all metazoans, humans are capable of physiological regeneration (i.e. the replacement of cells during homeostatic maintenance that does not necessitate injury). For example, the regeneration of red blood cells via erythropoiesis occurs through the maturation of erythrocytes from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, their subsequent circulation for around 90 days in the blood stream, and their eventual cell-death in the spleen. Another example of physiological regeneration is the sloughing and rebuilding of a functional endometrium during each menstrual cycle in females in response to varying levels of circulating estrogen and progesterone. However, humans are limited in their capacity for reparative regeneration, which occurs in response to injury. One of the most studied regenerative responses in humans is the hypertrophy of the liver following liver injury. For example, the original mass of the liver is re-established in direct proportion to the amount of liver removed following partial hepatectomy, which indicates that signals from the body regulate liver mass precisely, both positively and negatively, until the desired mass is reached. This response is considered cellular regeneration (a form of compensatory hypertrophy) where the function and mass of the liver is regenerated through the proliferation of existing mature hepatic cells (mainly hepatocytes), but the exact morphology of the liver is not regained. This process is driven by growth factor and cytokine regulated pathways. Adult neurogenesis is also a form of cellular regeneration. For example, hippocampal neuron renewal occurs in normal adult humans at an annual turnover rate of 1.75% of neurons. Cardiac myocyte renewal has been found to occur in normal adult humans, and at a higher rate in adults following acute heart injury such as infarction. Even in adult myocardium following infarction, proliferation is only found in around 1% of myocytes around the area of injury, which is not enough to restore function of cardiac muscle. However, this may be an important target for regenerative medicine as it implies that regeneration of cardiomyocytes, and consequently of myocardium, can be induced. Another example of reparative regeneration in humans is fingertip regeneration, which occurs after phalange amputation distal to the nail bed (especially in children) and rib regeneration, which occurs following osteotomy for scoliosis treatment (though usually regeneration is only partial and may take up to 1 year). The ability and degree of regeneration in reptiles differs among the various species, but the most notable and well-studied occurrence is tail-regeneration in lizards. In addition to lizards, regeneration has been observed in the tails and maxillary bone of crocodiles and adult neurogenesis has also been noted. Tail regeneration has never been observed in snakes. Lizards possess the highest regenerative capacity as a group. Following autonomous tail loss, epimorphic regeneration of a new tail proceeds through a blastema-mediated process that results in a functionally and morphologically similar structure. Tail regeneration in lizards presents an interesting case study for the evolution of regenerative abilities as regenerative ability among the 3,300 extant species varies greatly among them. Studies have shown that some chondrichthyans can regenerate rhodopsin by cellular regeneration, micro RNA organ regeneration, teeth physiological teeth regeneration, and reparative skin regeneration. Rhodopsin regeneration has been studied in skates and rays. After complete photo-bleaching, rhodopsin can completely regenerate within 2 hours in the retina. White bamboo sharks can regenerate at least two-thirds of their liver and this has been linked to three micro RNAs, xtr-miR-125b, fru-miR-204, and has-miR-142-3p_R-. In one study two thirds of the liver was removed and within 24 hours more than half of the liver had undergone hypertrophy. Leopard sharks routinely replace their teeth every 9–12 days and this is an example of physiological regeneration. This can occur because shark teeth are not attached to a bone, but instead are developed within a bony cavity. It has been estimated that the average shark looses about 30,000 to 40,000 teeth in a lifetime. Some sharks can regenerate scales and even skin following damage. Within two weeks of skin wounding the mucus is secreted into the wound and this initiates the healing process. 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In Gans, Carl; Billet, F. Biology of the Reptilia 15. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 301–410. - Brazaitis, Peter (July 31, 1981). "Maxillary Regeneration in a Marsh Crocodile, Crocodylus palustris". Journal of Herpetology 15 (3): 360–362. doi:10.2307/1563441. - Font, Enrique; Desfilis, Ester; M. Mar, Pérez-Cañellas; García-Verdugo, Jose Manuel (2001). "Neurogenesis and Neuronal Regeneration in the Adult Reptilian Brain". Brain, Behavior and Evolution 58 (5): 276–295. doi:10.1159/000057570. - "Vickaryous Lab". - Reichman, O.J. (1984). "Evolution of Regeneration Capabilities". The American Naturalist 123 (6): 752–763. doi:10.1086/284237. - Sun, Yifan (1992). "Rhodopsin regeneration in the normal and in the detached/replaced retina of the skate". Experimental Eye Research. - Lu, Conger (2013). "Study of MicroRNAs Related to the Liver Regeneration of the Whitespotted Bamboo Shark, Chiloscyllium plagiosum". BioMed Research International. - Vorontsova, M.A.; Liosner, L.D. (1960). Asexual Propagation and Regeneration. Pergamon Press. pp. 367–371. - Reif, Wolf-Ernst (1978). "Wound Healing in Sharks". Zoomorphology. - Tanaka EM (October 2003). "Cell differentiation and cell fate during urodele tail and limb regeneration". Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 13 (5): 497–501. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2003.08.003. PMID 14550415. - Nye HL, Cameron JA, Chernoff EA, Stocum DL (February 2003). "Regeneration of the urodele limb: a review". Dev. Dyn. 226 (2): 280–94. doi:10.1002/dvdy.10236. PMID 12557206. - Yu H, Mohan S, Masinde GL, Baylink DJ (December 2005). "Mapping the dominant wound healing and soft tissue regeneration QTL in MRL x CAST". Mamm. Genome 16 (12): 918–24. doi:10.1007/s00335-005-0077-0. PMID 16341671. - Gardiner DM, Blumberg B, Komine Y, Bryant SV (June 1995). "Regulation of HoxA expression in developing and regenerating axolotl limbs". Development 121 (6): 1731–41. PMID 7600989. - Torok MA, Gardiner DM, Shubin NH, Bryant SV (August 1998). 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A wavelet is a wave-like oscillation with an amplitude that begins at zero, increases, and then decreases back to zero. It can typically be visualized as a "brief oscillation" like one might see recorded by a seismograph or heart monitor. Generally, wavelets are purposefully crafted to have specific properties that make them useful for signal processing. Wavelets can be combined, using a "reverse, shift, multiply and integrate" technique called convolution, with portions of a known signal to extract information from the unknown signal. For example, a wavelet could be created to have a frequency of Middle C and a short duration of roughly a 32nd note. If this wavelet was to be convolved with a signal created from the recording of a song, then the resulting signal would be useful for determining when the Middle C note was being played in the song. Mathematically, the wavelet will correlate with the signal if the unknown signal contains information of similar frequency. This concept of correlation is at the core of many practical applications of wavelet theory. As a mathematical tool, wavelets can be used to extract information from many different kinds of data, including – but certainly not limited to – audio signals and images. Sets of wavelets are generally needed to analyze data fully. A set of "complementary" wavelets will decompose data without gaps or overlap so that the decomposition process is mathematically reversible. Thus, sets of complementary wavelets are useful in wavelet based compression/decompression algorithms where it is desirable to recover the original information with minimal loss. In formal terms, this representation is a wavelet series representation of a square-integrable function with respect to either a complete, orthonormal set of basis functions, or an overcomplete set or frame of a vector space, for the Hilbert space of square integrable functions. - 1 Name - 2 Wavelet theory - 3 Mother wavelet - 4 Comparisons with Fourier transform (continuous-time) - 5 Definition of a wavelet - 6 History - 7 Wavelet transforms - 8 Applications of wavelet transform - 9 List of wavelets - 10 See also - 11 Notes - 12 References - 13 External links The word wavelet has been used for decades in digital signal processing and exploration geophysics. The equivalent French word ondelette meaning "small wave" was used by Morlet and Grossmann in the early 1980s. \|This section does not cite any references or sources. (November 2014)\| Wavelet theory is applicable to several subjects. All wavelet transforms may be considered forms of time-frequency representation for continuous-time (analog) signals and so are related to harmonic analysis. Almost all practically useful discrete wavelet transforms use discrete-time filterbanks. These filter banks are called the wavelet and scaling coefficients in wavelets nomenclature. These filterbanks may contain either finite impulse response (FIR) or infinite impulse response (IIR) filters. The wavelets forming a continuous wavelet transform (CWT) are subject to the uncertainty principle of Fourier analysis respective sampling theory: Given a signal with some event in it, one cannot assign simultaneously an exact time and frequency response scale to that event. The product of the uncertainties of time and frequency response scale has a lower bound. Thus, in the scaleogram of a continuous wavelet transform of this signal, such an event marks an entire region in the time-scale plane, instead of just one point. Also, discrete wavelet bases may be considered in the context of other forms of the uncertainty principle. Wavelet transforms are broadly divided into three classes: continuous, discrete and multiresolution-based. Continuous wavelet transforms (continuous shift and scale parameters) In continuous wavelet transforms, a given signal of finite energy is projected on a continuous family of frequency bands (or similar subspaces of the Lp function space L2(R) ). For instance the signal may be represented on every frequency band of the form [f, 2f] for all positive frequencies f > 0. Then, the original signal can be reconstructed by a suitable integration over all the resulting frequency components. The frequency bands or subspaces (sub-bands) are scaled versions of a subspace at scale 1. This subspace in turn is in most situations generated by the shifts of one generating function ψ in L2(R), the mother wavelet. For the example of the scale one frequency band [1, 2] this function is with the (normalized) sinc function. That, Meyer's, and two other examples of mother wavelets are: The subspace of scale a or frequency band [1/a, 2/a] is generated by the functions (sometimes called child wavelets) where a is positive and defines the scale and b is any real number and defines the shift. The pair (a, b) defines a point in the right halfplane R+ × R. The projection of a function x onto the subspace of scale a then has the form with wavelet coefficients See a list of some Continuous wavelets. For the analysis of the signal x, one can assemble the wavelet coefficients into a scaleogram of the signal. Discrete wavelet transforms (discrete shift and scale parameters) It is computationally impossible to analyze a signal using all wavelet coefficients, so one may wonder if it is sufficient to pick a discrete subset of the upper halfplane to be able to reconstruct a signal from the corresponding wavelet coefficients. One such system is the affine system for some real parameters a > 1, b > 0. The corresponding discrete subset of the halfplane consists of all the points (am, namb) with m, n in Z. The corresponding baby wavelets are now given as A sufficient condition for the reconstruction of any signal x of finite energy by the formula is that the functions form a orthonormal basis of L2(R). Multiresolution based discrete wavelet transforms In any discretised wavelet transform, there are only a finite number of wavelet coefficients for each bounded rectangular region in the upper halfplane. Still, each coefficient requires the evaluation of an integral. In special situations this numerical complexity can be avoided if the scaled and shifted wavelets form a multiresolution analysis. This means that there has to exist an auxiliary function, the father wavelet φ in L2(R), and that a is an integer. A typical choice is a = 2 and b = 1. The most famous pair of father and mother wavelets is the Daubechies 4-tap wavelet. Note that not every orthonormal discrete wavelet basis can be associated to a multiresolution analysis; for example, the Journe wavelet admits no multiresolution analysis. From the mother and father wavelets one constructs the subspaces The mother wavelet keeps the time domain properties, while the father wavelets keeps the frequency domain properties. From these it is required that the sequence forms a multiresolution analysis of L2 and that the subspaces are the orthogonal "differences" of the above sequence, that is, Wm is the orthogonal complement of Vm inside the subspace Vm−1, In analogy to the sampling theorem one may conclude that the space Vm with sampling distance 2m more or less covers the frequency baseband from 0 to 2−m-1. As orthogonal complement, Wm roughly covers the band [2−m−1, 2−m]. From those inclusions and orthogonality relations, especially , follows the existence of sequences and that satisfy the identities - so that and - so that From the multiresolution analysis derives the orthogonal decomposition of the space L2 as For any signal or function this gives a representation in basis functions of the corresponding subspaces as where the coefficients are For practical applications, and for efficiency reasons, one prefers continuously differentiable functions with compact support as mother (prototype) wavelet (functions). However, to satisfy analytical requirements (in the continuous WT) and in general for theoretical reasons, one chooses the wavelet functions from a subspace of the space This is the space of measurable functions that are absolutely and square integrable: Being in this space ensures that one can formulate the conditions of zero mean and square norm one: - is the condition for zero mean, and - is the condition for square norm one. For ψ to be a wavelet for the continuous wavelet transform (see there for exact statement), the mother wavelet must satisfy an admissibility criterion (loosely speaking, a kind of half-differentiability) in order to get a stably invertible transform. For the discrete wavelet transform, one needs at least the condition that the wavelet series is a representation of the identity in the space L2(R). Most constructions of discrete WT make use of the multiresolution analysis, which defines the wavelet by a scaling function. This scaling function itself is a solution to a functional equation. In most situations it is useful to restrict ψ to be a continuous function with a higher number M of vanishing moments, i.e. for all integer m < M The mother wavelet is scaled (or dilated) by a factor of a and translated (or shifted) by a factor of b to give (under Morlet's original formulation): For the continuous WT, the pair (a,b) varies over the full half-plane R+ × R; for the discrete WT this pair varies over a discrete subset of it, which is also called affine group. These functions are often incorrectly referred to as the basis functions of the (continuous) transform. In fact, as in the continuous Fourier transform, there is no basis in the continuous wavelet transform. Time-frequency interpretation uses a subtly different formulation (after Delprat). (1) when a1 = a and b1 = b, (2) has a finite time interval Comparisons with Fourier transform (continuous-time) The wavelet transform is often compared with the Fourier transform, in which signals are represented as a sum of sinusoids. In fact, the Fourier transform can be viewed as a special case of the continuous wavelet transform with the choice of the mother wavelet . The main difference in general is that wavelets are localized in both time and frequency whereas the standard Fourier transform is only localized in frequency. The Short-time Fourier transform (STFT) is similar to the wavelet transform, in that it is also time and frequency localized, but there are issues with the frequency/time resolution trade-off. In particular, assuming a rectangular window region, one may think of the STFT as a transform with a slightly different kernel where can often be written as , where and u respectively denote the length and temporal offset of the windowing function. Using Parseval’s theorem, one may define the wavelet’s energy as From this, the square of the temporal support of the window offset by time u is given by and the square of the spectral support of the window acting on a frequency As stated by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the product of the temporal and spectral supports for any given time-frequency atom, or resolution cell. The STFT windows restrict the resolution cells to spectral and temporal supports determined by . Multiplication with a rectangular window in the time domain corresponds to convolution with a function in the frequency domain, resulting in spurious ringing artifacts for short/localized temporal windows. With the continuous-time Fourier Transform, and this convolution is with a delta function in Fourier space, resulting in the true Fourier transform of the signal . The window function may be some other apodizing filter, such as a Gaussian. The choice of windowing function will affect the approximation error relative to the true Fourier transform. A given resolution cell’s time-bandwidth product may not be exceeded with the STFT. All STFT basis elements maintain a uniform spectral and temporal support for all temporal shifts or offsets, thereby attaining an equal resolution in time for lower and higher frequencies. The resolution is purely determined by the sampling width. In contrast, the wavelet transform’s multiresolutional properties enables large temporal supports for lower frequencies while maintaining short temporal widths for higher frequencies by the scaling properties of the wavelet transform. This property extends conventional time-frequency analysis into time-scale analysis. The discrete wavelet transform is less computationally complex, taking O(N) time as compared to O(N log N) for the fast Fourier transform. This computational advantage is not inherent to the transform, but reflects the choice of a logarithmic division of frequency, in contrast to the equally spaced frequency divisions of the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) which uses the same basis functions as DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform). It is also important to note that this complexity only applies when the filter size has no relation to the signal size. A wavelet without compact support such as the Shannon wavelet would require O(N2). (For instance, a logarithmic Fourier Transform also exists with O(N) complexity, but the original signal must be sampled logarithmically in time, which is only useful for certain types of signals.) Definition of a wavelet There are a number of ways of defining a wavelet (or a wavelet family). An orthogonal wavelet is entirely defined by the scaling filter – a low-pass finite impulse response (FIR) filter of length 2N and sum 1. In biorthogonal wavelets, separate decomposition and reconstruction filters are defined. For analysis with orthogonal wavelets the high pass filter is calculated as the quadrature mirror filter of the low pass, and reconstruction filters are the time reverse of the decomposition filters. Daubechies and Symlet wavelets can be defined by the scaling filter. Wavelets are defined by the wavelet function ψ(t) (i.e. the mother wavelet) and scaling function φ(t) (also called father wavelet) in the time domain. The wavelet function is in effect a band-pass filter and scaling it for each level halves its bandwidth. This creates the problem that in order to cover the entire spectrum, an infinite number of levels would be required. The scaling function filters the lowest level of the transform and ensures all the spectrum is covered. See for a detailed explanation. For a wavelet with compact support, φ(t) can be considered finite in length and is equivalent to the scaling filter g. Meyer wavelets can be defined by scaling functions The wavelet only has a time domain representation as the wavelet function ψ(t). The development of wavelets can be linked to several separate trains of thought, starting with Haar's work in the early 20th century. Later work by Dennis Gabor yielded Gabor atoms (1946), which are constructed similarly to wavelets, and applied to similar purposes. Notable contributions to wavelet theory can be attributed to Zweig’s discovery of the continuous wavelet transform in 1975 (originally called the cochlear transform and discovered while studying the reaction of the ear to sound), Pierre Goupillaud, Grossmann and Morlet's formulation of what is now known as the CWT (1982), Jan-Olov Strömberg's early work on discrete wavelets (1983), Daubechies' orthogonal wavelets with compact support (1988), Mallat's multiresolution framework (1989), Akansu's Binomial QMF (1990), Nathalie Delprat's time-frequency interpretation of the CWT (1991), Newland's harmonic wavelet transform (1993) and many others since. - First wavelet (Haar wavelet) by Alfréd Haar (1909) - Since the 1970s: George Zweig, Jean Morlet, Alex Grossmann - Since the 1980s: Yves Meyer, Stéphane Mallat, Ingrid Daubechies, Ronald Coifman, Ali Akansu, Victor Wickerhauser A wavelet is a mathematical function used to divide a given function or continuous-time signal into different scale components. Usually one can assign a frequency range to each scale component. Each scale component can then be studied with a resolution that matches its scale. A wavelet transform is the representation of a function by wavelets. The wavelets are scaled and translated copies (known as "daughter wavelets") of a finite-length or fast-decaying oscillating waveform (known as the "mother wavelet"). Wavelet transforms have advantages over traditional Fourier transforms for representing functions that have discontinuities and sharp peaks, and for accurately deconstructing and reconstructing finite, non-periodic and/or non-stationary signals. Wavelet transforms are classified into discrete wavelet transforms (DWTs) and continuous wavelet transforms (CWTs). Note that both DWT and CWT are continuous-time (analog) transforms. They can be used to represent continuous-time (analog) signals. CWTs operate over every possible scale and translation whereas DWTs use a specific subset of scale and translation values or representation grid. There are a large number of wavelet transforms each suitable for different applications. For a full list see list of wavelet-related transforms but the common ones are listed below: - Continuous wavelet transform (CWT) - Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) - Fast wavelet transform (FWT) - Lifting scheme & Generalized Lifting Scheme - Wavelet packet decomposition (WPD) - Stationary wavelet transform (SWT) - Fractional Fourier transform (FRFT) - Fractional wavelet transform (FRWT) There are a number of generalized transforms of which the wavelet transform is a special case. For example, Joseph Segman introduced scale into the Heisenberg group, giving rise to a continuous transform space that is a function of time, scale, and frequency. The CWT is a two-dimensional slice through the resulting 3d time-scale-frequency volume. Another example of a generalized transform is the chirplet transform in which the CWT is also a two dimensional slice through the chirplet transform. An important application area for generalized transforms involves systems in which high frequency resolution is crucial. For example, darkfield electron optical transforms intermediate between direct and reciprocal space have been widely used in the harmonic analysis of atom clustering, i.e. in the study of crystals and crystal defects. Now that transmission electron microscopes are capable of providing digital images with picometer-scale information on atomic periodicity in nanostructure of all sorts, the range of pattern recognition and strain/metrology applications for intermediate transforms with high frequency resolution (like brushlets and ridgelets) is growing rapidly. Fractional wavelet transform (FRWT) is a generalization of the classical wavelet transform in the fractional Fourier transform domains. This transform is capable of providing the time- and fractional-domain information simultaneously and representing signals in the time-fractional-frequency plane. Applications of wavelet transform Generally, an approximation to DWT is used for data compression if a signal is already sampled, and the CWT for signal analysis. Thus, DWT approximation is commonly used in engineering and computer science, and the CWT in scientific research. Like some other transforms, wavelet transforms can be used to transform data, then encode the transformed data, resulting in effective compression. For example, JPEG 2000 is an image compression standard that uses biorthogonal wavelets. This means that although the frame is overcomplete, it is a tight frame (see types of frames of a vector space), and the same frame functions (except for conjugation in the case of complex wavelets) are used for both analysis and synthesis, i.e., in both the forward and inverse transform. For details see wavelet compression. A related use is for smoothing/denoising data based on wavelet coefficient thresholding, also called wavelet shrinkage. By adaptively thresholding the wavelet coefficients that correspond to undesired frequency components smoothing and/or denoising operations can be performed. Wavelet transforms are also starting to be used for communication applications. Wavelet OFDM is the basic modulation scheme used in HD-PLC (a power line communications technology developed by Panasonic), and in one of the optional modes included in the IEEE 1901 standard. Wavelet OFDM can achieve deeper notches than traditional FFT OFDM, and wavelet OFDM does not require a guard interval (which usually represents significant overhead in FFT OFDM systems). As a representation of a signal Often, signals can be represented well as a sum of sinusoids. However, consider a non-continuous signal with an abrupt discontinuity; this signal can still be represented as a sum of sinusoids, but requires an infinite number, which is an observation known as Gibbs phenomenon. This, then, requires an infinite number of Fourier coefficients, which is not practical for many applications, such as compression. Wavelets are more useful for describing these signals with discontinuities because of their time-localized behavior (both Fourier and wavelet transforms are frequency-localized, but wavelets have an additional time-localization property). Because of this, many types of signals in practice may be non-sparse in the Fourier domain, but very sparse in the wavelet domain. This is particularly useful in signal reconstruction, especially in the recently popular field of compressed sensing. (Note that the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) is also localized in time and frequency, but there are often problems with the frequency-time resolution trade-off. Wavelets are better signal representations because of multiresolution analysis.) This motivates why wavelet transforms are now being adopted for a vast number of applications, often replacing the conventional Fourier transform. Many areas of physics have seen this paradigm shift, including molecular dynamics, ab initio calculations, astrophysics, density-matrix localisation, seismology, optics, turbulence and quantum mechanics. This change has also occurred in image processing, EEG, EMG, ECG analyses, brain rhythms, DNA analysis, protein analysis, climatology, human sexual response analysis, general signal processing, speech recognition, acoustics, vibration signals, computer graphics, multifractal analysis, and sparse coding. In computer vision and image processing, the notion of scale space representation and Gaussian derivative operators is regarded as a canonical multi-scale representation. Suppose we measure a noisy signal . Assume s has a sparse representation in a certain wavelet bases, and Most elements in p are 0 or close to 0, and Since W is orthogonal, the estimation problem amounts to recovery of a signal in iid Gaussian noise. As p is sparse, one method is to apply a Gaussian mixture model for p. Assume a prior , is the variance of "significant" coefficients, and is the variance of "insignificant" coefficients. Then , is called the shrinkage factor, which depends on the prior variances and . The effect of the shrinkage factor is that small coefficients are set early to 0, and large coefficients are unaltered. Small coefficients are mostly noises, and large coefficients contain actual signal. At last, apply the inverse wavelet transform to obtain List of wavelets - Beylkin (18) - BNC wavelets - Coiflet (6, 12, 18, 24, 30) - Cohen-Daubechies-Feauveau wavelet (Sometimes referred to as CDF N/P or Daubechies biorthogonal wavelets) - Daubechies wavelet (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, etc.) - Binomial-QMF (Also referred to as Daubechies wavelet) - Haar wavelet - Mathieu wavelet - Legendre wavelet - Villasenor wavelet - Beta wavelet - Hermitian wavelet - Hermitian hat wavelet - Meyer wavelet - Mexican hat wavelet - Poisson wavelet - Shannon wavelet - Spline wavelet - Stromberg wavelet - Chirplet transform - Digital cinema - Filter banks - Fractal compression - Fractional Fourier transform - JPEG 2000 - Multiresolution analysis - Scale space - Short-time Fourier transform - Ultra wideband radio- transmits wavelets - Wave packet - Gabor wavelet#Wavelet space - Dimension reduction - Fourier-related transforms - Huygens–Fresnel principle (physical wavelets) - Ricker, Norman (1953). "WAVELET CONTRACTION, WAVELET EXPANSION, AND THE CONTROL OF SEISMIC RESOLUTION". Geophysics 18 (4). doi:10.1190/1.1437927. - Larson, David R. (2007). "Wavelet Analysis and Applications". Appl. Numer. Harmon. Anal. Birkhäuser. pp. 143–171. - Mallat, Stephane. "A wavelet tour of signal processing. 1998." 250-252. - The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing By Steven W. Smith, Ph.D. chapter 8 equation 8-1: http://www.dspguide.com/ch8/4.htm - http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Zweig.html Zweig, George Biography on Scienceworld.wolfram.com - P. Hirsch, A. Howie, R. Nicholson, D. W. Pashley and M. J. Whelan (1965/1977) Electron microscopy of thin crystals (Butterworths, London/Krieger, Malabar FLA) ISBN 0-88275-376-2 - P. Fraundorf, J. Wang, E. Mandell and M. Rose (2006) Digital darkfield tableaus, Microscopy and Microanalysis 12:S2, 1010–1011 (cf. arXiv:cond-mat/0403017) - M. J. Hÿtch, E. Snoeck and R. Kilaas (1998) Quantitative measurement of displacement and strain fields from HRTEM micrographs, Ultramicroscopy 74:131-146. - Martin Rose (2006) Spacing measurements of lattice fringes in HRTEM image using digital darkfield decomposition (M.S. Thesis in Physics, U. Missouri – St. Louis) - F. G. Meyer and R. R. Coifman (1997) Applied and Computational Harmonic Analysis 4:147. - A. G. Flesia, H. Hel-Or, A. Averbuch, E. J. Candes, R. R. Coifman and D. L. Donoho (2001) Digital implementation of ridgelet packets (Academic Press, New York). - J. Shi, N.-T. Zhang, and X.-P. Liu, "A novel fractional wavelet transform and its applications," Sci. China Inf. Sci., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 1270–1279, June 2012. URL: http://www.springerlink.com/content/q01np2848m388647/ - A.N. Akansu, W.A. Serdijn and I.W. Selesnick, Emerging applications of wavelets: A review, Physical Communication, Elsevier, vol. 3, issue 1, pp. 1-18, March 2010. - Stefano Galli, O. Logvinov (July 2008). "Recent Developments in the Standardization of Power Line Communications within the IEEE". IEEE Communications Magazine 46 (7): 64–71. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2008.4557044. An overview of P1901 PHY/MAC proposal. - J. Rafiee et al. Feature extraction of forearm EMG signals for prosthetics, Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) 4058–67. - J. Rafiee et al. Female sexual responses using signal processing techniques, The Journal of Sexual Medicine 6 (2009) 3086–96. (pdf) - J. Rafiee and Peter W. Tse, Use of autocorrelation in wavelet coefficients for fault diagnosis, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 23 (2009) 1554–72. - Matlab Toolbox – URL: http://matlab.izmiran.ru/help/toolbox/wavelet/ch06_a32.html - Erik Hjelmås (1999-01-21) Gabor Wavelets URL: http://www.ansatt.hig.no/erikh/papers/scia99/node6.html - Paul S. Addison, The Illustrated Wavelet Transform Handbook, Institute of Physics, 2002, ISBN 0-7503-0692-0 - Ali Akansu and Richard Haddad, Multiresolution Signal Decomposition: Transforms, Subbands, Wavelets, Academic Press, 1992, ISBN 0-12-047140-X - B. Boashash, editor, "Time-Frequency Signal Analysis and Processing – A Comprehensive Reference", Elsevier Science, Oxford, 2003, ISBN 0-08-044335-4. - Tony F. Chan and Jackie (Jianhong) Shen, Image Processing and Analysis – Variational, PDE, Wavelet, and Stochastic Methods, Society of Applied Mathematics, ISBN 0-89871-589-X (2005) - Ingrid Daubechies, Ten Lectures on Wavelets, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 1992, ISBN 0-89871-274-2 - Ramazan Gençay, Faruk Selçuk and Brandon Whitcher, An Introduction to Wavelets and Other Filtering Methods in Finance and Economics, Academic Press, 2001, ISBN 0-12-279670-5 - Haar A., Zur Theorie der orthogonalen Funktionensysteme, Mathematische Annalen, 69, pp 331–371, 1910. - Barbara Burke Hubbard, "The World According to Wavelets: The Story of a Mathematical Technique in the Making", AK Peters Ltd, 1998, ISBN 1-56881-072-5, ISBN 978-1-56881-072-0 - Gerald Kaiser, A Friendly Guide to Wavelets, Birkhauser, 1994, ISBN 0-8176-3711-7 - Stéphane Mallat, "A wavelet tour of signal processing" 2nd Edition, Academic Press, 1999, ISBN 0-12-466606-X - Donald B. Percival and Andrew T. Walden, Wavelet Methods for Time Series Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-68508-7 - Press, WH; Teukolsky, SA; Vetterling, WT; Flannery, BP (2007), "Section 13.10. Wavelet Transforms", Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88068-8 - P. P. Vaidyanathan, Multirate Systems and Filter Banks, Prentice Hall, 1993, ISBN 0-13-605718-7 - Mladen Victor Wickerhauser, Adapted Wavelet Analysis From Theory to Software, A K Peters Ltd, 1994, ISBN 1-56881-041-5 - Martin Vetterli and Jelena Kovačević, "Wavelets and Subband Coding", Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN 0-13-097080-8 \|Look up wavelet in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\| \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wavelet.\| - Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Wavelet analysis", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4 - OpenSource Wavelet C# Code - JWave – Open source Java implementation of several orthogonal and non-orthogonal wavelets - Wavelet Analysis in Mathematica (A very comprehensive set of wavelet analysis tools) - 1st NJIT Symposium on Wavelets (April 30, 1990) (First Wavelets Conference in USA) - Binomial-QMF Daubechies Wavelets - Wavelets by Gilbert Strang, American Scientist 82 (1994) 250–255. (A very short and excellent introduction) - Wavelet Digest - NASA Signal Processor featuring Wavelet methods Description of NASA Signal & Image Processing Software and Link to Download - Course on Wavelets given at UC Santa Barbara, 2004 - The Wavelet Tutorial by Polikar (Easy to understand when you have some background with fourier transforms!) - OpenSource Wavelet C++ Code - Wavelets for Kids (PDF file) (Introductory (for very smart kids!)) - Link collection about wavelets - Gerald Kaiser's acoustic and electromagnetic wavelets - A really friendly guide to wavelets - Wavelet-based image annotation and retrieval - Very basic explanation of Wavelets and how FFT relates to it - A Practical Guide to Wavelet Analysis is very helpful, and the wavelet software in FORTRAN, IDL and MATLAB are freely available online. Note that the biased wavelet power spectrum needs to be rectified. The bias rectification is realized in several software, such as Matlab, NCL, R, and Python. - WITS: Where Is The Starlet? A dictionary of tens of wavelets and wavelet-related terms ending in -let, from activelets to x-lets through bandlets, contourlets, curvelets, noiselets, wedgelets. - Python Wavelet Transforms Package OpenSource code for computing 1D and 2D Discrete wavelet transform, Stationary wavelet transform and Wavelet packet transform. - Wavelet Library GNU/GPL library for n-dimensional discrete wavelet/framelet transforms. - The Fractional Spline Wavelet Transform describes a fractional wavelet transform based on fractional b-Splines. - A Panorama on Multiscale Geometric Representations, Intertwining Spatial, Directional and Frequency Selectivity provides a tutorial on two-dimensional oriented wavelets and related geometric multiscale transforms. - HD-PLC Alliance - Signal Denoising using Wavelets - - Dream 2047, March 2005, page 29
Published at Saturday, July 17th 2021, 04:37:50 AM. Worksheet. By Andrea Rose. Welcome to our 3rd Grade Math Worksheets Hub page. This is a key learning step your child needs to be confident with before they start learning to add and subtract fractions. Equivalent fractions free worksheets 3rd grade. With that said I love the way early elementary classrooms are set up. Whether your student needs some extra help with fractions or story sequencing or is simply interested in learning more about how the earth spins hell find dozens of third grade worksheets designed to help bolster skills in math reading writing. Free Math worksheets pdf for Kids from kindergarten to 7th grades. Take a look at our times table coloring pages or maybe some of our fraction of shapes worksheets. Explore some of these worksheets for free. Each activity uses several fraction models such as fraction circles horizontal and vertical bars number lines etc. 3rd Grade Math Worksheets Printable PDFs. 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Thus and have exactly the same parts shaded and therefore they are equivalent fractions. In next level the children can generate equivalent fractions without using any fractional models. Surprisingly I love the challenge of multiplying fractions long division and decimals. One way to lessen the stress and accelerate the learning is with our third grade worksheets. Click here for a Detailed Description of all the Fractions Worksheets. This worksheet generator makes worksheets for four different fraction topics. The first time kids discover that theres more to math than whole numbers they are likely to be a tad confused. Here you will find our selection of printable third grade math worksheets for your child will enjoy. These 3rd grade math worksheets start with addition subtraction multiplication and division worksheets including long division worksheets and multiple digit multiplication practice. Our fractions worksheets are free to download easy to use and very flexible. Free and interactive fraction tools for identifying fractions adding and subtracting estimating comparing equivalent fractions multiplying dividing finding common denominators and more.
A short history of NATO It is often said that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was founded in response to the threat posed by the Soviet Union. This is only partially true. In fact, the Alliance’s creation was part of a broader effort to serve three purposes: deterring Soviet expansionism, forbidding the revival of nationalist militarism in Europe through a strong North American presence on the continent, and encouraging European political integration. The aftermath of World War II saw much of Europe devastated in a way that is now difficult to envision. Approximately 36.5 million Europeans had died in the conflict, 19 million of them civilians. Refugee camps and rationing dominated daily life. In some areas, infant mortality rates were one in four. Millions of orphans wandered the burnt-out shells of former metropolises. In the German city of Hamburg alone, half a million people were homeless. In addition, Communists aided by the Soviet Union were threatening elected governments across Europe. In February 1948, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, with covert backing from the Soviet Union, overthrew the democratically elected government in that country. Then, in reaction to the democratic consolidation of West Germany, the Soviets blockaded Allied-controlled West Berlin in a bid to consolidate their hold on the German capital. The heroism of the Berlin Airlift provided future Allies with some solace, but privation remained a grave threat to freedom and stability. A treaty for our age Fortunately, by then the United States had turned its back on its traditional policy of diplomatic isolationism. Aid provided through the US-funded Marshall Plan (also known as the European Recovery Program) and other means fostered a degree of economic stabilisation. European states still needed confidence in their security, however, before they would begin talking and trading with each other. Military cooperation, and the security it would bring, would have to develop in parallel with economic and political progress. With this in mind, several Western European democracies came together to implement various projects for greater military cooperation and collective defence, including the creation of the Western Union in 1948, later to become the Western European Union in 1954. In the end, it was determined that only a truly transatlantic security agreement could deter Soviet aggression while simultaneously preventing the revival of European militarism and laying the groundwork for political integration. Accordingly, after much discussion and debate, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed on 4 April, 1949. In the Treaty’s renowned Article 5, the new Allies agreed “an armed attack against one or more of them… shall be considered an attack against them all” and that following such an attack, each Ally would take “such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force” in response. Significantly, Articles 2 and 3 of the Treaty had important purposes not immediately germane to the threat of attack. Article 3 laid the foundation for cooperation in military preparedness between the Allies, and Article 2 allowed them some leeway to engage in non-military cooperation. While the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty had created Allies, it had not created a military structure that could effectively coordinate their actions. This changed when growing worries about Soviet intentions culminated in the Soviet detonation of an atomic bomb in 1949 and in the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. The effect upon the Alliance was dramatic. NATO soon gained a consolidated command structure with a military Headquarters based in the Parisian suburb of Rocquencourt, near Versailles. This was Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, or SHAPE, with US General Dwight D. Eisenhower as the first Supreme Allied Commander Europe, or SACEUR. Soon afterward, the Allies established a permanent civilian secretariat in Paris, and named NATO’s first Secretary General, Lord Ismay of the United Kingdom. With the benefit of aid and a security umbrella, political stability was gradually restored to Western Europe and the post-war economic miracle began. New Allies joined the Alliance: Greece and Türkiye in 1952, and West Germany in 1955. European political integration took its first hesitant steps. In reaction to West Germany’s NATO accession, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European client states formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Europe settled into an uneasy stand-off, symbolised by the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. During this time, NATO adopted the strategic doctrine of "Massive Retaliation” – if the Soviet Union attacked, NATO would respond with nuclear weapons. The intended effect of this doctrine was to deter either side from risk-taking since any attack, however small, could have led to a full nuclear exchange. Simultaneously, "Massive Retaliation” allowed Alliance members to focus their energies on economic growth rather than on maintaining large conventional armies. The Alliance also took its first steps towards a political as well as a military role. Since the Alliance’s founding, the smaller Allies in particular had argued for greater non-military cooperation, and the Suez Crisis in the fall of 1956 laid bare the lack of political consultation that divided some members. In addition, the Soviet Union’s launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1956 shocked the Allies into greater scientific cooperation. A report delivered to the North Atlantic Council by the Foreign Ministers of Norway, Italy, and Canada – the “Three Wise Men” – recommended more robust consultation and scientific cooperation within the Alliance, and the report’s conclusions led, inter alia, to the establishment of the NATO Science Programme. From defence to détente In the 1960s, this uneasy but stable status quo began to change. Cold War tensions re-ignited as Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and US President John F. Kennedy narrowly avoided conflict in Cuba, and as American involvement in Vietnam escalated. Despite this unpropitious start, by decade’s end what had been primarily a defence-based organisation came to embody a new phenomenon: détente, a relaxation of tensions between the Western and Eastern blocs driven by a grudging acceptance of the status quo. During this decade, NATO and SHAPE unexpectedly moved to a new home. In March 1966, France announced its intention to withdraw from NATO’s integrated military command structure and requested the removal of all Allied headquarters from French territory. A new SHAPE Headquarters was established in Casteau, Belgium in March 1967, and NATO HQ moved to Brussels in October of the same year. Significantly, France remained within the Alliance and consistently emphasised its intention to stand together with its Allies in the event of hostilities. France also proved to be among the Alliance’s most valuable force contributors during later peacekeeping operations. Flexibility was always key to NATO’s success, and the French withdrawal from NATO’s integrated military command structure demonstrated that NATO, unlike the Warsaw Pact, could tolerate differing viewpoints between its members. As a reminder of this point, in August 1968, the Soviet Union led an invasion of Czechoslovakia that put an end to a period of political liberalisation in that country known as the Prague Spring. Like a similar invasion of Hungary in 1956 and military repression in Berlin in 1953, Soviet actions demonstrated what became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine: given the choice between short-term control of Eastern European client states and long-run political and economic reform, the Soviet Union would choose to maintain short-term control. The end of this policy would await a Soviet leader willing to choose long-run reform. Détente had many faces. West German Chancellor Willy Brandt’s Ostpolitik sought to encourage European stability through closer relations between Eastern and Western Europe. US President John F. Kennedy’s strategy of “Flexible Response” sought to replace Massive Retaliation’s absolute dichotomy of peace or total nuclear war. Adopted in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Flexible Response enhanced NATO’s conventional defence posture by offering military responses short of a full nuclear exchange in the event of conflict. Also during this time, a report entitled “The Future Tasks of the Alliance”, delivered in December 1967 to the North Atlantic Council by Belgian Foreign Minister Pierre Harmel, recommended that NATO should have a political track promoting dialogue and détente between NATO and Warsaw Pact countries. The role of NATO had become not merely to preserve the status quo, but to help change it. The Harmel Report helped to lay the foundation for the convening of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1973. Two years later, the Conference led to the negotiation of the Helsinki Final Act. The Act bound its signatories – including the Soviet Union and members of the Warsaw Pact – to respect the fundamental freedom of their citizens, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief. Soviet rulers internally played down these clauses within the Act, attaching more importance to the Western recognition of the Soviet role in Eastern Europe. Eventually, however, the Soviets came to learn that they had bound themselves to powerful and potentially subversive ideas. The Cold War revived The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the Soviet deployment of SS-20 Saber ballistic missiles in Europe led to the suspension of détente. To counter the Soviet deployment, Allies made the “dual track” decision to deploy nuclear-capable Pershing II and ground-launched cruise missiles in Western Europe while continuing negotiations with the Soviets. The deployment was not scheduled to begin until 1983. In the meantime, the Allies hoped to achieve an arms control agreement that would eliminate the need for the weapons.Lacking the hoped-for agreement with the Soviets, NATO members suffered internal discord when deployment began in 1983. Following the ascent of Mikhail Gorbachev as Soviet Premier in 1985, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, eliminating all nuclear and ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with intermediate ranges. This is now regarded as an initial indication that the Cold War was coming to an end. The 1980s also saw the accession of NATO’s first new member since 1955. In 1982, a newly democratic Spain joined the transatlantic Alliance. By the mid-1980s, most international observers believed that Soviet Communism had lost the intellectual battle with the West. Dissidents had dismantled the ideological supports of Communist regimes, a process aided in retrospect by the Soviet Union’s own ostensible adherence to human rights principles outlined by the Helsinki Final Act. By the late 1980s, the communist government of Poland found itself forced to negotiate with the formerly repressed independent trade union “Solidarity” and its leader, Lech Wałęsa. Soon other democratic activists in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union itself would begin to demand those very rights. By this time, command economies in the Warsaw Pact were disintegrating. The Soviet Union was spending three times as much as the United States on defence with an economy that was one-third the size. Mikhail Gorbachev came to power with the intention of fundamentally reforming the communist system. When the East German regime began to collapse in 1989, the Soviet Union did not intervene, reversing the Brezhnev Doctrine. This time, the Soviets chose long-run reform over a short-run control that was increasingly beyond their capabilities, setting in motion a train of events that led to the break-up of the Warsaw Pact. Be careful what you wish for The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 seemed to proclaim a new era of open markets, democracy and peace, and Allies reacted with incredulous joy as emboldened demonstrators overthrew Eastern European Communist governments. But there were also frightening uncertainties. Would a united Germany be neutral? What would become of nuclear weapons in former Soviet republics? Would nationalism once again curse European politics? For NATO, the question was existential: was there any further need for the Atlantic Alliance? NATO endured because while the Soviet Union was no more, the Alliance’s two other original if unspoken mandates still held: to deter the rise of militant nationalism and to provide the foundation of collective security that would encourage democratisation and political integration in Europe. The definition of “Europe” had merely expanded eastward. Before the consolidation of peace and security could begin, however, one spectre haunting European politics remained to be exorcised. Since the Franco-Prussian War, Europe had struggled to come to terms with a united Germany at its heart. The incorporation of a re-unified Germany into the Alliance put this most ancient and destructive of dilemmas to rest. In 1991 as in 1949, NATO was to be the foundation stone for a larger, pan-European security architecture. In December 1991, the Allies established the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, renamed the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1997. This forum brought the Allies together with their Central European, Eastern European, and Central Asian neighbours for joint consultations. Many of these newly liberated countries – or partners, as they were soon called – saw a relationship with NATO as fundamental to their own aspirations for stability, democracy, and European integration. Cooperation also extended southward. In 1994, the Alliance founded the Mediterranean Dialogue with six non-member Mediterranean countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia, with Algeria also joining in 2000. The Dialogue seeks to contribute to security and stability in the Mediterranean through better mutual understanding.This fledgling cooperation was soon put to the test. The collapse of Communism had given way to the rise of nationalism and ethnic violence, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. At first, Allies hesitated to intervene in what was perceived as a Yugoslav civil war. Later the conflict came to be seen as a war of aggression and ethnic cleansing, and the Alliance decided to act. Initially, NATO offered its full support to United Nations efforts to end war crimes, including direct military action in the form of a naval embargo. Soon the enforcement of a no-fly zone led to airstrikes against heavy weapons violating UN resolutions. Finally, the Alliance carried out a nine-day air campaign in September 1995 that played a major role in ending the conflict. In December of that year, NATO deployed a UN-mandated, multinational force of 60 000 soldiers to help implement the Dayton Peace Agreement and to create the conditions for a self-sustaining peace. In 2004, NATO handed over this role to the European Union. The Yugoslav conflict - and other contemporaneous conflicts in the Caucasus and elsewhere - made clear that the post-Cold War power vacuum was a source of dangerous instability. Mechanisms for partnership had to be strengthened in a way that would allow non-NATO countries to cooperate with the Alliance to reform still-evolving democratic and military institutions and to relive their strategic isolation. As part of this evolving effort, Allies created the Partnership for Peace programme, or PfP, in 1994. The Partnership for Peace allowed non-NATO countries, or “Partners”, to share information with NATO Allies and to modernise their militaries in line with modern democratic standards. Partners were encouraged to choose their own level of involvement with the Alliance. The path to full membership would remain open to those who decided to pursue it. This process reached an important milestone at the 1999 Washington Summit when three former Partners – Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary – took their seats as full Alliance members following their completion of a political and military reform programme. Through enlargement, NATO had played a crucial role in consolidating democracy and stability in Europe. Even before the new Allies joined NATO in Washington, however, a new crisis had already broken out. By the end of 1998, over 300 000 Kosovar Albanians had fled their homes during conflict between Albanian separatists in Kosovo and Serbian military and police. Following the failure of intense international efforts to resolve the crisis, the Alliance conducted air strikes for 78 days and flew 38 000 sorties with the goal of allowing a multinational peacekeeping force to enter Kosovo and cease ethnic cleansing in the region. On 4 June 1999, NATO suspended its air campaign after confirming that a withdrawal of the Serbian army from Kosovo had begun, and the deployment of the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) followed shortly thereafter. Today, KFOR troops are still deployed in Kosovo to help maintain a safe and secure environment and freedom of movement for all citizens, irrespective of their ethnic origin. The 9/11 catalyst NATO’s experiences in Bosnia and Kosovo demonstrated that the debate of whether NATO was to enforce a European peace was moot: events had forced the Alliance’s hand. Before the fall of the Berlin Wall, NATO had been a static organization whose mere existence was enough to deter the Soviet Union. Balkan intervention began the Alliance’s transformation into a more dynamic and responsive organization. Gone was the Cold War doctrine of nuclear retaliation, and in its place, the determination to use, after all peaceful means had failed, measured and carefully applied force in combination with diplomatic and humanitarian efforts to stop conflict, and to do so, if necessary out of NATO’s traditional North Atlantic sphere. Accordingly, the Alliance adopted a new Strategic Concept describing the Alliance’s purpose and priorities. Most previous Strategic Concepts had been classified. In 1991, the Alliance had issued, for the first time, an unclassified Concept in the wake of the Soviet Union’s decline. The Concept that followed in 1999, stated that since the end of the Cold War, the world had come to face “complex new risks to Euro-Atlantic peace and security, including oppression, ethnic conflict, economic distress, the collapse of political order, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.” These words would soon prove prescient. The 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon demonstrated to the Allies that political disorder in distant parts of the globe could have terrible consequences at home. For the first time in its history, NATO invoked its collective defence clause (Article 5). Substate actors – in this case, the al-Qaida terrorist group – had used Afghanistan as a base to export instability to the industrialised world, adopting hijacked airliners as improvised weapons of mass destruction to kill thousands of civilians. Subsequent attacks, including the Istanbul bombings in November 2003, the attack of the Madrid commuter train system on 11 March 2004 and the public transport system in London on 7 July 2005, made clear that violent extremists were determined to target civilian populations. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, a coalition of countries – including many NATO Allies – militarily intervened in Afghanistan in the fall of 2001. The goal of the mission, Operation Enduring Freedom, was to deny al-Qaida a base of operations and to detain as many al-Qaida leaders as possible. In December 2001, following the overthrow of the Taliban regime, UN Security Council Resolution 1386 authorised the deployment of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), a multilateral force in and around Kabul to help stabilise the country and create the conditions of a self-sustaining peace. In August 2003, NATO took over command and coordination of ISAF. Meanwhile, NATO continued to accept new members and to build new partnerships. The NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002 so that individual NATO member states and Russia could work as equal partners on security issues of common interest. In 2004, the Alliance launched the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative as a way of offering practical bilateral security cooperation to countries of the broader Middle East region. Finally, subsequent rounds of enlargement brought more Allies into the fold – Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania in 2004, Croatia and Albania in 2009, Montenegro in 2017, and North Macedonia in 2020. A new approach for a new century In Afghanistan, as in Bosnia and Kosovo, Allies have seen that military power is not enough to ensure peace and stability. Peacekeeping has become at least as difficult as peacemaking. During the Cold War years, Allied security had entailed the defence of the North Atlantic Allies; now the definition of “security” has radically expanded to include the individual’s freedom from the violent extremism bred by instability and nation-state failure. For instance, much of the world’s attention in 2011 was focused on the crisis in Libya where NATO played a crucial role in helping to protect civilians under attack from their own government, as mandated by the United Nations. The level of violence used by the Libyan security forces against pro-democracy protestors was such that the international community agreed to take collective action. Indifference was simply not an option. Successful peacekeeping has come to entail not merely providing a baseline of security, but assisting in the construction of modernity itself. This task is beyond NATO, and the Allies know it. The Alliance is not and cannot be a civilian reconstruction agency, but NATO can make a significant contribution provided that it is part of a coherent international response. In the new Strategic Concept agreed in 2010, the Alliance committed itself to dealing with “all stages of a crisis – before, during and after” - an all-embracing principle that implies a greater role for cooperative security. This idea is at the heart of the “comprehensive approach”. Geopolitical instability demands complex remedies that combine military might, diplomacy, and post-conflict stabilisation. Only the widest possible coalition of international actors can provide elements of all three. Accordingly, the Alliance is not only developing security partnerships with countries across the Mediterranean, the Gulf region, and even the Pacific area, but it is also reaching out to other fellow international organisations and non-governmental organisations that have mandates in such areas as institution-building, governance, development, and judiciary reform. Whether helping to build lasting peace in Pristina, securing the Mediterranean Sea or providing assistance to the African Union, NATO has been increasing cooperation with other international organisations that can bring their superior reconstruction and civil-society building capabilities to bear. The 21st century will not be all about peacebuilding, however. Russia’s illegal annexation of Crimea in 2014 and its unjustified and unprovoked attack on Ukraine are a sobering reminder of the importance of NATO’s core task: collective defence. This, coupled with the Syrian conflict, the rise of ISIL and terrorism (and often homebred terrorism), has become a brutal reality across many continents. Meanwhile, tensions rise as migrants seek refuge from conflict in countries that are struggling with the weight of ethnic and religious strife, demographic pressures and economic underperformance. Cyberattacks are becoming ever more frequent and ever more destructive. And through social media and other means, the opponents of liberal open societies are spreading disinformation and propaganda that seek to undermine the values that NATO has always sought to protect and promote. Altogether, the complexity of the current security environment is such that NATO’s flexibility is yet again put to the test. Since its founding in 1949, the transatlantic Alliance’s flexibility, embedded in its original Treaty, has allowed it to suit the different requirements of different times. In the 1950s, the Alliance was a purely defensive organisation. In the 1960s, NATO became a political instrument for détente. In the 1990s, the Alliance was a tool for the stabilisation of Eastern Europe and Central Asia through the incorporation of new partners and Allies. In the first half of the 21st century, NATO faces an ever-growing number of new threats. As the foundation stone of transatlantic peace and freedom, NATO must be ready to meet these challenges.
This article deals with the histories of the Native Americans of North America from contact times onwards. Another article offers a survey of North American peoples in pre-Contact times. This article focusses particularly on the native peoples of the United States. Much of this is relevant to Canada as well, but for a more detailed treatment of the First Nations there please go to the Canada article. The coming of the Europeans to the Americas was a catastrophe for the Native American peoples. This can be seen in something as basic as population figures. In pre-contact times estimates of total numbers of Native Americans vary from just under one million to as much as ten million. By the end of the 19th century it stood at a mere quarter of a million – a drastic decline by any measure. The first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492 was key to all that came later, but so far as North America was concerned, voyages such as those of Giovanni Verrazano in 1524, which charted the Atlantic coast from South Carolina to Florida; Jacques Cartier in 1537-42, which probed the St Lawrence River system; and Martin Frobisher, which sailed into the Arctic in 1576-8, were key to giving Europeans an idea of the Atlantic coastline. The expeditions of various Spanish conquistadors – most famously, Vazquez de Coronado’s between 1540-42 – laid claim to the south and west of the present-day United States. The Spanish established the first permanent European settlement in North America, at St Augustine, Florida, in 1565; the French established their first settlements in Canada in the early 17th century, and the English followed just a little later, with the Virginia colony of Jamestown founded in 1607 and the New England colony of Plymouth following in 1620. By the early 17th century, therefore, direct contacts between Europeans and Native Americans in North America were limited to coastal areas, or some brief expeditions into the south and west. This is not to say that the Native American populations did not feel the impact of Europeans on their continent, however. Radiating inland from the contact points along the coast came diseases to which the Native Americans had no immunity, particularly smallpox, chicken pox and measles. The populations in the east were of course most affected, with their numbers reduced by a quarter or a half; but populations far inland did not escape – some scholars think that the long-lasting “mound-building” cultures of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys (see above) were brought low by European epidemics. In any case, as the area of white settlement expanded, more and more native populations were thinned by European diseases. Over the rest of the 17th century and into the 18th century, the English planted more colonies along the Atlantic coast (or took over ones originally planted by the Dutch and Swedes) and established a European-style colonial society in the region stretching from the coast to the Appalachian mountains. The Native Americans of this region were soon effectively moved off their lands here. Initial contact between Europeans and natives was often friendly, with the latter providing help and advice to the former in setting up in their new homes. As more and more shiploads of colonists arrived from Europe, and their demand for land increased, the new European arrivals increasingly encroached on land belonging to the natives. This inevitably prompted a violent response from the natives, and conflict followed. The European colonists always won in the end, thanks to their superior weaponry; however this was often not before they had sustained some fearful losses and aroused bitter animosities. The defeat of the local natives was often accompanied by the destruction of many of their villages and followed by the sale of many of them into slavery. Typically a treaty between the two sides would follow the ending of the conflict, in which a new boundary between colonists’ and natives’ land was defined, always to the detriment of the latter. The boundary would be patrolled by colonial militias, whose aggressive tactics often led them to behave more like vigilantes than protectors. They were determined to keep the natives at arms length from the colonists’ farmsteads, and so a sort of “no man’s land” would come to surround the area of colonial settlement. More and more shiploads of colonists would arrive from Europe, the demand for new land would begin to grow again, and soon the new boundary too would be breached by colonists in need of land. The cycle would begin again. This was a continuous process, although for ease of understanding it has been divided into certain wars, most notably the Powhatan wars (Virginia – first half of 17th cent), The Pequot War (New England, 1636-8), King Philip’s War (New England, 1675-8), Bacon’s rebellion (Virginia, 1676). By the end of the 17th century the Native Americans had lost control of the land to the east of the Appalachians, and had effectively been pushed off it. Unable to find a way through the Appalachians until the mid-18th century, however, the colonists left the interior of the continent more or less untouched. Direct European contact with the Native American peoples in these regions was through a small number of French-speaking fur traders, based in New France, along the St Lawrence river. These travelled further and further inland, travelling huge distances along rivers and lakes in their canoes, and establishing small trading posts from which to deal with the natives. These traders were few, but they had an indirect impact out of all proportion to their numbers. They did this by upsetting the balance between the Native American tribes of the area. The demand for fur soon meant that local beaver populations came under threat, and the tribes of the areas attempted to monopolize control of remaining beaver areas. The most concerted attempt to establish such a monopoly came with the Beaver Wars of the late 17th century. Five Iroquois tribes had established a confederacy – the League of the Five Nations – probably sometime in the 15th or 16th century, with the aim of ending incessant feuding between them. The Beaver Wars involved the Iroquois in expanding their control south and east of the Great Lakes region, with a view to taking control of the fur trade. The Iroquois campaigns of conquests caused immense disruption to other Native American peoples. Rival tribal confederations such as those of the Huron and Shawnee, were destroyed, and some peoples were forced to move away from the region altogether, either westward across the Mississippi, or southwards into the Carolinas. The Ohio Valley was almost depopulated, but the Iroquois retained control of it as a hunting ground for beaver. Later other tribes moved into the area. The Beaver Wars resulted in a legacy of enmity between the Iroquois (who after 1722 were a League of Six Nations, not Five) and neighbouring tribes such as the Huron. When French and British colonial rivalry also increased at the end of the 17th century, the two situations played off each other. The French, and then the British, forged alliances with different tribes (the leading French allies were the Huron, Ottawa, Illinois and Sioux, while the leading British allies were the Iroquois). A sequence of conflicts then occurred, known to American history as the French and Indian Wars, whereby the two colonial powers fought each other, often with the colonists’ forces and the Native American allies doing the actual fighting. The native tribes were fighting as much against traditional enemies as they were for European powers. Like the earlier wars for land east of the Appalachians, this struggle was an almost continual one, but for the sake of tidiness it is generally divided into discrete wars: King William’s War (1688-97), Queen Anne’s War (1702-13), King George’s War (1744-48) and the French and Indian War (1754-63). All formed a part of major wars between British and French forces waged in different parts of the world. This series of wars ended in a complete British victory and the expulsion of the French from North America. It led immediately to Pontiac’s rebellion, a concerted attempt by several Native American tribes – mostly former allies of the French – to drive the British out of their homelands to the south and east of the Great Lakes – the “Old Northwest”, as it came to be called. Meanwhile, to the south and west of the present-day United States, the Spanish had been establishing a scattering of missions, forts and haciendas. Unlike the French, whose primary interest was in trading with the indigenous peoples and who therefore treated them as partners in their enterprises, the Spanish were intent on bringing the local peoples under their control, wishing to use them as forced labour on their estates. The centres they established were thus bases from which to exercise authority – backed by military power – over the surrounding territory. The impact on these native peoples was not on the same scale as along the Atlantic seaboard, where they were more or less completely displaced from their homelands, but it was nevertheless severe. The Spanish masters tended to treat them harshly, and worked them hard; and this, coupled with the European diseases that spread among them, drastically reduced their numbers. In the next century, in the far west, the Spanish impact was particularly disruptive. From the 1760s, the Spanish established a number of missions in California, and forcibly relocated local peoples to live within their bounds as a workforce. They were made to convert to the Catholic faith, and the give up their culture in favour of an impoverished version of a Western lifestyle. These peoples were later dubbed “Mission Indians”, and effectively lost their previous tribal identity. They were particularly affected by the harsh conditions and European diseases, and by the late 19th century may have been reduced in numbers by 90%. Not all post-contact influences were negative. Just as the Native Americans introduced the Europeans to new crops and foods – maize, tobacco, the turkey and much else – European traders introduced new kinds of goods: iron tools, blankets, cloth, glass beads and ribbons, as well as more disruptive ones such as firearms and alcohol. Beadwork started amongst indigenous peoples around 1675, working with european glass beads. This practice spread to other parts of the continent and beads became a staple of inter-tribal trade. Metal trade goods were highly valued: European brass kettles were cut up into a variety of tools and trinkets The use of metals spread along the traditional trade routes of North America, and the introduction of iron tools led to woodworking enjoying a new burst of creative energy. By 1800 the Iroquois had mastered silverwork, and this soon spread around North America. The peoples of the southwest became especially known for the silver jewelry they produced. Even Arctic peoples were not left unaffected. For example, they began covering their kayaks with canvas instead of animal hide.. Most famously, the introduction of the horse revolutionized the society and culture of many Native Americans. The horse had been extinct for thousands of years in the Americas when it was re-introduced by the Spanish in the 16th century. The Spanish used local Pueblo peoples along the Rio Grand to tend their horses, and these newfound skills of caring for and breeding the animals soon spread to other native populations. Escaped and stolen horses became the ancestors of a rapidly increasing equine population. Some tribes took to horse dealing and horse-breeding, soon developing breeds more suited to local conditions. By the mid-17th century, Apache, Navajo and Ute were taking to raiding on horseback: the first documented use of horses by Native Americans was in 1659, when the Spanish governor of Santa Fe reported an attack by Navajo. In the late 17th century the trade in horses spread the animal rapidly northward, and during the 18th century the use of horses became widespread amongst Native American tribes. The region where this had the greatest impact was on the Great Plains. Here, vast herds of buffalo had grazed, comparatively undisturbed by the traditional hunting techniques of the scattered groups of hunter-gatherers of the region. The coming of the horse changed all that: the increased mobility and greater height that the horse gave human hunters put them in a much better position to hunt and kill these huge, powerful animals. This made a radically new way of life possible. Hunting buffalo became a much more viable sustenance strategy than before. Many farming tribes already living on the Great Plains abandoned their village life altogether to take up a nomadic hunting existence. Hitherto, these peoples had skills in making pottery, which is associated with settled life; they soon lost these, as ceramic vessels are too fragile for the nomadic way of life. Other tribes, such as Cheyenne, Plains Cree, Crow and Sioux migrated into the Great Plains from other regions, because of drought or pressure of expanding European populations; but most of all they came for the buffalo. Varied tribal customs merged into a shared culture, which in the 19th century settlers of European origin were to encounter and come to think of as the typical “Indian” way of life. The prevailing image of the Native American in terms of clothing, body decoration, and accessories is that of the plains tribes: living in a portable cone-shaped tipi with a pole framework and hide covering; dressed in leather, decorated in beadwork and warpaint, and wearing an impressive warbonnet made with feathers to represent exploits in war and the hunt. Above all, the horse is the dominant symbol of wealth and honour. Native American religion was another arena which experienced profound change in post-contact times. Where tribes converted en masse to Christianity, tribal culture more or less disappeared. The members of the tribe in effect joined European society, usually at its lowest levels. This can be see most clearly with the Mission Indians of California, who were enlisted into Spanish colonial society as serfs. Other religious movements mingled Native American and Christian elements. The Handsome Lake movement amongst the Iroquois borrowed heavily from the Quakerism of Pennsylvania, with such practices as the worship of one god; silent prayer; the promotion of good deeds; congregational worship in churches (longhouses). This sect still exists today. The Indian Shaker religion was also an overt mixing of Christian and native elements. This emphasised traditional ways, but also offered ideological support for its members in coping with defeat, oppression and social upheaval, for example in the transition from communal to private property, and so on. The best-known post-contact religious movements, however, formed the inspiration behind much Native American resistance to encroaching white settlement, and these will be dealt with later (see below). The British, having expelled the French from North America, issued a Royal Proclamation in 1763 which forbade all settlement by colonists to the west of the Appalachian mountains. This barrier, for so long hemming the British colonies in along the eastern seaboard, had been breached by various explorers around the middle of the 18th century. Almost immediately, settlers had begun trickling through, but the Royal Proclamation put a stop to this (in theory, at any rate; even in practice it seems to have limited settlement). This was of course unpopular with the settlers, and was in fact modified in the later 1760s by moving the boundary line westward. In the American Revolution, the Native Americans generally supported the British, whom they saw as their best hope of protection. They identified the rebels with those settlers who were encroaching on their land. Native American tribes suffered disproportionately in the fighting, with their land being grabbed and villages destroyed. The Iroquois League of Six Nations broke apart over the question of whether to support the British or the rebels. Over the next couple of generations many of them relocated to the west, like many other native Americans; others of the Iroquois settled in Canada, and a small group were given their own reservation in upstate New York. The treaty of Paris, granting the Americans their independence, obviously nullified the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The British offered protection to tribes which had relocated to Canada, but left the rest to fend for themselves. As for the newly independent United States, Congress enacted the Northwest Ordnance in 1786, which reaffirmed the British policy of recognizing the rights of Native American peoples to lands west of the Appalachians. In 1789, the republic’s new constitution placed responsibility for relations with the indigenous peoples with the Federal government rather than the states, and that lands and property should not be taken from them without their consent. Unfortunately, the aims and policies of the Federal government were often very different from those of the individual states and the local settlers. Largely as a result of this, the lofty principles enshrined in the constitution were honoured more in the breech than in the observance. The old cycle of encroachment by settlers and reprisals by natives continued, which led to “Indian Affairs” being placed under the authority of the War Department. It would only be in 1849 that they were transferred into civilian hands, under the Department of the Interior. American Independence in fact marked the beginning of the advance of white settlement across the rest of the continent. A major way by which Native American lands were opened up was by the trails along which, from the later 18th century, settlers began to move west. Ironically, almost all were originally trails layed down over the centuries by the natives themselves, and then used by whites. The first of these were across Appalachians – the Cumberland Gap, Braddock’s Road, which became known to whites in the mid-18th century. From then on the trail ends moved steadily westwards. The most famous of all was probably the Oregon trail, which was discovered in the early 19th century but came into widespread use from the 1850s. What had originally been long-distance footpaths along which people walked in single file, became broad tracks with ruts along which carts could be hauled by horses, mules and oxen. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, whilst not opening up new territory, made the journey from the east coast to the midwest much quicker and easier, and was instrumental in bringing millions of new settlers to the west. In all this, did the Native America peoples stand idly by, look on passively as their land was taken from them? They did not. They continually, bravely, desperately resisted the western expansion of settlement, but despite some spectacular victories, most famously at the Battle of Little Bighorn, in 1876, they were engaged in a struggle they could not win. The whites had the technology, the numbers and the organization to overcome them. Moreover, whereas the Native American tribes were divided amongst themselves, often as hereditary enemies, the whites were all under the ultimate authority of the US government. What this meant in practice was that the US government’s military force, the US Army, was always at their disposal. This force gradually became very adept at fighting wars against the natives. Many of the trails were beaten flat over a wide area so that troops could be marched along them at speed. Later, the US army went over almost exclusively to cavalry, and this speeded up the deployment of units to trouble spots. Furthermore, the army followed a policy of building forts at strategic points in the west, and these acted as bases from which surrounding territories could be subdued and controlled. The pattern that repeated itself again and again was that white encroachment on a tribe’s land would lead to violence between the two sides. The army would intervene, the tribe would be defeated, and (until 1871) a treaty would be signed. This would involve the loss of tribal land to the settlers, or, in many cases, the wholesale deportation of a tribe to a land designated by the US authorities as “Indian Land”, “Indian Territory” or an “Indian Reserve”. Even before serious trouble had flared up, a tribe might be ordered to relocate to Indian Land. Some did so willingly, others under compulsion – and some of the Seminole were never successfully relocated by the US authorities, holding out in the Florida swamps until the American government gave up on the attempt to move them. The idea of an extensive Indian zone west of the Mississippi had been taking shape since the early 1820s. It was originally seen as an effective way of dealing with the “Indian question”, whereby the Indian tribes which stood in the way of white settlement could be given a large area of land for themselves, on which they could live free from the threat of encroachment. This area was delineated in 1825 as Indian Territory (although it was never a Territory in the usually-accepted meaning of the term, that is an administrative unit under Federal government control, moving towards statehood). It was a vast area, covering all the lands of the Louisiana Purchase apart from the already-existing states of Louisiana and Missouri, and half of Arkansas Territory. Tribes began being relocated there in the 1830s; they came not just from the southeast, but also from the north and west; and of course there were also present local tribes. As a result, peoples of quite different cultures found themselves near neighbours. The most famous example of this forced removal policy came in the wake of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, by which Native American tribes from the present-day southeastern United States were to be forcibly removed from their homelands to an area west of the Mississippi River. What makes this case all the more poignant is that the five tribes concerned – the Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw – had taken more steps than any others to integrate into white society and culture, having adopted literacy, legal constitutions, white commercial practices and so on. They were known as the “Five Civilized Tribes”. This removal led to one of the more tragic episodes in US history, the “Trail of Tears”. In this, members of these tribes not only suffered the trauma of losing their homelands, but endured terrible hardships on their journey – which amounted to forced marches driven on by US troops and state militiamen – to their new homelands. Many died along the way from exposure, disease, and starvation. Almost from the outset the Native Americans were not left undisturbed in their new homelands. Their communities were disrupted by settlers on the trails passing through; the Oregon Trail, for example, ran straight through the Indian Territory. More disruption was to follow. In 1854, by the terms of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the northern part became the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Indian Territory was thus reduced to a mere rump of its former self, more or less the area of the present-day state of Oklahoma. In 1862 the Homestead Act opened Indian lands in all these territories to smallholders, who were granted 160 acres of land as their own after five years working the land. In 1866, partly as a punishment for tribal support for the Confederate side in the Civil War, the tribes in Kansas were relocated south to Indian Territory (i.e. present-day Oklahoma). From the late 1860s cattle trials connecting Texas cattle ranches with the railheads to the north began to be laid down across Indian Territory, and in the 1880s squatters called “boomers” began settling on tribal lands. This process was greatly facilitated by the General Allotment Act of 1887 (see below). In 1889 about half of Indian Territory was bought from Native American tribes and opened up to White settlement. On April 22, over 100,000 settlers lined up at the border, and when the army gave the signal, rushed into the land to stake their claims. This area was designated Oklahoma Territory. By this date, railroad companies had also begun buying up land, becoming major landowners in both Oklahoma and what remained of Indian Territory. In the early 20th century, with Whites now forming the majority of the population, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were united to form the state of Oklahoma (1907). From the 1850s, the West began to be opened up in earnest to white settlement, a process barely paused by the Civil War. Gold rushes, in Califormia in 1849, Colorado in 1858, and Dakota in 1874, brought thousands of miners, plus a whole host of support workers and other hangers-on, into Native American lands. The completion of transcontinental railroads, the first of which was opened in 1869, made the journey from the east to the far west – and to all points in between – much easier and quicker. In their eagerness to make their enterprises viable, the railroad companies actively campaigned in Europe to lure settlers to the new lands. Towns and farmsteads rapidly sprouted up at numerous places along the railroad routes. This of course brought the growing number of white settlers into conflict with the Native American peoples who already inhabited the area, and created pressure on the US government to open up land securely designated for settlement. The corollary of this was to establish zones which the natives could securely call their own. The Department for Indian Affairs, which had been created in 1849, set about actively making treaties with tribal leaderships to establish reservations for them. This procedure effectively confined Native Americans to a portion of the their former tribal lands. This naturally aroused their hostility, and numerous small wars with native tribes resulted. Until 1871 these were followed by treaties, which led to the establishment of hundreds of Indian Reservations. After 1871 Native American peoples were deemed to be already under the authority of the Federal government, which could therefore dispense with treaty-making and take unilateral action in relation to them. Whatever the legalities, the end result was the same: the establishment of reservations. The end of the Indian Wars, which had lasted throughout most of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, is generally considered to be the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, in South Dakota. In this, about 150 Lakota tribal members were killed by US cavalry troopers in a chaotic fracas which probably came about more by accident than design. During the 1860s, 70s and 80s, the way of life of the Plains tribes was being undercut by the catastrophic decline of the buffalo herds. During the building of the railroads, buffalo were systematically hunted for meat, to feed the construction crews. Then the railroads themselves made it highly profitable to transport buffalo hides back to the east, where they could be sold at a good profit to be made into furs, coats, rugs, shoes and boots, belts and all manner of other leather goods. Buffalo hunting became an almost industrial business: professional hunters using high powered telescopic rifles, supported by large teams of support workers for skinning the animals, cleaning the hides, loading them onto carts, as well as cooks and other camp followers, began to multiply across the Plains – at any one time there might be hundreds of such hunting teams in action. The 1870s and 80s saw the wholesale slaughter of the herds. By end of the 1880s, where there had once been 50 million head of buffalo, only some 500 animals were left. The end of the buffalo spelled the end of the way of life for the Great Plains tribes. This induced them, perhaps more willingly than they would otherwise have done, to move onto reservations. For the peoples of the Plains, this move involved not only a loss of land, but the loss of their whole way of life. And the initial move was often followed by further compression of their land (and economic base) as more tribes were moved onto the reservation. From earliest days of Native American resistance to European colonialists, a very strong religious element had been present. Resistance movements of the 18th and early 19th centuries had been inspried by such figures as the Delaware Prophet, the Shawnee Prophet, and the Winnebago Prophet. However, it was from the 1850s, when white settlement of the mid-west stepped up a gear, that a host of religious movements sprung up to inspire resistance to the white man and all his ways, including the Waashat Religion, the Drum religion, the Earth Lodge religion, the Bole-Maru religion, the Feather Religion, and the Peyote religion (which included the use of a stimulant from the peyote plant in its rituals). These tended to conform to a pattern which included several common elements. They were often started by a charismatic prophet – the most influential of whom was probably Wovoka (Jack Wilson) – who issued a call to return to pure native ways purged of alien influences. In particular, alcohol (“the destroyer”) should be cast out, and amongst the Plains peoples, agriculture should also be shunned. Prophecies would play an enormous role in these movements, mainly concerned with the end of the world in its current form, the wiping out of the white oppressors, the resurrection of dead ancestors, and the regaining by the Native American peoples of their homeland – or indeed, their gaining of the entire world. Often the prophets called on their followers to live righteous lives, and the tribes to unite against the whites. From the late 1870s, the Ghost Dance began to spread far and wide; this ceremony, involving a communal, circular dance, was itself deemed to confer spiritual and military power on its participants. These messianic beliefs appealed to peoples made desperate by defeat and oppression, and traumatized by the taking away of their land, culture and way of life. In the early 20th century, however, these religious movements subsided. In part, this was due to the widespread acceptance of defeat. But many such cults were also subsumed into the Native American Church, which was founded in 1918. This blended traditional and Christian beliefs and practices, and gained a large following amongst Native Americans. The church still flourishes today. During these years, a new idea was gaining ground – or, more accurately, an old idea was regaining ground – which would influence government policy towards Native Americans. This was the concept of assimilation. In the early days of colonization the Puritans of New England, and later the Quakers of Pennsylvania, had tried, with some success, to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity. They sincerely believed that this would lead to their greater happiness, but conversion also tended to involve the adoption of an alien, European way of life. This approach was steamrollered out of the way by the rush for land. However, it began to make a comeback in the later 19th century. Now, though, it had little to do with religious conversion; it was seen more in terms of economic, political and cultural assimilation, as a way of bringing Native Americans up to parity with the rest of the population. The starting point for such assimilation was seen to be the undercutting of tribal bonds and the fostering of a sense of individual responsibility (a version of that key American virtue, self-reliance); and the chosen instrument for this was increasingly thought to be the breaking up of tribal lands, which were held in common by the tribe, into family-held farms. In the process (it was hoped) native tribesmen would be turned into American homesteaders. In 1887, the General Allotment Act led to tribal lands on reservations being allotted to individual Native Americans. Each family was to be given 160 acres. Any surplus tribal land was then to be distributed to white settlers. In 1891, tribespeople were given the right to lease or sell their allotments on to white settlers. In the following years, the Federal government pursued a policy of enforced acculturation, in particular suppressing communal tribal land use and institutions of traditional tribal authority. Inevitably, unscrupulous land speculators found ways to separate tribespeople from their land at a fractions of its value, in negotiations often oiled by alcohol. These developments had the largest impact in what remained of the old Indian Territory just west of the Mississippi. Here, two million acres had been opened up to white settlement by 1899, in which year these lands were formed into Oklahoma Territory, In 1907 Oklahoma became a state. In the early 20th century, disquiet about the allotment system was growing. The honourable participation of many Native Americans in World War I did not go unnoticed by the wider population, and this helped stimulate interest in the condition of the native peoples. In 1924, all Native Americans who were not already citizens already – by marriage, adoption of “civilized” ways, being allotted a homestead and farming it for five years, service in the armed forces and so on – were recognized as citizens of the United States. In 1928 a report commissioned by the government declared the allotment system a dismal failure. It had created a generation of Native Americans caught between two worlds, who had been dispossessed of their land, their culture, their identity and self-respect. It called for a new set of policies which aimed at better protection of their rights, resources and health. Such a new policy approach was embodied in the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. This legalized tribal landholding and tribal government, and expanded educational facilities on the reservations. More broadly, it encouraged Native American participation at a national level in relevant policy making. It also guaranteed religious freedom. At the same time measures were taken to promote social, educational, medical and business programs aimed at raising Native American living standards. These policies were underpinned by Native American participation in Word War 2, both as combatants and in wartime jobs, alongside other Americans. Indeed, this war was one of the key turning points in Native American history. One-third of all able-bodied Indian men from 18 to 50 years of age served in the military during the war, with a voluntary enlistment rate 40% higher than those who were drafted. In the fighting, they were generally held in high esteem by their comrades. When they returned home, these young men found that their wide contact with the outside world had changed them in all kinds of ways, and they often did not fir back easily into reservation life. World War 2 also offered opportunity—as a result of wartime labor shortages—to find well-paying work in cities, and these years saw Native Americans begin to move into cities at a much faster rate than before, and this trend continued into the post-war years. A harsher political environment set in in the late 1940s and 50s. Congress sought to pursue a policy of terminating special relationships between the Federal government and the tribes, and to reduce the scope of tribal authority. Whilst theoretically guaranteeing Native Americans equality under the law with all other citizens, in reality it took some rights away from them. In the 1960s, however, there was a move back to more enlightened policies which sought to foster Native American self-determination. This approach came to include a variety of elements, including enhancing tribal self-government, developing economic self-sufficiency, fostering social wellbeing, and encouraging cultural revival. Political, social and cultural activism amongst Native Americans increased. In the 1960s, 70s and 80s, numerous economic and social programs were initiated designed to raise Native American living standards. Cut-backs in government funding affected these activities in the 1990s, but not the principle of self-determination.
\|Part of a series on Government\| Quantitative easing (QE) is an unconventional monetary policy used by central banks to stimulate the national economy when standard monetary policy has become ineffective. A central bank implements quantitative easing by buying financial assets from commercial banks and other private institutions, thus increasing the monetary base. This is distinguished from the more usual policy of buying or selling government bonds in order to keep market interest rates at a specified target value. Expansionary monetary policy typically involves the central bank buying short-term government bonds in order to lower short-term market interest rates. However, when short-term interest rates are either at, or close to, zero, normal monetary policy can no longer lower interest rates. Quantitative easing may then be used by the monetary authorities to further stimulate the economy by purchasing assets of longer maturity than only short-term government bonds, and thereby lowering longer-term interest rates further out on the yield curve. Quantitative easing raises the prices of the financial assets bought, which lowers their yield. Quantitative easing can be used to help ensure that inflation does not fall below target. Risks include the policy being more effective than intended in acting against deflation – leading to higher inflation, or of not being effective enough if banks do not lend out the additional reserves. According to the IMF and various other economists, quantitative easing undertaken since the global financial crisis has mitigated the adverse effects of the crisis. Ordinarily, a central bank conducts monetary policy by raising or lowering its interest rate target for the inter-bank interest rate. A central bank generally achieves its interest rate target mainly through open market operations, where the central bank buys or sells short-term government bonds from banks and other financial institutions. When the central bank disburses or collects payment for these bonds, it alters the amount of money in the economy, while simultaneously affecting the price (and thereby the yield) for short-term government bonds. This in turn affects the interbank interest rates. If the nominal interest rate is at or very near zero, the central bank cannot lower it further. Such a situation, called a liquidity trap, can occur, for example, during deflation or when inflation is very low. In such a situation, the central bank may perform quantitative easing by purchasing a pre-determined amount of bonds or other assets from financial institutions without reference to the interest rate. The goal of this policy is to increase the money supply rather than to decrease the interest rate, which cannot be decreased further. This is often considered a "last resort" to stimulate the economy. Quantitative easing, and monetary policy in general, can only be carried out if the central bank controls the currency used. The central banks of countries in the Eurozone, for example, cannot unilaterally expand their money supply, and thus cannot employ quantitative easing. They must instead rely on the European Central Bank (ECB) to set monetary policy. In Japan \|\|The neutrality of this section is disputed. (July 2012)\| The original Japanese expression for quantitative easing (量的金融緩和, ryōteki kin'yū kanwa), was used for the first time by a Central Bank in the Bank of Japan's publications. The Bank of Japan has claimed that the central bank adopted a policy with this name on 19 March 2001. However, the Bank of Japan's official monetary policy announcement of this date does not make any use of this expression (or any phrase using "quantitative") in either the Japanese original statement or its English translation. Indeed, the Bank of Japan had for years, including as late as February 2001, claimed that "quantitative easing … is not effective" and rejected its use for monetary policy. Speeches by the Bank of Japan leadership in 2001 gradually, and ex post, hardened the subsequent official Bank of Japan stance that the policy adopted by the Bank of Japan on 19 March 2001 was in fact quantitative easing. This became the established official view, especially after Toshihiko Fukui was appointed governor in February 2003. The use by the Bank of Japan is not the origin of the term quantitative easing or its Japanese original (ryoteki kinyu kanwa). This expression had been used since the mid-1990s by critics of the Bank of Japan and its monetary policy. Quantitative easing was used unsuccessfully by the Bank of Japan (BOJ) to fight domestic deflation in the early 2000s. The Bank of Japan has maintained short-term interest rates at close to zero since 1999. With quantitative easing, it flooded commercial banks with excess liquidity to promote private lending, leaving them with large stocks of excess reserves, and therefore little risk of a liquidity shortage. The BOJ accomplished this by buying more government bonds than would be required to set the interest rate to zero. It also bought asset-backed securities and equities, and extended the terms of its commercial paper purchasing operation. On April 4th 2013 the Bank of Japan announced that they would expand their Asset Purchase Program by $1.4t USD in two years. The Bank of Japan aims hopes to bring Japan from deflation to inflation, aiming for 2% inflation. The amount of purchases is so large that it is expected to double the money supply. After 2007 More recently, similar policies have been used by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Eurozone during the Financial crisis of 2007–2012. Quantitative easing was used by these countries as their risk-free short-term nominal interest rates are either at, or close to, zero. In the US, this interest rate is the federal funds rate. In the UK, it is the official bank rate. During the peak of the financial crisis in 2008, in the United States the Federal Reserve expanded its balance sheet dramatically by adding new assets and new liabilities without "sterilizing" these by corresponding subtractions. In the same period the United Kingdom also used quantitative easing as an additional arm of its monetary policy in order to alleviate its financial crisis. The European Central Bank has used 12-month and 36-month long term refinancing operations (LTRO) (forms of quantitative easing without referring to them as such) through a process of expanding the assets that banks can use as collateral that can be posted to the ECB in return for euros. This process has led to bonds being "structured for the ECB". By comparison the other central banks were very restrictive in terms of the collateral they accept: the US Federal Reserve used to accept primarily treasuries (in the first half of 2009 it bought almost any relatively safe dollar-denominated securities); the Bank of England applied a large haircut. During its QE programme, the Bank of England bought gilts from financial institutions, along with a smaller amount of relatively high-quality debt issued by private companies. The banks, insurance companies and pension funds can then use the money they have received for lending or even to buy back more bonds from the bank. The central bank can also lend the new money to private banks or buy assets from banks in exchange for currency. These have the effect of depressing interest yields on government bonds and similar investments, making it cheaper for business to raise capital. Another side effect is that investors will switch to other investments, such as shares, boosting their price and thus encouraging consumption. QE can reduce interbank overnight interest rates, and thereby encourage banks to loan money to higher interest-paying and financially weaker bodies. Nevin argued that QE failed to stimulate recovery in the UK and instead prolonged the recession between 2009 and 2012 as it caused a collapse in the velocity of circulation, or rate at which money circulates around the economy. This happened because QE drove down gilt yields and annuity rates and forced pensioners, savers and companies to hoard cash to counter the negative impact of QE on their investment income. At the beginning of 2013 the Swiss National Bank had the largest balance sheet relative to the size of the economy it was responsible for, at close to 100% of Switzerland's national output. 12% of its reserves were in foreign equities. The Federal Reserve's holdings equaled about 20% of U.S. GDP while the ECB's assets were 30% of GDP. The U.S. Federal Reserve held between $700 billion and $800 billion of Treasury notes on its balance sheet before the recession. In late November 2008, the Fed started buying $600 billion in Mortgage-backed securities (MBS). By March 2009, it held $1.75 trillion of bank debt, MBS, and Treasury notes, and reached a peak of $2.1 trillion in June 2010. Further purchases were halted as the economy had started to improve, but resumed in August 2010 when the Fed decided the economy was not growing robustly. After the halt in June holdings started falling naturally as debt matured and were projected to fall to $1.7 trillion by 2012. The Fed's revised goal became to keep holdings at the $2.054 trillion level. To maintain that level, the Fed bought $30 billion in 2–10-year Treasury notes a month. In November 2010, the Fed announced a second round of quantitative easing, or "QE2", buying $600 billion of Treasury securities by the end of the second quarter of 2011. A third round of quantitative easing, or "QE3", was announced by the Federal Reserve in September 2012. The third round includes a plan to purchase US$40 billion of mortgage-backed securities (MBS) per month. Additionally, the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) announced that it would likely maintain the federal funds rate near zero "at least through 2015." The Bank of England had purchased around £165 billion of assets by September 2009 and around £175 billion of assets by end of October 2010. At its meeting in November 2010, the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) voted to increase total asset purchases to £200 billion. Most of the assets purchased have been UK government securities (gilts), the Bank has also been purchasing smaller quantities of high-quality private sector assets. In December 2010 MPC member Adam Posen called for a £50 billion expansion of the Bank's quantitative easing programme, whilst his colleague Andrew Sentance has called for an increase in interest rates due to inflation being above the target rate of 2%. In October 2011, the Bank of England announced it would undertake another round of QE, creating an additional £75 billion, in February 2012 it announced an additional £50 billion, in July 2012 it announce another £50 billion, bringing the total amount to £375 billion. The Bank of England has said that it will not buy more than 70% of any issue of government debt. This means that at least 30% of any issue of government debt will have to be purchased and held by institutions other than the Bank of England. The Bank of Japan (BOJ) increased the commercial bank current account balance from ¥5 trillion yen to ¥35 trillion (approximately US$300 billion) over a 4-year period starting in March 2001. As well, the BOJ tripled the quantity of long-term Japan government bonds it could purchase on a monthly basis. In early October 2010, the BOJ announced that it would examine the purchase of ¥5 trillion (US$60 billion) in assets. This was an attempt to push the value of the yen versus the U.S. dollar down to stimulate the local economy by making their exports cheaper; it did not work. On 4 August 2011 the bank announced a unilateral move to increase the amount from ¥40 trillion (US$504 billion) to a total of ¥50 trillion (US$630 billion). In October 2011 the Bank of Japan expanded its asset purchase program by ¥5 trillion ($66bn) to a total of ¥55 trillion. QE1, QE2, and QE3 The expression "QE2" became a "ubiquitous nickname" in 2010, when used to refer to a second round of quantitative easing by central banks in the United States. Retrospectively, the round of quantitative easing preceding QE2 may be called "QE1". Similarly, "QE3" refers to the third round of quantitative easing following QE2. QE3 was announced on 13 September 2012. In an 11-to-1 vote, the Federal Reserve decided to launch a new $40 billion a month, open-ended, bond purchasing program of agency mortgage-backed securities and also to continue extremely low rates policy until at least mid-2015. According to NASDAQ.com, this is effectively a stimulus program which allows the Federal Reserve to relieve $40 billion dollars per month of commercial housing market debt risk. As a result of its open-ended nature, QE3 has earned the popular nickname of "QE-Infinity," a term first coined by Minyanville author Jason Haver. On 12 December 2012, the FOMC announced increased the amount of open-ended purchases from $40 billion to $85 billion per month. This is sometimes referred to as "QE4". According to the IMF, the quantitative easing policies undertaken by the central banks of the major developed countries since the beginning of the late-2000s financial crisis have contributed to the reduction in systemic risks following the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers. The IMF states that the policies also contributed to the improvements in market confidence and the bottoming out of the recession in the G7 economies in the second half of 2009. Economist Martin Feldstein argues that QE2 led to a rise in the stock-market in the second half of 2010, which in turn contributed to increasing consumption and the strong performance of the U.S. economy in late 2010. Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan calculated that as of July 2012 there was "very little impact on the economy" and noted "I'm very surprised at the data". Federal Reserve Governor Jeremy Stein has said that measures of quantitive easing such as large-scale asset purchases "have played a significant role in supporting economic activity". Economic impact Quantitative easing may cause higher inflation than desired if the amount of easing required is overestimated, and too much money is created by the purchase of liquid assets. On the other hand, quantitative easing can fail to be effective at spurring demand if banks remain reluctant to lend money to businesses and households. Even then, quantitative easing can still ease the process of deleveraging as it lowers yields. However, there is a time lag between money growth and inflation, inflationary pressures associated with money growth from QE could build before the central bank acts to counter them. Inflationary risks are mitigated if the system's economy outgrows the pace of the increase of the money supply from the easing. If production in an economy increases because of the increased money supply, the value of a unit of currency may also increase, even though there is more currency available. For example, if a nation's economy were to spur a significant increase in output at a rate at least as high as the amount of debt monetized, the inflationary pressures would be equalized. This can only happen if member banks actually lend the excess money out instead of hoarding the extra cash. During times of high economic output, the central bank always has the option of restoring the reserves back to higher levels through raising of interest rates or other means, effectively reversing the easing steps taken. Increasing the money supply tends to depreciate a country's exchange rates versus other currencies. This feature of QE directly benefits exporters residing in the country performing QE and also debtors whose debts are denominated in that currency, for as the currency devalues so does the debt. However, it directly harms creditors and holders of the currency as the real value of their holdings decrease. Devaluation of a currency also directly harms importers as the cost of imported goods is inflated by the devaluation of the currency. Savings and pensions In November 2010, a group of conservative Republican economists and political activists released an open letter to Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke questioning the efficacy of the Fed's QE program. The Fed responded that their actions reflected the economic environment of high unemployment and low inflation. In the European Union, World Pensions Council (WPC) financial economists have also argued that QE-induced artificially low interest rates will have an adverse impact on the underfunding condition of pension funds as “without returns that outstrip inflation, pension investors face the real value of their savings declining rather than ratcheting up over the next few years”. Housing market over-supply and QE3 "The impetus ... is to aid the housing market. That's an area that's fallen short in this recovery. In most other U.S. postwar recoveries, we've seen a pretty sharp snap back in housing. Of course, the reason it hasn't come back in this recovery is that this recession was essentially caused by us building too many houses prior to the recession. We still have a huge overhang of houses that haven't been sold that are vacant. And it's going to take us a while before we want the houses we have, much less need to build more." Capital flight The new money could be used by the banks to invest in emerging markets, commodity-based economies, commodities themselves and non-local opportunities rather than to lend to local businesses that are having difficulty getting loans. Criticism by BRIC Countries QE rounds by the central banks of developed nations are criticized by BRIC countries. They share the argument that such actions amount to protectionism and competitive devaluation. As net exporters whose currencies are partially pegged to the dollar, they protest that it causes their inflation to rise and penalizes their industry. Comparison with other instruments Qualitative easing Professor Willem Buiter, of the London School of Economics, has proposed a terminology to distinguish quantitative easing, or an expansion of a central bank's balance sheet, from what he terms qualitative easing, or the process of a central bank adding riskier assets onto its balance sheet: Quantitative easing is an increase in the size of the balance sheet of the central bank through an increase [in its] monetary liabilities (base money), holding constant the composition of its assets. Asset composition can be defined as the proportional shares of the different financial instruments held by the central bank in the total value of its assets. An almost equivalent definition would be that quantitative easing is an increase in the size of the balance sheet of the central bank through an increase in its monetary liabilities that holds constant the (average) liquidity and riskiness of its asset portfolio. Qualitative easing is a shift in the composition of the assets of the central bank towards less liquid and riskier assets, holding constant the size of the balance sheet (and the official policy rate and the rest of the list of usual suspects). The less liquid and more risky assets can be private securities as well as sovereign or sovereign-guaranteed instruments. All forms of risk, including credit risk (default risk) are included. Credit easing In introducing the Federal Reserve's response to the 2008–9 financial crisis, Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke distinguished the new program, which he termed "credit easing" from Japanese-style quantitative easing. In his speech, he announced: Our approach—which could be described as "credit easing"—resembles quantitative easing in one respect: It involves an expansion of the central bank's balance sheet. However, in a pure QE regime, the focus of policy is the quantity of bank reserves, which are liabilities of the central bank; the composition of loans and securities on the asset side of the central bank's balance sheet is incidental. Indeed, although the Bank of Japan's policy approach during the QE period was quite multifaceted, the overall stance of its policy was gauged primarily in terms of its target for bank reserves. In contrast, the Federal Reserve's credit easing approach focuses on the mix of loans and securities that it holds and on how this composition of assets affects credit conditions for households and businesses. Credit easing involves increasing the money supply by the purchase not of government bonds, but of private sector assets such as corporate bonds and residential mortgage-backed securities. When undertaking credit easing, the Federal Reserve increases the money supply not by buying government debt, but instead by buying private sector assets including residential mortgage-backed securities. In 2010, the Federal Reserve purchased $1.25 trillion of mortgage-backed securities (MBS) in order to support the sagging mortgage market. These purchases increased the monetary base in a way similar to a purchase of government securities. Printing money Quantitative easing has been nicknamed "printing money" by some members of the media, central bankers, and financial analysts. However, central banks state that the use of the newly created money is different in QE. With QE, the newly created money is used for buying government bonds or other financial assets, whereas the term printing money usually implies that the newly minted money is used to directly finance government deficits or pay off government debt (also known as monetizing the government debt). Central banks in most developed nations (e.g., UK, US, Japan, and EU) are forbidden by law to buy government debt directly from the government and must instead buy it from the secondary market. This two-step process, where the government sells bonds to private entities which the central bank then buys, has been called "monetizing the debt" by many analysts. The distinguishing characteristic between QE and monetizing debt is that with QE, the central bank is creating money to stimulate the economy, not to finance government spending. Also, the central bank has the stated intention of reversing the QE when the economy has recovered (by selling the government bonds and other financial assets back into the market). The only effective way to determine whether a central bank has monetized debt is to compare its performance relative to its stated objectives. Many central banks have adopted an inflation target. It is likely that a central bank is monetizing the debt if it continues to buy government debt when inflation is above target, and the government has problems with debt-financing. Ben Bernanke remarked in 2002 that the US Government had a technology called the printing press, or today its electronic equivalent, so that if rates reached zero and deflation was threatened the government could always act to ensure deflation was prevented. He said, however, that the Government would not print money and distribute it "willy nilly" but would rather focus its efforts in certain areas (for example, buying federal agency debt securities and mortgage-backed securities). According to economist Robert McTeer, former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, there is nothing wrong with printing money during a recession, and quantitative easing is different from traditional monetary policy "only in its magnitude and pre-announcement of amount and timing". Richard W. Fisher, president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, warned that a potential risk of QE is, "the risk of being perceived as embarking on the slippery slope of debt monetization. We know that once a central bank is perceived as targeting government debt yields at a time of persistent budget deficits, concern about debt monetization quickly arises." and later in the same speech states that the Fed is monetizing the government debt, "The math of this new exercise is readily transparent: The Federal Reserve will buy $110 billion a month in Treasuries, an amount that, annualized, represents the projected deficit of the federal government for next year. For the next eight months, the nation’s central bank will be monetizing the federal debt." Altering debt maturity structure Based on research reassessing the effectiveness of the US Federal Open Market Committee action in 1961 known as Operation Twist, The Economist, based on research by economist Eric Swanson, has posited that a similar restructuring of the supply of different types of debt would have an effect equal to that of QE. Such action would allow finance ministries (e.g., the US Department of the Treasury) a role in the process now reserved for central banks. See also - "Loose thinking". The Economist. 15 October 2009. - Publications \| Learning the Lessons from QE and Other Unconventional Monetary Policies: 17–18 November. Bank of England (18 November 2011). - Quantitative Easing Explained. London: Bank of England. 2011. "The MPC's decision to inject money directly into the economy does not involve printing more banknotes. Instead, the Bank buys assets from private sector institutions – that could be insurance companies, pension funds, banks or non-financial firms – and credits the seller's bank account." - "Quantitative Easing". Bank of England. "The Bank can create new money electronically by increasing the balance on a reserve account. So when the Bank purchases an asset from a bank, for example, it simply credits that bank's reserve account with the additional funds. This generates an expansion in the supply of central bank money" - "Q&A: Quantitative easing". BBC. 9 March 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2009. - "Quantitative Easing Explained". Bank of England. "This does not involve printing more banknotes. Instead the Bank pays for these assets by creating money electronically and crediting the accounts of the companies it bought the assets from." - Open market operations: A Glossary of Political Economy Terms – Dr. Paul M. Johnson. Auburn.edu. - Open Market Operation – Fedpoints. 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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Retrieved 26 July 2011. - Quantitative Easing explained. Bank of England. pp. 7–9. ISBN 1-85730-114-5. Retrieved 20 July 2010. "(page 7) Bank buys assets from … institutions … credits the seller's bank account. So the seller has more money in their bank account, while their bank holds a corresponding claim against the Bank of England (known as reserves … (page 8) high-quality debt … (page 9) … such as shares or company bonds. That will push up the prices of those assets," - "Quantitative easing: A therapy of last resort". The New York Times. 1 January 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2010. - Stewart, Heather (29 January 2009). "Quantitative easing: last resort to get credit moving again". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 12 July 2010. - "Protocol on the Statute of the European System of Central Banks and of the European Central Bank: statements 14.4, 18.2". pp. 5–6. Retrieved 7 April 2011. - Shirakawa, Masaaki, "One Year Under 'Quantitative Easing'", Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies, Bank of Japan, 2002. - Bank of Japan, New Procedures for Money Market Operations and Monetary Easing, 19 March 2001. Retrieved 9 August 2010. - Hiroshi Fujiki et. al., Monetary Policy under Zero Interest Rate: Viewpoints of Central Bank Economists, Monetary and Economic Studies, February 2001, p.98. Retrieved 9 August 2010. - First in the headline of Richard Werner's article in the Nikkei, the main Japanese financial daily newspaper: Richard Werner (1995), "Keizai Kyoshitsu: Keiki kaifuku, ryoteiki kinyu kanwa kara," Nikkei, 2 September 1995, p. 26 - "Japan sets inflation goal in fight against deflation". BBC News. 16 February 2010. Retrieved 4 April 2011. - Mark Spiegel. "FRBSF: Economic Letter—Quantitative Easing by the Bank of Japan (11/02/2001)". Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. Retrieved 19 January 2009. - Voutsinas, Konstantinos, and Richard A. Werner, "New Evidence on the Effectiveness of 'Quantitative Easing' in Japan", Centre for Banking, Finance and Sustainable Development, School of Management, University of Southampton. - Easing Out of the Bank of Japan's Monetary Easing Policy (2004–33, 19 November 2004). Frbsf.org. - PIMCO/Tomoya Masanao interview[dead link] - . The Guardian http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2013/apr/04/japan-quantitative-easing-70bn. Missing or empty - Alloway, Tracy, The Unthinkable Has Happened, ft.com, 10 November 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2010. - 'Bernanke-san' Signals Policy Shift, Evoking Japan Comparison, Bloomberg.com, 2 December 2008 - Bank pumps £75bn into economy, ft.com, 5 March 2009 - Lynn, Matthew, "What central banks provide, oil markets take away", MarketWatch, 29 February 2012. Retrieved 29 February 2012. - Evans, Rachel, Unsellable bonds structured to abuse ECB scheme, IFLR, 2 February 2009 - Bean, Charles (July 2009). "Ask the Deputy Governor". Bank of England. Retrieved 12 July 2010. - Nevin, Michael (2012). The Golden Guinea. The International Financial Crisis, 2007–2014: Causes, Consequences and Cures. Southdown Books. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-85730-103-1. - The Distributional Effects of Asset Purchases, Bank of England, July 2012 - Brian Blackstone and David Wessel (8 January 2013), Button-Down Central Bank Bets It All The Wall Street Journal - Harding, Robin. (3 November 2010) Quantitative easing explained. Financial Times. - Censky, Annalyn (3 November 2010). "QE2: Fed pulls the trigger". CNNmoney.com. Retrieved 10 August 2011. - What is the Federal Reserve Quantitative Easing. Useconomy.about.com (22 September 2011). - Zumbrun, Joshua (13 September 2012). "Fed Undertakes QE3 With $40 Billion MBS Purchases Per Month". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 13 September 2012. - [dead link] - Arnott, Sarah (23 December 2010). "Downward revision for third-quarter growth". The Independent (London). - "Bank of England injects further £75bn into economy". BBC News. 6 October 2011. - "Bank of England injects another £50bn into UK economy". BBC News. 9 February 2012. - Publications \| Bank of England maintains Bank Rate at 0.5% and increases size of Asset Purchase Programme by £50 billion to £375 billion. Bank of England. - "A flat economy (cont'd)". BBC News. 12 January 2012. - Duncan, Gary (8 May 2009). "European Central Bank opts for quantitative easing to lift the eurozone". The Times (London). - Quantitative Easing – A lesson learned from Japan. Oye Times. - "Japan government and central bank intervene to cut yen". BBC News. 4 August 2011. - Bank of Japan increases QE by 10 trillion yen. Banking Times (4 August 2011). - "Bank of Japan increases stimulus and keeps rates low". BBC News. 27 October 2011. - Fed's desperate measure is a watershed moment, John Authers, The Long View, Financial Times, 5 November 2010 - Conerly, Bill (13 September 2012). "QE3 and the Economy: It Will Help, But Not Solve All Problems". Forbes. Retrieved 13 September 2012. - Inman, Phillip (14 July 2011). "Moody's sounds note of caution while Bernanke promises support for U.S. economy". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 19 July 2011. - "Federal Reserve issues FOMC statement". Federal Reserve Board. 12 January 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2013. - Jensen, Greg (19 September 2012). "QE3 Launched: The Ever Decreasing Effects of Monetary Stimulus". NASDAQ. Retrieved 19 September 2012. - Navarro, Bruno J.. (12 July 2012) "CNBC Coverage of Greenspan". Finance.yahoo.com. - Thornton, Daniel L. (2010). "The downside of quantitative easing". Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Synopses (34). - Inman, Phillip (29 June 2011). "How the world paid the hidden cost of America's quantitative easing". The Guardian (London). - "Open letter to Ben Bernanke". The Wall Street Journal. 15 November 2010. Retrieved 9 October 2011. - M. Nicolas J. Firzli quoted in Sinead Cruise (4 August 2012). "'Zero Return World Squeezes Retirement Plans'". Reuters with CNBC (.). Retrieved 5 Aug 2012. - M. Nicolas J. Firzli (1 March 2013). "' Europe’s Pension Predicament: the Broken Bismarckian Promise '". Plan Sponsor (.). Retrieved 1 March 2013. - National Public Radio (September 15, 2012) "Fed's Latest Stimulus Lacked Unanimous Support" All Things Considered - Lynch, David J. (17 November 2010). "Bernanke's 'Cheap Money' Stimulus Spurs Corporate Investment Outside U.S". Bloomberg. - Jeff Black and Zoe Schneeweis, China’s Yi Warns on Currency Wars as Yuan in Equilibrium, Bloomberg News, Jan 26 2013 - John Paul Rathbone and Jonathan Wheatley, Brazil’s finance chief attacks US over QE3, Financial Times, September 20, 2012 - Richard Blackden, Brazil president Dilma Rousseff blasts Western QE as monetary tsunami, The Telegraph, April 10, 2012 - Michael Steen and Alice Ross, Warning on new currency war, Financial Times, January 22, 2013 - Willem Buiter (9 December 2008). "Quantitative easing and qualitative easing: a terminological and taxonomic proposal". Retrieved 2009-02-02. - Credit Easing versus Quantitative Easing. Federalreserve.gov (13 January 2009). - Credit Easing Definition. Financial Times Lexicon. - How Bernanke's Policy of 'Credit Easing' Works. BusinessWeek (28 January 2009). - Stephanomics: Is quantitative easing really just printing money?. BBC. - Mackintosh, James. (2 December 2010) QE: Replacement not debasement. FT.com. - Hyde, Deborah. (8 November 2010) Ask Citywire: Quantitative easing part II – Citywire Money. Citywire.co.uk. - Bullard, James (30 June 2009). Exit Strategies for the Federal Reserve (Speech). Global Interdependence Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. - "Bank of England to create new money: a Q&A". The Daily Telegraph (London). 5 March 2009. - Duncan, Gary (5 March 2009). "Bank should start printing money says Times MPC". The Times (London). - Stephanomics. BBC. - Wolf, Martin. (16 December 2008) "‘Helicopter Ben’ confronts the challenge of a lifetime". Financial Times. - Speech, Bernanke -Deflation- November 21, 2002. Federal Reserve Bank. - McTeer, Bob (23 December 2010). "There's nothing wrong with the Fed printing money". Forbes. - McTeer, Bob (26 August 2010). "Quantitative easing is a toxic phrase for a routine policy". Forbes. - Speeches by Richard W. Fisher. Dallas Fed (8 November 2010). - "Twisted thinking: Government Debt-Managers May be Undermining Quantitative Easing". The Economist. 31 March 2011. 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Varicella Zoster Virus IDENTIFICATION AND DEFINITION Shingles or (Varicella Zoster Virus) is a painful skin rash caused by the varicella zoster virus, the same virus that causes chickenpox. The most common complication of shingles is severe pain where the shingles rash was. This pain can be debilitating. There is no treatment or cure from this pain. Shingles may also lead to serious complications involving the eye. Very rarely, shingles can also lead to pneumonia, hearing problems, blindness, brain inflammation (encephalitis), or death. It is most common in people who are older or have a dampened immune system, but someone who is healthy can get it as well. The incidences for this disease in 2014 for the U.S. is about 1 in 3 people getting the disease. HISTORY OF SHINGLES Shingles has been known since ancient times and was well documented in ancient medical texts. It was not known to be associated with the chickenpox virus until 1888 by Von Bokay. In 1954 the fluid of the lesions and from chicken pox was acquired and this is how they found out that the Varicella virus was what was causing both diseases, this study was done by Weller. In the 1970’s a live strain of the vaccine was made in Japan. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF SHINGLES Shingles is a painful rash that develops on one side of the face or body. The rash forms blisters that typically scab over in 7 to 10 days and clears up within 2 to 4 weeks. Before the rash develops, people often have pain, itching, or tingling in the area where the rash will develop. This may happen anywhere from 1 to 5 days before the rash appears. Most commonly, the rash occurs in a single stripe around either the left or the right side of the body. In other cases, the rash occurs on one side of the face. In rare cases (usually among people with weakened immune systems), the rash may be more widespread and look similar to a chickenpox rash. Shingles can affect the eye and cause loss of vision. Other symptoms of shingles can include TRANSMISSION OF SHINGLES This virus can be transmitted through direct contact with the vesicular fluids, the spray droplets in the air from someone sneezing or touching a surface that the fluid or droplets are on. The virus incubation period lasts up to 14 to 16 days from exposure, with a range of 10 to 21 days. This means that the people who have the virus can spread it to people up to 3 weeks before they start to feel ill or see any signs of illness. COMPLICATIONS OF SHINGLES Varicella in Normal Children Low risk of complications. Accounts for >90% of cases, 75% of all varicella hospitalizations, 70% of cases of encephalitis, 40% to 60% of all deaths, and virtually 100% of Reye Syndrome cases. Most common complication is secondary bacterial infection of cutaneous lesions. Encephalitis (estimated rate = 1.7/100,000): Cerebellar ataxia is most common, and is associated with a good outcome; diffuse cerebral involvement is less common in children. Reye Syndrome: Recent dramatic decrease in the incidence has occurred, presumably related to decreased use of aspirin in children. Rare: Aseptic meningitis, transverse myelitis, and Guillain-Barre syndrome. Pneumonia: Viral or bacterial, more frequent in adults. Infrequent complications: Thrombocytopenia, hemorrhagic varicella, purpura fulminans, glomerulonephritis, myocarditis, arthritis, orchitis, uveitis, iritis, and clinical hepatitis. Have a higher risk of complications than normal children. Less than 2% of reported cases are in persons > or equal to 20 years of age, but account for approximately 25% of mortality. Pneumonia: Case fatality rates of up to 30%. Diffuse cerebral encephalitis is more likely to affect adults than children, and has a case fatality rate of up to 37%. Hospitalization rate approximately 14-18/1,000 cases compared with 1-2/1,000 cases in normal children. Immunocompromised persons (i.e., persons with congenital or acquired immune deficiencies, malignancies, or on immunosuppressive therapy). Immunocompromised persons have a high risk of serious varicella infection. Immunocompromised persons have a high risk of disseminated disease (up to 36% in one report), resulting in multiple organ system involvement, often becoming fulminant and hemorrhagic. Most frequent complications include pneumonia and encephalitis. Increased risk of death; 7% in one report, however, this preceded the widespread use of VZIG and acyclovir and may not reflect current experience. Primary varicella infection in the first 16 weeks of gestation is rarely associated with a recognized constellation of abnormalities: low birth weight, hypoplasia of an extremity, cicatricial skin scarring, localized muscular atrophy, encephalitis, cortical atrophy, chorioretinitis, and microcephaly. Risk of congenital birth defects from primary maternal varicella infection during the first trimester is felt to be very low (1%-2%). Rare reports of congenital birth defects following maternal zoster exist; however, virologic confirmation of maternal lesions was lacking. Infection in utero with varicella, particularly after 20 weeks gestation, is associated with zoster in those infants at an earlier age; the exact risk is unknown. Neonatal Infection Due to Maternal Chickenpox Close to Time of Delivery The onset of maternal varicella from 5 days before to 2 days after delivery may result in severe infection of the neonate (in an estimated 17% to 30%) and an estimated case fatality rate of 31% in the first 5 to 10 days of life. Fetal exposure to varicella virus without protection from sufficient maternal antibody results in severe disease. Infants born to mothers with onset of maternal varicella 5 days or more prior to delivery usually have a benign course, presumably due to passive transfer of sufficient maternal antibody. Infants After Postnatal Exposure Normal full-term infants with normal birthweight are unlikely to develop serious complications. Premature infants may have medical conditions that put them at increased risk for serious varicella illness and those born before 28 weeks of gestation may not have received adequate maternal antibody. Pregnancy - There is growing evidence that infection during pregnancy carries increased risk for serious varicella. Further study is needed. Risk in normal children: approximately 1/100,000; in normal infants: approximately 6/100,000. Risk in normal adults: approximately 12/100,000. Risk in leukemics is higher than in normal children and has been reported at 7%. Risk for newborns (who do not receive VZIG) from maternal chickenpox close to time of delivery is estimated at 31%. Majority of deaths occur in normal individuals. RECOMMENDED CONTROL MEASURES FOR SHINGLES In order to prevent and control Shingles we should: Get the vaccination Stay away from people who have shingles or if you have to come into contact with them use protective measures such as masking and cloves as well as a cleaning solution whenever the person touches something. If a newborn gets shingles they need to be hospitalized and isolated for at least 21 days. If an elderly individual gets the virus they can start antiviral therapy. This disease is very contagious and can cause a lot of harm in the community, it is capable of causing outbreaks especially among the very young and the very old in the population.
IB Chemistry/Definitions< IB Chemistry Back to IB Chemistry - 1 Core - 1.1 Topic 1 - Stoichiometry - 1.2 Topic 2 and 12 - Atomic structure - 1.3 Topic 3 and 13 – Periodicity - 1.4 Topic 4 and 14 – Bonding - 1.5 Topic 5 – States of Matter - 1.6 Topic 5 and 15 – Energetics - 1.7 Topic 6 and 16 – Kinetics - 1.8 Topic 7 and 17 – Equilibrium - 1.9 Topic 8 and 18 – Acids and Bases - 1.10 Topic 9 and 19 – Oxidation and Reduction - 1.11 Topic 10 and 20 – Organic Chemistry IB Chemistry Definitions mostly by Jobin Topic 1 - StoichiometryEdit - Avogadro’s constant: The number of particles in 12g of 12C. 6.022 x 10^23 - Atomic mass: The mass of a single atom - Chemical reaction: A reaction in which bonds in the reactants are broken and bonds in the products are formed resulting in an energy change between the reacting system and its surroundings. - Compound: Two or more types of atoms chemically bonded together. - Concentration: a measure of the amount of dissolved substance contained per unit of volume - Element: A substance that contains only one type of atom. - Excess: The reactant which there is more of than needed to react with all of the limiting reagent. - Formula, empirical: The formula obtained by experiment, showing the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a particle of the substance. - Formula mass: The mass of one formula unit of that substance - Formula, structural: Shows the arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. - Ion: An atom or molecules where the total number of protons is not equal to the total number of electrons. - Limiting reagent: The reactant which will determine the theoretical maximum amount of product formed. - Molar mass: The mass of a mole of a substance. - Mole: The amount of substance that contains a number of specified species equal to Avogadro’s constant. - Molecular mass: the mass of one molecule of that substance - Solute: A substance that is dissolved into another ( the solvent) - Solvent: a substance that dissolves another ( the solute) - Yield, percentage: The experimental yield as a percentage of the maximum theoretical yield. - Yield: The amount of product. Topic 2 and 12 - Atomic structureEdit - Atomic emission spectra: The characteristic line spectrum that occurs as a result of energy being supplied to individual elements. When energy is supplied to an atom, e- are excited from their ground state to a higher energy level. The e- dropping from higher energy levels to lower emit energy, which can be observed in a spectrum. As e- can only exist in fixed energy levels, the energy in the emissions are characteristic for each type of atom. Lines converge toward high energy end of spectrum as the energy levels themselves are convergent. - Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus. - Aufbau principle: The principle that states that lowest energy levels are filled first. The starting order is 1s2s2p3s3p4s3d… - Hund’s rule: Orbitals within the same sub-shell are filled singly first. - Ionization energy, first: The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms in the ground state to produce one mole of gaseous ions. Increases across a period (due to increasing nuclear attraction), except for slight drops (due to the commencement of pairing of e- into orbitals greater electron repulsion). Decreases down a group (due to increased number of energy levels increased electron shielding). - Isotope: An atom that contains the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. - Mass number: Total number of nucleons. - Mass spectrometer: A device for determining relative atomic masses and their relative abundances. Composed of: vaporizer (where the sample is vaporized), ionizer (where atoms are bombarded with high energy e- e- knocked off the atoms. Only ions with a +1 charge are formed, in practice), accelerator (where an electric field accelerates them), deflector (where a magnetic field deflects them; the smaller the mass and the higher the charge, the greater the deflection) and detector (which measures both the mass and relative amounts of ions present. - Orbital: A region of space around the nucleus of an atom that is occupied by a maximum of two e- at any given time. The types of orbitals are s (spherical), p (dumbbell-shaped), d and f. - Pauli’s exclusion principle: e- in single orbital must have opposite spin. - Relative abundances: The percentage of natural occurrence of an isotope of an element. - Relative atomic mass: The weighted mean of all the naturally occurring isotopes of the element relative to 12C. No units. - Valence electrons: The e- in the highest main energy level. Topic 3 and 13 – PeriodicityEdit - Alkali metals: Group 1 elements. Strength of metallic bond gets weaker as atoms get larger. - Anion: A – charged ion. Decrease in size across a period as they are isoelectronic but have an increased nuclear charge. Contain more e- than their parent atom, so they are larger in size. - Atomic radius: Half the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms of the same element. Decreases across period as nuclear charge increases. Increases down a group because of greater number of energy levels. - Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction while being recoverable in the end stage of the reaction, unchanged. Examples of catalytic transition metals: Fe is used in Haber process; V2O5 in Contact process; Ni in hydrogenation reactions; MnO2 with hydrogen peroxide. - Cation: A + charged ion. Decrease in size across a period. Contain less e- than their parent atom, so they are smaller in size. - Chloride: Chlorides of Na and Mg have an ionic structure, while all the remaining chlorides of period 3 elements have simple covalent structures. Still, Al2Cl6 can act as a poor conductor. NaCl dissolves in water to give a neutral solution, MgCl2 gives slightly acidic solution, while all other chlorides react vigorously with water to produce acidic solutions of HCl together with fumes of hydrogen chloride. - Colored complex: A complex is a compound in which molecules or ions form dative bonds to a metal atom or ion. Colors are due to e- transitions between different d orbitals. - Co-ordination number: Number of lone pairs bonded to the metal ion. Cl- often gives 4 coordinate bonds, CN- gives 6, H2O gives 6 and NH3 gives 4 or 6. - D-d transition: The excitation of an e- from the lower of two energy level groups to the upper. As the ligand approaches the metal, the five d orbitals split. The difference in energy between the two levels corresponds to the wavelength of visible light, as incoming light causes energy of a particular wavelength to be absorbed by e- that are excited from the lower level to the higher. The amount that the d orbitals are split will determine the exact color. - Degenerate: Of equal energy. In a free ion, the five d orbitals are degenerate. - Electronegativity: Relative measure of the attraction that an atom has for a shared pair of e- when it is covalently bonded to another atom. Inversely proportional to size of atom F is most electronegative. - Group: Elements with the same number of valence e-. - Halide ions: Ions of the halogens. Their presence can be detected by the addition of silver nitrate. AgCl is white, AgBr is cream-colored, and AgI is yellow. Silver halides react with light to form silver metal. - Isoelectronic: Containing the same number of e-. - Ligand: A species which contains a non-bonding pair of electrons, able to form coordinate/dative covalent bonds - Melting point: Depends on both the structure of element and type of attractive forces holding the atoms together. Increases across the period while following elements which exhibit metallic bonding (due to increased strength following increased number of valence e-.) Highest m.p. of period lies with macromolecular covalent structure (with very strong bonds). Sharp decrease in m.p. with elements that exhibit simple molecular structures with only van der Waals’ forces between them. Lowest m.p. with noble gases, which are monatomic. Down Group 1, m.p. decreases as atoms get larger and strength of metallic bond get weaker. Down Group 7, van der Waals’ forces increase as molar mass increases m.p. increases. - Metalloid: An element that possesses some of the properties of a metal and some of a non-metal. While metal oxides tend to be basic and non-metal oxides tend to be acidic, metalloid oxides such as aluminium oxide can be amphoteric. - Oxide: Metal oxides are ionic (explains conductivity, m.p. and b.p.) and react with water to form alkaline solutions. SiO2 is covalent macromolecular, and the remaining oxides are simple covalent. Oxides of period 3 elements are solid from Na2O to P4O10 and P4O6, while SO3 and Cl2O7 are liquid and SO2 and Cl2O are gases at 25C. Al2O3 and SiO2 do not react with water, but Al2O3 can act amphoterically depending on whether it is reacted with a base or an acid. Remaining oxides are acidic. - Period: Elements with the same outer shell of valence e-. - Periodicity: The repeating pattern of physical and chemical properties as shown by the different periods. - Structure, giant covalent: Very hard but brittle. Very high m.p. and b.p. Do not conduct in any state. Insoluble. - Structure, giant ionic: Hard but brittle. High m.p. and b.p. Conduct when molten or aqueous, but not as solids. - Structure, giant metallic: Malleable, not brittle. M.p. and b.p. dependent on no. of valence e-. Good conductivity. - Structure, molecular covalent: Usually soft and malleable unless hydrogen bonded. Low m.p. and b.p. Do not conduct in any state. Often soluble in non-aqueous solvents, unless they can hydrogen bond to water. - Transition element: An element that possesses an incomplete d sub-level in one or more of its oxidation states. Often very efficient catalysts as they can exist in a variety of oxidation states (all except Ti have oxidation state of +2). Form colored complexes. Topic 4 and 14 – BondingEdit - Allotrope: Occur when an element can exist in different crystalline forms, such as in carbon, which can exist as graphite, buckminsterfullerene (bucky ball) and diamond. Diamond is exceptionally hard because there is no plane of weakness in the molecule made up of sp3 hybridized carbon atoms. In graphite, the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized. Remaining e- after the three σ bonds, are delocalized, resulting in the fact that graphite is an excellent lubricant and a good conductor of electricity. - Bond length and strength: Depends on strength of attraction that two nuclei have for the shared e-. Generally, the stronger the bond, the shorter its length. - Bond polarity: A polarity caused by a difference in electronegativity between the elements. The greater the difference, the greater the polarity. - Bond, π: Pi bond. A radial bond formed by the sideways overlap of p orbitals with e- densities concentrated above and below a line drawn through the two nuclei. Double bonds have one π bond, while triple bonds have two which are perpendicular to each other. - Bond, σ: Sigma bond. An axial bond formed by the head on/head-to-head overlap of atomic orbitals from two different atoms along the line drawn through the two nuclei, with e- densities concentrated along the line. Single, double and triple bonds have one σ bond. - Covalent bond: Bonding by the sharing of e-. The e- are shared and attracted by both nuclei resulting in a directional bond between the two atoms. - Dative bond: A bond in which both e- come from one of the atoms. Also known as coordinate bond. - Ionic bond: A bond by which e- are transferred from one atom to another to form ions with complete outer shells. In an ionic compound the + and – ions are attracted to each other by the electrostatic force between them, and build up into a strong lattice. Have relatively high m.p. Ionic bonds occur between elements with a great difference (>1.8) in electronegativity. - Conductivity: The extent to which a substance can conduct electricity. Must possess e- or ions that are free to move. - Delocalization: The sharing of a single e- pair by more than two atoms. - Forces, dipole-dipole: Permanent electrostatic forces of attraction between polar molecules. Stronger than van der Waals’. - Forces, Hydrogen bonding: Occurs when hydrogen is bonded directly to a highly electronegative element (N, F, or O). Stronger than dipole:dipole forces. - Forces, van der Waal’s: Temporary dipole forces due to momentary unevenness in spread of e-. Weakest of intermolecular forces. Increase with increasing molar mass. - Formal charge theory: - If compound is covalent, treat the entire molecule; if ionic, treat each ion separately. - Determine total no. of valence e- available. - Organize atoms such that there is a central atom (usually the most electronegative) surrounded by ligands. - i) One pair of e- between central atom and each ligand atom. - ii)three more pairs on each ligand (except hydrogen). - iii)remaining e- pairs around central atom. - Calculate formal charge on central atom. Should be equal to charge on species, otherwise form a multiple bond with ligand atom that has most – formal charge. Repeat 5. - Formal charge: A hypothetical measure of the number of e- originating from an atom. F = V – (n + b/2), where V is valence e-, n is e- in lone pairs and b is e- shared as bonds. - Hybridization: The combination of orbitals to create new orbitals that are more energetically feasible for bonding. Bonds that are sp3 hybridized have a regular bond angle of cos-1(-1/3) ≈ 109.5°, sp2 have cos-1(-1/2) = 120°, and sp have cos-1(-1) = 180°. \|Type of Hybridization\|\|σ bonds\|\|Lone pairs of e-\|\|Molecular shape\|\|Bond angle\|\|Orbital shape\| \|Sp\|\|2 σ bonds\|\|0 lone pairs of e-\|\|Linear\|\|180°\|\|Linear\| \|Sp2\|\|3 σ bonds\|\|0 lone pairs\|\|Trigonal planner\|\|120°\|\|Trigonal planner\| \|Sp2\|\|2 σ bonds\|\|1 pair of e-\|\|Bent/ V-shape\|\|Less than 120°\|\|Trigonal planner\| \|Sp3\|\|4 σ bonds\|\|0 lone pairs of e-\|\|Tetrahedral\|\|109.5°\|\|Tetrahedral\| \|Sp3\|\|3 σ bonds\|\|1 pair of e-\|\|Trigonal planner\|\|Slightly less than 109°\|\|Tetrahedral\| \|Sp3\|\|2 σ bonds\|\|2 lone pairs of e-\|\|Bent/ V-shaped\|\|Slightly less than 109°\|\|Tetrahedral\| - Lewis structure: Diagram showing arrangement of e- in a molecule. Usually only shows valence shells. - Metallic bonding: The valence e- in metals become detached from the individual atoms so that the metals consist of a closely packed lattice of + ions in a ‘sea’ of delocalized e-. Forces of attraction are between ions and e- and not between the ions themselves, which means that metals are malleable and ductile. - Molecular polarity: Depends on both the bond polarity and the symmetry. - Resonance hybrid: Structures that arise from the possibility to draw a multiple bond in different positions equivalently. Can be better explained by delocalization. - Solubility: The extent to which one substance dissolves in another. ‘Like tends to dissolve like.’ - VSEPR theory: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory. States that pairs of e- arrange themselves around the central atom so that they are as far apart from each other as possible. Greater repulsion between lone pair of e- than bonded pairs. Topic 5 – States of MatterEdit - Gas: Widely spaced particles that completely fill the container. - Ideal gas: A gas for which the relationship pV = nRT holds true. - Liquid: Has fixed volume and takes up shape of container. - Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution: Graph showing the distribution of kinetic energies among molecules. - Molar volume: At 273 K and 1 atm, one mole of any gas will occupy 22.4 dm3. - Solid: Has fixed shape and fixed volume. Particles held together by intermolecular forces in a fixed position. Topic 5 and 15 – EnergeticsEdit - Bond enthalpy: The average enthalpy change of breaking a bond between gaseous atoms into its constituent gaseous atoms. - Born-Haber cycle: Energy cycles for the formation of ionic compounds. If there is little agreement between the theoretical and experimental values, this could indicate a degree of covalent character. ΔHf = ΔHat(1) + ΔHat(2) + ΔHIE(1) + ΔHEa(2) – ΔHLatt - Calorimetry: A device for measuring enthalpy changes for reactions. In a simple calorimeter all the heat evolved in an exothermic reaction is used to raise the temperature of a known mass of water. - Electron affinity: Enthalpy change when an e- is added to an isolated atom in the gaseous state. - Endothermic: A reaction in which energy is absorbed. ΔH is +. Reactants more stable than products. - Enthalpy: The internal energy stored in the reactants. Only changes in enthalpy can be measured. - Entropy: A measure of the disorder of a system. The absolute entropy can be found in terms of the probability of a state existing. Things causing entropy to increase: 1) increase of number of moles of gaseous molecules; 2) change of state from solid to liquid or liquid to gas - Exothermic: A reaction in which energy is evolved. ΔH is –. Products more stable than reactants. - Gibb’s free energy: Must be – for reaction to be spontaneous. ΔG = ΔH – TΔS - Heat: A measure of the total energy in a given amount of substance. - Hess’ law: Enthalpy change for a reaction depends only on difference between enthalpy of products and enthalpy of reactants independent of pathway. - Lattice enthalpy: The endothermic process of converting one mole of a crystalline solid into its gaseous ions, or the reverse exothermic process. The lattice enthalpy increases with decreasing size of the ions and increasing charge. - Spontaneous: A reaction that has a natural tendency to occur. - Standard conditions: 298 K and 1 atm. - Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy. It should be noted that many of the energy definitions can be considered in the reverse direction with a corresponding change of sign for the energy. Bond formation = exothermic ΔH negative, bond cleavage = endothermic ΔH positive - Standard enthalpy of vaporisation: The energy required to vaporise one mole of a liquid. - Enthalpy of atomisation: The energy required to produce one mole of gaseous atoms from an element in its standard state. - Bond dissociation enthalpy: The energy change when one mole of a specific bond is broken or created under standard conditions. - Standard bond enthalpy: The average energy change when one mole of a specific type of bond is broken or created under standard conditions. - Enthalpy of Combustion: The energy released when one mole of a compound is burned in excess oxygen. - Standard enthalpy of formation: The energy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements in their standard states under standard conditions. - Standard enthalpy of solution: The energy change when one mole of a substance is dissolved in an infinite amount of water under standard conditions. - Standard dehydration enthalpy: The energy change when a particle is taken from infinite separation in the gaseous state to its position in an aqueous lattice. - Ionisation energy: The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms in the ground state to produce one mole of gaseous ions. - Lattice enthalpy: The energy change when one mole of an ionic substance is broken into its constituent ions at infinite separation. Topic 6 and 16 – KineticsEdit - Activated complex: Created during a bimolecular process. Not a chemical substance which can be isolated, but consists of reacting particles in which bonds are in the process of being broken and formed. Can break down to form either the products or back to the original reactants. - Activation energy: The minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur between two particles. The other requirement is that the particles have to have an appropriate geometry of collision. - Arrhenius equation: An equation showing the relationship between the temperature and the rate constant. K=Ae(-Ea/RT) - Bimolecular process: A reaction which occurs when two species collide and interact. - Catalyst: Provide an alternative pathway for a reaction such that the activation energy required to reach the activation complex is lowered. Can be divided into two types: homogenous catalysts are in the same phase as the reactants, while heterogeneous ones are in a different phase. Heterogeneous catalysts tend to work by bring the reactant particles into close alignment by adsorbing them onto the catalytic surface. - Concentration, effect of: Increasing concentration results in an increased frequency of collisions. Where the curve evens out depends on the total amount of the limiting reagent involved. If the concentration of the limiting reagent is doubled without compensation in volume for the increase in amount, then curve will stabilize at a different level. - Half-life: The time taken for the concentration of the reactant to fall to half of its initial value. - Molecularity: Number of species taking part in any specified step in the reaction. - Order of reaction: The rate is always proportional to the concentration of a reactant raised to a power, where the power is the order of the reaction with respect to that reactant. - Rate constant: The constant of proportionality in the rate expression. Unit is: (mol dm-3)1 – overall order s-1. - Rate expression: An equation that shows the relationship between the concentrations of the reactants and the rate of the reaction. Every species in the rate expression must occur in the rate determining step or in an equilibrium occurring before it. - Rate of reaction: The rate of increase of concentration/mass of one of the products or the rate of decrease of concentration/mass of one of the reactants. - Rate-determining step: The slowest step of a reaction. This determines the rate of the entire reaction. - Surface area, effect of: Increasing surface area results in an increased frequency of collisions. - Temperature, effect of: Increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions of the molecules, but more importantly, increases the proportion of molecules with kinetic energy greater than or equal to the activation energy. - Unimolecular process: A process in which a single species breaks down into two or more products. Topic 7 and 17 – EquilibriumEdit - Closed system: A system in which neither matter nor energy can be lost or gained. An equilibrium can never occur in a system that is not closed. - Contact process: The synthesis of sulphuric acid, where V2O5 is used as a catalyst. - Equilibrium constant: For a reaction aA + bB cC + dD, where the small letters are coefficients and capital letters are the reactants, the equilibrium constant is [C]c[D]d/[A]a[B]b. Variable units. - Equilibrium, dynamic: An equilibrium in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are the same. - Haber process: The synthesis of ammonia, where Fe is used as a catalyst. - Optimum temperature: For exothermic reactions such as the Haber process, the optimum temperature is the best compromise between yield and rate. - Homogeneous reaction: A reaction in which all the species involved are in the same phase. Le Chatelier’s principle: If an equilibrium is subjected to a stress, the equilibrium will shift to minimize the effect of the stress. - Phase equilibrium: When the rate of vaporization is equal to the rate of condensation. - Vapor pressure: The partial pressure of a vapor. Boiling occurs when a liquid’s vapor pressure equals the external pressure. The stronger the intermolecular forces the lower the vapor pressure at a particular temperature. Topic 8 and 18 – Acids and BasesEdit - Acid properties: React with: Indicators; Bases, in neutralization reactions (form a salt and water with hydroxides and metal oxides; form a salt with ammonia); Reactive metals (those above copper in reactivity series) (form salt and hydrogen); carbonates and hydrogencarbonates (form a salt, CO2 and water). - Amphoteric: Can have the properties of both a base and an acid, depending on whether it is reacting with a base or an acid. - Brønsted-Lowry: An acid is defined as a proton donator, while a base is a proton acceptor. - Buffer: A solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or alkali are added to it. When a small amount of acid is added, the excess of H+ ions causes the equilibrium to shift to the left balances the difference. When a small amount of alkali is added, the OH- ions react with the H+ ions to form water. The decrease in [H+] is compensated for by an equilibrium shift to the right. Vice versa for alkali buffers. Buffer solutions are made by several means: strong base + excess weak acid; strong acid + excess weak base; weak acid + same acid’s salt; *weak base + same base’s salt. - Charge density: Charge over size. - Concentrated: High number of moles of solute per dm3 of solution. - Conductivity: The more a solution is dissociated into its ions, the greater its conductivity. - Conjugate: The species remaining after an acid has lost a proton (conjugate base) or a base has gained one (conjugate acid). pKa + pKb = pKw - Diprotic: Where one mole of sulphuric acid produces two moles of hydrogen ions, e.g. H2SO4. - End point: The point at which the indicator changes color most rapidly. - Equimolar: Containing equal concentrations. - Equivalence point: Where the acid and base are in equimolar quantities. Exactly enough to react with each other. - Indicator: A weak acid or base in which the dissociated form is a different color to the undissociated form. The end point occurs when the pH is approximately equal to the pKin value, assuming that the color changes when [In-] [HIn]. Ideally, the end point corresponds to the equivalence point in a titration. - Lewis theory: An acid is defined as an e- acceptor (e.g. BF3) and a base is an e- donator (e.g. NH3) by dative bond. - Monoprotic: Where one mole of the acid produces one mole of hydrogen ions, e.g. HCl. - pH: Power of hydrogen. – log [H+] - Salt hydrolysis: The process by which a salt is broken down by water. The acidity of the salt depends on: 1) its derivations (salts derived from a strong acid and weak base will be acidic in solution, considering that the ions of the weak base will combine, leaving an excess of H+. The strong acid will not combine as it is completely dissociated, as per definition. Vice versa with strong acid and weak base); 2) charge density of cation (high charge density results in strong attraction to the lone pair of one of six water molecules surrounding the ion, a process by which the water molecule loses a hydrogen ion, i.e. leaving the solution acidic). - Strong: An acid or a base that dissociates completely into its ions. Ka >> 1. Some strong acids: hydrochloric, sulphuric, nitric (weaker than other two). Strong bases: hydroxides of alkali metals. - Titration: Technique for quantitative measure of concentration of a solution. Consider when 90% of the required base has been added to a 1M strong acid that is to be neutralized. Only 10% of the acid remains, meaning 0.01M, giving a pH of 2. When 99% has been added, the pH is 3, etc. - Water, ionic product of: The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of water into its ions, where [H2O] is taken to be constant. Value of Kw increases as temperature is increased, as the dissociation is an endothermic process. pKw - Weak: An acid or base that only slightly dissociates into its ions. Ka << 1. Some weak acids: ethanoic, carbonic. Weak bases: ammonia, aminoethane. Topic 9 and 19 – Oxidation and ReductionEdit - Anode: Where oxidation takes place. In electrolysis, it is the + electrode and anions are attracted here. Cathode: Where reduction takes place. In electrolysis, it is the – electrode and cations are attracted here. - Electrolysis: Passage of electric current through an electrolyte. Amount of discharge is affected by: 1) current; 2) charge on ion, 3) duration of electrolysis. - Electrolyte: A substance which does not conduct electricity when solid, but does when molten or in aqueous solution and is chemically decomposed in the process. - Electrolytic cell: Used to make non-spontaneous redox reactions occur by providing energy in the form of electricity from an eternal source. - Electroplating: A process of coating one metal with a thin layer of another metal, by electrolysis. - Half cell: A metal in contact with an aqueous solution of its own ions. - Oxidation number: Ox. no. of: a) elements: 0; b) ion: its charge; c) oxygen: -2 (except in peroxides, -1); d) hydrogen: +1 (except metal hydrides, -1); e) fluorine: -1. - Oxidation: The loss of e-, the gain of oxygen, the loss of hydrogen or the increase in oxidation number. - Oxidizing agent: A substance that readily oxidizes other substances. Oxidizing agents are thus reduced. The higher the oxidation number, the better an oxidizing agent it is, generally. - Reactivity: A measure of the readiness of a substance to gain or lose e.. The stronger the reducing agent or oxidizing agent, the more reactive it is. - Redox reaction: A reaction in which there is a transfer of e-, i.e. reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously. - Reducing agent: A substance that readily reduces other substances. Reducing agents are thus oxidized. - Reduction: The gain of e-, the loss of oxygen, the gain of hydrogen or the decrease in oxidation number. - Salt bridge: Allows the free movement of ions in a voltaic cell. Paper dipped in a saturated solution of KNO3 is an example of a salt bridge. - Shorthand notation: For a voltaic cell. Example: Cu(s)/Cu2+(aq) \|\| H+(aq) / H2(g) - Standard conditions: 298 K, 1 atm, 1.0 M. - Standard electrode potential: Measuring a potential cannot be done as this interferes with the system being investigated. However, the electrode potential of one half cell can be compared against another half-cell, by convention, the hydrogen half-cell, which is arbitrarily given a value of 0 V. - Standard electromotive force: Difference between the two standard electrode potentials of the two half cells. Ecell - Standard hydrogen electrode: Arbitrarily assigned a potential of zero. Electrode consists of an inert metal such as platinum dipped into a 1 M solution of HCl, where hydrogen gas at 1 atm flows in. Platinum black, a very finely divided platinum, catalyzes the electrode equilibrium. - Voltaic cell: Two different half-cells connected together to enable to e- transferred during the redox reaction to produce energy in the form of electricity. The e- are produced at the half-cell that is most easily oxidized. Topic 10 and 20 – Organic ChemistryEdit - Acidity: Carboxylic acids are weak acids as the – charge on acid anion can be delocalized over three atoms and does not readily attract H+ ions. Amines are weak bases. Can be considered as substituted compounds of NH3. - Alcohol, primary: With two hydrogen atoms on the neighboring carbon atom (next to the hydroxyl group). Can be oxidized to aldehydes (by loss of hydrogens) and then to carboxylic acids (by gain of oxygen). Ethanol can be oxidized to ethanal by the orange Cr2O72- ion, which itself becomes reduced to the green Cr3+ ion. - Alcohol, secondary: With one hydrogen atoms on the neighboring carbon atom. Can be oxidized to ketones (by loss of hydrogens). - Alcohol, tertiary: With no hydrogen atoms attached to the neighboring carbon atom. Cannot be oxidized further. - Benzene: Hexagonal shape with delocalized bonds. Undergo substitution rather than addition reactions. - Boiling and melting point: Depend on intermolecular forces. The greater the intermol. forces, the higher the m.p. and b.p. - Bromination: Yellow/orange bromine is decolorized when added to an alkene due to addition reaction. Used to test for alkenes. - Carbocation: A cation in which the carbon carries most of the + charge. Can be formed during SN1 substitution. - Carbon: Group 4 element which always forms 4 covalent bonds, as it has 4 e- in its valence shell. - Chiral center: An asymmetric carbon atom, i.e. has four different functional groups attached to it. - Cis-isomer: The geometric isomer in which the similar groups are on the same side of the double bond. Commonly polar. - Condensation reaction: Reaction in which two molecules join together with the loss of a small molecule, typically water. - Dehydration: Loss of water. Alcohols can be dehydrated when they are refluxed with condensed sulphuric acid. As sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent able to react with the product, phosphoric acid is frequently used instead. - Enantiomer: See ISOMERS, OPTICAL. - Environment, hydrogen: The immediate neighborhood (neighboring and next carbon) of a hydrogen atom. - Esterification: Process by which an alcohol and a carboxylic acid are converted into an ester and water, often with acid catalysis. - Fission, heterolytic: Bond breaking in which the more electronegative of the two atoms joined by the bond takes both of the e-. - Fission, homolytic: Bond breaking in which each atom takes one of the e- in the bond, creating free radicals. - Fragmentation pattern: Excess energy from impact of e- forming ion in mass spectrometer will often cause molecule to fragment. The mass of the fragments can indicate details about structure of original molecule. - Free radical: A species containing at least one unpaired e-, as a result of homolytic fission. Very reactive. - Func. gr., alcohol: -OH. IUPAC: -anol. - Func. gr., aldehyde: -CHO. IUPAC: -anal. - Func. gr., alkane: No functional group. IUPAC: -ane. - Func. gr., alkene: C=C. IUPAC: -ene. - Func. gr., amide: -CONH2. IUPAC: -anamide. - Func. gr., amine: -NH2. IUPAC: amino- or –ylamine. - Func. gr., carboxylic acid: -COOH. IUPAC: -anoic acid. - Func. gr., ester: -COO-. IUPAC: alkyl acid-oate, e.g. methyl propanoate. Derived from carboxylic acid and alcohol. Often used as flavoring as they have characteristic smell. - Func. gr., ether: -O-. - Func. gr., halogenoalkane: -X (i.e. –Cl, -Br, -I). IUPAC: halogeno-. - Func. gr., ketone: -CO-. IUPAC: -anone. - Halogenoalkane, primary: Halogenoalkanes that have one alkyl group attached to the carbon atom bonded to the halogen. Undergo SN2 mechanism in nucleophilic substitution. - Halogenoalkane, tertiary: Halogenoalkanes that have three alkyl groups attached to the carbon atom bonded to the halogen. Undergo SN1 mechanism in nucleophilic substitution. - Homologous series: A group of compounds that can be described by a general formula. Have similar chemical properties, but gradually changing physical properties. When all other factors remain constant, increased molar mass means increased intermolecular forces. Often, long carbon chains can negate the effect of a polar end molecule is non-polar. - Hydration: Addition of water. Ethanol can be formed from addition of water to ethene. - Hydrocarbon: Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. - Hydrogenation: Addition of hydrogen. Can be used to reduce number of double bonds in polyunsaturated vegetable oils present in margarine, causing it to become a solid at room temperature. - Hydrolysis: Process by which a molecule is broken down by water. - Isomer: Different compounds that have the same molecular formula. Isomers, functional group: Where the isomers contain different functional groups. - Isomers, hydrocarbon chain: Where there is a difference in the structure of the hydrocarbon chain. - Isomers, optical: Where a molecule shows optical activity in its mirror images. Occurs when there is one or more chiral centers. - Isomers, positional: Where the position of the functional group is different. - Isomers, stereo-: Where the molecules have a different spatial arrangement of atoms and hence different 3D shapes. Subdivided into geometric and optical isomers (enantiomers). - Isomers, structural: Where the atoms have a different structural formula altogether. Subdivided into positional, hydrocarbon chain and functional group isomers. - Knocking: Pre-ignition, a result of a great number of free radicals. The greater the octane rating, the less likely it is that knocking occurs. Knocking can also be reduced by antiknock agents, such as lead. Unfortunately, lead is poisonous when released into atmosphere. - Mechanism, SN1: A unimolecular process by which a halogenoalkane undergoes nucleophilic substitution. A two-step mechanism: a rate-determining step in which the bond between the carbocation and the halogen are broken, followed by a step in which the nucleophile is attracted to the carbocation. Faster than SN2, as the formation of the intermediate carbocation is faster than the SN2 route which involves a transition state with relatively high activation energy. - Mechanism, SN2: A bimolecular process by which a halogenoalkane undergoes nucleophilic substitution. Mechanism involves formation of a transition state which involves both of the reactants. - Monomer: Components of a polymer. - Nucleophile: According to Siw, “nuclear loving.” The species that donates the e- pair in an organic chemical reaction. A nucleophile is also a Lewis base. Typical nucleophiles are CN-, OH- and NH3. - Nucleophilic substitution: Substitution that occurs with a halogenoalkane reacting with a nucleophile. Rate depends on: nature of halogen atom (the less reactive the atom the weaker the bond with the C it reacts more readily); nature of halogenoalkane (tertiary > secondary > primary). Octane number: Measure of the combustion efficiency of petrol engine fuel Heptane is assigned an arbitrary value of 0, while isooctane is assigned an octane number of 100. - Optically active: Can rotate the plane of polarization in opposite directions. Enantiomers are optically active. - Organic chemistry: The chemistry of carbon compounds. - Peptide bond: -C=ONH-. Bond formed as the result of condensation reaction between carboxyl group from one aa and the amino group from the other. - Peptide, di-: Two aa’s joined together. - Peptide, oligo-: Several aa’s joined together. - Peptide, poly-: More than 20 aa’s joined together. - Peptide, tri-: Three aa’s joined together. Peptide: Molecule formed by aa’s joined together by peptide bonds (by condensation reaction in which water is lost). - Polarimeter: An instrument for measuring the degree of rotation of the plane of polarization. - Polymer: Gigantic molecule made up of monomers. - Polymerization, addition: Forming a polymer by addition of monomers. - Polymerization, condensation: Forming a polymer by substitution reaction between monomers, each having two functional groups. - Potassium dichromate: K2Cr2O7. A strong oxidizing agent. - Reaction, addition: A reaction in which the reactant is added across a C=C bond, converting it to a C-C bond. Addition reactions with water requires an H2SO4 catalyst. Addition reactions with hydrogen use Ni as catalyst. - Reaction, substitution: A reaction in which one group is substituted for another. Substitution reactions with halogenoalkanes are nucleophilic substitutions. Benzene does not undergo substitution reactions readily as its bonds are delocalized. - Reflux: A condenser which causes any vapor produced to condense and returns to the flask and continues to react. If the carboxylic acid is desired from the oxidation of a primary alcohol, this must be done under reflux. On the other hand, if the aldehyde is desired, this can be distilled from the reaction mixture as soon as it is formed. - Saturated: Containing only single bonds. Alkanes are saturated. - Spectrometry, mass: Separating ions according to mass. - Spectroscopy, IR: Analyzing the bonds present within a molecule by sending infrared light through it, causing the bonds to absorb radiation of characteristic frequencies. - Spectroscopy, NMR: Analysis of hydrogen environments to deduce the structure of a molecule. Measured in ppm relative to TMS. - Trans-isomer: The geometric isomer in which the similar groups are on different sides of the double bond. Commonly non-polar. - Unsaturated: Containing double bonds. Alkenes are unsaturated. Can be tested for by bromination.
Gamma radiation from black holes to diffuse gas in space heating, which delayed formation of dwarf galaxies. The graph shows an extremely massive black hole surrounded by a dust ring (torus). The incidence of gas onto the black hole leads to a high-energy beam of matter and radiation, which can be transported over cosmological distances. If the beam is shown in our direction, we speak of a “blazar.” The influence of extremely massive black holes is limited, cosmic seen on its immediate environment – is so at least the previous assumption. An international team of astronomers has now discovered, however, that these black holes of millions to billions of solar masses also affects much more distant objects, and subsequently even may have on the formation of galaxies. The researchers from Germany, Canada and the United States observed that diffuse gas absorbs the light in space gamma radiation from black holes and heats it. This surprising finding has important implications for the formation of large structures in the universe. In the center of every galaxy is an extremely massive black hole. It can emit high-energy gamma radiation and is then called blazar. Other types of radiation such as visible light or radio waves passing through the universe without any problems. This is true for high-energy gamma radiation is not. This radiation interacts with the optical light emitted by the galaxies, and is converted into the elementary particles, electrons and positrons. The elementary move initially nearly light speed, but slowed down by the diffuse gas in the universe. Since each braking process generates heat, the surrounding gas heats it to extreme. It is ten times hotter on average and in the cosmic regions with less density than the average even more than a hundred times hotter than previously thought. Temperature measurement in the line of forest “Blazars, the thermal history of the universe to write,” said Christoph Pfrommer, one of the authors, from the Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS). But how can you verify such an idea? In the optical spectra of distant quasars seen a number of lines, the so-called forest line. The forest is created by absorption of ultra-violet quasar by neutral hydrogen atoms in the early stages of the universe. If the gas is now hot, then the weakest lines are widened. This effect produces a great way to measure temperature in the early universe and thus virtually to observe the universe in his youth. The HITS-examined Astrophysicists this newly postulated heating process for the first time with detailed computer simulations of the cosmological origin of structures. Surprisingly, the lines were just so broadened that they exactly match the measured line in the quasar spectra match statistics. “We can solve elegantly a long standing problem with these Quasardaten” says Ewald fixed Puchwein who performed the simulations on the mainframe at the HITS. The impact on galaxy formation What other consequences resulting from this new source of heat? The forest line in the quasar spectra is caused by density fluctuations in the universe. Here, the densest fluctuations fall together over time to form galaxies and galaxy clusters, as we see around us. If the diffuse gas is too hot, it can not collapse and the formation of dwarf galaxies is delayed or even completely suppressed. This could be the key to the solution of another problem in the theory of galaxy formation are that there has long been: Why are close to our Milky Way and in dense cosmic regions observed significantly fewer dwarf galaxies than predicted by cosmological simulations? Volker Springel, head of research group at HITS, said: “The most exciting of the new process is the Blazarheizens that this same effect can explain several puzzles in the cosmological structure formation.” The group now plans to further refine the simulation models and to understand so the physical nature of blazars and their impact on today’s universe better.
(Photo credit: Jimmie) Data Interpretation questions typically have large amounts of data given in the form of tables, pie-charts, line graphs or some non-conventional data representation format. The questions are calculation heavy and typically test your approximation abilities. A very large number of these questions check your ability to compare or calculate fractions and percentages. If you sit down to actually calculate the answer, you would end up spending more time than required. Here are few ideas that you can use for approximation. Funda 1 Calculating (Approximating) Fractions When trying to calculate (approximate) a fraction p/q, add a value to the denominator and a corresponding value to the numerator before calculating (approximating). What is the value of 1789/762 ? First the denominator. We can either take it close to 750 or to 800. Lets see how it works in both cases. We know that the answer is between 2 and 3, so for adding values / subtracting values from the denominator or the numerator, I will consider a factor of 2.5. Case 1: 762 is 12 above 750, so I will subtract 12 from the denominator. Keeping the factor of 2.5 in mind, I will subtract 25 from the numerator. My new fraction is, (1789 - 25) / (762 - 12) = 1763 / 750 = 1763 ? (4 / 3000 ) = 7.052 / 3 = 2.350666 Actual answer is 2.34776. As you can see, with very little effort involved in approximation, we arrived really close to the actual answer. Case 2: 762 is 38 below 800, so I will add 38 to the denominator. Keeping the factor of 2.5 in mind, I will add 95 to the numerator. My new fraction is, (1789 + 95) / (762 + 3 = 1884 / 800 = 2.355 As you can see, even this is close to the actual answer. The previous one was closer because the magnitude of approximation done in the previous case was lesser. Funda 2 Comparing Fractions If you add the same number to the numerator and denominator of a proper fraction, the value of the proper fraction increases. If you add the same number to the numerator and denominator of an improper fraction, the value of the improper fraction decreases. Note: You can remember this by keeping in mind that, 3/2 > 4/3 > 5/4 > 6/5 ... Arrange the following in increasing order: 117/229, 128/239, 223/449. Lets first compare 117/229 & 128/239. If we added 11 to the numerator and the denominator of the first proper fraction, the resulting proper fraction would be 128/240, which will be bigger in value than the original (as per Funda 2). We know that 128/240 is smaller than 128/239, as the latter has a lower base. Now lets compare 117/229 and 223/449. If we added 11 to the numerator and the denominator of the second proper fraction, the resulting proper fraction would be 234/460, which will be bigger in value than the original. If we doubled the numerator and denominator of the first proper fraction, the resulting proper fraction would be 234/458. We know that 234/460 is smaller than 234/458, as the latter has a lower base. Using the above two results, we can say that 223/449 Note: This question can be solved much simply by just looking at the numbers and approximately comparing them with 12. I used this long explanation to illustrate the funda given above. Following are a few other shortcuts that might come in handy during DI-related calculations. Funda 3 Percentage Growth If the percentage growth rate is r for a period of t years, the overall growth rate is approximately: rt + t * (t-1) * r2 / 2 Note: Derived from the Binomial theorem, this approximation technique works best when the value of 'r' is small. If the rate is above 10%, then this approximation technique yields bad results. Also, if the rate is 5% then r = 0.05; if the rate is 7.2% then r = 0.072. Funda 4 Comparing Powers Given two natural numbers a and b such that a > b > 1, ab will always be less than ba Note: There are only two exceptions to this funda. I hope someone in the comments will point them out (anyone?). Author Ravi Handa has taught Quantitative Aptitude at IMS for 4 years. An alumnus of IIT Kharagpur where he studied a dual-degree in computer science, he has also written a book on business awareness.
Conic Sections: Intro to Circles Introduction to the Circle Conic Sections: Intro to Circles ⇐ Use this menu to view and help create subtitles for this video in many different languages. You'll probably want to hide YouTube's captions if using these subtitles. - Now that you know what the conic sections are and why they're - called conic sections, let's see if we can understand the - actual equations of the conic sections a little bit better, - and use that knowledge to be able to at least recognize them - when we see the equation, and then if we see the equation, - know how to plot them. - So the first one we'll start off with is the circle. - And you've probably seen this for many years already, - but I'll review, if you don't know it already. - The general form of an equation, or the general - equation for a circle, is x squared plus y squared is equal - to r squared, where r is the radius of the circle. - And this would be a circle centered at the point 0,0. - So I'll just draw this kind of a general graph right here. - So that's the x-axis, that's the y-axis, the circle will - look like this-- let me do it in a different color-- the - circle would look something like-- make sure it's a - circle-- well, it's supposed to be centered at 0,0, but that's - close enough-- so its center will be right here, and the - radius if you go from the center to any point along that - circle will have a distance of r, so if you go from there to - there it's r, from there to there it's r, from there to - there it's r, and to some degree, this formula, all it is - is an extension of the distance formula, which is really just - the extension of the Pythagorean Theorem. - So for example, the distance formula, if I want to know the - distance between some point x,y and the point 0,0, what you do - is, you take the difference of the x's-- so x minus 0-- you - square that, and then you add that to the distance between - the y's squared-- so that's one y point minus 0y-- y is equal - to 0-- square that, and that is equal to the distance squared. - So if you simplify this, x minus 0 squared, that's just - x squared plus-- and this is just y squared is equal - to distance squared. - So essentially, this equation is the plot of all points that - are exactly d away, a distance of d away, from the point 0,0, - and that's just a circle. - And I'll let you think about it, I think I actually showed - this to you in a distance formula video, but the distance - formula just comes out of the Pythagorean Theorem. - And if that's not completely obvious for you, just think - about a little bit, and it'll hopefully become a - little bit more obvious. - But anyway, this was probably-- you probably already knew this, - and actually just to hit the point home, if we had the - equation like this x squared plus y squared is equal to 9, - the graph of this circle would look like this. - So that's the x-axis, that's the y-axis, then draw the - circle itself, circle looks like-- close enough, and then - the distance or the radius from the center of the circle, - that's going to be 3. - There's a 9 here, why isn't the radius 9? - Oh, that's because this is the radius squared. - Remember the original formula I just showed you. x squared plus - y squared is equal to r squared. - So this right here is r squared, so if r squared - is equal to 9, than r is equal to 3. - It can't be minus 3. - I mean, it could, you can't have a negative radius, or if - you did you're just going in the other direction, but - it's the same thing. - So the radius is equal to 3. - So that's a circle, and that's pretty straightforward, but in - a lot of algebra classes, they complicate the issue a little - bit by shifting the circle. - So let's just shift this circle. - Instead of having-- so let me just rewrite it. - So the unshifted circle was x squared plus y squared is equal - to-- let me write it this way-- is equal to 3 squared, that's - the same thing as 9, and let's say that the new circle, the - shifted circle, is x minus 1 squared plus y plus 2 squared - is equal to 3 squared. - Now all of a sudden this looks really complicated and daunting - and all the rest, but all you have to recognize is, we just - substituted an x minus 1 for the-- whoops, messed - up my pointer. - We just substituted an x minus 1 for the x, and - we just substituted a y plus 2 for the y. - So it has the same basic pattern as of this circle, and - the fact that we added or subtracted numbers from the x's - and the y's tells us that we shifted the circle, and so the - next obvious question is, where did you shift it to? - And your impulse might be, oh, well maybe I shifted it to, - instead of the center being 0,0, your intuition might be - to say that, well, now the center is at negative 1,2. - And you'd be almost right, except you'd be exactly the - opposite of the correct answer. - The new center is now x is equal to positive 1 and - y is equal to minus 2. - And that might be unintuitive for you at first-- and you - might want to watch some of the videos, I think I've done them - already, or I've always intended to, on shifting - functions-- but the way to think about it is the center - here is x is equal to 0. - So when x and y is equal to 0, x squared plus y squared is 0, - you're exactly 0 away from the center, or we're at the center. - So now if we want to be-- if we want x to be 0 away from our - new center, this term has to be equal to 0. - And if-- just like when x was equal to 0, this term equaled - 0, so now for us to be at the center of our new circle, so to - speak, this term has to be 0. - So the new center has to be at x is equal to 1. - Likewise, this has to be 0, and so the center - is at y is equal to 2. - Another way to think about it is this-- let's say when y, - you know what happens here when y is equal to 2. - Whatever part of the circle we're in when y is equal to 2. - There's some part of the circle we're at, in fact I could draw - it, when y is equal to 2. - Let's say this radius is 3 when y is equal to 2, we're probably - right around there on the circle. - We could be there or we could be there. - Now we're shifting the circle, so now instead of being at 0,0, - we're going to be at 1 minus 2. - So now we're going to be at the new center is x is equal to 1, - y is equal to minus 2, the new center is there, and if I were - to draw the new circle, it would look something like this. - I'm going to try my best to draw it still as a - circle and show you that it's been shifted. - No, that's not good. - Let me draw it like-- I pressed the wrong button. - That's not good. - Let me draw it right there. - That's close enough. - I don't have to keep doing it. - So what we did is we shifted this circle down 2, - and to the right 1. - So if we take its center point, we went down 2 - and to the right 1. - And so if you think about up here, when y was equal to 2, we - could have been at this point or this point, the kind of - equivalent points of the new circle are going to be here. - Are going to be roughly here, where you're shifting it - down and to the right. - And in order to have that same behavior in the circle - there, this whole thing should be equal to 2. - So that same point on the circle, if this whole thing is - going to be equal to 2-- because it's going to be the - same kind of behavior in the equation, and I hope I'm not - confusing you there-- then the new y has to be 0, and - you see it there. - At both of these points now, y is equal to 0. - So I know that's a little unintuitive, but I want you to - sit and think about that a lot. - I mean, you could just memorize it, that it's the opposite, - when you have x minus 1 and y plus 2 that it's actually you - shifted to x is equal to-- the center is now 1, minus 2, or - you could memorize, if you like, that what makes this 0 - and what makes this 0, and that's your new center. - But I really want you to think about it, this - is really a shift. - And of course, if you were to graph it, you were to - get this thing up there. - Anyway, let me see how much time I have. - Actually I didn't even keep track of the time. - I'll leave you there, I'll continue this in the next video - where I'll talk a little bit about ellipses. 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Transformations of Functions A transformation of a function is a way of mapping that function to another. The most commonly asked question in an exam on this topic is: Which geometrical transformation maps the graph y = f(x) to y = g(x)? There are three types of transformation: translations, stretches and reflections. This revision sheet will take you through all three in a step-by-step manner, including some exam tips for how to obtain full marks on any transformation question. An important element to remember when doing any form of transformation is A translation is a type of transformation which moves a function from one position to another. These are always written in vector form and are recognised through the process of addition/subtraction. y = x^2 maps to y = (x^2) + 2 Here, the geometrical transformation would be described as a: 2 where the 0 and 2 are enclosed in a single bracket. This is because, according to VON HIR, the action we are doing to the function of x (x^2 in this case) is outside of the function we began with, meaning it is a vertical translation (in the y-direction) and is taken as it is. If we mapped y = x^2 to y = (x+2)^2 the transformation would then become: VON HIR dictates that anything INSIDE the function we began with is in the x-direction (horizontal) and becomes reversed (i.e. positive becomes negative) y = x^2 maps to y = ((x+2)^2) + 2 would be described as a: To generalise: if y = f(x) maps to y = f(x-a) + b the geometrical transformation used to describe it would be a
ENGLISH FORM ONE NOTES PARTS OF SPEECH All words may be classified into groups called parts of speech. There are 8 parts of speech namely: Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. We shall now discuss these parts of speech one at a time: A noun is the part of speech that names a person, a place, a thing or an idea. You use nouns every day when you speak or write. Every day you probably use thousands of nouns. Because nouns name the objects and people and places around you, it would be very difficult to talk about anything at all without them. Many nouns name things you can see: Persons Places Things boy lake boot student country shadow John Kamau Nairobi chair stranger Jupiter sweater writer Kenyatta Market calendar Barack Obama Sierra Leone short story Some nouns name things you cannot see such as feelings, ideas and characteristics: Feelings Ideas Characteristics excitement freedom curiosity fear justice cowardice anger fantasy courage happiness faith imagination surprise evil self-confidence What words in each sentence below are nouns? Example: John is a dancer – John, dancer - The students planned a party. - Three boys performed songs. - Excitement filled the air. - Joyce Chepkemoi won a prize. - Otieno lives in a house on my street. Copy the nouns below and write whether it names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Example: river – place - Candle Guitar - Wrestle China - Joy Hatred - Menengai Crater Masanduku Arap Simiti Write down each noun in the following sentences. Example: Kenya is a beautiful country – Kenya, country - The musicians played drums and trumpets. - Her family lives in a village. - Petronilla enjoyed the trip. - A festival was held in Kenyatta University. - People in costumes filled the streets. - Boys in Scouts uniforms were leading the parade. - The holiday was a great excitement. - A taxi brought the family to the airport. - Maryanne built a huge castle in the wet sand. - Her mother swam in the warm water. There are different kinds of nouns: Common and proper nouns All nouns can be described as either common or proper. When you talk or write about a person, a place, a thing, or an idea in general, you use a common noun. Example: Doctors work hard. They treat many patients. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns always begin with capital letters. Example: Ephraim Maree is a doctor. He comes from Kirinyaga. Note: When a proper noun is made up of more than one word, only the important words in the noun will begin with a capital letter. Do not capitalize words such as the, of, or for. Example: Gulf of Mexico, Statue of Liberty, the Commander–in–Chief. Common and Proper Nouns Common Proper Common Proper street Kerugoya city Raila Odinga author South Africa ocean Wanjohi policeman Asia bed Moi Avenue country Indian Ocean wardrobe Lake Victoria mountain England continent Dr. Frank Njenga lake Mandela assistant Professor Saitoti Proper nouns are important to good writing. They make your writing more specific, and therefore clearer. Which words are proper nouns and should be capitalised? Which words are common nouns? Example: kenya Proper: Kenya - july student 11. america - book kendu bay 12. business - face john hopkins 13. day - england life 14. east africa - crocodiles johannesburg 15. calendar List the common nouns and the proper nouns in each of the following sentences. Example: Nancy welcomed the guests. Proper: Nancy Common: guests - Lucky Dube was a famous singer. - This dancer has performed in London and Paris. - His last flight was over the Mediterranean Sea. - She worked as a nurse during the Second World War. - Her goal was to educate students all over the world. - It was the worst accident in the history of Europe. - Bill Gates is best known for founding Microsoft. - The Pilot was the first woman to cross that ocean alone. - She grabbed a kettle and brought them water. - Professor Wangari Maathai won a Nobel Peace Prize. Singular and Plural Nouns A noun may be either singular or plural. A singular noun names one person, place, thing, or idea. Example: The farmer drove to the market in his truck. A plural noun names more than one person, place, thing or idea. Example: The farmers drove to the markets in their trucks. Rules for forming plurals The following are guidelines for forming plurals: - To form the plural of most singular nouns, add -s. Examples: Street–streets, house–houses, painter–painters, shelter–shelters, event-events, hospital–hospitals. - When a singular noun ends in s, sh, ch, x, or z, add -es. Examples: dress-dresses, brush-brushes, axe-axes, coach-coaches, box–boxes, bench-benches, dish-dishes, waltz–waltzes. - When a singular noun ends in o, add -s to make it plural. Examples: Piano-pianos, solo-solos, cameo–cameos, concerto–concertos, patio-patios, studio-studios, radio-radios, rodeo–rodeos. - For some nouns ending with a consonant and o, add -es. Examples: hero-heroes, potato-potatoes, echo-echoes, veto-vetoes, tomato-tomatoes. - When a singular noun ends with a consonant and y, change the y to i and add -es. Examples: Library – libraries, activity – activities, story – stories, city – cities, berry – berries. - When a singular noun ends with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u) followed by y, just add -s. Examples: Valley – valleys, essay – essays, alley – alleys, survey – surveys, joy – joys. - To form the plural of many nouns ending in f or fe, change the f to v and add -es or s. Examples: Wife – wives, thief – thieves, loaf – loaves, half – halves, shelf – shelves, leaf – leaves, scarf – scarves, life – lives, calf – calves, elf – elves. - For some nouns ending in f, add –s to form the plural. Examples: proof – proofs, belief – beliefs, motif – motifs, cliff – cliffs. - Some nouns remain the same in the singular and the plural. Examples: deer – deer, sheep – sheep, series – series, species – species, moose – moose, trout – trout. - The plurals of some nouns are formed in special ways. Examples: foot – feet, child – children, mouse – mice, man – men, woman – women, ox-oxen, tooth – teeth. NB: If you don’t figure out the correct spelling of a plural noun, look it up in a dictionary. What is the plural form of each of the following nouns? Example: scarf –scarves - tooth cuff 17. moose 25. boss - wife deer 18. child 26. fox - giraffe cliff 19. echo 27. bunch - hero auto 20. baby 28. ferry - radio studio 21. sky 29. flash - potato man 22. beach 30. ship - belief roof 23. eye - thief rodeo 24. Volcano Write the plural form of each noun in brackets to complete each sentence correctly. Example: I bought two ________________ from the shop. (loaf) loaves - I used two different _______________ to cut the rope. (knife) - She peeled the _______________ with a knife. (potato) - They are feeding the noisy _____________. (goose) - The tools are placed on the _____________. (shelf) - Mukami cut a few _______________ for the salad. (tomato) - The ______________ are playing in the field. (child) - Some ______________ are hiding in the ceiling. (mouse) - The ______________ of the buildings must be repaired. (roof) - The music helped them imagine the strange _________. (story) - Koech used creative ______________ to help young people sharpen their imagination. (activity) Countable and Uncountable Nouns These are nouns that take plurals and can be counted. Egg – eggs One egg, three eggs, ten eggs Potato – Potatoes Twenty potatoes Onion – Onions Two hundred onions Such nouns are known as COUNTABLE or COUNT NOUNS These are nouns that do not take plurals and cannot be counted. Examples: salt, butter, cooking fat, milk, bread, jam We do not say: Such nouns are known as UNCOUNTABLE or MASS NOUNS Rewrite the words below in two columns, COUNTABLE and UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Plurals with uncountable Nouns One way to express plurals of uncountable nouns is by use of expressions of quantity. a piece of information – pieces of information a loaf of bread – four loaves of bread a tin of soup – three tins of soup a piece of furniture – several pieces of furniture a litre of milk – twenty litres of milk a bottle of beer – ten bottles of beer Supply an appropriate expression of quantity for the following uncountable nouns - …………………………………..of cigarettes. - …………………………….. of cooking oil - …………………………….of jam. - ……………………………….of butter. - …………………………………of soda. - …………………………………. of toothpaste - ……………………………..of rice. - five ……………………………….. of flour. - two ……………………………….. of chocolate. - four…………………….. of news. Collective nouns are nouns that represent a group of people or things as a single unit. Some collective nouns can take plural forms crowd (s) flock (s) group (s) herd (s) team (s) committee (s) Some collective nouns, however, cannot be used in the plural: When I arrived at the airport, there were………1……… (crowd) of people blocking the entrance with their ……………..2………………( luggage ). Near the customs sections, several……………3…………….. (group) of officials were standing, checking the ………………4……………… (equipment) that was being loaded onto a trolley. Most people were standing, waiting for… ………….5…………….. (information) from the loudspeakers on the departures and arrivals of aircraft. A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. The words that form compound nouns may be joined together, separated or hyphenated. Joined: bookcase, blackboard, pushcart Separated: high school, rabbit hutch, radar gun Hyphenated: go-getter, mother-in-law, sergeant-at-arms Compound nouns are usually a combination of two or more word classes. The most common combinations are as follows: - Some are formed by joining a noun with another noun. Most of these compound nouns take their plurals in the last words. tableroom(s) grass root(s) prize-fighter(s) cupboard(s) policeman/men rubber-stamp(s) bookcase(s) farmhouse(s) sanitary towel(s) cowshed(s) fruit machine(s) shoulder blade(s) - Some are formed by joining a verb and an adverb. Most of these compound nouns also take their plurals in the last words. breakfast(s) push-up(s) rundown(s) takeaway(s) knockout(s) slip-up(s) - Some compound nouns are formed by joining an adjective and a noun. Most of these also take their plurals in the last words. hotdog(s) polar bear(s) safe guard(s) highway(s) remote control(s) nuclear power right angle(s) - Some are formed by joining a verb and a noun. Most of these also take their plurals in the last words. driveway(s) playground(s) spend thrift(s) breakdance(s) pushchair(s) go-getter(s) password(s) spare wheel(s) - Some ore formed by joining an adverb and a noun. Most of these also take their plural in the last words. overdraft(s) overcoats(s) backyards(s) backbencher(s) undercoat(s) backbone(s) backlog(s) underwear(s) oversight(s) - A few compound nouns are formed by joining an adverb and a verb. These ones also take their plurals in the last words. outbreak(s) backlash(es) output(s) outburst(s) outcast(s) input(s) - A few others are formed by joining a noun and a verb. They also take their plurals in the last words. - A number of compound nouns are formed by joining two nouns by use of hyphens and a short preposition in between. These compound nouns always take their plurals in the first words. Underline the compound nouns in the following sentences and write down their plural forms where possible. - John wants to be a quantity surveyor when he grows up. - Rainwater had washed away all the top soil. - The footballer was shown a red card by the referee. - Neither candidate won the elections, forcing a runoff. - The goalkeeper saved a penalty in the second half. - He killed the wild pig with a sledge hammer. - Njoroge’s tape-recorder was stolen yesterday. - The theatregoer was disappointed with the show. - Size 8’s latest song has caused an uproar. - He attempted a creative writing workshop. A possessive noun shows who or what owns something. A possessive noun can either be singular or plural. Singular possessive nouns A singular possessive noun shows that one person, place, or thing has or owns something. To make a singular noun show possession, add an apostrophe and s (‘s). the feathers of the chick – the chick’s feathers the hat that belongs to the man – the man’s hat the child’s toy the fish’s fins Mark’s bike the horse’s tail Using possessive nouns is shorter and better than other ways of showing possession. LONGER: The dog belonging to Papa is barking. BETTER: Papa’s dog is barking. Plural Possessive Nouns A plural possessive noun shows possession or ownership of a plural noun. The cars that belong to the teachers are parked here. The teachers’ cars are parked here. When a plural noun ends in s, add only an apostrophe after the s to make the noun show possession. Not all plural nouns end in s. When a plural noun does not end in s, add ‘s to form the plural possession. the shoes of the men – the men’s shoes the food of the children – the children’s food The noun following a possessive noun may either be the name of a thing or a quality. Thing – Koki’s raincoat Brian’s umbrella Quality – the judge’s fury Bob’s courage Change the following phrases to show possession in a shorter way. Example: the claws of the leopard the leopard’s claws. - the tail of the lion - the dog that Cliff has - the hat of my mother - the book that Evans owns - the pot that the child has - the name of the doll - the mobile phone that Lucy owns - the shoes that Kimani has - the teeth that the fox has - the rabbit that my friend owns Summary of rules of forming Possessive Nouns - For singular a noun, add an apostrophe and s. Example: Mr. Mukui’s car is a Toyota Corolla. - For plural noun ending in s, add an apostrophe only. Example: The victims’ property was stolen - For a plural noun that does not end in s, add an apostrophe and s. Example: The women’s boots were muddy. Singular Noun Singular possessive Plural Noun Plural possessive boy boy’s boys boys’ child child’s children children’s mouse mouse’s mice mice’s deer deer’s deer deer’s DO NOT MISS OUT ON ANY ACADEMIC MATERIAL FOR BOTH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS’ SYLLABUSES. JUST CLICK THE LINK BELOW AND SEARCH FOR YOUR DESIRED ACADEMIC CONTENT; Write the following phrases to show possession. Example: teachers – pens = teachers’ pens - cooks – aprons women – sports - men – boots carpenters – nails - countries – flags sailors – uniforms - guests – coats musicians – instruments - athletes – medal neighbours – pets Rewrite the following sentences changing the BOLD words to plural possessive nouns. Example: The players on the teams practised after school. The teams’ players practised after school. - Each day the wealth of the couple increased. - There was a team of men and a team of women. - The uniforms that the teams wore were new. - Numbers were printed on the shirts of the athletes - 5. Scores made by the team-mates were put on the scoreboard. - The players enjoyed the cheers of their friends. - The whistles of the coaches stopped the game. - The eyes of the children were full of tears of joy. - The soothing voices of their mothers calmed them. - However, the houses belonging to their neighbours were destroyed. A pronoun is a part of speech that takes the place of a noun. They include such words as I, we, he, she, they, me and us. Pronouns enable you to avoid repeating the same names (nouns), when writing or speaking, which would otherwise make you sound very awkward and wordy. By using pronouns effectively, you can make your writing and speaking flow smoothly. Pronouns can be classified into 6 types. These are personal, indefinite, demonstrative, interrogative, reflexive and intensive pronouns. A personal pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun. They are used to refer to nouns that name persons or things. Awkward: Kamau put on Kamau’s gum boots. Then Kamau went to the shamba. Improved: Kamau put on his gum boots. Then he went to the shamba. In the above example, the personal pronoun his helps the writer avoid repeating the same noun. The pronoun he acts as a bridge to connect the two sentences. Personal pronouns are further classified in terms of person and gender. In terms of person, personal pronouns can be divided into three classes. - First person – I, my, me, we, our and us. These ones refer to the person(s) speaking. Example: I always ride my bike to school. - Second person – you, your, yours These refer to the person(s) spoken to. Example: I will call you tomorrow. (iii) Third person – he, his, him, she, hers, her, it, its, they, their, them. These ones refer to another person(s) or thing(s) that is being spoken of. The personal pronoun it usually replaces a noun that stands for a thing or an animal. It is never used in place of a person. Personal pronouns can also be classified by gender. Gender can either be masculine (referring to male people), feminine (referring to female people) or neuter (referring to animals or things). Joseph cleaned his car. (his is the third person, masculine gender). Isabel said the dress was hers (hers is the third person, feminine gender). The dog wagged its tail. (its is the third person, neuter gender). FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS In English, personal pronouns have three forms: the subject form, the object form and the possessive form. She is a painter. (subject form) He praised her. (Object form) It is her best painting. (Possessive form) - Form 2 notes for all subjects free download - Form one notes for all subjects free download - FORM FOUR FULL EXAM PAPERS & ANSWERS FOR ALL SUBJECTS: OVER 1,000 KCSE REVISION PAPERS - FORM 4 EXAMINATIONS AND MARKING SCHEMES: ALL SUBJECTS FOR KCSE CANDIDATES- OVER 1,000 PAPERS - MATHEMATICS NOTES: TOPICAL MATHS ASSIGNMENTS F1-4 WITH ANSWERS - KISWAHILI NOTES- REVISION KIT - KISWAHILI USHAIRI NOTES WITH EXAMPLES AND GUIDES - HISTORY NOTES FORM 4: NEW SYLLABUS SIMPLIFIED NOTES - HISTORY NOTES FORM 3: NEW SYLLABUS SIMPLIFIED NOTES A subject pronoun takes the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence. These pronouns are: - Singular forms – I, you, he, she, it - Plural forms – we, you, they Noun Subject Pronoun The housegirl takes care of her. She takes care of her. The dog guards the house. It guards the house. Mark and Francis love swimming. They love swimming. Subject pronouns also appear after forms of the linking verbs be. The watchman today is he. The composers were they. Underline the subject pronouns in the following sentences. Example: She ate a water melon - They ate fish and chips. - We like Italian food. - It is delicious. - The biggest eater was he. - You helped in the cooking. - The cooks were Tom and I. Replace the underlined words with subject pronouns. Example: Pio and Gama are friends – They - The glasses were under the table. - Emma fed the chicken. - The pears were juicy. - Uncle Ben and Lillian visited the orphans. - The new waitress is Jane. - The fastest runners were Tecla and Kirui. - Lisa went to the hall. - The chicken was slaughtered. - Lucky Dube and Brenda Fasie were South African Singers. - Samuel Wanjiru has won many athletics medals. Object pronouns can replace nouns used after action verbs. These pronouns are: - Singular – me, you, him, her, it - Plural – us, you, them The driver drove him. (Direct object) The parents thanked us. (Direct object) The reporters asked him many questions. (Indirect object) In the above examples, the personal pronouns are the direct or indirect objects of the verbs before them. Object pronouns can also replace nouns after prepositions such as to, for, with, in, at or by. That is, they can be objects of prepositions. Gladys waved to them. (Object of a preposition) The delivery is for me. Ben went with them to the theatre. Choose the correct pronoun in the brackets in the following sentences. Example: Irungu photographed (us, we). = us - Lisa asked (he, him) for a picture. - Adam sketched Lisa and (I, me). - He gave a photo to (us, we). - Ann and (she, her) saw Dave and Bob. - Adam drew Lisa and (they, them). - Mark helped (I, me) with the packing. - Loise praised (him, he) for his good work. - Everyone spotted (they, them) easily. - That night Mike played the guitar for (us, we). - (We, Us) drove with (they, them) to the mountains. A possessive pronoun shows ownership. Example: My pen is black. There are two kinds of possessive pronouns: - Those used as adjectives to modify nouns. These possessive pronouns are: Singular: My, your, his, her, its Plural: Our, your, their My shirt is yellow. Your food is on the table. His bag is green. This is her dress. Its fur is soft. These are our parents. Pay your bills. They removed their bats. The above possessive pronouns always appear before nouns to modify them. Hence, they are called modifiers. - Those that stand alone and replace nouns in sentences. These possessive nouns are: Singular: mine, yours, his, hers, its Plural: ours, yours, their The yellow shirt is mine. The food on the table is yours. The green bag is his. This dress is hers. Its is the soft fur. These crops are ours. These bills are yours. Those hats are theirs. Complete the following sentences by choosing the correct possessive pronoun from the brackets. Example: The lazy girl completed (her, hers) home work. = her. - (My, mine) journey to Mombasa was enjoyable. - Florence said (her, hers) was the best. - Are the pictures of Fort Jesus (your, yours)? - (Her, Hers) were taken at Jomo Kenyatta Beach. - Tomorrow we will make frames for (our, ours) pictures. - (My, mine) class is planning a trip to Mt. Kenya. - (Our, ours) trip will be taken on video. - Micere is excited that the idea was (her, hers). - Koki and Toti cannot hide (their, theirs) excitement. - (My, mine) dream is to climb to the highest peak of the mountain. POINTS TO NOTE - The pronoun I is used as a subject or after forms of the linking verb be. Subject: I travel by bus. After the linking verb be: Yesterday, the prefects on duty were Victor and I. - The pronoun me is used as an object after action verbs or words (prepositions) such as to, for, with, in, or at. Object: Rose met me at the gate. After prepositions: Rose waited for me at the gate. You are coming with me. - When using compound subjects and objects (i.e. subjects and objects comprising of a pronoun and a noun or another pronoun), always name yourself last. Diana and I visited our grandmother yesterday. Who appointed Chege and me? Rose waited for her and me at the gate. CONTRACTIONS WITH PRONOUNS A contraction is a shortened form of two words. One or more letters are omitted and an apostrophe (’) is used in place of the letters left out. A contraction is formed by combining pronouns and the verbs am, is, are, will, would, have, has, and had. Pronoun + verb Contraction Pronoun + verb Contraction I am I’m I have I’ve He is he’s he has he’s It is it’s it has it’s You are you’re you have you’ve They are they’re they have they’ve I will I’ll I had I’d You will you’ll you had you’d We would we’d we had we’d 1.Some contractions look the same but are formed from different words. he is, he has = he’s we had, we would = we’d 2.Some possessive pronouns sound like contractions. Because the words sound alike, they are sometimes confused. Possessive pronouns Contractions Incorrect: The team celebrated it’s victory. Correct: The team celebrated its victory. Incorrect: Your late for the preps. Correct: You’re late for the preps. Incorrect: Whose the fastest runner in the world? Correct: Who’s the fastest runner in the world? Rules of using possessive pronouns and contractions correctly: - If the word you want to use stands for two words, it is a contraction and needs an apostrophe. - Never use an apostrophe in a possessive pronoun. Write the contractions for the following word pairs. Example: It has = it’s - You will 3. He had 5. You have - We would 4. I am 6. They will What pronoun and verb make up each of the following contractions? Example: It’s = it is, it has - I’ll 3. you’d 5. they’re - we’re 4. he’s 6. she’d Choose the correct word given in brackets in the following sentences. - The Kenyan government has worked hard to improve (its, it’s) educational system. - (Whose, Who’s) going to decide where the guests will sleep? - (Their, They’re) learning French in their school. - Only students (whose, who’s) scores are excellent will join national schools. - (Its, It’s) been estimated that about 8 million Kenyans are living with HIV AIDS. An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific person or thing. In English, there are singular indefinite pronouns, plural indefinite and both singular and plural indefinite pronouns. Singular Indefinite Pronouns another anything everybody neither one anybody each everyone nobody somebody anymore either everything no one someone. An indefinite pronoun must agree with its verbs and in number with its possessive pronoun. The above indefinite pronouns are used with singular verbs. They are also used with singular possessive pronouns. Agreement with verbs Correct: Everyone has heard of Lake Turkana. Incorrect: Everyone have heard of Lake Turkana. Correct: Nobody knows what happened to Samuel Wanjiru. Incorrect: Nobody know what happened to Samuel Wanjiru. Correct: Everything about the old man remains a mystery. Incorrect: Everything about the old man remain a mystery. Agreement in number with possessive pronouns Correct: Neither believed his/her eyes. Incorrect: Neither believed their eyes. Correct: Each strained his/her neck to see. Incorrect: Each strained their neck to see. Plural indefinite pronouns both many few several These indefinite pronouns use plural verbs and possessive pronouns. Correct: Few know about Lake Olbolosat. Incorrect: Few knows about Lake Obolosat. Correct: Both stand by what they believe. Incorrect: Both stands by what they believe. Plural possessive pronouns Correct: Several reported their findings. Incorrect: Several reported his/her findings. Both singular and plural indefinite pronouns all some any none These indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural, depending on their meaning in the sentence. All of my story is true. – singular All of the guests are here. – plural None of the lake is foggy. – singular None of the photos are spoiled. – plural. Underline the indefinite pronouns in the following sentences and then write the correct form of the verb or possessive pronoun in the brackets. - All the photographs of the killer (is, are) unclear. - (Has, Have) anybody seen my camera? - Many (believes, believe) a monster lives in the lake. - Each of the photographs (make, makes) people want more. - All of the evidence (indicates, indicate) that he was killed by his wife. - Everyone has taken (his, their) payment. - Several eyewitnesses volunteered to give (his, their) accounts. - Anyone can lose (her, their) eyesight. - Another reported (his, their) case to the police. - Somebody left (her, their) handbag in the lecture hall. A demonstrative pronoun is used to single or point out one or more persons or things referred to in the sentence. These pronouns are this, that, these, and those. This and these point to persons or things that are near. This is a gazelle. These are the students of Kianjege West Secondary School. That and those point to persons or things that are farther away. That is the city square. Those are the lodging rooms. This and that are used with singular nouns. These and those are used with plural nouns. Pick the correct demonstrate pronouns from the choices given in the brackets in the following sentences. - (This, That) is the canteen we are entering now. - (This, That) is the dispensary across the street - (These, Those) are beautiful flowers on the counter over there. - Are (those, these) chocolate bars on the far counter? - I think (these, those) are called Vuvuzelas. An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are who, whose, whom, which and what. Who is the mayor of this town? Whose is the red car? Which is her blouse? What did she ask you? Whom should I trust with my secret? USING WHO, WHOM, AND WHOSE Who, whom, and whose are often used to ask questions. Hence, they are interrogative pronouns. WHO is the subject form. It is used as the subject of a verb. Who taught you how to play the guitar? (Who is the subject of the verb taught.) WHOM is the object form. It is used as the direct object of a verb or as the object of a preposition. Whom did you meet? (Whom is the object of the verb did meet). For whom is this trophy? (whom is the object of the preposition for). WHOSE is the possessive form. It can be used : - To modify a noun Whose umbrella is this? (whose modifies the noun umbrella) - Alone as the subject or object of a verb Whose are those water melons? (whose is the subject of the verb are) Whose did you admire? (whose is the object of the verb did admire) Pick the correct interrogative pronouns from the brackets in the following sentences. - (Who, Whom) owns that shop? - (Who, Whom) can we ask the way? - (Which, What) did they ask you? - (Which, What) are the objects on the table called? - To (who, whom) does the boutique belong? Complete the following sentences with who, whom, or whose. - ________________ knows the origin of the Luos? - ________________ did you ask about it? - To _______________ did you give the letter? - _________________ is the most attractive painting? - _________________ is likely to receive the Chaguo la Teeniez award? - For ______________ did you buy this doll? - _________________ skill in dancing is the best? - _________________ is the officer-in-charge here? - _________________ are you looking at? 10._________________ are those healthy Merino sheep? REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS Reflexive and intensive pronouns end in -self or –selves. These are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, and themselves. There is, however, one difference between reflexive and Intensive pronouns. A reflexive pronoun refers to an action performed by the subject of the sentence. The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun. Monicah bought herself a new dress. (The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun because we do not know for whom Monicah bought the dress). An Intensive pronoun is used to emphasise a noun or a pronoun. It does not add information to a sentence, and it can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. I myself pulled the boy out of the river. (If you remove myself, the meaning of the sentence does not change) Identify the Reflexive and Intensive pronouns in the following sentences, labelling them accordingly. - I myself have never tried mountain climbing. - He himself was taking the cows to graze in the forest. - My sister Annastasia mends her clothes herself. - She often challenges herself by doing strenuous activities. - You may ask yourself about the sanity of beer drinking competition. SPECIAL PRONOUNS PROBLEMS - Double subjects We all know that every sentence must have a subject. Sometimes we incorrectly use a double subject – a noun and a pronoun – to name the same person, place, or thing. Jane she is my cousin. Jane is my cousin. She is my cousin. Her scarf it is pretty. Her scarf is pretty. It is pretty. Jane and she should not be used as subjects together. The subject her scarf should not be used together with it. Use only a noun or a pronoun to name a subject. - Pronouns and their Antecedents The antecedent of a pronoun is a noun or another pronoun for which the pronoun stands. A personal pronoun, you will remember, is used in place or a noun. The noun is the word to which the pronouns refer and it is therefore its antecedent. The noun usually comes first, either in the same sentence or in the sentence before it. We met Mureithi. He is the medical doctor. (He stands for Mureithi. Mureithi is the antecedent). The students had come to school with their mobile phones. (Their stands for students. Students is the antecedent). Pronouns may be the antecedents of other pronouns. Does everybody have his booklet? (everybody, which is a singular indefinite pronoun, is the antecedent of his). All of the students have brought theirs. (All, which is a plural indefinite pronoun, is the antecedent of theirs). Now, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Agree here means that the pronoun must be the same in number as its antecedent. The word number means singular or plural. If the pronoun is singular, the word that it stands for must be singular, and it must be plural if the word it stands for is plural. Correct: The scientists tested their new discovery. (Scientists is plural; their is plural.) Incorrect: The scientists tested his new discovery. Correct: Mr. Kiama turned on his TV. (Mr Kiama is singular; his is singular) Correct: Nobody left her workstation. (Nobody is singular, her is singular) NB: When the antecedent refers to both males and females, it is best to use the phrase his or her. - Use of we and us with nouns. Phrases such as we students and us girls are often incorrectly used. To tell which pronoun to use, drop the noun and say the sentence without it. Problem: (We, Us) boys study hard. Solution: We study hard. = We boys study hard. Problem: The DC praised. (us, we) students. Solution: The DC praised us. = The DC praised us students - Using the pronoun Them The word them is always a pronoun. It is always used as the object of a verb or a preposition, never as a subject. Correct: The president greeted them. (direct object of the verb greeted) Correct: She gave them a sandwich. (Indirect object of the verb gave) Correct: The information was useful to them. (object of the preposition to) Incorrect: Them they arrived late. - Using Those Although we previously said that those is used as a demonstrative pronouns, it is sometimes used as an adjective i.e. a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. If a noun appears immediately after it, those is now an adjective, not a pronoun. Those are the new desks that were bought. (Those is a pronoun, the subject of the verb are). Those desks are attractive. (Those is an adjective modifying the noun desks). Each of the following sentences has a double subject. Write each correctly. - Papa Shirandula he is a good actor. - Many people they find him funny. - The show it was on television for many years. - Their daughter she is also in that show. - The shoes they are beautiful. - People they like our hotel. - My brother he drives a matatu. - Our hotel it is open seven days a week. - The TV it is very clear today. - My brother and sister they work in Nairobi. Pick the correct pronoun in the brackets in the following sentences. - (We, Us) students started a school magazine last month. - Many careers are unpromising. (Them, Those) are the ones to avoid. - One of (them, those) motivational speakers was especially interesting. - A financial analyst told (we, us) students about his work. - Finding jobs was important to (we, us) graduates. A verb is a word that: - expresses an action - expresses the state that something exists, or (iii) links the subject with a word that describes or renames it. Hence, there are two kinds of verbs. These are action verbs and linking verbs. Action verbs express actions. They show what the subject does or did. Most verbs are action verbs. Cats drink milk. The ball flew over the goal post. The farmer tills the land. Robert ran to the house. The action may be one that you can see. They crowned their new King. The action may be one that you cannot see. She wanted recognition. Whether the action can be seen or not, an action verb says that something is happening, has happened, or will happen. A linking verb links the subject of a sentence with a word or words that : - express(es) the subject’s state of being She is here. (expresses state of being) She seems ready. (state of being) - describe(s) or rename(s) the subject. Anna is a nurse. (a nurse describes Anna) Joyce is cheerful. (cheerful describes Joyce) The road is bumpy. (bumpy describes the road) A linking verb does not tell about an action. Common linking verbs Am look grow are feel remain is taste become was smell sound were seem will be appear NB: Some verbs can be either linking verbs or action verbs. The crowd looked at the mangled car. – ACTION The driver of the car looked shocked. – LINKING The chef smelled the food. – ACTION The food smelled wonderful. – LINKING Identify the verb in each of the following sentences. Then label each verb Action or Linking. - Queen Elizabeth of England seems an interesting historical figure. - We watched the Olympic games on television. - The crowd cheered loudly. - She seems calm. - PLO Lumumba is a quick thinker. - The hunter aimed the arrow at the antelope. - The referee blew the whistle to start off the game. - She was very tired after the journey. - She is careful when crossing the road. - The country seems prosperous. In some sentences, the verb is more than one word. It is in form of a phrase, which is called a verb phrase. A verb phrase consists of a main verb and one or more helping verbs. The main verb shows the action in the sentence. The helping verb works with the main verb. Helping verbs do not show action. Mark Francis has passed the examinations. He will be admitted to a national school. His parents are happy with him. Common helping verbs am will can would is shall could must are have may was has should were had might Some verbs, such as do, have and be can either be used as main verbs or as helping verbs. As main verbs As helping verbs I will do the job. I do like the job. Who has a pen? He has lost his pen. They are my friends. They are coming today. Sometimes helping verbs and main verbs are separated by words that are not verbs. I do not ride a bicycle any more. Can we ever be friends again? We should definitely apologise for the mistakes. Indicate H.V. under the Helping verb and M.V. under the Main verb in the following sentences. - The school choir is singing a new song. - The football season has finally begun. - This car just can travel very fast. - He had waited for this chance for years. - My parents will be visiting us soon. - Our friends have come for a visit. - You must buy your ticket for the game. - Sarah has chosen Kenyatta University for her degree course. - She is hitting her child with a rubber strap. - I will go for the game next week. The time of an action or the state of being is expressed by different forms of the verb. These forms are called the tenses of the verb. There are three main forms of a verb: the present, the past, or the future. The Present Tense A verb which is in present tense indicates what the subject of the sentence is doing right now. The teacher sees the students. The verb sees tells that the teacher is seeing the students now. To show the present tense, an -s or -es is added to most verbs if the subject is singular. If the subject is plural, or I or You, the -s, or -es is not added. The bird hatches in the nest. The stream flows down the hill. The boys rush for their breakfast. We talk a lot. Rules for forming the Present Tense with Singular Subjects - Most verbs: add –s get – gets play – plays eat – eats - Verbs ending in s, ch, sh, x, and z: add -es pass – passes mix – mixes punch-punches buzz – buzzes push – pushes - Verbs ending with a consonant and y: change the y to i and add -es try – tries empty – empties Write the correct present form of each verb in the brackets in the following sentences. - She carefully ________________ the map. (study) - A fish _______________ in the water near me. (splash) - She _______________ her hands. (wash) - He ______________ to the classroom. (hurry) - Bryan and I ____________ the assignment. (discuss) The Past Tense A verb which is in past tense shows what has already happened. Tito liked his grandmother’s story. The verb liked tells that the action in the sentence happened before now. Rules for forming the Past Tense - Most verbs: Add -ed play – played talk – talked climb – climbed - Verbs ending with e: Add -d praise – praised hope – hoped wipe – wiped - Verbs ending with a consonant and -y: Change the y to i and add –ed bury – buried carry – carried study – studied - Verbs ending with a single vowel and a consonant: Double the final consonant and add-ed stop – stopped man – manned trip – tripped Write the past tense forms of each of the verbs in brackets in the following sentences. - John _____________ his house burn into ashes. (watch) - The baby _____________ loudly. (cry) - The teacher ______________ at the naughty student. (yell) - The chef ______________ a delicious cake. (bake) - We ______________ for a present for our grandmother. (shop) The Future Tense A verb which is in future tense tells what is going to happen. Evans will take his car to the garage. She will probably come with us. The verbs will take and will come tell us what is going to happen. Hence, they are in future tense. To form the future tense of a verb, use the helping verb will or shall with the main verb. Write the future tense forms of the verbs in the following sentences. - We write in exercise books. - The train stopped at the station. - He decides what he wants to do. - They practise in the football field. - Rats multiply very fast. The above three forms of tenses can further be divided into: - The simple tenses – Present simple tense – Past simple tense – Future simple tense - The perfect tenses – Present perfect tense – Present perfect progressive – Past perfect tense – Future perfect – Future perfect progressive - The progressive tenses – Present progressive tense – Past progressive tense – Progressive tense – Future perfect progressive tense. The simple Tenses The most common tenses of the verb are the simple tenses. You use them most often in your speaking and writing. - Present simple tense. Look at the following sentences. - I know - He goes to school every day. - The sun rises from the east. All the above sentences contain a verb in the present simple tense. This tense is used for different purposes. - To state a personal fact Example: I know Kisumu. (ii) To point out a regular habit. Example: He goes to school every day. (iii) To state a known scientific fact Example: The sun rises from the east. Complete the following sentences putting the verbs in brackets in the present simple tense. - They _________ their new principal. (like) - Every morning, she ______________ her teeth. (brush) - The earth ______________ on its own axis. (rotate) - Twice a year, he _______________ his family. (visit) - Air ____________ when heated. (rise) - Past Simple Tense The past simple tense is used when an action has been completed. We cleaned our classrooms yesterday. He drove the car this morning. She planned the whole incident. Write down the past simple tense of the following words and then use each of them in sentences of your own. - Future Simple Tense The future simple tense places the action or condition in the future. It is formed by using the word shall or will before the present form of the main verb. We shall need help with her load. She will eat the bananas alone. The dancers will entertain them. Use the following words in future simple tense in sentences of your own. The Perfect Tenses The perfect tenses are used to show that an action was completed or that a condition existed before a given time. The perfect tenses are formed using has, have, or had before the past participles, that is, verb forms ending in -ed. - Present Perfect Tense: Ceasar has just finished his homework. Kamau and Njoroge have now agreed to meet. - Present Perfect Continuous Tense Kibet has been working in his shamba for two hours. We have been swimming in this pool for ten minutes. - Past Perfect Tense We had completed the work by the time the supervisor came. Nobody knew that she had already remarried. - Past Perfect Continuous Tense I had been trying to contact him for two hours before he finally appeared. Mrs. Masumbuko had been feeling unwell the whole week before she decided to visit a doctor. - Future Perfect Tense Agege will have sold his goats by two p.m. By next term, twenty students will have dropped from this school. - Future Perfect Continuous The players will have been playing for twenty minutes by the time the President arrives. By the end of this term, she will have been living with her aunt for five years. Rewrite the following sentence changing the verb into present perfect, present perfect progressive, past perfect, past perfect progressive, future perfect and future perfect progressive tenses. Make any necessary changes to make the sentences meaningful. John comes here every year. The Progressive Verb Forms The progressive form of the verb shows continuing action. I am singing She was dancing. The progressive form is formed using various forms of the verb be plus the present participle, that is, a verb form that ends in –ing. - Present Progressive Tense I am reading a book about Red Indians. Her mother is preparing dinner. - Present Perfect Progressive He has been cleaning his car since morning. They have been exercising for a week now. - Past Progressive Tense She was cooking supper when I arrived. They were fighting fiercely when the police arrived. - Past Perfect Progressive Tense Sonko had been wearing an earring for years before he removed it. Onyancha had been killing children before he was finally discovered. - Future Progressive He will be tilling the land next week. Joyce and Joan will be washing clothes all morning. - Future Perfect Progressive The children will have been sleeping for two hours by the time their parents arrive. John will have grown a beard by the time he is twelve. Rewrite the following sentence changing the verb into present progressive, present perfect progressive, past progressive, past perfect progressive, future progressive and future perfect progressive tenses. Make any necessary changes to make the sentences meaningful. Jane plays the guitar well. SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT A verb and its subject must agree in number. To agree means that if the subject is singular, the verb must be in singular form. If the subject is plural, the verb form must be plural. The baby cries every morning. – SINGULAR The babies cry every morning. – PLURAL Rules for subject-verb Agreement - Singular subject: Add -s or -es to the verb The man drives a bus. She teaches in a primary school. He studies his map. - Plural subject: Do not add -s or -es to the verb The men drive buses. They teach in primary schools. We study our maps. - For I or You: Do not add -s or -es to the verb I hate books. You like dogs. I admire actors. When a sentence has a compound subject, that is, two subjects joined by and, the plural form of the verb is used. John and James work at Naivas Supermarket. The teachers and the students respect one another a lot. Subject-verb Agreement with be and have The verbs be and have change their forms in special ways in order to agree with their subjects. Various ways in which be and have change in order to agree with their subjects He, she, it Put appropriate Present tense verbs in the blank spaces in the following sentences. Ensure that the subject agrees with the verb and that the sentence makes sense. - The dogs _______________ their owners. - She ______________ at the door. - They ______________ the road at the Zebra-crossing. - Many blind people ___________________ dogs as guides. - We ________________ dogs every day. - Mark always _______________ his house. - I often _______________ with June. - Mwangi __________________ his aunt in Mombasa. - Jane and he ________________ next month. - The directors ______________ the company. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS We have learned in the previous chapter how to form the past tense and how to use helping verbs to show that something has already happened. We saw that for most verbs, we form the past tense and participles by adding -d or -ed to the verb. Verbs that follow this rule are called Regular Verbs. The farmer planted his crops last month. – past tense The crops have been planted recently. – past participle. For all regular verbs, the past and the past participles are spelled alike. They are made up by adding -d or -ed to the present form of the verb. The spelling of many regular verbs changes when –d or -ed is added, that is, the last consonant is doubled before adding -d or -ed. For those ending -y, it is dropped and replaced with –i: Write the present, past and past participles of the following verbs. Remember to change the spelling appropriately where necessary. - prevent 6. aid - donate 7. relieve - hurry 8. share - worry 9. enrol - train 10. save Some verbs do not form the past by adding -d or –ed. These verbs are called irregular verbs. There are only about sixty frequently used irregular verbs. For many of these, the past and the past participles are spelled the same but some are different. He saw great misery all around him. – past He has seen great misery all round him. – past participle Common irregular Verbs \|Verb\|\|Past tense\|\|Past participles\| \|( had) begun For a few irregular verbs, like hit and cut, the three principal parts are spelled the same. These ones offer no problems to learners. Most problems come from irregular verbs with three different forms. For example, the irregular verbs throw and ring. throw threw had thrown ring rang had rung If you are not sure about a verb form, look it up in the dictionary. Write the past tense and past participles of the following irregular verbs and then use each of them in sentences of your own. - arise fall - tear blow - wear freeze - lay fly - see Write ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERB FORMS A verb is in active voice when the subject of the sentence performs the action. Our teacher punished us for making noise in class. Players arrived for their first match early in the morning. In the above sentences, the subject is who performed the action. Hence, the verbs of these sentences are in active voice. The word passive means “acted upon”. When the subject of the sentence receives the action or expresses the result of the action, the verb is in passive voice. We were punished by the teacher for making noise. He was helped by a passer-by. In the above sentences the subjects we and he receive the action. When we do not know who or what did the action, or when we do not want to say who or what did it, we use the passive voice. The passive form of a verb consists of some form of be plus the past participle. Baabu explored the sea. The sea was explored by Baabu. Be + past participle The captain helped him. He was helped by the captain. Write the verbs from the following sentences and then label each one Active or Passive. - The guest of honour presented prizes to the best students. - The cattle were taken home by the herders. - The health officer ordered the slaughter house closed. - Peace and order has been restored in the area by the youth wingers. - The workers cleared the farm. - The crop was harvested by the hired workers. - The government stressed the importance of unity among tribes. - The farmers were urged to redouble their efforts in food production. - The K.I.E is developing support materials for the 8-4-4 system of education. - A fishing pond was started by the Wildlife Club in the school. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS Some sentences express a complete thought with only a subject and an action verb. The sun shines. Subject Action verb In other sentences, a direct object must follow the action verb for the sentence to be complete. A direct object is a noun or a pronoun that receives the action of the verb. The goalkeeper caught the ball. Subject action verb direct object A Transitive verb is an action verb that must take a direct object for the sentence to express a complete thought. A direct object answers the question what? or whom? The captain steered the ship. (Steered what? the ship) The teacher praised the students. (Praised whom? The students) Transitive verbs cannot be used alone without direct objects in sentences; they would not have complete meanings. What are the action verbs and the direct objects in the following sentences? - He carried his bag with him. - The two friends discussed the examination paper. - We took a trip to Nakuru last month. - The water splashed me. - He gave interesting facts about whales. - We searched the house for rats. - They cheered the team noisily. - My brother bought a camera. - Njoroge admires Papa Shirandula. - We viewed the shouting star at midnight. An Intransitive verb is an action verb that does not require a direct object for the sentence to have complete meaning. The ship sailed. Subject action verb The child smiled. Subject action verb They do not answer the questions what? or whom? Sometimes they answer the questions how? or how often? The ship sailed smoothly. (How did it sail? Smoothly) The child smiled repeatedly. (How often did the child smile? Repeatedly) Both transitive and intransitive verbs Some verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively. We cheered our team noisily. (Transitive) We cheered noisily. (Intransitive) He broke the window pane. (Transitive) The glass broke. (Intransitive) NB: Only transitive verbs can be changed from active to passive voice. He kicked the ball. The ball was kicked by him. She bought a new dress A new dress was bought by her. She wailed loudly ?? They danced well ?? Indicate at the end of each of the following sentences whether the underlined verb is Transitive or Intransitive. - Some whales sing songs. - We gave our books to the gatekeeper. - She cried bitterly. - He made a sketch of the giraffe. - John danced to the music. - The bird flew in the air. - They located the lost ship. - She pleaded with him mercifully. - The children heard the sound from the cave. - It rained heavily. TROUBLESOME PAIRS OF VERBS Some pairs of verbs confuse learners of English because their meanings are related but not the same. Others confuse them because they sound similar, but their meanings are different. Others are similar in appearance but different in meanings. \|The pairs\|\|Meaning\|\|Present tense\|\|Past tense\|\|Past participle\|\|Examples of its usage\| \|To be in a seated position To put or place \|Sit on that chair. Set the cage down. \|To rest in a flat position To put or place \|The cat lies on the table. Lay the cloth on the table. \|To move upward To move something upward or to lift \|The children rise up early in the morning. The scout raised the flag. \|To allow or permit To depart or to allow to remain where it is \|Let the bird go free. Leave this house now! Leave the door closed. \|To gain knowledge or skill To help someone learn or to show how or explain \|I learned a lot in school. That teacher taught me in Biology. \|To be able To be allowed \|I can ride my bike well. You may go out. Pick the correct verb from the ones given in brackets in the following sentences. - Studying spiders closely can (learn, teach) us how they get their food. - An insect that (lays, lies) motionless on a leaf can become prey to some other animal. - The lion will (lay, lie) there waiting for its prey. - The monster spider (sits, sets) patiently near its web. - Experience has (taught, learned) me not to take things for granted. - A bird (raises, rises) its body using its wings. - This (raises, rises) another question, - Nature has (learned, taught) spiders new tricks. - The watchman instantly (raises, rises) the alarm when there is danger. - The trappers have (lain, laid) fresh traps for the porcupines. An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. To describe or modify means to provide additional information about nouns or pronouns. To modify further means to change something slightly. Writers and speakers modify an idea or image by choosing certain describing words, which are called adjectives. Hence, these adjectives are also called modifiers. Adjectives are like word cameras. They are words that describe colours, sizes and shapes. Adjectives help you capture how the world around you looks and feels. - What kind? The powerful gorilla knocked down the hunter. The old man walked slowly. - How many? Three zebras were resting. He has few friends. - Which one(s)? This painting is attractive. These farmers are clearing the field. There are 5 main kinds of adjectives, namely:- - Descriptive adjectives - Definite and indefinite adjectives - Demonstrative adjectives - Interrogative adjectives - Articles and possessive adjectives Descriptive adjectives tell us the size, shape, age, colour, weight, height, make, nature and origin of the nouns they are describing. Examples of descriptive Adjectives: Descriptive adjectives are of two types: - Common descriptive adjectives – these are adjectives that give general features of somebody or something. They are the adjectives of size, shape, age, colour, weight, height, make and nature. Refer to the examples in the diagram above. - Proper adjectives – These ones are formed from proper nouns. They are always capitalized. They always appear last in a string of adjectives modifying the same noun, just before the noun itself. The Japanese ambassador A Mexican carpet An Italian chef Note that when a proper adjective comprises of two words, both are capitalized. A South African farmer A North American cowboy Find the adjectives in the following sentences and indicate what types they are. - Alaska is the largest state in the USA. - The Alaskan Senator is Lord John Mc Dougal. - Kenya is the tallest mountain in Kenya. - Alaska has a tiny population of one and a half million people. - Northern Province has small, scattered towns. - A trip to Northern Kenya will take you across vast wilderness. - American tourists are fond of wild animals. - There is a huge lake in the Rift Valley Province. - I sent a letter to my Australian pen pal. - I have a beautiful Egyptian robe. A demonstrative adjective tells which one or which ones. They are used before nouns and other adjectives. There are 4 demonstrative adjectives in English: This, that, these and those. This and these are used to refer to nouns close to the speaker or writer. That and those refer to nouns farther away. This and that are used before singular nouns while these and those are used before plural nouns. This picture is very beautiful. That one is not as beautiful. These drawings are very old. Those ones were painted in Uganda. Choose the word in brackets that correctly completes each of the following sentences. - My bus left the station before (that, those) matatus. - (Those, These) chairs behind me were occupied. - My seat has a better view than (this, that) one over there. - (Those, That) man should fasten his seat belt. - (This, That) car is old, but that one is new. - (These, Those) clouds are far away. - (This, That) window next to me has a broken pane. - (That, This) chair near me is broken. - My car is moving faster than (these, those) buses over there. - (These, Those) goats grazing over there are my uncle’s. Definite and indefinite adjectives These are adjectives which tell how many or how much. They give the number or the quantity, either specific or approximate, of the noun in question. Three elephants were killed by the game rangers. He bought several houses in Kileleshwa. Don’t put much sugar in the tea! Adjectives that are in form of numbers are used with countable nouns: Two calves were born yesterday. Five chimpanzees performed funny tricks. Many children like dinosaurs. A definite or indefinite adjective may look like a pronoun, but it is used differently in a sentence. It is an adjective used to modify a noun. Adjectives that are in form of quantity are used with uncountable nouns. Do you have any water in the house? How much flour did you buy? The interrogative adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions. Examples are what, which, and whose. What movie do you want to see? Which leaves turn colour first? Whose son is he? An interrogative adjective may look like an interrogative pronoun but it is used differently. It is an adjective, used to modify a noun. Underline the adjectives in the following sentences. - Twenty bulls were slaughtered for the wedding. - Few people know the name of our president. - They stole all the money in the safe. - There isn’t much sugar in the dish. - Numerous disasters have hit China this year. - What game is playing on TV tonight? - Whose car is that one over there? - Which house was broken into? - I don’t know what misfortune has faced him. - Nobody knows which table was taken. Articles and Possessive Pronouns Two special kinds of adjectives are the articles and the possessive pronouns. Articles are the words a, an and the. A and an are special adjectives called indefinite articles. They are used when the nouns they modify do not refer to any particular thing. A student rang the bells. (No specific student) An orange is good for your health. (No specific orange) A is used before a noun that begins with a consonant sound. An is used before a noun that begins with a vowel sound. Note that it is the first sound of a noun, not the spelling, that determines whether to use a or an. An hour an heir The is a special adjective known as the definite article. It is used to refer to particular things. The tourist was robbed. (A particular tourist). The team began practising at 8 o’clock. (A particular team). All articles are adjectives. The is used with both singular and plural nouns, but a and an are used with singular nouns The tourist, the tourists, a tourist The adjective, the adjectives, an adjective Choose the correct article from the choices given in brackets in the following sentences. - (A, An) mountain climber climbed Mt. Elgon. - He went up a cliff and was stranded on (a, an) jagged rock. - No one knew (a, the) route he had taken. - (The, An) climber’s friend called the local police. - The police began the search within (a, an) hour. - A police dog followed (a, the) climber’s scent. - A helicopter began (a, an) air search of the mountain. - The dog followed the climber’s scent to (a, the) jagged edge of the cliff. - A climber from (a, the) police team went down the jagged rock. - (A, An) rope was tied to the climber and he was pulled to safety. The words my, her, its, our and their are possessive pronouns, but they can also be used as adjectives. These modifiers tell which one, which ones or whose? My brother likes Sean Paul, but his sister does not. Of his songs, Ever Blazing is his favourite. Our school produces heroes, its fame is widespread. Write the adjectives from the following sentences and the nouns they modify. - In her lifetime, Brenda Fasie composed many songs. - Her early songs entertained her fans all over the world. - Our first performance was successful. - Her coughing grew worse with time. - They agreed that it was their best goal in ten years. Position of adjectives in sentences - Most adjectives appear immediately before the nouns they are modifying e.g. Descriptive: The beautiful house belongs to my uncle. Demonstrative: That house belongs to my uncle. Numerals: Two houses were burned down. Articles: The house on fire belongs to her sister. Possessive pronouns: Their house was burned down. - Predicate Adjectives Some adjectives appear after the nouns that they are modifying. These adjectives are always used after linking verbs that separate them from the words they modify. An adjective that follows a linking verb and that modifies the subject is called a predicate adjective. Joyce seemed lonely. Her brother was upset. He became concerned. Identify the predicate adjectives in the following sentences. - Her early songs were often quiet and serious. - One of her songs, Vulindlela, is very popular. - The dark city below the sky seems calm and peaceful. - Her performance in K.C.S.E. was brilliant. - The West African singer Kofi Olominde is extraordinary. COMPARING WITH ADJECTIVES We have seen that adjectives describe nouns. One way in which they describe nouns is by comparing people, places or things. To compare two people, places or things, we use the comparative form of an adjective. To compare more than two, we use the superlative form of the adjective. ONE PERSON: Kimenju is tall. TWO PERSONS: Kimenju is taller than James. THREE OR MORE: Kimenju is the tallest of all. The comparative form of the adjective is used to compare one thing, person or place with another one. It is formed in two ways. - For short adjectives, add –er. great + er = greater sweet + er = sweeter big + er = bigger light + er = lighter. - For longer adjectives, the comparative is formed by using the word more before them. More handsome more remarkable More attractive more hardworking Most adjectives ending in -ful and -ous also form the comparative using more. More successful more curious more ferocious More beautiful more generous more prosperous The superlative form of the adjective is used to compare a person, a place or a thing with more than one other of its kind. Elephants are the largest animals in the jungle. However, they are the most emotional animals. The superlative form of an adjective is formed in two ways. - By adding -est to the short adjective great + est = greatest sweet + est = sweetest big + est = biggest light + est = light - For longer adjectives, use most before them. most mysterious most awkward most successful most attractive The ending -er in the comparative becomes -est in the superlative while more becomes most. Adjective comparative superlative strong stronger strongest quick quicker quickest adventurous more adventurous most adventurous co-operative more co-operative most co-operative Summary of rules comparing with adjectives: \|1.\|\|For most short adjectives: Add -er or -est to the adjective \|bright dark smart brighter darker smarter brightest darkest smartest \|2.\|\|For adjectives ending with e: Drop the e and add -er or -est \|safe nice wide safer nicer wider safest nicest widest \|3.\|\|For adjectives ending with a consonant and y: Change the y to i and add -er or -est \|Busy crazy happy Busier crazier happier Busiest craziest happiest \|4.\|\|For single-syllable adjectives ending with a single vowel and a consonant: Double the last consonant and add -er or -est \|Flat slim fat Flatter slimmer fatter Flattest slimmest fattest \|5.\|\|For most adjectives with two or more syllables: Use more or most\|\|careful generous more careful more generous most careful most generous Points to note about Adjectives: - A comparative is used to compare two persons, or things or two groups of persons or things. A rat is smaller than a mouse. Buffaloes are larger than domestic cows - A superlative is used to compare a thing or a person to more than one other of its kind. Lions are the bravest of all animals. Elephants are the largest of all herbivores. - You must use the word other when comparing something with everything else of its kind. Leopards are more ferocious than any other cat. - Do not use both -er and more, or -est and most. Incorrect: Men die more earlier than women. Correct: Men die earlier than women. Incorrect: My father is the most oldest of the three brothers. Correct: My father is the oldest of the three brothers. Write the adjectives in brackets in the following sentences correctly. - My next sculpture will be even ___________________ (beautiful). - That was the ________________ cartoon I have ever watched (funny). - English is my ____________ subject of all (enjoyable). - Job is the ______________ person in his family. (energetic) - She is the ______________ of the three nurses. (helpful) - That story sounds ____________ than fiction. (strange) - He is _______________ than a cat. (curious) - Her school grades are ______________ than mine. (high) - You are _______________ than Maria. (creative) - My next test will be _______________ than this one. (simple) Some adjectives have special forms for making comparisons. That is, they do not form their comparatives by use of -er or more, or their superlatives by use of -est or most. Instead, these adjectives change the words completely to form comparatives and superlatives. Adjectives Comparative Superlative good better best well better best bad worse worst ill worse worst little less or lesser least much more most many more most far farther farthest Example of use in sentences: The presentation of our play was good. Our second performance was better. But our last performance was the best. Write the correct forms of the adjectives in brackets in the following sentences. - The comedy was the ________________ show of the three. (good) - Mary had a _________________ cold yesterday. (bad) - It was her ____________ performance this year. (good) - Her illness is getting _____________ every day. (bad) - The old woman received the _____________ amount of money from the MP. (little) - Smoke your cigarette _______________ away from the children. (far) - There was ______________ noise in the classroom than yesterday. (little) - The musician said that that was a very ______________ year for him. (good) - This year’s songs were much ______________ than last year’s. (good) - He has the _____________ pairs of shoes in the school. (many) SPECIAL PROBLEMS WITH ADJECTIVES - Those and Them Those is an adjective if it is followed by a noun. It is a pronoun if it is used alone. Those thieves are daring! (Adjective modifying thieves) Those are thieves! (Pronoun) Them is always a pronoun. It is used only as the object of a verb or as the object of a preposition. It is never used as an adjective. We followed them. (Object of a verb) They caught one of them. (Object of a preposition) We heard them thieves breaking the door. (Incorrect) - The extra Here and There with demonstrative adjectives It is incorrect to use the demonstrative adjectives this, that, those, and these with here and there before the nouns they modify. “This here job” “That there house” “These here books” “Those there carpets” The adjectives this and these include the meaning of here whereas the adjectives that and those include the meaning of there. Saying this here is like repeating oneself. - Kind and sort with demonstrative adjectives Kind and sort are singular and hence should be used with singular demonstrative adjectives this and that. I like this kind of story. She likes that sort of food. Kinds and sorts are plural and should be used with plural demonstrative adjectives these and those. Those sorts of horror movies scare me. These kinds of sports are for strong people. Choose the correct adjectives from the ones given in brackets in the following sentences. - A robot is one of (those, them) machines that looks and acts human. - (These, This) sorts of machines are very strange. - (This, This here) church was built in 1921. - (Them, Those) mushrooms are very delicious. - (Them, Those) soldiers won the battle. - People call (these, this) kinds of songs Soul. - John needed a name for (them, those) songs. - (This, this here) play is called Aminata. - Human beings have a fascination with (those, that) kind of machine. - (These, This) sort of a car is meant for ministers. An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs tell how, when, where, or to what extent an action happens. HOW: The man walked quickly. WHEN: It will rain soon. WHERE: We shall meet here at 2 p.m. TO WHAT EXTENT: He is extremely rude. HOW WHEN WHERE TO WHAT EXTENT happily sometimes underground fully secretly later here extremely together tomorrow there quite carefully now inside very sorrowfully finally far rarely painfully again upstairs fast often downstairs hard once somewhere slowly first forward hurriedly next behind quietly then above Adverbs used to describe verbs Adverbs that describe verbs tell how, when, where and to what extent an action happened. HOW: John waited patiently for his turn. WHEN: He is now walking into the office. WHERE: He will eat his lunch there. TO WHAT EXTENT: He is very pleased with himself. Adverbs make the meaning of the verb clearer. He will eat his lunch. (Without adverb) He will eat his lunch there. (The adverb makes it clear where the action of eating will take place.) Write the adverbs in the following sentences and then indicate whether the adverb tells how, when, where, or to what extent. - The tourist travelled far. - They cheerfully greeted their grandmother. - Tina hurried downstairs when she heard the knock. - He worked carefully and skilfully. - She was extremely agitated. - The scientist looked curiously at the creature. - Soon the bell was rung. - The hall was fully occupied. - They hugged their grandmother adorably. - He brought the cake down. Adverbs used to describe adjectives Adverbs that tell to what extent can be used to describe adjectives. The cave was very dark. The tea was extremely hot. Other adverbs used with adjectives Just nearly somewhat most These adverbs make the adjectives they are describing more understandable and precise. The tomb was dark. (Without adverb) The tomb was fully dark. (The adverb fully describes the extent of the darkness). Identify the adverb in each of the following sentences and then indicate the adjective it describes. - He is a highly successful businessman. - The extremely cold weather made me shiver. - They are quite difficult to deal with. - The house is barely visible from here. - He is a very old man by now. - She is mysteriously secretive about her activities. - Jackline is horribly mean with her money. - The book was totally exciting. - The secretary was completely mad when the money was stolen. - The boss is never punctual for meetings. Adverbs used to describe other adverbs Some adverbs that tell to what extent are used to describe other adverbs. The student spoke very softly. The cold subsided very gradually. These adverbs make the adverbs they are describing more understandable and clear. She spoke rudely. (Without adjective modifier) She spoke extremely rudely. (extremely describes the extent of her rudeness). Identify the adverbs modifying other adverbs in the following sentences. - The mourners covered the casket with earth very gradually. - He appeared on her surprisingly quickly. - The sun appeared somewhat closer that day. - He drinks extremely irresponsibly. - The driver sped the car totally carelessly. Specific categories of Adverbs - Adverbs of time – These answer the question when? He joined the class yesterday. Today, I will go to the cinema. - Adverbs of place– These answer the question where? Mrs. Kilome has gone out. The bus stop is near the post office. - Adverbs of frequency: These answer the question how often? She often leaves without permission. He always works hard. - Adverbs of manner: These answer the question how? Many ran fast to catch the bus He painted the house badly. - Adverbs of degree. These answer the question how much? Luka is extremely intelligent. She is very ill. FORMATION OF ADVERBS Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective. Slow + -ly = slowly quiet + -ly = quietly Sometimes the addition of -ly to an adjective may require changing the spelling in the adjective. Easy + -ly = easily (y changes to i) Full + -ly = fully (ll changes to l) Other adverbs are complete words on their own. That is, they are not formed from other words. fast tomorrow soon first later next inside somewhere quite - Soon and quite can be used only as adverbs. The school will soon open. The holiday was quite well spent. - Some other modifiers, like late or first, can either be used as adverbs or adjectives. The visitors arrived late. (adverb) The late arrivals delayed the meeting. (adjective) The robbers had gotten there first. (adverb) The first house was already broken into. (adjective) - When you are not sure whether an adjective or an adverb has been used in a sentence, ask yourself these questions. (i) Which word does the modifier go with? If it goes with an action verb, an adjective or another adverb, it is an adverb. The story teller spoke quietly. – used with an action verb. The story teller was very interesting. – used with an adjective. The story teller spoke extremely slowly. –used with another adverb. But if it goes with a noun or a pronoun, it is an adjective. The quiet story teller spoke. – used with a noun. He was quiet. – with a pronoun. (ii) What does the modifier tell about the word it goes with? If the modifier tells when, where, how, or to what extent, it is an adverb. He will come tomorrow. – When? He will come here. – Where? He will come secretly. – How? He will be very cautious. – To what extent? But if it tells which one, what kind, or how many, it is an adjective. He will steal this cow. – Which one? He will carry a sharp spear. – What kind? He will be jailed for ten years. – How many? (iii) Adverbs and predicate adjectives You will recall that we said that an adjective appears after a linking verb and modifies the subject. He became successful. (successful modifies he) You seem tired. (tired modifies you) You appear sick. (sick modifies she) You look great! (great modifies you) They sound bored. (bored modifies they) It feels wet. (wet modifies it) The oranges taste sweet. (sweet modifies oranges) The baby grows big. (big modifies baby) She smells nice. (nice modifies she). Sometimes the verbs in the sentences above are used as action verbs. In this case, they are followed by adverbs, not adjectives. They modify the verbs and tell how, when, where, or to what extent. The singer looked up. We tasted the chocolate eagerly. The principal appeared suddenly. (iv) Good and well Good and well have similar meanings, but differ in their use in a sentence. Incorrect: He narrates the story good. Correct: He narrates the story well. Good is always an adjective and modifies nouns or pronouns. It is never used to modify a verb. He is a good narrator. (Adjective modifying the noun narrator) Well can be used as either an adjective or an adverb. I feel well. (As an adjective) He drives well. (As an adverb) Choose the correct form of the words in brackets in the following sentences. - Luos tell you (quick, quickly) that they are not Bantus. - Over the months, the snow (gradual, gradually) melted. - Rice tastes especially (good, well) with avocado. - The popularity of video games has grown (rapid, rapidly). - The name of the town may sound (strange, strangely) to some people. - These puppies look a little (odd, oddly). - The idea of breaking the door does not sound (reasonable, reasonably). - Visitors eat Nyama Choma very (rapid, rapidly). - If Nyama Choma has been prepared (good, well), it tastes even better than chicken. - Since fish is high in protein and low in fat, it is bound to keep you (good, well). COMPARING WITH ADVERBS We have seen that we can use adjectives to compare people, things or places. Adverbs can also be used to compare actions. And like adjectives, we use the comparative form of an adverb to compare two actions and the superlative form of an adverb to compare more than two actions. ONE ACTION: Maree swims fast. TWO ACTIONS: Maree swims faster than Ciku. THREE OR MORE: Maree swims fastest of all. Just like adjectives, adverbs have special forms or spelling for making comparisons. THE COMPARATIVE FORM The comparative form of the adverb is used to compare one action with another. It is formed in two ways: - For short adverbs, add –er. The bird flew higher than the helicopter. The president arrived sooner than we expected. - For most adverbs ending in -ly, use more to make the comparative. She visited him more frequently than Martin. The tractor towed the lorry more powerfully than the bull-cart. THE SUPERLATIVE FORM The superlative form is used to compare one action with two or more others of the same kind. Of the three athletes, Kipruto runs the fastest. The lion roars the loudest of all the big cats. Adverbs that form the comparative with –er form their superlative with -est. Those that use more to form comparative use most to form superlative. Adverbs Comparative Superlative long longer longest fast faster fastest softly more softly most softly politely more polite most polite Points to Remember - Use the comparative to compare two actions and the superlative to compare more than two. Comparative: He sat nearer to the window than him Superlative: He sat nearest to the window than all the others. - Do not leave out the word other when comparing one action with every other action of the same kind. Incorrect: The lion roared louder than any lion. Correct: The lion roared the loudest of all. - Do not use both -er and more or -est and most. Incorrect: The dancer moved more faster than before. Correct: The dancer moved faster than before. Summary of rules for comparing with Adverbs \|1 1.\|\|For most adverbs Add -er or -est to the adverb \|hard late deep harder later deeper hardest latest deepest \|2\|\|For most adverbs comprising of two or more syllables: Use more or most with the adverb\|\|Skilfully firmly rudely more skilfully more firmly most rudely most skilfully most firmly most rudely Write each of the following sentences using the correct form of the adverb. - Does she cry ______________ (often) than the baby does? - She crosses the river _____________ (slowly) than her son does. - James jumps into the swimming pool _____________ (quickly). - Charles swims _____________ (skilfully) than all of us. - Of all the athletes, Tecla Lorupe is ____________ (fast). - The antelope disappeared _____________ (swiftly) than the gazelle. - Chicharito scored the goal _____________ (accurately) of all. - Mange and Marto stayed in the hall ______________ (long) of all. - Sarah walks _____________ (gracefully). - Ng’ang’arito sang ____________ (sweetly) of all participants. A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between other words in a sentence. The cat lay under the table. The preposition under connects the verb lay with table. Under points out the relationship between lay and table. Hence a preposition is a word that links another word or word group to the rest of the sentence. The noun or pronoun after the preposition is called the object of the preposition. The table is the object of the preposition under in the above sentence. The preposition under relates the verb lay to the noun table. She gave it to me. (The preposition to relates the pronoun me with the action gave). I liked the bike with the metal handles. The preposition with relates the noun handles with the noun bike. about before except on toward above behind for onto under aboard below from out underneath across beneath in outside until after beside inside over up against between into past upon along beyond like since with among by near through within around down of throughout without at during off to From the above list of prepositions, you will note that some of them tell where, others indicate time, others show special relationships like reference or separation. Changing one preposition with another in a sentence changes the meaning of the sentence. The cat lay under the table. The cat lay on the table. Lying under the table means below the surface of the table but on means above the surface. Write the preposition in each of the following sentences and say what relationship it indicates. - Sometimes they lie on the ground. - They have grown maize for food. - The children played with the dolls. - A man found some treasure in the cave. - They make clothes from cotton. Use the most appropriate preposition to complete the sentences below. - Driving had been my dream ________________ years. 2._____________ 1990, I bought a second-hand car. 3.______________ that year, I learned how to drive. - I rolled the car ________________ the road _____________ more than two kilometres. - I was really thrilled ______________ the experience. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object and any words that modify the object. The school children waited for the green light. In this sentence, the preposition is for, its object is light, and the modifier, or adjective, is green. The entire preposition phrase modifies the verb waited. Sometimes two or more nouns or pronouns are used as objects in a prepositional phrase. He needs a worker with diligence and a good character. The preposition with has two objects: diligence and character. Identify the prepositional phrase in each of the following sentences. Underline the preposition once and its objects twice. - Donkeys help people in many ways. - They bring happiness to the people around them. - In large cities, they help to carry water. - On farms, they carry heavy loads. - How could you travel across a river? - You might swim to the other side. - You might cross at a shallow place. - You can cross by boat. - Bridges are a better solution to the problem. - Most bridges are built over water. Types of prepositional phrases Prepositional phrases can either be: (i) Adjective prepositional phrases – these prepositional phrases, just like adjectives, modify nouns and pronouns. A scout leader wears a uniform with many badges. In this sentence, with many badges is an adjective prepositional phrase modifying the noun uniform. (ii) Adverb prepositional phrases – these ones, just like adverbs, modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Scouts rain for many hours. (The adverb prepositional phrase for many hours modifies the verb train.) They are active in all public functions. (The adverb prepositional phrase in all public functions modifies the adjective active.) The scout leader commands forcefully with a loud voice. (The adverb prepositional phrase with a loud voice modifies the adverb forcefully.) We have seen that the object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition. When the object of the preposition is a pronoun, we use an object pronoun like me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. (And not a subject pronoun like I, he, she, we, and they). Correct: I gave a present to her. Incorrect: I gave a present to she. Correct: I gave a present to Jane and her. Incorrect: I gave a present to Jane and she. Choose the pronoun in brackets that correctly completes each of the following sentences. - The dog chased after Travis and (her, she). - Cleaning the house was a tasking job for Evans and (I, me). - We planned a family picture of our parents and (us, we). - The victory belonged to (he, him). - Michael and Bernard stood behind Mom and (she, her). - The crowd around (we, us) started cheering. - My little sister ran behind Sammy and (I, me). - The toys belong to Karen and (him, he). - Johnny sat between James and (me, I). - I went to the cat race with Jim and (she, her). Sometimes one prepositional phrase immediately follows another. The thief entered the house through the door on the right. (through the door modifies the verb entered and tells where. on the left modifies the noun door and tells which one.) A prepositional phrase can be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence. BEGINNING: At dusk we closed the shop. MIDDLE: The chief of the area was helpful. END: The path went through the village. Preposition or Adverb? Sometimes the same word can be used as either a preposition or an adverb. How can you tell the difference between the two? PREPOSITION: He has a box inside the house. ADVERB: They ran inside. You can tell the difference by remembering the following: (i) A preposition never stands alone. It is always followed by its object, a noun or a pronoun. The helicopter flew past the airport. (Preposition) The aircraft was parked inside the hangar. (Preposition) (ii) An adverb is never followed by a noun or a pronoun, may be by an adverb. The helicopter flew past. (Adverb) The aircraft was parked inside. (Adverb) The helicopter flew past noisily. (Adverb) Therefore, if a word begins a prepositional phrase, it is a preposition. If it stands alone or is followed by an adverb, it is an adverb. Some words that can be used either as prepositions or adverbs. above down over along in out around Inside outside below near under by off up Indicate after each of the following sentences if it has a preposition or an adverb. - Jack stood outside the shop. - He was curious and went inside. - He saw strange things in every corner. - An old coat and several sweaters lay over a chair. - Blue and green umbrellas stood above the fire place. - He looked up suddenly. - He sat down heavily. - Then he lifted the curtain and peeped outside. - A jogger ran by - Jack ran out. Negatives are words that mean “no” or “not”. These words are adverbs and not prepositions! She has no more work. There are none left. Other common negatives not nowhere nobody aren’t haven’t never nothing no one doesn’t wouldn’t The combination of a verb and not also form a contraction which is also a negative. The letters n’t stand for not. They won’t be able to attend the funeral. He couldn’t make a speech. A sentence should have only one negative. Using double negatives in a sentence is usually incorrect. A double negative is the use of two negative words together when only one is needed. We don’t need no money. We don’t need any money. She hasn’t bought nothing. She hasn’t bought anything. Mark hasn’t no homework. Mark hasn’t any homework. Or Mark has no homework. When you use contractions like don’t and hasn’t, do not use negative words after them. Instead, use words like any, anything, and ever. We don’t have any work. He hasn’t any work. I won’t ever respond to the summons. Other negatives include hardly, barely, and scarcely. They are never used after contractions like haven’t and didn’t. Incorrect: We couldn’t hardly continue with the work. Correct: We could hardly continue with the work. Incorrect: The child can’t barely walk. Correct: The child can barely walk. Write the following sentences choosing the correct negatives from the ones given in brackets. - They (have, haven’t) nothing to eat. - Isn’t (anyone, no one) at home? - Didn’t you (ever, never) swim in that river? - There isn’t (anybody, nobody) weeding the farm. - Ann and Martin haven’t (anywhere, nowhere) to sleep. - Our friends (had, hadn’t) none of the fun. - Isn’t (anybody, nobody) watching Tahidi High? - Hasn’t (anyone, no one) thought of washing the utensils? - Tabby (hasn’t, has) had no luck. - We haven’t (ever, never) tried. A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words. Like prepositions, conjunctions show a relationship between the words they connect. But, unlike prepositions, conjunctions do not have objects. There are 3 main categories of conjunctions; - Coordinating conjunctions - Subordinating conjunctions - Correlative conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions connect related words, groups of words, or sentences. There are three coordinating conjunctions: and, but and or. And is used to join words, groups of words, or sentences together. But shows contrast while or shows choice. The bull and the cart are inseparable. (Connects two subjects). The cart carries the farmer and his tools. (Connects two direct objects). The food was hard and tasteless. (Connects two predicate adjectives). Each night, the dancers danced in a circle or in several other patterns. (Connects two prepositional phrases). Some people died in the fracas, but most managed to escape, alive. (Connects two sentences). Complete each of the following sentences using the most appropriate coordinating conjunction - Bats and insects fly, ____________ only birds have feathers. - Eagles build nests on cliffs ______________ in tall trees. - Parrots live in wild places _______________ in zoos. - Swallows ______________ sparrows often build nests in buildings. - Hummingbirds are tiny __________ very brave. - Many birds fly south in winter, ______________ others do not. - Their feathers keep them warm ____________ dry. - A bird can fly forward _____________ backward. - Many birds shed old feathers ______________ grow new ones. - Their legs are weak ____________ their wings are strong. Subordinating conjunctions connect two or more clauses to form complex sentences. (Refer to Part Two of this handbook). Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses. They include because, since, if, as, whether, and for. If I go home, my dog will follow me. (The subordinating conjunction if connects the subordinate clause I go home with the main clause my dog will follow me.) The stayed inside the church because it was raining. He was always rude since he was a child. The rain fell as they entered the building. The pastor asked the congregation whether they were happy. The man rejoiced for he had won a prize. Join the following pairs of sentences using the most appropriate subordinating conjunctions. - They arrived late. It was raining heavily. - John worked hard. He wanted to buy a house. - I won’t carry the umbrella. You need it. - I drove the car madly. I was late for the meeting. - He will come. The meeting ends. Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are used in pairs to connect sentence parts. These include either ….. or, neither ….. nor, not only……. but also, whether ……. or and both …… and. Both boys and girls attended the conference. People brought not only food but also clothes for the victims of the floods. The students ride either on bicycles or motorbikes. The sailor had to decide whether to sail on or head back when the weather changed. Neither John nor James was moved by the shocking news. Join the following pairs of sentences using the correlative conjunctions in brackets. - The vehicles stopped for repairs. The vehicles stopped for fuel. (either…..or) - The drivers knew they had to travel more than fifty kilometres. If they did not travel more than fifty kilometres, they would have to endure harsh storms. (either….or). - Many people build their own homes. Many people grow their own food. (not only…but also) - Men wanted to buy the pictures. Women also wanted to buy the pictures.(both…. and) - Maize is an important part of a Kenyans’ diet. Meat is important too. (both… and) An interjection is either a single word or a short group of words that is used to express a feeling or emotion. Interjections can express such feelings as urgency, surprise, relief, joy, or pain. An interjection that expresses strong emotion is often followed by an exclamation mark. An interjection that expresses mild emotion is usually followed by a comma. Let’s go! We can’t sleep before we find the missing boy. (urgency) Phew! I was afraid we would never find him. (relief) Oh, you have grown so big. (surprise) Well, I have never been so happy. (joy) Identify the interjection in the following sentences and indicate what feeling or emotion it expresses. - Say, have you heard about Nameless and Jua Kali, the famous Kenyan musicians? - Wow! Seeing the calf being born was exciting. - “All right!” I yelled to him. “This is not the right thing to do.” - Boy! Some people felt wonderful being in the air balloon, but I felt nervous. - Oh, did that boat rock back and forth for a while. FORMATION AND ORIGIN OF WORDS Some words in the English language have unique origins and formations. - Sound words (onomatopoeias) Some of the words imitate the sounds they represent. These words are called sound or onomatopoeic words. For example, the words bang and crash describe a loud, sudden noise. The word murmur describes a low, soft noise that keeps going. Many English words imitate noises made by animals. For example, the word chirp imitates the short, high sound made by a small bird or a cricket. Other examples of sound (onomatopoeic) words beep gobble neigh squeal blast growl purr tick buzz hiss quack zip clang honk rip clatter hum roar crack meow smash crunch moo splash Write a sound word for each of the following descriptions. - The sound of something breaking - The loud, deep sound of a lion. - The sound of a clock. - The sound of an angry dog. - The sound of a loud bell. - The sound made by a duck. - The sound of a bottle opening. - The sound of a cat drinking milk. - The sound of a bomb exploding. - The sound of a snake. - Words that come from names of people and places (Eponyms) Some of the words in the English language come from the names of people and places. \|Sandwich\|\|Two or more slices of bread with meat between them.\|\|John Montagu, the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who liked eating meat between slices of bread.\| \|Maverick\|\|A person who breaks from conventional actions\|\|Samuel Maverick, a Texas cattle owner who refused to brand the calves of one of his herds as per the requirements.\| \|Saxophone\|\|A musical wind instrument\|\|Adolphe Sax, the Belgian inventor of the musical instrument.\| \|Madras\|\|A cotton cloth with a design or pattern on plain background\|\|Madras, a city in India, where it was invented.\| \|Rugby\|\|A game\|\|Rugby school, England, where rugby was invented.\| \|Tarantula\|\|A large, hairy spider\|\|Taranto, a town in Italy where Tarantulas are found.\| \|Shylock\|\|A greedy money-lender\|\|The relentless and vengeful money- lender in Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice.\| \|Sousaphone\|\|A musical instrument\|\|John Phillip Sousa, an American composer who invented the Sousaphone.\| There are many more words in the English language which originated from names of people or places. Find out from your dictionary the origins and meanings of the following English words. - lima bean 6. guppy 11. guillotine - cardigan 7. cheddar 12. macadam - bloomer 8. quisling 13. pasteurisation - canary birds 9. silhouette 14. watt - Ferris wheel 10. Marxism 15. ohm - Words formed from blending two or more words (portmanteau words) Some words in the English language are a blend of two or more words or morphemes. \|Smog\|\|Smoke + fog\|\|A combination of smoke and fog in the air.\| \|Fantabulous\|\|Fantastic + fabulous\|\|Incredible, astonishing, unbelievable, wonderful\| \|Brunch\|\|Breakfast + lunch\|\|A late breakfast taken some hours before lunch\| \|Wikipedia\|\|Wiki + encyclopaedia\|\|A website\| \|Comcast\|\|Communication + broadcast\|\|A television system that more than the usual number of lines per frame so its pictures show more detail.\| \|Spork\|\|Spoon + fork\|\|An eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork.\| \|Skort\|\|Skirt + shorts\|\|An item of clothing that is part skirt and short.\| \|Simulcast\|\|Simultaneous + broadcast\|\|To broadcast a programme on television and radio at the same time\| \|Cyborg\|\|Cybernetic + organism\|\|A fictional or hypothetical person whose physical abilities are superhuman\| \|Motel\|\|Motor + hotel\|\|A roadside hotel\| Identify the words that are blended to form the following words. Find out their meanings from your dictionary. - slithy 6. breathalyser - chortle 7. cable gram - galumph 8. camcorder - bash 9. edutainment - blog 10. email - Words formed by use of prefixes and suffixes Some words are formed by addition of prefixes and suffixes to other words. A prefix is a word part that is added to the beginning of a word to form another word or to change its meaning. The word to which the prefix is added is called the base word. Prefix Base word New word un friendly unfriendly pre pay prepay A prefix changes the meaning of the base word. For example, the prefix un-above means “not”. Hence, unfriendly means “not friendly”. Each prefix has its own meaning. More examples of common English prefixes before, in advance opposing, against, the opposite opposition, opposite direction put into or on after in time, or order before in time, place order or importance favouring, in support of \|misspell – to spell incorrectly revisit – visit again preschool – before school anti-aircraft, antibiotic, aticlimax unacceptable, unreal, unhappy, unmarried Give the meaning of the following prefixes and write two examples each of words in which they are used. Use your dictionary. - ultra- infra- - syn- hypo- - sub- hemi - peri- ex- - out- dia- A suffix is a word part that is added to the end of a base word to form a new word or to change its meaning. Enjoy + able = enjoyable Each suffix has its own meaning. The suffix “able” means “capable of”. Hence enjoyable means “capable of being enjoyed.” Common English suffixes state or quality act or process of place or state of being state of being state of being make or become capable of being having the quality of having the nature of Add an appropriate suffix to each of the following words and then give the meaning of the new word. - hope 6. green - read 7. wear - child 8. fear - grey 9. kind - play 10. Wash Words in English language have various meanings depending on their usage in sentences. Homographs are words which are spelled the same but have different meanings. They usually appear as separate entries in a dictionary. The man dug a well in his compound. They worked well together. In the first sentence, the noun well means “a spring of water”. In the second sentence, the adverb well means “in a good manner”. Examples of common homographs in the English Language \|(V) to support or carry (N) an animal \|I will bear the burden. The bear killed the hunter. \|(V) to plant seed (N) female pig \|The farmer sowed the seeds. The sow is very fat. \|(V) to guide (N) a metal \|The mother duck can lead her ducklings around. Gold is heavier than lead. (V) turning something around (N) moving air \|The tiger was now so close that I could smell it. “Will you please close that door?” Wind your watch. The wind howled through the woodlands. \|(V) to determine the age (N) to “go out” (N) a kind of fruit (N) a calendar time \|Can you date this sculpture? I have a date with Mary. Dates are grown in South Africa. What is the date today? (V) to choose not to eat food \|He is a fast runner. The Christians fast just before Easter. \|(N) animal skin (V) to conceal \|He is tanning the hide. They hide their money under their pillows. \|(N) woven trap made of rope or cord (Adj) amount remaining after deductions. \|They caught fish using a net. His net pay is thirty thousand shillings per month. \|pick\|\|(N) a kind of tool (V) to choose \|He used a pick to dig the hole. Pick the dress that you want. Some homographs are spelled the same but pronounced differently. The wind is strong today. This path winds through the hills. Write two meanings of the following homographs and use each of them in sentences of your own. - pen 6. act - tire 7. arms - dove 8. block - wound 9. box - mean 10. bank Homophones are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings. She will buy music composed by my favourite artist. Homophones are often confused when writing by many students because of similarity in pronunciation. Examples of common homophones in English \|(V) the walkway \|I quickly walked down the aisle. He grew up on the isle of Elba. (Adv) not silently \|His mother allowed him to stay up late. She read the story aloud. \|(V) past tense of “eat” \|She ate a quick lunch. I bought eight tickets. \|(N) a round object used in games (V) to cry \|He took the ball to the beach. Please don’t bawl! It’s not that bad. \|(V) to stand something \|He can’t bear exams. He stood outside in the rain completely bare. \|(N) the bottom support of something (N) the lowest pitches in music \|We need a new base for that lamp. I sang bass in the church choir. More examples of homophones awe, oar, or, ore cent, scent, sent cite, site, sight doh, doe, dough ewe, yew, you for, fore, four Give the homophones and the meanings of the following words. - in 6. knight - heard 7. knows - horse 8. tick - hey 9. rung - need 10. sees Synonyms are words that have almost the same meaning but different spelling and pronunciation. Slender–thin finish–end sick–ill Some words have several synonyms. For example, happy has such synonyms words like light-hearted, pleased, and cheerful. Synonyms help vary the writing, just like pronouns do. For example, the word happy and its synonyms help vary the writing. Daniel felt happy – Daniel felt light-hearted. She was happy with her grade – She was pleased with her grade. They sang a happy song – They sang a cheerful song. Examples of common synonyms in English enormous, huge, immense hint, trace, tip Give the synonyms of the following words: 1.start 6. collect 2.come 7. assist 3.lengthy 8. build 4.shattered 9. reply 5.Fix 10. purchase Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. Antonyms also add variety to your writing. Cold-hot heavier – lighter fearful – brave. Some words have more than one antonym. Some of these antonyms can be formed by adding a prefix to a base word. Kind – cruel, unkind like – hate, dislike Examples of common antonyms in English \|absent – present absurd – sensible abundant – scarce accidental – intentional accuse – defend accurate – incorrect admit – deny advance – retreat after – before alien – native alone – together always – never amuse – bore anger – kindness applaud – boo asleep – awake beautiful – ugly beg – offer below – above bitter – sweet buy – sell careful – careless cease – begin civilian – military closed – open condemn – praise crooked – straight dangerous – safe dead – alive deep – shallow destroy – create drunk – sober east – west \|enemy – friend evil – good exhale – inhale expensive – cheap fail – succeed fat – skinny fertile – barren floor – ceiling former – latter funny – serious generous – stingy genuine – fake guilty – innocent humble – arrogant husband – wife illegal – lawful import – export indoor – outdoor inferior – superior intelligent – stupid joy – grief kind – mean king – commoner lazy – industrious lock – unlock majority – minority man – woman merciful – cruel moist – dry nervous – calm obey – disobey original – copy patient – impatient \|permit – forbid polite – rude positive – negative private – public push – pull question – answer quick – slow reckless – cautious rival – friend sane – insane servant – master sick – well simple – complex slavery – freedom smart – dumb solid – gas spend – save stranger – friend strong – weak sudden – gradual suffix – prefix tame – wild temporary – permanent thaw – freeze tough – tender unique – common vacant – occupied victory – defeat villain – hero war – peace young – old Give the antonyms of the following words: - easy 6. sweat - whisper 7. stationary - triumph 8. strengthen - dull 9. precious - dangerous 10. Naked - IDIOMS AND SAYINGS An idiom is a phrase that has a special meaning as a whole. The meaning of an idiom is different from the meanings of its separate words. It was raining cats and dogs. (The idiom raining cats and dogs does not mean that cats and dogs were falling out of the sky! It means “raining heavily”.) I put my foot in my mouth today. (The idiom put my foot in my mouth means “to say the wrong thing”. Sometimes the context in which an idiom is used can give a hint of its meaning.) Jeff is talking through his hat when he says that he can spell every word in the English language. (This idiom clearly means that Jeff cannot possibly spell every word in the English language. Hence, the idiom talking through his hat means talking nonsense.) More examples of idioms in the English language \|It was a blessing in disguise.\|\|Something good that is not recognised at first.\| \|He is a doubting Thomas. \|A sceptic who needs physical or personal evidence in order to believe something.\| \|That scandal was a drop in the bucket.\|\|A very small part of something big or whole.\| \|The punishment was a slap in the wrist.\|\|A very mild punishment. \|The thief received a taste of his own medicine.\|\|He was mistreated the same way he mistreats others.\| \|Don’t add fuel to the fire! \|When something is done to make a bad situation even worse than it is.\| \|The principal is just all bark but no bite.\|\|When someone is threatening and/or aggressive but not willing to engage in a fight.\| \|8\|\|The theory is all Greek to me.\|\|Meaningless and incomprehensible.\| \|9\|\|We are all in the same boat.\|\|When everyone is facing the same challenges.\| \|The house cost him an arm and a leg.\|\|Very expensive. A large amount of money. \|The teacher has an axe to grind with the bursar.\|\|To have a dispute with someone. Joyce is the apple of my eye. Someone who is cherished above all others. \|The boy did the work at the drop of a hat.\|\|Willing to do something immediately\| \|The politician is a back seat driver.\|\|People who criticize from the sidelines \|They were back to square one in their search for the treasure.\|\|Having to start all over again. \|16\|\|The government has to go back to the drawing board on the issue of the New Constitution.\|\|When an attempt fails and it’s time to start all over again. \|17\|\|The exam was a piece of cake.\|\|A task that can be accomplished very easily. \|The investigator realised he was barking the wrong tree.\|\|A mistake made in something you are trying to achieve.\| \|Stop beating around the bush.\|\|Avoiding the main topic, not speaking directly about an issue.\| \|I will bend over backwards to see you through school.\|\|Do whatever it takes to help. Willing to do anything. \|22\|\|She was caught between a rock and a hard place.\|\|Stuck between two very bad options. \|You are biting off more than you can chew.\|\|To take on a task that is way too big. \|24\|\|John decided to bite his tongue.\|\|To avoid talking. \|Tom has a cast iron stomach. \|Someone who has no problems, complications, or ill effects with eating or drinking anything.\| \|26\|\|That is a cock and bull story.\|\|An unbelievable tale.\| \|I will have to win, come hell or high water.\|\|Any difficult situation or obstacle. \|28\|\|Don’t cry over spilt milk. \|When you complain about a loss from the past.\| \|He likes crying wolf. \|Intentionally raise a false alarm. \|Tim is a dark horse. \|One who was previously unknown and now is prominent.\| \|Kinyua is a devil’s advocate. \|Someone who takes a position for the sake of argument without believing in that particular side of the argument.\| \|My father drinks like a fish.\|\|To drink very heavily.\| \|This problem is driving me up the wall.\|\|To irritate or annoy very much.\| \|The students had a field day with the visiting guests.\|\|An enjoyable day or circumstance. \|The food was finger licking good.\|\|Very tasty food or meal.\| \|He changed from rags to riches.\|\|To go from being very poor to being very wealthy.\| \|I need to get over it.\|\|Move beyond something that is bothering you.\| \|38\|\|She got up on the wrong side of the bed\|\|To someone who is having a horrible day.\| \|39\|\|Joan is a good Samaritan. \|Someone who helps others when they are in need without expecting a reward.\| \|40\|\|I have a gut feeling she will die.\|\|A personal intuition you get, especially when you feel something may not be right.\| \|41\|\|The player lost his head when he missed the goal.\|\|Angry and overcome by emotions.\| \|42\|\|He was head over heels in love with her.\|\|Very excited and joyful, especially when in love.\| \|43\|\|He gave her a high five when he won the contest.\|\|Slapping palms above each other’s heads as a celebration gesture.\| \|44\|\|Let us hit the books!\|\|To study, especially for a test or exam.\| \|45\|\|I will hit the hay now.\|\|Go to bed or go to sleep.\| \|46\|\|The preacher hit the nail on the head.\|\|Do or say something exactly right. \|47\|\|She hit the sack after a hard day’s work.\|\|Go to bed or sleep. \|48\|\|Hold your horses, the speaker is coming.\|\|Be patient. \|49\|\|The certificate was an icing on the cake after the monetary reward.\|\|When you already have it good and get something on top of what you already have.\| \|50\|\|The girl became careless in the heat of the moment.\|\|Overwhelmed by what is happening at the moment.\| \|51\|\|The policeman kept an eye on him.\|\|Carefully watch somebody.\| \|52\|\|He kept his chin up during the burial.\|\|To remain joyful in a tough situation.\| \|53\|\|The old man kicked the bucket.\|\|Die \|54\|\|Lend me your ear.\|\|To politely ask for someone’s full attention.\| \|55\|\|You let the cat out of the bag.\|\|To share a secret that wasn’t supposed to be shared.\| \|56\|\|The by-election was not a level playing field.\|\|A fair competition where no side has an advantage.\| \|57\|\|He ran all over like a chicken with its head cut off.\|\|To act in a frenzied manner. \|58\|\|Mr. Gumo is a loose cannon. \|Someone who is unpredictable and can cause damage if not kept in check.\| \|59\|\|I am not interested in his mumbo jumbo.\|\|Nonsense or meaningless speech.\| \|60\|\|She is the new kid on the block.\|\|Someone new to the group or area. \|61\|\|He started off on the wrong foot.\|\|Getting a bad start on a relationship or task. \|62\|\|The accused man is now off the hook.\|\|No longer have to deal with a tough situation. \|63\|\|I said that off the record! \|Something said in confidence that the speaker doesn’t want attributed to him or her.\| \|64\|\|I was on pins and needles.\|\|Anxious or nervous especially in anticipation of something.\| \|65\|\|The prefects sit on the fence when there is a strike.\|\|Undecided.\| \|66\|\|The dog appeared out of the blue.\|\|Something that suddenly and unexpectedly occurs or appears.\| \|67\|\|You will get the job over my dead body.\|\|When you absolutely will not allow something to happen.\| \|68\|\|Mark is fond of passing the buck to his brother.\|\|Avoid responsibility by giving it to someone else.\| \|69\|\|Dennis is a peeping Tom. \|Someone who observes people in the nude or sexually active people, mainly for his own gratification.\| \|70\|\|“Pipe down! We have heard you!\|\|To shut up or be quiet. \|71\|\|You are pulling my leg.\|\|Tricking someone as a joke.\| \|72\|\|Rise and shine! It’s time to go to school.\|\|Time to get out of bed and get ready for work or school.\| \|73\|\|The businessman has run out of steam nowadays.\|\|To be completely out of energy. \|74\|\|The convict was saved by a bell.\|\|Saved at the last possible moment. \|75\|\|He was a scapegoat for the amorous politician.\|\|Someone else who takes the blame. \|76\|\|The naughty boy got away scot-free.\|\|To escape and not have to pay. \|77\|\|She was sick as a dog.\|\|To be very sick (with flu or a cold).\| \|78\|\|He has a sixth sense. \|A paranormal sense that allows you to communicate.\| Other common idiomatic expressions and sayings - A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. – Having something that is certain is much better than taking a risk for more, because chances are you might lose everything. - A fool and his money are easily parted. – It’s easy for a foolish person to lose his/her money. - A house divided against itself cannot stand. – Everyone involved must unify and function together or it will not work out. - A leopard can’t change his spots. – You cannot change who you are. - A penny saved is a penny earned. – By not spending money you are saving money (little by little). - A picture paints a thousand words. – A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words. - Actions speak louder than words. – It’s better to actually do something than just talk about it. - Curiosity killed the cat. – Being inquisitive can lead you into a dangerous situation. - Don’t count your chickens before they hatch. – Don’t rely on it until you are sure of it. - Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth. – When someone gives you a gift, don’t be ungrateful. - Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. – Do not put all your resources in one possibility. - Drastic times call for drastic measures. – When you are extremely desperate you need to take extremely desperate actions. - Elvis has left the building. – The show has come to an end. It’s all over. - Every cloud has a silver lining. – Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to better days. - Great minds think alike. – Intelligent people think like each other. - Haste makes waste. – Doing things quickly may result in a poor ending. - Idle hands are the devils’ tools. – You are more likely to get it trouble if you have nothing to do. - If it’s not one thing, it’s another. – When one thing goes wrong, then another, and another …. - It takes two to tango. – A conflict involves two people and both must cooperate to have it resolved. - It’s a small world. – You cannot hide from your evil deeds in this world. - Let bygones be bygones. – To forget about a disagreement or argument. - Let sleeping dogs lie. – To avoid restarting a conflict. - Never bite the hand that feeds you. – Don’t hurt anyone that helps you. - Practice makes perfect. – By constantly practising, you will become better. - Rome was not built in one day. – If you want something to be completed properly, then it’s going to take time. - The bigger they are, the harder they fall. – The bigger and stronger opponent may be more difficult to beat, but when he does, he suffers a much bigger loss. - Variety is the spice of life. – The more experiences you try the more exciting life can be. - When it rains, it pours. – Since it rarely rains, when it does it will be a huge storm. - You are what you eat. – In order to stay healthy, you must eat healthy foods. - You can’t judge a book by its cover. – Decisions shouldn’t be made primarily on appearance. Give the meaning of the italicized idioms in the following sentences. - I was completely at sea when the Prime Minister visited my house. - Jane has her hands full. She can’t take on more work. - Do you have a bone to pick with me? - I can’t make heads or tails of this story. - The test was as easy as pie. - I am sick and tired of doing nothing at work. - I am broke! I have to borrow some money. - She dropped me a line yesterday. - He filled in for her when she fell sick. - My business is in the red. A phrase is a group of words without a subject or a predicate or both and does not express a complete thought. Therefore, a phrase can never stand on its own as a complete sentence. Using different kinds of phrases enables a writer or a speaker to create informative and descriptive sentences that vary in structure. Phrases combine words into a larger unit that can function as a sentence element. The most common kinds of phrases in English are: Noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, gerund phrases and participial phrases. - NOUN PHRASES A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers. It can function as a subject, object, or complement in the sentence. The modifiers may include articles, prepositions and adjectives. (a) Noun phrases as subjects The lazy old man sleeps all day long. Some school boards reward teachers who produce good results. (b) Noun phrases as objects Teachers rejected the proposed performance contracts. Critics opposed the controversial marriage bill. (c) Noun phrases as complements Teaching is a valuable profession. Sheila is a hardworking no-nonsense lady. Identify the noun phrases in each of the following sentences and indicate whether it functions as a subject, object or complement. - I saw a TV show yesterday. - Playful animals really fascinate me. - Yesterday, I had a thrilling adventure. - Swimming is an exciting activity. - Twenty university students were expelled last month. - She is a certified public health officer. - Many of the soldiers were killed in the battle. - The old woman carried a heavy load of firewood on her back. - Peter seems a very complicated man to understand - A devastating earthquake hit China yesterday. - VERB PHRASES A verb phrase consists of a main verb and its helping verbs. It can function as the predicate of a sentence. The predicate tells what the subject does or is. (It tells something about the subject). John was born in Malindi. This problem may have contributed to the collapse of the economy. Without highly-trained workers, many Kenyan companies would be forced to close down. Sometimes the parts of a verb phrase are separated from each other by words that are not verbs. He is finally buying a new house. Salesmen must occasionally travel long distances. Some words are joined with other words to make contractions. He hasn’t turned up for the meeting. (has + not) We couldn’t tell what had killed the cow. (could + not) I’ve ordered them to leave the house. (I + have). NB: The word not and the contraction n’t are adverbs. They are never part of a verb or verb phrase. Write the verb phrase in each of the following sentences. - We should have taken pictures of the wild animals. - You must have seen the posters of the event. - They should have been told to come with flowers to plant in the school compound. - Mr. Muchira would have told some interesting stories. - Scientists must’ve visited the Menengai Crater. - He must have seen some wonderful places. - Many advocates do fear the new Chief Justice. - The scouts have often made camp here. - The bull fighters would sometimes stampede noisily. - I could have read the book if he had allowed me. - PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the words between them. It often functions as an adjective or adverb, but it can function as a noun as well. We carried the fruits in our school bags. (Adverb telling where) The plane flew through the cloud. (Adverb telling where) Almost half of Africa’s population suffers from water – related diseases. (Adverb modifying suffers). The water supply in the United States is expected to decline dramatically. (Adjective modifying water supply). The best time to practise water conservation is before a water shortage. (Noun functioning as a complement). In sentence 1 above, the preposition is in, the object of the preposition is bags, and the modifiers or adjectives are our and school. Sometimes two or more nouns or pronouns are used as objects in a prepositional phrase. He needs a wife with diligence and a good character. Diligence and character are objects of the preposition with. When prepositional phrases function as adjectives and adverbs in sentences, they are called adjectival and adverbial phrases respectively. (a) An adjectival prepositional phrase modifies nouns or pronouns. The woman wears shoes with sharp heels. (An adjectival phrase modifying the noun shoes) The man with a funny-looking dog crossed the road. (An adjectival phrase modifying the noun man) (b) An adverbial prepositional phrase modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Soldiers train for many months. (An adverbial phrase modifying the verb train) People are lazy in the afternoons. (An adverbial phrase modifying the adjective lazy.) She arrived late in the night. (An adverbial phrase modifying the adverb late). Sometimes one prepositional phrase immediately follows another. The man led him through the door on the left. Note that the prepositional phrase through the door is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb led and tells where? The second prepositional phrase on the left is an adjectival phrase modifying the noun door and tells which one? A prepositional phrase can be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence. At dusk, we began to walk home. The map of the area was very helpful. The path went by a forest and a large lake. Underline the prepositional phrases in the following sentences and indicate what type each of them is. - The oldest building is found in Mombasa. - Five companies around the country have bought new fire engines. - The barking of the dog scared the strangers. - Bulls are bred for hard work. - Most bridges are built over water. - Travellers were spared many miles of travel. - I went by bus to the market. - At the market, I saw beautiful and unusual people. - I also saw a display of colourful clothes. - She took him through the lesson with professional expertise. - GERUND PHRASES A gerund is a verb form used as a noun. It is formed by adding –ing to the present tense of a verb. Gerunds can be used as subjects, direct objects, objects of prepositions, and complements. Subject: Fishing is a popular activity in Nyanza Province. (Fishing is a gerund, the subject of the verb is) Direct object: The sport involves riding. (riding is a gerund, the direct object of the verb involves) Object of preposition: The sport is similar to fencing. (fencing is a gerund, the object of the preposition to). A gerund phrase includes a gerund, its modifiers, objects or complements. It always functions as a noun. Becoming a Tusker Project fame finalist was Msechu’s lifetime dream. (The gerund phrase is the subject of the sentence.) Msechu dreamt all his life about winning the top award. (The gerund phrase is an object of the preposition about). One of Msechu’s biggest disappointments was losing to Alpha. (The gerund phrase is a complement). The game involves jumping over hurdles. (The gerund phrase is an object of the verb involves). Underline the gerund or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label each one subject, direct, object, object of preposition, or complement accordingly - In early days, golfing was a game for the rich. - The rich were mostly interested in protecting their status. - Playing golf with a commoner would mean lowered status. - Much of the rich people’s time was spent playing the game. - Training thoroughly improved a golfer’s accuracy in the game. - There he learned about playing the game. - Later, he started contesting with other junior golfers. - At fifteen or sixteen, he began playing with the professionals. - Participating in international tournaments was the golfer’s dream. - But the greatest dream was winning an in international title. - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES A participle is a verb form that always acts as an adjective. There are two types of participles: (a) The past participle – it is usually formed by adding –d, or -ed to the present tense. Fooled, the shopkeeper bought fake products. (Fooled is a past participle modifying the noun shopkeeper) Shaken, he dashed to the police station. (Shaken is a past participle modifying the pronoun he) The participles of irregular verbs, however, do not follow the above rule: run-run, throw-thrown. (b) The present participle – it is usually formed by adding -ing to the present tense of any verb. Smiling, the conman stepped out of the shop. (Smiling is a present participle modifying the noun conman). Using participles is a simple way of adding information to sentences and to vary sentences beginnings. A participial phrase consists of a present or past participle and its modifiers, objects, or complements. It always functions as an adjective. Rounding the corner, the conman met two policemen. (Rounding the corner is a present participial phrase modifying the noun conman). Surprised by the appearance of the conman, the policemen started blowing their whistles. (Surprised by the appearance of the conman is a past participial phrase modifying the noun policemen). A participle or participial phrase is not always at the beginning of a sentence. Sometimes it may appear in the middle but it should be near the noun or pronoun it modifies. The skilled policemen, seeing a chance of a lifetime, arrested the conman. The conman, losing control, fought the policemen fiercely. Points to note Both the gerund and the present participle are created by a adding –ing to the present tense of a verb. BUT how can you tell whether a word is a gerund or a participle? It all depends on how the word is used in a sentence. (i) A participle is used as a modifier in a sentence. Gaining courage, the conman attempted to escape. (Gaining courage is a participial phrase modifying conman). (ii) A gerund is used as a noun in a sentence. Gaining courage made the conman look aggressive. (Gaining courage is a gerund phrase, the subject of the verb made). Underline the participial phrases in the following sentences, indicating whether it is a past or present participial phrase and the noun or pronoun it modifies. - Defying all odds, Kisoi Munyao attempted to climb to the highest peak of Mt. Kenya for seven times. - Failing each time, he refused to give up. - Seeing his passion to scale the peak, the government offered him financial assistance. - The climber ascended slowly, making steady progress. - Pleased with his progress, he camped at eleven thousand feet. - The climber, determined to hoist the Kenyan flag, progressed on the following morning. - Slipping on the snow, Munyao fell on a dry tree trunk. - A rope worn from too many climbs then broke. - One of his hot water bottles, slipping to the bottom of the cliff, broke into pieces. - Munyao, overcome with joy, finally hoisted the flag at Point Batian. - INFINITIVE PHRASES An infinitive is a verb form that usually appears with the word to before it. To is called the sign of the infinitive. to lift to eat to launch to register To is a preposition if it is followed by a noun or noun phrase, but it is a sign of the infinitive if it is followed by a verb or verb phrase. Joseph longed for a flight to the moon. (Prepositional phrase) Not until 1985 was he able to succeed. (Infinitive) An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive and its modifiers, objects or complements. It can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb. To write clearly and concisely can be difficult sometimes. (Infinitive phrase functioning as a noun and the subject of the sentence). Proofreading your writing is a good way to ensure the absence of typing mistakes. (Infinitive phrase functioning as an adjective modifying the noun way). To greatly increase the amount of stress in your life, leave your writing task until the night before it is due. (Infinitive phrase functioning as an adverb modifying the verb leave). Underline the infinitive phrases in each of the following sentences and state whether it is functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb. - To climb Mt. Kenya was the dream of Kisoi Munyao. - The freedom hero decided to climb the mountain on the eve of the country’s independence. - He was one of the first Kenyans to try this risky climb. - His determination helped him to make rapid progress to reach Point Batian. - Munyao was able to reach the peak with very limited climbing gear. - To reach Point Batian was Munyao’s ultimate goal. - At first few other climbers bothered to listen to Munyao. - He was even forced to finance much of his expedition himself. - Munyao worked hard to achieve his dream of hoisting the Kenyan flag. - His success made it easier for other climbers to scale the tallest mountain in Kenya. - PHRASAL VERBS A phrasal verb is a verb that consists of two or three words. The first word is always an action word followed by one or two particles. The particle is either an adverb, a preposition or both. Verb Adverb Preposition Put up with Look forward to Look down on The meaning of phrasal verbs is usually different from the meaning of the individual words that form them. One cannot, therefore, guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the usual meanings of the verb and the particles. The best thing is to master the meanings of as many phrasal verbs as possible. MEANINGS OF PHRASAL VERBS Abide by –obey rules Beef up-add force Bail somebody out-help somebody out of difficulties Act on-take action on information received Break down-failure of engine, collapse Break out-start suddenly Bring up-raise a child Call for-demand, require Carry out– do, execute Carry away-draw attention Carry on– continue Check on –verify Come about– happen Deal with– tackle Die out-become extinct Do without-manage with out End in-result into End up-finally come to Enter in to-venture, begin Fade away-die slowly Fall for-get attracted to Fall in– collapse Fear for-be concerned about Break into-enter by force start singing, dancing, laughing or crying suddenly Feel for – sympathise Figure out-come to understand by thinking Fill in-compete (especially a form) Fit in– mix smoothly Flow in-arrive steadily Get away with-escape punishment Go over-check, revise Go through-suffer, struggle, succeed Grow into-become something Gun down– shoot dead Hand in– submit Hand over-transfer duties Hang up-end a telephone conversation Have back– get back Hear from-receive communication from Hold back-prevent from progressing Identify with– associate with Jump at –seize a chance Jump on-challenge, criticize Keep off – avoid, keep away from Kick off-begin a football match/beginning of a football match Live up to-do in accordance with Look forward to-long for Look out for-try to find Look up to-admire, respect Make away with-steal and escape Make out-understand, figure out, write out Make up for-compensate Open up-talk freely Open with– start with Order around-keep on telling somebody to do things Part with-give away Point-direct attention to Put off-postpone, switch off, discourage a person Put up with-tolerate Rough up-handle roughly Run out-use up, run short of Set off-start a journey Settle down-adapt in a new place Shout down-disapprove a speaker Sleep out-sleep outdoor Turn off-switch off, divert, leave one road for another Turn out– arrive, attend Turn to-ask for help or advice Urge on-encourage, incite Use up- exhaust Verge on-be very close to something Wake up to– realize While away-pass time in a relaxed mind Wind up-finish (a speech) Wipe out-destroy completely Attend to-deal with something Align with-to give ones support publicly to a certain plan Allude back-to mention someone or something indirectly Answer back-to reply rudely to someone who has more authority than you Appeal for-to make a request for something Abstain from-to avoid to do something enjoyable deliberately Absolve from/absolve of-remove; exonerate from blame Be absorbed in-be so interested or involved in something that you don’t notice anything else Acquaint with-to know or learn about something Adhere to– to obey a rule, a law or an agreement Awaken to (awake to)-to begin to notice something Bombard with-ask so many questions or give too much information Borrow from-use an idea that was initially used by someone else Break up-end a relationship/end an event/stop a fight Brighten up-make something more interesting or attractive Brim with-be full of something Capitalize on-use an opportunity or situation to help you achieve something Get carried away-become so excited with something that we lose control of our feelings Cave in-collapse; fall down or in wards Chip in-add something in a conversation Churn out-quickly to produce large quantities of things Close down-stop doing business completely Comb through-search thoroughly Cross off-draw a line through something on a list to show that you have a list with it Feed for-to look after Listen in-secretly listen to a conversation, eavesdrop Fish out-to pull something out of a container Be faced with-have challenges Flood in-arrive quickly and in big numbers Itch for-want very much to do something immediately Listen in-secretly listen to a conversation eavesdrop Refrain from-not to do something Round up-find and arrest Scale down-reduce the number or amount of something Stumble across/ stumble on/ stumble upon-find something or meet someone accidentally Talk over-discuss an issue Touch down-of aircraft land What is a sentence? A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. A complete thought is clear. A sentence always begins with a capital letter. It ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!). Ted sent me a letter. Jane slept soundly. A sentence fragment does not express a complete thought. The reader or listener cannot be sure what is missing in or the meaning of a sentence fragment. He or she will be left wondering: What is this about? What happened? Fragment: The huge boat. (What happened?) Sentence: The huge boat sails down the river. You can correct a sentence fragment by supplying the missing information. Subjects and predicates The two fundamental parts of every English sentence are the subject and the predicate. A subject can be described as the component that performs the action described by the predicate. It tells who or what does or did the action. It may also name the topic. The predicate tells about the subject. It tells what the subject does or is. (Who or what) (What is said about the subject) The antelope jumped over the high fence. Pigs eat anything is sight when hungry. In a sentence, a few key words are more important than the rest. These key words make the basic framework of the sentence. The verb and its subject are the key words that form the basic framework of every sentence. The rest of the sentence is built around them. Sentence Key words The young kids jumped playfully. kids, jumped Their faces shone brightly. faces, shone To find out the subject, ask who or what before the verb. Who jumped playfully? – kids What shone brightly? – faces To find out the verb, ask what after the subject. The young kids did what? – jumped Their faces did what? – shone The key word in the subject of a sentence is called the simple subject. For example, kids, faces. The complete subject is the simple subject plus any words that modify or describe it. For example, The young kids, Their faces. The key word in the predicate is called the simple predicate. For example, jumped, shone. The complete predicate is the verb plus any words that modify or complete the verb’s meaning. For example, jumped playfully, shone brightly. The simple subjects and predicates may sometimes be more than one word. For simple subjects, it may be the name of a person or a place. Barack Obama won the US presidential race. South Africa is the home of many bats. The simple predicate may also be more than one word. There may be a main verb and a helping verb. Tanya has acted in many TV shows. She will be performing again tonight. An object in a sentence is a word or words that complete the meaning of a sentence. It is involved in the action but does not carry it out. The object is the person or thing affected by the action described in the verb. It is always a noun or a pronoun and it always comes after the verb. The man climbed a tree. Some verbs complete the meaning of sentences without the help of other words. The action that they describe is complete. The temperature rose. Some other verbs do not express a complete meaning by themselves. They need to combine with other words to complete the meaning of a sentence. Christine saw the snake. Rose wears goggles. He opened the door. In the above examples, the snake, goggles and the door are the objects as they are the things being affected by the verbs in the sentences. (Refer to the topic on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs under the main topic VERBS in Chapter One). Which groups of words are sentences and which ones are sentence fragments? - A huge storm was coming. - Behind the wattle tree. - After the earthquake. - The wind broke several houses. - Surprised by a loud noise. - Winds of high speed. - Rescue workers arrived. - From different parts of the world. - Many people were injured. - In the weeks after the earthquake. Direct and indirect objects Objects come in two types, direct and indirect: The direct object is the word that receives the action of a verb. Christine saw a snake. ( a snake receives the action of saw) Rose wears goggles. (goggles receives the action of wears) Sometimes the direct object tells the result of an action. Tecla won the race. She received a trophy. To find the direct object first find the verb. Then ask whom or what after the verb. Christine saw a snake. Rose wears goggles Verb: saw verb: wears Saw what? a snake wears what? goggles Tecla won the race She received a trophy Verb: won verb: received Won what? the race received what? a trophy Remember, we said earlier that a verb that has a direct object is called a transitive verb and a verb that does not have an object is called an intransitive verb. We also said that a verb may be intransitive in one sentence and transitive in another. Other verbs are strictly intransitive, e.g. disagree. The indirect object refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object. They tell us for whom or to whom something is done. Others tell to what or for what something is done. I gave him the book. He is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary of the book. Direct object or adverb? Direct objects are sometimes confused with adverbs. The direct object tells what or whom as we have seen earlier. Adverbs on the other hand tell how, where, when or to what extent. They modify the verbs. Brian Swam slowly. (slowly is an adverb telling how) Brian Swam a tough race. (race is a direct object telling what). Verbs can also be followed by a phrase that tells how, when, or where. This kind of a phrase is never a direct object but an adverbial phrase. Brian swam across the pool. (across the pool tells where Brian Swam). Therefore, to decide whether a word or a phrase is a direct object or adverb, decide first what it tells about the verb. If it tells how, where, when or to what extent, it is an adverb. If it tells what or whom, it is a direct object. Identify the objects or the adverbs/adverbial phrases in the following sentences. If the sentence has two objects, indicate the direct object and the indirect object. - Nanu sings pop music. - Nanu sings sweetly. - He spoke very quietly. - I have read that book three times. - She has gone to the bank. - David gave her a present. - David disagreed bitterly. - The player sat on his heels. - She made a list of the items to buy. - They offered him help. Some sentences do not take objects or adverbs (or adverbial phrases) after the verbs. Instead, they take complements. A complement is the part of the sentence that gives more information about the subject (subject complement) or about the object (object complement) of the sentence. Subject complements normally follow certain verbs like be, seem, look, etc. He is British. (British gives more information about he) She became a nurse. (a nurse gives more information about she) Object complements follow the direct objects of the verb and give more information about those direct objects. They painted the house red. (red is a complement giving more information about the direct object house) She called him an idiot. (an idiot is a complement giving more information about the direct object he). The complement often consists of an adjective (e.g. red) or a noun phrase (e.g. an idiot) but can also be a participle phrase. I saw her standing there. (standing there is a complement telling more about her). Pick out the complements in the following sentences and indicate whether subject, object or participial complements. - The tourist is a German citizen. - She seems a very arrogant lady. - You look tired. - They painted the car green. - James nicknamed Lucy the queen. - I saw him stealing the mango. - They beat the thief senseless. - The priest looks a kind person. - We left her crying. - Job left her trembling. TYPES OF SENTENCES Sentences can be categorised in terms of structure or in terms of purpose. - IN TERMS OF STRUCTURE Sentences can be categorised into 3 main types: - Simple sentences (ii) Compound sentences (iii) Complex sentences. - SIMPLE SENTENCES A simple sentence contains a single subject and predicate. It describes only one thing, idea or question, and has only one verb. It contains only an independent (main) clause. Any independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Jack plays football. Even the addition of adverbs, adjectives and prepositional phrases to a simple sentence does not change its structure. The white dog with the black collar always barks loudly. Even if you join several nouns with a conjunction, or several verbs with a conjunction, it remains a simple sentence. The dog barked and growled loudly. - COMPOUND SENTENCES A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined together using a co-ordinating conjunction such as and, or or but. The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising. Each clause can stand alone as a sentence. The sun was setting in the west. The moon was just rising. Every clause is like a sentence with a subject and a verb. A coordinating conjunction goes in the middle of the sentence; it is the word that joins the two clauses together. I walked to the shops, but my wife drove there. I might watch the film, or I might visit my aunt. My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn’t like the actor. Two simple sentences should be combined to form one compound sentence only if the ideas they express are closely related. If the ideas are not closely related, the resulting sentence may not make sense. Incorrect: The car is old, and Dan likes sociology. Correct: The car is old, but it functions superbly. Punctuating compound sentences When writing some compound sentences, a comma is used before the conjunction. The comma tells the reader where to pause. Without a comma, some compound sentences can be quite confusing. Confusing: Jane studied the specimen and her sister took notes. (The sentence might cause the reader to think that Jane studied both the specimen and her sister). Better: Jane studied the specimen, and her sister took notes. (The comma makes the sentence to be clear). Sometimes the parts of a compound sentence can be joined with a semicolon (;) rather than a comma and a conjunction. Jane studied the specimen; her sister took notes. Never join simple sentences with a comma alone. A comma is not powerful enough to hold the sentences together. Instead use a semicolon. Incorrect: My father enjoyed the meal, he didn’t like the soup. Correct: My father enjoyed the meal; he didn’t like the soup. Correct: My father enjoyed the meal, but he didn’t like the soup. - COMPLEX SENTENCES A complex sentence contains one independent (main) clause and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses. They describe more than one thing or idea and have more than one verb in them. They are made up of more than one clause, an independent clause (that can stand by itself) and a dependent clause (which cannot stand by itself). The picture looks flat because it is colourless. (The picture looks flat is the independent (main) clause whereas because it is colourless is the subordinate (dependent) clause) What is a clause? A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject. There are two types of clauses – main clauses and subordinate clauses. A main clause is a clause that can stand as sentence by itself. A compound sentence contains two or more main clauses, because it is made up of two or more simple sentences. Each of these simple sentences is a main clause. Robots operate machines, and they solve many labour problems. Robots operate machines and they solve many labour problems are both main clauses. They are also simple sentences. Main clauses are sometimes called independent clauses. Subordinate clauses are clauses that do not express a complete thought. So they cannot stand by themselves. If technology will improve When robots can do the work While electronics will work After the system is complete None of the above clauses express a complete thought. They are sentence fragments that leave the reader wondering then what? Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as if, when, while, and after. Other examples of subordinating conjunctions: Although because so that until as before than whatever as if in order that though wherever as long as provided till whenever as though since unless where Now we can understand a complex sentence better. We have said that it contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Main clause subordinate clause The bell started ringing before we were out of bed. The battery needs recharging so that it can work tonight. The subordinate clause can sometimes appear before the main clauses. When the power failed, the computer stopped. Before you know it, your flat screen television will be stolen. The subordinate clause can also sometimes appear in between the sentence. The medicine man, who knew many tricks, cheated the man that he had been bewitched. TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Subordinate clauses may be used in sentences as adjectives, adverbs and nouns in complex sentences. Such clauses are called adjectival, adverbial and noun clauses respectively. They add variety to one’s writing. They can also make one’s writing more interesting by adding details. Without subordinate clause: The bushman told us about the hidden cave. With subordinate clause: The bushman, who knew the forest well, told us about the hidden cave. - Adjectival clauses An adjectival clause acts as an adjective in a sentence, that is, it modifies a noun or a pronoun. The bushman, who knew the forest well, told us about the hidden cave. (who knew the forest well is an adjectival clause that modifies the noun bushman). The bushman told us a legend that involved the cave. (that involved the cave is an adjectival clause that modifies the noun legend). An adjective clause usually comes immediately after the noun it modifies. People still search for the treasure that the pirate hid. As can be seen from the above examples, adjectival clauses, like adjectives, modify nouns or pronouns answering questions like which? or what kind of? Adjective Adjective clause The red coat the coat which I bought yesterday Like the adjective red, the adjectival clause which I bought yesterday modifies the noun coat. Note than an adjectival clause usually comes after what it modifies while an adjective comes before. Besides use of subordinating conjunctions, adjectival clauses can be introduced by relative pronouns. Relative pronouns are the words who, whom, whose, that and which. These words relate the subordinate clauses to the word it modifies in the main clause. The books that people read were mainly religious. Some fire-fighters never meet the people whom they save. The meat which they ate was rotten. In the last sentence, the relative clause (called so because it is introduced by the relative pronoun which) which they ate modifies the noun meat and answers the question which meat? They are searching for the one who borrowed the book. The relative clause who borrowed the book modifies the pronoun one and answers the question which one? Besides relating the adjectival clause to a noun or pronoun in the main clause, a relative pronoun may also act as the subject, object, predicate pronoun, or object of a preposition in the clause. Subject: This is the forest that has a secret cave. (that is the subject of has) Object: The map, which you saw, guides the way. (which is the object of saw) Object of a preposition: The map leads to the cave of which the bushman spoke. (which is the object of the preposition of) In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjectival clause, but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal academic writing. Formal: The books that people read were mainly religious. Informal: The books people read were mainly religious. Formal: The map which you saw guides the way. Informal: The map you saw guides the way. But never omit the relative pronoun if it is in the clause. Correct: This is the forest that has a secret cave. Incorrect: This is the forest has a secret cave. Commas are put around adjectival clauses only if they merely add additional information to a sentence. The map, which you saw, shows the way. This adjective clause can be left out without affecting the grammatical structure of the sentence. It is merely adding information to the sentence by telling us which map? The map shows the way. (ii) Adverbial clauses An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause which takes the place of an adverb in a sentence. Just like adverbs and adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses answer the questions where, when, how, to what extent, with what goal/result and under what conditions. In addition, an adverbial clause may tell why. Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb and an adverbial phrase in the following example: Adverb: The Prime Minister gave a speech here. Adverbial phrase: The Prime Minister gave a speech in the afternoon. Adverbial clause: The Prime Minister gave a speech where the workers were striking. Usually, an adverbial clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction like because, when, whenever, where, wherever, since, after and so that. Note that a subordinate adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence. after they left dining hall The above adverbial clause will leave the reader asking what happened after they left the dining hall? Adverbial clauses express relationships of cause, effect, place, time and condition. Adverb clauses of cause answer the question why? Njoroge wanted to kill his uncle because he had murdered his father. Adverbial clauses of effect answer the question with what goal/result? Njoroge wanted to kill his uncle so that his father’s murder would be avenged. Adverbial clauses of time answer the question when? After Njoroge’s uncle married his mother, he wanted to kill him Adverbial clauses of condition answer the question under what conditions? If the uncle cooperates, Njoroge may decide to pardon him. Adverbial clauses of place answer the question where? Njoroge organised a demonstration where his father’s murder occurred. Note that an adverbial clause can appear either before or after the main clause of the sentence. (iii) Noun clauses A noun clause is a clause which takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase. It can be used in any way that a noun is used. That is, it can act as the subject, object, object of a preposition, or predicate noun in a sentence. Just like a noun, a noun clause answers the questions who, when, or what? Noun: Kamau is unknown Noun phrase: Their destination is unknown Noun clause: Where they are going is unknown. The noun clause where they are going is the subject of the verb is. Noun: I know French. Noun phrase: I know the three ladies. Noun clause: I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language. In the first sentence, the noun French acts as the direct object of the verb know. In the third sentence, the entire clause that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language is the direct object of the verb know. As objects of the preposition Noun: He talked about him. Noun phrase: He talked about the funny items. Noun phrase: He talked about what you bought at the supermarket. In the first sentence the pronoun him is the object of the preposition about. In the third sentence, what you bought at the supermarket is the object of the preposition about and answers the question about what? As predicate nouns Her first day in school was what shaped her life. The adverbial clause what shaped her life gives more information about the subject of the sentence Her first day in school. Words often used to introduce noun clauses that when whose what whatever whoever how who whoever You cannot tell the kind of a clause from the word that introduces it. You can tell the kind of clause only by the way it is used in a sentence. If the clause is used as a noun, it is a noun clause. If the clause is used as a modifier, it is an adjectival clause or an adverbial clause. Whoever built the house was not an expert. (Noun clause as a subject) No one knew where he came from. (Noun clause as a direct object) He left the construction site whenever he wished. (As an adverbial clause) This is the layout which he left behind. (As an adjectival clause). Identify the following sentences as simple, compound or complex. If it is a complex sentence, indicate whether it has an adjective, an adverb or a noun subordinate clause. - The hotel is not very old. - The hotel is not very old; it was constructed in 1987. - It has a strange name, but it attracts many tourists. - Whoever broke the mirror will have to pay for it. - The Gor Mahia fans hope that the team will win again. - Did I tell you about the author whom I met? - They are searching for the man who stole the cow. - People began riding horses at least five thousand years ago. - Some people watch the moon as though it affects their lives. - Some superstitions were developed when people felt helpless about the world around them. - The parachute was really a sail that was designed for skiing. - The moon orbits the earth every 291/2 days. - My dog loves bread crusts. - I always buy bread because my dog loves the crusts. - Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Ndegwa throws pieces of chalk at them. - The lazy students whom Mrs. Ndegwa hit in the head with pieces of chalk complained bitterly. - My dog Shimba, who loves bread crusts, eats them under the kitchen table. - A dog that drinks too much milk will always be alert. - You really do not want to know what Aunt Lucy adds to her stew. - We do not know why, but the principal has been away from school for two months. - IN TERMS OF PURPOSE We have seen how sentences are categorised into simple, compound and complex depending on their internal structures. Now, we shall see how they can be categorised in terms of purpose. There are five kinds of sentences classified according to their end marks and the different jobs they do: - Declarative sentences - Interrogative sentences - Exclamatory sentences - Imperative sentences - Conditional sentences - Declarative sentences A declarative sentence simply states a fact or argument without requiring either an answer or action from the reader or listener. It is punctuated with a simple period. (fullstop) Nairobi is the capital of Kenya. He asked which path leads back to the park. Deserts are dry. The declarative sentence is the most important type of sentences. You can write an entire essay or report using only declarative sentences, and you should always use them more often than any other type. Some declarative sentences contain indirect questions but this does not make them into interrogative sentences. He asked which path leads back to the park. - Interrogative sentences An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark. How many roads lead into Mombasa city? Does money grow on trees? Do you like deserts? Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative. When was Professor Saitoti the Vice President of Kenya? I wonder when Professor Saitoti was the Vice President of Kenya. A direct question requires an answer from the reader or listener, while an indirect question does not. A special type of direct questions is the rhetorical question. A rhetorical question is one that you do not expect the reader or listener to answer. Why did the Mau Mau war take place? Some people argue that it was simply a way of Kenyan Africans saying “enough is enough”. Rhetorical questions can be very effective way to introduce new topics or problems in one’s writing or speech. But if you use them too often, you sound patronising or even monotonous or mediocre! - Exclamatory sentences An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emphasis or emotion. It is actually a more forceful version of a declarative sentence that is marked at the end with an exclamation mark. It was so cold! How beautiful this picture is! You look so lovely tonight! Exclamatory sentences are very common in speech and sometimes in writing (but rarely). Note that an exclamation mark can appear at the end of an imperative sentence, but this does not make it into an exclamatory sentence. - Imperative sentences An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone. This sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is. Read this book tomorrow. Always carry water. Wash the windows! You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word “please”. Close that door, please! Please close that door. In an imperative sentence, you is always the subject. It is usually not stated in the sentence. We say that you is the “understood” or “implied” subject. (You) Please bring my camera. (You) Take your medicine before going to bed. - Conditional sentences A conditional sentence expresses what one would do if a condition were or were not met. The condition in the conditional if-clause will determine the fulfilment of the action in the main clause. If I had a million dollars, I would buy a Hummer. John would be very successful if he had more brains. In sentence 1, the condition of having a million dollars will determine whether the speaker will buy a hummer or not. In sentence, the condition of John not having more brains determines that he is not very successful. Label each of the following sentences declarative, imperative, exclamatory, interrogative or conditional - There is a terrible storm tonight. - Try to cover yourself with a blanket. - How strong the winds are! - If the storm continues, we shall have to go down into the bunker. - Do you think it will rip off the roof? - Look at that that flash of lightning! - What an amazing sight that is! - The night looks dark and scary. - Please tell the children to stop screaming. - Susan will sit beside me if the storm continues. - We are hopeful all will be well. - Dive under the table if it breaks the roof. - How will I find my way? - Can I take a glass of water? - John wants to know what will happen if our house collapses. - There goes the thunder! - We shall have to move to another city if we get out of this alive. - Tell me a good city where we can move to. - The storm is subsiding. - Hooray! Safety at last! DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH DIRECT SPEECH Direct speech is used to give a speaker’s exact words. It is also referred to as direct quotation. Direct speech is always enclosed within quotation marks. Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory.” “Creating jobs will be my first priority,” the governor said. A comma always separates the quoted words from the speaker’s name, whether the name comes before or after the quotation Jim asked, “Who are you voting for?” “I don’t know yet,” answered Carol. A direct quotation always begins with a capital letter Senator Karaba said, “You must believe in the new constitution.” When a direct quotation is divided by speech tags, the second part of the quotation must begin with a small letter. “Register to vote,” said the senator, ‘before the end of the day”. If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the first word of this sentence is capitalized. “I did register,” said Carol. “It took only a few minutes” Commas and full stops are placed inside quotation marks “Last night,” said Joyce,” I listened to a debate.” Quotation marks and exclamation marks are placed inside a quotation mark if they belong to the quotation. If they do not, they are placed outside the quotation. Joyce asked, “Whom are you voting for?” Did Carol say, “I don’t know yet’’? I can’t believe that she said, “I don’t know yet’! Speech tags may appear before, in the middle or at the end of the direct speech. He said, “You know quite well that you have to vote.” “You know quite well,” he said, “that you have to vote.” “You know quite well that you have to vote,” he said. Rewrite the following sentences correctly in direct speech. Ensure you punctuate them accordingly. - John said there was a terrible accident in Nairobi. - Petro added it happened in Umoja Estate. - It involved a train and a bus added John. - Sarah asked did anyone die. - No one died, but the railway line was destroyed answered Peter. - Over the months said John the railway line has been rebuilt. - How lucky that no one died exclaimed Sarah. - I think they should put a railway-crossing sign board Petro said it would help bus drivers a lot. - Or they should put bumps on both sides of the railway line to slow down the buses John suggested - Who knows what might happen next wondered Sarah Indirect speech is used to refer to a person’s words without quoting him or her exactly. It is also referred to as indirect quotation or reported speech. The original spoken words are not repeated. The exact meaning is given without repeating the speaker’s words. Direct speech: The governor said, “Creating new jobs will be my first priority.” Indirect speech: The governor said that creating new jobs would be his first priority. Several changes do occur when changing a sentence from direct to indirect speech - Quotation marks Quotation marks are left out when writing a sentence in direct speech. Direct: Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory” Indirect: Hemedi announced that his aunt worked in a biscuit factory. - Tense – The tense of a verb in the direct sentence will change in indirect speech - Simple present changes to past simple Direct: John said, “She goes to school early.” Indirect: John said that she went to school early. - Simple past changes to past perfect Direct: John said, “She went to school early.” Indirect: John said that she had gone to school early. - Present progressive changes to past progressive Direct: “The baby is eating a banana,” the nurse said. Indirect: The nurse said that the baby was eating a banana. - Present perfect changes to past perfect Direct: “South Sudan has become a republic,” the new president declared. Indirect: The new president declared that South Sudan had become a republic. - Past progressive changes to past perfect progressive Direct: “I was dreaming when the fire started,” the boy said. Indirect: The boy said the he had been dreaming when the fire started. - Future simple changes to modal Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” my desk mate said. Indirect: My desk mate said the he would visit me the following day. - May changes to might Direct: I may also visit you too,” I replied. Indirect: I replied that I might also visit him too. Sometimes the verb in indirect speech does not change tense. This occurs in sentences that are universal truths Direct: Our Geography teacher said “The earth rotates round the sun.” Indirect: Our Geography teacher said that the earth rotates round the sun. - Words referring to place also change Direct: “I live here,” retorted the old man. Indirect: The old man retorted that he lived there. Direct: “This place stinks,” noted the boy. Indirect: The boy noted that that place stunk. - Words referring to time also change Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” he shouted. Indirect: He shouted that he would visit me the following/next day. Direct: “He died last year,” the policeman reported. Indirect: The policeman reported that he had died the previous year/ the year before. - Demonstrative pronouns also change: Direct: “This book is mine,” Jane claimed. Indirect: Jane claimed that that book was hers. Direct: “These are hard times,” observed the president. Indirect: The president observed that those were hard times. - Pronouns also change Direct: “My car is better than yours,” the teacher bragged. Indirect: The teacher bragged that his/her car was better that his/hers/theirs. Change the following sentences from Direct to Indirect speech. - “Did you see the fire at the West gate Mall?” asked Joel. - Njagi said, “Ten fire-engines arrived in fifteen minutes.” - Patty exclaimed, “It destroyed an entire block of building!” - “One fire fighter was slightly injured,” said Joel. - Njagi said, “Several people working in the building escaped unhurt.” - “Tell me what will happen to them,” said Patty. - “Other people are giving them food and clothes,” replied Joel. - Njagi added, “They are resting in the school for now.” - “These terrorists will finish us!” exclaimed Patty. - “Don’t worry,” Joel said “They will be apprehended tomorrow.” A question tag or a tag question is a phrase that is added at the end of a statement to turn into a question. When a speaker uses a question tag at the end of a statement, he/she is seeking for approval, confirmation or correction. APPROVAL: I look smart today, don’t I? Yes you do. CORFIRMATION: These are the new students, aren’t they? Yes they are. CORRECTION: I paid your money yesterday, didn’t I? No you didn’t. Many learners face a problem of supplying the correct question tags to sentences. This is because they fail to observe the following rules of question tags: - A comma must be put to separate the statement with the question tag. A question mark must be placed at the end of the question tag. Rufftone has released a new album, hasn’t he? He is pushing for a decision by tomorrow, isn’t he? - The auxiliary verb in the statement must be repeated in the question tag Nelson Mandela was in prison for 27 years, wasn’t he? The people of South Africa have lost a great hero, haven’t they? - When there is no auxiliary verb in the statement, the appropriate form of the auxiliary verb Do must be used in the question tag Mark Francis wakes up very early, doesn’t he? Peter Bryan bought an I-pad phone, didn’t he? - The subject in the statement must be repeated in the question tag. If it is a noun in the statement, it changes to the appropriate pronoun. If it is a pronoun in the statement, it remains a pronoun in the question tag. Fatou Bensouda is a prosecutor in ICC, isn’t she? She does her work meticulously, doesn’t she? - When the statement is positive (i.e. It does not have the word not in it), the question tag must be negative (i.e. must use the negative word not) and vice versa. David Rudisha has broken another record, hasn’t he? Catherine Ndereba hasn’t been very active, has she? Douglas Wakiihuri does not run any more, does he? Ezekiel Kemboi entertains the audience after winning, doesn’t he? You will note from the above examples that the auxiliary verb is usually contracted (joined) with the negative indicator not when using question tags. However, this does not apply when using primary auxiliary verb am and the modal auxiliary verbs will and shall. Am does not allow contraction with not, will and shall usually change their forms to allow contraction. WRONG: I am the next speaker, amn’t I? CORRECT: I am the next speaker, am I not? WRONG: They will be late for church, willn’t they? CORRECT: They will be late for church, won’t they? WRONG: We shall attend the Memorial service, willn’t we? CORRECT: We shall attend the memorial service, shan’t we? - Whereas there is no inversion in the statement, inversion must occur in the question tag i.e. the auxiliary verb comes before the subject President Uhuru Kenyatta has won the case, hasn’t he? Subject verb verb subject He can now relax and attend to his duties, can’t he? Subject verb verb subject - For sentences that are in form of requests and commands, the question tags will commonly take the auxiliary verb will or shall followed by the appropriate pronoun. Please help me with your pen, will you? Let us go for a swim, shall we? Bring me that chair, will you? Stop that noise, will you? Kneel down right away, will you? Those are the rules that govern question tags and if followed well, the learners will not have any problems with question tags. Supply the appropriate question tags in the following sentences. 1.The marriage caused a rupture in her relationship with her mother, _____________? 2.She didn’t think anyone would be interested in a woman like her, _______________? 3.The troops are on standby in case chaos erupt, _________? 4.The Prime Minister must take a firm stand against extremists in his party, _________? 5.I am the best so far, ____________________? 6.The amendments will strengthen the bill, __________? 7.The new tax is tantamount to stealing from the poor, ____? 8.Please send all your remarks to Prof Kibwana as soon as possible, _______________? 9.She raised the gun and pulled the trigger,______________? 10.We need to learn to prioritize, __________________? 11.Get out of this room now, ___________________? 12.We’ve made a reservation for next week, ____________? 13.They couldn’t conceal the secret any more, ___________? 14.We shall not accept anything less, __________________? 15.I am not a conman, __________________? 16.Jonny wanted to pursue a career in theatre, __________? 17.Sharon’s parents claim that the house is legally theirs, ____________? 18.I haven’t told you my name, _________________? 19.Come and visit us tomorrow, __________________? 20.Time will tell whether he made the right choice, _______? CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter as an upper case and the remaining letters in lower case. The following are the cases when capitalization is used: Abbreviations begin with a capital letter. - Titles of persons Prof. George Saitoti Mr. Stephen Kiama Dr. Ephantus Maree Mrs. Teresa Ndegwa Lt. James Conary Ms. Jacinta Atieno Note that all the above abbreviations end with a period. Miss is not an abbreviation, so it doesn’t end with a period. - Words used as addresses St. (street) Blvd. (Boulevard) Ave. (Avenue Rte. (Route) Rd. (Road) Apt. (Apartment) - Words used in businesses Co. (Company) Inc. (Incorporation) Corp. (Corporation) Ltd. (Limited) - Some abbreviations are written in all capital letters, with a letter standing for each important word. P.O. (Post Office) USA (United States of America) P.D. (Police Department) E.A. (East Africa) - Initials of names of persons E.W. Gichimu D.M. Weyama W.W. Muriithi Everlyne A. Kira - Titles of books, newspapers, magazines, TV shows and movies. The Minister’s Daughter (book) Tahidi High (TV show) The Daily Nation (newspaper) Harry Potter (movie) Drum Magazine (magazine) The Day of the Jackal (book) Capitalize the first and last words only. Do not capitalize little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor etc. - Titles of shorts stories, songs, articles, book chapters and most poems. Half a Day (short story) Three Days on Mt. Kenya (short story) The Noun Clauses (chapter in a book) Grass Will Grow (a poem) - Religious names and terms God Allah Jesus the Bible the Koran Do not capitalize the words god and goddess when they refer to mythological deities. - Major words in geographical names Continents – Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia Water bodies – the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile River, RiverTana, Lake Victoria. Landforms – the Rocky Mountains, the Aberdares Mountains, the Rift Valley, the Sahara Desert. Political Units – the Kirinyaga County, the Central Province, Inoi Sub-location. Public Areas – Nairobi National Park, Wajee Nature Park. Roads and Highways – Jogoo Road, Kenyatta Avenue, Uganda Road. - Names of organisations and institutions Kianjege West Secondary School, United Nations, University of Nairobi, Nairobi Women’s Hospital Note that here you capitalize only the important words. Do not capitalize such words such as a, in, and of. Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church and hospital when they are not used as parts of names. There will be a beauty contest at school. - Months, days and holidays June Labour Day Kenyatta Day Mashujaa Day Do not capitalize names of seasons: autumn, summer, winter, spring - Languages, races, nationalities and religions Chinese Kikuyu Christianity Caucasian Bantu Nigerian Muslim Oriental - The first word of every sentence What an exciting day it was! - The pronoun I What should I do next? - Proper Nouns Lang’ata Cemetery Ann Pauline Nyaguthii Kangaita Women’s Group Muhigia Teachers Sacco - Proper Adjectives We ate at an Italian restaurant. She is a German. - The first word in greetings and the closing of a letter Dear Mark, Yours sincerely, Dear Bryan, Yours faithfully, My dear Mum, Very truly yours, Jamlick exclaimed, “This book would make a great movie!” “Where,” asked the stranger, “is the post office?” “It’s late,” Billy said. “Let’s go home!” - First word of each main topic and subtopic in an outline - Parts of speech (i) Proper nouns Correct all errors of capitalization in the following sentences. - this play is a revision of shakespeare’s earlier play, the merchant of venice. - john kiriamiti wrote my life in crime - i admire women who vie for parliamentary seats - benard mathenge and his wife have travelled to america. - my grandmother grew up in witemere. - the nile river is one of the largest rivers in africa. - each year tourists visit maasai mara national park. - the tv show papa shirandula has attracted many viewers. - uganda and kenya have signed an agreement over the ownership of migingo islands. - our country got its independence in december 1963. - on christmas day, all my relatives gathered at my home. - waiyaki is a fictional character in ngugi wa thiongo’s novel, the river between. - the city of mombasa gets its water from river tana. - i would like to become a famous writer like sydney sheldon. - they captured the stark beauty of hell’s gate national park in their movie. Punctuation is the system of symbols that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a punctuation mark. For example (. , ! – : etc) Punctuation marks can be grouped into: - End marks - The comma - The semicolon and the colon - The hyphen - The apostrophe - Quotation mark - End Marks There are three kinds of end marks: the full stop (.), the question mark (?), and the exclamation mark (!). End marks show where sentences end. - The full stop (.) A full stop is used to end a complete sentence. We use a full stop to end: (i) A declarative sentence- a sentence that makes a state The highest skyscraper in Nairobi is Times Tower. (ii) An imperative sentence – a sentence that makes a request or tells someone to do something. Please climb the stairs carefully. Note: An imperative sentence is followed by an exclamation mark when it expresses a strong emotion. (iii) At the end of an indirect question – one that tells what someone asked, without using the person’s exact words. The naughty boy wanted to know why there was no mid-term break. Other uses of the full stop Full stops are also used: (iv) After initials and after most abbreviations L.L. Coo J. Mr. Sammy Njagi 11:00 A.M. Sept. Wed. 2hr. 12min Note that some abbreviations do not require full stops: M (metres) FM (frequency modulation) Km kilometres) (v) After each number or letter that shows a division of an outline or precedes an item in a list. - Parts of speech 1. Water – borne diseases - Nouns 2. Air-borne disease - Types of nouns 3. Sexually – transmitted diseases - Uses of nouns 4. Skin diseases - Verbs 5. Hereditary diseases - Types of verbs 6. Lifestyle diseases - Uses of verbs 7. Infectious diseases (vi) Between numerals representing dollars, cents, before a decimal and in percentages $ 25.65 165.42 25.3% - The question mark (?) The question mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence (a sentence that asks a question). When was the Times Tower built? Who built it? - The Exclamation mark (!) The exclamation mark is used at the end of the exclamatory sentence and after an interjection. (An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emotion or emphasis. An interjection is a word or group of words that expresses strong feelings). Exclamatory sentence: Oh, what a tall building it is! Interjections: Superb! Fantastic! Impressive! An exclamation mark can also be used at the end of an imperative sentence that expresses strong feeling. Sit! And stay in that chair if you know what’s good for you! - The comma (,) There are a number of uses of the comma in English. A comma generally tells the reader where to pause. They are used: (i) To separate words in a series except the last The three or four items in a series can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, independent clauses, or other parts of sentences. Nouns: John, Jim, Jack walk to school every day. Verbs: He located, patched, and sealed the leak in the tyre. Adverbs: She walked quickly, steadily, and calmly. Prepositional phrases: He walked through the park, over the bridge, and onto the streets. Independent clauses: The match was over, the crowd cheered, and Barcelona received the first- place trophy. Adjectives: The fresh, ripe fruit was placed in a bowl. Note in the above examples that a comma must be used just before the conjunction. (ii) Before the conjunction in a compound sentence Some students were taking their lunch, but others were studying. Marto photographed the accident scene, and he sold the pictures to the newspaper. Would she be a lawyer, or would she be a doctor? Note: A comma is not required in very short compound sentence in which the parts are joined by and. However, always use a comma before the conjunctions but and or. Marto photographed the accident scene and Toni reported it. Marto photographed the accident scene, but Toni reported it. Note also: A comma is not required before the conjunction that joins the parts of a compound verb unless there are more than two parts. Mary entered and won the beauty contest. That camera focuses, flashes, and rewinds automatically. (iii) After introductory words phrases or clauses Special elements add specific information to a sentence, but they are not essential. A comma is used to separate a special element from the rest of the sentence. Word: Cautiously, he entered the building. Phrase: After his failure, he disappeared from the public scene. Clause: Because he had practised daily, he presented his new song perfectly. Note: If the pause after a short introductory element is very brief, you may omit the comma. At first he was unsure of his singing ability. Finally it was his turn. Commas are also used after introductory words such as yes, no, oh and well when they begin a sentence. Well, it’s just too cold out there. No, it isn’t seven yet. Oh, you have spilled the milk. (iv) With interrupters Interrupters are words that break, or interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence. The commas are used before and after the interrupter to indicate pauses. I didn’t expect, however, to lose the job. So many people assumed, unfortunately, that he sings as well as he does. He was chosen, nevertheless, as the new band leader. (v) To set off nouns of direct address Yes, Kamau, you can borrow my book. Serah, do you know where I kept my phone? How is your leg, grandpa? (vi) To set off the spoken words in a direct sentence or quotation from the speech tag Jackson said, “After my injury I had to learn to walk again.” “The therapists urged me to keep trying,” he continued. If the speech tag interrupts the spoken words, commas are used after the last word of the first part of the spoken words and after the last word in the speech tag. “After a while,” he added, “I was walking without a cane”. Note: When a sentence is indirect or reported, no commas are used. He added that after a while he was walking without a cane. (vii) When writing dates Place a comma after the day of the month. July 3, 1965 December 12, 2010 (viii) When referring to geographical location Place a comma between the name of the town or city and the name of the state, district, or country. Kibingoti, Kirinyaga County Mombasa, Kenya (ix) After the salutation and closing of a friendly or business letter Dear Rose, Yours sincerely, - The semicolon (;) and the colon (:) The semicolon (;) The semicolon is used: (i) To separate the parts of a compound sentence when no conjunction is used Mountain climbing is exciting; it can also be dangerous. Note that the semicolon replaces the comma and the coordinating conjunction. Conjunctions that are commonly replaced by semicolons are and, but, or, for, and nor. (ii) Before a conjunctive adverb that joins the clauses of a compound sentence (Conjunctive adverbs are words like therefore, however, hence, so, then, moreover, nevertheless, yet, consequently, and besides). The competition takes place in July; however, I prefer August. (iii) To separate the parts of a series when commas occur within the parts Last year I flew to Johannesburg, South Africa; Cairo, Egypt; and Kingston, Jamaica. The colon (:) The colon is used: (i) To introduce a list of items My school bag contains the following items: exercise books, text books, pencils, pens, a geometrical set, and a packet of crayons. (ii) After the greeting of a business letter Dear Mr. Mututho: (iii) Between numerals that represent hours and minutes and between chapter and verse in a biblical reference 9:00 A.M. 6:00 P.M. Exodus 2:1-3 - The Hyphen (-) The hyphen is used: (i) To divide a word at the end of a line of writing When walking along the streets of Naivasha, he met Waina- Note that only words with two or more syllables may be divided at the end of a line and words should be divided only between syllables. Never divide a word of one syllable and do not divide words to leave a single letter at the end or beginning of a line. - In compound adjectives that come before the nouns they modify and in certain compound nouns Samuel Wanjiru was a world–famous athlete. She is my sister–in–law. (iii) In compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine and in fractions seventy–three relatives one–quarter full - The Apostrophe (’) The apostrophe is used: (i) To form the possessive of a singular noun Add an apostrophe and an s. the baby’s cot James’s car Joseph’s radio (ii) To form the possessive of a plural noun that does not end in s Add an apostrophe and an s. children’s men’s women’s (iii) To form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in s Add only the apostrophe. (iv) To form the possessive of an indefinite pronoun Use an apostrophe and an s. everybody’s somebody’s nobody’s Note: Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun like our, yours, hers, theirs. (v) In names of organisations and business Show possession in the last word only. the United Nations’ brochure (vi) In hyphenated terms Show possession in the last word only. My mother-in-law’s photograph album (vii) In cases of joint ownership Show possession in the last word only. Peter and Patrick’s Limousine (viii) In forming contractions In contractions, apostrophes replace omitted letters. she’s = she is aren’t = are not I’m = I am it’s = It is isn’t = is not we’ll = we will can’t = cannot won’t = will not they’ve = they have (ix) To show that part of a date has been omitted The tribal clashes of ’08 (the tribal clashes of 2008) The ’82 coup attempt (the 1982 coup attempt) - Quotation Marks (“ ”) The quotation marks are used: - i) To enclose the spoken words in a direct sentence. Indirect sentences need no quotation marks Direct speech: The presidential candidate promised, “Creating new jobs for the youths will be my first priority.” Indirect speech: The presidential candidate promised that creating new jobs would be his first priority. - Always begin a direct quotation with a capital letter. The minister said, “You must conserve our environment.” - When the spoken words are divided by the speech tag, begin the second part of the quotation with a small letter. “Bring me the money,” said the moneylender, “before the end of the day.” - If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the first word of this sentence is capitalized. “I am scared,” said the borrower. “That moneylender is a brute.” - Place commas and fullstops inside quotation marks Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks. “Last month,” the borrower explained, “I borrowed some money from the moneylender.” Carol said to the borrower, “And you refused to repay back on time”; however, the borrower did not agree. These candidates were suggested in the article “Our Country’s Future”: Raila Odinga, Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, and Martha Karua. - Place question marks and exclamation marks inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation. Place them outside if they do not belong to the quotation. Carol asked, “How much money did you borrow?” Did the borrower say, “I can’t remember”? “You are a fool!” exclaimed Carol. - Use single quotation marks to enclose a title or quotation within a quotation. “Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember’ before she lost her temper.” - If the title or quotation within the quotation ends the sentence, use both the single and the double quotation marks after the last word of a sentence. “Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember.’” - In a quotation of more than one paragraph, use quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and the end of the final paragraph. Punctuate each of the following sentences appropriately. - He earned about three million dollars that year - You know who Jomo Kenyatta was, don’t you - What a wonderful and inspired leader he was - He was also a person who helped many people - Some people write stories but others write poems. - Try to write a concise informative and interesting letter. - Also make sure your letter has a heading an inside address a salutation a body a closing and your signature. - One of the most exciting modern developments I believe is the computer. - Today is July 2 2011. I will never forget this date. - I have lived in Sagana Kirinyaga County since 2008. - Try submitting your work to these Publishers Longhorn Publishers Jomo Kenyatta Foundation or Oxford University Press. - Remember a writing career requires the following traits confidence perseverance and a thick skin! - Long ago people used hand sharpened straws or reeds as pens. - Fountain pens were invented in our great grandparents time - Soft tip pens and rolling ball pens were invented twenty five years ago - What would you do if you couldn’t build a house for yourself - Youd find someone who could built it for you wouldn’t you. - These archives are important to modern historians research. - In his play shreds of tenderness, John Ruganda said people who have never lived through a coup d’etat have romantic ideas about it. - Mr. Mureithi said a short letter to a friend is an insult. ANSWERS FOR ALL CHAPTERS ON GRAMMAR ANSWERS ON NOUNS - students, party - Excitement, air - Joyce Chepkemoi, prize - Otieno, house, street - candle – thing 5. guitar – thing - wrestler – person 6. China – place - joy – idea 7. hatred – idea - Menengai Crater – place 8. Masanduku arap Simiti – person - musicians, drums, trumpets - family, village - Petronilla, trip - festival, Kenyatta University - people, costumes, streets - holiday, excitement - Taxi, family, airport - Maryanne, castle, sand - mother, water Proper nouns Common nouns Kendu Bay crocodiles John Hopkins student East Africa day - Proper – Lucky Dube Common – singer - Proper – London, Paris Common – dancer - Proper – Mediterranean sea Common – flight - Proper – Second World War Common – nurse - Common – goal, students, world - Proper – Europe Common – accident - Proper – Bill Gates, Microsoft - Common – pilot, woman, ocean - Common – kettle, water - Proper – Professor Wangari Maathai, Nobel Peace Prize - tooth – teeth 9. cliffs 17. moose 25. bosses - wives 10. deer 18. children 26. foxes - giraffes 11. cliff 19. echoes 27. bunches - heroes 12. autos 20. babies 28. ferries - radios 13. studios 21. Skies 29. flashes - potatoes 14. men 22. beaches 30. ships - beliefs 15. roofs 23. Eyes - thieves 16. rodeos 24. volcanoes/volcanos - knives 2. potatoes 3. geese 4. Shelves - tomatoes 6. children 7. mice 8. roofs - stories 10. activities - the lion’s tail - Cliff’s dog - my mother’s hat - Evan’s book - the child’s pet - the doll’s name - Lucy’s mobile phone - Kimani’s shoes - the fox’s teeth - my friend’s rabbit - cook’s aprons women’s sports - men’s boots carpenter’s nails - countries’ flags sailors’ uniforms - guests’ coats musicians’ instruments - athlete’s medals neighbours’ pets - The couple’s wealth - a men’s team, a women’s team - The teams’ uniforms - the athletes’ shirts - The team-mates’ scores - their friends’ cheers - The coaches’ whistles - The children’s eyes - Their mothers’ soothing voices - their neighbours’ house ANSWERS ON PRONOUNS - They ate fish and chips. - We like Italian food. - It is delicious - The biggest eater was he. - You helped in the cooking. - The cooks were Tom and I. - They were under the table. - She fed the chicken. - They were juicy. - They visited the orphans. - The new waitress is she. - The fastest runners were Tecla and she. - She went to the hall. - It was slaughtered. - Lucky Dube and she were South African singers. - He has won many athletics medals. - Lisa asked him for a picture. - Adam sketched Lisa and me. - He gave a photo to us. - Ann and she saw Dave and Bob. - Adam drew Lisa and them. - Mark helped me with the packing. - Loise praised him for his good work. - Everyone spotted them - That night Mike played the guitar for - We drove with them to the mountains. - My journey to Mombasa was enjoyable. - Florence said hers was the best. - Are the pictures of Fort Jesus yours? - Hers are about Jomo Kenyatta Beach. - Tomorrow we will make frames for our - My class is planning a trip to Mt. Kenya. - Our trip will be taken on video. - Micere is excited that the idea was - Koki and Toti cannot hide their - My dream is to climb to the highest peak of the mountain. - You will = You’ll - we would = we’d - he had = he’d - I am = I’m - you have = you’ve - they will = they’ll - I’ll = I will - we’re = we are - you’d = you would, you had - he’s = he is, he has - they’re = they are - she’d = she would, she had - its They’re 5 it’s - who’s whose - All – are Everyone – his - Anybody – has Several – their - Many – believe Anyone – her - Each – makes Another – his - All – indicates Somebody – her - This Those 5. these - That those - Who What 5. whom - Whom What - Who whom - Whom Whose - whom Who - Whose Who - Who Whose - myself – intensive - himself – intensive - herself – reflexive - herself – reflexive - yourself – reflexive - Papa Shirandula is a good actor. - Many people find him funny. - The show was on television for many years. - Their daughter is also in that show. - The shoes are beautiful. - People like our hotel. - My brother drives a matatu. - Our hotel is open seven days a week. - The TV is very clear today. - My brother and sister work in Nairobi. - We those 5. us - Those us ANSWERS ON VERBS - seems – Linking verb - watched – Action verb - cheered – Action verb - seems – Linking verb - is – Linking verb - aimed – Action verb - blew – Action verb - was – Linking verb - is – Linking verb - seems – Linking verb Helping verb Main verb - is singing - has begun - can travel - had waited - will be visiting - have come - must buy - has chosen - is hitting 10 will go - will write - will stop - will decide - shall practice - will multiply - started breathed - added roamed - trapped obeyed - annoyed worried - pitied fitted - will/shall see will/shall develop - will/shall go will/shall begin - will/shall exist will/shall/consume - will/shall introduce will/shall hunt - will/shall bring will/shall become - John has come here every year. – present perfect - John has been coming here every year. – present perfect progressive - John had come here every year. – past perfect - John had been coming here every year. – past perfect progressive - John will have come here every year. – future perfect - John will have been coming here every year. – future perfect progressive. - Jane is playing the guitar. – present progressive - Jane has been playing the guitar. – present perfect progressive - Jane was playing the guitar. – past progressive - Jane had been playing the guitar. – past perfect progressive - Jane will play the guitar. – future progressive - Jane will have been playing the guitar. – future perfect progressive - guard cleans - stands study - cross visits - use wed - feed run Present Past Past participle - prevent prevented prevented - donate donated donated - hurry hurried hurried - worry worried worried - train trained trained - aid aided aided - relieve relieved relieved - share shared shared - enrol enrolled enrolled - save saved saved Present Past Past participle - arise arose arisen - tear tore torn - wear wore worn - lay laid lain - see saw seen - fall fell fallen - blow blew blown - freeze froze frozen - fly flew flown - write wrote written - presented – active was harvested – passive - were taken – positive stressed – active - ordered – active were urged – passive - restored – passive is developing – active - cleared – active was started – passive Action verbs direct object - carried his bag - discussed the examination paper - took a trip - splashed me - gave interesting facts - searched the house - cheered the team - bought a camera - admires Papa Shirandula - viewed the shooting star - Transitive Intransitive - Transitive Transitive - Intransitive Intransitive - Transitive Transitive - Intransitive Intransitive - teach raises - lies raises - lie taught - sits raises - taught laid ANSWERS ON ADJECTIVES - largest vast - Alaskan American, wild - tallest huge - tiny Australian - small, scattered beautiful, Egyptian - those Those - Those This - that This - That those - This Those - Twenty What - Few, our Whose - all Which - much what - Numerous, this which - A the - a an - the the - The the - an A - many – songs - Her, early – songs, her – fans - Our, first – performance - Her – coughing - their, best – goal, ten – years - quiet, serious - calm, peaceful - more beautiful 6. stranger - funniest 7. more curious - most enjoyable 8. higher - most energetic 9. more creative - most helpful 10. simpler - Best Farther - Bad Less or lesser - Best Good - Worse Better - Least Most - those these - These those - This This - Those that ANSWERS ON ADVERBS Adverb What it indicates - far where - cheerful how - downstairs where - carefully, skilfully how - extremely how - curiously how - soon when - fully to what extent - adorably how - down where - highly successful - extremely old - quite difficult - barely visible - very old - mysteriously secretive - horribly mean - totally exciting - completely mad - never punctual - very gradually - surprisingly quickly - somewhat closer - extremely irresponsibly - totally carelessly - quickly odd - gradually reasonable - good rapidly - rapidly well - strange well - more often more swiftly - more slowly most accurately - quickly the longest - more skilfully gracefully - the fastest the most sweetly ANSWERS ON PREPOSITIONS - on – where - for – purpose - with – use - in – place - from – place - down, for - in ways - to people - In cities - On farms - across river - to side - at place - by boat - to problem - over water - her us - me me - us him - her me - us her - outside – preposition up – adverb - inside – adverb down – adverb - in – preposition outside – adverb - over – preposition by – adverb - above – preposition out – adverb - have Anybody 7. anybody 10. ever - anyone anywhere 8. anyone - ever had 9. Has ANSWERS ON CONJUNCTIONS - but but - or and - or or - and and - but but - They arrived late because it was raining heavily. - John worked hard as he wanted to buy a house. - I won’t carry the umbrella for you need it. - I drove the car madly since I was late for the meeting. - He will come before the meeting ends. - The vehicles either stopped for repairs or for fuel. - The drivers knew they had either to travel more than fifty kilometres or endure harsh storms. - Many people not only build their own homes but also grow their own food. - Both men and women wanted to buy the pictures. - Both maize and meat are important parts of a Kenyan’s diet. ANSWERS ON INTERJECTIONS - Say – wonderment - Wow! – joy - All right! – urgency - Boy! – fear - Oh – surprise - crack quack - roar pop - tick lap - growl boom - chime hiss - Lima bean – a broad, flat, pale-green or white bean used as a vegetable – named after Lima, the capital of Peru where it was grown first. - Cardigan – a kind of a pullover or sweater that buttons down the front – named after J.T. Brudwell, the 7th Earl of Cardigan. - Bloomer – a woman’s baggy and long garment for the lower body – named after Amelia Bloomer, an American women rights and temperance advocate. - Canary birds – yellow songbirds – named after Canary Islands, Spain, where they are found in large numbers. - Ferris wheel – a special wheel for an amusement park – named after the inventor G.W. Ferris. - Guppy – the most popular freshwater tropical fish – named after R.J.L. Guppy, the man who introduced it in England. - Cheddar – A firm Cheese – named after the English village of Cheddar, where it was first made. - Quisling – a person who treacherously helps to prepare for enemy occupation of his own county, a traitor – named after Vidkum Quisling, a Norwegian politician. - Silhouette – an outline portrait or profile – named after a French minister of finance, Etienne de Silhouette. - Marxism – the political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels – named after Karl Marx. - Guillotine – a device used for carrying out executions – named after Dr. Joseph Guillotine, the designer. - Macadam – small, broken stones that are used for making roads – named after John L. McAdam, a Scottish engineer who invented this kind of a road. - Pasteurisation – the process of heating milk, wine, beer, or other liquids hot enough to kill harmful bacteria and to prevent or stop fermentation – named after Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, who invented the process. - Watt – Unit of measuring electric power – named after James Watt, a Scottish engineer, who pioneered in the development of the steam engine. - Ohm – a measure of electrical resistance – named after George S. Ohm, a German physicist. - slithy – lithe + slimy breathalyser – breath + analyser - chortle – chuckle + short cablegram – cable + telegram - galumph – gallop + triumph camcorder – camera + recorder - bash – bang + smash 9. edutainment – education + entertainment - blog – web + log email – electronic + mail - utra – beyond – ultraviolet, ultrasonic - syn – in union – synchronize, symmetry - sub – at a lower position – submarine, subsoil - peri – round, about – perimeter - out – surpassing, exceeding – outperform - infra – below – infrared, infrastructure - hypo – under – hypodermic, hypothermia - hemi – half – hemisphere - ex – previous – ex-wife, ex-policeman - dia – across, through – diagonal - hopeful – full of hope greenish – having green colour - reader – a person who reads weary – tired - childish – having manners of a child fearless – lacking fear - greyish – having grey colour kindness – the quality of being kind - playful – fond of playing washable – can be washed - Pen – a device for writing – an enclosure for sheep - Tire – to make weary – the rubber material on the wheel of an automobile or bicycle. - Dove – past tense of dive – a bird - Wound – past tense of wind – an injury. - Mean – stingy - Act – a dramatic performance – doing something - Arms – upper limbs - Block – a building - Box – a carton – fight with gloves - Bank – edge of a river - a money depository - in –inn knight – night - heard – herd knows – nose - horse – hoarse tick – tic - key – quay rung – wrung - need – knead sees – seize - start – begin collect – gather - come – arrive assist – help - lengthy – long build – construct - shattered – broken reply – answer - fix – repair purchase – buy - easy – hard sweet – sour - whisper – yell stationary – mobile - triumph – fail strength – weaken - dull – interesting precious – worthless - dangerous – safe naked – clothed - at sea – confused - has his hands full – is busy - have a bone to pick with me – have a quarrel - make heads or tails – make sense - as easy as pie – very easy - sick and tired – can’t stand, hate - broke – to have no money - dropped me a line yesterday – sent me a letter or email - filled in for her – did her work while she was away - in the red – losing money, not profitable - a TV show – object - Playful animals – subject - a thrilling adventure – object - an exciting activity – complement - Twenty university students – subject - a certified public health officer – complement - Many of the soldiers – subject - The old woman – subject, a heavy load – object - a very complicated man – complement - A devastating earthquake – subject - should have taken must have seen - must have seen do fear - should have been told have made - would have told would stampede - must’ve visited could have read - in Mombasa – adverbial modifying the verb found. - around the country – adjectival modifying the noun companies. - of the dog – adjectival modifying the noun barking. - for hard work – adverbial modifying the verb bred. - over water – adverbial modifying the verb built. - of travel – adjectival modifying the noun miles. - by bus – adverbial modifying the verb went. to the market – adverbial modifying the verb went. - At the market – adjectival modifying the noun. - of colours clothes – adjectival modifying the noun display. - with professional expertise – adverbial modifying the phrasal verb took through. - golfing – complement - protecting their status – object of the preposition in. - Playing golf with a commoner – subject - playing the game – direct object - Training thoroughly – subject - playing the game- object of preposition - contesting with junior golfers – subject - playing with the professionals – direct object - Participating in international tournaments – subject - Winning an international title – complement - Defying all odds – present participial phrase – Kisoi Munyao - Failing each time – present participial phrase – he - Seeing his passion to scale the peak – present participial phrase – government - making steady progress – present participial phrase – climber - Pleased with his progress – past participial phrase – he - determined to hast the Kenya flag – past participial phrase – climber - Slipping on the snow – present participial phrase – Munyao - worn from too many climbs – past participial phrase – rope - slipping to the bottom of the cliff- present participial – bottles - overcome with joy – past participial phrase – Munyao - To climb Mt. Kenya –noun - to climb the mountain – noun - to try this risky climb – adjective modifying the noun Kenyans - to make rapid progress – adverb modifying the verb helped - with very limited climbing gear – adverb modifying the verb reach - To reach Point Batian – noun - to listen to Munyao – noun - to finance much of his expedition – adverb modifying the verb forced - to achieve his dream of hasting the flag – adverb modifying the verb worked - to scale the tallest mountain in Kenya – adverb modifying the verb made. - A huge storm was coming. – sentence - Behind the wattle tree- sentence fragment - After the earthquake – sentence fragment - The wind broke several houses. – sentence - Surprised by a loud noise – sentence fragment - Winds of high speed – sentence fragment - Rescue workers arrived. – sentence - From different parts of the world – sentence fragment - Many people were injured. – sentence - In the weeks after the earthquake – sentence fragment - pop music – object - sweetly – adverb - very quietly – adverbial phrase - that book – object, three times – adverbial phrase - to the bank- adverbial phrase - her – indirect object, a present – direct object - bitterly – adverb - on his heels – adverbial phrase - a list of the items to buy – object - help – object - a German citizen – subject complement - a very arrogant lady – subject complement - tired – subject complement - green – object complement - the queen – object complement - stealing the mango – participial complement - senseless – object complement - a kind person – subject complement - crying – participial complement - trembling – participial complement - Simple sentence - Compound sentence - Compound sentence - Complex – whoever broke the mirror – noun clause - Simple sentence - Complex sentence – whom I met – adjectival clause - Complex sentence – who stole the cow – adjectival clause - Simple sentence - Complex sentence – as though it affects their lives – adverbial clause - Complex sentence – when people felt helpless about the world around them – adverbial clause. - Complex sentence – that was designed for skiing – adjectival clause - Simple sentence - Simple sentence - Complex sentence – because my dog loves crusts – adverbial clause - Complex sentence – whenever lazy students whine – adverbial clause - Complex sentence – whom Mrs. Ndegwa hit in the head with pieces of chalk – adjectival clause - Complex sentence – who loves bread crusts – adjectival clause - Complex sentence – that drinks too much milk – adjectival clause - Complex sentence – what Aunt Lucy adds to her stew – noun clause - Compound sentence - Declarative Declarative - Imperative Imperative/conditional - Exclamatory Interrogative - Conditional Interrogative - Interrogative Declarative - Exclamatory Exclamatory - Exclamatory Conditional - Declarative Imperative - Imperative Declarative - Conditional Exclamatory - John said, “There was a terrible accident in Nairobi.” - Petro added, “It happened in Umoja Estate.” - “It involved a train and a bus,” added John. - Sarah asked, “Did anyone die?” - “No one died, but the railway line was destroyed,” answered Peter. - “Over the months,” said John, “the railway line has been rebuilt.” - “How lucky that no one died!” exclaimed Sarah. - “I think they should put a railway-crossing sign board,” Petro said. “It would help bus drivers a lot.” - “Or they should put bumps on both sides of the railway line to slow down the buses,” John suggested. - “Who knows what might happen next?” wondered Sarah. - Joel asked him if he saw the fire at the West Gate Mall. - Njagi said that ten fire-engines had arrived in fifteen minutes. - Patty exclaimed that it had destroyed an entire building. - Joel said that one fire fighter had been slightly injured. - Njagi said that several people working in the building had escaped unhurt. - Patty wanted to know what would happen to them. - Joel replied that other people were giving them food and clothes. - Njagi added that they were resting in the school at that time. - Patty exclaimed that those terrorists would finish them. - Joel told them not to worry; they would be apprehended the following day. Supply the appropriate question tags in the following sentences. - The marriage caused a rupture in her relationship with her mother, didn’t it? - She didn’t think anyone would be interested in a woman like her, did she? - The troops are on standby in case chaos erupts, aren’t they? - The Prime Minister must take a firm stand against extremists in his party, mustn’t he? - I am the best so far, am I not? - The amendments will strengthen the bill, won’t they? - The new tax is tantamount to stealing from the poor, isn’t it? - Please send all your remarks to Prof Kibwana as soon as possible, will you? - She raised the gun and pulled the trigger, didn’t she? - We need to learn to prioritize, don’t we? - Get out of this room now, will you? - We’ve made a reservation for next week, haven’t we? - They couldn’t conceal the secret any more, could they? - We shall not accept anything less, shall we? - I am not a conman, am I? - Jonny wanted to pursue a career in theatre, didn’t he? - Sharon’s parents claim that the house is legally theirs, don’t they? - I haven’t told you my name, have I? - Come and visit us tomorrow, will you? - Time will tell whether he made the right choice, won’t it? - This play is a revision of Shakespeare’s earlier play, The Merchant of Venice. - John Kiriamiti wrote My life in Crime. - I admire women who vie for parliamentary seats. - Bernard Mathenge and his wife travelled to America. - My grandmother grew up in Witemere. - The Nile River is one of the largest rivers in Africa. - Each year tourists visit Maasai Mara National Park. - The TV show Papa Shirandula has attracted many viewers. - Uganda and Kenya have signed an agreement over the ownership of Migingo Islands. - Our country got independence in December, 1963. - On Christmas Day, all my relatives gathered at my home. - Waiyaki is a fictional character in Ngugi wa Thiongo’s novel, The River Between. - The city of Mombasa gets its water from River Tana. - I would like to become a famous writer like Sidney Sheldon. - They captured the stark beauty of Hell’s Gate National Park in their movie. - He earned about three million dollars that year. - You know who Jomo Kenyatta was, don’t you? - What a wonderful and inspired leader he was! - He was also a person who helped many people. - Some people write stories, but other write poems. - Try to write a concise, informative, and interesting letter. - Also make sure that your letter has a heading, an inside address, a salutation, a body, a closing, and your signature. - One of the most exciting modern developments, I believe, is the computer. - Today is July 2, 2011. I will never forget this date. - I have lived in Sagana, Kirinyaga County, since 2008 - Try submitting your work to the following publishers: Longhorn Publishers, Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, or Oxford University Press. - Remember, a writing career requires the following traits: confidence, perseverance, and a thick skin! - Long ago, people used hand–sharpened straws and reeds as pens. - Fountain pens were invented in our great–grandparents’ time. - Soft-tip pens and rolling-ball pens were invented twenty-five years ago. - What would you do if you couldn’t build a house for yourself? - You’d find someone who could build it for you, wouldn’t you? - These archives are important to modern historians’ research. - In his play Shreds of Tenderness, John Ruganda said, “People who have never lived through a coup d’etat have romantic ideas about it.” - Mureithi said, “A short letter to a friend is an insult.” SECTION A: PRONUNCIATION - PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS In English, we have various vowel sounds. We shall study them one after the other. Consider the letter ‘a’ in the words below. Each says this sound. Pan Fan Ban Brash Cat Pat Dad Ham Mat Rash Track Cram Fanned Flash Pack Rag Sand Slam Tag Man - This sound is more like the sound you make when you are disgusted. - The letters in boldface say this sound. Study them carefully. - It is pronounced by having a much wider open mouth position. - Inside your mouth is shown in the process of saying this sound. - Examples of words bearing this sound include: - This sound (referred to as schwa) is a short vowel sound. - It mostly found in words containing letter ‘o’, for example, - Also in words such as: Examples of words containing this sound include: - It is a long sound. - The mouth doesn’t move while saying this sound, and it can be pronounced as long as you have breath. - It is said in words such as: - It is a short sound. - The mouth doesn’t move. - Each of the words below bear this sound: - Long sound - Said in words such as the ones below: - Tweet etc. It is a short sound. In words such as: - Blip etc. The table below has columns with different sounds. Pronounce each of the words in the list and classify, according to the highlighted letter(s), under the column that bears that sound. - PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS The sound /ᵗᶴ/ - Made by releasing the stopped air through your teeth by the `tip of your tongue. - It is voiceless because vocal cords do not vibrate when you say it. - Most words with letters ‘CH’ say this sound, for example, - There are those with letters ‘TCH’ for example, - Some are with letters ‘TU’, for example, The Sound /ᵈᶾ/ - Pronounced the same way as /ᵗᶴ/. It is just that it is voiced. - Letters representing this sound include: - Letters ‘DG’ - Letter ‘J’ - Letters ‘DU’ - When letter ‘G represents the sound It does that when it is in front of an ‘e’, ‘i’, or ‘y’ - Letters ‘GE’, for example, - Letters ‘GI’, for example, - Letters ‘GY’, for example, The Sound /f/ - The sound is unvoiced or voiceless. - Air is stopped by pushing the bottom lip and top teeth together. The air is then pushed through to produce this sound. - The /f/ sound has the following letters saying it: - Letter ‘F’ - Letters ‘PH’ - Letters ‘GH’ The Sound /v/ - The same mouth shape as /f/ is formed when pronouncing the sound /v/. - It is voiced. - Your top teeth is put on your bottom lip. - Words bearing this sound include: The Sound /d/ - /d/ is voiced. The vocal cords vibrate. - The low of air is stopped at the front of the mouth by tongue. - Practice speaking the words below: - To make this sound, your tongue stops the flow of air at the front of your mouth. - It is a voiceless/unvoiced sound. - It said in words like: The sound /k/ There are various letters that say the sound /k/. let’s study these letters. - Letter ‘K’ always say this sound. Examples of words include: - Letter ‘C’, for example, - Colic etc. - Letters ‘CK’ for example - Back etc. - Letter ‘Q’ for example, - Letters ‘CH’, for example, The Sound /g/ Found in words such as: The Sound /ᶴ/ - This sound is unvoiced – only air passes through the mouth when said. - The teeth are put together and the corners of the lips are brought together towards the middle. - Most words with letters ‘sh’ this sound. For example, - There are words with letters ‘CH’ that say this sound, for example, - Some words with ‘SU’ also say it, for example, - There are yet those with letters ‘TIO’, for example, - Then there are those with letters ‘SIO’, for example, - Pronounced with your tongue between your teeth. - It is unvoiced. - The words bearing this sound include: - Unlike /ᶿ/, it is voiced. - It also pronounced with tongue touching or between your teeth. - It is found in such words as: - This is a hissing sound like a snake. - It is voiceless. - The few rules for some of the common spellings that say the sound /s/ are: - Letter ‘S’, for example, - Letter ‘SC’, for example, - Letter ‘X’, for example, - Letter ‘C’, for example, - The /z/ is like the sound of buzzing bees. - It is voiced. - Most words with the letter ‘Z’ say /z/, for example, - There are those words with letter ‘S’ saying this sound, for example, - The other group of words are those with letter ‘X’, for example, - Words bearing this sound are borrowed from French. - Pronounced in the same way as /ᶴ/ only that is voiced. - The examples of words with this sound are: Practice in sentences - Measure the beige door on the garage. - It was my decision to fly to Asia to seek treasure. - Raise the back of your tongue to slightly touch the back teeth on both sides of your mouth. The centre part of the tongue remains lower to allow air to move over it. - It is voiced. - It is found in words with letter ‘R’ e.g. - It is also said in words with letters ‘WR’ e.g. - Your lips form a small, tight circle when making the sound /w/. - Letters representing the /w/ sound are: - Letter ‘W’ - Letters WH - Letters ‘QU’ - Made by pressing the lips lightly. - The words that follow contain the sound: Read the sentence below pronouncing each word correctly and then group the words in their appropriate columns. Consider the highlighted letters. The seven students took the first test for their driver’s licences on Thursday. Considering the pronunciation of highlighted letters, pick the odd word out. - Judge, gesture, garage - Jump, gift, geological - Fungi, just, go - Digit, game, gamble - Hygiene, prodigy, entangle - Gecko, gem, zoology Pronounce each word correctly and then group it under the column containing the sound that the highlighted letter(s) bear. Circle the letter(s) that say /f/ and underline those saying /v/ in the sentences below. - Please forgive me for forgetting the leftover food. - Save the four wolves that live in the cave. - A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds. - Some of the diphthongs include: In words like; Said in words such as: The words containing this diphthong are: - Change etc. Write another word pronounced the same way as: - MINIMAL PAIRS Study the pairs of words below carefully. Fit – feet Let – late Van – fan Pun – pan - What do you notice? You realize that only one sound makes the pronunciation of one word distinct from the other. Each pair is called a minimal pair. - A minimal pair is therefore a pair of words that vary by only one sound especially those that usually confuse learners, such as /l/ and /r/, /b/ and /p/, and many others. Minimal Pairs of Vowel Sounds Sound /i/ and /i:/ - Bid – bead - Bit – beat - Bitch – beach - Bin – bean/ been - Chip – cheap - Fit – feat/ feet - Fist – feast - Fizz – fees - Gin – gene - Sin – seen/ scene - Still – steal/ steel - Sick – seek - Is – ease - Itch – each - Risen – reason - Piss – piece/ peace - Pick – peak/ peek - Mill – meal Write another word in which either sound /i/ and /i:/ will make it vary from the one given. Sounds /i/ and /e/ - Did – dead - Disk – desk - Built – belt - Bit – bet - Lipped – leapt - Middle – meddle - Fill – fell - Bid – bed - Bill – bell - Lit – let - List – lest - Clinch – clench Complete the table below with a word in which either the sound /e/ or /i/ brings the difference in pronunciation. Sounds /e/ and /ei/ The following words vary by one having the vowel sound /e/ and the other a diphthong /ei/ - Wet – wait - Bread – braid - Fen – feign - Bed – bade - Get – gate/ gait - Let – late - Met – mate - Lest – laced - Tech – take - West – waste/ waist - When – wane - Edge – age - Gel – jail - Lens – lanes - Breast – braced - Sent – saint - Test – taste - Best – based - Wren – rain/ reign - Led – laid - Bled – blade - Fed – fade Each word below has another word in which either the sound /e/ or /ei/ will bring the distinction in pronunciation. Write that word. Sounds /ᵆ/ and /ᶺ/ - Batter – butter - Cap – cup - Cat – cut - Back – buck - Brash – brush - Dabble – double - Rang – rung - Track – truck - Bad – bud - Began – begun - Bag – bug - Pan – pun - Drank – drunk - Fan – fun - Hat – hut - Badge – budge - Hang – hung - Massed – must - Rash – rush - Sank – sunk - Ran – run - Swam – swum - Ban – bun - Ham – hum Complete the table below with the minimal pair of the word. Consider the sound indicated in each column. Sounds /ᵆ/ and /e/ Look at the list below. - Bad – bed - And – end - Had – head - Jam – gem - Pat – pet - Sat – set - Shall – shell - Man –men - Bag – beg - Ham – hem - Pan – pen - Sad – said - Manned – mend - Land – lend Complete the table with appropriate word that vary with the sound indicated in the column. Minimal Pairs of /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/ - fast – first - bath – berth/birth - heart – hurt - bard – bird - car – cur - card – curd - guard – gird - pa – per - bar – bur - barn – burn - carve – curve - dart – dirt - par – purr - park – perk - star – stir - arc – irk Considering the sounds /ɑ˸/ and /ᵌ˸/, write the minimal pair of: Minimal Pairs of /b/ and /v/ - bat – vat - beer – veer - bowl – vole - bow – vow - gibbon – given - bale – veil - bane – vein - curb – curve - bolt – volt - bowl – vole - broom – vroom - dribble – drivel - dub – dove - jibe – jive - rebel – revel There is another word that will vary with the one written below with just one sound. Depending on the sounds /b/ and /v/, write that word. Minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/ - Fan – van - Off – of - Fat – vat - Fee – v - Foul – vowel - Fender – vendor - Serf/Surf – serve - Duff – dove - Fie – vie - Foal – vole - Guff – guv - Waif – waive - Gif – give - Life – live - Safe – save - Belief – believe - Feel – veal - Staff – starve - Feign – vain/ vein - Foist – voiced - Fox – vox - Reef – reeve Write the minimal pair of the word below with consideration being either the sound /f/ or /v/. Minimal Pairs of Sounds/s/ and /ᶿ/ - Mouse – mouth - Sing – thing - Face – faith - Force – fourth - Sick – thick - Sink – think - Sort – thought - Tense – tenth - Mass – math - Miss – myth - Pass – path - Saw – thaw - Seem – theme - Some – thumb - Song – thong - Worse – worth - Gross – growth - Sigh – thigh - Sin – thin - Sum – thumb - Piss – pith - Sawn – thorn - Symbol – thimble - Sore – thaw - Truce – truth - Suds – thuds - Sought – thought - Moss – moth - Sank – thank - Sump – thump Sounds /t/ and /d/ - Town – down - Touch – Dutch - Tear – dare - Ten – den - Tongue – dung - Tart – dart - Tech – deck - Tin – din - Toe – doe - Tough – duff - Tuck – duck - Tab – dab - Tank – dank - Tick – dick - Tine – dine - Hat – had - Spent – spend - Too/ to/two – do - Train – drain - Tide – dyed/died - Torn – dawn - Teal – deal - Teen – dean - Tyre/tire – dire - Toes – doze - Tout – doubt - Tug – dug - Tale/ tail – dale - Teed – deed - Tier – deer - Tint – dint - Sheet – she’d - Wait – weighed - Tie – die - Try – dry - Tear – dear - Tip – dip - Tame – dame - Team – deem - Tent – dent - Toast – dosed - Tomb – doom - Tower – dour - Tux – ducks - Tamp – damp - Tell – dell - Till – dill - Tusk – dusk - Sight – side - Beat – bead Each word below has another word in which all the sounds are the same except either the sound /t/ or /d/ is different. Write that word. Minimal Pairs of /k/ and /g/ - Came – game - Card – guard - Cold – gold - Clean – glean - Crate – great - Cap – gap - Coast – ghost - Kale – gale - Can – gone - Course – gorse - Cram – gram - Crepe – grape - Crew – grew - Croup – group - Crow – grow - Key – ghee - K – gay - Clamour – glamour - Clad – glad - Crane – grain - Creed – greed - Krill – grill - Cunning – gunning - Cab – gab - Cape – gape - Clam – glam - Cord – gored - Coup – goo - Crate – grate - Cuff – guff - Clock – clog - Dock – dog - Frock – frog - Muck – mug - Brick – brig - Broke – brogue - Crack – crag - Prick – prig - Puck – pug - Shack – shag - Slack – slag - Snuck – snug - Stack – stag - Whack – wag - Wick – wig - Jock – jog - Lack – lag - Luck – lug - Beck – beg - Cock – cog - Hack – hag - Pick – pig Complete the table with appropriate word that only differs with one sound with the one given. Consider the sounds in the columns. Words pronounced the same way but have different spellings and meanings are the homophones. The list below is English homophones. - Accessary accessory - Ad, add - Ail, ale - Air, heir - Aisle, I’ll, isle - All, awl - Allowed, aloud - Alms, arms - Altar, alter - Ante, anti - Arc, ark - Aural, oral - Away, aweigh - Awe, oar, or, ore - Axel, axle - Aye, eye, I - Bail, bale - Bait, bate - Baize, bays - Bald, bawled - Ball, bawl - Band, banned - Bard, barred - Bare, bear - Bark, barque - Baron, barren - Base, bass - Bay, bey - Bazaar, bizarre - Be, bee - Beach, beech - Bean, been - Beat, beet - Beau, bow - Beer, bier - Bell, belle - Berry, bury - Berth, birth - Bight, bite, byte - Billed, build - Bitten, bittern - Blew, blue - Bloc, block - Boar, bore - Board, bored - Boarder, border - Bold, bawled - Boos, booze - Born, borne - Bough, bow - Boy, buoy - Brae, bray - Braid, brayed - Braise, brays, braze - Brake, break - Bread, bred - Brews, bruise - Bridal, bridle - Broach, brooch - Bur, burr - But, butt - Buy, by, bye - Buyer, byre - Call, caul - Canvas, canvass - Cast, caste - Caster, castor - Caught, court - Caw, core, corps - Cede, seed - Ceiling, sealing - Censer, censor, sensor - Cent, scent, sent - Cereal, serial - Cheap, cheep - Check, cheque - Choir, quire - Chord, cord - Cite, sight, site - Clack, claque - Clew, clue - Climb, clime - Close, cloze - Coarse, course - Coign, coin - Colonel, kernel - Complacent, complaisant - Complement, compliment - Coo, coup - Cops, copse - Council, counsel - Cousin, cozen - Creak, creek - Crews, cruise - Cue, queue - Curb, kerb - Currant, current - Cymbal, symbol - Dam, damn - Days, daze - Dear, deer - Descent, dissent - Desert, dessert - Deviser, divisor - Dew, due - Die, dye - Discreet, discrete - Doe, dough - Done, dun - Douse, dowse - Draft, draught - Dual, duel - Earn, urn - Ewe, yew, you - Faint, feint - Fair, fare - Farther, father - Fate, fete - Faun, fawn - Fay, fey - Faze, phase - Feat, feet - Ferrule, ferule - Few, phew - File, phial - Find, fined - Fir, fur - Flair, flare - Flaw, floor - Flea, flee - Flex, flecks - Flew, flu, flue - Floe, flow - Flour, flower - Foaled, fold - For, fore, four - Foreword, forward - Fort, fought - Forth, fourth - Foul, fowl - Franc, frank - Freeze, frieze - Friar, fryer - Furs, furze - Gait, gate - Gamble, gambol - Gays, gaze - Genes, jeans - Gild, guild - Gilt, guilt - Gnaw, nor - Gneiss, nice - Gorilla, guerrilla - Grate, great - Greave, grieve - Greys, graze - Groan, grown - Guessed, guest - Hail, hale - Hair, hare - Hall, haul - Hangar, hanger - Hart, heart - Haw, hoar, whore - Hay, hey - Heal, heel, he’ll - Hear, here - Heard, herd - He’d, heed - Heroin, heroine - Hew, hue - Hi, high - Higher, hire - Him, hymn - Ho, hoe - Hoard, horde - Hoarse, horse - Holey, holy, wholly - Hour, our - Idle, idol - In, inn - Indict, indite - It’s, its - Jewel, joule - Key, quay - Knave, nave - Knead, need - Knew, new - Knight, night - Knit, nit - Knob, nob - Knock, nock - Knot, not - Know, no - Knows, nose - Laager, lager - Lac, lack - Lade, laid - Lain, lane - Lam, lamb - Laps, lapse - Larva, lava - Lase, laze - Law, lore - Lay, ley - Lea, lee - Leach, leech - Lead, led - Leak, leek - Lean, lien - Lessen, lesson - Levee, levy - Liar, lyre - Licker, liquor - Lie, lye - Lieu, loo - Links, lynx - Lo, low - Load, lode - Loan, lone - Locks, lox - Loop, loupe - Loot, lute - Made, maid - Mail, male - Main, mane - Maize, maze - Mall, maul - Manna, manner - Mantel, mantle - Mare, mayor - Mark, marque - Marshal, martial - Mask, masque - Maw, more - Me, mi - Mean, mien - Meat, meet, mete - Medal, meddle - Metal, mettle - Meter, metre - Might, mite - Miner, minor - Mind, mined - Missed, mist - Moat, mote - Mode, mowed - Moor, more - Moose, mousse - Morning, mourning - Muscle, mussel - Naval, navel - Nay, neigh - None, nun - Od, odd - Ode, owed - Oh, owe - One, won - Packed, pact - Pail, pale - Pain, pane - Pair, pare, pear - Palate, palette, pallet - Paten, pattern, - Pause, paws, pores, pours - Pawn, porn - Pea, pee - Peace, piece - Peak, peek - Peal, peel - Pearl, purl - Pedal, peddle - Peer, pier - Pi, pie - Place, plaice - Plain, plane - Pleas, please - Plum, plumb - Pole, poll - Practice, practise - Praise, prays, preys - Principal, principle - Profit, prophet - Quarts, quartz - Quean, queen - Rain, reign, rein - Raise, rays, raze - Rap, wrap - Raw, roar - Read, reed - Read, red - Real, reel - Reek, wreak - Rest, wrest - Retch, wretch - Review, revue - Rheum, room - Right, rite, write - Ring, wring - Road, rode - Roe, row - Role, roll - Roux, rue - Rood, rude - Root, route - Rose, rows - Rota, rotor - Rote, wrote - Rough, ruff - Rouse, rows - Rung, wrung - Rye, wry - Saver, savour - Spade, spayed - Sale, sail - Sane, seine - Satire, satyr - Sauce, source - Saw, soar, sore - Scene, seen - Scull, skull - Sea, see - Seam, seem - Sear, seer, sere - Seas, sees, seize - Sew, so, sow - Shake, sheikh - Shear, sheer - Shoe, shoo - Sic, sick - Side, sighed - Sign, sine - Sink, synch - Slay, sleigh - Sloe, slow - Sole, soul - Some, sum - Son, sun - Sort, sought - Spa, spar - Staid, stayed - Stair, stare - Stake, stoak - Stalk, stork - Stationary, stationery - Steal, steel - Stile, style - Storey, story - Straight, strait - Sweat, sweet - Swat, swot - Tacks, tax - Tale, tail - Talk, torque - Tare, tear - Taught, taut, tort - Tea, tee - Team, teem - Teas, tease - Tare, tear - Tern, turn - There, their, they’re - Throw, through - Throes, throws - Throne, thrown - Thyme, time - Tic, tick - Tide, tied - Tire, tyre - To, too, two - Toad, toed, towed - Told, tolled - Tole, toll - Ton, tun - Tor, tore - Tough, tuff - Troop, troupe - Tuba, tuber - Vain, vane, vein - Vale, veil - Vial, vile - Wail, wale, whale - Wain, wane - Waist, waste - Waive, wave - Wall, waul - War, wore - Warn, worn - Wart, wort - Watt, what - Wax, whacks - Way, weigh - We, wee - Weak, week - We’d, weed - Weal, we’ll, wheel - Weather, whether - Weir, we’re - Were, whirr - Wet, whet - Weald, wheeled - Which, witch - Whig, wig - While, wile - Whine, wine - Whirl, whorl - Whirled, world - Whit, wit - White, wight - Who’s, whose - Wood, would - Yaw, yore, your, you’re - Yoke, yolk - You’ll, yule Write two words pronounced the same way as each of the following words. - SILENT LETTERS In English there are letters that are usually not pronounced in certain words. Let us have a look at these letters and words in which they are silent. Identify the silent letter(s) in: Not all syllables in a word are given equal emphasis. By the same token, not all words in a sentence are said with equal length. The relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or certain words in a sentence is what we refer to as stress. You say a syllable or a word is stressed when it is said louder or longer than the rest. Stress is studied in two levels: - Word level; and - Sentence level. Stress at the Word Level A part of a certain word when said louder or longer then it is stressed. Rules of Word Stress - For two-syllable nouns and adjectives, stress the first, for example Cloudy carton table - For verbs with two syllables and prepositions, emphasize the second syllable, for example - Words with three syllables. - Those ending in –er, -ly, emphasis put on the first syllable, for example, - Stress the first, for those ending in consonants and in –y, for example, - Stress the last syllable if the word ends in –ee, -ese, -eer, -ique, -ette, for example, - Look at the ones with the suffixes below, where stress is placed on the second, Cial: judicial, commercial -cian: musician, clinician -tal : capital, recital Stress is important in studying the heteronyms. A pair, or group of words is referred to as heteronym when those words are spelled the same way but have different pronunciation and meaning. We have two main categories of heteronyms: - Noun- verb pairs; and - Verb -and-adjective pairs. We stress the first syllable if noun and the second if verb. Examples of noun-and-verb pairs are included in the table below: - Many factories produce the produce we import. - Allan became a convert after deciding to convert to Christianity. Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence. Most sentences have two basic word types: - Content words which are the key words carrying the sense or meaning- message. - Structure words which just make the sentence grammatically correct. They give the sentence its structure. Look at the sentence below: Buy milk feeling tired. Though the sentence is incomplete, you will probably understand the message in it. The four words are the content words. Verbs, nouns, adjectives, are content words. You can add words to the sentence to have something like: Will you buy me milk since I am feeling tired? The words: will, you, me, since, I, are just meant to make the sentence correct grammatically. They can also be stressed to bring the intended meaning. Now let’s study the sentence below: Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt. Each word in the sentence can be stressed to bring the meaning as illustrated in the table. \|Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.\|\|She doesn’t think that, but someone else does.\| \|Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.\|\|It is not true that Joan thinks that.\| \|Joan doesn’t thinkAkinyi stole my green skirt.\|\|Joan doesn’t think that, she knows that.\| \|Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.\|\|Not Akinyi, but someone else. Probably Njuguna or Adhiambo.\| \|Joan doesn’t think Akinyistole my green skirt.\|\|Joan thinks Akinyi did something to the green skirt, may be washed it.\| \|Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.\|\|Joan thinks Akinyi stole someone else’s green skirt, but not mine.\| \|Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.\|\|She thinks Akinyi stole my red skirt which is also missing.\| \|Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.\|\|Joan thinks Akinyi stole my green shirt. She mispronounced the word.\| - The words that follow can be nouns or verbs dependingon the stressed syllable. Use each as both the verb and noun in a single sentence. - Underline the part of the word in boldface you will stress in each of the following sentences. - The boy has been asked to sert the de.sert. - My handsome cortwilles.cort me to the dance. - After updating my sume, I will re.sume my job search. - They have to testin the annual Math con.test. - If you vict me, I will remain a con.vict for 5 years. Each word in the sentences below can be stressed to bring the meaning. What will be the meaning when each word is stressed? - I love your sister’s handwriting. - You came late today. - It is the rise and fall of voice in speaking. - Intonation is crucial for communication. - In English there are basically two kinds of intonation: rising and - We can use arrows to show the intonation – whether rising or falling. ↘ represents falling intonation while ↗ represents the rising one. - Falling intonation is when we lower our voice at the end of a sentence. - This usually happens in: - Statements, for example, - I like↘ - It is nice working with ↘ - She travelled to↘ - W/H Questions - What is your ↘name? - Where do you ↘live? - How old are↘ you? - Who is this young↘ man? - Get out ↘ - Give me the ↘ - Close your ↘ - Exclamatory sentences e.g. - What a wonderful ↘present! - How ↘nice of you - When we lower our voice. - Used in: - General Questionsg. Do you visit them↗ often? Have you seen ↗her? Are you ready to ↗start? Could you give me a↗ pen, please? - Alternative questionsg. Do you want ↗coffee or ↘tea? Does he speak↗ Kiswahili or ↘English? - Before tag questionsg. This is a beautiful ↘place, ↗isn’t it? She knows↘ him,↗ doesn’t she? ↗One, ↗two,↗ three, ↗four,↘ five. She bought ↗bread, ↗cheese, ↗oranges, and ↘apples. Using an arrow, determine whether rising or falling intonation is used in the sentences. - This music sounds good. - I love watching horror movies. - My sister’s name is Amina. - Blue is my favourite colour. - Is that tv good? - Do you like that movie? - Are you hungry? - Get me my shoes. - Study your lessons now. - Are you insane? - How many more hours before you are done with your work? - Which novel is the best for you? - He is a little bit nervous, isn’t he? - You should listen to your parents’ advice. - Did you finish your homework? - Water is good for the body. - This is good! - What a crazy show. SECTION B: MASTERY OF CONTENT - A formal contest of argumentation between two sides is what debate is. - Debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, and tolerance for divergent points of view. - There are two sides in the debate: the proposition and the - These two teams are presented with a resolution, such as, ‘Girls and Boys Should play in a mixed football team.’ - The teams are given enough preparation time. - The team affirming the resolution speaks first. - The opposing team then must refute the arguments offered by the affirming team and offer arguments rejecting the resolution. - Both sides are given the opportunity to present their positions and to directly question the other team. - Neutral judge (s) then evaluate the persuasiveness of the arguments and offer constructive feedback. This is the time you have from when the motion is announced to the beginning of the debate. During this time: - Research on the motion to get facts. The facts can be got from the teachers, other students, etc. - Write notes on the facts. You can once in a while look at them during your presentation. - Practice how to speak. Do it in front of friends and relatives, as well as in front of a mirror. - If anxious, do some physical exercise. You can also take a deep breath just before your presentation. - Dress decently. Here are the points that will help you be successful during your points delivery: - Deliver your points in a confident and persuasive way. - Vary your tone to make you sound interesting. Listening to one tone is boring. - Speak quite loudly to be comfortably heard by everyone in the room. Shouting does not win debates. - Make eye contact with your audience, but keep shifting your gaze. Don’t stare at one person. - Concisely and clearly express your points to be understood by your audience members. - Provide a proof for each point you put across. If you don’t you will not earn a point. - Speak slowly and enunciate your words. When you slow down your speech, you give your audience and the judge more time to process your strong points. - Use gestures to elaborate on your points. - Pause to divide your major points. - Only supportive and argumentative heckling is permitted. - Heckling is a brief phrase (about two words) or other non- verbal actions that are directed to the judge of the debate. - They are reminder to the judge to pay close attention to the message immediately expressed by the speaker. - There are two types of heckles: - Those that are non-verbal, such as, - Rapping the knuckles on the desktop. - Rapping the palm on the desk. - Stamping the feet They are meant to encourage the judge to heed a particularly strong point being made by the speaker. - Those that are verbal, such as, - Point of information They are said after standing up by one member of the opposing side. These are meant to alert the judge to a problem in the opposing side’s argument. After you deliver your points during the debate, everyone claps for you. How could you have delivered your points to earn their heckling? Have you ever attended the formal meetings where you are asked questions and are expected to respond to them? More than once you will be invited to attend interviews. You can also invite someone to interview. For this reason, you should some interview tips. The two participants in an interview are the interviewer (at times a panel of interviewers), and the interviewee. Tips for the Interviewees Job Interview Preparations If you really want to be considered for a particular job following an interview, you have to adequately prepare to succeed. The following are the preparations the interviewee would put in place before the interview: - Contact your referees to alert them that you will be interviewed and they are likely to receive a call. - Prepare your documents. Make sure they are neat and well arranged. - Know the location where you are having the interview. It will help you know how long it will take you to reach there. - Do some research about the organization. - Prepare what to wear and how to groom. - Anticipate potential questions and prepare answers correctly. - Arrive early enough for the interview. - Prepare questions to ask the interviewer at the end. It will show how much you are interested in working there. During the Interview; - Greet the interviewer. - Knock on the door and wait for response before you enter. Shut the door behind you quietly. - Wait until you are offered the seat before sitting. - Sit or stand upright and look alert throughout. - Make good eye contact with the interviewer to show you are honest. - Explain your answers whenever possible and avoid answering questions with yes/no as answers. - Answer questions honestly. Don’t ever lie! Common Blunders you MUST Avoid Avoid falling foul of the following: - Turning up late for the interview. - Dressing and grooming inappropriately. - Giving simple yes/no as answers. - Speaking negatively about your previous employer. - Sitting before invited. - Discussing time-off or money. As an Interviewer Before the Interview: - Write down questions to ask. - Call the prospective employee’s referees. - Prepare the place for the interview. - Alert the interviewee about the interview. Mention the time and place. - Arrive early for the interview. During the Interview: - Allow them enough time to respond to questions. - Encourage them to speak by, for example, nodding your head when they answer questions. - Speak and ask questions politely. Be friendly but formal as much as you can. - Make eye contact with the interviewee to show you are listening to them. You are the secretary of journalism Club at Maembe Dodo Mixed School. On Friday you would like to interview your school Deputy Principal on the issue of Students’ Discipline. - Write down any three questions you would ask him/her. - Other than writing down questions to ask, how else would you prepare for this day? - State four things you would do as you interview him. Read the conversation below and then answer questions after it. Ms Naomi: Welcome to our Doctor’s office. Mr. Josh: Nice to be here. Ms Naomi: I see from your resume that you are a cardiologist with 10 years of practice. Mr. Josh: That’s right. Ms Naomi: This interview is just to get to know you a little and then there are follow up interviews. So what do you do in your free time? Mr. Josh: I like golfing and swimming. I also like to read newspapers. Ms Naomi: Why did you want to be a doctor? Mr. Josh: Actually I love helping people get well. I think cardiology has made great strides recently and I would like to share my findings with others. Ms Naomi: Have you written in any scientific journals so far? Mr. Josh: Not yet. But hopefully soon. Ms Naomi: OK, we’d like to learn more about you. Let’s go for lunch with our colleagues, if that’s OK. Mr. Josh: That’s fine, I am free. - What two things qualify Ms Naomi as a good interviewer? - Identify two evidences of interview tips displayed by Mr. Josh. Have you ever stood in front of a big group of people to present your talk? Well here we shall learn how to prepare your speech and deliver it effectively. Preparation for Speech Delivery There are steps any speaker should follow in preparation for presentation of speech. They include: - Doing some research on the topic to present. Get the facts about the topic. If you do enough research, your confidence level will be boosted. - Practice in front of a group of friends or relatives. This can also be done in front of a mirror, or videotaping your rehearsals. You will be able to correct your gestures, postures etc. - Write down the points about the topic on a note pad. You can refer to them when giving the speech. - Plan on how to groom and dress decently. You should appear presentable to feel confident. Grabbing and Keeping Audience Attention Your opening determines how long your audience will listen to your presentation. If they are bored from the beginning; the chance that your message will effectively get across is very little. The most commonly used methods are: - Asking a question. The question should make them think about the topic. For example, ‘How many of you would like to be millionaires?’ - Stating an impressive fact connected to the topic of your presentation. For example: ‘About 30% of Kenyans are millionaires.’ - Telling a story closely connected to the topic. It should neither be too long nor intended to try to glorify the speaker. For example: “Dear audience, before I begin I would like to tell you a short story about Maina Wa Kamau became a millionaire. Don’t worry, it’s not too long. …..” Other methods of beginning a speech are: - Using humour - Starting with a quote that ties with your topic. - Using sound effect. Presentation of Speech There are various techniques of delivering speech. They are what will ensure understanding of your message. Some of these techniques include: - Use gestures effectively to reinforce the words and ideas you are trying to communicate to your audience. For example, when talking about love, you can use your hands to form a cup shape to indicate how tiny something is. - Make eye contact with your audience members to study their reactions to you. If you sense boredom, you need to improve and if you sense enthusiasm, it will help pump you up. - Use movements to establish contact with your audience. Getting closer to them physically increases their attention and interest, as well as encouraging response if you are asking questions. - Your posture should be upright. The way you conduct yourself on the platform will indicate you are relaxed and in control. Do not lean or slouch. - Wear appropriate facial expressions to show feelings and emotions. Smile to show happiness, for example. - Speak loud enough to be heard by all your audience members. - Pronounce the words correctly and speak clearly for your message to be understood. - Pause at key points to let the message sink. Almost all speakers are nervous. Even the most experienced do. Fear of addressing a group is not wrong, but how we deal with it is what is possibly not good enough. Those speakers who seem relaxed and confident have learnt how to handle anxiety. Symptoms of Nervous Speakers An anxious speaker can be identified in case of: - Shaking hands - Sweating palms - Dry mouth - Rapid heartbeat - Squeaky voice - Knocking knees - Facial flushes - Watery eyes - Mental confusions Causes of Fear - Past failures during presentation. Plan to succeed instead. - Poor or insufficient preparation. Nothing gives you more confidence than being ready. - Discomfort with your own body and movement. Dealing with Anxiety A speaker can try the suggestions below to deal with anxiety before and on the day of speech. Before the day; - Know your topic by doing adequate and thorough research. You will be sure of presenting accurate information and be able to answer questions asked by audience members. - Practice delivering your speech several times. This helps you be sure of your organization of the main points. On that day; - Do some physical exercises like press ups, push walls, etc. to reduce anxiety. - Use simple relaxation techniques like taking deep breath, tightening and relaxing your muscles, etc. - Wear clothes that you feel confident in. when you feel good about of you feel, your confidence level is boosted. You don’t need to adjust your clothes or hair during your speech. - Spot friendly faces in the crowd. These are people who give you positive feedback (e.g. nodding, smiling). Such faces give you encouragement to speak. - Come up with ways to hide your anxiety. For example, - When mouth goes dry, drink some water - In case of excessive sweating, wear clothes that will not allow your audience detect - If your hands shake, use gestures to mask the shaking. In the next three days, you are presenting a speech on the topic: Effects of HIV/AIDS. - Write down any three ways you would prepare for the speech delivery. - State the techniques you would employ to ensure your audience listens to you throughout and that they understand the message during the presentation. Makufuli is presenting his speech. Your friend, Makwere claims that Makufuli is not confident. - What could have warranted this claim? - State four reasons that could be behind Makufuli’s state? - Discussion is a process where exchange of ideas and opinions are debated upon in a group. - A group which comprises a small number of people is given a topic to discuss. Preparation for Group Discussion Do the following before you start the discussion: - Select/choose group leaders. Choose the secretary to write the points down and the chair to lead the discussions. - Research round the topic to make sure you have the points. You can get the points from the sources including: - Newspapers and magazines - Friends, relatives and teachers - Text books - Arrive early for discussions. It is advisable you do so so that you start early and finish early. - Gather writing materials – pen and note book. - Prepare with questions to ask. Participating in a Group Discussion Remember the tips below for success during the discussion: - Learn to listen to each other and respond to what other people have to say. - Speak with moderation. What you say is usually more important than how much you say. Quality is needed rather than the quantity. - Back up each point you put across. You can explain your points in a number of ways including: - Providing facts or statistics to support it; - Quoting expert opinion; - Explain why said what you said; and - Referring to your own experience. - Stay calm and polite. Use polite words like ‘May I ….?, please …, etc.’ - Take notes of important words and ideas. - Speak clearly. - Speak loud enough to be heard by all the group members. The Common Discussion Mistakes Having learnt what you should do during the discussion, let us now learn what under no circumstances y do. You should never: - Dominate the discussion; - Interrupt abruptly; - Be inaudible; - Carry out mini-meetings; or - Talk over each other. You and your group members have been assigned the topic: ‘Responsibilities of a Good Citizen’ by your teacher of History and Government. You are supposed to discuss this before you give the presentation in two days. - State three ways in which you would prepare before you start discussing the topic. - How would you ensure your group members and yourself benefit from this discussion? - ORAL REPORTS - From the heading, an oral report is spoken, not written. - Being oral, it doesn’t mean writing is not involved. As part of preparation, you have to write notes on the topic or at least an outline of points. - When asked to present an oral report you get the opportunity to practice your speaking skills. - A spoken report has various elements including an introduction, body and conclusion. Preparation for Oral Reports You can prepare by: - Researching on the topic. Get all the facts about what is known and unknown by your audience. - Take notes on the facts about the topic. Choose your words appropriately in the process. - Practice the report before presenting it. You may - Practice in front of a mirror. - Practice in front of friends or relatives. - Videotape your rehearsals. More practice is required if it has to be memorized. - Plan on how to dress and groom. - Prepare the visual aids if you plan to use the them. Select the appropriate chart, picture, etc. that will make abstract ideas concrete. - Stand up straight. Your upper body should be held straight, but not stiff. Do not fidget. - Make eye contact in order to look surer of yourself and to ensure your audience listens better. - Vary your tone appropriately and speak clearly. - Use gestures to make your points well understood and to keep the audience interested. - Pause at key points to let the point sick. - Speak loud enough for everyone to hear you. - If you have visual aids use them appropriately. You have seen thieves robbing your neighbor’s house. During this time you have your phone that you have used to capture one of the two robbers. The next day you are called at the police station to report on what occurred. - State any three ways you would prepare to deliver this oral report. - What three details would you include in your report? - How would you deliver the report to ensure the information is understood? SECTION C: ETIQUETTE Etiquette is the rules that indicate the proper and polite manner to behave. - USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE - When one uses courteous language, he/she uses a language that is very polite and polished to show respect. - At no time should you allow yourself be rude, ill-mannered, impolite, inconsiderate, or even thoughtless. - Being and remaining polite will go a long way in building relationships. - To show politeness and respect: - Use the word please in request; - Say thank you to those who help or compliment you. - Start your requests or interrogatives beginning with words such as can, could, may, will, or would. - Say excuse me when you interrupt other people or intrude into their time or privacy. - Use question tags. - In this section, we shall learn the words and phrases that show respect. - We use it when you want someone to do something for you. For example: Can you pass that cup, please? - Also used when you want something from someone. For example: Lend me ten shillings, please. - Thank you - Use it whenever someone does something for you. - Use it when someone commends you. - Say it any time you inconvenience someone. - Say it when step on someone’s toes, etc. - Also when someone asks you something you cannot do. - Excuse me To introduce a request to someone, or to get past someone, use this phrase. For example Excuse me, can you show me where Amina lives? - Pardon me Almost as ‘excuse me’ Jennifer has gone to the shop to buy a bar of soap. The shopkeeper tells her to be polite the next time she comes to buy from him. Showing where, which polite phrases could Jennifer have failed to use? Read the dialogue below and then explain how Jacinta expresses politeness. John: I would like to send this letter to japan by airmail, how much is the charge? Jacinta: It’s one pound, do you need extra stamps? John: I do, I have been also expecting a package from New-York. Here is my identity card and receipt. Jacinta: Would you mind signing this form? Here is the package. John: Finally, I would like to send this registered letter to London. Jacinta: Please fill in the complete address in capital letters. - TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE Telephone etiquette are the rules that demonstrate the proper and polite way to use your phone/telephone. It starts from how you prepare for phone calls to when you end the call. Preparation for Phone Call The following should be done before placing a call: - Ensure you have enough time. It will not auger well to suddenly end the conversation because of insufficient airtime. - Go to a place where there is silence. Too much noise will distract your attention. - Think through exactly what you want to say. Write it down if possible so you don’t forget what to say or ask and look as though you didn’t have anything to say. Tips to Display When Making a Call Whether at work, at home, or on your mobile phone, remember to display the tips below at all times: - Identify yourself at the beginning of the call. - Speak clearly and slowly especially when leaving the message. - Speak with a low tone of voice. Be sure to know how loud you may be. - Always end with a pleasantry, for example,’ Have a nice day.’ - Let the caller hang up first. - Stay away from others while talking on the phone. They don’t need to hear your private conversation. What to Avoid - Avoid being distracted by other activities while speaking. Some of these activities include: - Rustling papers - Speaking with someone - Working on the computer - Avoid allowing interruptions to occur during the conversation. - Do not engage in an argument with the caller. - Talking too loudly. Not at these Places The following are places you should not make a call. You should even have your cell phone in a silent mode or switch it off altogether. - Waiting rooms - Places of worship - Live performances Here we shall focus on majorly business telephone conversations. It should be noted that there are patterns that are followed; but not all will follow this rigid pattern. The six patterns include: - The phone is answered by someone who asks if he/she can help. - The caller makes a request either to be connected to someone or for information. - The caller is connected, given information or told that that person is not present at the moment. - The caller is asked to leave a message if the person who is requested for is not in. - The caller leaves a message or asks other questions. - The phone call finishes. Read the telephone conversation below and then answer questions that follow. Pauline: (a form two student, Wajanja School) ring ring… ring ring … Secretary: Hello, Wajanja School, this is Ms Esther speaking. How may I be of help to you? Pauline: Yes, this is Pauline Karanja a form two student calling. May I speak to the principal, please? Secretary: I am afraid Ms Kaluma is not in the office at the moment. Would you like to leave a message? Pauline: I would really want, thanks. When she comes back, tell her I wanted to ask for one day permission. My brother is sick and I would like to request her that I report one day after the opening day. It is I who will be left with my siblings as the brother goes to the hospital. That is all. Secretary: Sorry for that, I wish him quick recovery. I would give her the message as soon. Pauline: I would be grateful madam. Thanks again. Pauline: Welcome Pauline. Just ensure you report as stated here. Secretary: Ok have a nice day madam. Pauline: You too have a perfect day. Goodbye - With examples, outline the patterns of telephone conversation in above. - Identify evidences of telephone etiquette tips displayed by Pauline in the conversation above. Your sibling is very sick. You are planning to make a doctor a phone call to come to your home to provide medication. - State any three preparations you would put in place before making this important call. - Give four bad habits you would avoid when making this call. Joan has just called the parent to ask them to pay the school fee. Unfortunately, the parent is not happy with the way she has made the call. Identify any four telephone etiquette tips she could have failed to display. - APPROPRIATE CHOICE OF REGISTER - Register denotes the choice of language, whether that be formal or informal. - It is the choosing of appropriate language for the context. - There are factors that determine the language we use. - It is important to select the right language for the right situation. - The choice of register is affected by: - The setting of the speech; - The topic of the speech; - The relationship that exists between the speakers; and - The age. There are words we use depending on the field. There are those we use in the field of medicine, in the field of law etc. they are also those that we use at home when talking to family members. A chemist, for example, will ask for ‘sodium chloride’ while at the laboratory, while at home she will request for ‘salt’. At work place, people tend to use formal language while informal language at home. - If, for example, you want to ask for something valuable from a brother you would say: ‘I was wondering if you could lend me….’. This is a formal language even though it is your family member you are talking to. - When offering your boss tea or coffee, you will still use formal language for example: ‘Would you mind being served tea or coffee? ’ and to a friend you will say: ‘Tea or coffee?’ There are words you use when speaking to different people in different situations. More often than not, an intimate couple will use words like ‘darling’, ‘honey’, etc. These words cannot be used to address your colleague at work place; or even your pastor. There are ways to speak to a child and those of speaking to adults. To a baby, we use words like ‘popopoo’ while to an adult ‘long call’, etc. The Words used in Different Fields Field of Medicine Some words used in the hospitals, clinics and other health stations include: X-ray, syringe, paracetamol, doctor, nurse, mortuary, patient, etc. Lockup, cell, bond, etc. Aircraft, flight, air hostess, etc. Computer, laptop, CPU, Monitor, software, hardcopy, hard disk, etc. The words used by the teachers, students and others at school are: chalk, ruler, blackboard, senior teacher, deputy principal, dean of studies, etc. Technical terms used by lawyers and in the courts of law include: adult probation, affidavit, alimony, Amicus Curiae brief, annulment, appeal, appellant, appellee, arrest, plaintiff, defendant, dismissal, oath, revocation hearing, learned friend, etc. Read the conversation below and then answer question that follow. Caller:Is this the Credex? Receptionist:Yes, how may I be of help to you? Caller:It’s Dorothy calling. Receptionist:Oh, Dorothy! How is the going? Caller: Lunch today? Receptionist: Of course.. Caller: what time then? Receptionist: After I have seen the deputy principal. There are packets of chalk I am supposed to deliver. - Giving the reasons, where is the Credex? - What is the relationship between the caller and the receptionist? - Explain the formality of the language the receptionist and the caller use. - Give illustrations for (c) above. Being a cyclical process, turn taking starts with one person speaking, and continues as the speaker gives control to the next individual. This is then offered to another person and then back to the original speaker. Orderly conversation has to take place. A turn is a crucial element within turn taking. Each person takes turn within the conversation – either in person or on phone. Achieving Smooth Turn Taking It is achieved with: - Using specific polite phrases, for example, those for, - Accepting the turn when offered it - Keeping your turn - Getting other people speaking, etc. - Using gestures to indicate you have completed what you are saying or that you want to say something. You drop your arm when you have completed and raise it when you want to say something. - Varying the intonation to show you have or have not finished speaking. - Use noises like ‘uming’ and ‘ahing’ while thinking so as not to lose your turn. Turn Taking Cues There are various ways of signaling a finished turn. They might be indicated when the current speaker: - Asks a question, for example, ‘Did you want to add anything?’ - Trails off (his/her voice becomes weaker to the extent you may not hear his words) - Indicates they are done speaking with a closing statement, for example, ‘That’s all I wanted to say.’or ’I think I have made my point.’ - Uses marker words (those that allow the other a chance to speak), for example, ‘well…’ or ‘so…’ - Drops the pitch or volume of their voice at the end of their utterance. This is the use of falling intonation. - Uses gestures to signal that another can contribute. Violations in Turn-Taking There are five well known turn-taking violations in a conversation. They are: interruptions, overlaps, grabbing the floor, hogging the floor, and silence. Do you know what they really are? If you don’t, read the explanations for the violations in that order. - Inhibiting the speaker from finishing their sentences during their turn. - Talking at the same time as the current speaker. This is interruptive overlap. However, cooperative overlap is encouraged as it shows you are interested in the message. - Interrupting and then taking over the turn before being offered it. - Taking over the floor and ignoring other people’s attempt to take the floor. - Remaining without saying anything for quite some time. The List of Turn-Taking Phrase - Before I forget, … - I don’t like to interrupt, but …. - I wouldn’t usually interrupt, but … - I’m afraid I have to stop you there. - I will let you finish in a minute/second/moment …. - May I interrupt? To accept the turn when offered it; - I won’t take long. - What I wanted to say was … To stop other people from interrupting you during your turn use; - I have just one more point to make - I have nearly finished - Before you have your say … - I haven’t quite finished my point yet - I know you’re dying to jump in, but…. To offer the turn to another use; - …., right? - But that’s enough from me. - Can you give me your thoughts on …? - Does anyone want to say anything before I move on? - How about you? To take the turn back after being interrupted; - As I was saying (before I was interrupted) - To get back on topic… - Carrying on from where we left on… Note: The list is endless, and you can come up with other appropriate phrases. - INTERRUPTING AND DISAGREEING POLITELY - English is a polite language. For this reason, it is advisable to indirectly contradict a person. It is rude to do it directly. - Although conversation is a two way street, interrupting a speaker is usually regarded as rude. However, at times you need to interrupt. When then can one interrupt? - You can only interrupt to: - Ask a question; - Make a correction; - Offer an opinion; and - Ask for clarification. In this section, we shall learn how to interrupt and disagree politely. Steps to Interrupting It is important to take note of the following steps when interrupting a speaker during a conversation or during a discussion: - Signal to the speaker that you have something to contribute by implementing the body language such as: - Making eye contact; - Slightly raising your hand; - Sitting forward on your seat; - Quietly clearing your throat; or - Coughing quietly. - Wait patiently until the speaker pauses or incase of a lull in the conversation. - Speak clearly using polite phrases. These phrases will be learnt later. - Wait for the speaker to acknowledge your request to speak before you do so. - After you have spoken, thank the speaker and allow them continue. - Take a deep breath and calm yourself before interrupting when you feel angry or annoyed. - Take care to use low tone of voice. - Unnecessary interruptions. - Finishing speaker’s sentences. - Interrupting to correct the speaker unnecessarily. - Speaking harshly or using disparaging comments. Phrases used in Interruption Below is the list of phrases which you can use to politely interrupt someone: - May I say something here? - I am sorry to interrupt, but … - Excuse me, may I add to that…? - Do you mind if I jump in here? - Before we move on to the next point, may I add …? - Sorry, I didn’t catch that, is it possible to repeat the last point? - I don’t mean to intrude …. - Sorry to butt in, but … - Would this be a good time to ….? - Excuse the interruption, but … - I hate to interrupt, but … - I know it is rude to interrupt, but … How to Disagree Politely The tips that follow will help you handle disagreements without annoying the other person in a discussion or discussion: - Actively listen to the other person’s point of view. This helps in showing respect and understanding of the other person’s perspective. - Stay calm even if you feel angry. - Acknowledge the other person’s point of view before the buts. - Disagree only with the person’s idea but not he person. - Use polite phrases to respectfully disagree. - Speak in a low tone. - Give some credence to the other person’s point of view before challenging it. For example, say: It’s partly true that I bought this phone at a cheap price, but … Disagreeing Politely Expressions - I agree up to a point, but … - I see your point, but … - That’s partly true, but … - I’m not so sure about that. - That’s not entirely true - I am sorry to disagree with you, but … - I’m afraid I have to disagree - I must take issue with you on that - It’s unjustifiable to say that.. - NEGOTIATION SKILLS - This is the process of discussion between two or more disputants, aimed at finding the solution to a common problem. - It is a method by which people settle their differences. - It is also the process by which a compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument. - There could be a difference between people with different aims or intentions, especially in business or politics. When this happens, they have to reach an agreement. - Negotiation skills will be helpful when: - Haggling over the price of something; - Negotiating with your employer e.g. for higher salary; - Negotiating for peace/ solving conflict; - Negotiating for better services; etc. Stages of Negotiation - Preparation comes first. During this time, ensure all the pertinent facts of the situation is known in order to clarify your own position. It will help in avoiding wasting time unnecessarily. - Discussion then follows. This is the time to ask questions, listen and make things easier to understand. At times, it is helpful to take notes to record all points put forward. - Negotiate towards a win-win outcome. Each party has to be satisfied at the end of the process. - Agreement comes after understanding both sides’ viewpoints and considering them. - Implement the course of action. If for example, paying the amount, it has to be paid. Points Every Negotiator Should Consider - Ask questions, confirm and summarise. These three activities ensure that there is no confusion on what each party wants. - Acknowledge each other’s point of view. Show that you have listened to and understood their perspective. Show appreciation of the other person’s point of view. - Listen attentively to the other person. - Respond to negative comments and complaints. Avoid confrontational language. - Behave in a confident way, but don’t be rude. Make polite but firm requests. - Give options/alternatives. You can both win if you recognise that you share a common ground. You are planning to buy a new model car. - Write down three relevant facts you would want to know before going to buy the car. - State any three hints for the negotiators you would consider when haggling over the price of that car. - PAYING ATTENTION (LISTENING) Listening is different from hearing. When you listen, you understand both the verbal and non-verbal information. Why should you listen? You listen: - To obtain information - To understand the message - For enjoyment - To learn In this section, we shall learn the techniques of active listening. Techniques of Paying Attention In order to benefit from a talk as the listener, you should take note of the following key tips: - Keep an open mind. Listen without judging the speaker or mentally criticizing their message they pass. You just have to hold your criticism and withhold judgment. - Familiarize yourself with the topic under discussion. Audience tend to listen more if they have idea of the topic being discussed. How then can one familiarize himself/ herself with the subject? They can do this by: - Reading from the books. - Reading from the internet. - Asking for ideas from those who know. - Use the speaker responses to encourage the speaker to continue speaking. You will also get the information you need if you do so. Some of the speaker responses we use include: - Slightly nodding the head, but occasionally. - Smile occasionally. - Using small verbal comments like yes, uh huh, mmmh, I see, etc. - Reflecting back e.g. you said … - Take notes on the important points. This can in itself be a distractor. You should therefore know when to and when not to take notes. - Listen for the main ideas. These are the most important points the speaker wants to get across and are repeated several times. - Wait for the speaker to pause before asking a clarifying question. Just hold back. - Avoid distractions. Don’t let your mind wander or be distracted by other people’s activities. If the room is too cold or too hot get the solution to that situation if possible. - Sit properly. Sit upright - Make eye contact with the speaker. When you do this you will be able to understand the non-verbal messages too. Signs of Inactive Audience You can easily tell whether your audience listens or not. The inattentive listeners tend to possess the following characteristics: - Playing with their hair - Looking at a clock or watch - Picking their fingernails - Passing small pieces of paper to one another - Shifting from seat to seat Barriers to Effective Listening There are many things that get in the way of listening and you should avoid these bad habits so as to become a more effective listener. These factors that inhibit active listening include; - Lack of interest in the topic being discussed. - Unfamiliarity with the topic under discussion. - One might fear being asked a question and in the process fail to look at the speaker. - In case of noise the listeners might not get what the speaker is saying. Mwangi Mwaniki, the author of one of the set text you study, is coming to your school to give a talk on the themes in his novel. - How would you prepare for this big day? - State what you would do to ensure you benefit from the talk during the presentation. SECTION D: NON-VERBAL SKILLS IN LISTENING AND SPEAKING - IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE A personal space is an imaginary area between a person and their surrounding area. This space makes the person feel comfortable and should therefore not be encroached. The distance can exist at work, at home and in our social circles. The personal space varies depending on factors such as: - Familiarity with the person. Why Respect People’s personal Space? - To make them feel comfortable. - To maintain good relationships. - To enhance listening. Especially during a talk. General Personal Space Rules The personal space guidelines below will help enhance listening and speaking: - Respectfully keep your distance if you walk into a room and see two people in private conversation. - Pay attention to your volume when you speak, whether on the phone or in person, to ensure you don’t distract attention of others. - Maintain physical space at table and chair rows so the people around you have enough room to write, raise their hands, etc. - Be mindful of amount of perfume or cologne you wear as if it is in excess it might distract others. - Never lean on the other person’s shoulder unless invited to. - Don’t eavesdrop on another person’s phone conversation. In case you overhear details of the conversation, keep it confidential. Dealing with Space Intrusion Depending on the nature of the intrusion, you would deal with space encroachment in different ways. Here are the steps of dealing with a person who leans on your shoulder: - Lean away or take a step back away from the person hoping they would take a hint. - Come right out and say you feel discomfort being too close. - Explain why you need more space. You can for example tell them you need more space to write. You have attended a one day seminar. The person sitting next to you is said to be intruding your personal space. What four personal space guidelines could this person have failed to follow? - FACIAL EXPRESSIONS - The face you wear is a great component of emotion and feeling. - The various facial expressions represent various feelings. A smile for example, represents joy, while a scowl, anger. - When speaking or listening, flex your facial muscles as appropriate. You can’t smile when the speaker is talking about incidence of tragedy. Doleful face will do. - Remember your face is like a switch and will keep changing depending on the feelings and emotions. Some words for Describing Facial Expressions \|Emotion/ Feeling\|\|Facial Expression\| \|Happy and peaceful\|\|Beatific\| \|Angry or unhappy\|\|Black, grave\| - A speaker will always move part of their body especially a hand, arm or the head when speaking. - This is done to express the idea or meaning. - As a speaker you can use illustrators of what you are saying using your hands. They will add mental image to what is being conveyed. For example, - Headshake to mean ‘no’. - Use hands to form the shape of heart to express love. - Use the hands to form the bow shape to show the big belly. Etc. - EYE CONTACT - Did you know you can use your eyes to listen? We use the eyes to listen to another person’s body language – gesture included. - An eye is a powerful tool of effective communication. - Let us learn some situations that demand different uses of the eyes. For example: - When arguing, hold your gaze. - When deferring, lower your eyes. - When loving someone, stare in the pool of their eyes. - Making eye contact is very vital as you can get the feedback from your listeners, on your message. When you notice they are bored you know you have to make adjustments and when they show enthusiasm then this will help in pumping you up. - Too much eye contact by the listener indicate they have interest in either you or the information you are putting across. - Speakers tend to look up: - At the end of their utterances. - To indicate to the others to have their turn. - Speakers tend to look away when: - Talking non-fluently. - Not sure of the topic. - A curtsy is a polite gesture of respect or reverence made chiefly by women and girls. - It is the female equivalent of males’ bowing. When to Bow or Make Curtsy - To end a performance. - To show respect. How to Curtsy - Lower your head. - Hold your skirt at the edges with both hands. - Place your right foot behind the left. - Bend your knees outward - APPERANCE AND GROOMING How you look when speaking in front of an audience or when going for an interview is very crucial. It both boosts your confidence level and build respect. Your appearance involves the clothes you wear as well as how you groom. Grooming on the hand involves what you do to your body other than the clothing. Your personal hygiene is the simplest term that can replace the term grooming. The kind of clothe you wear will depend on such factors as: - Your occupation; - Location; and - Your preference. Guidelines for Clothing - Your cloth should fit comfortably. - The cloth should also be neat and clean. - Wear the right cloth for appropriate occasion. Read the grooming checklist below. - Your hair should be lean, trimmed and neatly arranged. - If you are a man, ensure your facial hair is freshly shaved. - Fingernails should be neat, clean and trimmed. - Teeth should brushed and with fresh breath. - Body should be freshly showered. - If a woman, use make up sparingly and be natural looking. - Use perfumes/aftershave/colognes sparingly or even use non at all. Ayub has been invited to an interview. State four grooming mistakes he should be careful to avoid. SECTION E: INSTRUCTIONS TO FRIENDS AND RELATIVES - GIVING AND RECEIVING INSTRUCTIONS Giving clear instructions is one of those things that seems easy to do but actually are more complex. The tips that follow will help you in giving clear instructions: - Get the attention of the other person. Be sure you have the attention of the person, or people, you are giving instruction. This is one way in which you will tell whether they are listening. Do you know ways to get the attention of a child or even a group of people in some noisy place? Here are some suggestions; - Ring the bell - Bang the table/door - Switch off the lights - Clear your throat - Blow the whistle, and many others. - Use simple language that can be understood. Avoid using too much vocabulary. - Break instructions down and deliver them in steps. Give one instruction at any given time to avoid any confusion. - Repeat instructions to them. - Be loud enough. - Give instruction beginning with a verb i.e. use the imperative forms. For example: Take three cups… - Ask them repeat instructions to you in their own words. - Make eye contact. You are a mother. On a certain day, very early in the morning, you want to go to pay your friend a visit. Before you leave, you have decided to leave your 6-year old son instructions on how to prepare his lunch. - Make a list of methods you would use to get his attention before giving instructions. - Other than getting his attention, how else would you ensure you leave him clear and understandable instructions? Once in a while people will ask you to lead them to their destination. If it is not possible to do this then the best thing to do will be to give them directions to those places. The most important thing to do is to be brief and clear. Let us learn the steps to giving the clear directions. Steps to Giving Clear Directions - Give the direction with few turns. Remember shortcuts may be faster, but at times are complicated especially in the case of many turns. - Indicate the turns—whether left or right. Tell them to turn a left or a right. For those who know cardinal points, you can use north, south, west, or east. - Mention the landmarks, for example, a large clock, a school, a river, e.t.c. Tell them: `you will see a blue church… - Specify distance. Offer the Ballpark Figures (rough estimates of the time and length of travel). The three ways of specifying the distance are: - Telling them how many streets or buildings to pass; - Giving them distance in kilometres, metres , or miles;and - Telling them how much time in minutes or hours it will take them to reach their destination. - Warn them about any confusing parts of the route. For example, let them know of a narrow road that people normally miss. - Say which side of the street or road their destination is on. There could be two houses that look alike on either sides of road. Tell them: My house is on the right. - Repeat directions to them and allow them repeat back directions to you. - Draw a simplified map if paper and pencil or pen are available. - Give them a drop-dead point. This is the place when if you reach you know you are lost and have to make a U-turn. For example, tell them: if you see a big black billboard you have gone too far. Your church is in the same estate you live. Your mother goes to a different church. On this particular Sunday she has decided to join you later in your church. For that reason, she asks you to give her the direction to the church. - Mention three ways you would specify her the distance from your home to the church. - Apart from specifying the distance, how else would you ensure she reaches the church when giving her the direction? ANSWERS ON ORAL SKILLS PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS Sound /s/: seven, students, first, test, licences Sound /z/ : driver’s, licences, Thursday Sound /ᶴ/ :tissue, passion, ocean, cautious, solution, pressure, Persian, chef, sure, precious Sound /ᶾ/ :Caucasian, division, leisure, vision, casual, conclusion, television, decision, collision, exposure Sound /f/ : forgive, for, forgetting, leftover, food Sound /v/ :forgive, leftover - bee, be - see, sea - aye, eye - pee, pea - tea, tee - ewe, you - Bamburi cement was used to cement the bridge. - After leaving us his address, he will address those students over there. - He had to permit us to do business since we had a business permit. - The content of the letter will content the man. - Sert, de - es, cort - re, sume - test, con - vict, con - I – no one else loves your sister’s handwriting. - Love – I don’t hate your sister’s handwriting - Your – Not any other person’s sister - Sister’s – not your brother’s or your uncle’s - Handwriting – It I only your sister’s handwriting I love, not her walking style or her cooking. - You – all the others came early - Came – you did not leave late - Late – Not early - Yesterday – the rest of the days you came early I could have: - Spoken confidently - Varied my tone appropriately - Spoken loud enough to be heard by everyone - Made my contact with my audience - Provided proofs for my points in persuasive way. - Spoken slowly and enunciated words correctly - Used gestures that reinforced my ideas - Paused at key points - How would you handle cases of indiscipline among the students? - Will you appoint prefects in charge of discipline? - What punishment will you mete out on those who are indiscipline? Etc. - I would; - Inform him about the interview. - Arrive early for the interview. - Prepare the place to interview him.. - I would; - Allow him enough time to respond to the questions. - Encourage him to speak by slightly nodding my head. - Make eye contact with him. - Ms Naomi is a good interviewer because; - She warmly welcomes Mr. Josh, hence making him feel free to speak. - She also offers to take Mr. Josh along with her for lunch. - Explains her answers well. - Is honest. When asked whether he has written in any scientific journal he says not yet. - I would; - Do some research on the topic. - Practice adequately. - Write down my points. - Dress and groom well. - I would; - Effectively use gestures to reinforce my ideas. - Make eye contact with my audience. - Wear appropriate facial expressions. - Speak loud enough to be heard by all. - Pronounce my words correctly. - Pause at key points to let the information sink. - Speak slowly to allow my points be processed. - Makufuli could have: - Had shaking hands - Sweating palms - Dry mouth - Rapid heartbeat - Squeaky voice - Knocking knees, etc - Makufuli probably: - Could have dressed uncomfortably. - Could have failed to research on the topic. - Could have failed the first time and could have feared to fail again. - Could not have rehearsed his speech. - Choose group leaders. - Do research on the topic to get facts. - Write the points. - Arrive early for the discussion. - Gather writing materials to use. - Ensure each point given is backed up. - Ensure members speak with moderation. - Speak clearly. - Take notes on what is discussed. - Ensure members listen to each other. - Prepare the photo to show the police. - Ask the neighbours questions to get more facts. - Practice how to report. - I would: - Vary my tone appropriately. - Make eye contact with the officer. - Use gestures effectively. - Pause at key points. - Speak loud enough enough. - Speak slowly. USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE - Failed to use ‘thank you’ after being given the bar of soap. - Failed to use ‘please’ when asking to be given the bar of soap. - Failed to use ‘excuse me’ to get the shopkeeper’s attention. - She has used ‘please’ when asking John to fill the address. - She has used ‘would’ in asking questions. - The patterns include; - Answering of the phone – Hello, … - Request — May I speak to the principal, please? - The caller is told the principal is not in the office at the moment. - Pauline is asked to leave a message. - Pauline leaves the message for the principal. - The call finishes with pleasantry – have a nice day. - She introduces herself to the secretary. - She ends the call with pleasantry. - She speaks politely to the secretary. - I would: - Ensure I have adequate airtime. - Go to a quiet place. - Jot down what to tell the doctor. - Ensure the place to make the call has network. - I would avoid: - Talking too loudly - Engaging in an argument with the doctor. - Interrupting the doctor. - Being distracted by other activities. Joan could have failed to: - Identify herself at the beginning of the call. - Speak clearly and slowly. - Speak with a low tone of voice. - End the call with a pleasantry. APPROPRIATE CHOICE OF REGISTER - Credex is a school. There is the use of words such as ‘pieces of chalk’, and the ‘deputy principal’. - The two are friends . - At first it is formal. But when the receptionist realizes it is Dorothy calling it becomes informal. Is this the credex? How is the going? - Know the prices elsewhere - Whether I can get discount - Whether the purchase of the car comes with any offer - Whether the car is in high demand - Whether the car is readily available. Etc. - I would: - Make polite but firm requests. - Ask questions and summarise to avoid confusions. - Respond to negative comments from the seller. - Give alternatives. - Show appreciation of the seller’s viewpoint. - Listen attentively to the seller. - Ensure we arrive at a clear agreement acceptable to both of us. - I would: - Read the set book to remind myself of the themes. - Ensure I sit where I would be comfortable. - Prepare questions to ask him. - I would: - Take down the main points. - Make eye contact with the author. - Hold back until the speaker pauses before I interrupt. - Encourage the speaker to continue speaking by using some responses. - Avoid interruptions. IMPORTANCE OF RESPECTING PERSONAL SPACE He could have failed to: - Speak in a low voice during the talk. - Maintain the physical distance between the two of us at the table. - Resist leaning on my shoulder or chest. - Resist eavesdropping on my phone conversation. APPEARANCE AND GROOMING I would avoid: - Dirty unarranged hair - Dirty fingernails - Foul breath teeth - Unbathed body - Excess make up - Excess perfumes or colognes GIVING AND RECEIVING INSTRUCTIONS - Switch off the lights in his room - Call his name - Bang the table beside him - Clap my hands - Use simple language - Give one instruction at a time - Be loud enough - Repeat the instruction. - Ask him if he has any question - Ask him repeat instructions back to me. - Make eye contact. - Giving the distance in metres. - Telling her time in minutes. - Telling her the number of streets to pass. - I would give her the route with minimal turns. - I would indicate the turns. - Mention the landmarks. - Warn her about any confusing part of the route. - Have her repeat directions back to me. - Draw a simplified map.
In mathematics, you might have encountered the terms expression and equation very often. As both combines number and/or variables, people often misunderstood an expression for an equation. However, these two mathematical terms are not same, and a big difference lies in their arrangement, that explains what they represent. The best way, to identify, whether a given problem is an expression or equation is that if it contains an equal to sign (=) it is an equation. However, if it does not contain an equal to (=) sign, then it is just an expression. It carries numbers, variables and operators, that are used to show the value of something. Go through this article to understand the basic differences between expression and equation. Content: Expression Vs Equation \|Basis for Comparison\|\|Expression\|\|Equation\| \|Meaning\|\|Expression is a mathematical phrase which combines, numbers, variables and operators to show the value of something.\|\|An equation is a mathematical statement wherein two expressions are set equal to each other.\| \|What is it?\|\|A sentence fragment, that stands for a single numerical value.\|\|A sentence that shows equality between two expressions.\| \|Relation symbol\|\|No\|\|Yes, equal sign (=)\| \|Sides\|\|One sided\|\|Two sided, left and right\| \|Answer\|\|Numerical value\|\|Assertion, i.e. true or false.\| \|Example\|\|7x - 2(3x + 14)\|\|7x - 5 = 19\| Definition of Expression In mathematics, the expression is defined as a phrase that groups together numbers (constant), letters (variables) or their combination joined by operators (+, -, *, /), to represent the value of something. An expression can be arithmetic, algebraic, polynomial and analytical. As it does not contain any equal to (=) sign, so, it does not show any relationship. Hence, it has nothing like left side or right side. An expression can be simplified by combining the like terms, or it can be evaluated, inserting values in place of the variables to arrive at a numerical value. Examples: 9x + 2, x – 9, 3p + 5, 4m + 10 Definition of Equation In mathematics, the term equation means a statement of equality. It is a sentence in which two expressions are placed equal to one another. In order to satisfy an equation, it is important to determine the value of the variable concerned; this is known as solution or root of the equation. An equation can be conditional or an identity. If the equation is conditional, then the equality of two expressions is true for a definite value of variable involved. However, if the equation is an identity, then the equality is true for all the values held by the variable. There are four types of equation, discussed below: - Simple or Linear Equation: An equation is said to be linear is the highest power of the variable concerned in 1. Example: 3x + 13 = 8x – 2 - Simultaneous Linear Equation: When there are two or more linear equations containing two or more variables. Example: 3x + 2y = 5, 5x + 3y = 7 - Quadratic Equation: When in an equation, the highest power is 2, it is called as the quadratic equation. Example: 2x2 + 7x + 13 = 0 - Cubic Equation: As the name suggests, a cubic equation is one which degree 3. Example: 9x3 + 2x2 + 4x -3 = 13 Key Differences Between Expression and Equation The points given below summarises important differences between expression and equation: - A mathematical phrase that groups together numbers, variables, and operators, to show the value of something is called expression. An equation is described as a mathematical statement with two expressions set equal to one another. - An expression is a sentence fragment that stands for a single numerical value. On the contrary, an equation is a sentence showing equality between two expressions. - The expression is simplified, through evaluation where we substitute values in place of variables. Conversely, an equation is solved. - An equation is indicated by an equal sign (=). On the other hand, there is no relation symbol in an expression. - An equation is two sided, where an equal sign separates the left and right sides. Unlike, an expression is one-sided, there is no demarcation like left or right side. - The answer of an expression is either an expression or a numerical value. As opposed to the equation, which could only be true or false. Therefore, with the above explanation is clear that there exist a big difference between these two mathematical concepts. An expression does not reveal any relationship while an equation does. An equation contains an ‘equal to sign’, therefore, it shows solution or ends up representing the value of the variable. However, in the case of an expression, there is no equal sign, so there is no definite solution and cannot end up displaying the value of the variable involved. Ansh Nalin says Thank you this was very helpful indeed OMG Same! ThIs was very helpful indeed!😃 Thanks it is so helpful 😄 minecraft lover says Thanks! really useful information. great help for my math homework 🙂 Thank you for the article
At its fullest extent, the Roman Empire stretched from around modern-day Aswan, Egypt at its southernmost point to Great Britain in the north but the influence of the Roman Empire went far beyond even the borders of its provinces as a result of commerce and population movements. Contrary to popular belief which holds that the Sahara Desert was an impossible obstacle to trade prior to the Middle Ages, the Romans had a robust and dynamic network of connections to Sudanic and Sub-Saharan Africa. Slaves, gold, foodstuffs, and spices were transported from complex urban settlements on the Niger river, onwards to oasis cities in the Sahara, before finally reaching Rome’s bustling ports on the coast of North Africa. Going in the opposite direction, gemstones, textiles, and coins reached cities along the fertile banks of the Middle Niger. Classical Greek and Roman writers refer to all of Sudanic and Sub-Saharan Africa as 'Aethiopia', while the term 'Africa' originally referred only to the Maghreb region on the northwestern coast of the continent. Most Aethiopians in the Roman Empire likely came from East Africa through Egypt and Nubia but new evidence has also highlighted the role of trade and military interactions between West Africa and the Roman Empire. Roman Exploration in West Africa Roman expeditions into the Sahara were well documented beginning in the early Imperial period, though they decreased in Late Antiquity as a result of the accelerating desertification of North Africa. In 19 BCE, the Roman proconsul Cornelius Balbus led a force of 10,000 legionaries into Libya to punish the Garamantes, a Berber people who inhabited the Fezzan region of the Libyan Desert in the northeast Sahara, for rebellious activity. Balbus conquered the city of Ghadames before marching on Garama (Germa) and conquering it. After this, he penetrated the continent further south until reaching what is believed to be the Niger River. The Roman general Suetonius Paulinus quelled a rebellion in Mauretania in 40 CE, before embarking on a celebrated expedition across the Atlas Mountains and into the Fezzan region of the Sahara (c. 41 CE). In 50 CE a general named Septimius Flaccus led a military expedition against nomadic bandits who were troubling Leptis Magna in modern-day Libya. His expedition proved successful but what was most impressive was that his journey went far further south than the Saharan desert. In fact, Flaccus made it as far as an enormous lake surrounded by elephants and rhinoceroses (Lake Chad) before returning. According to the 2nd-century CE Alexandrian historian Ptolemy, a Roman merchant named Julius Maternus led an expedition to retread Flaccus’ footsteps and open up new trade routes in West Africa. This journey is thought to have been sometime around 83 CE and plotted through what is now Libya to the city of Garama. The Garamantian king allowed Maternus to accompany him on an expedition south and sent letters of introduction to the African kings in the south on behalf of the Roman. Maternus ultimately travelled to Lake Chad before returning to Rome with a two-horned rhinoceros which was displayed in the Colosseum. This animal would have been either a black or white rhinoceros from Central Africa and was a sensation in Rome - due to its performance in the arena. The Roman Emperor Domitian (81-96 CE) was so impressed with the beast and its reception that he minted coins bearing its image sometime between 83 and 85 CE. SOURCES OF TRADE ON THE NIGER RIVER Ancient cities and polities in West Africa which had developed along the Middle Niger were participants in the sporadic trans-Saharan trade relations of antiquity. These settlements developed independently in West Africa and are based on a radically different economic, social, and architectural model than the urban centres of Mesopotamia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean. These cities and settlements traded goods like locally grown crops with Saharan contacts for rare foreign imports. Djenne-Djenno, built near modern-day Djenne, Mali by the Iron Age Nok culture in the early 3rd century BCE, has some of the oldest known evidence of Classical Mediterranean trade in West Africa. Traders in Djenne-Djenno were importing glass beads of Roman or Hellenistic origin as early as the 3rd century BCE. Evidence of trans-Saharan trade has been found in Kissi, Burkina Faso and Dia Shoma, Mali which means that this trade did not deal exclusively with the cities of the Middle Niger but extended to the Niger Bend as well. The extent of trans-Saharan contact between the peoples inhabiting the Sahara desert has long been debated despite the frequent allusions of the Greek and Roman accounts, including sources like The Histories by the 5th-century BCE Greek author Herodotus and Pliny the Elder’s 2nd-century CE Natural History. Between the 1st and 4th centuries CE, Rome was trading closely with the Garamante Kingdom, which had become a client state of Rome. Graeco-Roman stereotypes of the Garamantes often dismissed them as unruly nomads: On its [Libya’s] borders dwell the Garamantians, a lightly clad, agile tribe of tent-dwellers subsisting mainly by the chase. (Lucian of Samosata, Dipsas the Thirst-Snake, Ch. 2, translated by Fowler, p. 27) Archaeologists have uncovered a different picture by demonstrating that they had permanent settlements which were supported by advanced irrigation techniques. Excavations at Garama has revealed a dynamic trade centre with a population of around 10,000. Mediterranean amphorae containing olive oil and wine as well as imported pottery attest to frequent trade with the Roman Empire. Further evidence of Roman influences comes in the form of Roman-style marble, concrete, and wine presses. Most striking, however, is the presence of a large mausoleum with very clear architectural inspiration from its Roman counterparts. Carbuncles, Gold & Ancient Grains One of the most important items that the Garamantes had to offer both Roman and West African traders were semi-precious stones like carnelian and amazonite. These small stones (referred to as carbuncles) were highly prized by Romans and are the primary commodity referenced in literary accounts of this exchange. Carbuncles and other semi-precious stones are the most well-represented objects from the trans-Saharan trade in West Africa. These carbuncles likely acted as a regional commodity and status symbol to locals of the Niger Bend given their rarity and the difficulty involved in obtaining them. In addition to this, the Garamantes provided the Romans with foodstuffs, exotic Sub-Saharan slaves and possibly textiles, salt, gold and ivory in exchange for Roman wine, olive oil and pottery. Although a large amount of Sub-Saharan goods made it to the Mediterranean, Mediterranean goods did not reach the Sub-Sahara in the same volume. The reason for this was that the Garamantes and other intermediaries tended to keep the expensive Roman products for themselves rather than exchanging them with their contacts in the south. Instead, they provided their West African neighbours with salt, foods, and textiles. Glass beads and copper items from the Roman Mediterranean were also traded but only occasionally. The Garamantes imported a wide range of West African crops like rice, sorghum, cotton and pearl millet, and some of these crops were cultivated at Garama. Leather and ivory from animals like hippopotami were also imported from Sub-Saharan Africa. Domesticated animals from North Africa such as camels, chickens, and donkeys were first brought across the Western Sahara in the 4th century CE as a result of trans-Saharan trade. A West African gold trade route is thought to have opened up to the Roman Empire for a brief time during Late Antiquity. Gold ore was mined in the Niger Bend before being transported upriver and ultimately reaching Roman cities in North Africa. The existence of this pre-Islamic gold trade has been reinforced by the fact that Roman gold coin mintage in Carthage and Alexandria only began in 295 CE and lasted until 429 CE when it was disrupted by the Vandal invasion of North Africa. This gold trade explains the appearance of Roman glass, carnelian and textiles in Kissi, near the Sirba goldfields on the Niger Bend during the late 3rd century CE. This trade was a precursor to the medieval gold trade which was carried out in West Africa by Islamic traders beginning in the 7th century CE. Archaeological finds of Roman coins in Sub-Saharan Africa are extremely rare but the same is true of Arabic coins, despite the enormous scale of the medieval Islamic trans-Saharan trade. This is largely due to the fact that West African societies did not use a system of minted coinage as currency and so any imported coins would most likely be recirculated back north or melted down for their precious metals. More than rice and gemstones were brought north of the Sahara, however, and, in many ways, the movement of people has left a more enduring impact on the archaeological record than gold. Sub-Saharan slaves fulfilled an important role as labourers in Garama, where vast amounts of manpower were needed to maintain the expansive canal systems. Garamantian raiding activity against their Sub-Saharan neighbours may well have been an important source for the trans-Saharan slave trade of antiquity, more so than voluntary exchange. The Garamantes were reported to routinely hunt their southern neighbours from horse-drawn chariots: These Garamanteans of whom I speak hunt the "Cave-dwelling" Aethiopians [Troglodytes] with their four-horse chariots... (Herodotus, The Histories, Book IV, Ch. 183, translated by Godley p. 387) Saharan rock paintings which portray Garamantian chariots have been pointed to as evidence of periodic raids. The Garamantes also exported slaves to their Roman trading partners. Certain “Aethiopians” within the Roman Empire were associated with the Garamantes which implies Roman familiarity with Sub-Saharan Africans in Garamantian society. These slaves were transported as part of trade caravans which embarked from cities like Garama and travelled through the Sahara to the North African coast. The Roman trade in Sub-Saharan slaves dealt primarily in children and was conducted through port cities like Alexandria and Roman Carthage before reaching Europe and the Near East. In the Imperial Period, this trade seems to have been heavily weighted towards the Roman sex industry as there were far less expensive sources of slaves for agricultural or other manual labour, such as Italy, Gaul, and the Near East. While most West Africans in the Roman Empire likely ended up in the Mediterranean as a result of slavery, doubtless others lived within the borders of the empire as free people. “Aethiopians” are known to have served in the Roman military, were living in territories captured by the Romans, and travelled to Roman territories under their own initiative as traders or envoys. Even foreigners originally enslaved by Rome could find themselves freed and enfranchised. “Aethiopian” scholars, soldiers, athletes, and performers are known to have contributed to Roman society based on art, literature, remains, and inscriptions from throughout the Roman world. A New Perspective on Two Ancient Worlds In the popular imagination, European and Middle Eastern contact with Sub-Saharan Africa is a relatively recent development but this is clearly not so; the intermittent relationship between the Roman Mediterranean and West Africa discussed above shows how very different cultures attempted to reach far outside the horizons of their known world much earlier than many suppose. Through trade networks like these, ancient civilisations were able to overcome the Sahara desert, one of the greatest natural barriers in the world, an achievement which was rewarded by material and cultural wealth for those involved.
My name is Atharva Singh and we are continuing with this C programming course. In the previous videos we had seen that why we have to use the C programming language, why we have to learn it? After that we saw how we can install or set up this C programming course in our system, computer or laptop. That is the reason we had installed and set up both text editor and C compiler. We had installed Visual Studio code as the text editor and GCC compiler as the C compiler. In this video we will make use of both these things and we will start our first program. Yes, the 1st program of the C programming language we are going to start in this video. We programmers, before learning any programming language, the 1st program that we make in that language, that is one “hello world” program. What does the HelloWorld program do? It prints a basic or simple statement on our computer screen or on our output screen which says, “hello, world!” this is my first program or this kind of hello world statement. This Hello World program which is there, we will see this today in which way, by using which all things, we are able to print this statement in our C program. So, for example, this would be our today's Hello World program, where you can see on the screen that we have got five to six lines and basically this “Hello World” program which is there. What is it doing? This statement will be visible to you where it is written Hello comma world. This statement that is there, this program will help us print this statement on our output screen. In which way it will work, all those things we will see. So, without any delay, we will start and see how the flow of our program is going. Before starting this program, we will have to understand a few things, which are components of a C program. Here we can see that with which all things our C program is made. The first thing that we can see here is Preprocessor commands. We will understand this in our coming up slides. What exactly is a preprocessor command? But just to give you one glimpse, I will tell you that for example we have to make tea, the materials that we use to make tea, like milk, sugar or tea leaves, all these things we don't make on our own. We directly purchase it from the market. So, these raw materials that we have purchased for making the Tea. These preprocessor commands are of the same type, they help us by importing some raw materials, which means some files in our program right from the start. It includes them so that we can use those files in our program. We will learn more about this in our coming up slides. Let’s see what is the next thing in our C program, next are the functions. What are the functions? Functions are also of that type where you have to get one thing done repeatedly. What will you do? You will make a function of that thing. So that in the coming times if you want to use the same thing in your program. If you use only the name of the function there, rest of the things that you have to do will come there and get saved. In this way you can use one thing continuously in your code or program with the help of functions. We'll see more about this further. Next, we will see variables. We cannot see variables in this code example currently. But I will give you the glimpse of even this. What are variables? Basically, we give names to the variables. There are rules to give names to the variables. Like we cannot give any names like we cannot start our variable’s name with a number. Which means we cannot start our variable’s name with number one. In the same way there are many other rules to name these variables. What is the work of these variables? What is variable? Its works similar to its name. Variable means its value keeps varying. There are changes in the values. In the variable we basically store a value. Like I will take an example, I have taken a variable in my program and its name is “a”. In this “a” I have stored some values. Suppose I have stored 5 in a. Now, what will happen? Whenever I have to change anything or any value inside this variable. I can change it like I had put 5 before in a, now I will change it to 7 or 8. As per my requirement I can change the value stored inside it. So, this is the capability of the variables that you can change the values in it anytime. After variables we will see what are statements and expressions. You can see in this code example that one line starting with slash and star or there are lines starting from printf, these are the statements and expressions. Here you can see that in this printf line there is a semicolon at the end. So, the statements which are there in our C programming, basically they end with the semicolon. With the semicolon we get to know that this statement has been ended. In the same way these expressions are there. Inside printf’s bracket you can see that there are double quotes used. We have used them to write hello world. So, this Hello World is also a type of an expression. So, in this way with the help of statements and expressions also our C program is made. After that at the end we come to comments. Now, what is this comment? Comment is that part of the program which our compiler doesn't convert and tell the computer that you have to follow this action. It means that you can see in this code example that the line that is starting with slash and star in which it is mentioned is my first program in C. So, this is a type of comment. This comment is for our reference and this C compiler that we have, it doesn't convert this line or this comment and tell our computer that you have to do all these things. This is only for our reference so that we can get to know what is happening here in our program and accordingly what is going to happen going ahead. With all these things our C program is made. Now, we will directly switch and see the components of the program, like there is # included or int main. What does all these things mean? After this as soon as we will understand all these things, we will straight away move on to the Visual Studio code, there we will run our program and see how the output of our program is being generated. So, we will start and we will see the first line in our code’s sample which is our Hello World program. What is there in it? It is # include, then there are squarish brackets given and inside that it is given STD IO dot h. What is this line doing? This line is a preprocessor command, like I had given you an example of tea. You don't have to make milk at home to make the tea or you don't have to make the tea leaves to make tea at home, you could directly purchase it from somewhere. So, this #include command is like that purchase. What is it doing? The file name that has been given inside the bracket stdio.h, apart from that there can be some other files like conio.h. So, these different types of files that are there, this imports the #include statements in our program. Why does it import? Because these files like the stdio.h there are a few things already defined in them which we have not made, which are made by a C developer and they are including that in our C programming with the help of this preprocessor command, with the help of this #include function. So, this #include is helping us to import that file because this stdio.h has been already made by someone, so its functionality and its things we can use in our program as well. That is the reason we are writing this # include line. Now, you can see that this printf function that is there or mainf, the words that are written inside, even they keep some connection with the files that we have been included in the start. We will also see that because of this we had to import that file first in the line. So, you can see here, it is written that #include is a preprocessor command which tells the compiler to include the files beforehand. So, the bracket that you're seeing in triangular shape in whichever file’s name would be there. Our compiler will understand and import the file. What does this preprocessor command do? It imports any file in our program so that we can use the things in our program going ahead. So, we have understood the first line, we understood that this # include thing that is there in our program. What is that doing? Now we will be going ahead and see what is this int main? This is INT MAIN, you must be seeing round brackets ahead of it. So, these round brackets, this main and this int, what does it do? Basically, if you take a small example, like you have a house and there is a main door to your house, the main entrance, through same door your family members enter and exit. In the same way the entry point of our program is this main, MAIN. So, in every C program you will see this main function and this will be the entry point for our C program. From where our C compiler will start reading our code further and start converting it. So, this is a main type of function. How will we know that this is a function? Going ahead we will see what are these functions. But if we want to know whether these things are functions or not. How will we know that? As we can see that the main that is written here, there are round brackets after them. So, with these round brackets we get to understand that this is a type of function. So, we will understand it in this way, the main door of our house from where we enter and exit the house. In the same way, this main function is the entry point of our program. And from here our program gets started. The lines that we have written over it which were the preprocessor commands. We wrote those, so that we can tell the compiler that you have to include these files in our program. After all these things our main function comes, the main entry point comes and we go into it. So, how will you know that we have come into the main function? So, this is told to us by these curly brackets, you can see that after the names of the main function, you can see these curly brackets. And they are going at the last and ending. Which means opening curly brackets and closing curly brackets. Whatever is written inside these curly brackets, it is the part of our main function and it is inside our main function. As and when you will get familiar with the C programming language, you will practise it, you will start understanding these things more easily. So, we saw what are the preprocessor commands, which was the first line in our code example. After that we saw how this main function is working. Now, we will go ahead and see this third line which is there, which is starting with a slash and an asterix, which means it is starting with the star. What exactly does it do? The one that is starting with slash and star and ending with it, this will be ignored by the compiler. The compiler will ignore this. Why will it ignore it? Because this command is not for the computer. This is for our reference. The person that is writing the program, the person that is giving the set of instructions, it is for his reference. So that you get to know what exactly you have told the computer to do in this part. So, that is the reason why it makes it so easy for us to understand the program. Because as you can see what is inside that slash, in that slash it is written my first program in c. So, after reading this you can understand that this program is your first program in C language. So, basically these comments that start with slash and star, we call these comments, as we have seen before. These comments are ignored by our compiler. It doesn't convert to tell our computer, it ignores them. It is only for our reference so that we can understand what this program is doing in the particular area or in the particular section. After that we will come to our fourth line of our program. The printf line, what is printf? Even this is a type of function. How did I get to know that this is a function? Because after the name the round bracket that you can see, those come. Because of those I can get to know that printf is a function. What does this printf exactly do? Before this I will tell you that this preprocessor command that I had written on the top, in which I had written that #include the stdio.h file. This stdio.h file, what does this define? Why did we import this in the program? We have imported it so that the input and output things, the functionalities that are there or the program that is there, how will it handle our input things like our keyboard and mouse or how will it handle the output screen that will come. All these things are defined in stdio.h file. That is the reason why this printf function, which is the fourth line that you're seeing, inside which we have written this “Hello World” and even that we have given in double quotes. So, this printf line, we have taken from stdio.h file. Now you will be able to understand that since we have imported stdio.h file at the start itself, that is the reason why we could use this printf line. And in printf line we have written in double quotes hello world. We want that this Hello World should be printed on our output screen. We will see how it is getting printed, you can see that after the Hello World we have given a backslash and n as well. This backslash and n you ignore it for the meantime. In the coming programs, ppts or slides, we will understand how these things work. Ignore it for meanwhile, you only concentrate on the printf line which is starting with round brackets and inside that we have written HelloWorld. And how is it ending? It is ending with a semicolon, as we had seen in the earlier slide that our statements end with a semicolon. That is the reason why our printf line is ending with a semicolon because this is a statement. So, we can read here as well, printf is a function which causes the message Hello World. So, when we will see on our output screen, we will be able to see Hello World is getting displayed over there. So, we understood all these four lines that what they are doing and in which way they are working. Now we will come to the next line and see what it does. Return 0 is basically, our main function or main door which was there, we have to close it now. So, our return 0 line is telling us that. So, we had taken an example of a house, where there is a main door, you have entered the main door, you keep on walking, there will be some wall which will tell you that now the house has ended. There is no house beyond this wall, beyond this there is someone else's house. This return 0 line that you are able to see, this works in the same way the way the wall is telling you that here your house has ended. So, from where was our main function started, from where main is written and where did it end? To return 0. Whenever we will see the return 0, you should be able to understand that your main function has ended. So, all these things that were there, the parts of our code’s example, we have understood one by one that what is the work they are doing? How are they being used? And after that, at the end this curly bracket that you're seeing, you must have already understood that we had started the main function with the curly brackets so the end also will have to be done with curly brackets. So, in this way, we have used the opening and curly brackets. After this, we have understood what should be the flow of our program, how will it start and after that, how will it end. Now we have to see how it will get compiled. Let's see how this will get compiled. Since we are going to use the Visual Studio Code as a text editor. There we will type our program and after saving that program, which means there will be a save option that will come. I will show it to you by going to the Visual Studio Code. A save option will come there, you have to save and then you have to take the cursor on the screen and right click. After right clicking you will get these options, which you're seeing right now on the screen. You have to go on the run code option. As soon as you click on the run code option. Your compiler will start and will start reading your lines one by one and it will try to understand what you are trying to say with the help of your program. After reading the lines and after completing all the work, it will give you all the desired action output on your screen. How does it work? Let's go and see in our Visual Studio Code. This is our Visual Studio code, we have already written the Hello World program where we have written “#include, stdio.h”, after that our int main function has started and then there was printf line, inside whatever was written, we had to print that. Then there is return 0. What is the return 0 telling us? It is telling us that our main function is ending over here. I will do it again once and show it to you how I made this file. You must be seeing this Visual Studio Code, all its options you can explore. The option that we have to use currently, that would be the file one. After going into the file, we have to click on new file and the new file will be created here. You can even do it in this way. First of all, you have to open a folder, so you will go into the file and you will see a fifth option here of opening the folder. So, you will click on it, since I have to currently work on my desktop, so I will select the desktop and I will select the folder. As soon as I selected the desktop you can see that my desktop folder will open in this. Currently there is nothing on my desktop, that is the reason you can see blank here. Whichever files would be there on your desktop, those you will see below. Now what do you have to do? You can see the desktop folder over here. After that, you will see a new file option over here. You have to left click on it and you have to give some name to your file. Like, since we're making a hello world program, I would name it “Hello World”. After that, you have to put a dot and write C. Here you can see I have written “helloworld.c”. Why I have written .c because we know that we are learning C programming language, so it's a file extension that is there, the name that we have to write in front of the file, that is .c. Otherwise when we make a Word file, it’s extension is doc or if we make a pdf, its extension is pdf. In the same way, extension of C program is .c. After writing this we will press enter, within a few seconds you will see that your helloword.c file will open here and you can see that the cursor is blinking here and saying that type your C program over here. Without any delay we will quickly type here what we had learned and what we saw right now, our Hello World program. We will quickly type it over here, first of all we have written a preprocessor command over here, after that our main door, which is the main function that we have written and to have a start and end to the main function, we have given the curly brackets. After that currently there is no need to add the comment here. Because we know that we are making a C program over here of Hello World. So that's the reason why we don't require it. We will write here printf after that we will put brackets over here, double quotes will come here and we will mention here that this is a Hello World program. That is the reason why we are writing hello world over here. After that, we will put a semicolon which will tell us that this statement has ended. Since we have to close the main function, what we will write here is return 0 and semicolon. So, our entire C program is done, this is complete. The Hello World C program is complete. You can see a white dot over here. Which means that your program is not saved. So, if you go here inside the file and click on the Save option. You can even use the shortcut. If you click on save, your program will be saved. What do you have to do now is you have to go anywhere on the screen and right click. Like I had told you, all these options will be displayed over here. You have to go on the first option and you have to click on run code. As soon as you click on the run code, you will see that there is a box-like thing open below. This is our one output screen. On this output screen we can see that the compiler has compiled our code and told it to the computer how to do what and our computer has printed the statement over here. Like everyone can see. The way you had defined that you have to get Hello World written. Exactly the same Hello World is displayed over here. This power, this functionality of a C programming language, this makes it more efficient, structured and better. So, we explored the first program of the C programming language here. We will learn more things going ahead and understand them and even make big programs. Whose functionality will be better than this. If you feel that there is any part of this topic or this video that you may not have understood, based on that topic, any question or query you can ask us without any inhibition. You have to go on forums.learnvern.com You have to type out your query there in your language, we will come to you with the solution or the answer as soon as possible in your own language. Apart from this if you want to have a discussion on any of the topics, even that you can do on forums.learnvern.com. After this we are going to learn a few basic syntax which we use in C language. What is the syntax? Syntax means the way of writing the C programming language, all these things we are going to learn in the coming up topic. Till next time, thank you so much everyone. Share a personalized message with your friends.
Ancient Greek architecture Information \|Years active\|\|c. 900 BC-1st century AD\| Ancient Greek architecture came from the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, with the Parthenon regarded, now as in ancient times, as the prime example. Most remains are very incomplete ruins, but a number survive substantially intact, mostly outside modern Greece. The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 525–480 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway ( propylon), the public square ( agora) surrounded by storied colonnade ( stoa), the town council building ( bouleuterion), the public monument, the monumental tomb ( mausoleum) and the stadium. Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each building appears to have been conceived as a sculptural entity within the landscape, most often raised on high ground so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles. Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "the plastic shape of the [Greek] temple [...] placed before us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of any later building". The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have a profound effect on Western architecture of later periods. The architecture of ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the present day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive not only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but also its concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted ancient Greek styles closely. \|Part of a series on the\| \|History of Greek art\| The mainland and islands of Greece are very rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests. The most freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily available and easily worked. There is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a major contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned ancient Greek architecture. Deposits of high-quality potter's clay were found throughout Greece and the Islands, with major deposits near Athens. It was used not only for pottery vessels but also roof tiles and architectural decoration. The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings and processions, while theatres were often an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms. The light of Greece may be another important factor in the development of the particular character of ancient Greek architecture. The light is often extremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The clear light and sharp shadows give a precision to the details of the landscape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of haze that varies in colour to the light on it. In this characteristic environment, the ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked by the precision of detail. The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, cast graded shadows and change in colour with the ever-changing light of day. Historians divide ancient Greek civilization into two eras, the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 30 AD). During the earlier Hellenic period, substantial works of architecture began to appear around 600 BC. During the later (Hellenistic) period, Greek culture spread as a result of Alexander's conquest of other lands, and later as a result of the rise of the Roman Empire, which adopted much of Greek culture. Before the Hellenic era, two major cultures had dominated the region: the Minoan (c. 2800–1100 BC), and the Mycenaean (c. 1500–1100 BC). Minoan is the name given by modern historians to the culture of the people of ancient Crete, known for its elaborate and richly decorated palaces, and for its pottery, the most famous of which painted with floral and motifs of sea life. The Mycenaean culture, which flourished on the Peloponnesus, was quite different in character. Its people built citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palaces, and decorated their pottery with bands of marching soldiers rather than octopus and seaweed. Both these civilizations came to an end around 1100 BC, that of Crete possibly because of volcanic devastation, and that of Mycenae because of an invasion by the Dorian people who lived on the Greek mainland. Following these events, there was a period from which only a village level of culture seems to have existed. This period is thus often referred to as the Greek Dark Age. The art history of the Hellenic era is generally subdivided into four periods: the Protogeometric (1100–900 BC), the Geometric (900–700 BC), the Archaic (700–500 BC) and the Classical (500–323 BC) with sculpture being further divided into Severe Classical, High Classical and Late Classical. The first signs of the particular artistic character that defines ancient Greek architecture are to be seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from the 10th century BC. Already at this period it is created with a sense of proportion, symmetry and balance not apparent in similar pottery from Crete and Mycenae. The decoration is precisely geometric, and ordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel. These qualities were to manifest themselves not only through a millennium of Greek pottery making, but also in the architecture that was to emerge in the 6th century. The major development that occurred was in the growing use of the human figure as the major decorative motif, and the increasing surety with which humanity, its mythology, activities and passions were depicted. The development in the depiction of the human form in pottery was accompanied by a similar development in sculpture. The tiny stylised bronzes of the Geometric period gave way to life-sized highly formalised monolithic representation in the Archaic period. The Classical period was marked by a rapid development towards idealised but increasingly lifelike depictions of gods in human form. This development had a direct effect on the sculptural decoration of temples, as many of the greatest extant works of ancient Greek sculpture once adorned temples, and many of the largest recorded statues of the age, such as the lost chryselephantine statues of Zeus at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and Athena at the Parthenon, Athens, both over 40 feet high, were once housed in them. The religion of ancient Greece was a form of nature worship that grew out of the beliefs of earlier cultures. However, unlike earlier cultures, the man was no longer perceived as being threatened by nature, but as its sublime product. The natural elements were personified as gods of the complete human form, and very human behaviour. The home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. The most important deities were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler of the sky; Hera, his wife and goddess of marriage; Athena, goddess of wisdom; Poseidon, the god of the sea; Demeter, goddess of the harvest; Apollo, the god of the sun, law, healing, plague, reason, music and poetry; Artemis, goddess of the moon, the hunt and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of love; Ares, God of war; Hermes, the god of commerce and travellers, Hephaestus, the god of fire and metalwork, and Dionysus, the god of wine and fruit-bearing plants. Worship, like many other activities, was done in the community, in the open. However, by 600 BC, the gods were often represented by large statues and it was necessary to provide a building in which each of these could be housed. This led to the development of temples. The ancient Greeks perceived order in the universe, and in turn, applied order and reason to their creations. Their humanist philosophy put mankind at the centre of things and promoted well-ordered societies and the development of democracy. At the same time, the respect for human intellect demanded a reason, and promoted a passion for enquiry, logic, challenge, and problem-solving. The architecture of the ancient Greeks, and in particular, temple architecture, responds to these challenges with a passion for beauty, and for order and symmetry which is the product of a continual search for perfection, rather than a simple application of a set of working rules. There is a clear division between the architecture of the preceding Mycenaean and Minoan cultures and that of the ancient Greeks, with much of the techniques and an understanding of their style being lost when these civilisations fell. Mycenaean architecture is marked by massive fortifications, typically surrounding a citadel with a royal palace, much smaller than the rambling Minoan "palaces", and relatively few other buildings. The megaron, a rectangular hall with a hearth in the centre, was the largest room in the palaces, and also larger houses. Sun-dried brick above rubble bases were the usual materials, with wooden columns and roof-beams. Rows of ashlar stone orthostats lined the base of walls in some prominent locations. The Minoan architecture of Crete was of the trabeated form like that of ancient Greece. It employed wooden columns with capitals, but the wooden columns were of a very different form to Doric columns, being narrow at the base and splaying upward. The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to have developed independently. As with Minoan architecture, ancient Greek domestic architecture centred on open spaces or courtyards surrounded by colonnades. This form was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls within the larger temples. The evolution that occurred in architecture was towards the public building, first and foremost the temple, rather than towards grand domestic architecture such as had evolved in Crete, if the Cretan "palaces" were indeed domestic, which remains very uncertain. Some Mycenaean tombs are marked by circular structures and tapered domes with flat-bedded, cantilevered courses. This architectural form did not carry over into the architecture of ancient Greece, but reappeared about 400 BC in the interior of large monumental tombs such as the Lion Tomb at Knidos (c. 350 BC). The Greek word for the family or household, oikos, is also the name for the house. Houses followed several different types. It is probable that many of the earliest houses were simple structures of two rooms, with an open porch or pronaos, above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment. This form is thought to have contributed to temple architecture. The construction of many houses employed walls of sun-dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone which protected the more vulnerable elements from damp. The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls. Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of stone and plastered. The roofing material for the substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the Classical style. Many houses centred on a wide passage or "pasta" which ran the length of the house and opened at one side onto a small courtyard which admitted light and air. Larger houses had a fully developed peristyle (courtyard) at the centre, with the rooms arranged around it. Some houses had an upper floor which appears to have been reserved for the use of the women of the family. City houses were built with adjoining walls and were divided into small blocks by narrow streets. Shops were sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. City houses were inward-facing, with major openings looking onto the central courtyard, rather than the street. The rectangular temple is the most common and best-known form of Greek public architecture. This rectilinear structure borrows from the Late Helladic, Mycenaean megaron, which contained a central throne room, vestibule, and porch. The temple did not serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood under the open sky in the temenos or sacred precinct, often directly before the temple. Temples served as the location of a cult image and as a storage place or strong room for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. Some Greek temples appear to have been oriented astronomically. The temple was generally part of a religious precinct known as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, "the site should be a spot seen far and wide, which gives good elevation to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood". Small circular temples, tholoi were also constructed, as well as small temple-like buildings that served as treasuries for specific groups of donors. During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC, town planning became an important consideration of Greek builders, with towns such as Paestum and Priene being laid out with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or central market place surrounded by a colonnade or stoa. The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens. Towns were also equipped with a public fountain where water could be collected for household use. The development of regular town plans is associated with Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras. Public buildings became "dignified and gracious structures", and were sited so that they related to each other architecturally. The propylon or porch, formed the entrance to temple sanctuaries and other significant sites with the best-surviving example being the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens. The bouleuterion was a large public building with a hypostyle hall that served as a court house and as a meeting place for the town council ( boule). Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia and Miletus, the latter having held up to 1,200 people. Every Greek town had an open-air theatre. These were used for both public meetings as well as dramatic performances. The theatre was usually set in a hillside outside the town, and had rows of tiered seating set in a semicircle around the central performance area, the orchestra. Behind the orchestra was a low building called the skênê, which served as a store-room, a dressing room, and also as a backdrop to the action taking place in the orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, the best known being at Epidaurus by the architect Polykleitos the Younger. Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male citizens which included spectator areas, baths, toilets and club rooms. Other buildings associated with sports include the hippodrome for horse racing, of which only remnants have survived, and the stadium for foot racing, 600 feet in length, of which examples exist at Olympia, Delphi, Epidaurus and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th century and was used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic Games. The architecture of ancient Greece is of a trabeated or " post and lintel" form, i.e. it is composed of upright beams (posts) supporting horizontal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in stone, it is clear that the origin of the style lies in simple wooden structures, with vertical posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof. The posts and beams divided the walls into regular compartments which could be left as openings, or filled with sun dried bricks, lathes or straw and covered with clay daub or plaster. Alternately, the spaces might be filled with rubble. It is likely that many early houses and temples were constructed with an open porch or "pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment. The earliest temples, built to enshrine statues of deities, were probably of wooden construction, later replaced by the more durable stone temples many of which are still in evidence today. The signs of the original timber nature of the architecture were maintained in the stone buildings. A few of these temples are very large, with several, such as the Temple of Zeus Olympus and the Olympians at Athens being well over 300 feet in length, but most were less than half this size. It appears that some of the large temples began as wooden constructions in which the columns were replaced piecemeal as stone became available. This, at least was the interpretation of the historian Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera at Olympia in the 2nd century AD. The stone columns are made of a series of solid stone cylinders or "drums" that rest on each other without mortar, but were sometimes centred with a bronze pin. The columns are wider at the base than at the top, tapering with an outward curve known as entasis. Each column has a capital of two parts, the upper, on which rests the lintels, being square and called the abacus. The part of the capital that rises from the column itself is called the echinus. It differs according to the order, being plain in the Doric order, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in the Corinthian. Doric and usually Ionic capitals are cut with vertical grooves known as fluting. This fluting or grooving of the columns is a retention of an element of the original wooden architecture. The entablature is the major horizontal structural element supporting the roof and encircling the entire building. It is composed of three parts. Resting on the columns is the architrave made of a series of stone "lintels" that spanned the space between the columns, and meet each other at a joint directly above the centre of each column. Above the architrave is a second horizontal stage called the frieze. The frieze is one of the major decorative elements of the building and carries a sculptured relief. In the case of Ionic and Corinthian architecture, the relief decoration runs in a continuous band, but in the Doric order, it is divided into sections called metopes, which fill the spaces between vertical rectangular blocks called triglyphs. The triglyphs are vertically grooved like the Doric columns, and retain the form of the wooden beams that would once have supported the roof. The upper band of the entablature is called the cornice, which is generally ornately decorated on its lower edge. The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would once have supported the wooden roof at each end of the building. At the front and rear of each temple, the entablature supports a triangular structure called the pediment. The tympanum is the triangular space framed by the cornices and the location of the most significant sculptural decoration on the exterior of the building. Every temple rested on a masonry base called the crepidoma, generally of three steps, of which the upper one which carried the columns was the stylobate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from about 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was usually employed for temple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints. The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries to be cut and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly ever being used. Blocks, particularly those of columns and parts of the building bearing loads were sometimes fixed in place or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rods of wood, bronze or iron fixed in lead to minimise corrosion. Door and window openings were spanned with a lintel, which in a stone building limited the possible width of the opening. The distance between columns was similarly affected by the nature of the lintel, columns on the exterior of buildings and carrying stone lintels being closer together than those on the interior, which carried wooden lintels. Door and window openings narrowed towards the top. Temples were constructed without windows, the light to the naos entering through the door. It has been suggested that some temples were lit from openings in the roof. A door of the Ionic Order at the Erechtheion (17 feet high and 7.5 feet wide at the top) retains many of its features intact, including mouldings, and an entablature supported on console brackets. (See Architectural Decoration, below) The widest span of a temple roof was across the cella, or inner chamber. In a large building, this space contains columns to support the roof, the architectural form being known as hypostyle. It appears that, although the architecture of ancient Greece was initially of wooden construction, the early builders did not have the concept of the diagonal truss as a stabilising member. This is evidenced by the nature of temple construction in the 6th century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cella rise higher than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employed as an integral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the rafters were supported directly by the entablature, walls and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame, which came into use in Greek architecture only in the 3rd century BC. Ancient Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster construction were probably roofed with thatch. With the rise of stone architecture came the appearance of fired ceramic roof tiles. These early roof tiles showed an S-shape, with the pan and cover tile forming one piece. They were much larger than modern roof tiles, being up to 90 cm (35.43 in) long, 70 cm (27.56 in) wide, 3–4 cm (1.18–1.57 in) thick and weighing around 30 kg (66 lb) apiece. Only stone walls, which were replacing the earlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to support the weight of a tiled roof. The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic period in Greece are documented from a very restricted area around Corinth, where fired tiles began to replace thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC. Spreading rapidly, roof tiles were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, Western Asia Minor, Southern and Central Italy. Being more expensive and labour-intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has been explained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desired protection to the costly temples. As a side-effect, it has been assumed that the new stone and tile construction also ushered in the end of overhanging eaves in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete. Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to appear in tombs (in a "beehive" or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, as they were to become in ancient Roman architecture. Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximately twice as long as they were wide, with some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nearly 21⁄2 times its width. A number of surviving temple-like structures are circular, and are referred to as tholos. The smallest temples are less than 25 metres (approx. 75 feet) in length, or in the case of the circular tholos, in diameter. The great majority of temples are between 30 and 60 metres (approx. 100–200 feet) in length. A small group of Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are between 60 and 80 metres (approx. 200–260 feet) in length. The largest temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, but including the Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, were between 90 and 120 metres (approx. 300–390 feet) in length. The temple rises from a stepped base or stylobate, which elevates the structure above the ground on which it stands. Early examples, such as the Temple of Zeus at Olympus, have two steps, but the majority, like the Parthenon, have three, with the exceptional example of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma having six. The core of the building is a masonry-built "naos" within which is a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue of the god. The cella generally has a porch or "pronaos" before it, and perhaps a second chamber or "antenaos" serving as a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted with a wrought iron grill. Some rooms appear to have been illuminated by skylights. On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined as being of a particular type, with two terms: one describing the number of columns across the entrance front, and the other defining their distribution. - Distyle in antis describes a small temple with two columns at the front, which are set between the projecting walls of the pronaos or porch, like the Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus. (see left, figure 1.) - Amphiprostyle tetrastyle describes a small temple that has columns at both ends which stand clear of the naos. Tetrastyle indicates that the columns are four in number, like those of the Temple on the Ilissus in Athens. (figure 4.) - Peripteral hexastyle describes a temple with a single row of peripheral columns around the naos, with six columns across the front, like the Theseion in Athens. (figure 7.) - Peripteral octastyle describes a temple with a single row of columns around the naos, (figure 7.) with eight columns across the front, like the Parthenon, Athens. (figs. 6 and 9.) - Dipteral decastyle describes the huge temple of Apollo at Didyma, with the naos surrounded by a double row of columns, (figure 6.) with ten columns across the entrance front. - The Temple of Zeus Olympius at Agrigentum, is termed Pseudo-periteral heptastyle, because its encircling colonnade has pseudo columns that are attached to the walls of the naos. (figure 8.) Heptastyle means that it has seven columns across the entrance front. The ideal of proportion that was used by ancient Greek architects in designing temples was not a simple mathematical progression using a square module. The math involved a more complex geometrical progression, the so-called golden mean. The ratio is similar to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs employed by ancient Greek architects as particularly in evidence in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. The ancient Greek architects took a philosophic approach to the rules and proportions. The determining factor in the mathematics of any notable work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed against the sky look different from those adjacent that are viewed against a shadowed wall. Because of these factors, the architects adjusted the plans so that the major lines of any significant building are rarely straight. The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to top. However, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved so that each columns appears to have a slight swelling, called entasis below the middle. The entasis is never sufficiently pronounced as to make the swelling wider than the base; it is controlled by a slight reduction in the rate of decrease of diameter. The Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, is referred to by many as the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture. Helen Gardner refers to its "unsurpassable excellence", to be surveyed, studied and emulated by architects of later ages. Yet, as Gardner points out, there is hardly a straight line in the building. Banister Fletcher calculated that the stylobate curves upward so that its centres at either end rise about 65 millimetres (2.6 inches) above the outer corners, and 110 mm (4.3 in) on the longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment has been made to the entablature. The columns at the ends of the building are not vertical but are inclined towards the centre, with those at the corners being out of plumb by about 65 mm (2.6 in). These outer columns are both slightly wider than their neighbours and are slightly closer than any of the others. Ancient Greek architecture of the most formal type, for temples and other public buildings, is divided stylistically into three Classical orders, first described by the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius. These are: the Doric order, the Ionic order, and the Corinthian order, the names reflecting their regional origins within the Greek world. While the three orders are most easily recognizable by their capitals, they also governed the form, proportions, details and relationships of the columns, entablature, pediment, and the stylobate. The different orders were applied to the whole range of buildings and monuments. The Doric order developed on mainland Greece and spread to Magna Graecia (Italy). It was firmly established and well-defined in its characteristics by the time of the building of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC. The Ionic order co-existed with the Doric, being favoured by the Greek cities of Ionia, in Asia Minor and the Aegean Islands. It did not reach a clearly defined form until the mid 5th century BC. The early Ionic temples of Asia Minor were particularly ambitious in scale, such as the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The Corinthian order was a highly decorative variant not developed until the Hellenistic period and retaining many characteristics of the Ionic. It was popularised by the Romans. The Doric order is recognised by its capital, of which the echinus is like a circular cushion rising from the top of the column to the square abacus on which rest the lintels. The echinus appears flat and splayed in early examples, deeper and with greater curve in later, more refined examples, and smaller and straight-sided in Hellenistic examples. A refinement of the Doric column is the entasis, a gentle convex swelling to the profile of the column, which prevents an optical illusion of concavity. This is more pronounced in earlier examples. Doric columns are almost always cut with grooves, known as "fluting", which run the length of the column and are usually 20 in number, although sometimes fewer. The flutes meet at sharp edges called arrises. At the top of the columns, slightly below the narrowest point, and crossing the terminating arrises, are three horizontal grooves known as the hypotrachelion. Doric columns have no bases, until a few examples in the Hellenistic period. The columns of an early Doric temple such as the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse, Sicily, may have a height to base diameter ratio of only 4:1 and a column height to entablature ratio of 2:1, with relatively crude details. A column height to diameter of 6:1 became more usual, while the column height to entablature ratio at the Parthenon is about 3:1. During the Hellenistic period, Doric conventions of solidity and masculinity dropped away, with the slender and unfluted columns reaching a height to diameter ratio of 7.5:1. The Doric entablature is in three parts, the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. The architrave is composed of the stone lintels which span the space between the columns, with a joint occurring above the centre of each abacus. On this rests the frieze, one of the major areas of sculptural decoration. The frieze is divided into triglyphs and metopes, the triglyphs, as stated elsewhere in this article, are a reminder of the timber history of the architectural style. Each triglyph has three vertical grooves, similar to the columnar fluting, and below them, seemingly connected, are guttae, small strips that appear to connect the triglyphs to the architrave below. A triglyph is located above the centre of each capital, and above the centre of each lintel. However, at the corners of the building, the triglyphs do not fall over the centre the column. The ancient architects took a pragmatic approach to the apparent "rules", simply extending the width of the last two metopes at each end of the building. The cornice is a narrow jutting band of complex molding, which overhangs and protects the ornamented frieze, like the edge of an overhanging wooden-framed roof. It is decorated on the underside with projecting blocks, mutules, further suggesting the wooden nature of the prototype. At either end of the building the pediment rises from the cornice, framed by moulding of similar form. The pediment is decorated with figures that are in relief in the earlier examples, though almost free-standing by the time of the sculpture on the Parthenon. Early architectural sculptors found difficulty in creating satisfactory sculptural compositions in the tapering triangular space. By the Early Classical period, with the decoration of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (486–460 BC), the sculptors had solved the problem by having a standing central figure framed by rearing centaurs and fighting men who are falling, kneeling and lying in attitudes that fit the size and angle of each part of the space. The famous sculptor Phidias fills the space at the Parthenon (448–432 BC) with a complex array of draped and undraped figures of deities, who appear in attitudes of sublime relaxation and elegance. The Ionic order is recognized by its voluted capital, in which a curved echinus of similar shape to that of the Doric order, but decorated with stylised ornament, is surmounted by a horizontal band that scrolls under to either side, forming spirals or volutes similar to those of the nautilus shell or ram's horn. In plan, the capital is rectangular. It is designed to be viewed frontally but the capitals at the corners of buildings are modified with an additional scroll so as to appear regular on two adjoining faces. In the Hellenistic period, four-fronted Ionic capitals became common. Like the Doric order, the Ionic order retains signs of having its origins in wooden architecture. The horizontal spread of a flat timber plate across the top of a column is a common device in wooden construction, giving a thin upright a wider area on which to bear the lintel, while at the same time reinforcing the load-bearing strength of the lintel itself. Likewise, the columns always have bases, a necessity in wooden architecture to spread the load and protect the base of a comparatively thin upright. The columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that do not meet at a sharp edge but have a flat band or fillet between them. The usual number of flutes is twenty-four but there may be as many as forty-four. The base has two convex mouldings called torus, and from the late Hellenic period stood on a square plinth similar to the abacus. The architrave of the Ionic order is sometimes undecorated, but more often rises in three outwardly-stepped bands like overlapping timber planks. The frieze, which runs in a continuous band, is separated from the other members by rows of small projecting blocks. They are referred to as dentils, meaning "teeth", but their origin is clearly in narrow wooden slats which supported the roof of a timber structure. The Ionic order is altogether lighter in appearance than the Doric, with the columns, including base and capital, having a 9:1 ratio with the diameter, while the whole entablature was also much narrower and less heavy than the Doric entablature. There was some variation in the distribution of decoration. Formalised bands of motifs such as alternating forms known as egg-and-dart were a feature of the Ionic entablatures, along with the bands of dentils. The external frieze often contained a continuous band of figurative sculpture or ornament, but this was not always the case. Sometimes a decorative frieze occurred around the upper part of the naos rather than on the exterior of the building. These Ionic-style friezes around the naos are sometimes found on Doric buildings, notably the Parthenon. Some temples, like the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, had friezes of figures around the lower drum of each column, separated from the fluted section by a bold moulding. Caryatids, draped female figures used as supporting members to carry the entablature, were a feature of the Ionic order, occurring at several buildings including the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi in 525 BC and at the Erechtheion, about 410 BC. The Corinthian order does not have its origin in wooden architecture. It grew directly out of the Ionic in the mid 5th century BC, and was initially of much the same style and proportion, but distinguished by its more ornate capitals. The capital was very much deeper than either the Doric or the Ionic capital, being shaped like a large krater, a bell-shaped mixing bowl, and being ornamented with a double row of acanthus leaves above which rose voluted tendrils, supporting the corners of the abacus, which, no longer perfectly square, splayed above them. According to Vitruvius, the capital was invented by a bronze founder, Callimachus of Corinth, who took his inspiration from a basket of offerings that had been placed on a grave, with a flat tile on top to protect the goods. The basket had been placed on the root of an acanthus plant which had grown up around it. The ratio of the column height to diameter is generally 10:1, with the capital taking up more than 1/10 of the height. The ratio of capital height to diameter is generally about 1.16:1. The Corinthian order was initially used internally, as at the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (c. 450–425 BC). In 334 BC, it appeared as an external feature on the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, and then on a huge scale at the Temple of Zeus Olympia in Athens (174 BC–132 AD). It was popularised by the Romans, who added a number of refinements and decorative details. During the Hellenistic period, Corinthian columns were sometimes built without fluting. Early wooden structures, particularly temples, were ornamented and in part protected by fired and painted terracotta revetments in the form of rectangular panels, and ornamental discs. Many fragments of these have outlived the buildings that they decorated and demonstrate a wealth of formal border designs of geometric scrolls, overlapping patterns and foliate motifs. With the introduction of stone-built temples, the revetments no longer served a protective purpose and sculptured decoration became more common. The clay ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings, decorating the cornice, the corners and surmounting the pediment. At the corners of pediments they were called acroteria and along the sides of the building, antefixes. Early decorative elements were generally semi-circular, but later of roughly triangular shape with moulded ornament, often palmate. Ionic cornices were often set with a row of lion's masks, with open mouths that ejected rainwater. From the Late Classical period, acroteria were sometimes sculptured figures (see Architectural sculpture). In the three orders of ancient Greek architecture, the sculptural decoration, be it a simple half round astragal, a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornate sculpture of the pediment, is all essential to the architecture of which it is a part. In the Doric order, there is no variation in its placement. Reliefs never decorate walls in an arbitrary way. The sculpture is always located in several predetermined areas, the metopes and the pediment. In later Ionic architecture, there is greater diversity in the types and numbers of mouldings and decorations, particularly around doorways, where voluted brackets sometimes occur supporting an ornamental cornice over a door, such as that at the Erechtheion. A much applied narrow moulding is called "bead and reel" and is symmetrical, stemming from turned wooden prototypes. Wider mouldings include one with tongue-like or pointed leaf shapes, which are grooved and sometimes turned upward at the tip, and "egg and dart" moulding which alternates ovoid shapes with narrow pointy ones. Architectural sculpture showed a development from early Archaic examples through Severe Classical, High Classical, Late Classical and Hellenistic. Remnants of Archaic architectural sculpture (700–500 BC) exist from the early 6th century BC with the earliest surviving pedimental sculptures being fragments of a Gorgon flanked by heraldic panthers from the centre of the pediment of the Artemis Temple of Corfu. A metope from a temple known as "Temple C" at Selinus, Sicily, shows, in a better preserved state, Perseus slaying the Gorgon Medusa. Both images parallel the stylised depiction of the Gorgons on the black figure name vase decorated by the Nessos painter (c. 600 BC), with the face and shoulders turned frontally, and the legs in a running or kneeling position. At this date, images of terrifying monsters have predominance over the emphasis on the human figure that developed with Humanist philosophy. Early pedimental sculptures, and those on smaller temples, were usually in relief, and the late free-standing ones were often in terracotta, which has survived only in fragments. The sculptures were covered with a layer of stucco and painted or, if terracotta, painted with the more restrained fired colours of Greek pottery. The Severe Classical Style (500–450 BC) is represented by the pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (470–456 BC). The eastern pediment shows a moment of stillness and "impending drama" before the beginning of a chariot race, the figures of Zeus and the competitors being severe and idealised representations of the human form. The western pediment has Apollo as the central figure, "majestic" and "remote", presiding over a battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, in strong contrast to that of the eastern pediment for its depiction of violent action, and described by Donald E. Strong as the "most powerful piece of illustration" for a hundred years. The reliefs and three-dimensional sculpture which adorned the frieze and pediments, respectively, of the Parthenon, are the lifelike products of the High Classical style (450–400 BC) and were created under the direction of the sculptor Phidias. The pedimental sculpture represents the Gods of Olympus, while the frieze shows the Panathenaic procession and ceremonial events that took place every four years to honour the titular Goddess of Athens. The frieze and remaining figures of the eastern pediment show a profound understanding of the human body, and how it varies depending upon its position and the stresses that action and emotion place upon it. Benjamin Robert Haydon described the reclining figure of Dionysus as "the most heroic style of art, combined with all the essential detail of actual life". The names of many famous sculptors are known from the Late Classical period (400–323 BC), including Timotheos, Praxiteles, Leochares and Skopas, but their works are known mainly from Roman copies. Little architectural sculpture of the period remains intact. The Temple of Asclepius at Epidauros had sculpture by Timotheos working with the architect Theodotos. Fragments of the eastern pediment survive, showing the Sack of Troy. The scene appears to have filled the space with figures carefully arranged to fit the slope and shape available, as with earlier east pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympus. But the figures are more violent in action, the central space taken up, not with a commanding God, but with the dynamic figure of Neoptolemos as he seizes the aged king Priam and stabs him. The remaining fragments give the impression of a whole range of human emotions, fear, horror, cruelty and lust for conquest. The acroteria were sculptured by Timotheus, except for that at the centre of the east pediment which is the work of the architect. The palmate acroteria have been replaced here with small figures, the eastern pediment being surmounted by a winged Nike, poised against the wind. Hellenistic architectural sculpture (323–31 BC) was to become more flamboyant, both in the rendering of expression and motion, which is often emphasised by flowing draperies, the Nike Samothrace which decorated a monument in the shape of a ship being a well-known example. The Pergamon Altar (c. 180–160 BC) has a frieze (120 metres long by 2.3 metres high) of figures in very high relief. 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TEAS Math Study Guide Lesson 1: Operations Basics - Integers, Decimals, and Fractions - Addition and Subtraction - Multiplication and Division - Exponents and Roots - Laws of Exponents - Exponents and Roots - Associative Property - Distributive Property - Order of Operations Lesson 2: Factors and Multiples - Prime Numbers, Factoring, and Prime Factorization - Greatest Common Factor - Least Common Multiple Lesson 3: Unit Conversions Lesson 1: Fraction Basics - Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers - Fractions of a Whole - Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers - Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions - Ordering Fractions Lesson 2: Fraction Operations - Adding and Subtracting Fractions - Multiplying and Dividing Fractions - Converting Percentages to Decimals and Fractions - Converting Mixed Numbers to Decimals and Improper Fractions - Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers and Decimals Lesson 1: Decimal Basics Lesson 2: Decimal Operations - Adding and Subtracting Decimals - Multiplying Decimals - Dividing Decimals - Converting Decimals to Fractions and Percentages - Converting Decimals to Improper Fractions and Mixed Numbers - Scientific Notation - Changing a Number from Standard Form to Scientific Notation Equations and Functions Lesson 1: Equation Basics - Arithmetic Sequences and their Formulas - Absolute Value - Solving Equation using Addition and Subtraction - Solving Equation Using Multiplication and Division - Solving Equation with Absolute Value - Solving an Equation Using Four Basic Operations Lesson 2: Inequalities - Equations and Inequalities - Linear Inequalities - Solving Inequalities Using All four Basic Operations - Graphing Solutions to Linear Inequalities - Solving Absolute Value Inequalities Lesson 3: Linear System of Equations - System of Equations Basics - Linear Equations Basics - Comparison of Methods for Solving System of Equations Lesson 4: Graphing of Linear Equations and Functions - Using a Graph - Graphing Linear Equations - Graphing the Inverse of a Function - Graphing Absolute Value Equations - Graphs of Functions - Solutions of a Quadratic Equation on a Graph Changing Constants in Graphs of Functions: Linear Functions - Changing Constants in Graphs of Functions: Quadratic Equations Lesson 1: Angle Basics Lesson 2: Triangles - Area and Perimeter of a Triangle - Proof that a Triangle is 180 Degrees - Similar Triangles - Pythagorean Theorem - Measurements for Similar Triangles - Measurements for Similar Triangles - Measurements for Similar Triangles Continued Lesson 3: Circles - Area and Circumference of a Circle - Unit Circles and Standard Position - Finding Measurements for Parts of a Circle Lesson 4: Volume and Surface Area of 3D Shapes - 3D Geometric Shapes - Volume and Surface Area of a Cube - Volume and Surface Area of a Pyramid - Volume and Surface Area of a Rectangular Solid - Volume and Surface Area of a Right Circular Cone - Volume and Surface Area of a Right Circular Cylinder - Volume and Surface Area of a Sphere - Word Problems and Subtraction - Word Problems and Addition - Word Problems and Multiplication - Word Problems and Division - Right Triangle Word Problem - Linear Equation Word Problem Probability, Statistics, Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions Lesson 1: Probability & Statistics Lesson 2: Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions - Ratios and Percentages - Computation with Percentages - Calculation of a Percentage - Finding the Percentage Increase - Finding the Percentage Decrease - Proportions and Percents - Proportions in the Real World TSI Mathematics Review The TSI—otherwise known as the Texas Success Initiative—is meant to evaluate how prepared you are for the college learning environment before you sign up for your first course load. As it stands, this particular examination is required of every student preparing to start college in the state of Texas. There are a few points of exemption for this exam, however, especially for those who performed well on a national college readiness exam, such as the SAT or ACT. If you turn out to have to take this exam before you enroll in your first official college courses, don’t feel discouraged. We at Mometrix Test Preparation are here and willing to help you however we can. As you more than likely realize, the TSI assesses your capabilities with three specific subjects: Writing, Reading, and Mathematics. These three subjects will prove to be the most prevalent parts of your academic career as you journey toward your undergraduate degree, hence their position as the main (and only) three subjects of the exam. This particular page is meant to serve as an overview of the Mathematics portion of the TSI exam. Why is math still such an important aspect of your college readiness? For starters, you spent an ample period of time studying it before you entered college, whether this was through your high school classwork or an equivalency program. Mathematics forms a sizable portion of your general education curriculum as you pursue your degree, and is considered a core subject. Depending on the degree you plan to earn, you may take either a few simple mathematical courses or have semesters filled with the subject. Since college is “higher education”—literally a step or several above high school and similar environments—you are expected to possess a certain level of knowledge in order to thrive in this new and different academic environment. Thus, you will need to be well-versed in basic college-level subjects. Whether you’re extremely proficient with everything math-related or struggle with the subject, we want to offer you every possible tool for success. This is why we have constructed this TSI Mathematics study guide—to help you learn how this particular section of the exam works and what you can do to prepare for it adequately. On this page, you will find an overview of the TSI Mathematics section. It is our hope that you will be able to use it to formulate a thorough study strategy. For further study, we also have TSI Mathematics flashcards and a TSI Mathematics practice test published on our website. Keep reading to learn how this exam section works and what you can do to prepare. What Is Featured on the TSI Mathematics Section? Like its sister subtests, the Mathematics portion of the Texas Success Initiative Assessment is composed of multiple choice questions. It spans 20 questions in length, and evaluates four specific math-related subjects. The diagnostic exam, which will be administered to you prior to taking the full TSI exam, is half the length of the TSI at 10 questions. Before we go over the TSI exam, it is vital that we first review the the TSI diagnostic exam’s significance. The diagnostic exam is known formally as the TSI Pre-Assessment Activity. You cannot take the official TSI assessment without first taking the Pre-Assessment Activity. Through this Activity, you will receive a full explanation of every resource at your disposal, from how your school of choice can aid in your success within the college environment, the next moves available to you if you fail to earn a passing score on one or more sections of the TSI, a mock exam to show you what the exam will be like and what elements you need to improve on, and how significant the TSI is to your academic career. Upon completing the TSI Pre-Assessment Activity, you will receive a certificate. This certificate is a highly important ticket of entry for the official TSI assessment. That said, the Pre-Assessment Activity and formal TSI exam are very similar to one another in terms of subject matter and presentation. The entirety of the test will be taken digitally. It is also worth noting that you cannot bring a calculator with you for help on the Mathematics section of the TSI. You will be able to use a calculator only for very specific questions on the exam. Access to this calculator will come in the form of a small icon next to a designated question, which you can click to open the calculator tool on your testing PC. Below we will go over which specific mathematical subjects you can expect to find on the TSI Mathematics section, and how you can best approach questions of these types. Data Analysis, Statistics, and Probability This knowledge category’s explicit purpose is to evaluate your capabilities with probability, statistics, and analyzing data. All of these subjects are interrelated. Probability involves the prediction of how likely the occurrence of a specific event will be. Statistics is the measurement of correlation, of how likely an event is to happen and how it relates to other events surrounding it. Data Analysis involves taking data presented to you, be it quantitative or based on specific categories, and deciphering what it means. For each of these question varieties, you will need to pay close attention to the information given to you. Examine every piece of data given to you, as the questions follow them will ultimately tie into that information. Additionally, be sure to carefully read each question so you know exactly what is being asked of you. This easiest way to make a mistake, especially with this question format, is to misread a question or the data being presented. Knowing how you should be interpreting the data given to you is instrumental to solving the problem. Elementary Algebra and Functions With questions under this category, you will have to know only the fundamentals of algebra—or, basically, what you learned when you first started high school or its equivalent. You will have to solve word problems, algebraic equations, and linear equations. This means you will also have to know how to interpret line graphs and know about their properties; how to solve for exponentials, square roots, and more; and how to decipher word problems. Again, questions of this variety will require careful attention from you. Examine the line graphs provided to you—and their accompanying questions—closely so you know exactly what you’re supposed to be solving for. Read over the word problems you receive so you can solve the question properly and don’t miss any information. Geometry and Measurement Questions of this variety seek to evaluate your competency with shapes, lines, and their properties. You will have to demonstrate, for instance, how well you understand three-dimensional shapes and their properties. This may involve measuring their volume, area, angles, or other measurements. You will also have to evaluate symmetry and transformations, or how shapes can be equalized and rearranged. You may be given the details about a specific shape and asked to solve for measurement based on the information either through pre-existing knowledge of the formula involved or through a formula provided to you by the word problem. This knowledge category is not the only one where you will have to have some knowledge of mathematical formulas beforehand. As with the other categories, be sure to pay careful attention to what the questions are asking you to do. Through this information, you will be able to decipher which formula you are supposed to use to properly solve the problem. Intermediate Algebra and Functions Questions under the Intermediate Algebra and Functions category cover more advanced algebraic operations which, again, are similar to what you may have learned back in high school. The principles covered by these questions include exponential and rational problems; polynomials; the properties of radicals, roots, and powers; and quadratics. All of these question varieties involve making judgments about numbers, meaning you will have to brush up on just what all of these algebraic principles are and how to solve for them. You will, again, have to also memorize formulas—such as the quadratic formula—to be able to solve for and answer problems to your best possible ability. While this TSI Mathematics study guide isn’t 100 percent exhaustive in terms of what you will need to know and how you can prepare, we hope it will serve as a launching pad for your studies with this particular section of the exam. For any more extensive help you may need, feel free to turn to our other resources, which include a TSI Mathematics practice test and TSI Mathematics flashcards. We at Mometrix Test Preparation care about your success. This is why we do our best to provide you with excellent tools for any and every exam you may face throughout your academic career. Good luck, and study hard! TSI Test – Home Provided by: Mometrix Test Preparation Last updated: 12/13/2018
This lesson was inspired by a workshop by Steve Ribisi of the University of Massachusetts and Mission 10 from the Life in the Universe curriculum, published by the SETI Institute. To learn more about the Mars Rovers, go to the NASA/JPL website. The following are some of the highlights from this site that may be used in conjunction with this lesson: - NASA/JPL produced incredible computer animation sequences documenting the challenge of sending the rovers safely to Mars. I showed my students these videos as a prelude to assigning them an egg drop challenge - each student is given a chicken egg and must design a way to safely cushion the eggs fall from a third story window. - Read the latest update about the rovers to find out what they are up to. - To inspire girls in your class to pursue careers in engineering, show them this webcast of women engineers on the Mars NASA team. - Explore the Mars Fun Zone, a site packed with games and activities designed for kids to learn more about Mars. To learn more about blueberries and hematite, see: - The NASA/JPL press release about the blueberries. - An article about the Mars blueberries by Astrobiology Magazine describes in detail the observations Opportunity made and how these results can be interpreted. - A press release from the University of Utah comparing the Mars blueberries to hematite concretions found at Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in southern Utah. For the Nature article describing the study, go to the Nature website. 5. Organisms in ecosystems exchange energy and nutrients among themselves and with the environment. As a basis for understanding this concept: e. Students know the number and types of organisms an ecosystem can support depends on the resources available and on abiotic factors, such as quantities of light and water, a range of temperatures, and soil composition. 1. All living organisms are composed of cells, from just one to many trillions, whose details usually are visible only through a microscope. Structure and Function in Living Systems 5. The anatomy and physiology of plants and animals illustrate the complementary nature of structure and function. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Students know plants and animals have levels of organization for structure and function, including cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the whole organism. Chemistry of Living Systems (Life Sciences) 6. Principles of chemistry underlie the functioning of biological systems. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Students know that carbon, because of its ability to combine in many ways with itself and other elements, has a central role in the chemistry of living organisms. b. Students know that living organisms are made of molecules consisting largely of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. c. Students know that living organisms have many different kinds of molecules, including small ones, such as water and salt, and very large ones, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and DNA. Grades 9-12 Biology 1. The fundamental life processes of plants and animals depend on a variety of chemical reactions that occur in specialized areas of the organism's cells. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Students know cells are enclosed within semipermeable membranes that regulate their interaction with their surroundings. b. Students know enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions without altering the reaction equilibrium and the activities of enzymes depend on the temperature, ionic conditions, and the pH of the surroundings. h. Students know most macromolecules (polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins, lipids) in cells and organisms are synthesized from a small collection of simple precursors. Grades 9-12 Chemistry Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry 10. The bonding characteristics of carbon allow the formation of many different organic molecules of varied sizes, shapes, and chemical properties and provide the biochemical basis of life. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Students know large molecules (polymers), such as proteins, nucleic acids, and starch, are formed by repetitive combinations of simple subunits. b. Students know the bonding characteristics of carbon that result in the formation of a large variety of structures ranging from simple hydrocarbons to complex polymers and biological molecules. c. Students know amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Investigation and Experimentation 7. Scientific progress is made by asking meaningful questions and conducting careful investigations. As a basis for understanding this concept and addressing the content in the other three strands, students should develop their own questions and perform investigations. Students will: a. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including calculators, computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and display data. e. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.
Nationalism is an idea and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty (self-governance) over its homeland. Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power (popular sovereignty). It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity, based on shared social characteristics of culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics (or the government), religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history, and to promote national unity or solidarity. Nationalism seeks to preserve and foster a nation's traditional cultures and cultural revivals have been associated with nationalist movements. It also encourages pride in national achievements and is closely linked to patriotism. Nationalism is often combined with other ideologies such as conservatism (national conservatism) or socialism (left-wing nationalism). \|Part of a series on\| \|Part of the Politics series\| Throughout history, people have had an attachment to their kin group and traditions, territorial authorities and their homeland, but nationalism did not become a widely recognized concept until the end of the 18th century. There are three paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. Primordialism (perennialism) proposes that there have always been nations and that nationalism is a natural phenomenon. Ethnosymbolism explains nationalism as a dynamic, evolutionary phenomenon and stresses the importance of symbols, myths and traditions in the development of nations and nationalism. Modernization theory proposes that nationalism is a recent social phenomenon that needs the socio-economic structures of modern society to exist. There are various definitions of a "nation" which leads to different types of nationalism. Ethnic nationalism defines the nation in terms of shared ethnicity, heritage and culture while civic nationalism defines the nation in terms of shared citizenship, values and institutions, and is linked to constitutional patriotism. The adoption of national identity in terms of historical development has often been a response by influential groups unsatisfied with traditional identities due to mismatch between their defined social order and the experience of that social order by its members, resulting in an anomie that nationalists seek to resolve. This anomie results in a society reinterpreting identity, retaining elements deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, to create a unified community. This development may be the result of internal structural issues or the result of resentment by an existing group or groups towards other communities, especially foreign powers that are (or are deemed to be) controlling them. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths and other symbols of national identity are highly important in nationalism. In practice, nationalism can be seen as positive or negative depending on context and individual outlook. Nationalism has been an important driver in independence movements such as the Greek Revolution, the Irish Revolution, the Zionist movement that created modern Israel and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Conversely, radical nationalism combined with racial hatred was also a key factor in the Holocaust perpetrated by Nazi Germany. More recently, nationalism was an important driver of the controversial annexation of Crimea by Russia. The terminological use of "nations", "sovereignty" and associated concepts was significantly refined with the writing by Hugo Grotius of De jure belli ac pacis in the early 17th century. Living in the times of the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands and the Thirty Years' War between Catholic and Protestant European nations (Catholic France being in the otherwise Protestant camp), it is not surprising that Grotius was deeply concerned with matters of conflicts between nations in the context of oppositions stemming from religious differences. The word nation was also usefully applied before 1800 in Europe to refer to the inhabitants of a country as well as to collective identities that could include shared history, law, language, political rights, religion and traditions, in a sense more akin to the modern conception. Nationalism as derived from the noun designating 'nations' is a newer word; in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century. The term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that "The twentieth century, a time of profound disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism." American philosopher and historian Hans Kohn wrote in 1944 that nationalism emerged in the 17th century. Other sources variously place the beginning in the 18th century during revolts of American states against Spain or with the French Revolution. The consensus is that nationalism as a concept was firmly established by the 19th century. In Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (Yale University Press, 1992), Linda Colley explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. Typically historians of nationalism in Europe begin with the French Revolution (1789), not only for its impact on French nationalism but even more for its impact on Germans and Italians and on European intellectuals. The template of nationalism, as a method for mobilising public opinion around a new state based on popular sovereignty, went back further than 1789: philosophers such as Rousseau and Voltaire, whose ideas influenced the French Revolution, had themselves been influenced or encouraged by the example of earlier constitutionalist liberation movements, notably the Corsican Republic (1755–68) and American Revolution (1765–83). Due to the Industrial Revolution, there was an emergence of an integrated, nation-encompassing economy and a national public sphere, where the British people began to identify with the country at large, rather than the smaller units of their province, town or family. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, and was actively promoted by the British government and by the writers and intellectuals of the time. National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one. Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song "Rule, Britannia!" in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) originated the term in 1772 in his "Treatise on the Origin of Language" stressing the role of a common language. He attached exceptional importance to the concepts of nationality and of patriotism – "he that has lost his patriotic spirit has lost himself and the whole world about himself", whilst teaching that "in a certain sense every human perfection is national". The political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of World War I. English historian J. P. T. Bury argues: Between 1830 and 1870 nationalism had thus made great strides. It had inspired great literature, quickened scholarship and nurtured heroes. It had shown its power both to unify and to divide. It had led to great achievements of political construction and consolidation in Germany and Italy; but it was more clearly than ever a threat to the Ottoman and Habsburg empires, which were essentially multi-national. European culture had been enriched by the new vernacular contributions of little-known or forgotten peoples, but at the same time such unity as it had was imperilled by fragmentation. Moreover, the antagonisms fostered by nationalism had made not only for wars, insurrections, and local hatreds —^they had accentuated or created new spiritual divisions in a nominally Christian Europe. Nationalism in France gained early expressions in France's revolutionary government. In 1793, that government declared a mass conscription (levée en masse) with a call to service: Henceforth, until the enemies have been driven from the territory of the Republic, all the French are in permanent requisition for army service. The young men shall go to battle; the married men shall forge arms in the hospitals; the children shall turn old linen to lint; the old men shall repair to the public places, to stimulate the courage of the warriors and preach the unity of the Republic and the hatred of kings. This nationalism gained pace after the French Revolution came to a close. Defeat in war, with a loss in territory, was a powerful force in nationalism. In France, revenge and return of Alsace-Lorraine was a powerful motivating force for a quarter century after their defeat by Germany in 1871. After 1895, French nationalists focused on Dreyfus and internal subversion, and the Alsace issue petered out. The French reaction was a famous case of Revanchism ("revenge") which demands the return of lost territory that "belongs" to the national homeland. Revanchism draws its strength from patriotic and retributionist thought and it is often motivated by economic or geo-political factors. Extreme revanchist ideologues often represent a hawkish stance, suggesting that their desired objectives can be achieved through the positive outcome of another war. It is linked with irredentism, the conception that a part of the cultural and ethnic nation remains "unredeemed" outside the borders of its appropriate nation state. Revanchist politics often rely on the identification of a nation with a nation state, often mobilizing deep-rooted sentiments of ethnic nationalism, claiming territories outside the state where members of the ethnic group live, while using heavy-handed nationalism to mobilize support for these aims. Revanchist justifications are often presented as based on ancient or even autochthonous occupation of a territory since "time immemorial", an assertion that is usually inextricably involved in revanchism and irredentism, justifying them in the eyes of their proponents. The Dreyfus Affair in France 1894–1906 made the battle against treason and disloyalty a central theme for conservative Catholic French nationalists. Dreyfus, a Jew, was an outsider, that is in the views of intense nationalists, not a true Frenchman, not one to be trusted, not one to be given the benefit of the doubt. True loyalty to the nation, from the conservative viewpoint, was threatened by liberal and republican principles of liberty and equality that were leading the country to disaster. Before 1815, the sense of Russian nationalism was weak – what there was focused on loyal obedience to the tsar. The Russian motto "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality" was coined by Count Sergey Uvarov and adopted by Emperor Nicholas I as official ideology. Three components of Uvarov's triad were: - Orthodoxy—Orthodox Christianity and protection of the Russian Orthodox Church. - Autocracy—unconditional loyalty to the House of Romanov in return for paternalist protection for all social estates. - Nationality (Narodnost, has been also translated as national spirit)—recognition of the state-founding role on Russian nationality. By the 1860s, as a result of educational indoctrination, and conservative resistance to ideas and ideologies from Western Europe, a pan-Slavic movement had emerged that produce both a sense of Russian nationalism, and a nationalistic mission to support and protect pan-Slavism. This Slavophile movement became popular in 19th-century Russia. Pan-Slavism was fueled by and was the fuel for Russia's numerous wars against the Ottoman Empire with the goal of liberating Orthodox nations, such as Bulgarians, Romanians, Serbs and Greeks, from Ottoman rule. Slavophiles opposed the influences of Western Europe in Russia and were determined to protect Russian culture and traditions. Aleksey Khomyakov, Ivan Kireyevsky, and Konstantin Aksakov are credited with co-founding the movement. An upsurge in nationalism in Latin America in 1810s and 1820s sparked revolutions that cost Spain nearly all its colonies there. Spain was at war with Britain from 1798 to 1808, and the British Royal Navy cut off its contacts with its colonies so nationalism flourished and trade with Spain was suspended. The colonies set up temporary governments or juntas which were effectively independent from Spain. These juntas were established as a result of Napoleon's resistance failure in Spain. They served to determine new leadership and, in colonies like Caracas, abolished the slave trade as well as the Indian tribute. The division exploded between Spaniards who were born in Spain (called "peninsulares") versus those of Spanish descent born in New Spain (called "criollos" in Spanish or "creoles" in English). The two groups wrestled for power, with the criollos leading the call for independence. Spain tried to use its armies to fight back but had no help from European powers. Indeed, Britain and the United States worked against Spain, enforcing the Monroe Doctrine. Spain lost all of its American colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, in a complex series of revolts from 1808 to 1826. In the German states west of Prussia, Napoleon abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He imposed rational legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. His organization of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 promoted a feeling of nationalism. Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity. It was Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck who achieved German unification through a series of highly successful short wars against Denmark, Austria and France which thrilled the pan-German nationalists in the smaller German states. They fought in his wars and eagerly joined the new German Empire, which Bismarck ran as a force for balance and peace in Europe after 1871. In the 19th century, German nationalism was promoted by Hegelian-oriented academic historians who saw Prussia as the true carrier of the German spirit, and the power of the state as the ultimate goal of nationalism. The three main historians were Johann Gustav Droysen (1808–1884), Heinrich von Sybel (1817–1895) and Heinrich von Treitschke (1834–1896). Droysen moved from liberalism to an intense nationalism that celebrated Prussian Protestantism, efficiency, progress, and reform, in striking contrast to Austrian Catholicism, impotency and backwardness. He idealized the Hohenzollern kings of Prussia. His large-scale History of Prussian Politics (14 vol 1855–1886) was foundational for nationalistic students and scholars. Von Sybel founded and edited the leading academic history journal, Historische Zeitschrift and as the director of the Prussian state archives published massive compilations that were devoured by scholars of nationalism. The most influential of the German nationalist historians, was Treitschke who had an enormous influence on elite students at Heidelberg and Berlin universities. Treitschke vehemently attacked parliamentarianism, socialism, pacifism, the English, the French, the Jews, and the internationalists. The core of his message was the need for a strong, unified state—a unified Germany under Prussian supervision. "It is the highest duty of the State to increase its power," he stated. Although he was a descendant of a Czech family he considered himself not Slavic but German: "I am 1000 times more the patriot than a professor." German nationalism, expressed through the ideology of Nazism, however, may also be understood as trans-national in nature. This aspect was primarily advocated by Adolf Hitler, who later became the leader of the Nazi Party. This party was devoted to what they identified as an Aryan race, residing in various European countries, but sometime mixed with alien elements such as Jews. Meanwhile, the Nazis rejected many of the well-established citizens within those same countries, such as the Romani (Gypsies) and of course Jews, whom they did not identify as Aryan. A key Nazi doctrine was "Living Space" (for Aryans only) or "Lebensraum," which was a vast undertaking to transplant Aryans throughout Poland, much of Eastern Europe and the Baltic nations, and all of Western Russia and Ukraine. Lebensraum was thus a vast project for advancing the Aryan race far outside of any particular nation or national borders. The Nazi's goals were racist focused on advancing the Aryan race as they perceived it, eugenics modification of the human race, and the eradication of human beings that they deemed inferior. But their goals were trans-national and intended to spread across as much of the world as they could achieve. Although Nazism glorified German history, it also embraced the supposed virtues and achievements of the Aryan race in other countries, including India. The Nazis' Aryanism longed for now-extinct species of superior bulls once used as livestock by Aryans and other features of Aryan history that never resided within the borders of Germany as a nation. Italian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for Italian unification or the Risorgimento (meaning the "Resurgence" or "Revival"). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated the different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to Italian nationalism but it was based in the liberal middle classes and ultimately proved a bit weak. The new government treated the newly-annexed South as a kind of underdeveloped province for its "backward" and poverty-stricken society, its poor grasp of standard Italian (as Italo-Dalmatian dialects of Neapolitan and Sicilian were prevalent in the common use) and its traditions. The liberals had always been strong opponents of the pope and the very well organized Catholic Church. The liberal government under the Sicilian Francesco Crispi sought to enlarge his political base by emulating Otto von Bismarck and firing up Italian nationalism with a aggressive foreign policy. It partially crashed and his cause was set back. Of his nationalistic foreign policy, historian R. J. B. Bosworth says: [Crispi] pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with this suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa [...] in what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life and personal finances [...] were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement. Italy joined the Allies in the First World War after getting promises of territory, but its war effort were not honored after the war and this fact discredited liberalism paving the way for Benito Mussolini and a political doctrine of his own creation, Fascism. Mussolini's 20-year dictatorship involved a highly aggressive nationalism that led to a series of wars with the creation of the Italian Empire, an alliance with Hitler's Germany, and humiliation and hardship in the Second World War. After 1945, the Catholics returned to government and tensions eased somewhat, but the former two Sicilies remained poor and partially underdeveloped (by industrial country standards). However in the fifties and early sixties Italy enjoyed an economic boom, that pushed its economy to the fifth place between the world nations. The working class in those decades voted mostly for the Communist Party, and it looked to Moscow rather than Rome for inspiration, and was kept out of the national government even as it controlled some industrial cities across the North. In the 21st century, the Communists have become marginal but political tensions remained high as shown by Umberto Bossi's Padanism in the 1980s (whose party Lega Nord has come to partially embrace a moderate version of Italian nationalism over the years) and other separatist movements spread across the country. During the early 19th century, inspired by romanticism, classicism, former movements of Greek nationalism and failed Greek revolts against the Ottoman Empire (such as the Orlofika revolt in southern Greece in 1770, and the Epirus-Macedonian revolt of Northern Greece in 1575), Greek nationalism led to the Greek war of independence. The Greek drive for independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 1820s and 1830s inspired supporters across Christian Europe, especially in Britain, which was the result of western idealization of Classical Greece and romanticism. France, Russia and Britain critically intervened to ensure the success of this nationalist endeavour. For centuries the Orthodox Christian Serbs were ruled by the Muslim Ottoman Empire. The success of the Serbian Revolution against Ottoman rule in 1817 marked the birth of the Principality of Serbia. It achieved de facto independence in 1867 and finally gained international recognition in 1878. Serbia had sought to liberate and unite with Bosnia and Herzegovina to the west and Old Serbia (Kosovo and Vardar Macedonia) to the south. Nationalist circles in both Serbia and Croatia (part of Austria-Hungary) began to advocate for a greater South Slavic union in the 1860s, claiming Bosnia as their common land based on shared language and tradition. In 1914, Serb revolutionaries in Bosnia assassinated Archduke Ferdinand. Austria-Hungary, with German backing, tried to crush Serbia in 1914, thus igniting the First World War in which Austria-Hungary dissolved into nation states. In 1918, the region of Banat, Bačka and Baranja came under control of the Serbian army, later the Great National Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs voted to join Serbia; the Kingdom of Serbia joined the union with State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs on 1 December 1918, and the country was named Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. It was renamed Yugoslavia, and a Yugoslav identity was promoted, which ultimately failed. After the Second World War, Yugoslav Communists established a new socialist republic of Yugoslavia. That state broke up in the 1990s. The cause of Polish nationalism was repeatedly frustrated before 1918. In the 1790s, the Habsburg Monarchy, Prussia and Russia invaded, annexed, and subsequently partitioned Poland. Napoleon set up the Duchy of Warsaw, a new Polish state that ignited a spirit of nationalism. Russia took it over in 1815 as Congress Poland with the tsar proclaimed as "King of Poland". Large-scale nationalist revolts erupted in 1830 and 1863–64 but were harshly crushed by Russia, which tried to make the Polish language, culture and religion more like Russia's. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to re-establish an independent Poland, which survived until 1939. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the Kulturkampf of the 1870s. The Poles joined German Catholics in a well-organized new Centre Party, and defeated Bismarck politically. He responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the Centre Party. In the late 19th and early 20th century, many Polish nationalist leaders endorsed the Piast Concept. It held there was a Polish utopia during the Piast Dynasty a thousand years before, and modern Polish nationalists should restore its central values of Poland for the Poles. Jan Poplawski had developed the "Piast Concept" in the 1890s, and it formed the centerpiece of Polish nationalist ideology, especially as presented by the National Democracy Party, known as the "Endecja," which was led by Roman Dmowski. In contrast with the Jagiellon concept, there was no concept for a multi-ethnic Poland. The Piast concept stood in opposition to the "Jagiellon Concept," which allowed for multi-ethnicism and Polish rule over numerous minority groups such as those in the Kresy. The Jagiellon Concept was the official policy of the government in the 1920s and 1930s. Soviet dictator Josef Stalin at Tehran in 1943 rejected the Jagiellon Concept because it involved Polish rule over Ukrainians and Belarusians. He instead endorsed the Piast Concept, which justified a massive shift of Poland's frontiers to the west. After 1945 the Soviet-back puppet communist regime wholeheartedly adopted the Piast Concept, making it the centerpiece of their claim to be the "true inheritors of Polish nationalism". After all the killings, including Nazi German occupation, terror in Poland and population transfers during and after the war, the nation was officially declared as 99% ethnically Polish. Jewish nationalism arose in the latter half of the 19th century and it was largely correlated with the Zionist movement. This term originated from the word Zion, which was one of the Torah's names for the city of Jerusalem. The end goal of the nationalists and Zionists was a Jewish majority and in most cases, a state, in the land of Palestine. A tumultuous history of living in oppressive, foreign, and uncertain circumstances led the supporters of the movement to draft a declaration of independence, claiming Israel as a birthplace. The first and second destructions of the temple and ancient Torah prophecies largely shaped the incentives of the Jewish nationalists. Many prominent theories in Jewish theology and eschatology were formed by supporters and opponents of the movement in this era. It was the French Revolution of 1789 which sparked new waves of thinking across Europe regarding governance and sovereignty. A shift from the traditional hierarchy-based system towards political individualism and citizen-states posed a dilemma for the Jews. Citizenship was now essential, when it came to ensuring basic legal and residential rights. This resulted in more and more Jews choosing to identify with certain nationalities in order to maintain these rights. Logic said that a nation-based system of states would require the Jews themselves to claim their own right to be considered a nation due to a distinguishable language and history. Historian David Engel has explained that Zionism was more about fear that a majority of worldwide Jews would end up dispersed and unprotected, rather than fulfilling old prophecies and traditions of historical texts. The awakening of nationalism across Asia helped shape the history of the continent. The key episode was the decisive defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905, demonstrating the military advancement of non-Europeans in a modern war. The defeat which quickly led to manifestations of a new interest in nationalism in China, as well as Turkey, and Persia. In China Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925) launched his new party the Kuomintang (National People's Party) in defiance of the decrepit Empire, which was run by outsiders. The Kuomintang recruits pledged: [F]rom this moment I will destroy the old and build the new, and fight for the self-determination of the people, and will apply all my strength to the support of the Chinese Republic and the realization of democracy through the Three Principles, ... for the progress of good government, the happiness and perpetual peace of the people, and for the strengthening of the foundations of the state in the name of peace throughout the world. The Kuomintang largely ran China until the Communists took over in 1949. But the latter had also been strongly influenced by Sun's nationalism as well as by the May Fourth Movement in 1919. It was a nationwide protest movement about the domestic backwardness of China and has often been depicted as the intellectual foundation for Chinese Communism. The New Culture Movement stimulated by the May Fourth Movement waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Historian Patricia Ebrey says: Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations. Nationalist irredentist movements Greek advocating for Enosis (unity of ethnically Greek states with the Hellenic Republic to create a unified Greek state), used today in the case of Cyprus, as well as the Megali Idea, the Greek movement that advocated for the reconquering of Greek ancestral lands from the Ottoman Empire (such as Crete, Ionia, Pontus, Northern Epirus, Cappadocia, Thrace among others) that were popular in the late 19th and early to 20th centuries, led to many Greek states and regions that were ethnically Greek to eventually unite with Greece and the Greco-Turkish war of 1919. The 4th of August regime was a fascist or fascistic nationalist authoritarian dictatorship inspired by Mussolini's Fascist Italy and Hitler's Germany and led by Greek general Ioannis Metaxas from 1936 to his death in 1941. It advocated for the Third Hellenic Civilization, a culturally superior Greek civilization that would be the successor of the First and Second Greek civilizations, that were Ancient Greece and the Byzantine empire respectively. It promoted Greek traditions, folk music and dances, classicism as well as medievalism. In the 1880s the European powers divided up almost all of Africa (only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent). They ruled until after World War II when forces of nationalism grew much stronger. In the 1950s and 1960s the colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria, Kenya and elsewhere. Across Africa nationalism drew upon the organizational skills that natives learned in the British and French and other armies in the world wars. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers nor the traditional local power structures that were collaborating with the colonial powers. Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities exited; many ruled for decades or until they died off. These structures included political, educational, religious, and other social organizations. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervor, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state. South Africa, a British colony, was exceptional in that it became virtually independent by 1931. From 1948 it was controlled by white Afrikaner nationalists focused on racial segregation and white minority rule known officially as apartheid, which lasted until 1994, when elections were held. The international anti-apartheid movement supported black nationalist until success was achieved and Nelson Mandela was elected president. Arab nationalism, a movement toward liberating and empowering the Arab peoples of the Middle East, emerged during the latter 19th century, inspired by other independence movements of the 18th and 19th centuries. As the Ottoman Empire declined and the Middle East was carved up by the Great Powers of Europe, Arabs sought to establish their own independent nations ruled by Arabs rather than foreigners. Syria was established in 1920; Transjordan (later Jordan) gradually gained independence between 1921 and 1946; Saudi Arabia was established in 1932; and Egypt achieved gradually gained independence between 1922 and 1952. The Arab League was established in 1945 to promote Arab interests and cooperation between the new Arab states. Parallel to these efforts was the Zionist movement which emerged among European Jews in the 19th century. Beginning in 1882 Jews, predominantly from Europe, began emigrating to Ottoman Palestine with the goal of establishing a new Jewish homeland. The effort culminated in the declaration of the State of Israel in 1948. As this move conflicted with the belief among Arab nationalists that Palestine was part of the Arab nation, the neighboring Arab nations launched an invasion to claim the region. The invasion was only partly successful and led to decades of clashes between the Arab and Jewish nationalist ideologies. Break up of Yugoslavia There was a rise in extreme nationalism after the Revolutions of 1989 triggered the collapse of communism in the 1990s. When communism fell, it left many people with no identity. The people under communist rule had to integrate, and they found themselves free to choose. Given free choice, long dormant conflicts rose up and created sources of serious conflict. When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to the rise in extreme nationalism. In his 1992 article Jihad vs. McWorld, Benjamin Barber proposed that the fall of communism will cause large numbers of people to search for unity and that small scale wars will become common; groups will attempt to redraw boundaries, identities, cultures and ideologies. Communism's fall also allowed for an "us vs. them" mentality to sprout up. Governments become vehicles for social interests and the country will attempt to form national policies based on the majority, for example culture, religion or ethnicity. Some newly sprouted democracies have large differences in policies on matters that ranged from immigration and human rights to trade and commerce. Academic Steven Berg felt that at the root of nationalist conflicts is the demand for autonomy and a separate existence. This nationalism can give rise to strong emotions that may lead to a group fighting to survive, especially as after the fall of communism, political boundaries did not match ethnic boundaries. Serious conflicts often arose and escalated very easily as individuals and groups acted upon their beliefs, causing death and destruction. When this would happen, those states who were unable to contain the conflict ran the risk of slowing their democratization progress. Yugoslavia was established after WWI and was a merger of three separate ethnic groups; Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The national census numbers for a ten-year span 1971–1981 measured an increase from 1.3 to 5.4% in their population that ethnically identified as Yugoslav. This meant that the country, almost as a whole, was divided by distinctive religious, ethnic or national loyalties after nearly 50 years. Within Yugoslavia, separating Croatia and Slovenia from the rest of Yugoslavia is an invisible line of previous conquests of the region. Croatia and Slovenia to the northwest were conquered by Catholics or Protestants, and benefited from European history; the Renaissance, French Revolution, Industrial Revolution and are more inclined towards democracy. The remaining Yugoslavian territory was conquered by the Ottoman or Tsarists empires; are Orthodox or Muslims, are less economically advanced and are less inclined toward democracy. In the 1970s the leadership of the separate territories within Yugoslavia protected only territorial interests at the expense of other territories. In Croatia, there was almost a split within the territory between Serbs and Croats so any political decision would kindle unrest, and tensions could cross the territories adjacent; Bosnia and Herzegovina. Within Bosnia there was no group who had a majority; Muslim, Serb, Croat, and Yugoslav were all there so the leadership could not advance here either. Political organizations were not able to deal successfully with such diverse nationalism. Within the territories the leadership could not compromise. To do so would create a winner in one ethnic group and a loser in another, raising the possibility of a serious conflict. This strengthened the political stance promoting ethnic identities. This caused intense and divided political leadership within Yugoslavia. In the 1980s Yugoslavia began to break into fragments. The economic conditions within Yugoslavia were deteriorating. Conflict in the disputed territories was stimulated by the rise in mass nationalism and inter-ethnic hostilities. The per-capita income of people in the northwest territory, encompassing Croatia and Slovenia, in contrast to the southern territory were several times higher. This combined with escalating violence from ethnic Albanians and Serbs within Kosovo intensified economic conditions. This violence greatly contributed to the rise of extreme nationalism of Serbs in Serbia and within Yugoslavia. The ongoing conflict in Kosovo was propagandized by Communist Serbian Slobodan Milosevic to further increase Serb nationalism. As mentioned, this nationalism did give rise to powerful emotions which grew the force of Serbian nationalism through highly nationalist demonstrations in Vojvodina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. Serbian nationalism was so high, Slobodan Milosevic was able to oust leaders in Vojvodina and Montenegro, further repressed Albanians within Kosovo and eventually controlled four of the eight regions/territories. Slovenia, one of the four regions not under Communist control, favoring a democratic state. Within Slovenia, fear was mounting because Milosevic was using the militia to suppress a in Kosovo, what would he do to Slovenia. Half of Yugoslavia wanted to be democratic, the other wanted a new nationalist authoritarian regime. In fall of 1989 tensions came to a head and Slovenia asserted its political and economic independence from Yugoslavia and seceded. In January 1990, there was a total break with Serbia at the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, an institution conceived by Milosevic to strengthen unity and became the backdrop for the fall of communism within Yugoslavia. In August 1990, a warning to the region was issued when ethnically divided groups attempted to alter the government structure. The republic borders established by the Communist regime in the postwar period were extremely vulnerable to challenges from ethnic communities. Ethnic communities arose because they did not share the identity with everyone within the new post-Communist borders. This threatened the new governments. The same disputes were erupting that were in place prior to Milosevic and were compounded by actions from his regime. Also within the territory the Croats and the Serbs were in direct competition for control of government. Elections were held and increased potential conflicts between Serb and Croat nationalism. Serbia wanted to be separate and decide its own future based on its own ethnic composition. But this would then give Kosovo encouragement to become independent from Serbia. Albanians in Kosovo were already independent from Kosovo. Serbia didn't want to let Kosovo become independent. Muslims nationalists wanted their own territory but it would require a redrawing of the map, and would threaten neighboring territories. When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to the rise in extreme nationalism. Nationalism again gave rise to powerful emotions which evoked in some extreme cases, a willingness to die for what you believe in, a fight for the survival of the group. The end of communism began a long period of conflict and war for the region. In the six years following the collapse 200,000-500-000 people died in the Bosnian war. Bosnian Muslims suffered at the hands of the Serbs and Croats. The war garnered assistance from groups; Muslim, Orthodox and Western Christian as well as state actors who supplied all sides; Saudi Arabia and Iran supported Bosnia, Russia supported Serbia, Central European and Western countries including the U.S. supported Croatia, and the Pope supported Slovenia and Croatia. Arab nationalism began to decline in the 21st century leading to localized nationalism, culminating in a series of revolts against authoritarian regimes between 2010 and 2012, known as the Arab Spring. Following these revolts, which mostly failed to improve conditions in the affected nations, Arab nationalism and even most local nationalistic movements declined dramatically. A consequence of the Arab Spring as well as the 2003 invasion of Iraq were the civil wars in Iraq and Syria, which eventually joined to form a single conflict. However, a new form of Arab nationalism has developed in the wake of the Arab Winter, embodied by Egyptian President Abdel Fatteh el-Sisi, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman and UAE leader Mohammed bin Zayed. The rise of globalism in the late 20th century led to a rise in nationalism and populism in Europe and North America. This trend was further fueled by increased terrorism in the West (the September 11 attacks in the United States being a prime example), increasing unrest and civil wars in the Middle East, and waves of Muslim refugees flooding into Europe (as of 2016 the refugee crisis appears to have peaked). Nationalist groups like Germany's Pegida, France's National Front and the UK Independence Party gained prominence in their respective nations advocating restrictions on immigration to protect the local populations. Since 2010, Catalan nationalists have led a renewed Catalan independence movement and declared Catalonia's independence. The movement has been opposed by Spanish nationalists. In the 2010s, the Greek economic crisis and waves of immigration have led to a significant rise of Fascism and Greek nationalism across Greece, especially among the youth. In Russia, exploitation of nationalist sentiments allowed Vladimir Putin to consolidate power. This nationalist sentiment was used in Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014 and other actions in Ukraine. Nationalist movements gradually began to rise in Central Europe as well, particularly Poland, under the influence of the ruling party, Law and Justice (led by Jaroslaw Kaczynski). In Hungary, the anti-immigration rhetoric and stance against foreign influence is a powerful national glue promoted the ruling Fidesz party (led by Viktor Orbán). Nationalist parties have also joined governing coalitions in Bulgaria, Slovakia, Latvia and Ukraine. In India, Hindu nationalism has grown extremely popular with the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party, a right-wing Hindu nationalist party which has been ruling India at the national level since 2014. The rise in religious nationalism comes with the rise of right-wing populism in India, with the election and re-election of populist leader Narendra Modi as Prime Minister, who promised economic prosperity for all and an end to corruption. In 2013, Modi declared himself to be a Hindu nationalist. The BJP rule in India is characterized by religious nationalism, the persecution of religious minorities, the erosion of civil liberties as well as an authoritarian shift in governance. Militant Buddhist nationalism is also on the rise in Myanmar, Thailand and Sri Lanka. In Japan, nationalist influences in the government developed over the course of the early 21 century, thanks in large part to the Nippon Kaigi organization. The new movement has advocated re-establishing Japan as a military power and revising historical narratives to support the notion of a moral and strong Japan. A referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom was held on 18 September 2014. The proposal was defeated, with 55.3% voting against independence. In a 2016 referendum, the British populace voted to withdraw the United Kingdom from the European Union (known as Brexit). The result had been largely unexpected and was seen as a victory of populism. As the promise of continued European Union membership was a core feature of the anti-independence campaign during the Scottish referendum, the months since the EU Referendum vote have seen renewed calls for a second referendum on Scottish independence. The 2016 United States presidential campaign saw the unprecedented rise of Donald Trump, a businessman with no political experience who ran on a populist/nationalist platform and struggled to gain endorsements from mainstream political figures, even within his own party. Trump's slogans "Make America Great Again" and "America First" exemplified his campaign's repudiation of globalism and its staunchly nationalistic outlook. His unexpected victory in the election was seen as part of the same trend that had brought about the Brexit vote. On 22 October 2018, two weeks before the mid-term elections President Trump openly proclaimed that he was a nationalist to a cheering crowd at a rally in Texas in support of re-electing Senator Ted Cruz who was once an adversary. On 29 October 2018 Trump equated nationalism to patriotism, saying "I'm proud of this country and I call that 'nationalism.'" In 2016, Rodrigo Duterte became president of the Philippines running a distinctly nationalist campaign. Contrary to the policies of his recent predecessors, he distanced the country from the Philippines' former ruler, the United States, and sought closer ties with China (as well as Russia). In 2017, Turkish nationalism propelled President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to gain unprecedented power in a national referendum. Reactions from world leaders were mixed, with Western European leaders generally expressing concern while the leaders of many of the more authoritarian regimes as well as President Trump offered their congratulations. Many political scientists have theorized about the foundations of the modern nation-state and the concept of sovereignty. The concept of nationalism in political science draws from these theoretical foundations. Philosophers like Machiavelli, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau conceptualized the state as the result of a "social contract" between rulers and individuals. Max Weber provides the most commonly used definition of the state, "that human community which successfully lays claim to the monopoly of legitimate physical violence within a certain territory". According to Benedict Anderson, nations are "Imagined Communities", or socially constructed institutions. Many scholars have noted the relationship between state-building, war, and nationalism. Many scholars believe that the development of nationalism in Europe and subsequently the modern nation-state was due to the threat of war. "External threats have such a powerful effect on nationalism because people realize in a profound manner that they are under threat because of who they are as a nation; they are forced to recognize that it is only as a nation that they can successfully defeat the threat". With increased external threats, the state's extractive capacities increase. Jeffrey Herbst argues that the lack of external threats to countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, post-independence, is linked to weak state nationalism and state capacity. Barry Posen argues that nationalism increases the intensity of war, and that states deliberately promote nationalism with the aim of improving their military capabilities. The sociological or modernist interpretation of nationalism and nation-building argues that nationalism arises and flourishes in modern societies that have an industrial economy capable of self-sustainability, a central supreme authority capable of maintaining authority and unity, and a centralized language understood by a community of people. Modernist theorists note that this is only possible in modern societies, while traditional societies typically lack the prerequisites for nationalism. They lack a modern self-sustainable economy, have divided authorities, and use multiple languages resulting in many groups being unable to communicate with each other. Prominent theorists who developed the modernist interpretation of nations and nationalism include: Carlton J. H. Hayes, Henry Maine, Ferdinand Tönnies, Rabindranath Tagore, Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, Arnold Joseph Toynbee and Talcott Parsons. In his analysis of the historical changes and development of human societies, Henry Maine noted that the key distinction between traditional societies defined as "status" societies based on family association and functionally diffuse roles for individuals and modern societies defined as "contract" societies where social relations are determined by rational contracts pursued by individuals to advance their interests. Maine saw the development of societies as moving away from traditional status societies to modern contract societies. In his book Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887), Ferdinand Tönnies defined a Gemeinschaft ("community") as being based on emotional attachments as attributed with traditional societies while defining a Gesellschaft ("society") as an impersonal society that is modern. Although he recognized the advantages of modern societies, he also criticized them for their cold and impersonal nature that caused alienation while praising the intimacy of traditional communities. Émile Durkheim expanded upon Tönnies' recognition of alienation, and defined the differences between traditional and modern societies as being between societies based upon "mechanical solidarity" versus societies based on "organic solidarity". Durkheim identified mechanical solidarity as involving custom, habit, and repression that was necessary to maintain shared views. Durkheim identified organic solidarity-based societies as modern societies where there exists a division of labour based on social differentiation that causes alienation. Durkheim claimed that social integration in traditional society required authoritarian culture involving acceptance of a social order. Durkheim claimed that modern society bases integration on the mutual benefits of the division of labour, but noted that the impersonal character of modern urban life caused alienation and feelings of anomie. Max Weber claimed the change that developed modern society and nations is the result of the rise of a charismatic leader to power in a society who creates a new tradition or a rational-legal system that establishes the supreme authority of the state. Weber's conception of charismatic authority has been noted as the basis of many nationalist governments. Primordialist evolutionary interpretation This approach has been popular with the general public but is typically rejected by experts. Laland and Brown report that "the vast majority of professional academics in the social sciences not only ... ignore evolutionary methods but in many cases [are] extremely hostile to the arguments" that draw vast generalizations from rather limited evidence. The evolutionary theory of nationalism perceives nationalism to be the result of the evolution of human beings into identifying with groups, such as ethnic groups, or other groups that form the foundation of a nation. Roger Masters in The Nature of Politics describes the primordial explanation of the origin of ethnic and national groups as recognizing group attachments that are thought to be unique, emotional, intense, and durable because they are based upon kinship and promoted along lines of common ancestry. The primordialist evolutionary views of nationalism often reference the evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin as well as Social Darwinist views of the late nineteenth century. Thinkers like Herbert Spencer and Walter Bagehot reinterpreted Darwin's theory of natural selection "often in ways inconsistent with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution" by making unsupported claims of biological difference among groups, ethnicities, races, and nations. Modern evolutionary sciences have distanced themselves from such views, but notions of long-term evolutionary change remain foundational to the work of evolutionary psychologists like John Tooby and Leda Cosmides. Approached through the primordialist perspective, the example of seeing the mobilization of a foreign military force on the nation's borders may provoke members of a national group to unify and mobilize themselves in response. There are proximate environments where individuals identify nonimmediate real or imagined situations in combination with immediate situations that make individuals confront a common situation of both subjective and objective components that affect their decisions. As such proximate environments cause people to make decisions based on existing situations and anticipated situations. Critics argue that primordial models relying on evolutionary psychology are based not on historical evidence but on assumptions of unobserved changes over thousands of years and assume stable genetic composition of the population living in a specific area, and are incapable of handling the contingencies that characterize every known historical process. Robert Hislope argues: [T]he articulation of cultural evolutionary theory represents theoretical progress over sociobiology, but its explanatory payoff remains limited due to the role of contingency in human affairs and the significance of non-evolutionary, proximate causal factors. While evolutionary theory undoubtedly elucidates the development of all organic life, it would seem to operate best at macro-levels of analysis, "distal" points of explanation, and from the perspective of the long-term. Hence, it is bound to display shortcomings at micro-level events that are highly contingent in nature. In 1920, English historian G. P. Gooch argued that "[w]hile patriotism is as old as human association and has gradually widened its sphere from the clan and the tribe to the city and the state, nationalism as an operative principle and an articulate creed only made its appearance among the more complicated intellectual processes of the modern world." Vladimir Lenin supported the concept of self-determination. Joseph Stalin's Marxism and the National Question (1913) declares that "a nation is not a racial or tribal, but a historically constituted community of people;" "a nation is not a casual or ephemeral conglomeration, but a stable community of people"; "a nation is formed only as a result of lengthy and systematic intercourse, as a result of people living together generation after generation"; and, in its entirety: "a nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture." Historians, sociologists and anthropologists have debated different types of nationalism since at least the 1930s. Generally, the most common way of classifying nationalism has been to describe movements as having either "civic" or "ethnic" nationalist characteristics. This distinction was popularized in the 1950s by Hans Kohn who described "civic" nationalism as "Western" and more democratic while depicting "ethnic" nationalism as "Eastern" and undemocratic. Since the 1980s, however, scholars of nationalism have pointed out numerous flaws in this rigid division and proposed more specific classifications and numerous varieties. Anti-colonial nationalism is an intellectual framework that preceded, accompanied and followed the process of decolonization in the mid-1900s. Benedict Anderson defined a nation as a socially constructed community that is co-created by individuals who imagine themselves as part of this group. He points to the New World as the cite of nationalism, which is defined by its imagination of an ahistorical identity that negates colonialism by definition. Anti-colonial independence movements in Africa and Asia in the 1900s were led by individuals who had a set of shared identities and imagined a homeland without external rule. Anderson argues that the racism often experienced as a result of colonial rule and attributed to nationalism is rather due to theories of class. Gellner’s theory of nationalism argues that nationalism works for combining one culture or ethnicity in one state, which leads to that state’s success. For Gellner, nationalism is ethnic, and state political parties should reflect the ethnic majority in the state. This definition of nationalism also contributes to anti-colonial nationalism, if one conceives of anti-colonial movements to be movements consisting of one specific ethnic group against an outside ruling party. Edward Said also saw nationalism as ethnic, at least in part, and argued that nationalist narratives often go hand in hand with racism, as communities define themselves in relation to the other. Anti-colonial nationalism is not static, and is defined by different forms of nationalism depending on location. In the anti-colonial movement that took place in the Indian subcontinent, Mahatma Gandhi and his allies argued for a composite nationalism, not believing that nation should be defined by religious identity. Because of the British policies of divide and rule, they fomented divisions between groups that had never before been divided along those lines. However, Pakistan and India were partitioned on religious lines after independence, and those not within majority religious groups living in both countries continue to experience discrimination as a result. Because of colonialism’s creation of state and country lines across ethnic, religious, linguistic and other historical boundaries, anti-colonial nationalism is largely related to land first. After independence, especially in countries with particularly diverse populations with historic enmity, there have been a series of smaller independence movements that are also defined by anti-colonialisms. Philosopher and scholar Achille Mbembe argues that post-colonialism is a contradictory term, because colonialism is ever present. Those that participate in this intellectual practice envision a post-colonialism despite its being the defining frame for the world. This is the case with anti-colonialism as well. Anti-colonial nationalism as an intellectual framework persisted into the late 20th century with the resistance movements in Soviet satellite states, and continues with independence movements in the Arab world in the 21st century. It is also one of the defining factors of stateless nationalism in Turkey, Morocco and Palestine. Civic nationalism and liberal nationalism Civic nationalism defines the nation as an association of people who identify themselves as belonging to the nation, who have equal and shared political rights, and allegiance to similar political procedures. According to the principles of civic nationalism, the nation is not based on common ethnic ancestry, but is a political entity whose core identity is not ethnicity. This civic concept of nationalism is exemplified by Ernest Renan in his lecture in 1882 "What is a Nation?", where he defined the nation as a "daily referendum" (frequently translated "daily plebiscite") dependent on the will of its people to continue living together. Civic nationalism is normally associated with liberal nationalism, although the two are distinct, and did not always coincide. On the one hand, until the late 19th and early 20th century adherents to anti-Enlightenment movements such as French Legitimism or Spanish Carlism often rejected the liberal, national unitary state, yet identified themselves not with an ethnic nation but with a non-national dynasty and regional feudal privileges. Xenophobic movements in long-established Western European states indeed often took a 'civic national' form, rejecting a given group's ability to assimilate with the nation due to its belonging to a cross-border community (Irish Catholics in Britain, Ashkenazic Jews in France). On the other hand, while subnational separatist movements were commonly associated with ethnic nationalism, this was not always so, and such nationalists as the Corsican Republic, United Irishmen, Breton Federalist League or Catalan Republican Party could combine a rejection of the unitary civic-national state with a belief in liberal universalism. Liberal nationalism is kind of non-xenophobic nationalism that is claimed to be compatible with liberal values of freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights. Ernest Renan and John Stuart Mill are often thought to be early liberal nationalists. Liberal nationalists often defend the value of national identity by saying that individuals need a national identity to lead meaningful, autonomous lives, and that liberal democratic polities need national identity to function properly. Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of rationalism and liberalism, but as a form of nationalism it is usually contrasted with ethnic nationalism. Civic nationalism is correlated with long-established states whose dynastic rulers had gradually acquired multiple distinct territories, with little change to boundaries, but which contained historical populations of multiple linguistic and/or confessional backgrounds. Since individuals resident within different parts of the state territory might have little obvious common ground, civic nationalism developed as a way for rulers to both explain a contemporary reason for such heterogeneity and to provide a common purpose (Ernest Renan's classic description in What is a Nation? (1882) as a voluntary partnership for a common endeavour). Renan argued that factors such as ethnicity, language, religion, economics, geography, ruling dynasty and historic military deeds were important but not sufficient. Needed was a spiritual soul that allowed as a "daily referendum" among the people. Civic-national ideals influenced the development of representative democracy in multiethnic countries such as the United States and France, as well as in constitutional monarchies such as Great Britain, Belgium and Spain. German philosopher Monika Kirloskar-Steinbach does not think liberalism and nationalism are compatible, but she points out there are many liberals who think they are. Kirloskar-Steinbach states: Justifications of nationalism seem to be making a headway in political philosophy. Its proponents contend that liberalism and nationalism are not necessarily mutually exclusive and that they can in fact be made compatible. Liberal nationalists urge one to consider nationalism not as the pathology of modernity but as an answer to its malaise. For them, nationalism is more than an infantile disease, more than "the measles of mankind" as Einstein once proclaimed it to be. They argue that nationalism is a legitimate way of understanding one's role and place in life. They strive for a normative justification of nationalism which lies within liberal limits. The main claim which seems to be involved here is that as long as a nationalism abhors violence and propagates liberal rights and equal citizenship for all citizens of its state, its philosophical credentials can be considered to be sound. Creole nationalism is the ideology that emerged in independence movements among the creoles (descendants of the colonizers), especially in Latin America in the early 19th century. It was facilitated when French Emperor Napoleon seized control of Spain and Portugal, breaking the chain of control from the Spanish and Portuguese kings to the local governors. Allegiance to the Napoleonic states was rejected, and increasingly the creoles demanded independence. They achieved it after civil wars 1808–1826. Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethno-nationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the "nation" is defined in terms of ethnicity. The central theme of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith, and a common ethnic ancestry". It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of the group, and with their ancestors. However, it is different from a purely cultural definition of "the nation," which allows people to become members of a nation by cultural assimilation; and from a purely linguistic definition, according to which "the nation" consists of all speakers of a specific language. Whereas nationalism in and of itself does not imply a belief in the superiority of one ethnicity or country over others, some nationalists support ethnocentric supremacy or protectionism. The humiliation of being a second-class citizen led regional minorities in multiethnic states, such as Great Britain, Spain, France, Germany, Russia and the Ottoman Empire, to define nationalism in terms of loyalty to their minority culture, especially language and religion. Forced assimilation was anathema. For the politically dominant cultural group, assimilation was necessary to minimize disloyalty and treason and therefore became a major component of nationalism. A second factor for the politically dominant group was competition with neighboring states—nationalism involved a rivalry, especially in terms of military prowess and economic strength. Economic nationalism, or economic patriotism, is an ideology that favors state interventionism in the economy, with policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital. Gendered and muscular nationalism Feminist critique interprets nationalism as a mechanism through which sexual control and repression are justified and legitimised, often by a dominant masculine power. The gendering of nationalism through socially constructed notions of masculinity and femininity not only shapes what masculine and feminine participation in the building of that nation will look like, but also how the nation will be imagined by nationalists. A nation having its own identity is viewed as necessary, and often inevitable, and these identities are gendered. The physical land itself is often gendered as female (i.e. "Motherland"), with a body in constant danger of violation by foreign males, while national pride and protectiveness of "her" borders is gendered as masculine. History, political ideologies, and religions place most nations along a continuum of muscular nationalism. Muscular nationalism conceptualises a nation's identity as being derived from muscular or masculine attributes that are unique to a particular country. If definitions of nationalism and gender are understood as socially and culturally constructed, the two may be constructed in conjunction by invoking an "us" versus "them" dichotomy for the purpose of the exclusion of the so-called "other," who is used to reinforce the unifying ties of the nation. The empowerment of one gender, nation or sexuality tends to occur at the expense and disempowerment of another; in this way, nationalism can be used as an instrument to perpetuate heteronormative structures of power. The gendered manner in which dominant nationalism has been imagined in most states in the world has had important implications on not only individual's lived experience, but on international relations. Colonialism is heavily connected to muscular nationalism, from research linking British hegemonic masculinity and empire-building, to intersectional oppression being justified by colonialist images of “others”, a practice integral in the formation of Western identity. This “othering” may come in the form of orientalism, whereby the East is feminized and sexualized by the West. The imagined feminine East, or “other,” exists in contrast to the masculine West. The status of conquered nations can become a causality dilemma: the nation was “conquered because they were effeminate and seen as effeminate because they were conquered.” In defeat they are considered militaristically unskilled, not aggressive, and thus not muscular. In order for a nation to be considered “proper”, it must possess the male-gendered characteristics of virility, as opposed to the stereotypically female characteristics of subservience and dependency. Muscular nationalism is often inseparable from the concept of a warrior, which shares ideological commonalities across many nations; they are defined by the masculine notions of aggression, willingness to engage in war, decisiveness, and muscular strength, as opposed to the feminine notions of peacefulness, weakness, non-violence, and compassion. This masculinized image of a warrior has been theorised to be “the culmination of a series of gendered historical and social processes" played out in a national and international context. Ideas of cultural dualism—of a martial man and chaste woman—which are implicit in muscular nationalism, underline the raced, classed, gendered, and heteronormative nature of dominant national identity. Nations and gender systems are mutually supportive constructions: the nation fulfils the masculine ideals of comradeship and brotherhood. Masculinity has been cited as a notable factor in producing political militancy. A common feature of national crisis is a drastic shift in the socially acceptable ways of being a man, which then helps to shape the gendered perception of the nation as a whole. Integral nationalism, irredentism and pan-nationalism There are different types of nationalism including Risorgimento nationalism and Integral nationalism. Whereas risorgimento nationalism applies to a nation seeking to establish a liberal state (for example the Risorgimento in Italy and similar movements in Greece, Germany, Poland during the 19th century or the civic American nationalism), integral nationalism results after a nation has achieved independence and has established a state. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, according to Alter and Brown, were examples of integral nationalism. Some of the qualities that characterize integral nationalism are anti-individualism, statism, radical extremism, and aggressive-expansionist militarism. The term Integral Nationalism often overlaps with fascism, although many natural points of disagreement exist. Integral nationalism arises in countries where a strong military ethos has become entrenched through the independence struggle, when, once independence is achieved, it is believed that a strong military is required to ensure the security and viability of the new state. Also, the success of such a liberation struggle results in feelings of national superiority that may lead to extreme nationalism. Pan-nationalism is unique in that it covers a large area span. Pan-nationalism focuses more on "clusters" of ethnic groups. Pan-Slavism is one example of Pan-nationalism. The goal is to unite all Slavic people into one country. They did succeed by uniting several south Slavic people into Yugoslavia in 1918. Left-wing nationalism, occasionally known as socialist nationalism, not to be confused with the German fascist National Socialism, is a political movement that combines left-wing politics with nationalism. Many nationalist movements are dedicated to national liberation, in the view that their nations are being persecuted by other nations and thus need to exercise self-determination by liberating themselves from the accused persecutors. Anti-revisionist Marxist–Leninism is closely tied with this ideology, and practical examples include Stalin's early work Marxism and the National Question and his socialism in one country edict, which declares that nationalism can be used in an internationalist context, fighting for national liberation without racial or religious divisions. Other examples of left-wing nationalism include Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement that launched the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Cornwall's Mebyon Kernow, Ireland's Sinn Féin, Wales's Plaid Cymru, the Awami League in Bangladesh, the African National Congress in South Africa and numerous movements in Eastern Europe. Among the first advocates of national-anarchism were Hans Cany, Peter Töpfer and former National Front activist Troy Southgate, founder of the National Revolutionary Faction, a since disbanded British-based organization which cultivated links to certain far-left and far-right circles in the United Kingdom and in post-Soviet states, not to be confused with the national-anarchism of the Black Ram Group. In the United Kingdom, national-anarchists worked with Albion Awake, Alternative Green (published by former Green Anarchist editor Richard Hunt) and Jonathan Boulter to develop the Anarchist Heretics Fair. Those national-anarchists cite their influences primarily from Mikhail Bakunin, William Godwin, Peter Kropotkin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Max Stirner and Leo Tolstoy. A position developed in Europe during the 1990s, national-anarchist groups have seen arisen worldwide, most prominently in Australia (New Right Australia/New Zealand), Germany (International National Anarchism) and the United States (BANA). National-anarchism has been described as a radical right-wing nationalist ideology which advocates racial separatism and white racial purity. National-anarchists claim to syncretize neotribal ethnic nationalism with philosophical anarchism, mainly in their support for a stateless society whilst rejecting anarchist social philosophy. The main ideological innovation of national-anarchism is its anti-state palingenetic ultranationalism. National-anarchists advocate homogeneous communities in place of the nation state. National-anarchists claim that those of different ethnic or racial groups would be free to develop separately in their own tribal communes while striving to be politically meritocratic, economically non-capitalist, ecologically sustainable and socially and culturally traditional. Although the term national-anarchism dates back as far as the 1920s, the contemporary national-anarchist movement has been put forward since the late 1990s by British political activist Troy Southgate, who positions it as being "beyond left and right". The few scholars who have studied national-anarchism conclude that it represents a further evolution in the thinking of the radical right rather than an entirely new dimension on the political spectrum. National-anarchism is considered by anarchists as being a rebranding of totalitarian fascism and an oxymoron due to the inherent contradiction of anarchist philosophy of anti-fascism, abolition of unjustified hierarchy, dismantling of national borders and universal equality between different nationalities as being incompatible with the idea of a synthesis between anarchism and fascism. National-anarchism has elicited skepticism and outright hostility from both left-wing and far-right critics. Critics, including scholars, accuse national-anarchists of being nothing more than white nationalists who promote a communitarian and racialist form of ethnic and racial separatism while wanting the militant chic of calling themselves anarchists without the historical and philosophical baggage that accompanies such a claim, including the anti-racist egalitarian anarchist philosophy and the contributions of Jewish anarchists. Some scholars are skeptical that implementing national-anarchism would result in an expansion of freedom and describe it as an authoritarian anti-statism that would result in authoritarianism and oppression, only on a smaller scale. Nativist nationalism is a type of nationalism similar to creole or territorial types of nationalism, but which defines belonging to a nation solely by being born on its territory. In countries where strong nativist nationalism exists, people who were not born in the country are seen as lesser nationals than those who were born there and are called immigrants even if they became naturalized. It is cultural as people will never see a foreign-born person as one of them and is legal as such people are banned for life from holding certain jobs, especially government jobs. In scholarly studies, nativism is a standard technical term, although those who hold this political view do not typically accept the label. "[N]ativists . . . do not consider themselves nativists. For them it is a negative term and they rather consider themselves as 'Patriots'." Racial nationalism is an ideology that advocates a racial definition of national identity. Racial nationalism seeks to preserve a given race through policies such as banning race mixing and the immigration of other races. Specific examples are black nationalism and white nationalism. Religious nationalism is the relationship of nationalism to a particular religious belief, dogma, or affiliation where a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, a common bond among the citizens of the nation. Saudi Arabian, Iranian, Egyptian, Iraqi, Indian and the Pakistani-Islamic nationalism (Two-Nation Theory) are some examples. Some nationalists exclude certain groups. Some nationalists, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these), may then seek to deem certain minorities as not truly being a part of the 'national community' as they define it. Sometimes a mythic homeland is more important for the national identity than the actual territory occupied by the nation. Territorial nationalists assume that all inhabitants of a particular nation owe allegiance to their country of birth or adoption. A sacred quality is sought in the nation and in the popular memories it evokes. Citizenship is idealized by territorial nationalists. A criterion of a territorial nationalism is the establishment of a mass, public culture based on common values, codes and traditions of the population. Sport spectacles like football's World Cup command worldwide audiences as nations battle for supremacy and the fans invest intense support for their national team. Increasingly people have tied their loyalties and even their cultural identity to national teams. The globalization of audiences through television and other media has generated revenues from advertisers and subscribers in the billions of dollars, as the FIFA Scandals of 2015 revealed. Jeff Kingston looks at football, the Commonwealth Games, baseball, cricket, and the Olympics and finds that, "The capacity of sports to ignite and amplify nationalist passions and prejudices is as extraordinary as is their power to console, unify, uplift and generate goodwill." The phenomenon is evident across most of the world. The British Empire strongly emphasized sports among its soldiers and agents across the world, and often the locals joined in enthusiastically. It established a high prestige competition in 1930, named the British Empire Games from 1930–50, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games from 1954–66, British Commonwealth Games from 1970–74 and since then the Commonwealth Games. The French Empire was not far behind the British in the use of sports to strengthen colonial solidarity with France. Colonial officials promoted and subsidized gymnastics, table games, and dance and helped football spread to French colonies. Critics of nationalism have argued that it is often unclear what constitutes a nation, or whether a nation is a legitimate unit of political rule. Nationalists hold that the boundaries of a nation and a state should coincide with one another, thus nationalism tends to oppose multiculturalism. It can also lead to conflict when more than one national group finds itself claiming rights to a particular territory or seeking to take control of the state. Philosopher A. C. Grayling describes nations as artificial constructs, "their boundaries drawn in the blood of past wars". He argues that "there is no country on earth which is not home to more than one different but usually coexisting culture. Cultural heritage is not the same thing as national identity". Nationalism is inherently divisive because it highlights perceived differences between people, emphasizing an individual's identification with their own nation. The idea is also potentially oppressive because it submerges individual identity within a national whole and gives elites or political leaders potential opportunities to manipulate or control the masses. Much of the early opposition to nationalism was related to its geopolitical ideal of a separate state for every nation. The classic nationalist movements of the 19th century rejected the very existence of the multi-ethnic empires in Europe. However, even in that early stage there was an ideological critique of nationalism which has developed into several forms of internationalism and anti-nationalism. The Islamic revival of the 20th century also produced an Islamist critique of the nation-state. (see Pan-Islamism) At the end of the 19th century, Marxists and other socialists and communists (such as Rosa Luxemburg) produced political analyses that were critical of the nationalist movements then active in Central and Eastern Europe, although a variety of other contemporary socialists and communists, from Vladimir Lenin (a communist) to Józef Piłsudski (a socialist), were more sympathetic to national self-determination. In his classic essay on the topic, George Orwell distinguishes nationalism from patriotism which he defines as devotion to a particular place. More abstractly, nationalism is "power-hunger tempered by self-deception". For Orwell, the nationalist is more likely than not dominated by irrational negative impulses: There are, for example, Trotskyists who have become simply enemies of the U.S.S.R. without developing a corresponding loyalty to any other unit. When one grasps the implications of this, the nature of what I mean by nationalism becomes a good deal clearer. A nationalist is one who thinks solely, or mainly, in terms of competitive prestige. He may be a positive or a negative nationalist—that is, he may use his mental energy either in boosting or in denigrating—but at any rate his thoughts always turn on victories, defeats, triumphs and humiliations. He sees history, especially contemporary history, as the endless rise and decline of great power units and every event that happens seems to him a demonstration that his own side is on the upgrade and some hated rival is on the downgrade. But finally, it is important not to confuse nationalism with mere worship of success. The nationalist does not go on the principle of simply ganging up with the strongest side. On the contrary, having picked his side, he persuades himself that it is the strongest and is able to stick to his belief even when the facts are overwhelmingly against him. In the liberal political tradition there was mostly a negative attitude toward nationalism as a dangerous force and a cause of conflict and war between nation-states. The historian Lord Acton put the case for "nationalism as insanity" in 1862. He argued that nationalism suppresses minorities, it places country above moral principles and especially it creates a dangerous individual attachment to the state. However, Acton opposed democracy and was trying to defend the pope from Italian nationalism. Since the late 20th century, liberals have been increasingly divided, with some philosophers such as Michael Walzer, Isaiah Berlin, Charles Taylor and David Miller emphasizing that a liberal society needed to be based in a stable nation state. The pacifist critique of nationalism also concentrates on the violence of nationalist movements, the associated militarism, and on conflicts between nations inspired by jingoism or chauvinism. 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Birds (Aves) are a group of endothermic vertebrates, characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m (9 ft) ostrich. They rank as the world’s most numerically-successful class of tetrapods, with approximately ten thousand living species, more than half of these being passerines, sometimes known as perching birds. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although further evolution has led to the loss of flight in flightless birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have further evolved for swimming. The fossil record indicates that birds evolved from earlier feathered dinosaurs within the theropod group, which are traditionally placed within the saurischian dinosaurs; their closest living relatives are the crocodilians. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid- Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Many of these early "stem-birds", such as Archaeopteryx, were not yet capable of fully powered flight, and many retained primitive characteristics like toothy jaws in place of beaks, and long bony tails. DNA-based evidence finds that birds diversified dramatically around the time of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event 66 million years ago, which killed off the pterosaurs and all the non-avian dinosaur lineages. But birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. This makes them the sole surviving dinosaurs according to cladistics. Some birds, especially corvids and parrots, are among the most intelligent animals; several bird species make and use tools, and many social species pass on knowledge across generations, which is considered a form of culture. Many species annually migrate great distances. Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous (referring to social living arrangement, distinct from genetic monogamy), usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous (arrangement of one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (arrangement of one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, though unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring. Many species of birds are economically important as food for human consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with domesticated and undomesticated birds (poultry and game) being important sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano (bird excrement) is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the Evolution and classification 1.2 Dinosaurs and the origin of birds 1.3 Early evolution 1.4 Early diversity of bird ancestors 1.5 Diversification of modern birds 1.6 Classification of bird orders Anatomy and physiology 3.1 Skeletal system 3.2 Excretory system 3.3 Respiratory and circulatory systems Heart type and features 3.4 Nervous system 3.5 Defence and intraspecific combat 3.7 Feathers, plumage, and scales 4.1 Diet and feeding 4.2 Water and drinking 4.6 Flocking and other associations 4.7 Resting and roosting 4.8.1 Social systems 4.8.2 Territories, nesting and incubation 4.8.3 Parental care and fledging 4.8.4 Brood parasites 4.8.5 Sexual selection 4.8.6 Inbreeding depression 4.8.7 Inbreeding avoidance 6 Relationship with humans 6.1 Economic importance 6.2 In religion and mythology 6.3 In culture and folklore 6.4 In music 7 See also 9 External links Evolution and classification Evolution of birds Archaeopteryx lithographica is often considered the oldest known true The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use. Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda. Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria. During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica. However, an earlier definition Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century, and is used by many scientists including adherents of the Phylocode system. Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning them, instead, to the Avialae, in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs. Gauthier identified four different definitions for the same biological name "Aves", which is a problem. Gauthier proposed to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group consisting of the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which corresponds to meaning number 4 below. He assigned other names to the Lizards (including snakes) The birds' phylogenetic relationships to major living reptile groups. Aves can mean all archosaurs closer to birds than to crocodiles Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers (alternately Aves can mean those feathered dinosaurs that fly (alternately Avialae) Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants (a "crown group", in this sense synonymous with Neornithes) Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx is an avialan, and not a member of Aves. Gauthier's proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and bird evolution, though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular term "bird" by these Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions vary. Many authors have used a definition similar to "all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus." also occasionally defined as an apomorphy-based clade (that is, one based on physical characteristics). Jacques Gauthier, who named Avialae in 1986, re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight, and the birds that descended Dinosaurs and the origin of birds Main article: Origin of birds Anchiornis huxleyi is an important source of information on the early evolution of birds in the Late Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised subgroup of theropod dinosaurs, and more specifically, they are members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids, among others. As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrate many small theropod feathered dinosaurs, contribute to this ambiguity. The consensus view in contemporary palaeontology is that the flying theropods, or avialans, are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs, which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids. Together, these form a group called Paraves. Some basal members of this group, such as Microraptor, have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal, have been able to glide, or Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, recent studies suggest that the first avialans were omnivores. Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found, and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics: teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail, as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor. See also: List of fossil bird genera Confuciusornis sanctus, a Cretaceous bird from China that lived 125 million years ago, is the oldest known bird to have a beak. Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., The earliest known avialan fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period (Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Xiaotingia zhengi, and The well-known early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany. Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds, but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous Period. Many groups retained primitive characteristics, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves). While the earliest forms, such as Jeholornis, retained the long bony tails of their ancestors, the tails of more advanced avialans were shortened with the advent of the pygostyle bone in the group Pygostylia. In the late Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago, the ancestors of all modern birds evolved a more open pelvis, allowing them to lay larger eggs compared to body size. Around 95 million years ago, they evolved a better sense of Early diversity of bird ancestors Ichthyornis, which lived 93 million years ago, was the first known prehistoric bird relative preserved with teeth. Mesozoic bird phylogeny simplified after Wang et al., 2015's The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were the enantiornithes, or "opposite birds", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period, enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the Euornithes (meaning "true birds", because they include the ancestors of modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialised in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the enantiornithes, which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird-like species, waders, and swimming and diving species. The later included the superficially gull-like Ichthyornis, the Hesperornithiformes, which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic. The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws). Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers, which may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight. Diversification of modern birds Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds and dinosaur Other birds (Neoaves) Basal divergences of modern birds based on Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy All modern birds lie within the crown group Aves (alternately Neornithes), which has two subdivisions: the Palaeognathae, which includes the flightless ratites (such as the ostriches) and the weak-flying tinamous, and the extremely diverse Neognathae, containing all other birds. These two subdivisions are often given the rank of superorder, although Livezey and Zusi assigned them "cohort" rank. Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint, the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9,800 to 10,050. The discovery of Vegavis, a late Cretaceous member of the Anatidae, proved that the diversification of modern birds started before the Cenozoic. The affinities of an earlier fossil, the possible galliform Austinornis lentus, dated to about 85 million years ago, are still too controversial to provide a fossil evidence of modern Most studies agree on a Cretaceous age for the most recent common ancestor of modern birds but estimates range from the Middle Cretaceous to the latest Late Cretaceous. Similarly, there is no agreement on whether most of the early diversification of modern birds occurred before or after the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event. This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; most molecular dating studies suggests a Cretaceous radiation, while fossil evidence points to a Cenozoic radiation (the so-called 'rocks' versus 'clocks' controversy). Previous attempts to reconcile molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial, but more recent estimates, using a more comprehensive sample of fossils and a new way of calibrating molecular clocks, showed that while modern birds originated early in the Late Cretaceous, a pulse of diversification in all major groups occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event. Classification of bird orders See also: List of birds Cladogram of modern bird relationships based on Prum, R.O. et al. (2015) with some clade names after Yuri, T. et al. (2013). Cassowary & emus) Aepyornithiformes (Elephant bird) Galliformes (chickens and relatives) Anseriformes (ducks and relatives) Gruiformes (rails and cranes) Charadriiformes (waders and relatives) Eurypygiformes (sunbittern and kagu) Procellariiformes (albatross and petrels) Suliformes (boobies, cormorants, etc.) Pelecaniformes (pelicans, herons & egrets) Cathartiformes (New World vultures) Accipitriformes (hawks and relatives) Coliidae (mouse birds) Leptosomatiformes (cuckoo roller) Trogoniformes (trogons and quetzals) Bucerotiformes (hornbills and relatives) Coraciformes (kingfishers and relatives) Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives) The classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley and Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds, although it is frequently debated and constantly revised. Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate, but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus has emerged. More recently, new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders. Lists of birds by region and List of birds List of birds by population The range of the house sparrow has expanded dramatically due to human Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel's breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres (270 mi) inland in Antarctica. The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics; however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics. Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed and some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 metres (980 ft) Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the ring-necked pheasant, for example, has been introduced around the world as a game bird. Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity. Some species, including cattle egret, yellow-headed caracara and galah, have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural practices created suitable new habitat. Anatomy and physiology Bird anatomy and External anatomy of a bird (example: yellow-wattled lapwing): 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Median coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Foot, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21 Throat, 22 Wattle, 23 Eyestripe Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate flight. The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the respiratory system. The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial sutures. The orbits are large and separated by a bony septum. The spine has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae. The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum. The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings. Like the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and (with exception of the ostrich) uric acid is excreted along with faeces as a semisolid waste. However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca. The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate Palaeognathae (with the exception of the kiwis), the Anseriformes (with the exception of screamers), and in rudimentary Galliformes (but fully developed in Cracidae) possess a penis, which is never present in Neoaves. The length is thought to be related to sperm competition. When not copulating, it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during Respiratory and circulatory systems Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups. Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lungs and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation. Sound production is achieved using the syrinx, a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea; the trachea being elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalisations and the perception of the bird's size. In birds, the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right aortic arch (or pharyngeal arch), unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the aorta. The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system. Unlike in mammals, the circulating red blood cells in birds retain Heart type and features Didactic model of an avian heart. The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication. The heart itself is divided into a right and left half, each with an atrium and ventricle. The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction. Being myogenic, the heart's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium. The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarising signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian heart, the avian heart is composed of endocardial, myocardial and epicardial layers. The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body. Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight. Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal. The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Blood travels through the arterioles and moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues; it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body. The nictitating membrane as it covers the eye of a masked lapwing The nervous system is large relative to the bird's size. The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related functions, while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and nest building. Most birds have a poor sense of smell with notable exceptions including kiwis, New World vultures and tubenoses. The avian visual system is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible lenses, allowing accommodation for vision in air and water. Some species also have dual fovea. Birds are tetrachromatic, possessing ultraviolet (UV) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones. Many birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the human eye; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers. Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging—kestrels have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents. With the exception of pigeons and a few other species, the eyelids of birds are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third eyelid that moves horizontally. The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds. The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the pecten. Most birds cannot move their eyes, although there are exceptions, such as the great cormorant. Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, while birds with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of field. The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by feathers, although in some birds, such as the Asio, Bubo and Otus owls, these feathers form tufts which resemble ears. The inner ear has a cochlea, but it is not spiral as in mammals. Defence and intraspecific combat A few species are able to use chemical defences against predators; Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant stomach oil against an aggressor, and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers. A lack of field observations limit our knowledge, but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death. The screamers (Anhimidae), some jacanas (Jacana, Hydrophasianus), the spur-winged goose (Plectropterus), the torrent duck (Merganetta) and nine species of lapwing (Vanellus) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon. The steamer ducks (Tachyeres), geese and swans (Anserinae), the solitaire (Pezophaps), sheathbills (Chionis), some guans (Crax) and stone curlews (Burhinus) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents. The jacanas Irediparra have an expanded, blade-like radius. The extinct Xenicibis was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail. Swans, for instance, may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young. Birds have two sexes: either female or male. The sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes, rather than by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals. Male birds have two Z chromosomes (ZZ), and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome In nearly all species of birds, an individual's sex is determined at fertilisation. However, one recent study demonstrated temperature-dependent sex determination among the Australian brushturkey, for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female-to-male sex ratio. This, however, was later proven to not be the case. These birds do not exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, but temperature-dependent sex Feathers, plumage, and scales Feather and Flight feather The disruptively patterned plumage of the African scops owl African scops owl allows it to blend in with its surroundings. Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds (though also present in some dinosaurs not currently considered to be true birds). They facilitate flight, provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation, and are used in display, camouflage, and signalling. There are several types of feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called pterylae. The distribution pattern of these feather tracts (pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body, called plumage, may vary within species by age, social status, and Plumage is regularly moulted; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the "non-breeding" plumage, or—in the Humphrey-Parkes terminology—"basic" plumage; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey-Parkes system as "alternate" plumages. Moulting is annual in most species, although some may have two moults a year, and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years. Moulting patterns vary across species. In passerines, flight feathers are replaced one at a time with the innermost primary being the first. When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced, the outermost tertiaries begin to drop. After the innermost tertiaries are moulted, the secondaries starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers (centrifugal moult). The greater primary coverts are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap. A small number of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers at once, temporarily becoming flightless. As a general rule, the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair. Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the Phasianidae. The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of woodpeckers and treecreepers, in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail. The general pattern seen in passerines is that the primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from centre outward. Before nesting, the females of most bird species gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation. Red lory preening Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an average of around 9% of their daily time on this. The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the uropygial gland; these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and act as an antimicrobial agent, inhibiting the growth of feather-degrading bacteria. This may be supplemented with the secretions of formic acid from ants, which birds receive through a behaviour known as anting, to remove feather The scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. Most bird scales do not overlap significantly, except in the cases of kingfishers and woodpeckers. The scales of birds are thought to be homologous to those of reptiles and mammals. Restless flycatcher in the downstroke of flapping flight Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for searching for food and for escaping from predators. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as Wing shape and size generally determine a bird's flight style and performance; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators. Though flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to "fly" through the water, as do auks, shearwaters and dippers. Most birds are diurnal, but some birds, such as many species of owls and nightjars, are nocturnal or crepuscular (active during twilight hours), and many coastal waders feed when the tides are appropriate, by day or night. Diet and feeding Feeding adaptations in beaks Birds' diets are varied and often include nectar, fruit, plants, seeds, carrion, and various small animals, including other birds. Because birds have no teeth, their digestive system is adapted to process unmasticated food items that are swallowed whole. Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists. Birds' feeding strategies vary by species. Many birds glean for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch. Those species that seek pest insects are considered beneficial 'biological control agents' and their presence encouraged in biological pest Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds, sunbirds, lories, and lorikeets amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit co-adapted flowers. Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of ecological niches. Loons, diving ducks, penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater, using their wings or feet for propulsion, while aerial predators such as sulids, kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey. Flamingos, three species of prion, and some ducks are filter feeders. Geese and dabbling ducks are primarily Some species, including frigatebirds, gulls, and skuas, engage in kleptoparasitism, stealing food items from other birds. Kleptoparasitism is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting, rather than a significant part of any species' diet; a study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds stole at most 40% of their food and on average stole only 5%. Other birds are scavengers; some of these, like vultures, are specialised carrion eaters, while others, like gulls, corvids, or other birds of prey, are opportunists. Water and drinking Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of sweat glands reduces the physiological demands. Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food. They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise, saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting. Seabirds can drink seawater and have salt glands inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the Most birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run down the throat. Some species, especially of arid zones, belonging to the pigeon, finch, mousebird, button-quail and bustard families are capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their heads. Some desert birds depend on water sources and sandgrouse are particularly well known for their daily congregations at waterholes. Nesting sandgrouse and many plovers carry water to their young by wetting their belly feathers. Some birds carry water for chicks at the nest in their crop or regurgitate it along with food. The pigeon family, flamingos and penguins have adaptations to produce a nutritive fluid called crop milk that they provide to Feathers being critical to the survival of a bird, require maintenance. Apart from physical wear and tear, feathers face the onslaught of fungi, ectoparasitic feather mites and birdlice. The physical condition of feathers are maintained by preening often with the application of secretions from the preen gland. Birds also bathe in water or dust themselves. While some birds dip into shallow water, more aerial species may make aerial dips into water and arboreal species often make use of dew or rain that collect on leaves. Birds of arid regions make use of loose soil to dust-bathe. A behaviour termed as anting in which the bird encourages ants to run through their plumage is also thought to help them reduce the ectoparasite load in feathers. Many species will spread out their wings and expose them to direct sunlight and this too is thought to help in reducing fungal and ectoparasitic activity that may lead to feather damage. A flock of Canada geese in V formation Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of seasonal temperatures, therefore optimising availability of food sources and breeding habitat. These migrations vary among the different groups. Many landbirds, shorebirds, and waterbirds undertake annual long distance migrations, usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions. These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the temperate or polar regions and a non-breeding season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration, birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs. Migration is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling. Landbirds have a flight range of around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) and shorebirds can fly up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi), although the bar-tailed godwit is capable of non-stop flights of up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Seabirds also undertake long migrations, the longest annual migration being those of sooty shearwaters, which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, California, an annual round trip of 64,000 km (39,800 mi). Other seabirds disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration route. Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons. The routes of satellite-tagged bar-tailed godwits migrating north from New Zealand. This species has the longest known non-stop migration of any species, up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Some bird species undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food. Irruptive species such as the boreal finches are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in one year and absent the next. This type of migration is normally associated with food availability. Species may also travel shorter distances over part of their range, with individuals from higher latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics; others undertake partial migrations, where only a fraction of the population, usually females and subdominant males, migrates. Partial migration can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some regions; in Australia, surveys found that 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerines were Altitudinal migration is a form of short distance migration in which birds spend the breeding season at higher altitudes and move to lower ones during suboptimal conditions. It is most often triggered by temperature changes and usually occurs when the normal territories also become inhospitable due to lack of food. Some species may also be nomadic, holding no fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability. Parrots as a family are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary but considered to either be dispersive, irruptive, nomadic or undertake small and irregular The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s, a Manx shearwater released in Boston in the United States returned to its colony in Skomer, in Wales within 13 days, a distance of 5,150 km (3,200 mi). Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods. For diurnal migrants, the sun is used to navigate by day, and a stellar compass is used at night. Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an internal clock. Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the constellations surrounding Polaris. These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth's geomagnetism through specialised Song of the house wren, a common North American songbird Problems playing this file? See media help. The startling display of the sunbittern mimics a large predator. Birds communicate using primarily visual and auditory signals. Signals can be interspecific (between species) and intraspecific (within Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance, to display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make threatening displays, as in the sunbittern's mimicry of a large predator to ward off hawks and protect young chicks. Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds, particularly between species. Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair-bonds. The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements; males' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays. Bird calls and songs, which are produced in the syrinx, are the major means by which birds communicate with sound. This communication can be very complex; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently, allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs. Calls are used for a variety of purposes, including mate attraction, evaluation of potential mates, bond formation, the claiming and maintenance of territories, the identification of other individuals (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season), and the warning of other birds of potential predators, sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat. Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication. The New Zealand drive air through their feathers, woodpeckers drum territorially, and palm cockatoos use tools to drum. Flocking and other associations Red-billed queleas, the most numerous species of bird, form enormous flocks—sometimes tens of thousands strong. While some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups, other birds may form large flocks. The principal benefits of flocking are safety in numbers and increased foraging efficiency. Defence against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like forests, where ambush predation is common and multiple eyes can provide a valuable early warning system. This has led to the development of many mixed-species feeding flocks, which are usually composed of small numbers of many species; these flocks provide safety in numbers but increase potential competition for resources. Costs of flocking include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain Birds sometimes also form associations with non-avian species. Plunge-diving seabirds associate with dolphins and tuna, which push shoaling fish towards the surface. Hornbills have a mutualistic relationship with dwarf mongooses, in which they forage together and warn each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators. Resting and roosting Many birds, like this American flamingo, tuck their head into their back when sleeping The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening "peeks", allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats. Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight. It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight. Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow-wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from marine Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators. Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. Perching birds have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus Loriculus roost hanging upside down. Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates. This physiological adaptation shows in nearly a hundred other species, including owlet-nightjars, nightjars, and woodswallows. One species, the common poorwill, even enters a state of hibernation. Birds do not have sweat glands, but they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves. See also: Category:Avian sexuality, Animal sexual behaviour Seabird breeding behaviour, and Sexual selection in Like others of its family the male Raggiana bird-of-paradise has elaborate breeding plumage used to impress females. Ninety-five per cent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate. Monogamy allows for both paternal care and biparental care, which is especially important for species in which females require males' assistance for successful brood-rearing. Among many socially monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common. Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids. Female birds have sperm storage mechanisms that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation, a hundred days in some species. Sperm from multiple males may compete through this mechanism. For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate. Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise. Other mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity, also occur. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male. Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial flights, or communal lekking. Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection, although in the polyandrous phalaropes, this is reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females. Courtship feeding, billing and allopreening are commonly performed between partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated. Homosexual behaviour has been observed in males or females in numerous species of birds, including copulation, pair-bonding, and joint parenting of chicks. Territories, nesting and incubation Many birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species during the breeding season; maintenance of territories protects the food source for their chicks. Species that are unable to defend feeding territories, such as seabirds and swifts, often breed in colonies instead; this is thought to offer protection from predators. Colonial breeders defend small nesting sites, and competition between and within species for nesting sites can be intense. All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate. Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting nightjars have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts. Male golden-backed weavers construct elaborate suspended nests out of Bird eggs are usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Some bird nests, however, are extremely primitive; albatross nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick survival, and feathers are often used for nest insulation. Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in ground-nesting species where the newly hatched young are precocial. Nest of an eastern phoebe that has been parasitised by a brown-headed Incubation, which optimises temperature for chick development, usually begins after the last egg has been laid. In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared, whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation. Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through brood patches, areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds. Incubation can be an energetically demanding process; adult albatrosses, for instance, lose as much as 83 grams (2.9 oz) of body weight per day of incubation. The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of megapodes comes from the sun, decaying vegetation or volcanic sources. Incubation periods range from 10 days (in woodpeckers, cuckoos and passerine birds) to over 80 days (in albatrosses and The diversity of characteristics of birds is great, sometimes even in closely related species. Several avian characteristics are compared in the table below. Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) House sparrow (Passer domesticus) Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) Laysan albatross (Diomedea immutabilis) Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) Parental care and fledging Main article: Parental care in birds At the time of their hatching, chicks range in development from helpless to independent, depending on their species. Helpless chicks are termed altricial, and tend to be born small, blind, immobile and naked; chicks that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed Altricial chicks need help thermoregulating and must be brooded for longer than precocial chicks. The young of many bird species do not precisely fit into either the precocial or altricial category, having some aspects of each and thus fall somewhere on an "altricial-precocial spectrum". Chicks at neither extreme but favoring one or the other may be termed semi-precocial or Calliope hummingbird feeding fully grown chicks. Altricial chicks of a white-breasted woodswallow. The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species. At one extreme, parental care in megapodes ends at hatching; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately. At the other extreme, many seabirds have extended periods of parental care, the longest being that of the great frigatebird, whose chicks take up to six months to fledge and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months. The chick guard stage describes the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at the nest after chicks have hatched. The main purpose of the guard stage is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them In some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some species, other members of the same species—usually close relatives of the breeding pair, such as offspring from previous broods—will help with the raising of the young. Such alloparenting is particularly common among the Corvida, which includes such birds as the true crows, Australian magpie and fairy-wrens, but has been observed in species as different as the rifleman and red kite. Among most groups of animals, male parental care is rare. In birds, however, it is quite common—more so than in any other vertebrate class. Though territory and nest site defence, incubation, and chick feeding are often shared tasks, there is sometimes a division of labour in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty. The point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically. The chicks of Synthliboramphus murrelets, like the ancient murrelet, leave the nest the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where they are raised away from terrestrial predators. Some other species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after, they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging. Chicks may also follow their parents during their first migration. Main article: Brood parasite Reed warbler raising a common cuckoo, a brood parasite. Brood parasitism, in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another individual's brood, is more common among birds than any other type of organism. After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird's nest, they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host's own brood. Brood parasites may be either obligate brood parasites, which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young, or non-obligate brood parasites, which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young. One hundred bird species, including honeyguides, icterids, and ducks, are obligate parasites, though the most famous are the cuckoos. Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host's young, which allows them to destroy the host's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host's chicks; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks. The peacock tail in flight, the classic example of a Fisherian runaway Sexual selection in birds Birds have evolved a variety of mating behaviours, with the peacock tail being perhaps the most famous example of sexual selection and the Fisherian runaway. Commonly occurring sexual dimorphisms such as size and colour differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations. Many types of avian sexual selection have been identified; intersexual selection, also known as female choice; and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual’s fitness. Conflicts between an individual fitness and signalling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage coloration and courtship behaviour are "honest" traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviours. Main article: Inbreeding depression Inbreeding causes early death (inbreeding depression) in the zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata. Embryo survival (that is, hatching success of fertile eggs) was significantly lower for sib-sib mating pairs than for unrelated pairs. Darwin’s finch Geospiza scandens experiences inbreeding depression (reduced survival of offspring) and the magnitude of this effect is influenced by environmental conditions such as low food Main article: Inbreeding avoidance Incestuous matings by the purple-crowned fairy wren Malurus coronatus result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (greater than 30% reduction in hatchability of eggs). Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings (see Promiscuity#Other animals for 90% frequency in avian species) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair Inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit (Parus major) when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness. In natural populations of Parus major, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close Southern pied babblers Turdoides bicolor appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways. The first is through dispersal, and the second is by avoiding familiar group members as mates. Although both males and females disperse locally, they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered. Within their group, individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite-sex breeder is unrelated. Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin. Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles. Cross-fertilisation between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny. Gran Canaria blue chaffinch, an example of a bird highly specialised in its habitat, in this case in the Canarian pine forests. Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions. While some birds are generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the niches occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding in the forest canopy, others beneath the canopy, and still others on the forest floor. Forest birds may be insectivores, frugivores, and nectarivores. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and piracy or kleptoparasitism. Birds of prey Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are specialised scavengers. Avivores are animals that are specialised at preying on Some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal. Plants and pollinating birds often coevolve, and in some cases a flower's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfil ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For New Zealand the moas were important browsers, as are the kereru and kokako today. Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa. Nesting seabirds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano, which may enrich the local soil and the A wide variety of avian ecology field methods, including counts, nest monitoring, and capturing and marking, are used for researching avian Relationship with humans Main article: Birds in culture Industrial farming of chickens Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man. Sometimes, these relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana. Other times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the house sparrow have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests, and some pose an aviation hazard. Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction (hunting, avian lead poisoning, pesticides, roadkill, wind turbine kills and predation by pet cats and dogs are common sources of death for birds). Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis (avian tuberculosis), avian influenza (bird flu), giardiasis, and cryptosporidiosis over long distances. Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can also be transmitted to humans. See also: Pet § Birds The use of cormorants by Asian fishermen is in steep decline but survives in some areas as a tourist attraction. Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs, called poultry, are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide. Chickens account for much of human poultry consumption, though domesticated turkeys, ducks, and geese are also relatively common. Many species of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other widely hunted birds include pheasants, wild turkeys, quail, doves, partridge, grouse, snipe, and Muttonbirding is also popular in Australia and New Zealand. Though some hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species. Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers (especially the down of geese and ducks), which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding, and seabird faeces (guano), which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen. The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Guano War, was fought in part over the control of Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes. Colourful birds, such as parrots and mynas, are bred in captivity or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some endangered species. Falcons and cormorants have long been used for hunting and fishing, respectively. Messenger pigeons, used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as World War II. Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies, for entertainment and tourism, or for sports such as Amateur bird enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly, birders) number in the millions. Many homeowners erect bird feeders near their homes to attract various species. has grown into a multimillion-dollar industry; for example, an estimated 75% of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter. In religion and mythology "The 3 of Birds" by the Master of the Playing Cards, 15th-century Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology. In religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a deity, such as in the Cult of Makemake, in which the Tangata Easter Island served as chiefs or as attendants, as in the case of Hugin and Munin, the two common ravens who whispered news into the ears of the Norse god Odin. In several civilisations of ancient Italy, particularly Etruscan and Roman religion, priests were involved in augury, or interpreting the words of birds while the "auspex" (from which the word "auspicious" is derived) watched their activities to foretell events. They may also serve as religious symbols, as when יוֹנָה, dove) embodied the fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with doves. Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the common peacock, which is perceived as Mother Earth by the Dravidians of India. In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires, birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms. Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical In culture and folklore Painted tiles with design of birds from Qajar dynasty Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they were represented in early cave paintings. Some birds have been perceived as monsters, including the mythological Roc and the Māori's legendary Pouākai, a giant bird capable of snatching humans. Birds were later used as symbols of power, as in the Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors. With the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds were commissioned for books. Among the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon, whose paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society. Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, Homer incorporated nightingales into his Odyssey, and Catullus used a sparrow as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2. The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which led to the use of the term as a metaphor for a 'burden'. Other English metaphors derive from birds; vulture funds and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from the scavenging vulture. Perceptions of bird species vary across cultures. Owls are associated with bad luck, witchcraft, and death in parts of Africa, but are regarded as wise across much of Europe. Hoopoes were considered Ancient Egypt and symbols of virtue in Persia, but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in Scandinavia. In heraldry, birds, especially eagles, often appear in coats of arms. Main article: Birds in music In music, birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways: they can be inspired by birdsong; they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition, as Vivaldi, Messiaen, and along with many later composers; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works, as Ottorino Respighi first did; or like Beatrice Harrison and David Rothenberg, they can duet with California condor once numbered only 22 birds, but conservation measures have raised that to over 300 today. See also: Late Quaternary prehistoric birds, List of extinct birds, and Raptor conservation Though human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species, such as the barn swallow and European starling, they have caused population decreases or extinction in many other species. Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times, although the most dramatic human-caused avian extinctions, eradicating an estimated 750–1800 species, occurred during the human colonisation of Melanesian, Polynesian, and Micronesian islands. Many bird populations are declining worldwide, with 1,227 species listed as threatened by BirdLife International and the The most commonly cited human threat to birds is habitat loss. 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Bird Collection—A free library of videos of the world's The Institute for Bird Populations, California list of field guides to birds, from the International Field Guides RSPB bird identifier—Interactive identification of all UK birds Extant chordate classes Ascidiacea (sea squirts) Thaliacea (pyrosomes, salps, doliolids) (Vertebrates + Myxini) (fish + Tetrapods) Agnatha (jawless fish) Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays, chimaeras) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Squamata (scaled reptiles)² ¹subclasses of Sarcopterygii ²orders of class Reptilia (reptiles) ³traditionally placed in Anapsida italic are paraphyletic groups Birds (class: Aves) Origin of birds Origin of flight Evolution of birds Families and orders Glossary of bird terms List by population Lists by region Recently extinct birds Late Quaternary prehistoric birds Casuariiformes (emus and cassowaries) Phasianinae (pheasants and relatives) Columbiformes (doves and pigeons) Caprimulgiformes (nightjars and relatives) Apodiformes (swifts and hummingbirds) Charadriiformes (gulls and relatives) Gruiformes (cranes and relatives) Eurypygiformes (kagu and sunbittern) Gaviiformes (loons or divers) Procellariiformes (albatrosses and petrels) Suliformes (cormorants and relatives) Pelecaniformes (pelicans and relatives) Cariamiformes (seriemas and relatives) Falconiformes (falcons and relatives) Passeriformes (perching birds) Cathartiformes (New World vultures and condors) Accipitriformes (eagles and hawks) Trogoniformes (trogons and quetzals) Leptosomatiformes (cuckoo roller) Bucerotiformes (hornbills and hoopoes) Coraciiformes (kingfishers and rollers) Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives) Birds in culture In mythology and religion Driven grouse shooting In the arts The Conference of the Birds Ode to a Nightingale To a Skylark A History of British Birds The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck The Ugly Duckling In theatre and ballet of the Tower of London John James Audubon John James Audubon (The Birds of America) John Gerrard Keulemans Roger Tory Peterson Henry Constantine Richter Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust Category:Birds and humans Dinosaurs in culture Living things in culture Fish in culture Insects in culture Mammals in culture Reptiles in culture Fauna Europaea: 10699 BNF: cb11932889r (data)
What Is a Debate? A debate is a formal discussion on a specific topic. Two sides argue for and against a specific proposal or resolution in a debate. Debates have set conventions and rules that both sides or teams agree to abide by. A neutral moderator or judge is often appointed to help regulate the discussion between the opposing sides. Debating is a form of persuasive communication. We complete a complete guide to persuasive writing, which will form the backbone of your debating speech that can be accessed here. A COMPLETE UNIT ON CLASSROOM DEBATING This unit will guide your students to write excellent DEBATE SPEECHES and craft ARGUMENTS that are well researched, constructed and ready for critique from their classmates. Furthermore, this EDITABLE UNIT will provide you with the TOOLS and STRATEGIES for running highly engaging CLASSROOM DEBATES. How Is a Debate Structured? Debates occur in many different contexts, and these contexts can determine the specific structure the debate will follow. Some contexts where debates will occur include legislative assemblies, public meetings, election campaigns, academic institutions, and TV shows. While structures can differ, below is a basic step-by-step debate structure we can look at with our students. If students can debate to this structure, they will find adapting to other debate structures simple. 1. Choose a Topic Also called a resolution or a motion, the topic is sometimes chosen for each side. This is usually the case in a school activity to practice debating skills. Alternatively, as in the case of a political debate, two sides emerge naturally around contesting beliefs or values on a particular issue. We’ll assume the debate is a school exercise for the rest of this article. The resolution or the motion is usually centered around a true or false statement or a proposal to make some change in the current state of affairs. Often the motion will start, ”This House believes that….” 2. Form Two Teams Two teams of three speakers each are formed. These are referred to as ‘The House for the Motion’ or the ‘Affirmative’ team and ‘The House Against the Motion’ or the ‘Negative’ team. Preparation is an essential aspect of debating. The speech and debate team members will need time to research their arguments, collaborate, and organize themselves and their respective roles in the upcoming debate. They’ll also need time to write and rehearse their speeches too. The better prepared and coordinated they are as a team, the more chance they have of success in the debate. Each speaker takes a turn making their speech, alternating between the House for the Motion, who goes first, and the House Against the Motion. Each speaker speaks for a pre-agreed amount of time. The debate is held in front of an audience (in this case, the class), and sometimes, the audience is given time to ask questions after all the speeches have been made. Finally, the debate is judged either by moderators or by an audience vote. The aim of the teams in a debate should be to convince a neutral third party that they hold the stronger position. How to Write a Debate Speech In some speech contest formats, students are only given the debate topic on the day, and limited time is allowed for preparation. Outside of this context, the speech writing process always begins with research. Thorough research will help provide the student with both the arguments and the supporting evidence for those arguments. Knowing how to research well is a skill that is too complex to cover in detail here. Fortunately, this site also has a detailed article on Top Research Strategies to help. There are slight variations in the structure of debate speeches depending on when the speech is scheduled in the debate order. But, the structure and strategies outlined below are broadly applicable and will help students to write and deliver powerfully persuasive debate speeches. The Debate Introduction As with many types of text, the purpose of the introduction in a debate speech is to do several things: grab the attention of the audience, introduce the topic, provide a thesis statement, and preview some of the main arguments. 1. The Attention Grabber Securing the attention of the audience is crucial. Failure to do this will have a strong, negative impact on how the team’s efforts will be scored as a whole. There are several tried and tested methods of doing this. Three of the main attention grabbers that work well are: a.) Quotation From a Well-Known Person Using a quotation from a well-known person is a great way to draw eyeballs and ears in the speaker’s direction. People love celebrities, even if that celebrity is relatively minor. Using a quotation to open a speech lends authority to what is being said. As well as that, usually, the quotation chosen will be worded concisely and interestingly, making it all the more memorable and impactful for the audience. Numbers can be very convincing. There’s just something about quantifiable things that persuades people. Perhaps it’s because numbers help us to pin down abstract ideas and arguments. The challenge here is for the speaker to successfully extract meaning from the data in such a way as to bolster the force of their argument. c.) The Anecdote Anecdotes can be a valuable way to ease the audience into a complex topic. Anecdotes are essentially stories and can be used to make complicated moral or ethical dilemmas more relatable for an audience. Anecdotes are also an effective way for the speaker to build a rapport with the audience, which, in turn, makes the task of persuading them an easier one. 2. Introduce the Topic Once the audience’s attention has been firmly grasped, it’s time to introduce the topic or the motion. This should be done in a very straightforward and transparent manner to ensure the audience understands the topic of the debate. For example, if the topic of the debate was school uniforms, the topic may be introduced with: “Today, we will debate whether school uniforms should be compulsory for all high school students.” 3. Provide the Thesis Statement The thesis statement should express the student’s or the team’s position on the motion. That is, the thesis statement explains which side of the debate the speaker is on. This statement can come directly after introducing the topic, for example: “Today, we will debate whether school uniforms should be compulsory for all high school students. This house believes (or, I believe…) that school uniforms should not be compulsory for high school students.” 4. Preview the Arguments The final part of the introduction section of a debate speech involves previewing the main points of the speech for the audience. There is no need to go into detail with each argument here; that’s what the body of the speech is for. It is enough to provide a general thesis statement for each argument or ‘claims’ – (more on this to follow). Previewing the arguments in a speech is especially important as the audience and judges only get one listen to a speech – unlike a text which can be reread as frequently as the reader likes. After explaining the different types of attention grabbers and the format for the rest of the introduction to your students, challenge them to write an example of each type of opening for a specific debate topic. When they’ve finished writing these speech openings, discuss with the students which of these openings works best with their chosen topic. They can then continue by completing the rest of the introduction for their speech using the format as described above. Some suggested debate topics you might like to use with your class include: - Homework should be banned - National public service should be mandatory for every citizen - The sale of human organs should be legalized - Artificial intelligence is a threat to humanity - Bottled water should be banned. The Body of the Speech The body paragraphs are the real meat of the speech. They contain the in-depth arguments that make up the substance of the debate. How well these arguments are made will determine how the judges will assess each speaker’s performance, so it’s essential to get the structure of these arguments just right. Let’s take a look at how to do that. The Structure of an Argument With the introduction out of the way, it’s time for the student to get down to the nitty-gritty of the debate – that is, making compelling arguments to support their case. There are three main aspects to an argument in a debate speech. They are: 1. The Claim 2. The Warrant 3. The Impact The first part of an argument is referred to as the claim. This is the assertion that the argument is attempting to prove. The warrant is the evidence or reasoning used to verify or support that claim. Finally, the impact describes why the claim is significant. It’s the part of the argument that deals with why it matters in the first place and what further conclusions we can draw from the fact that the claim is true. Following this structure carefully enables our students to build coherent and robust arguments. Present your students with a topic and, as a class, brainstorm some arguments for and against the motion. Then, ask students to choose one argument and, using the Claim-Warrant-Impact format, take a few moments to write down a well-structured argument that’s up to debate standard. Students can then present their arguments to the class. Or, you could also divide the class along pro/con lines and host a mini-debate! This speech section provides the speaker with one last opportunity to deliver their message. In a timed formal debate, the conclusion also allows the speaker to show the judges that they can speak within the set time while still covering all their material. As with conclusions in general, the conclusion of a debate speech provides an opportunity to refer back to the introduction and restate the central position. At this point, it can be a good idea to summarize the arguments before ending with a powerful image that leaves a lasting impression on the audience and judges. The Burden of the Rejoinder In formal debates, the burden of the rejoinder means that any time an opponent makes a point for their side, it’s incumbent upon the student/team to address that point directly. Failing to do so will automatically be seen as accepting the truth of the point made by the opponent. For example, if the opposing side argues that all grass is pink, despite how ridiculous that statement is, failing to refute that point directly means that, for the debate, all grass is pink. Our students must understand the burden of the rejoinder and ensure that any points the opposing team makes are fully addressed during the debate. When preparing to write their speech, students should spend a significant proportion of their team collaborating as a team. One good way to practice the burden of the rejoinder concept is to use the concept of Devil’s Advocate, whereby one team member acts as a member of the opposing team, posing arguments from the other side for the speaker to counter, sharpening up their refutation skills in the process. OTHER GREAT ARTICLES RELATED TO DEBATING Debate: The Keys to Victory Research and preparation are essential to ensure good performance in a debate. Students should spend as much time as possible drafting and redrafting their speeches to maximize their chances of winning. However, a debate is a dynamic activity, and victory cannot be assured by pre-writing alone. Students must understand that the key to securing victory lies in also being able to think, write (often in the form of notes), and respond instantly amid the turmoil of the verbal battle. To do this, students must understand the following keys to victory. When we think of winning a debate, we often think of blinding the enemy with the brilliance of our verbal eloquence. We think of impressing the audience and the judges alike with our outstanding oratory. What we don’t often picture when we imagine what a debate winner looks like is a quiet figure sitting and listening intently. But being a good listener is one of our students’ most critical debating skills. If students don’t listen to the other side, whether by researching opposing arguments or during the thrust of the actual debate, they won’t know the arguments the other side is making. Without this knowledge, they cannot effectively refute the opposition’s claims. Read the Audience In terms of the writing that happens before the debate takes place, this means knowing your audience. Students should learn that how they present their arguments may change according to the demographics of the audience and/or judges to whom they will be making their speech. An audience of retired school teachers and an audience of teen students may have very different responses to the same arguments. This applies during the actual debate itself too. If the student making their speech reads resistance in the faces of the listeners, they should be prepared to adapt their approach accordingly in mid-speech. Practice, Practice, Practice The student must practice their speech before the debate. There’s no need to learn it entirely by heart. There isn’t usually an expectation to memorize a speech entirely, and doing so can lead to the speaker losing some of their spontaneity and power in their delivery. At the same time, students shouldn’t spend the whole speech bent over a sheet of paper reading word by word. Ideally, students should familiarize themselves with the content and be prepared to deliver their speech using flashcards as prompts when necessary. Another important element for students to focus on when practising their speech is making their body language, facial expressions, and hand gestures coherent with the verbal content of their speech. One excellent way to achieve this is for the student to practice delivering their speech in a mirror. Debating is a lot of fun to teach and partake in, but it also offers students a valuable opportunity to pick up some powerful life skills. It helps students develop a knack for distinguishing fact from opinion and an ability to assess whether a source is credible or not. It also helps to encourage them to think about the other side of the argument. Debating helps our students understand others, even when disagreeing with them. An important skill in these challenging times without a doubt. A COMPLETE UNIT FOR TEACHING OPINION WRITING IN 2022 Teach your students to write EXCELLENT PERSUASIVE ESSAYS and master INFLUENTIAL WRITING SKILLS using PROVEN TEACHING STRATEGIES with this 140-PAGE UNIT. ALL RESOURCES AND ASSESSMENT TOOLS INCLUDED – NO PREP REQUIRED. 30+ 5-star Ratings ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ VIDEO TUTORIALS TO HELP YOU WRITE A GREAT DEBATE SPEECH The content for this page has been written by Shane Mac Donnchaidh. A former principal of an international school and English university lecturer with 15 years of teaching and administration experience. Shane’s latest Book, The Complete Guide to Nonfiction Writing, can be found here. Editing and support for this article have been provided by the literacyideas team.
SummaryStudent teams investigate the properties of electromagnets. They create their own small electromagnets and experiment with ways to change their strength to pick up more paperclips. Students learn about ways that engineers use electromagnets in everyday applications. Engineers design electromagnets, which are a basic part of motors. Electromagnetic motors are a big part of everyday life, as well as industries and factories. We may not even realize that we interact with electromagnets on a daily basis as we use a wide variety of motors to make our lives easier. Common devices that use electromagnetic motors are: refrigerators, clothes dryers, washing machines, dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, sewing machines, garbage disposals, doorbells, computers, computer printers, clocks, fans, car starters, windshield wiper motors, electric toothbrushes, electric razors, can openers, speakers, music or tape players, etc. Some knowledge of magnetic forces (poles, attraction forces). Refer to the Magnetism unit, Lesson 2: Two Sides of One Force, for this information on electromagnets. After this activity, students should be able to: - Relate that electric current creates a magnetic field. - Describe how an electromagnet is made. - Investigate ways to change the strength of an electromagnet. - List several items that engineers have designed using electromagnets. More Curriculum Like This Students learn more about magnetism, and how magnetism and electricity are related in electromagnets. They learn the fundamentals about how simple electric motors and electromagnets work. Students also learn about hybrid gasoline-electric cars and their advantages over conventional gasoline-only-pow... Students induce EMF in a coil of wire using magnetic fields. Students review the cross product with respect to magnetic force and introduce magnetic flux, Faraday's law of Induction, Lenz's law, eddy currents, motional EMF and Induced EMF. Students are introduced to the role of electricity and magnetism as they build speakers. They also explore the properties of magnets, create electromagnets, and determine the directions of magnetic fields. Students are briefly introduced to Maxwell's equations and their significance to phenomena associated with electricity and magnetism. Basic concepts such as current, electricity and field lines are covered and reinforced. Through multiple topics and activities, students see how electricity and magne... Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN), a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g., by state; within source by type; e.g., science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc. Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN), a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g., by state; within source by type; e.g., science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc. - Ask questions to determine cause and effect relationships of electric or magnetic interactions between two objects not in contact with each other. (Grade 3) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Define a simple design problem that can be solved by applying scientific ideas about magnets. (Grade 3) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Define a simple design problem reflecting a need or a want that includes specified criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost. (Grades 3 - 5) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Represent real world and mathematical problems by graphing points in the first quadrant of the coordinate plane, and interpret coordinate values of points in the context of the situation. (Grade 5) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Materials have many different properties. (Grades 3 - 5) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Energy comes in different forms. (Grades 3 - 5) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Identify and describe the variety of energy sources (Grade 4) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Describe the energy transformation that takes place in electrical circuits where light, heat, sound, and magnetic effects are produced (Grade 4) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! Each group needs: - nail, 3-inch (7.6 cm) or longer (made of zinc, iron or steel, but not aluminum) - 2 feet (.6 m) insulated copper wire (at least AWG 22 or higher) - D-cell battery - several metal paperclips, tacks or pins - wide rubber band - Building an Electromagnet Worksheet For each electromagnetic field station: - cardboard toilet paper tube - insulated copper wire (at least AWG 22 or higher), several feet (1 m) - cardboard (~ 5 x 5 inches or 13 x 13 cm) - clothespins or clamps (optional) - masking tape - rubber band - 2-3 D-cell batteries - 9-V (volt) battery - several metal paperclips, tacks and/or pins - extra batteries, if available: 6-V, 12-V, lantern batteries - (optional) electrical tape - 2 small orienteering compasses For the entire class to share: - wire cutters - wire strippers Today, we are going to talk about electromagnets and create our own electromagnets! First, can anyone tell me what an electromagnet is? (Listen to student ideas.) Well, an electromagnet's name helps tell us what it is. (Write the word electromagnet on the classroom board for students to see.) Let's break it down. The first part of the word, electro, sounds like electricity. The second part of the word, magnet, is what it sounds like—a magnet! So, an electromagnet is a magnet that is created by electricity. The really important thing to remember today is that electricity can create a magnetic field. This may sound strange, because we're used to magnetic fields just coming from magnets, but it is really true! A wire that has electrical current running through it creates a magnetic field. In fact, the simplest electromagnet is a single wire that is coiled up and has an electric current running through it. The magnetic field generated by the coil of wire is like a regular bar magnet. If we put an iron (or nickel, cobalt, etc.) rod (perhaps a nail) through the center of the coil (see Figure 1), the rod becomes the magnet, creating a magnetic field. Where do we find the electricity for an electromagnet? Well, we can get this electricity a few ways, such as from a battery or a wall outlet. We can make this magnetic field stronger by increasing the amount of electric current going through the wire or we can increase the number of wire wraps in the coil of the electromagnet. What do you think happens if we do both of these things? That's right! Our magnet will be even stronger! Engineers use electromagnets when they design and build motors. Motors are in use around us everyday, so we interact with electromagnets all the time without even realizing it! Can you think of some motors that you have used? (Possible answers: Washing machine, dishwasher, can opener, garbage disposal, sewing machine, computer printer, vacuum cleaner, electric toothbrush, compact disc [CD] player, digital video disc [DVD] player, VCR tape player, computer, electric razor, an electric toy [radio-controlled vehicles, moving dolls], etc.) battery: A cell that carries a charge that can power an electric current. current: A flow of electrons. electromagnet: A magnet made of an insulated wire coiled around an iron core (or any magnetic material such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) with electric current flowing through it to produce magnetism. The electric current magnetizes the core material. electromagnetism: Magnetism created by an electric current. engineer: A person who applies her/his understanding of science and mathematics to create things for the benefit of humanity and our planet. This includes the design, manufacture and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, products, processes and systems. magnet: An object that generates a magnetic field. magnetic field: The space around a magnet in which the magnet's magnetic force is present. motor: An electrical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. permanent magnet: An object that generates a magnetic field on its own (without the help of a current). solenoid: A coil of wire. Before the Activity - Gather materials and make copies of the Building an Electromagnet Worksheet. - Set up enough Electromagnetic Field Stations to accommodate teams of two students each. - As an alternative, conduct both parts of the activity as teacher-led class demonstrations. - Prepare for Electromagnetic Field Stations: Wrap wire around a cardboard toilet paper tube 12-15 times to make a wire loop. Leave two long tails of wire hanging from the coil. Poke four holes in the cardboard. Weave the wire ends through the cardboard holes so that the card board tube and coil are attached to the cardboard (see Figure 2). Use clothespins, clamps or tape to secure the cardboard to a table or desk. Using masking tape or rubber band, connect one end of the coil wire to any battery, leaving the other end of the wire not connected to the battery. Place some pins, paperclips or tacks at the station. Also, place any other available extra batteries (6V, 12V, etc.) and two, small orienteering compasses at this station. - Prepare for Building an Electromagnet: For this portion of the activity, either set up the materials at a station, or give them to pairs of students to work on at their desks. - Set aside a few extra batteries for students to test their own electromagnets. These might include the 9-V batteries. You can make a 3-V battery setup by connecting 2 D-cells in series or a 4.5-V battery setup by connecting 3 D-cells in series. - Cut one 2-ft (.6 m) piece of wire for each team. Using wire strippers, remove about ½ inch (1.3 cm) of insulation from both ends of each piece of wire. With the Students: Electromagnetic Field Stations - Divide the class into pairs of students. Hand out one worksheet per team. - Working from the pre-activity setup (see Figure 2), in which one end of the coiled wire is attached to one end of the battery, have students connect the other end of the wire to the other end of the battery using tape or rubber band. - To locate the magnetic field of the electromagnet, direct students to move the compass in a circle around the electromagnet, paying attention to the direction that the compass points (see Figure 3). Direct students to draw the battery, coil and magnetic field on their worksheets. Use arrows to show the magnetic field. Label the positive and negative ends of the battery and the poles of the magnetic field. What happens if you dangle a paperclip from another paperclip near the coil (see Figure 3)? (Answer: The dangling paperclip moves, changes direction and/or wobbles.) - Next, reverse the connection of the electromagnet by changing both ends of the wire to the opposite ends of the battery. (When the direction of current is reversed in either a coil or electromagnet, the magnetic poles reverse—the north pole becomes the south pole, and the south pole becomes the north pole.) Use the compass to check the direction of the magnetic field. Make a second drawing. Dangle the paperclip near the coil again. What happens? (Answer: Again, the dangling paperclip moves, changes direction and/or wobbles.) - Remove at least one end of the wire from the battery to conserve battery power. - If time permits, use different batteries and observe any changes. A higher voltage translates to a greater current, and with more current, the electromagnet becomes stronger. With the Students: Building an Electromagnet - Make sure each student pair has the following materials: 1 nail, 2 feet (.6 m) of insulated wire, 1 D-cell battery, several paperclips (or tacks or pins) and a rubber band. - Wrap the wire around a nail at least 20 times (see Figure 4). Ensure students wrap their nails tightly, leaving no gaps between the wires and not overlapping the wraps. - Give the students several minutes to see if they can create an electromagnet on their own before giving them the rest of the instructions. - To continue making the electromagnet, connect the ends of the coiled wire to each end of the battery using the rubber band to hold the wires in place (see Figure 4). - Test the strength of the electromagnet by seeing how many paperclips it can pick up. - Record the number of paperclips on the worksheet. - Disconnect the wire from the battery after testing the electromagnet. Can the electromagnet pick up paperclips when the current is disconnected? (Answer: No) - Test how varying the design of the electromagnet affects its strength. The two variables to modify are the number of coils around the nail and the current in the coiled wire by using a different size or number of batteries. To conserve the battery's power, remember to disconnect the wire from the battery after each test. - Complete the worksheet; making a list of ways engineers might be able to use electromagnets. - Conclude by holding a class discussion. Compare results among teams. Ask students the post-assessment engineering discussion questions provided in the Assessment section. The electromagnet can get quite warm, particularly at the terminals, so have students disconnect their batteries at frequent intervals. A high density of nail wraps is important to produce a magnetic field. If the wrapped nails are not acting as magnets, check students’ coil wraps to ensure they are not crisscrossed, and that the wraps are tight. Also, use thin gauge wire to enable more wraps along the length of the nail. Iron nails work better than bolts since the bolt threads do not permit smooth wrapping of the copper wire, which may disrupt the magnetic field. Avoid using batteries that are not fully charged. Partially discharged batteries will not generate a strong and observable magnetic reaction. If the electromagnets get too warm, have students use rubber kitchen gloves to handle them. Prediction: Ask students to predict what will happen when a wire is wrapped around a nail and electricity is added. Record their predictions on the classroom board. Brainstorming: In small groups, have students engage in open discussion. Remind them that no idea or suggestion is "silly." All ideas should be respectfully heard. Ask the students: What is an electromagnet? Worksheet: At the beginning of the activity, hand out the Building an Electromagnet Worksheet. Have students make drawings, record measurements and follow along with the activity on their worksheets. After students finish the worksheet, have them compare answers with a peer or another pair, giving all students time to finish. Review their answers to gauge their mastery of the subject. Hypothesize: As students make their electromagnet, ask each group what would happen if they changed the size of their battery. How about more coils of wire around the nail? (Answer: An electromagnet can be made stronger in two ways: increasing the amount of electric current going through the wire or increasing the number of wire wraps in the coil of the electromagnet.) Engineering Discussion Questions: Solicit, integrate and summarize student responses. - What are ways an engineer might modify an electromagnet to change the strength of its magnetic field? Which modifications might be the easiest or cheapest? (Possible answers: Increasing the number of coils used in the solenoid [electromagnet] is probably the least expensive and easiest way to increase the strength of an electromagnet. Or, an engineer might increase the current in the electromagnet. Or, an engineer might use a metal core that is more easily magnetized.) - How might engineers use electromagnets in separating recyclable materials? (Answer: Some of the metals in a salvage or recycling pile are attracted to a magnet and can be easily separated. Non-ferrous metals must go through a two-step process in which a voltage is applied to the metal to temporarily induce a current in it, which temporarily magnetizes the metal so it is attracted to the electromagnet for separation from non-metals.) - What are some ways that engineers might be able to use electromagnets? (Possible answers: Engineers use electromagnets in the design of motors. For examples, see the possible answers to the next question.) - How are electromagnets used in everyday applications? (Possible answers: Motors are in use around us everyday, for example, refrigerator, washing machine, dishwasher, can opener, garbage disposal, sewing machine, computer printer, vacuum cleaner, electric toothbrush, compact disc [CD] player, digital video disc [DVD] player, VCR tape player, computer, electric razor, an electric toy [radio-controlled vehicles, moving dolls], etc.) Graphing Practice: Present the class with the following problems and ask students to graph their results (or the entire class' results). Discuss which variables made a bigger change in the strength of the electromagnet. - Make a graph that shows how the electromagnet strength changed as you changed the number of wire coils in your electromagnet. - Make a graph that shows how the strength of your electromagnet changed as the current changed (as you changed the battery size). Another way to vary the current in the electromagnet is to use wires of different gauges (thickness) or of different materials (for example: copper vs. aluminum). Ask students to test different wire types to see how this affects the electromagnet's strength. As a control, keep constant the number of coils and amount of current (battery) for all wire tests. Then, based on their rest results, ask students to make guesses about the resistances of the various wires. - For lower grades, have students follow along with the teacher-led demonstration to create a simple electromagnet. Discuss the basic definition of an electromagnet and how electromagnets are used in everyday applications. - For upper grades, have students investigate ways to change the strength of their electromagnets without giving them any hints or clues. Have students graph their worksheet data from varying the number of coils and/or battery size in their electromagnet. ContributorsXochitl Zamora Thompson; Joe Friedrichsen; Abigail Watrous; Malinda Schaefer Zarske; Denise W. Carlson Copyright© 2004 by Regents of the University of Colorado Supporting ProgramIntegrated Teaching and Learning Program, College of Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed under grants from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education, and National Science Foundation (GK-12 grant no 0338326). However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the Department of Education or National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Last modified: October 20, 2017
The Order of Operations is a standard that defines the order in which you should simplify different operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. This standard is critical to simplifying and solving different algebra problems. Welcome where we definitely follow orders! This page includes Order of Operations worksheets using whole numbers, decimals and fractions. Welcome This Order of Operations Worksheet may be printed, downloaded or saved and used in your classroom, home school, or other educational environment to help someone learn. 0.3 Pre-Algebra - Order of Operations Objective: Evaluate expressions using the order of operations, including the use of absolute value. When simplifying expressions it is important that we simplify them in the correct. Order of operations worksheet for 7th grade children. This is a math PDF printable activity sheet with several exercises. It has an answer key attached on the second page. This worksheet is a supplementary seventh grade resource to help teachers, parents and children at home and in school. 4 Students will be able to create and solve their own order of operations problem correctly. Create your own worksheets like this one with Infinite Pre-Algebra. Identify parts of an expression using mathematical terms (sum, term, product, factor Practice-Order of Operations 5 fractions, 10, WS PDF. Practice-Evaluating. Calculate them in the wrong order, and you can get a wrong answer! Order of Operations PEMDAS Operations Operations mean things like add, subtract, multiply, divide, squaring, etc. If it isn t a number it is probably an operation. Order of Operations Calculator Algebra Index. For example, in computer algebra, this allows manipulating fewer binary operations and makes it easier to use commutativity and associativity when simplifying large expressions - for more details, see Computer algebra § Simplification. Thus 3 ÷ 4 = 3 × 1 / 4; in other words, the quotient of 3 and 4 equals the product. The best source for free order of operations worksheets. Easier to grade, more in-depth and best of all. 100% FREE! Kindergarten, 1st Grade, 2nd Grade, 3rd Grade, 4th Grade, 5th Grade. 4th Grade Math Worksheets: Order of Operations Order of operations worksheets Our grade 4 order of operations worksheets provide practice in solving equations involving the 4 operations, up to 6 terms and parenthesis. Solve the following problems using the order of operations. Step 1: Parenthesis (). Solve all problems in parenthesis FIRST. Step 2: Exponents 2,3,4. Next solve. Free Worksheets for Order of Operations. Find here an unlimited supply of worksheets for the order of operations for grades 2-9 that use addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and/or parentheses. The worksheets are available both in PDF and html formats (html is editable) and can be customized in multitudes. Order of operations. Intro to order of operations Order of operations example Worked example: Order of operations (PEMDAS) Practice: Order of operations. ARI Curriculum Companion - Using Order of Operations and Exploring Properties Virginia Department of Education 1 Introduction The lessons in this section focus on order of operations and evaluating numerical expressions. Order of operations help with parenthesis. Menu. Home. Order of Operation Worksheets - With Parenthesis - no Exponents (6 Worksheets) Answers on 2nd page of PDF. 02. of 06. Worksheet # 2 of 6 (Answers on Pg. 2 of PDF) Worksheet 2. D. Russell Math Worksheets: Help Your Kids Learn 3-Digit. Order Paper Boxes Online Date: ____/____ Period: ____. Order of Operations with Integers. Circle the part of the expression that you would complete first. Free workbooks and games that are no prep for teachers. Help students understand how to solve multioperational problems with these useful order of operation. 28 Aug 2018 Electronics professor discussing equation on whiteboard to In the first order of operations worksheet (PDF), students are asked to solve. Calculate them in the wrong order, and you can get a wrong answer! PEMDAS. Operations. Operations mean things like add, subtract, multiply, divide. ©Q q2 80V1d2 v PKbuBt1a 9 mSponfLtUw4aUr2ea eL SLYCn.3 U RAPlClJ WrNiLg2h EtYsk trbe cs te or qv pe1dy. t 4 FMPafdQeR xw Zi 4t Lh2 kIyn DfIi In ki rt ZeL lA rlTg4e ObZroa f J1 Z.e Worksheet by Kuta Software. Kuta Software - Infinite Algebra 1. Name___________________________________. Period____. Date________________. Order of Operations. Evaluate. 24 Order of Operations -- PEMDAS Practice Worksheets Remember, PEMDAS (Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally) stands for: Parentheses Exponents Multiplication Division Addition Subtraction. These Order of Operations Worksheets will produce Algebraic problems for practicing Order of Operations calculations. You may change this if you wish, select. Basic Algebra/Introduction to Basic Algebra Ideas/Order of Operations why both PEMDAS and BODMAS work. The following list, from top to bottom, is the order of operations in Algebra. Operations at the top of the list are completed first, and operations on the same line are completed. Operations with algebraic terms. Mathematical properties of real numbers. Order of operations. What is Algebra? Algebra is a branch of mathematics. The order of operations is a rule that tells you the right order in which to solve different parts of a math problem. (Operation is just another way of saying calculation. Subtraction, multiplication, and division are all examples of operations.) The order of operations is important because it guarantees that people can all read and solve. COPYING PROHIBITED LLEVADA S ALGEBRA 1 1.2 Order of Operations 11 Section 1.2 Order of Operations Order of Operations is the sequence of steps that must be taken to reduce a math expre ssion to its simplest form, or scale down an equation to find an answer. When doing computations,always follow the order of operations and always perform the operations according to the following rules. Rule #1: 1. If grouping symbols are used such as parentheses, perform the operations inside the grouping symbols first. 2. Evaluate any expressions with exponent 3. Multiply and Divide from left to right. mathematical expressions and equations when the order of operations process is correct order for performing operations in mathematical expressions;. Order Of Operations 7th Grade. Showing top 8 worksheets in the category - Order Of Operations 7th Grade. Some of the worksheets displayed are Order of operations pemdas practice work, Order of operations, Using order of operations, Word problem practice workbook, Order of operations, Order of operations, Exercise work, 6th grade unpacked. ARI Curriculum Companion – Using Order of Operations and Exploring Properties 8.4 The student will apply the order of operations to evaluate algebraic. 24. Order of Operations -- PEMDAS Practice Worksheets. Remember, PEMDAS (Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally) stands for: Parentheses. Exponents. This prealgebra-arithmetic lesson explains the order of operations for multiplication, division, addition and subtraction. Elementary and middle school students generally use the acronyms PEMDAS or BEDMAS to help them remember the order in which they complete. The order of operations was settled upon in order to prevent miscommunication, but PEMDAS can generate its own confusion; some students sometimes tend to apply the hierarchy as though all the operations in a problem are on the same level (simply going from left to right), but often those operations are not equal. The order of operation rules are: Rule 1: Start with calculations inside brackets or parentheses. Rule 2: Then, solve multiplications and division, from left to right. Rule 3: Finally, additions and subtraction, from left to right. Example 1. Solve 16 + 5 x 8. Based on the rules above, start with multiplication. Pre-Algebra - Order of Operations. Objective: Evaluate expressions using the order of operations, including the use of absolute value. When simplifying. From Algebra I For Dummies, 2nd Edition. By Mary Jane Sterling Algebra problems are easier to solve when you know the rules and formulas. Memorizing key algebra formulas will speed up your work, too. And if you know the rules of divisibility and the order of operations, you ll be able to solve algebra problems without getting stressed. When performing arithmetic operations there can be only one correct answer. We need a set of rules in order to avoid this kind of confusion. Mathematicians have devised a standard order of operations for calculations involving more than one arithmetic operation. Rule 1: First perform any calculations inside parentheses.
representative money or modern money, the following types of money remained in operation: The money whose face value is equal to its real value is called full bodied money. All the moneys which were used under commodity standard like wool, boat, sheep, cow, goat and arrows etc., had equal monetary and non-monetary values. Again the silver coin of Rs. 1 which was used in Subcontinent before 1857 was the representative of full bodied money because the value of the metal of such rupees was also equal to Rs. 1. The same like situation was also available in case of gold coins issued under gold standard. Representative Full Bodied Money: The money in coins or in paper-lacking its own value may be accorded as representative full bodied money, if it is backed by equal amount of gold or silver. In such case the gold or silver is accumulated by govt. and some representative of such commodities is issued for circulation. As during 1900 to 1930 US govt. issued gold certificates. Such certificates were gold guaranteed which was possessed by US treasury. By giving back a holder of such certificates could entail upon 100% gold equal to the value of certificates. It means that gold and such certificates were equally well. Like gold certificates US govt. also issued 'Silver certificates'. Such certificates were also convertible at official price of 1.29 dollar per ounce of silver. Because of representative money the transaction cost decreased. The cost of melting the gold and silver for coins were also (3) Credit Money or Fiat Money: The money whose face value is more than its intrinsic value is called credit money. In other words, the money whose non-monetary value is more than its monetary value is given the name of credit or fiat money. Thus all the coins and paper currency notes which are in circulation in a country represent credit money. In addition to official currency, the cheques of commercial banks also represent credit money because the face value of cheques is far more than value of cheques as papers. The credit money - the major component of money supply of present time is decomposed into two parts: (i) The credit money issued by govt. or central bank. (ii) The credit money issued by commercial banks of a country. Credit Money Issued by Govt. and Central Bank: The coins which are issued by Govt. and central bank have more face value as compared with the value of metals possessed by such coins. Accordingly such coins represent credit money - as the case of one rupee, two rupees and five rupees coins in Pakistan. The coins which are not full bodied represent token coins. In addition to coins govts. and central banks also issue credit money in the form of paper currency - as the case of all currency notes from Rs. 10 to Rs. 5000 in Pakistan. The paper credit money which is guaranteed to convert into standard money is called convertible paper currency - the case of all currency notes from Rs. 10 to Rs. 5000. While the paper credit money which is not guaranteed to convert into standard money is called inconvertible paper money - as the case of one rupee, two rupee or five rupee coins in This must be remembered that the coins and currency notes which are issued by govt. and central bank are known as 'Legal Money'. The legal money whose payments and receipts can be made without any limit is called unlimited legal money ..While the legal money whose payments and receipts can be made up to a specific limit is called limited legal money. (ii) Credit Money Issued by The money issued by govts. and central banks has a flaw that: (a) It is inadequate to meet the rising needs of present time. (b) It is a troublesome job to transfer when it is in huge amount. need was realized to invent such a form of money which could be quickly used for transactions and it should not be bulky. Accordingly, commercial banks introduced "Cheque" as a medium of exchange. Cheques do not represent money, rather money consists of those amounts which are with the banks. Cheques are the means for transferring the money. In addition to cheques, commercial banks have introduced a variety of other monetary instruments like drafts, call deposit receipts and credit cards. All the above discussion shows that the major part of money today consists of credit money like coins, paper currency and cheques etc. As far as the backward countries are concerned legal money still dominates. While in case of rich countries the credit money issued by commercial banks etc. has attained extra-ordinary importance. In such countries people are extensively using credit cards for the sake of transactions. The credit cards known as 'Plastic Money' is the latest form of money. Due to spread of computer and advanced technology, the payment system through banks is becoming easy and easy. Accordingly, it is said that as the electronic means of payments are popularized, all the paper formalities regarding clearance of cheques will come to an end. In this connection, the most important is Electronic Money i.e. E-Money which has the (a) Debit Cards: The debit cards are like Credit Cards. With the help of these cards, the card holders transfer the amounts from their accounts to those people of stores wherefrom they purchase the goods. As, if anybody makes the payment at some super store such is made with the help of credit card. But the same is also done with the help of debit card where the amount to be paid is debited from one's account just by pressing a button in the electronic machine placed in the departmental store. So, many big companies like VISA and Mater Cards are issuing debit cards. Moreover, so many commercial banks have also issued Automatic Transfer Cards (ATM) to its account holders. These cards are also used as the cards of payments. (b) Stored Value Cards: These are like credit cards and debit cards. However, they are attached with some specific amount Such cards are normally used for those small payments which are well-anticipated by the consumers. The most important of them is the Smart Card. Such card has its own computer chip which is filled with Digital cash from the bank account of the card holder. These cards are used in Australia, Canada, Colombia, Denmark, France, Italy, Singapore, Spain and U. K. However, their use is less in US. Electronic Cash (E-Cash): E-Cash is such a type of electronic money where the goods and services can be purchased through internet. Thus, the buyers who are account holders keep the record of their accounts in their personal computers. Through such computers the amounts are transferred from the buyer's computer to the seller's computer. These amounts are transferred from buyer's account to the seller's account even before the sale and purchase of goods. This system was firstly introduced by a Dutch company Electronic Cheques: The internet users make the payments of their bills through internet rather than cheques. As, if a person has to make the payment of his telephone bill, he will write down such amount to the concerned company from his personal computer through internet The company will shift such amount from the customer's account to his own account All such will be processed through internet. This system of transaction is easy and .cheap. It will be popularized in the coming days. The cost of transferring money through this method are one-third than those of paper cheques. Although the electronic money is beneficial, it is also furnished with so many problems.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article \|This article may require copy editing for Encyclopedic tone. (October 2013)\| Navigation Acts were a band of laws that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade only between England (after 1707, Great Britain) and its colonies. It is a process which had started in 1651. Their goal was to force colonial development into lines favorable to England, and stop direct colonial trade with the Netherlands, France, and other European countries. The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed at the Restoration by Acts of 1662, 1663, 1670, and 1673 subsequently subject to minor amendment. These Acts also formed the basis for British overseas trade for nearly 200 years On the whole, the Acts of Trade and Navigation were obeyed, except for the Molasses Act of 1733, which led to extensive smuggling because no effective means of enforcement was provided until the 1750s. Irritation because of stricter enforcement under the Sugar Act of 1764 became one source of resentment by merchants in the American colonies against Great Britain. This in turn helped push the colonies to start the American Revolution. The major impetuses for the Navigation Acts were the ruinous deterioration of English trade in the aftermath of the Eighty Years' War, and the concomitant lifting of the Spanish trade-embargoes on trade between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic. The end of the embargoes in 1647 unleashed the full power of the Amsterdam Entrepôt and other Dutch competitive advantages in world trade. Within a few years, English merchants had practically been overwhelmed in the trade on the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean and the Levant. Even the trade with English colonies (partly still in the hands of the royalists, as the English Civil War was in its final stages and the Commonwealth of England had not yet imposed its authority throughout the English colonies) was "engrossed" by Dutch merchants. English direct trade was crowded out by a sudden influx of commodities from the Levant, Mediterranean and the Spanish and Portuguese empires, and the West Indies via the Dutch Entrepôt, carried in Dutch ships and for Dutch account. The obvious solution seemed to be to seal off the English and Scottish markets to these unwanted imports. The precedent was the Act the Greenland Company had obtained from Parliament in 1645 prohibiting the import of whale products into England, except in ships owned by that company. This principle was now generalised. In 1648 the Levant Company petitioned Parliament for the prohibition of imports of Turkish goods "...from Holland and other places but directly from the places of their growth." Baltic traders added their voices to this chorus. In 1650 the Standing Council for Trade and the Council of State of the Commonwealth prepared a general policy designed to impede the flow of Mediterranean and colonial commodities via Holland and Zeeland into England. The Navigation Act bill was passed on 9 October 1651 by the Parliament of the Commonwealth of England led by Oliver Cromwell, reinforcing a longstanding principle of government policy that English trade should be carried in English vessels. It was a reaction to the failure of an English diplomatic mission to The Hague seeking a joining of the Commonwealth by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, after the States of Holland had made some cautious overtures to Cromwell to counter the monarchical aspirations of stadtholder William II of Orange. The stadtholder had suddenly died however and the States were now embarrassed by Cromwell taking the idea quite too seriously. The English proposed the joint conquest of all remaining Spanish and Portuguese possessions. England would take America and the Dutch Africa and Asia. As the Dutch, however, had just ended their war with Spain and already taken over most Portuguese colonies in Asia, they saw little advantage in this grandiose scheme and proposed a free trade agreement as an alternative to a full political union. This again was unacceptable to the British, who would be unable to compete on such a level playing field, and was seen by them as a deliberate affront. The Act banned foreign ships from transporting goods from outside Europe to England or its colonies and banned third-party countries' ships from transporting goods from a country elsewhere in Europe to England. These rules specifically targeted the Dutch who controlled a large section of Europe's international trade and even much of England's coastal shipping. It excluded the Dutch from essentially all trade with England, as the Dutch's economy was competitive with, not complementary to the English, and the two countries therefore exchanged few commodities. This Anglo-Dutch trade, however, constituted only a small fraction of total Dutch trade flows. The Act is often mentioned as a major cause of the First Anglo-Dutch War, though it was only part of a larger British policy to engage in war after the negotiations had failed. The English naval victories in 1653 (the Battle of Portland, the Battle of the Gabbard and the Battle of Scheveningen) showed the supremacy of the Commonwealth navy in home waters. However, farther afield the Dutch predominated and were able to close down English commerce in the Baltic and the Mediterranean. Both countries held each other in a stifling embrace. The Treaty of Westminster (1654) ended the impasse. The Dutch failed to have the Act repealed or amended, but it seems to have had relatively little influence on their trade. The Act offered England only limited solace. It could not limit the deterioration of England's overseas trading position, except in the cases where England herself was the principal consumer, like the Canaries' wine trade and the trade in Puglian olive oil. In the trade with the West Indies the Dutch kept up a flourishing "smuggling" trade, thanks to the preference of English planters for Dutch import goods and the better deal the Dutch offered in the sugar trade. The Dutch colony of New Netherlands offered a loophole (through intercolonial trade) wide enough to drive a shipload of Virginian tobacco through. The 1651 Act (like other legislation of the Commonwealth period) was declared void on The Restoration of Charles II, having been passed by 'usurping powers'. Parliament therefore passed new legislation. This is generally referred to as the "Navigation Acts", and (with some amendments) remained in force for nearly two centuries. The Navigation Act 1660 (passed on 13 September) added a twist to Oliver Cromwell's act: ships' crews had to be three-quarters English, and "enumerated" products not produced by the mother country, such as tobacco, cotton, and sugar were to be shipped from the colonies only to England or other English colonies. Ship captains were required to post a bond to ensure compliance and could recoup the funds upon arrival. The Navigation Act 1663 (also called the Act for the Encouragement of Trade, passed on 27 July) required all European goods bound for America (or other colonies) to be shipped through England first. In England, the goods would be unloaded, inspected, paid duties, approved, and finally reloaded. The trade had to be carried in English bottoms (i.e. vessels), which included those of its colonies. Furthermore, imports of 'enumerated commodities' (such as sugar, rice, and tobacco) had to be landed and pay tax before going on to other countries. This increased the cost to the colonies, and increased the shipping time. "England" here includes Wales, though it was little involved in trade to distant parts. After the Act of Union 1707, Scotland enjoyed the same privileges. This Act entitled colonial shipping and seamen to enjoy the full benefits of the exclusive provisions. There was no bar put in the way of colonists who might wish to trade in their own shipping with foreign plantations or European countries other than England, provided they did not violate the enumerated commodity clause. "English bottoms" included vessels built in English plantations (i.e. colonies), for example in America. Further Navigation Acts were passed in 1673 and 1696 to close a loophole and to strengthen enforcement, respectively. The Acts were in full force for a short time only. After the Second Anglo-Dutch War, which ended disastrously for England, the Dutch obtained the right to ship commodities produced in their German hinterland to England as if these were Dutch goods. Even more importantly, England conceded the principle of "free ship, free good" which provided freedom from molestation by the Royal Navy of Dutch shipping on the high seas in wars in which the Dutch Republic was neutral. This more or less gave the Dutch freedom to conduct their "smuggling" unhindered as long as they were not caught red-handed in territorial waters controlled by England. These provisions were reconfirmed in the Treaty of Westminster (1674) after the Third Anglo-Dutch War. The 1733 Molasses Act levied heavy duties on the trade of sugar from the French West Indies to the American colonies, forcing the colonists to buy the more expensive sugar from the British West Indies instead. The law was widely flouted, but efforts by the British to prevent smuggling created hostility and contributed to the American Revolution. The Molasses Act was the first of the Sugar Acts. The act was set to expire in 1763, and in 1764 was renewed as the Sugar Act, which caused unrest with the colonists for they enjoyed to have sweet food. The Navigation Acts were repealed in 1849 under the influence of a laissez-faire philosophy. The Navigation Acts were passed under the economic theory of mercantilism under which wealth was to be increased by restricting trade to colonies rather than through free trade. By 1849 "a central part of British import strategy was to reduce the cost of food through cheap foreign imports and in this way to reduce the cost of maintaining labour power" (van Houten). Repealing the Navigation Acts along with the Corn Laws served this purpose, but also led to the break-up of the formal British Empire. The introduction of the legislation caused Britain's shipping industry to develop in isolation. However, it had the advantage to English shippers of severely limiting the ability of Dutch ships to participate in the carrying trade to England. The Navigation Acts, by reserving British colonial trade to British shipping, may have significantly assisted in the growth of London as a major entrepôt for American colonial wares at the expense of Dutch cities. The maintenance of a certain level of merchant shipping and of trade generally also facilitated a rapid increase in the size and quality of the Royal Navy, which eventually (after the Anglo-Dutch Alliance of 1689 limited the Dutch navy to three-fifths of the size of the English one) led to Britain becoming a global superpower until the mid-20th century. That naval might, however, never was sufficient to limit Dutch trading power. The reason was that the Dutch trading system rested on such a degree of leverage over overseas markets and shipping resources, combined with a financial power that was only overtaken by Britain during the 18th century (after the Glorious Revolution), that it enabled the Dutch to put sufficient pressure on the English to prevent them from sustaining naval campaigns of sufficient length to wrest maritime concessions from the Dutch. The Navigation Acts, while enriching Britain, caused resentment in the colonies and contributed to the American Revolution. The Navigation Acts required all of a colony's imports to be either bought from England or resold by English merchants in England, no matter what price could be obtained elsewhere. Historian Robert Thomas (1965) argues that the impact of the acts on the economies of the 13 American colonies was minimal; the cost was about ₤4 per ₤1000 of income per year. The average personal income was about ₤100 per year. However Ransom (1968) says that the magnitude of the net burden imposed by the Acts was small, yet their overall impact on the shape and growth rate economy was significant. That was because the Acts differentially affected different groups, helping some and hurting others. Walton concludes that the political friction caused by the Acts was more serious than the negative economic impact, especially since the merchants most affected were politically most active. Sawers (1992) points out that the political issue is what would have been the future impact of the Acts after 1776 as the colonial economy matured and was blocked by the Acts from serious competition with British manufacturers. \|Wikisource has original text related to this article:\|
In mathematics, computable numbers are the real numbers that can be computed to within any desired precision by a finite, terminating algorithm. They are also known as the recursive numbers or the computable reals. Equivalent definitions can be given using μ-recursive functions, Turing machines or λ-calculus as the formal representation of algorithms. The computable numbers form a real closed field and can be used in the place of real numbers for many, but not all, mathematical purposes. Informal definition using a Turing machine as example [ In the following, Marvin Minsky defines the numbers to be computed in a manner similar to those defined by Alan Turing in 1936, i.e. as "sequences of digits interpreted as decimal fractions" between 0 and 1: - "A computable number [is] one for which there is a Turing machine which, given n on its initial tape, terminates with the nth digit of that number [encoded on its tape]." (Minsky 1967:159) The key notions in the definition are (1) that some n is specified at the start, (2) for any n the computation only takes a finite number of steps, after which the machine produces the desired output and terminates. An alternate form of (2) – the machine successively prints all n of the digits on its tape, halting after printing the nth – emphasizes Minsky's observation: (3) That by use of a Turing machine, a finite definition – in the form of the machine's table – is being used to define what is a potentially-infinite string of decimal digits. This is however not the modern definition which only requires the result be accurate to within any given accuracy. The informal definition above is subject to a rounding problem called the table-maker's dilemma whereas the modern definition is not. Formal definition [ A real number a is computable if it can be approximated by some computable function in the following manner: given any integer , the function produces an integer k such that: There are two similar definitions that are equivalent: - There exists a computable function which, given any positive rational error bound , produces a rational number r such that - There is a computable sequence of rational numbers converging to such that for each i. There is another equivalent definition of computable numbers via computable Dedekind cuts. A computable Dedekind cut is a computable function which when provided with a rational number as input returns or , satisfying the following conditions: An example is given by a program D that defines the cube root of 3. Assuming this is defined by: A real number is computable if and only if there is a computable Dedekind cut D converging to it. The function D is unique for each irrational computable number (although of course two different programs may provide the same function). A complex number is called computable if its real and imaginary parts are computable. While the set of real numbers is uncountable, the set of computable numbers is only countable and thus almost all real numbers are not computable. The computable numbers can be counted by assigning a Gödel number to each Turing machine definition. This gives a function from the naturals to the computable reals. Although the computable numbers are an ordered field, the set of Gödel numbers corresponding to computable numbers is not itself computably enumerable, because it is not possible to effectively determine which Gödel numbers correspond to Turing machines that produce computable reals. In order to produce a computable real, a Turing machine must compute a total function, but the corresponding decision problem is in Turing degree 0′′. Thus Cantor's diagonal argument cannot be used to produce uncountably many computable reals; at best, the reals formed from this method will be uncomputable. The arithmetical operations on computable numbers are themselves computable in the sense that whenever real numbers a and b are computable then the following real numbers are also computable: a + b, a - b, ab, and a/b if b is nonzero. These operations are actually uniformly computable; for example, there is a Turing machine which on input (A,B,) produces output r, where A is the description of a Turing machine approximating a, B is the description of a Turing machine approximating b, and r is an approximation of a+b. The computable real numbers do not share all the properties of the real numbers used in analysis. For example, the least upper bound of a bounded increasing computable sequence of computable real numbers need not be a computable real number (Bridges and Richman, 1987:58). A sequence with this property is known as a Specker sequence, as the first construction is due to E. Specker (1949). Despite the existence of counterexamples such as these, parts of calculus and real analysis can be developed in the field of computable numbers, leading to the study of computable analysis. The order relation on the computable numbers is not computable. There is no Turing machine which on input A (the description of a Turing machine approximating the number ) outputs "YES" if and "NO" if . The reason: suppose the machine described by A keeps outputting 0 as approximations. It is not clear how long to wait before deciding that the machine will never output an approximation which forces a to be positive. Thus the machine will eventually have to guess that the number will equal 0, in order to produce an output; the sequence may later become different from 0. This idea can be used to show that the machine is incorrect on some sequences if it computes a total function. A similar problem occurs when the computable reals are represented as Dedekind cuts. The same holds for the equality relation : the equality test is not computable. While the full order relation is not computable, the restriction of it to pairs of unequal numbers is computable. That is, there is a program that takes an input two Turing machines A and B approximating numbers a and b, where a≠b, and outputs whether a<b or a>b. It is sufficient to use ε-approximations where ε<\|b-a\|/2; so by taking increasingly small ε (with a limit to 0), one eventually can decide whether a<b or a>b. Every computable number is definable, but not vice versa. There are many definable, noncomputable real numbers, including: Both of these examples in fact define an infinite set of definable, uncomputable numbers, one for each Universal Turing machine. A real number is computable if and only if the set of natural numbers it represents (when written in binary and viewed as a characteristic function) is computable. Every computable number is arithmetical. The set of computable real numbers (as well as every countable, densely ordered subset of reals without ends) is order-isomorphic to the set of rational numbers. Digit strings and the Cantor and Baire spaces [ Turing's original paper defined computable numbers as follows: - A real number is computable if its digit sequence can be produced by some algorithm or Turing machine. The algorithm takes an integer as input and produces the -th digit of the real number's decimal expansion as output. (Note that the decimal expansion of a only refers to the digits following the decimal point.) Turing was aware that this definition is equivalent to the -approximation definition given above. The argument proceeds as follows: if a number is computable in the Turing sense, then it is also computable in the sense: if , then the first n digits of the decimal expansion for a provide an approximation of a. For the converse, we pick an computable real number a and generate increasingly precisce approximations until the nth digit after the decimal point is certain. This always generates a decimal expansion equal to a but it may improperly end in an infinite sequence of 9's in which case it must have a finite (and thus computable) proper decimal expansion. Unless certain topological properties of the real numbers are relevant it is often more convenient to deal with elements of (total 0,1 valued functions) instead of reals numbers in . The members of can be identified with binary decimal expansions but since the decimal expansions and denote the same real number the interval can only be bijectively (and homeomorphically under the subset topology) identified with the subset of not ending in all 1's. Note that this property of decimal expansions means it's impossible to effectively identify computable real numbers defined in terms of a decimal expansion and those defined in the approximation sense. Hirst has shown there is no algorithm which takes as input the description of a Turing machine which produces approximations for the computable number a, and produces as output a Turing machine which enumerates the digits of a in the sense of Turing's definition (see Hirst 2007). Similarly it means that the arithmetic operations on the computable reals are not effective on their decimal representations as when adding decimal numbers, in order to produce one digit it may be necessary to look arbitrarily far to the right to determine if there is a carry to the current location. This lack of uniformity is one reason that the contemporary definition of computable numbers uses approximations rather than decimal expansions. However, from a computational or measure theoretic perspective the two structures and are essentially identical. and computability theorists often refer to members of as reals. While is totally disconnected for questions about classes or randomness it's much less messy to work in . Elements of are sometimes called reals as well and though containing a homeomorphic image of in addition to being totally disconnected isn't even locally compact. This leads to genuine differences in the computational properties. For instance the satisfying with quatifier free must be computable while the unique satisfying a universal formula can be arbitrarily high in the hyperarithmetic hierarchy. Can computable numbers be used instead of the reals? [ The computable numbers include many of the specific real numbers which appear in practice, including all real algebraic numbers, as well as e, , and many other transcendental numbers. Though the computable reals exhaust those reals we can calculate or approximate, the assumption that all reals are computable leads to substantially different conclusions about the real numbers. The question naturally arises of whether it is possible to dispose of the full set of reals and use computable numbers for all of mathematics. This idea is appealing from a constructivist point of view, and has been pursued by what Bishop and Richman call the Russian school of constructive mathematics. To actually develop analysis over computable numbers, some care must be taken. For example, if one uses the classical definition of a sequence, the set of computable numbers is not closed under the basic operation of taking the supremum of a bounded sequence (for example, consider a Specker sequence). This difficulty is addressed by considering only sequences which have a computable modulus of convergence. The resulting mathematical theory is called computable analysis. There are some computer packages that work with computable real numbers, representing the real numbers as programs computing approximations. One example is the RealLib package (reallib home page). See also [ - Oliver Aberth 1968, Analysis in the Computable Number Field, Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery (JACM), vol 15, iss 2, pp 276–299. This paper describes the development of the calculus over the computable number field. - Errett Bishop and Douglas Bridges, Constructive Analysis, Springer, 1985, ISBN 0-387-15066-8 - Douglas Bridges and Fred Richman. Varieties of Constructive Mathematics, Oxford, 1987. - Jeffry L. Hirst, Representations of reals in reverse mathematics, Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Mathematics, 55, (2007) 303–316. - Marvin Minsky 1967, Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. No ISBN. Library of Congress Card Catalog No. 67-12342. His chapter §9 "The Computable Real Numbers" expands on the topics of this article. - E. Specker, "Nicht konstruktiv beweisbare Sätze der Analysis" J. Symbol. Logic, 14 (1949) pp. 145–158 - Turing, A.M. (1936), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2 (1937) 42 (1): 230–65, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 (and Turing, A.M. (1938), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2 (1937) 43 (6): 544–6, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544). Computable numbers (and Turing's a-machines) were introduced in this paper; the definition of computable numbers uses infinite decimal sequences. - Klaus Weihrauch 2000, Computable analysis, Texts in theoretical computer science, Springer, ISBN 3-540-66817-9. §1.3.2 introduces the definition by nested sequences of intervals converging to the singleton real. Other representations are discussed in §4.1. - Klaus Weihrauch, A simple introduction to computable analysis Computable numbers were defined independently by Turing, Post and Church. See The Undecidable, ed. Martin Davis, for further original papers.
A hypothesis is the first step in the scientific method it begins by asking, 'what if'. Check out some tips on how to write a hypothesis statement get help with writing a hypothesis statement at solidessaycom. A hypothesis (or hypothesis statement) is a statement that can be proved or disproved it is typically used in quantitative research and predicts the relationship between variables. A hypothesis is an educated guess about the cause of a specific phenomenon use this printable scientific method worksheet to practice writing the perfect hypothesis. An hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction it describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Students learn about scientific hypotheses they are given tips for developing hypotheses and practice properly wording a hypothesis finally, they are presented with a specific problem and must respond to a series of questions that help them arrive. Students will use brainpop features to build their understandings of the scientific method students will learn how to identify and write effective hypotheses students will use game play to write an appropriate hypothesis for an experiment students will identify and utilize the tools necessary to . The purpose of this page is to introduce the concept of the research hypothesis and describe how it is generated hypothesis definition writing a hypothesis:. A method for writing essays about literature amethod for writing essays about literature paul headrick a simple introduction to the scientific method with a printable science experiment write-up sheet. Be sure to read through the definitions for this section before trying to make sense out of the following the first thing to do when given a claim is to write the claim mathematically (if possible), and decide whether the given claim is the null or alternative hypothesis if the given claim . Show that you have mastery over the idea behind hypothesis testing by calculating some probabilities and drawing conclusions. Research hypothesis (h 1) the research hypothesis (or hypotheses-- there may be more than one) is our working hypothesis -- our prediction, or what we expect to happen. The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated it should be specified before research is conducted and openly stated in reporting the results. Scientific method & writing a hypothesis website resources: writing hypotheses: a student lesson. Step by step you can see from the basic outline of the scientific method below that writing your hypothesis comes early in the process: ask a question do background research. Hypothesis in dissertation writing uk,usa & australia is one of the most important elements of a dissertation contact our experts to get best quality dissertation hypothesis help uk. Chapter 8: introduction to hypothesis testing 3 suppose we read an article stating that children in the united states watch an aver age of 3 hours of tv per week. Here are examples of a scientific hypothesis and how to improve a hypothesis to use it what are examples of a hypothesis how to write a testable hypothesis. Automatic hypothesis generator you may be able to use this automatic hypothesis generator to write your hypothesis for you the sentance below supplies a scaffold for writing a hypothesis. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, this book will take your academic writing skills to the next level get pdf. Hypothesis: i think that leaves a better way to write a hypotheses is to use a formalized hypotheses example: if skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, . Hypothesis generation worksheet two variables by writing a hypothesis a hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. Diana browning wright, behavior/discipline trainings, 2001 hypothesis 3 sample hypothesis statements and possible interventions1 hypothesis statements. Hypothesis practice hypothesis writing review the format for writing a hypothesis is if (then describe what you will do in the experiment) then (predict the outcome of the experiment) for each problem or question write a hypothesis, underline the independent variable once, and the dependent variable twice 1 chocolate may cause pimples 2. Have highly qualified phd and master's academic writers write a dissertation hypothesis chapter for you premium quality and plagiarism-free are guaranteed.
The first of the ‘modern’ (still present today) ethnic groups of Zambia to arrive were the Tonga and Ila peoples (sometimes combined as the Tonga-Ila), who migrated from the Congo area in the late 15th century. By 1550 they had occupied the Zambezi Valley and plateau areas north of where Lake Kariba is now – and which is still their homeland today. Next to arrive were the Chewa. Between the 14th and 16th centuries they followed a long and circuitous route via Lakes Mweru, Tanganyika and Malawi before founding a powerful kingdom covering much of present-day eastern Zambia, as well as parts of Malawi and Mozambique. Today the Chewa are still the largest group in eastern Zambia. The Bemba (most notably the ruling Ngandu clan) had migrated from Congo by crossing the Luapula River into northern Zambia by around 1700. Meanwhile, the Lamba people migrated to the area of the Copperbelt in about 1650. At around the same time, the related Lala settled in the region around Serenje. In western Zambia, the Lozi people established a dynasty and the basis of a solid political entity that still exists. The Lozi’s ancestors may have migrated from what is now Angola as early as AD 450. Early 19th Century In the early 19th century, the fearsome reputation of the newly powerful and highly disciplined warrior army under the command of Shaka Zulu in KawZulu Natal (South Africa) led to a domino effect as groups who lived in his path fled elsewhere and in turn displaced other groups. This included the Ngoni, who fled to Malawi and Zambia, as well as the Makololo who moved into southern Zambia, around the towns of Kalomo and Monze, and who were eventually forced further west into southwest Zambia, where they displaced more Tonga people. Also around this time, the slave trade, which had existed for many centuries, increased considerably. Swahili-Arabs, who dominated the trade on the east coast of Africa, pushed into the interior; many people from Zambia were captured and taken across Lake Malawi and through Mozambique or Tanzania to be sold in the slave markets of Zanzibar. The Colonial Era David Livingstone, the Scottish explorer, journeyed through large swaths of Zambia, including the lower Zambezi, where he came upon a magnificent waterfall never before seen by a European, naming it Victoria Falls in homage to royalty back home. On a subsequent trip, Livingstone died while searching for the source of the Nile in northern Zambia. His heart was buried under a tree near the spot where he died, in Chief Chitambo's village, southeast of Lake Bangweulu. In 1885 claims over African territory by European powers were settled at the Berlin Conference and the continent was split into colonies and spheres of influence – Britain claimed Rhodesia (Zambia and Zimbabwe) and Malawi. This ‘new’ territory did not escape the notice of entrepreneur Cecil John Rhodes, who was already establishing mines and a vast business empire in South Africa. Rhodes’ British South Africa Company (BSAC) laid claim to the area in the early 1890s and was backed by the British government in 1895 to help combat slavery and prevent further Portuguese expansion in the region. Two separate territories were initially created – North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia – but these were combined in 1911 to become Northern Rhodesia. In 1907 Livingstone became the capital. At around the same time, vast deposits of copper were discovered in the area now called the Copperbelt. In 1924 the colony was put under direct British control and in 1935 the capital was moved to Lusaka. To make them less dependent on colonial rule, settlers soon pushed for closer ties with Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Malawi), but various interruptions (such as WWII) meant that the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland did not come about until 1953. Independence & Kaunda In Zambia the United National Independence Party (UNIP) was founded in the late 1950s by Dr Kenneth Kaunda, who spoke out against the federation on the grounds that it promoted the rights of white settlers to the detriment of the indigenous African population. As other African countries gained independence, Zambian nationalists opposed colonial forces through civil disobedience and a small but decisive conflict called the Chachacha Rebellion. Northern Rhodesia became independent a year after the federation was dissolved and changed its name to Zambia. While the British government had profited enormously from Northern Rhodesia, the colonialists chose to spend a large portion of this wealth on the development of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). After gaining independence, Zambia inherited a British-style multiparty political system. Kaunda, as leader of the majority UNIP, became the new republic’s first president. The other main party was the African National Congress (ANC), led by Harry Nkumbula. But Kaunda disliked opposition. In one swift move during 1972, he disbanded the Zambian ANC, created the ‘second republic’, declared UNIP the sole legal party and made himself the only presidential candidate. Consequently Kaunda remained in power for the next 27 years. His rule was based upon ‘humanism’ – his own mix of Marxism and traditional African values. The civil service was increased, and nearly all private businesses (including the copper mines) were nationalised. But corruption and mismanagement, exacerbated by a fall in world copper prices, doomed Zambia to become one of the poorest countries in the world by the end of the 1970s. The economy continued to flounder, and Zambia’s trade routes to the coast through neighbouring countries (such as Zimbabwe and Mozambique) were closed in retaliation for Kaunda’s support for several liberation movements in the region. By the early 1980s Rhodesia gained independence (to become Zimbabwe), which allowed Kaunda to take his country off a war footing, and the Tazara railway to Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) was completed, giving Zambia unencumbered access to the coast. Yet the economy remained on the brink of collapse: foreign-exchange reserves were almost exhausted, serious shortages of food, fuel and other basic commodities were common, and unemployment and crime rates rose sharply. In 1986 an attempt was made to diversify the economy and improve the country’s balance of payments. Zambia received economic aid from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), but the IMF conditions were severe and included cutting basic food subsidies. Subsequent price rises led to country-wide riots in which many people lost their lives. Kaunda was forced to restore subsidies. The winds of change blowing through Africa during the late 1980s, coupled with Zambia’s disastrous domestic situation, meant that something had to give. Following another round of violent street protests against increased food prices in 1990, which quickly transformed into a general demand for the return of multiparty politics, Kaunda was forced to accede to public opinion. He announced a snap referendum in late 1990 but, as protests grew more vocal, he was forced to legalise opposition parties and announce full presidential and parliamentary elections for October 1991. Not surprisingly, UNIP (and Kaunda) were resoundingly defeated by the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), led by Frederick Chiluba, a former trade-union leader. Kaunda stepped down without complaint, which may have saved Zambia from descending into anarchy. President Chiluba moved quickly to encourage loans and investment from the IMF and World Bank. Exchange controls were liberalised to attract investors, particularly from South Africa, but tough austerity measures were also introduced. Once again food prices soared. The civil service was rationalised, state industries privatised or simply closed, and thousands of people lost their jobs. By the mid-1990s the government's failure to bring about any perceptible improvements to the economy and the standard of living in Zambia allowed Kaunda to confidently re-enter the political arena. He attracted strong support and soon became the UNIP leader. Leading up to the 1996 elections, the MMD panicked and passed a law forbidding anyone with foreign parents to enter politics (Kaunda’s parents were from Malawi). Despite intercessions from Western aid donors and world leaders like Nelson Mandela – not to mention accusations that Chiluba’s parents were from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaïre) – the law was not repealed. The UNIP withdrew all its candidates in protest and many voters boycotted the election. Consequently Chiluba and the MMD easily won, and the result was grudgingly accepted by most Zambians. In the 21st Century The political shenanigans continued unabated at the start of the new millennium: in mid-2001 vice-president Christon Tembo was expelled from parliament by Chiluba, so he formed an opposition party – the Forum for Democratic Development (FDD). Later, Paul Tembo, a former MMD national secretary, joined the FDD but was assassinated the day before he was due to front a tribunal about alleged MMD corruption. Chiluba was unable to run for a third presidential term in December 2001 (though he badly wanted to change the Constitution so he could). He anointed his former vice-president, Levy Mwanawasa, as his successor, but Mwanawasa only just beat a coalition of opposition parties known as the United Party for National Development (UPND). Again, allegations from international observers about the MMD rigging the results and buying votes fell on deaf ears. To Chiluba’s horror, Mwanawasa stripped his predecessor of immunity from prosecution and proceeded to launch an anti-corruption drive, which targeted the former president. In August 2009, after a long-running trial, Chiluba was cleared of embezzling US$500,000 by Zambia’s High Court. His wife, however, was not so lucky, having been given a jail term earlier in the year for receiving stolen funds while her husband was in office. In a separate case in 2007, the High Court in Britain ruled Chiluba and four of his aides conspired to rob Zambia of about US$46 million, but in Zambia he was acquitted of such charges in 2009. Only two years later he passed away from a heart attack, aged 68. Although Zambia remains a poor country, its economy experienced strong growth in the early part of the 21st century with GDP growing at around 6%. However, the country is still very dependent on the world prices of its principal minerals (copper and cobalt). As well as combating global markets, natural disasters have played a significant role in the country’s fortunes. Although a bumper harvest was recorded in 2007, floods in 2008–09 were declared a national disaster and killed dozens of people – the Zambezi River, which flooded much of western Zambia, was said to be at its highest level in 60 years, and crops were severely affected. In September 2011, Michael Sata, nicknamed 'King Cobra', and his party the Patriotic Front (PF) won national elections. The populist strain in Sata's policy was apparent by his decision to revalue the country's currency. Motivated more by symbolism than economics, it was a move that indicated a sincere focus on redirecting the country's wealth to the majority of Zambians who remained impoverished. He also announced a significant increase in the minimum wage in September 2012, and his administration encouraged Zambian participation and ownership in the tourism industry. However, his presidency was tainted by heavy-handed tactics to clamp down on political opposition. Sata passed away while still in power on 28 October 2014 after battling a long illness, plunging Zambia into a period of political uncertainty and leaving his successor with numerous political, economic and environmental challenges.
Galileo (1564–1642), Italian natural philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer, devised new scientific ways to investigate the mysteries of nature. His methods were based on mathematics and geometry and not on philosophical theories. Throughout his long career, Galileo revolutionized many fields in science, particularly the studies of motion, astronomy, and materials. His emphasis on direct observation and experimentation helped develop the scientific method. Galileo strongly supported the Copernican heliocentric theory. This brought him into conflict with the Roman Catholic Inquisition. Galileo’s father had expected him to study medicine when Galileo entered the University of Pisa in 1581. Instead, Galileo became fascinated with mathematics and decided on a career in mathematical subjects and philosophy. He left the university without obtaining a degree. Yet Galileo showed his early genius by designing a new form of hydrostatic balance to measure small quantities. His short treatise “The Little Balance,” combined with his initial studies of motion, earned him recognition among mathematicians. In 1589 Galileo obtained the chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa, where he pursued his studies of motion. Studies of Objects in Motion Galileo used direct observation, experimentation, and mathematics to show that many of Aristotle’s ideas on motion, which had endured more than 1,900 years, were incorrect. In one of his most famous experiments, Galileo dropped objects of different weights off the Leaning Tower of Pisa. He found that the speed of fall of a heavy object is not proportionate to its weight, as Aristotle had claimed. His attacks on Aristotle made him unpopular with his colleagues in Pisa. In 1592 Galileo’s patrons secured a position for him at the University of Padua, where he taught until 1610. During this time he determined the law of falling bodies and calculated the curved trajectory, or parabola, of a projectile. Both conclusions contradicted Aristotle’s physics. In the spring of 1609 Galileo’s career took a dramatic turn toward astronomy. He had learned about the telescope, invented in the Netherlands, and developed his own increasingly powerful instruments. When he turned his telescopes to the heavens, he made several startling discoveries. Galileo found that the Moon’s surface was rough and uneven, not smooth as had been thought. His telescope also detected far more stars than were visible with the naked eye. In January 1610 he observed four moons orbiting around Jupiter and later discovered that Venus went through phases just as the Moon does. He also observed spots on the Sun’s “perfect” surface. These astronomical discoveries confirmed Galileo’s belief that Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus had been correct when he formulated a solar system centered on the Sun, with Earth and other planets moving around it. Galileo summarized his observations in his book The Sidereal Messenger. Galileo, Copernicus, and the Inquisition Galileo’s increasing support of the Copernican theory began to cause him trouble with the Roman Catholic Church. In his Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, Galileo discusses the problem of reconciling Copernican theory with passages in the Bible. However, the tide in Rome had turned against this theory; in 1615 the Inquisition declared it heretical. Galileo was admonished not to “hold, teach, or defend” the Copernican theory “in any way whatever, either orally or in writing.” Galileo did not entirely abandon the topic but approached it from another perspective. In 1623 he published a brilliant discussion on the nature of physical reality and a description of the new scientific method. Galileo argued that the “grand book, the universe” was written in the language of mathematics and geometry. This changed natural philosophy from a verbal account to a mathematical one in which experimentation became a recognized method for discovering the facts of nature. The next year Galileo received permission from Pope Urban VIII to write a book about theories of the universe. The result was Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic & Copernican, published in 1632. The book is a witty discussion among three characters: Salviati (Galileo); Sagredo, an intelligent layman; and Simplicio, a devout Aristotelian who is a figure of ridicule. In the book Galileo summarizes the arguments for the Copernican theory, based on his astronomical observations. Aristotle’s views are put in the mouth of the simpleton in the dialogue. The Vatican’s reaction to the book was swift. In 1633 the Inquisition leveled a charge of heresy against Galileo and sentenced him to life imprisonment. Friends and patrons intervened, and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest in a villa near Arcetri, close to Florence. Galileo’s final book, Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, summarized his studies on motion and his work on testing the strength of different materials. The manuscript was smuggled out of Italy and published in the Netherlands in 1638. On January 8, 1642, Galileo died, at the age of 77. Legacy of Galileo Galileo has been called “the father of modern science.” Because of his work, experimentation and observation became a recognized scientific method for investigating the facts and laws of nature. He instituted fundamental changes in the study of motion, astronomy, cosmology, physics, biology, and material science. Galileo’s inventions, from balances to telescopes and microscopes, brought him widespread recognition. In 1992 Pope John Paul II officially declared, before the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in Rome, that Galileo had been right to support Copernicus.
The largest black holes, Supermassive black holes, are with masses that may exceed a billion Suns. Just this spring, the 1st ever image of the supermassive black hole at the center of the Messier 87 galaxy was taken, and researchers recently noticed the biggest supermassive black hole ever seen. Regardless of these groundbreaking efforts, determining how these black holes drive a galaxy’s shape and structure carry out to be a challenge as a result of most of them are too distant for present telescopes to resolve accurately. A study published in Nature Astronomy describes a new approach to “weigh” supermassive black holes on the centers of galaxies through the use of distances between neighboring galaxies as a proxy. Obtaining an accurate estimate of a supermassive black holes’ mass is usually executed by measuring the speed of the dust and gas that swirls around it. This requires hugely delicate telescopes utilizing a complex analysis and may only be accomplished for black holes, which are large enough to resolve and are comparatively near Earth. Nevertheless, if this mass correlates with different properties of the host galaxy, ones that may be measured even when the black hole is smaller or additional away, one can use these different properties as “proxies” for mass. Within the next ten years, new telescopes are expected to have the ability to obtain more correct mass measurements for black holes and to supply a chance for researchers to test their new technique in opposition to larger datasets. Facilities, just like the Extremely Large Telescope, a 39-meter scheduled to be finished in 2025, might permit researchers to measure smaller and more distant black holes and their host galaxies directly.
The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant "eastern realm" in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi, which first appears in the "Ostarrîchi document" of 996. This word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local (Bavarian) dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976. The word "Austria" is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. At the time, the Danube basin of Austria (Upper and Lower Austria) was the easternmost extent of Bavaria, and in fact of all the Germans, as at the time the territory of the former East Germany was populated by Slavic Sorbs and Polabians. Friedrich Heer, a 20th-century Austrian historian, stated in his book Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität (The Struggle Over Austrian Identity), that the Germanic form Ostarrîchi was not a translation of the Latin word, but both resulted from a much older term originating in the Celtic languages of ancient Austria: more than 2,500 years ago, the major part of the actual country was called Norig by the Celtic population (Hallstatt culture); according to Heer, no- or nor- meant "east" or "easterns", whereas -rig is related to the modern German Reich, meaning "realm". Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, thus Austria. The Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD. Heer's hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes. The Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province. Present-day Petronell-Carnuntum in eastern Austria was an important army camp turned capital city in what became known as the Upper Pannonia province. Carnuntum was home for 50,000 people for nearly 400 years. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the area was invaded by Bavarians, Slavs, and Avars. Charlemagne, King of the Franks, conquered the area in AD 788, encouraged colonization, and introduced Christianity. As part of Eastern Francia, the core areas that now encompass Austria were bequeathed to the house of Babenberg. The area was known as the marchia Orientalis and was given to Leopold of Babenberg in 976. The first record showing the name Austria is from 996, where it is written as Ostarrîchi, referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. In 1156, the Privilegium Minus elevated Austria to the status of a duchy. In 1192, the Babenbergs also acquired the Duchy of Styria. With the death of Frederick II in 1246, the line of the Babenbergs was extinguished. As a result, Ottokar II of Bohemia effectively assumed control of the duchies of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia. His reign came to an end with his defeat at Dürnkrut at the hands of Rudolph I of Germany in 1278. Thereafter, until World War I, Austria's history was largely that of its ruling dynasty, the Habsburgs. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria. In 1438, Duke Albert V of Austria was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law, Emperor Sigismund. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year, henceforth every emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was a Habsburg, with only one exception. The Habsburgs began also to accumulate territory far from the hereditary lands. In 1477, Archduke Maximilian, only son of Emperor Frederick III, married the heiress Maria of Burgundy, thus acquiring most of the Netherlands for the family. His son Philip the Fair married Joanna the Mad, the heiress of Castile and Aragon, thus acquired Spain and its Italian, African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs. In 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, Bohemia and the part of Hungary not occupied by the Ottomans came under Austrian rule. Ottoman expansion into Hungary led to frequent conflicts between the two empires, particularly evident in the Long War of 1593 to 1606. The Turks made incursions into Styria nearly 20 times, of which some are cited as "burning, pillaging, and taking thousands of slaves". During the long reign of Leopold I (1657–1705) and following the successful defence of Vienna in 1683 (under the command of the King of Poland, John III Sobieski), a series of campaigns resulted in bringing all of Hungary to Austrian control by the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Emperor Charles VI relinquished many of the gains the empire made in the previous years, largely due to his apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles was willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction that made his daughter Maria Theresa his heir. With the rise of Prussia, the Austrian–Prussian dualism began in Germany. Austria participated, together with Prussia and Russia, in the first and the third of the three Partitions of Poland (in 1772 and 1795). Austria later became engaged in a war with Revolutionary France, at the beginning highly unsuccessfully, with successive defeats at the hands of Napoleon, meaning the end of the old Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Two years earlier, the Empire of Austria was founded. In 1814, Austria was part of the Allied forces that invaded France and brought to an end the Napoleonic Wars. It emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as one of the continent's four dominant powers and a recognised great power. The same year, the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) was founded under the presidency of Austria. Because of unsolved social, political, and national conflicts, the German lands were shaken by the 1848 revolution aiming to create a unified Germany. The various different possibilities for a united Germany were: a Greater Germany, or a Greater Austria or just the German Confederation without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the German Empire of 1848, the crown of the newly formed empire was offered to the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In 1864, Austria and Prussia fought together against Denmark and secured the independence from Denmark of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. As they could not agree on how the two duchies should be administered, though, they fought the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. Defeated by Prussia in the Battle of Königgrätz, Austria had to leave the German Confederation and subsequently no longer took part in German politics. The Austro-Hungarian compromise of 1867, the Ausgleich, provided for a dual sovereignty, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, under Franz Joseph I. The Austrian-Hungarian rule of this diverse empire included various Slavic groups, including Croats, Czechs, Poles, Rusyns, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians, as well as large Italian and Romanian communities. As a result, ruling Austria–Hungary became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements, requiring considerable reliance on an expanded secret police. Yet, the government of Austria tried its best to be accommodating in some respects: The Reichsgesetzblatt, publishing the laws and ordinances of Cisleithania, was issued in eight languages; all national groups were entitled to schools in their own language and to the use of their mother tongue at state offices, for example. As the Second Constitutional Era began in the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary took the opportunity to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 by Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip was used by leading Austrian politicians and generals to persuade the emperor to declare war on Serbia, thereby risking and prompting the outbreak of World War I, which eventually led to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Over one million Austro-Hungarian soldiers died in World War I. On 21 October 1918, the elected German Members of the Reichsrat (parliament of Imperial Austria) met in Vienna as the Provisional National Assembly for German Austria (Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich). On 30 October the assembly founded the State of German Austria by appointing a government, called Staatsrat. This new government was invited by the Emperor to take part in the decision on the planned armistice with Italy, but refrained from this business. This left the responsibility for the end of the war, on 3 November 1918, solely to the emperor and his government. On 11 November, the emperor, advised by ministers of the old and the new governments, declared he would not take part in state business any more; on 12 November, German Austria, by law, declared itself to be a democratic republic and part of the new German Republic. The constitution, renaming the Staatsrat as Bundesregierung (federal government) and Nationalversammlung as Nationalrat (national council) was passed on 10 November 1920. The Treaty of Saint-Germain of 1919 (for Hungary the Treaty of Trianon of 1920) confirmed and consolidated the new order of Central Europe which to a great extent had been established in November 1918, creating new states and altering others. Over 3 million German-speaking Austrians found themselves living outside the new Austrian Republic as minorities in the newly formed or enlarged states of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Italy. These included the provinces of South Tyrol (which became part of Italy) and German Bohemia (Czechoslovakia). The status of German Bohemia (Sudetenland) later played a role in sparking the Second World War. The status of South Tyrol was a lingering problem between Austria and Italy until it was officially settled by the 1980s with a great degree of autonomy being granted to it by the Italian national government. Between 1918 and 1919, Austria was known as the State of German Austria (Staat Deutschösterreich). Not only did the Entente powers forbid German Austria to unite with Germany, but they also rejected the name German Austria in the peace treaty to be signed; it was, therefore, changed to Republic of Austria in late 1919. The border between Austria and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) was settled with the Carinthian Plebiscite in October 1920 and allocated the major part of the territory of the former Austro-Hungarian Crownland of Carinthia to Austria. This set the border on the Karawanken mountain range, with many Slovenes remaining in Austria. After the war, inflation began to devalue the Krone, which was still Austria's currency. In autumn 1922, Austria was granted an international loan supervised by the League of Nations. The purpose of the loan was to avert bankruptcy, stabilise the currency, and improve Austria's general economic condition. The loan meant that Austria passed from an independent state to the control exercised by the League of Nations. In 1925, the Schilling was introduced, replacing the Krone at a rate of 10,000:1. Later, it was nicknamed the "Alpine dollar" due to its stability. From 1925 to 1929, the economy enjoyed a short high before nearly crashing after Black Tuesday. The First Austrian Republic lasted until 1933, when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, using what he called "self-switch-off of Parliament" (Selbstausschaltung des Parlaments), established an autocratic regime tending towards Italian fascism. The two big parties at this time, the Social Democrats and the Conservatives, had paramilitary armies; the Social Democrats' Schutzbund was now declared illegal, but was still operative as civil war broke out. In February 1934, several Members of the Schutzbund were executed, the Social Democratic party was outlawed, and many of its members were imprisoned or emigrated. On 1 May 1934, the Austrofascists imposed a new constitution ("Maiverfassung") which cemented Dollfuss's power, but on 25 July he was assassinated in a Nazi coup attempt. His successor Kurt Schuschnigg struggled to keep Austria independent as "the better German state". He announced a referendum on 9 March 1938, to be held on 13 March, concerning Austria's independence from Germany. On 12 March 1938, Austrian Nazis took over government, while German troops occupied the country, which prevented Schuschnigg's referendum from taking place. On 13 March 1938, the Anschluss of Austria was officially declared. Two days later, Austrian-born Hitler announced what he called the "reunification" of his home country with the "rest of the German Reich" on Vienna's Heldenplatz. He established a plebiscite confirming the union with Germany in April 1938. Parliamentary elections were held in Germany (including recently annexed Austria) on 10 April 1938. They were the final elections to the Reichstag during Nazi rule, and took the form of a single-question referendum asking whether voters approved of a single Nazi-party list for the 813-member Reichstag, as well as the recent annexation of Austria (the Anschluss). Turnout in the election was officially 99.5%, with 98.9% voting "yes". In the case of Austria, Adolf Hitler's native soil, 99.71% of an electorate of 4,484,475 officially went to the ballots, with a positive tally of 99.73%. Although the ballot result was undoubtedly rigged, there undoubtedly was massive genuine support for Hitler for fulfilling the Anschluss, since many Germans from both Austria and Germany saw it as completing the long overdue German unification of all Germans united into one-state. Austria was incorporated into the Third Reich and ceased to exist as an independent country. The Aryanisation of the wealth of Jewish Austrians started immediately in mid-March, with a so-called "wild" (i.e. extra-legal) phase, but was soon structured legally and bureaucratically to strip Jewish citizens of any assets they possessed. The Nazis called Austria "Ostmark" until 1942, when it was again renamed and called "Alpen-Donau-Reichsgaue". Though Austrians made up only 8% of the population of the Third Reich, some of the most prominent Nazis were native Austrians, including Adolf Hitler, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Franz Stangl, and Odilo Globocnik, as were over 13% of the SS and 40% of the staff at the Nazi extermination camps. Vienna fell on 13 April 1945, during the Soviet Vienna Offensive, just before the total collapse of the Third Reich. The invading Allied powers, in particular the Americans, planned for the supposed "Alpine Fortress Operation" of a national redoubt, that was largely to have taken place on Austrian soil in the mountains of the Eastern Alps. However, it never materialised because of the rapid collapse of the Reich. Karl Renner and Adolf Schärf (Socialist Party of Austria [Social Democrats and Revolutionary Socialists]), Leopold Kunschak (Austria's People's Party [former Christian Social People's Party]), and Johann Koplenig (Communist Party of Austria) declared Austria's secession from the Third Reich by the Declaration of Independence on 27 April 1945 and set up a provisional government in Vienna under state Chancellor Renner the same day, with the approval of the victorious Red Army and backed by Joseph Stalin. (The date is officially named the birthday of the second republic.) At the end of April, most of western and southern Austria were still under Nazi rule. On 1 May 1945, the federal constitution of 1929, which had been terminated by dictator Dollfuss on 1 May 1934, was declared valid again. Total military deaths from 1939 to 1945 are estimated at 260,000. Jewish Holocaust victims totalled 65,000. About 140,000 Jewish Austrians had fled the country in 1938–39. Thousands of Austrians had taken part in serious Nazi crimes (hundreds of thousands died in Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp alone), a fact officially recognised by Chancellor Franz Vranitzky in 1992. Much like Germany, Austria was divided into American, British, French, and Soviet zones and governed by the Allied Commission for Austria. As forecast in the Moscow Declaration in 1943, a subtle difference was seen in the treatment of Austria by the Allies. The Austrian government, consisting of Social Democrats, Conservatives, and Communists (until 1947), and residing in Vienna, which was surrounded by the Soviet zone, was recognised by the Western Allies in October 1945 after some doubts that Renner could be Stalin's puppet. Thus, the creation of a separate Western Austrian government and the division of the country was avoidable. Austria, in general, was treated as though it had been originally invaded by Germany and liberated by the Allies. On 15 May 1955, after talks which lasted for years and were influenced by the Cold War, Austria regained full independence by concluding the Austrian State Treaty with the Four Occupying Powers. On 26 October 1955, after all occupation troops had left, Austria declared its "permanent neutrality" by an act of parliament. The political system of the Second Republic is based on the constitution of 1920 and 1929, which was reintroduced in 1945. The system came to be characterised by Proporz, meaning that most posts of political importance were split evenly between members of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) and the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP). Interest group "chambers" with mandatory membership (e.g. for workers, business people, farmers) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus. Since 1945, governing via a single-party government has occurred between 1966–1970 (ÖVP) and 1970–1983 (SPÖ). During all other legislative periods, either a grand coalition of SPÖ and ÖVP or a "small coalition" (one of these two and a smaller party) ruled the country. Kurt Waldheim, an SS intelligence officer in the Second World War accused of war crimes, was elected President of Austria from 1986 to 1992. (Waldheim was member of the NSDAP, he was officer in the army, but was he in the SS? a citation is needed) Following a referendum in 1994, at which consent reached a majority of two-thirds, the country became a member of the European Union on 1 January 1995. The major parties SPÖ and ÖVP have contrary opinions about the future status of Austria's military nonalignment: While the SPÖ in public supports a neutral role, the ÖVP argues for stronger integration into the.eu's security policy; even a future NATO membership is not ruled out by some ÖVP politicians (ex. Dr Werner Fasslabend (OVP) in 1997). In reality, Austria is taking part in the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy, participates in peacekeeping and peace creating tasks, and has become a member of NATO's "Partnership for Peace"; the constitution has been amended accordingly. Since Liechtenstein joined the Schengen Area in 2011, None of Austria's neighbouring countries performs border controls towards it anymore. The Parliament of Austria is located in Vienna, the country's largest city and capital. Austria became a federal, representative democratic republic through the Federal Constitution of 1920. The political system of the Second Republic with its nine states is based on the constitution of 1920, amended in 1929, which was reenacted on 1 May 1945. The head of state is the Federal President (Bundespräsident), who is directly elected by popular vote. The chairman of the Federal Government is the Federal Chancellor, who is appointed by the President. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by vote of no confidence in the lower chamber of parliament, the Nationalrat. Voting for the Federal President and for the Parliament used to be compulsory in Austria, but this was abolished in steps from 1982 to 2004. The Parliament of Austria consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat (183 seats) is determined every five years (or whenever the Nationalrat has been dissolved by the federal president on a motion by the federal chancellor, or by Nationalrat itself) by a general election in which every citizen over 16 years (since 2007) has voting rights. While there is a general threshold of 4% for all parties at federal elections (Nationalratswahlen), there remains the possibility to gain a direct seat, or Direktmandat, in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the Upper house of parliament, the Bundesrat, has a limited right of veto (the Nationalrat can—in almost all cases—ultimately pass the respective bill by voting a second time. This is referred to as 'Beharrungsbeschluss, lit. "vote of persistence"). A convention, called the Österreich -Konvent was convened on 30 June 2003 to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two-thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. With legislative and executive, the courts are the third column of Austrian state powers. Notably the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof) may exert considerable influence on the political system by ruling out laws and ordinances not in compliance with the constitution. Since 1995, the European Court of Justice may overrule Austrian decisions in all matters defined in laws of the European Union. Austria also implements the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights, since the European Convention on Human Rights is part of the Austrian constitution. After general elections held in October 2006, the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) emerged as the strongest party, and the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) came in second, having lost about 8% of its previous polling. Political realities prohibited any of the two major parties from forming a coalition with smaller parties. In January 2007 the People's Party and SPÖ formed a grand coalition with the social democrat Alfred Gusenbauer as Chancellor. This coalition broke up in June 2008. Elections in September 2008 further weakened both major parties (SPÖ and ÖVP) but together they still held 70% of the votes, with the Social Democrats holding slightly more than the other party. They formed a coalition with Werner Faymann from the Social Democrats as Chancellor. The Green Party came in third with 11% of the vote. The FPÖ and the deceased Jörg Haider's new party Alliance for the Future of Austria, both on the political right, were strengthened during the election but taken together received less than 20% of the vote. In the legislative elections of 2013, the Social Democratic Party received 27% of the vote and 52 seats; People's Party 24% and 47 seats, thus controlling together the majority of the seats. The Freedom Party received 40 seats and 21% of the votes, while the Greens received 12% and 24 seats. Two new parties, Stronach and the NEOS, received less than 10% of the vote, and 11 and nine seats respectively. The 1955 Austrian State Treaty ended the occupation of Austria following World War II and recognised Austria as an independent and sovereign state. On 26 October 1955, the Federal Assembly passed a constitutional article in which "Austria declares of her own free will her perpetual neutrality". The second section of this law stated that "in all future times Austria will not join any military alliances and will not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory". Since then, Austria has shaped its foreign policy on the basis of neutrality, but rather different from the neutrality of Switzerland. Austria began to reassess its definition of neutrality following the fall of the Soviet Union, granting overflight rights for the UN-sanctioned action against Iraq in 1991, and since 1995, it has developed participation in the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy. Also in 1995, it joined NATO's Partnership for Peace and subsequently participated in peacekeeping missions in Bosnia. Meanwhile, the only part of the Constitutional Law on Neutrality of 1955 still fully valid is not to allow foreign military bases in Austria. Austria attaches great importance to participation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and other international economic organisations, and it has played an active role in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). As an OSCE-participating State, Austria's international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission. The manpower of the Austrian Armed Forces (German: Bundesheer) mainly relies on conscription. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit have to serve a six months compulsory military service, followed by an eight-year reserve obligation. Both males and females at the age of sixteen are eligible for voluntary service. Conscientious objection is legally acceptable and those who claim this right are obliged to serve an institutionalised nine months civilian service instead. Since 1998, women volunteers have been allowed to become professional soldiers. The main sectors of the Bundesheer are Joint Forces (Streitkräfteführungskommando, SKFüKdo) which consist of Land Forces (Landstreitkräfte), Air Forces (Luftstreitkräfte), International Missions (Internationale Einsätze) and Special Forces (Spezialeinsatzkräfte), next to Joint Mission Support Command (Kommando Einsatzunterstützung; KdoEU) and Joint Command Support Centre (Führungsunterstützungszentrum; FüUZ). Austria is a landlocked country and has no navy. In 2012, Austria's defence expenditures corresponded to approximately 0.8% of its GDP. The Army currently has about 26,000 soldiers, of whom about 12,000 are conscripts. As head of state, Austrian President is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Bundesheer. Command of the Austrian Armed Forces is exercised by the Minister of Defence, currently Hans Peter Doskozil. Since the end of the Cold War, and more importantly the removal of the former heavily guarded "Iron Curtain" separating Austria and its Eastern Bloc neighbours (Hungary and former Czechoslovakia), the Austrian military has been assisting Austrian border guards in trying to prevent border crossings by illegal immigrants. This assistance came to an end when Hungary and Slovakia joined the EU Schengen Area in 2008, for all intents and purposes abolishing "internal" border controls between treaty states. Some politicians have called for a prolongation of this mission, but the legality of this is heavily disputed. In accordance with the Austrian constitution, armed forces may only be deployed in a limited number of cases, mainly to defend the country and aid in cases of national emergency, such as in the wake of natural disasters. They may generally not be used as auxiliary police forces. Within its self-declared status of permanent neutrality, Austria has a long and proud tradition of engaging in UN-led peacekeeping and other humanitarian missions. The Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit (AFDRU), in particular, an all-volunteer unit with close ties to civilian specialists (e.g. rescue dog handlers) enjoys a reputation as a quick (standard deployment time is 10 hours) and efficient SAR unit. Currently, larger contingents of Austrian forces are deployed in Bosnia and Kosovo. As a federal republic, Austria is divided into nine states (German: Bundesländer). These states are then divided into districts (Bezirke) and statutory cities (Statutarstädte). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (Gemeinden). Statutory Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions but have some legislative authority distinct from the federal government, e.g. in matters of culture, social care, youth and nature protection, hunting, building, and zoning ordinances. In recent years, it has been discussed whether today it is appropriate for a small country to maintain ten parliaments. Austria is a largely mountainous country due to its location in the Alps. The Central Eastern Alps, Northern Limestone Alps and Southern Limestone Alps are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84,000 km2 or 32,433 sq mi), only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft). The Alps of western Austria give way somewhat into low lands and plains in the eastern part of the country. Austria lies between latitudes 46° and 49° N, and longitudes 9° and 18° E. It can be divided into five areas, the biggest being the Eastern Alps, which constitute 62% of the nation's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the Alps and the Carpathians account for around 12% and the foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian granite plateau, it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the Vienna basin comprises the remaining 4%. The six highest mountains in Austria are: Phytogeographically, Austria belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Austria can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, Alps conifer and mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate climate zone, where humid westerly winds predominate. With nearly three-quarters of the country dominated by the Alps, the alpine climate is predominant. In the east—in the Pannonian Plain and along the Danube valley—the climate shows continental features with less rain than the alpine areas. Although Austria is cold in the winter (−10 – 0 °C), summer temperatures can be relatively high, with average temperatures in the mid-20s and a highest temperature of 40.5 °C (105 °F) in August 2013. Austria is the 12th richest country in the world in terms of GDP (Gross domestic product) per capita, has a well-developed social market economy, and a high standard of living. Until the 1980s, many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised; in recent years, however, privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. Next to a highly developed industry, international tourism is the most important part of the national economy. Germany has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the German economy. Since Austria became a member state of the European Union, it has gained closer ties to other EU economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership of the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to the aspiring economies of the European Union. Growth in GDP reached 3.3% in 2006. At least 67% of Austria's imports come from other European Union Member states. Austria indicated on 16 November 2010 that it would withhold the December installment of its contribution to the EU bailout of Greece, citing the material worsening of the Greek debt situation and the apparent inability of Greece to collect the level of tax receipts it had previously promised. The eurozone crisis dented the economy of Austria in other ways as well. It caused, for example, the Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank International to be purchased in December 2009 by the government for 1 euro owing to credit difficulties, thus wiping out the euro 1.63bn of BayernLB. As of February 2014, the HGAA situation was unresolved, causing Chancellor Werner Faymann to warn that its failure would be comparable to the 1931 Creditanstalt event. Since the fall of communism, Austrian companies have been quite active players and consolidators in Eastern Europe. Between 1995 and 2010, 4,868 mergers and acquisitions with a total known value of 163 bil. EUR with the involvement of Austrian firms have been announced. The largest transactions with involvement of Austrian companies have been: the acquisition of Bank Austria by Bayerische Hypo- und Vereinsbank for 7.8 billion EUR in 2000, the acquisition of Porsche Holding Salzburg by Volkswagen Group for 3.6 billion EUR in 2009, and the acquisition of Banca Comercială Română by Erste Group for 3.7 bil. EUR in 2005. Tourism accounts for almost 9% of the Austrian gross domestic product. In 2007, Austria ranked 9th worldwide in international tourism receipts, with 18.9 billion US$. In international tourist arrivals, Austria ranked 12th with 20.8 million tourists. In 1972, the country began construction of a nuclear-powered electricity-generation station at Zwentendorf on the River Danube, following a unanimous vote in parliament. However, in 1978, a referendum voted approximately 50.5% against nuclear power, 49.5% for, and parliament subsequently unanimously passed a law forbidding the use of nuclear power to generate electricity although the nuclear power plant was already finished. Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by hydropower. Together with other renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to 62.89% of total use in Austria, with the rest being produced by gas and oil power plants. Austria's population was estimated to be 8.72 million in April 2016 by the Statistik Austria. The population of the capital, Vienna, exceeds 1.8 million (2.6 million, including the suburbs), representing about a quarter of the country's population. It is known for its cultural offerings and high standard of living. Vienna is by far the country's largest city. Graz is second in size, with 265,778 inhabitants, followed by Linz (191,501), Salzburg (145,871), and Innsbruck (122,458). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.27 million foreign-born residents in Austria, corresponding to 15.2% of the total population. Of these, 764,000 (9.1%) were born outside the EU and 512,000 (6.1%) were born in another EU Member State. Statistik Austria estimated in 2011 that 81% or 6.75 million residents had no migration background and more than 19% or 1.6 million inhabitants had at least one or more parents of migration background. There are more than 415,000 descendants of foreign-born immigrants residing in Austria, the great majority of whom have been naturalised. 185,592 Turks (including a minority of Turkish Kurds) make up the second biggest single ethnic minority in Austria after Germans (2.5%), representing 2.2% of the total population. 13,000 Turks were naturalised in 2003 and an unknown number have arrived in Austria at the same time. While 2,000 Turks left Austria in the same year, 10,000 immigrated to the country, confirming a strong trend of growth. Together, Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks and Slovenes make up about 5.1% of Austria's total population. The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2013 was estimated at 1.42 children born per woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2014, 41.7% of births were to unmarried women. The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 80.04 years (77.13 years male, 83.1 years female). Foreign-born population – top 15 countries: Austrian German is Austria's Official language and, according to the 2001 census, is spoken natively by 88.6% of the population (including the 2.5% Germans who reside in Austria) — followed by Turkish (2.28%), Serbian (2.21%), Croatian (1.63%), English (0.73%), Hungarian (0.51%), Bosnian (0.43%), Polish (0.35%), Albanian (0.35%), Slovenian (0.31%), Czech (0.22%), Arabic (0.22%), Romanian (0.21%), etc. The official language used in education, publications, announcements and websites is Austrian German, which is mostly identical to the German used in Germany but with some vocabulary differences. The German language is standardised between countries of German mother tongue, i.e., Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, as well as those with significant German speaking minorities: Italy, Belgium and Denmark. (The German dialect speaking population in Alsace-Lorraine in France has no minority rights.) Many local dialects are spoken in Austria, and though their base is Austrian German, their corresponding speakers have certain degrees of difficulty when trying to understand each other. The Austrian federal states of Carinthia and Styria are home to a significant indigenous Slovene-speaking minority while in the easternmost state, Burgenland (formerly part of the Hungarian portion of Austria–Hungary), there are significant Hungarian- and Croatian-speaking minorities. Of the remaining number of Austria's people that are of non-Austrian descent, many come from surrounding countries, especially from the former East Bloc nations. Guest workers (Gastarbeiter) and their descendants, as well as refugees from the Yugoslav wars and other conflicts, also form an important minority group in Austria. Since 1994 the Roma–Sinti (gypsies) have been an officially recognised ethnic minority in Austria. According to census information published by Statistik Austria for 2001 there were a total of 710,926 foreign nationals living in Austria. Of these, the largest by far are 283,334 foreign nationals from the former Yugoslavia (of whom 135,336 speak Serbian; 105,487 Croatian; 31,591 Bosnian – i.e. 272,414 Austrian resident native speakers in total, plus 6,902 Slovenian and 4,018 Macedonian speakers). The second largest population of linguistic and ethnic groups are the Turks (including minority of Kurds) with a number of 200,000 to 300,000 who currently live in Austria. The Turks and the Kurds are the largest single immigrant group in Austria, closely followed by the Serbs. The next largest population of linguistic and ethnic groups are the 124,392 who speak German as their mother tongue even though they hail from outside of Austria (mainly immigrants from Germany, some from Switzerland, South Tyrol in Italy, Romania, or the former Soviet Union); 123,417 English; 24,446 Albanian; 17,899 Polish; 14,699 Hungarian; 12,216 Romanian; 10,000 Malayali; 7,982 Arabic; 6,891 Slovak; 6,707 Czech; 5,916 Persian; 5,677 Italian; 5,466 Russian; 5,213 French; 4,938 Chinese; 4,264 Spanish; 3,503 Bulgarian. The numbers for other languages fall off sharply below 3,000. In 2006, some of the Austrian states introduced standardised tests for new citizens, to assure their language ability, cultural knowledge and accordingly their ability to integrate into the Austrian society. For the national rules, see Austrian nationality law – Naturalisation. Historically Austrians were regarded as ethnic Germans and viewed themselves as such, although this national identity was challenged by Austrian nationalism in the decades after the end of World War I and even more so after World War II. Austria was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation until its ending in 1806 and had been part of the German Confederation, a loose association of 39 separate German-speaking countries, until the Austro-Prussian war in 1866, which resulted in the exclusion of Austria from the German Confederation and the creation of the North German Confederation led by Prussia. In 1871, Germany was founded as a nation-state, Austria was not a part of it. After World War I and the breakup of the Austrian monarchy, politicians of the new republic declared its name to be "Deutschösterreich" (Republic of German-Austria) and that it was part of the German Republic. A unification of the two countries was forbidden by the treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye as one of the conditions imposed by the victorious Allies of World War I upon the vanquished nation, to prevent the creation of a territorially extensive German state. Along with the events of World War II and Nazism Austria as a country has made efforts to develop its own distinct national identity among its populace, and nowadays most do not consider themselves Germans, while a minority still feels German, a movement historically known as "Grossdeutsch", pointing to the fact that they consider historic boundaries of the German people going beyond the boundaries of the actual states. Today 91.1% of the population are regarded as ethnic Austrians. Serbs form one of the largest ethnic groups in Austria, numbering around 300,000 people. Historically, Serbian immigrants moved to Austria during the time of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, when Vojvodina was under Imperial control. Following World War II the number of Serbs expanded again, and today the community is very large. The Austrian Serbian Society was founded in 1936. Today, Serbs in Austria are mainly found in Vienna, Salzburg, and Graz. An estimated 13,000 to 40,000 Slovenes in the Austrian state of Carinthia (the Carinthian Slovenes) as well as Croats (around 30,000) and Hungarians in Burgenland were recognised as a minority and have had special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenes in the Austrian state of Styria (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognised as a minority and do not have special rights, although some believe the State Treaty of 27 July 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene and Croat Austrians live alongside the German-speaking population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented in the view of some, while others believe that the treaty-derived obligations have been met (see below). Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases show parts of Carinthia as Slovene cultural territory. The recently deceased governor, Jörg Haider, has made this fact a matter of public argument in autumn 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so-called "Windischen-Theorie" stating that the Slovenes can be split in two groups: actual Slovenes and Windische (a traditional German name for Slavs), based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenes, who were taught Slovene standard language in school and those Slovenes who spoke their local Slovene dialect but went to German schools. The term Windische was applied to the latter group as a means of distinction. This politically influenced theory, dividing Slovene Austrians into the "loyal Windische" and the "national Slovenes", was never generally accepted and fell out of use some decades ago. At the end of the 20th century, about 74% of Austria's population were registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% considered themselves Protestants. Austrian Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, are obliged to pay a mandatory membership fee (calculated by income—about 1%) to their church; this payment is called "Kirchenbeitrag" ("Ecclesiastical/Church contribution"). Since the second half of the 20th century, the number of adherents and churchgoers has declined. Data for the end of 2016 from the Austrian Roman Catholic Church lists 5,162,622 members, or 58.8% of the total Austrian population. Sunday church attendance was 605,828 or 7% of the total Austrian population in 2015. The Lutheran church also recorded a loss of 74,421 adherents between 2001 and 2016. About 12% of the population declared that they have no religion. in 2001; this share had grown to 20% by 2015. Of the remaining people, around 340,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities, mainly due to the influx from Turkey, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo. About 180,000 are members of Orthodox Churches (mostly Serbs), about 21,000 people are active Jehovah's Witnesses and about 8,100 are Jewish. The Austrian Jewish community of 1938—Vienna alone counted more than 200,000—was reduced to around 4,500 during the Second World War, with about 65,000 Jewish Austrians killed in the Holocaust and 130,000 emigrating. The large majority of the current Jewish population are post-war immigrants, particularly from eastern Europe and central Asia (including Bukharan Jews). Buddhism was legally recognised as a religion in Austria in 1983. According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2010,44% of Austrian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God".38% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force".12% answered that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". The Protestant Reformation spread from northern Germany to Austria. By the Council of Trent in 1545, almost half of the Austrian population had converted to Lutheranism, while a minority also endorsed Calvinism. Eastern Austria was more affected by this phenomenon than western Austria. After 1545, Austria was recatholicized in the Counter Reformation. The Habsburgs imposed a strict regime to restore the influence of the Roman Catholic Church among Austrians and their campaign proved successful; the Habsburgs for a long time viewed themselves as the vanguard of Roman Catholicism, while all the other Christian confessions and religions were repressed. In 1775, Maria Theresa gave official permission to the Mechistarist Congregation of the Armenian Catholic Church to settle in the Habsburg Empire. In 1781, in the era of Austrian enlightenment, Emperor Joseph II issued a Patent of Tolerance for Austria that allowed other confessions a limited freedom of worship. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right in Cisleithania after the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich in 1867 thus paying tribute to the fact that the monarchy was home of numerous religions beside Roman Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian Orthodox Christians (Austria neighboured the Ottoman Empire for centuries), Calvinist, Lutheran Protestants and Jews. In 1912, after the annexation of Bosnia Hercegovina in 1908, Islam was officially recognised in Austria. Austria remained largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918, First Republic Catholic leaders such as Theodor Innitzer and Ignaz Seipel took leading positions within or close to Austria's government and increased their influence during the time of the Austrofascism; Catholicism was treated much like a state religion by Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg. Although Catholic (and Protestant) leaders initially welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the Anschluss of Austria into Germany, Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of Nazism later on and former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the Third Reich. After the end of World War II in 1945, a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria, and religious influence on politics declined. Education in Austria is entrusted partly to the Austrian states (Bundesländer) and partly to the federal government. School attendance is compulsory for nine years, i.e. usually to the age of fifteen. Pre-school education (called Kindergarten in German), free in most states, is provided for all children between the ages of three and six years and, whilst optional, is considered a normal part of a child's education due to its high takeup rate. Maximum class size is around 30, each class normally being cared for by one qualified teacher and one assistant. Primary education, or Volksschule, lasts for four years, starting at age six. The maximum class size is 30, but may be as low as 15. It is generally expected that a class will be taught by one teacher for the entire four years and the stable bond between teacher and pupil is considered important for a child's well-being. The 3Rs (Reading, wRiting and aRithmetic) dominate lesson time, with less time allotted to project work than in the UK. Children work individually and all members of a class follow the same plan of work. There is no streaming. Standard attendance times are 8 am to 12 pm or 1 pm, with hourly five- or ten-minute breaks. Children are given homework daily from the first year. Historically there has been no lunch hour, with children returning home to eat. However, due to a rise in the number of mothers in work, primary schools are increasingly offering pre-lesson and afternoon care. As in Germany, secondary education consists of two main types of schools, attendance at which is based on a pupil's ability as determined by grades from the primary school. The Gymnasium caters for the more able children, in the final year of which the Matura examination is taken, which is a requirement for access to university. The Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational education but also for various types of further education (Höhere Technische Lehranstalt HTL = institution of higher technical education; HAK = commercial academy; HBLA = institution of higher education for economic business; etc.). Attendance at one of these further education institutes also leads to the Matura. Some schools aim to combine the education available at the Gymnasium and the Hauptschule, and are known as Gesamtschulen. In addition, a recognition of the importance of learning English has led some Gymnasiums to offer a bilingual stream, in which pupils deemed able in languages follow a modified curriculum, a portion of the lesson time being conducted in English. As at primary school, lessons at Gymnasium begin at 8 am and continue with short intervals until lunchtime or early afternoon, with children returning home to a late lunch. Older pupils often attend further lessons after a break for lunch, generally eaten at school. As at primary level, all pupils follow the same plan of work. Great emphasis is placed on homework and frequent testing. Satisfactory marks in the end-of-the-year report ("Zeugnis") are a prerequisite for moving up ("aufsteigen") to the next class. Pupils who do not meet the required standard re-sit their tests at the end of the summer holidays; those whose marks are still not satisfactory are required to re-sit the year ("sitzenbleiben"). It is not uncommon for a pupil to re-sit more than one year of school. After completing the first two years, pupils choose between one of two strands, known as "Gymnasium" (slightly more emphasis on arts) or "Realgymnasium" (slightly more emphasis on science). Whilst many schools offer both strands, some do not, and as a result, some children move schools for a second time at age 12. At age 14, pupils may choose to remain in one of these two strands, or to change to a vocational course, possibly with a further change of school. The Austrian university system had been open to any student who passed the Matura examination until recently. A 2006 bill allowed the introduction of entrance exams for studies such as Medicine. In 2001, an obligatory tuition fee ("Studienbeitrag") of €363.36 per term was introduced for all public universities. There are some non-state exceptions to this, where students can still study for a subsidized education, for example within the campus system of the English Teacher Training College. Since 2008, for all EU students the studies have been free of charge, as long as a certain time-limit is not exceeded (the expected duration of the study plus usually two terms tolerance). When the time-limit is exceeded, the fee of around €363.36 per term is charged. Some further exceptions to the fee apply, e.g. for students with a year's salary of more than about €5000. In all cases, an obligatory fee of €17 is charged for the student union and insurance. Austria's past as a European power and its cultural environment generated a broad contribution to various forms of art, most notably among them music. Austria was the birthplace of many famous composers such as Joseph Haydn, Michael Haydn, Franz Liszt, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr. and Johann Strauss, Jr. as well as members of the Second Viennese School such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Salzburg, then an independent Church Principality of the Holy Roman Empire, which later became part of Austria, and much of Mozart's career was spent in Vienna. Vienna was for a long time an important centre of musical innovation. 18th- and 19th-century composers were drawn to the city due to the patronage of the Habsburgs, and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Vienna's status began its rise as a cultural centre in the early 16th century, and was focused around instruments, including the lute. Ludwig van Beethoven spent the better part of his life in Vienna. Austria's current national anthem, attributed to Mozart, was chosen after World War II to replace the traditional Austrian anthem by Joseph Haydn. Austrian Herbert von Karajan was principal conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic for 35 years. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest conductors of the 20th century, and he was a dominant figure in European classical music from the 1960s until his death. Among Austrian Artists and architects one can find the painters Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Rudolf von Alt, Hans Makart, Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele, Carl Moll, and Friedensreich Hundertwasser, the photographers Inge Morath and Ernst Haas, and architects like Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos, and Hans Hollein (recipient of the 1985 Pritzker Architecture Prize). Contemporary artist Herbert Brandl. Sascha Kolowrat was an Austrian pioneer of filmmaking. Billy Wilder, Fritz Lang, Josef von Sternberg, and Fred Zinnemann originally came from Austria before establishing themselves as internationally relevant movie makers. Willi Forst, Ernst Marischka, or Franz Antel enriched the popular cinema in German language speaking countries. Michael Haneke became internationally known for his disturbing cinematic studies, before receiving a Golden Globe for his critically acclaimed film The White Ribbon in 2010. The first Austrian film director to receive an Academy Award was Stefan Ruzowitzky. A number of Austrian actors were able to pursue a career, the impact of which was sensed beyond national borders. Among them were Peter Lorre, Helmut Berger, Curd Jürgens, Senta Berger, Oskar Werner, and Klaus Maria Brandauer. Hedy Lamarr and Arnold Schwarzenegger became American as well as international movie stars. The latter also became the 38th Governor of California. Christoph Waltz rose to international fame with his performance in Inglourious Basterds, earning the Best Actor Award at Cannes in 2009, and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in 2010 and finally two Oscars. Max Reinhardt was a master of spectacular and astute theatre productions. Otto Schenk not only excelled as a stage actor, but also as an opera director. Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputation. Among them are Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler, prominent scientists in the 19th century. In the 20th century, contributions by Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is Anton Zeilinger, noted as the first scientist to demonstrate quantum teleportation. In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the most noteworthy philosophers of the 20th century, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. In addition to them, biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus were Austrians. A focus of Austrian science has always been medicine and psychology, starting in medieval times with Paracelsus. Eminent physicians like Theodore Billroth, Clemens von Pirquet, and Anton von Eiselsberg have built upon the achievements of the 19th century Vienna School of Medicine. Austria was home to Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanalysis, Alfred Adler, founder of Individual psychology, psychologists Paul Watzlawick and Hans Asperger, and psychiatrist Viktor Frankl. The Austrian School of Economics, which is prominent as one of the main competitive directions for economic theory, is related to Austrian economists Carl Menger, Joseph Schumpeter, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, and Friedrich Hayek. Other noteworthy Austrian-born émigrés include the management thinker Peter Drucker, sociologist Paul Felix Lazarsfeld and scientist Sir Gustav Nossal. Complementing its status as a land of artists and scientists, Austria has always been a country of poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Bernhard, and Robert Musil, of poets Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, Adalbert Stifter, Karl Kraus and children's author Eva Ibbotson. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Nobel prize winner Elfriede Jelinek, Peter Handke and Daniel Kehlmann. Austria's cuisine is derived from that of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austrian cuisine is mainly the tradition of Royal-Cuisine ("Hofküche") delivered over centuries. It is famous for its well-balanced variations of beef and pork and countless variations of vegetables. There is also the "Mehlspeisen" Bakery, which created particular delicacies such as Sachertorte, "Krapfen" which are doughnuts usually filled with apricot jam or custard, and "Strudel" such as "Apfelstrudel" filled with apple, "Topfenstrudel" filled with a type of cheese curd called "topfen", and "Millirahmstrudel" (milk-cream strudel). In addition to native regional traditions, the cuisine has been influenced by Hungarian, Bohemia Czech, Jewish, Italian, Balkan and French cuisine, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. The Austrian cuisine is therefore one of the most multicultural and transcultural in Europe. Typical Austrian dishes include Wiener Schnitzel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. There are also Kärntner Kasnudeln, which are pockets of dough filled with Topfen, potatoes, herbs and peppermint which are boiled and served with a butter sauce. Kasnudeln are traditionally served with a salad. Eierschwammerl dishes are also popular. The sugar block dispenser Pez was invented in Austria, as well as Mannerschnitten. Austria is also famous for its Mozartkugeln and its coffee tradition. Beer is sold in 0.2 litre (a Pfiff), 0.3 litre (a Seidel, kleines Bier or Glas Bier) and 0.5 litre (a Krügerl or großes Bier or Halbe) measures. At festivals one litre Maß and two litre Doppelmaß in the Bavarian style are also dispensed. The most popular types of beer are lager (known as Märzen in Austria), naturally cloudy Zwicklbier and wheat beer. At holidays like Christmas and Easter bock beer is also available. The most important wine-producing areas are in Lower Austria, Burgenland, Styria and Vienna. The Grüner Veltliner grape provides some of Austria's most notable white wines and Zweigelt is the most widely planted red wine grape. In Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Styria and Carinthia, Most, a type of cider or perry is widely produced. Schnapps of typically up to 60% alcohol or fruit brandy is drunk, which in Austria is made from a variety of fruits, for example apricots and rowanberries. The produce of small private schnapps distilleries, of which there are around 20,000 in Austria, is known as Selbstgebrannter or Hausbrand. Local soft drinks such as Almdudler are very popular around the country as an alternative to alcoholic beverages. Another popular drink is the so-called "Spetzi", a mix between Coca-Cola and the original formula of Orange Fanta or the more locally renowned Frucade. Red Bull, the highest-selling energy drink in the world, was invented in Austria. Due to the mountainous terrain, alpine skiing is a prominent sport in Austria and is extremely valuable in the promotion and economic growth of the country. Similar sports such as snowboarding or ski-jumping are also widely popular. Austrian athletes such as Annemarie Moser-Pröll, Franz Klammer, Hermann Maier, Toni Sailer, Benjamin Raich, Marlies Schild & Marcel Hirscher are widely regarded as some of the greatest alpine skiers of all time, Armin Kogler, Andreas Felder, Ernst Vettori, Andreas Goldberger, Andreas Widhölzl, Thomas Morgenstern & Gregor Schlierenzauer as some of the greatest ski jumpers of all time. Bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton are also popular events with a permanent track located in Igls, which hosted bobsleigh and luge competitions for the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics held in Innsbruck. The first Winter Youth Olympics in 2012 were held in Innsbruck as well. A popular team sport in Austria is football, which is governed by the Austrian Football Association. Austria was among the most successful football playing nations on the European continent placing 4th at the 1934 FIFA World Cup, 3rd at the 1954 FIFA World Cup and 7th at the 1978 FIFA World Cup. However, recently Austrian football has not been internationally successful. It also co-hosted the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship with Switzerland. The national Austrian football league is the Austrian Bundesliga, which includes teams such as record-champions SK Rapid Wien, FK Austria Wien, Red Bull Salzburg and Sturm Graz. Besides football, Austria also has professional national leagues for most major team sports, including the Austrian Hockey League for ice hockey, and the Österreichische Basketball Bundesliga for basketball. Horseback riding is also popular; the famed Spanish Riding School of Vienna is located in Vienna. Niki Lauda is a former Formula One driver who was three times F1 World Champion, winning in 1975, 1977 and 1984. He is currently the only driver to have been champion for both Ferrari and McLaren, the sport's two most successful constructors. Other known Austrian F1 drivers are for example Gerhard Berger and Jochen Rindt. Austria also hosts F1 races (Austrian Grand Prix); now held at Red Bull Ring, in the past also at Österreichring and Zeltweg Airfield. Thomas Muster is a former tennis player and one of the greatest clay courters of all time. He won the 1995 French Open and in 1996 he was ranked number 1 in the ATP Ranking. Other known Austrian tennis players are for example Horst Skoff, Jürgen Melzer and Dominic Thiem. Sport played a significant role in developing national consciousness and boosting national self-confidence in the early years of the Second Republic after World War II, through events such as the Tour of Austria cycle race and through sporting successes such as the national football team's run to third at the 1954 World Cup and the performances of Toni Sailer and the rest of the "Kitzbühel Miracle Team" in the 1950s.
I use this song, counting by 7's, and play it as students enter the classroom. They are used to these video and really like them. I sing along and they sing along as we all dance. This video also serve as great brain break and get kids up and moving. This song helps students work towards mastering standard 4.OA.B.4; Find all factor pairs for a whole number in the range 1–100. Recognize that a whole number is a multiple of each of its factors. Determine whether a given whole number in the range 1–100 is a multiple of a given one-digit number. Determine whether a given whole number in the range 1–100 is prime or composite. While students count by 7's, they are singing and saying the multiples of seven and thus working to determine whether a given whole number is a multiple of a given one-digit number. This number trick I call Triple Triple because students think of a three digit number (triple) and end up seeing that number twice after multiplying that number. Step1: Think of a 3 digit number. Step2: Multiply it with x7x11x13. Example: Enter 456 into a calculator and then multiply it by 7, then 11, then 13, and the answer is 456456 Note: I also tell them that 7, 11, and 13 are prime numbers. I play this up real dramatic as a little hint about tomorrows lesson. My students were very interested in finding out what prime numbers are. Some students reacted by saying they didn't know there were different kinds of numbers. I reminded them that they really do know this because they know that there are even and odd numbers. Most of my students were very anxious for the next lesson to discover prime numbers. In thinking about this lesson and the vocabulary, and fully reaching the depth of the CCSS 4.OA.2, I want to stress to my students about how multiplication comparison situations involve the reciprocal of a number. For example, if one group is fives times as large as a smaller group, the smaller group is the reciprocal of 5, or 1/5 the size of the larger group. I think this is very important for students to make connections and see relationships, especially with the tape diagram model. It is important to express the reciprocal vocabulary in this lesson in order for students to make connections between multiplication and division and whole numbers and fractions. I start this lesson by reviewing comparison language from third grade as well as from the additive comparison lessons in the previous unit: more than, less than. I write on the board, Summer collected 15 apples while her little brother collected 3. I then remind students that there are several different ways to compare the two quantities. For example, we could talk about how many more apples one has or how many less apples the other has. I then tell them they we can also use multiplication to compare the two quantities. I ask them to turn and talk with their learning partner and discuss how many times as many apples Summer has than her brother. In the past, most students are able to determine that Summer has 5 times as many apples. I ask learning partners to share with the class how they knew it was 5 times as many. Some students say they know it because 5 x 3 is 15. Other students might say they know that 15 divided by 3 is 5. I then draw a tape diagram to model this situation. Students draw a tape diagram in their math notebooks to model as well. (see photo) At this time, is when I then tell students that we can also describe the smaller amount in terms of the larger amount. I express that we use a unit fraction to do so because we are fracturing, or equally dividing, something. So if we divide Summers apples equally into groups of three, we get five equal parts. Each of these equal parts is called one fifth written as 1/5. I have them practice the sentences with me by describing the larger amount in terms of the smaller amount and then the smaller amount in terms of the larger amount. For the next part of the lesson, students will use their math notebooks. I give various multiplicative comparison situations for students to model in their notebooks with tape diagrams, allowing students to use Math practice standard 4. I have students orally practice using the two different equations to compare the quantities. From past experience, this is difficult for students when expressing the smaller amount in terms to the larger amount. In the past my students have needed guidance for this. As students say the sentences, I write a matching equation on the board. For example, in the apple situation, I would write 15 = 5 x 3 and 3 is 1/5 times as many as 15 which is 3 = 1/5 x 15 or 3 = 15/3. It is important for students to be comfortable and familiar with all equations and the different comparison language. After several similar examples, I then ask students to write situation equations to match situations I tell them. For example, Asher ate three times as many cookies as Kylee. I then write A = 3 x K I lead a class discussion regarding what the A stands for (Asher) and the K (Kylee). I also reverse the situation and tell them that Kylee ate 1/3 times as many cookies as Asher and write K = 1/3 x A I do several examples like this. After I sense that students are comfortable with writing situation equations, we put it all together to solve, model, and write an equation to match. Students needs lots of practice with seeing and writing variables in order to solve word problems and master CCSS 4.OA.3. Students work independently at solving the multiplication compare problems practice page. For this assignment, I do not require students to write the situation equation comparing the small number in terms of the large number as a fraction mutlplied with a whole number. CCSS 4.NF.4 asks students to apply and extend previous understanding of multiplication to multiply a fraction by a whole number. At this point in the year, students have not had the lessons necessary to do this, thus I do not have them write that equation. Many students write a division equation which is acceptable and anticipated for this time of year. I end this lesson with a big roller coaster cheer. From experience, this lesson is challenging for students as they think about equations for situations and make sense of multiplication comparisons. I go over the answers to the independent practice page. I ask students to raise their hands for answers and then have others give a thumbs up if they agree of a thumbs down if they disagree or have a different answer.
As children learn to sequence, they are also learning about patterns, relationships, and order, and laying the foundation for work in mathematics and language. Practicing sequencing happens with simple daily conversations, but it can also be more formally introduced in activities such as story sequencing. Don't forget to download the fun and festive Snowman Sequencing Printable! Geometry in nature // Fibonacci sequence// Golden Ratio // Phi point // The same ratio Vitruvius saw in the human body – 1 to PHI (1.618) – exists in every part of nature, from swimming fish to swirling planets. This divine ratio, or divine proportion, has been called the building block of all life. RIDDA / Graphic Design - Another interesting Graphic Sequence visual comprises of a slow transition and close up shots of the cutting of a girls fringe (hair). It is odd to interpret in the first few boxes however the use of scissors helps the audience to understand. Each double sided sheet provides a list of possible text structure, clear (yet challenging) examples for students to label, and space for them to provide the clues/reasoning they used for choosing their answers: - Problem and Solution - Cause and Effect - Compare and Contrast - Order and Sequence - Description - Anecdote. Included are five separate text sets to practice with that are themed around animals, sports, comic books, video games, and cell phones.
In the previous blog post where we calculated the area of the last of the nine circles of hell, we used as data the value of PI and the radius, and found how large was Treachery. For each of these values, we assigned a name. We also used the Java keyword double, which defines the data type of the data. The keyword double means that the value will be a floating-point number. Java allows you to refer to the data in a program by defining variables, which are named locations in memory where you can store values. A variable can store one data value at a time, but that value might change as the program executes, and it might change from one execution of the program to the next. The real advantage of using variables is that you can name a variable, assign it a value, and subsequently refer to the name of the variable in an expression rather than hard-coding the specific value. When we use a named variable, we need to tell the compiler which kind of data we will store in the variable. We do this by giving a data type for each variable. Java supports eight primitive data types: byte, short, int, long, float, double, char, and boolean. They are called primitive data types because they are part of the core Java language. The data type you specify for a variable tells the compiler how much memory to allocate and the format in which to store the data. For example, if you specify that a data item is an int, then the compiler will allocate four bytes of memory for it and store its value as a 32-bit signed binary number. If, however, you specify that a data item is a double (a double-precision floating-point number), then the compiler will allocate 8 bytes of memory and store its value as an IEEE 754 floating-point number. Once you declare a data type for a data item, the compiler will monitor your use of that data item. If you attempt to perform operations that are not allowed for that type or are not compatible with that type, the compiler will generate an error. Because the Java compiler monitors the operations on each data item, Java is called a strongly typed language. Take care in selecting identifiers for your programs. The identifiers should be meaningful and should reflect the data that will be stored in a variable, the concept encapsulated by a class, or the function of a method. For example, the identifier age clearly indicates that the variable will hold an age. When you select meaningful variable names, the logic of your program is more easily understood, and you are less likely to introduce errors. Sometimes, it may be necessary to create a long identifier in order to clearly indicate its use, for example, numberOfPeopleSignedUpForCryonics. Although the length of identifiers is essentially unlimited, avoid creating extremely long identifiers because the longer the identifier, the more likely you are to make typos when entering the identifier into your program and the more it takes to type it, swallowing precious time. Finally, although it is legal to use identifiers, such as TRUE, which differ from Java keywords only in case, it isn’t a good idea because they easily can be confused with Java keywords, making the program logic less clear.
You are in a spacecraft in outer space. You start hearing all your alert signals going off. Suddenly you notice an unknown object is sucking you in. Guess what? You just got too close to a black hole! How Can You See Something Thatís Invisible? I didnít see the black hole, you say? Well thatís exactly my point. A black hole is black and so is the universe. Any light that hits the black hole will be absorbed instead of reflected. The reason we canít see black holes with just plain light is because the black hole "sucks" all of the light in, so there is nothing to reflect from the black hole. The two main sources of energy astronomers use to detect black holes are gamma rays and x-rays. A gamma ray is a little different from an x-ray because it doesnít shine as far, but it is a little bit more powerful. We use these rays because they can send better images of black holes than regular light can. The scientists make the picture colorful by using a computer. The color in the computers make it so the scientist can see the black hole better, so the scientist can study more about its properties. If the picture was just black and white, you would pretty much see the same thing over and over. If they are different colors you will see a lot of different things. How Black Holes Are Created Try to imagine a star ten to twenty times bigger than our Sun. This is how big a star has to be in order for it to eventually become a black hole. Dead stars in space make black holes. The star dies after creating an enormous explosion, which scientists call a supernova. It creates this massive explosion when it runs out of nuclear gas. Think of a gas fireplace in your house. If it burns out, it means it can no longer produce the fuel needed to produce the fire. Well, itís the same thing for a star except a star will shrink to a fraction of its normal size. As the star gets smaller in size it also gets heavier. A smaller star becomes a white dwarf, while a bigger star becomes a neutron star, or a black hole. Soon the bits and pieces of the star will combine to form the matter known as a black hole. Any planet that passes the black hole will be sucked in because of the black holes incredible gravitational force. Once you see this horizon it will seem that it is moving slowly, but once you get closer you will see that it is moving very fast. In fact, it is moving at a speed of about 186,000 miles per hour. Thatís the speed of light! The horizon is light bouncing off the gas particles near the black hole. Astronomers think there might be millions of black holes, but we just canít see them. A black holeís gravitational pull is so strong that not even light can escape it. For example pretend, a speck of dust is a planet and a vacuum is a black hole. The vacuum can suck the dirt from a piece of carpet with ease. A black hole can suck a planet from its orbit with ease just like the vacume and dirt. In order to escape the gravitational pull of a black hole, you would have to travel faster than the speed of light. Einstein, through his theory of relativity, says that nothing can go faster than the speed of light, so nothing can escape a black hole. Proving that Black Holes Exist Astronomers have been able to prove that black holes exist only by observing the effect of a star close to the black hole. A good example of a star being affected by a black hole is the star Cygnus X-1. When astronomers look through optical telescopes, they see a huge blue star. (An optical telescope uses light mirrors to magnify stars so scientists can see them.) This star revolves around something invisible (which they think is the black hole) every 56 earth days. Since this invisible star is so massive and invisible, scientist think it is a black hole. Also the way that Cygnus X-1 moves makes astronomers believe that the invisible star is at least ten times larger than our sun. Getting Sucked into a Black Hole Astronomers have often wondered what happens when something gets sucked into a black hole. Some astronomers believe that when a you travel through a black hole you go through a tunnel called a worm hole where you would be "changed into energy" according to Einstein. Then you come out of a white hole. If a white hole exists, scientists think they are a small body in space that sends out lots of energy. Other astronomers believe a worm hole is a portal to other universes. They say that matter changes going through a black hole and creates its own universe. There are also astronomers that think that black holes will always be a mystery. No one can record what goes on inside or outside of a black hole. We can try and try but once you go into a black hole you wonít come out. A small number of black holes have been detected, but we havenít learned any additional information on them. Black holes have many mysteries that may never be solved. <http://www.cosmology.berkeley.edu/Education/BHfaq.html> Last visited: December, 2001. Berger, Melvin. Quasars, Pulsars and Black Holes in Space. New York: G.P. Putnamís Sons, 1977. "Black Holes." Microsoft Encarta, 2000. Space: Everything You Need and Beyond! </J0112388/> Last visited: January 2002 Space: Today, Tomorrow, and Always. </J0112188/> Last visited: January 2002. Space in the Spotlight Novi Meadows Elementary 2002 All pictures courtesy of NASA unless otherwise noted
Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, is the only satellite in the solar system known to have a thick atmosphere. First studied in detail by the Voyager 1 spacecraft in 1980, the origin of Titan’s atmosphere has puzzled astronomers for decades. But, new research may shed some light on this engaging mystery. A recent study from the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) suggests conditions on Titan may bake organic material found in the interior of the world, giving rise to an atmosphere even denser than that found on Earth. Like our own atmosphere, the gases surrounding Titan are mostly nitrogen. “Titan is a very interesting moon because it has this very thick atmosphere, which makes it unique among moons in our solar system. It is also the only body in the solar system, other than Earth, that has large quantities of liquid on the surface. Titan, however, has liquid hydrocarbons instead of water. A lot of organic chemistry is no doubt happening on Titan, so it’s an undeniable source of curiosity,” said Kelly Miller, research scientist in SwRI’s Space Science and Engineering Division. One previous theory postulated that comets placed ammonia (composed of nitrogen and hydrogen) on the surface of Titan. There, chemical processes would break down the ammonia, releasing nitrogen. However, this theory neglects the effects of complex organic materials, which we now know to be common in comets. Investigation of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by the Rosetta spacecraft revealed 25 percent of the mass of that body was organic materials. Another odd feature of Titan’s atmosphere is that roughly five percent of it is methane. This gas would rapidly react with other gases, and fall to the ground as organic material. So, that begs the question of how methane in the atmosphere of Titan is replenished. This new study from SwRI suggests that comets and other small bodies may have delivered vast amounts of organic material to the warmer interior of Titan. There, physical conditions are slowly cooking the material, releasing methane and nitrogen to the atmosphere. Organic materials do not necessarily develop into life – the term merely refers to complex carbon-rich molecules. But, their presence on Titan makes that world one of the more promising places in the Solar System to search for extraterrestrial life. Space agencies, including NASA, are currently developing plans to explore this giant moon, utilizing drones, gliders, and submarines. “Titan’s atmosphere also contains an array of more complex organic molecules, including vinyl cyanide… Under the right conditions, like those found on the surface of Titan, vinyl cyanide may naturally coalesce into microscopic spheres resembling cell membranes,” the National Radio Astronomy Observatory announced in July 2017. Titan is roughly three-quarters the size of Mars, making it the second-largest satellite in the Solar System. Only Ganymede, orbiting Jupiter, is larger. In 1997, NASA launched the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn, which arrived at the ringed planet in June 2004. On January 14, 2005, the Huygens probe became the first spacecraft to ever plunge through the atmosphere of Titan. Analysis of the geothermal and chemical properties of materials in the atmosphere of Titan was published in The Astrophysical Journal.
Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies Slavery in the Spanish American colonies was an economic and social institution central to the operation of the Spanish Empire – it bound Africans and indigenous people to a relationship of colonial exploitation. Spanish colonists provided the Americas with a colonial precedent for slavery; however, early on opposition from the enslaved Indians and influential Spaniards moved the Crown to limit the bondage of indigenous people, and initiated debates that challenged the idea of slavery based on race. Spaniards regarded some indigenous people as tribute under the encomienda system during the late 1400s and part of the 1500s. Spanish slavery in the Americas did not diverge drastically from that in other European colonies. It reshuffled the Atlantic World's populations through forced migrations, helped transfer American wealth to Europe, and promoted racial and social hierarchies (castas) throughout the empire. Spanish enslavers justified their wealth and status earned at the work of the mines at the expense of captive workers by considering them inferior beings with limited capacities and holding them as personal property (chattel slavery), often under barbarous conditions. In fact, Spanish colonization set some egregious records in the field of slavery. The Asiento, the official contract for trading in slaves in the vast Spanish territories was a major engine of the Atlantic slave trade. When Spain first enslaved Native Americans on Hispaniola, and then replaced them with captive Africans, it established unfree labor as the basis for colonial mass-production. Subsequently, in the mid-nineteenth century when most countries in the Americas reformed to disallow chattel slavery, Cuba and Puerto Rico – the last two remaining Spanish American colonies – maintained slavery the longest.[a] Enslaved people challenged their captivity in ways that ranged from introducing non-European elements into Christianity (syncretism) to mounting alternative societies outside the plantation system (Maroons). The first open black rebellion occurred in Spanish plantations in 1521. Resistance, particularly to the enslavement of indigenous people, also came from Spanish religious and legal ranks. The first speech in the Americas for the universality of human rights and against the abuses of slavery was also given on Hispaniola, a mere nineteen years after the first contact. Resistance to Amerindian captivity in the Spanish colonies produced the first modern debates over race and the legitimacy of slavery.[b] And uniquely in the Spanish American colonies, laws like the New Laws of 1542, were enacted early in the colonial period to protect natives from bondage. To complicate matters further, Spain's haphazard grip on its extensive American dominions and its erratic economy acted to impede the broad and systematic spread of plantations similar to those of the French in Saint Domingue or of the British in Jamaica. Altogether, the struggle against slavery in the Spanish American colonies left a notable tradition of opposition that set the stage for current conversations about human rights. Slavery on the Iberian prior to Colonization of the AmericasEdit The Spanish had established precedents for regimes of forced labor prior to their encounter with New World peoples. Over centuries in Iberia, Muslims had enslaved Christians, and with the Christian reconquest, the victors enslaved the Moors. Slavery was an institution that was economic in function, but it had strong social dimensions as well. Enslaved persons were outsiders of some kind, by ethnicity, language, or religion or some combination. In Iberia, slaves were considered human and possessed some rights, but were at the bottom of the status hierarchy. There were some Muslim slaves remaining in Christian Spain after 1492, but increasingly enslaved Africans via the Portuguese slave trade became part of Spain's social mosaic. Black slaves in Spain were overwhelmingly domestic servants, and increasingly became prestigious property for elite Spanish households though at a much smaller scale than the Portuguese. Artisans acquired black slaves and trained them in their trade, increasing the artisans' output. Both the Spanish and the Portuguese colonized the Atlantic islands off the coast of Africa, where they engaged in sugar cane production following the model of Mediterranean production. The sugar complex consisted of slave labor for cultivation and processing, with the sugar mill (ingenio) and equipment established with investor capital. When plantation slavery was established in Spanish America and Brazil, they replicated the elements of the complex in the New World on a much larger scale. Another form of forced labor used in the New World with origins in Spain was the encomienda, the award of the labor to Christian victors over Muslims during the reconquest. This institution of forced labor was employed by the Spaniards in the Canary Islands following their conquest. The institution was much more widespread following the Spanish contact and conquest of indigenous in the New World, but the precedents were set prior to 1492. Prior to the Spanish colonization of the Americas, slavery was a common institution among various Pre-Columbian indigenous peoples. The Spanish conquest and settlement in the New World quickly led to large-scale subjugation of indigenous peoples, mainly of the Native Caribbean people, by Columbus on his four voyages. Initially, forced labor represented a means by which the conquistadores mobilized native labor and met production quotas, with disastrous effects on the population. Unlike the Portuguese Crown's support for the slave trade, los Reyes Católicos (English: Catholic Monarchs) opposed the introduction of slavery in the newly conquered lands on religious grounds. When Columbus returned with indigenous slaves, they ordered the survivors to be returned to their homelands. In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced to protect the rights of the natives in the New World and secure their freedom. The papal bull Sublimus Dei of 1537, to which Spain was committed, also officially banned enslavement of indigenous people, but it was rescinded a year after its promulgation. The other major form of coerced labor in their colonies, the encomienda system, was also abolished, despite the considerable anger this caused in local criollo elites. It was replaced by the repartimiento system. After passage of the 1542 New Laws, also known as the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians, the Spanish greatly restricted the power of the encomienda system, which effectively caused abuse by the encomenderos, and officially abolished the enslavement of the native population. The statutes of 1573, within the "Ordinances Concerning Discoveries," forbade unauthorized operations against independent Indian peoples. It required appointment of a "protector de indios", an ecclesiastical representative who acted as the protector of the Indians and represented them in formal litigation. Later in the 16th century, in the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru, thousands of indigenous people were forced to hard work as underground miners in the mines of Potosi, Guanajuato, and Zacatecas, in Peru, by means of the continuation of the pre-Hispanic Inca mita tradition. Africans during the Spanish ConquestEdit When Spain first enslaved Native Americans on Hispaniola, and then replaced them with captive Africans, it established unfree labor as the basis for colonial mass-production. It was believed by Europeans that Africans had developed immunities to European diseases, and would not be as susceptible to fall ill as the Native Americans because they had not been exposed to the pathogens yet. In 1501, Spanish colonists began importing enslaved Africans from the Iberian Peninsula to their Santo Domingo colony on the island of Hispaniola. These first Africans, who had been enslaved in Europe before crossing the Atlantic, may have spoken Spanish and perhaps were even Christians. About 17 of them started in the copper mines, and about a hundred were sent to extract gold. As introduced diseases decimated Caribbean indigenous populations in the first decades of the 1500s, enslaved Blacks from Africa ("bozales") gradually replaced their labor, but they also mingled and joined in flights from slavery, creating mixed maroon communities in all the islands where Europeans had established chattel slavery. The newly enslaved workers continued to arrive in Spanish colonies as colonials imported them directly from Portuguese traders, who in turn purchased them from African traders on the Atlantic coast. With the increased dependency on enslaved Blacks developed also distinctive racial hierarchy and the hardening of racial ideologies, buttressed by prior ideologies of differentiation as that of the Limpieza de Sangre (en: Blood Purity). In the vocabulary of the time, each enslaved African who arrived at the Americas was called "Pieza de Indias" (en: a piece of India). Asiento (en: chair) was the name for the agreement between the Spanish authorities and slave traders. During the 16th century, the Spanish colonies were the most important customers of the Atlantic slave trade, claiming several thousands in sales, but the Dutch, French and British soon dwarfed these numbers when their demand for enslaved workers began to drive the slave market to unprecedented levels. Some of the earliest black immigrants to the Americas were "Atlantic Creoles", as the charter generation is described by the American historian Ira Berlin. Mixed-race men of African and Portuguese/Spanish descent, some slaves and others free, sailed with Iberian ships and worked in the ports of Spain and Portugal; some were born in Europe, others in African ports as sons of Portuguese trade workers and African women. African slaves were also taken to Portugal, where they married local women. The mixed-race men often grew up bilingual, making them useful as interpreters in African and Iberian ports. Some famous black Spaniards soldiers in the first stages of the Spanish conquest of America were Juan Valiente and Juan Beltrán in Chile, Juan Garrido (credited with the first harvesting of wheat planted in New Spain) and Sebastián Toral, in Mexico, Juan Bardales in Honduras and Panama, or Juan García in Peru. The first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in the continental United States, an interracial union between a free black woman and a Spanish conquistador, happened in 1565 in the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine, Florida, between Luisa de Abrego, a free black domestic servant from Seville, and a Castillan soldier. Estevanico, recorded as a black slave from Morocco, survived the disastrous Narváez expedition from 1527 to 1536 when most of the men died. After the ships, horses, equipment and finally most of the men were lost, with three other survivors, Estevanico spent six years traveling overland from present-day Texas to Sinaloa, and finally reaching the Spanish settlement at Mexico City. He learned several Native American languages in the process. He went on to serve as a well-respected guide. Later, while leading an expedition in what is now New Mexico in search of the Seven Cities of Gold, he was killed in a dispute with the Zuñi local people. Miguel Henríquez, known as the "Black Demon", was a prominent black Spaniard who served as a buccaneer at Spain's service during the 17th century in the Caribbean waters. He was known for his brutality against British and Dutch prisoners. Spanish enslavement of AfricansEdit Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566) recorded the effects of slavery on the Native populations and argued for an end to it and for the rights of the people. He acquiesced to the Crown's decision to replace Natives with imported African slaves. Its counselors insisted on a source of labor to develop Caribbean plantations. However, he later spoke against African slavery as well, once he saw it in action. In 1501 the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, allowed the colonists of the Caribbean to import African slaves. This permission was granted in the form of the Asiento, the official contract for trading in slaves in the vast Spanish territories was a major engine of the Atlantic slave trade. Opponents cited the weak Christian faith of the Africans and their penchant for escaping to the mountains. Proponents argued that the rapid decline of the Native American population required a consistent supply of reliable workers. In addition, the first years of Spanish presence in the Americas were marked by an outbreak of a tropical epidemic influenza that decimated both the native and Spanish populations. It was argued that the population would never be large enough to carry out all the labour needed to assure the economic viability of the Spanish colonies. In 1501, a first shipment of African-born slaves was sent to the West Indies (Hispaniola). The Spaniards chiefly purchased the slaves from the Portuguese and English traders in Africa. They did not engage directly in the trade and overall imported fewer slaves to the New World than did the Portuguese, British, or French. The Spanish used enslaved Africans as workers to develop their agriculture and settlements. They also used them in defense of the colonies. Originally the Crown relied on private initiative and resources to protect colonial shipping and settlements. In some cases, colonists hired out their slaves or donated them for this purpose; in other cases, the Crown bought the slaves. Building forts and defense works relied on slave labor, but most were privately owned. The slave populations were extremely low on Cuba and Puerto Rico until the 1760s, when the British took Havana, Cuba, in 1762. After that, the British imported more than 10,000 slaves to Havana, a number that would have taken 20 years to import on other islands. They used it as a base to supply the Caribbean and the lower Thirteen Colonies. This change is almost directly related to the opening of Spanish slave trade to other powers in the 18th century. Spain and Great Britain made a contract in 1713 by which the British would provide the slaves. The Spanish outlawed its own slave trade of Africans. While historians have studied the production of sugar on plantations by enslaved workers in nineteenth-century Cuba, they have sometimes overlooked the crucial role of the Spanish state before the 1760s. Cuba ultimately developed two distinct but interrelated sources using enslaved labor, which converged at the end of the eighteenth century. The first of these sectors was urban and was directed in large measure by the needs of the Spanish colonial state, reaching its height in the 1760s. As of 1778, it was reported by Thomas Kitchin that "about 52,000 slaves" were being brought from Africa to the West Indies by Europeans, with approximately 4,000 being brought by the Spanish. The second sector, which flourished after 1790, was rural and was directed by private slaveholders/planters involved in the production of export agricultural commodities, especially sugar. After 1763, the scale and urgency of defense projects led the state to deploy many of its enslaved workers in ways that were to anticipate the intense work regimes on sugar plantations in the nineteenth century. Another important group of workers enslaved by the Spanish colonial state in the late eighteenth century were the king's laborers, who worked on the city's fortifications. The Spanish colonies were late to exploit slave labor in the production of sugarcane, particularly on Cuba. The Spanish colonies in the Caribbean were among the last to abolish slavery. While the British colonies abolished slavery completely by 1834, Spain abolished slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886. On the mainland of Central and South America, Spain ended African slavery in the eighteenth century. Peru was one of the countries that revived the institution for some decades after declaring independence from Spain in the early 19th century. Liberation of British and American slaves in Spanish FloridaEdit Since the beginning of the 18th century, Spanish Florida attracted numerous African slaves who escaped from British slavery in the Thirteen Colonies. Since 1623 the official Spanish policy was that any and all slaves that touched Spanish soil and asked for refuge would be made a free man, alphabetized if he wasn't, helped to establish his own workshop if he had a trade or given a lot of land as his own to cultivate as a farmer. In exchange they would be required to serve for a number of years in the Spanish National Guard and convert to Catholicism. Francisco Menéndez escaped from South Carolina and traveled to St. Augustine, Florida for freedom. Once the slaves reached Florida, the Spanish freed them if they converted to Roman Catholicism. Most settled in a community called Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, the first settlement of free slaves in North America. The former slaves also found refuge among the Creek and Seminole, Native Americans who had established settlements in Florida at the invitation of the Spanish government.[dubious ] In 1771, Governor John Moultrie wrote to the English Board of Trade, "It has been a practice for a good while past, for negroes to run away from their Masters, and get into the Indian towns, from whence it proved very difficult to get them back." When British government officials pressured the Native Americans to return the fugitive slaves, they replied that they had "merely given hungry people food, and invited the slaveholders to catch the runaways themselves." After the American Revolution, slaves from the State of Georgia and the Low Country escaped to Florida. The U.S. Army led increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory, including the 1817–1818 campaign by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War. The United States afterwards effectively controlled East Florida. According to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, the US had to take action there because Florida had become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them.". Spain requested British intervention, but London declined to assist Spain in the negotiations. Some of President James Monroe's cabinet demanded Jackson's immediate dismissal, but Adams realized that it put the U.S. in a favorable diplomatic position. Adams negotiated very favorable terms. As Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or garrisons, the Crown decided to cede the territory to the United States. It accomplished this through the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819, effective 1821. Ending of slaveryEdit This section does not cite any sources. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Support for abolitionism rose in Great Britain. Slavery was abolished under the French Revolution, for the French Caribbean colonies, (the slavery was abolished in European part of France in 1315 by Louis X) but was restored under Napoleon I. Slaves in Saint-Domingue established independence, founding the republic of Haiti in 1804. Later slave revolts were arguably part of the upsurge of liberal and democratic values centered on individual rights and liberties which came in the aftermath of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in Europe. As emancipation became more of a concrete reality, the slaves' concept of freedom changed. No longer did they seek to overthrow the whites and re-establish carbon-copy African societies as they had done during the earlier rebellions; the vast majority of slaves were creole, native born where they lived, and envisaged their freedom within the established framework of the existing society. The Spanish American wars of independence emancipated most of the overseas territories of Spain; in Central and South America, various nations emerged from these wars. The wars were influenced by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and economic affairs, which also led to the reduction and ending of feudalism. It was not a unified process. Some countries, including Peru and Ecuador, reintroduced slavery for some time after achieving independence. In the treaty of 1814, the king of Spain promised to consider means for abolishing the slave trade. In the treaty of September 23, 1817, with Great Britain, the Spanish Crown said that "having never lost sight of a matter so interesting to him and being desirous of hastening the moment of its attainment, he has determined to co-operate with His Britannic Majesty in adopting the cause of humanity." The king bound himself "that the slave trade will be abolished in all the dominions of Spain, May 30, 1820, and that after that date it shall not be lawful for any subject of the crown of Spain to buy slaves or carry on the slave trade upon any part of the coast of Africa." The date of final suppression was October 30. The subjects of the king of Spain were forbidden to carry slaves for any one outside the Spanish dominions, or to use the flag to cover such dealings.³ The Assembly of Year XIII (1813) of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata declared the freedom of wombs. It did not end slavery completely, but emancipated the children of slaves. Many slaves gained emancipation by joining the armies, either against royalists during the War of Independence, or during the later Civil Wars. For example, the Argentine Confederation ended slavery definitely with the sanction of the Argentine Constitution of 1853. - Las Casas, Bartolomé de, The Devastation of the Indies, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore & London, 1992. - Las Casas, Bartolomé de, History of the Indies, translated by Andrée M. Collard, Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1971, - Las Casas, Bartolomé de, In Defense of the Indians, translated by Stafford Poole, C.M., Northern Illinois University, 1974. - Aguirre Beltán, Gonzalo. La población negra de México, 1519-1819: Un estudio etnohistórico. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1972, 1946. - Aimes, Hubert H. A History of Slavery in Cuba 1511 to 1868, New York, NY : Octagon Books Inc, 1967. - Bennett, Herman Lee. Africans in Colonial Mexico. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005. - Blanchard, Peter, Under the flags of freedom : slave soldiers and the wars of independence in Spanish South America. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, c2008. - Bowser, Frederick. The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524-1650. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974. - Bush, Barbara. Slave Women in Caribbean Society, London: James Currey Ltd, 1990. - Carroll, Patrick James. Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Ethnicity, and Regional Development. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991. - Curtin, Philip. The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969. - Davidson, David M. "Negro Slave Control and Resistance in Colonial Mexico, 1519-1650." Hispanic American Historical Review 46 no. 3 (1966): 235–53. - Ferrer, Ada. Insurgent Cuba: race, nation, and revolution, 1868-1898, Chapel Hill; London: University of North Carolina Press, 1999. - Figueroa, Luis A. Sugar, Slavery, and Freedom in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico. University of North Carolina Press, 2006. - Foner, Laura, and Eugene D. Genovese, eds. Slavery in the New World: A Reader in Comparative History. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969. - Fuente, Alejandro de la. "Slave Law and Claims Making in Cuba: The Tannenbaum Debate Revisited." Law and History Review (2004): 339–69. - Fuente, Alejandro de la. "From Slaves to Citizens? Tannenbaum and the Debates on Slavery, Emancipation, and Race Relations in Latin America," International Labor and Working-Class History 77 no. 1 (2010), 154–73. - Fuente, Alejandro de la. "Slaves and the Creation of Legal Rights in Cuba: Coartación and Papel", Hispanic American Historical Review 87, no. 4 (2007): 659–92. - García Añoveros, Jesús María. El pensamiento y los argumentos sobre la esclavitud en Europa en el siglo XVI y su aplicación a los indios americanos y a lost negros africanos. Corpus Hispanorum de Pace. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2000. - Geggus, David Patrick. "Slave Resistance in the Spanish Caribbean in the Mid-1790s," in A Turbulent Time: The French Revolutionn and the Greater Caribbean, David Barry Gaspar and David Patrick Geggus. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1997, pp. 130–55. - Gibbings, Julie. "In the Shadow of Slavery: Historical Time, Labor, and Citizenship in Nineteenth-Century Alta Verapaz, Guatemala", Hispnaic American Historical Review 96.1, (February 2016): 73–107. - Grandin, Greg. The Empire of Necessity: Slavery, Freedom, and Deception in the New World, Macmillan, 2014. - Helg, Aline, Liberty and Equality in Caribbean Colombia, 1770-1835. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. - Heuman, Gad, and Trevor Graeme Burnard, eds. The Routledge History of Slavery. New York: Taylor and Francis, 2011. - Hünefeldt, Christine. Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labor among Lima's Slaves, 1800-1854. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994. - Johnson, Lyman L. "Manumission in Colonial Buenos Aires, 1776-1810." Hispanic American Historical Review 59, no. 2 (1979): 258-79. - Johnson, Lyman L. "A Lack of Legitimate Obedience and Respect: Slaves and Their Masters in the Courts of Late Colonial Buenos Aires," Hispanic American Historical Review 87, no. 4 (2007), 631–57. - Klein, Herbert S. The Middle Passage: Comparative Studies in the Atlantic Slave Trade. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978. - Klein, Herbert S., and Ben Vinson III. African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. - Landers, Jane. Black Society in Spanish Florida. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999. - Landers, Jane and Barry Robinson, eds. Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006. - Lockhart, James. Spanish Peru, 1532–1560: A Colonial Society. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968. - Love, Edgar F. "Negro Resistance to Spanish Rule in Colonial Mexico," Journal of Negro History 52, no. 2 (April 1967), 89–103. - Mondragón Barrios, Lourdes. Esclavos africanos en la Ciudad de México: el servicio doméstico durante el siglo XVI. Mexico: Ediciones Euroamericanas, 1999. - Palacios Preciado, Jorge. La trata de negros por Cartagena de Indias, 1650-1750. Tunja: Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, 1973. - Palmer, Colin. Slaves of the White God: Blacks in Mexico, 1570-1650. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976. - Palmer, Colin. Human Cargoes: The British Slave Trade to Spanish America, 1700-1739. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981. - Proctor, Frank T., III "Damned Notions of Liberty": Slavery, Culture and Power in Colonial Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2010. - Proctor III, Frank T. "Gender and Manumission of Slaves in New Spain," Hispanic American Historical Review 86, no. 2 (2006), 309–36. - Restall, Matthew, and Jane Landers, "The African Experience in Early Spanish America," The Americas 57, no. 2 (2000), 167–70. - Rout, Leslie B. The African Experience in Spanish America, 1502 to the Present Day. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976. - Seijas, Tatiana. Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. - Sharp, William Frederick. Slavery on the Spanish Frontier: The Colombian Chocó, 1680-1810. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976. - Shepherd, Verene A., ed. Slavery Without Sugar. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2002. Print. - Solow, Barard I. ed., Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. - Tannenbaum, Frank. Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the Americas. New York Vintage Books, 1947. - Toplin, Robert Brent. Slavery and Race Relations in Latin America. Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 1974. - Vinson, Ben, III, and Matthew Restall, eds. Black Mexico: Race and Society from Colonial to Modern Times. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2009. - Walker, Tamara J. "He Outfitted His Family in Notable Decency: Slavery, Honour, and Dress in Eighteenth-Century Lima, Peru," Slavery & Abolition 30, no. 3 (2009), 383–402. - Differently from Puerto Rico, which abolished slavery definitely in 1873, chattel slavery, in one way or another, remained legal in Cuba and Brazil until the 1880s. A series of legal procedures (e.g., Moret Law) and apprenticeships imposed on those supposedly freed, delayed the complete abolition of slavery. Meanwhile, slavery was gradually replaced with similarly barbarous forms of labor, like peonage and the harsh use of Asian migrant workers. See, Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, UNC, 1999, p 18. - In 2007, Castro challenged the position of Bartolomé de las Casas as a central human-rights figure: "rather than viewing him as the ultimate champion of indigenous causes, we must see the Dominican friar as the incarnation of a more benevolent, paternalistic form of ecclesiastical, political, cultural and economic imperialism rather than as a unique paradigmatic figure". See: Castro, The Other Face, Duke, 2007, p 8. - African Laborers for a New Empire: Iberia, Slavery, and the Atlantic World (Lowcountry Digital Library) - First Blacks in the Americas: the African presence in the Dominican Republic (CUNY Dominican Studies Institute) - North American Slavery in the Spanish and English colonies(Mission San Luis) - Slavery Contract (PortCities UK) - Slavery and Spanish Colonization (University of Houston, Digital History) - Yeager, Timothy J. (December 1995). "Encomienda or Slavery? The Spanish Crown's Choice of Labor Organization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America" (PDF). The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge, England: for Economic History Association by Cambridge University Press. 55 (4): 843. doi:10.1017/S0022050700042182. ISSN 0022-0507. Retrieved 31 October 2016. - Fradera, Josep M.; Schmidt-Nowara, Chistopher (2013). "Introduction". Slavery and Antislavery in Spain's Atlantic Empire. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-0-85745-933-6. - Klein, Herbert S. & Ben Vinson (2007). African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–25. ISBN 978-0-19-988502-2. - Fradera, Josep M. & Christopher Schmidt-Nowara (2013). (Introduction) Slavery and Antislavery in Spain's Atlantic Empire. Berghahn Books. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-0-85745-934-3. - de la Serna, Juan M. (1997). "Abolition, Latin America". In Rodriguez, Junius P. (ed.). The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, Volume 1; Volume 7. ABC-CLIO. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0874368855. OCLC 185546935. Retrieved December 11, 2016. - Aponte, Sarah; Acevedo, Anthony Steven (2016). "A century between resistance and adaptation: commentary on source 021". New York: CUNY Dominican Studies Institute. This constitutes the first documented mention that we know of, in a primary source of that time, of acts of resistance by enslaved blacks in La Española after the uprising of December 1521 across the south-central coastal plains of the colony, an event first reflected in the ordinances on blacks of January, 1522, and much later in the well-known chronicle by Fernández de Oviedo. - Tierney, Brian (1997). The Idea of Natural Rights: Studies on Natural Rights, Natural Law, and Church Law, 1150-1625. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 270–272. ISBN 0802848540. - Aspinall, Dana E.; Lorenz,, Edward C.; Raley, J. Michael (2015). Montesinos' Legacy: Defining and Defending Human Rights for Five Hundred Years. Lexington Books. ISBN 1498504140. - Clayton, Lawrence A. (2010). Bartolome de las Casas and the Conquest of the Americas. John Wiley & Sons. p. 175. ISBN 1444392735. - Castro, Daniel (2007). Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822389592. - Elliott, John Huxtable (2014). Spain, Europe & the Wider World, 1500-1800. Yale University Press. pp. 112–121, 198–217. ISBN 0300160011. - James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, Early Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, pp. 17-19. - Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, pp. 26-28. - Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, pp. 21-22. - Scarano, Francisco (2013). "Slavery- Spanish Hispaniola and Puerto Rico,". The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples University of Chicago Press.: 21–44. - Paquette, Robert L. & Mark M. Smith. "Slavery in the Americas". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-09. - Rupert, Linda M. (2009). "Marronage, Manumission and Maritime Trade in the Early Modern Caribbean". Slavery and Abolition. Retrieved 2016-02-09. - "Laws of the Indies". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 July 2018. - Blackburn, Robin (1998). The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800. Verso. p. 134. ISBN 1859841953. - Simpson, Lesley Byrd (1929). The Encomienda in New Spain. University of California Press. - "Why were Africans enslaved?". International Slavery Museum. Retrieved 2018-10-05. - Gift, Sandra Ingrid (2008). Maroon Teachers: Teaching the Transatlantic Trade in Enslaved Africans. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers. ISBN 9789766373405. - Asante, Molefi Kete (2001). "The Ideology of Racial Hierarchy and the Construction of the European Slave Trade". Black Renaissance. 3 (3): 133–146. - Sacarano, Francisco (2010). "Spanish Hispaniola and Puerto Rico". The Oxford handbook of slavery in the Americas (edited by Paquette, Robert L., and Mark M. Smith): 21–45. - Berlin, Ira (1996). "From African to Creole: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African- American Society in Mainland North America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 53 (2): 251–288. - Sergio Tognetti, "The Trade in Black African slaves in fifteenth-century Florence," a chapter in T. F. Earle and K. J. P. Lowe, editors, Black Africans in Renaissance Europe Cambridge University Press, 2005 ISBN 978-0-521-81582-6 - Juan Friede and Benjamin Keen, Bartolome de las Casas in History. Toward an Understanding of the Man and His Work Northern Illinois University Slavery Press, 1971. ISBN 0-87580-025-4 - Rogozinsky, Jan. A Brief History of the Caribbean. Plume. 1999. - Kitchin, Thomas (1778). The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe. London: R. Baldwin. p. 12. - Riordan, Patrick: "Finding Freedom in Florida: Native Peoples, African Americans, and Colonists, 1670-1816", Florida Historical Quarterly 75(1), 1996, pp. 25-44. - Miller, E: "St. Augustine's British Years," The Journal of the St. Augustine Historical Society, 2001, p. 38. . - Alexander Deconde, A History of American Foreign Policy (1963) p. 127 - Weeks (2002)
Subject Areas: secondary current events, social studies, political science, communication arts, and math classes Time: Two to three 45-minute class periods Grade Level: 9-12 (lesson can be modified for lower grades) 1. participate in an informal classroom survey and discussion of class survey results. 2. make comparisons between classroom survey results and current population trends. 3. participate in class discussion activities related to community growth and national population trends. in small group brainstorming activities. 5. analyze community growth statistics and maps and make inferences about regional population growth. group research about the pros and cons of rapid community growth. group research findings and conclusions through the presentation of a creative Correlation to National Standards - U.S. Map (printer-friendly PDF) Census Bureau Fact Sheet on Population (printer-friendly PDF) States Map (printer-friendly PDF) pieces of chart paper and markers - Internet access and access to library - Community Growth assignment (printer-friendly PDF) Over the past five years, many areas in the Sunbelt of the United States have experienced tremendous population growth. While some cities such as Las Vegas launched media campaigns to entice families to relocate, other cities have experienced population booms because of the lifestyle and employment opportunities they have to offer. Rapid growth or status as a "boom town" can make a move to these areas very lucrative and beneficial for some families. On the other hand, there are also drawbacks associated with rapid population increases within communities. This lesson focuses on the pros and cons of rapid growth and how the changes in these communities have affected the residents of these growing areas. 1. Before students arrive, create brainstorming stations around the classroom by placing large pieces of chart paper and markers at each station. Make a separate station for each labeled chart paper. Labels should include: - Why People Relocate to this Area - Economic Effect of Population Growth of Population Growth on Community Resources - Impact of Population Growth on Social Services - Effect of Population Growth on Quality of Life/Lifestyle Begin class by taking a survey. Ask students to record the answer to each question Place a copy of the U.S. Map on the board/overhead for students to refer to as they think about their answers. Encourage students to list a specific city or state when they answer each question. - If you could live anywhere in the U.S., where would you choose to relocate? Why? - What area of the country do you think has experienced the greatest population growth over the past five years? Why? 3. Using the U.S. Map from Step 2 above, ask each student in the classroom to indicate where he or she would relocate if the opportunity presented itself and to provide a one-sentence reason as to why he or she would relocate to the selected city/state. Put tally marks in each state to indicate "votes" for that state or cities within it. Tally student responses to question 1 and post them on the board/overhead so that you indicate the top 5-10 locations that would be most popular with students if they could relocate. 5. Based on the survey results, facilitate a group discussion about where students believe the greatest population growth has occurred in our country over the past five years. Encourage students to talk about why they think specific areas or cities have attracted new residents. Using the data below from the U.S. Census Bureau Fact Sheet on Population, discuss which cities have experienced the most growth. Facilitate the discussion by asking questions such as: - Why do you think these cities have experienced - What do all of these cities have in common in terms - Of the cities showing population declines, what geographic commonalties do they share? - What area of the country are people referring to when they talk about the "sunbelt" states? students the Sunbelt States Map and note that this region of the country has experienced the greatest growth over the past five years. Discuss this growth - How do current population trends relate to our informal class survey about where we would choose to relocate if the opportunity - Does our class follow the trend toward a move to the sunbelt? do you think our class survey results we similar/different than what is actually happening with the U.S. population 8. Place students into 5 small groups. Direct each group to go to a brainstorming station. Provide each group with 2 minutes to brainstorm both positive and negative ideas related to the community growth topic at each station. Encourage groups to record as many ideas as possible. Groups should read what has been written by others before starting additional brainstorming at each station. 9. When brainstorming is completed, spend 15-20 minutes discussing the information at the various brainstorming stations so that students can start to assimilate how rapid population growth in a specific area can effect the community in both positive and negative ways. - During discussion encourage students to elaborate on the ideas that have been recorded by providing specific examples to illustrate the pros and cons of rapid community growth. - This is also a good time to discuss how some communities actively seek new residents through advertising (i.e. Las Vegas) and why a community might make the decision to do this. in their small group, direct students to investigate a city/state that has experienced significant, rapid growth in the past five years. Using Internet and library resources along with first-hand interviews and correspondence, have students complete the Community Growth assignment and present their findings to classmates. Provide at least 2 class period for students to work in groups to complete this project. 11. Once projects have been completed, allow each group to present their work to classmates. Compendium of K-12 Standards Addressed: 12: Understands the patterns of human settlement and their causes 14: Understands how human actions modify the physical environment 18: Understands global development and environmental issues Understands and applies basic and advanced concepts of statistics and data analysis Standard 1: Uses the general skills and strategies of the writing process Standard 4: Gathers and uses information for research Standard 5: Uses the general skills and strategies of the reading process Standard 7: Uses reading skills and strategies to understand and interpret a variety of informational texts Listening and Speaking Standard 8: Uses listening and speaking strategies for different purposes Standard 1: Contributes to the overall effort of a group Standard 4: Displays effective interpersonal communication skills 1. Invite a local city planning official into the classroom to discuss the positive and negative effects of rapid growth using your city/town as a model. Have the official talk about how population increases effect the economy, natural resources, social services and the quality of life/lifestyle in your area. Encourage students to have specific questions prepared in advance so they can learn about their city's plans for population growth. 2. Encourage students to look at how shifts in U.S. population affects politics. Examine issues such - the effects of population increase/decrease on state representation - the effects of population increase/decrease on the presidential campaign and election process, particularly in the way a candidate formulates his/her platform and whether or not issues faced by fast-growing, heavily populated areas get more attention than those faced by areas losing residents Connect with students in a school located in an area that has experienced rapid population growth in the past five years. Create surveys related to population growth and work with the partner school to administer and tabulate the survey results. Use questions from the Community Growth assignment as a basis for creating surveys. Encourage students from both classes to interact electronically to share survey results and draw conclusions about the effect of the rapid population growth on their city. NOTE TO TEACHERS: If you select this option, try to make connections to classrooms in a fast growing area through networking with colleagues and acquaintances who may know teachers in the Sunbelt Region. If these connections are not available, do a search for "fastest growing U.S. school districts". Using contact information from the fast growing district's Web site, inquire with the district about schools or individual classrooms that might be interested in collaborating with your students to complete the project. Send a copy of the lesson plan along with your request. About the Author: Lisa Prososki is an independent educational consultant and instructional design specialist who taught middle school and high school social studies, English, reading, and technology courses for twelve years. Prososki has worked with PBS TeacherSource and has authored and edited many lesson plans and materials for various PBS programs over the past ten years. In addition to conducting workshops for teachers at various state and national meetings, Prososki works as an editor, creates a wide range of educational and training materials for corporate clients, and has authored To find out more about opportunities to contribute to this site, contact Leah Clapman at firstname.lastname@example.org. More Social Studies lesson plans at PBS
129 search results Equations in the Real World Students will create and solve equations with variables on one side before comparing the equation with another to determine at what rate they will be equal. Analyzing Author’s Purpose: Argumentative Text Students will read a pre-Civil War speech and write author’s purpose statements using the argumentative verbs explain, urge, convince, and encourage. 2 Texas Middle School Fluency Assessment: Administering and Interpreting Results This binder details how to score and interpret the results of the Texas Middle School Fluency Assessment (TMSFA). This course is Unit 4 of the Texas Adolescent Literacy Academy (TALA). These materials are available for view only; no credit or certificate is provided. Rise Over Run! Let’s Have Fun! Students will collaboratively practice identifying and graphing slope and y-intercept. Paired Passages with a Purpose Students will make inferences about the author’s purpose after reading paired passages involving the same subject. Poetry With Purpose Students collaborate in small groups to discuss their peers’ poetry and assess the poetry according to the student-created rubric. The rubric assesses students’ ability to make meaningful connections to the poetic devices in their poetry. Through collaboration, they are building a culture of receptiveness among their peers. Students will evaluate a set of inferences to determine if they are valid or invalid and use text evidence to support their stance. The lesson incorporates best practices for English learners (ELs) and at-risk students such as the use of graphic organizers, anchor charts, and cooperative learning. Santa Timeline Breakout Students collaborate and critically-think to analyze resources from informational texts of various disciplines and unlock a breakout box. Once the box is unlocked, students receive a final text to summarize. Four Representations of Linear Relationships Given one representation of a linear relationship, students will create a poster displaying the other three representations of linear relationships. Concert Trip to Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Colorado Students will evaluate and interpret data from both tabular and graphical forms to create a linear equation in either the form of direct variation (y=kx) or slope-intercept form (y = mx + b). Students will then use their findings to interpret the meaning of both slope and y-intercept using a real-world relationship in word form. TXRCFP: Texas Response to Curriculum Focal Points for K-8 Mathematics Revised 2013 The Texas Response to Curriculum Focal Points Revised 2013 was created from the 2012 revision of the TEKS as a guide for implementation of effective mathematics instruction by identifying critical areas of content at each grade level. Vertical Alignment Charts for Revised Mathematics TEKS This resource provides vertical alignment charts for the revised mathematics TEKS. These activities provide an opportunity for students to explore reflections both on and off of a coordinate plane. These activities provide an opportunity for students to explore translations both on and off of a coordinate plane. These activities provide an opportunity for students to explore dilations both on and off of a coordinate plane. Kid2Kid: Determining the Meaning of Slope and Intercepts Kid2Kid videos on determining the meaning of slope and intercepts in English and Spanish Drawing Conclusions about Three-Dimensional Figures from Nets Given a net for a three-dimensional figure, the student will make conjectures and draw conclusions about the three-dimensional figure formed by the given net. Interactive Math Glossary Estimating Measurements and Using Formulas: Surface Area Given application problems involving lateral or total surface area the student will estimate measurements and solve the problems. Determining the Effects of Proportional Change on Area Given pictorial representations and problem situations involving area, the student will describe the effects on area when dimensions are changed proportionally.
To find the equation of straight line graphs students need to calculate the gradient using two pairs of coordinates and the intercept which is the y value of where it crosses the vertical axis. Examiner’s reports of past exam questions show students are more able to find the intercept of a straight line than they are at calculating the gradient. This lesson on interpreting straight line graphs is available here. The starter recaps the learning in the previous lesson on using graphs to solve equations by interpreting the x and y values of a line. By adding the x and y values together students can see the equation of the line is x + y = 5. As an extension I ask the class to imagine the line extended beyond the grid and to show me other coordinate pairs the line would pass through. We have a short discussion about coordinate pairs with decimal numbers and move on to the main teaching part. To introduce the main part of the lesson we discuss how the steepness (gradient, M) and position (intercept, C) of where the line crosses the y axis define how the graph looks on a grid. Equations of linear graphs can be written in the form y = mx + c. The gradient (M) can be calculated using two coordinates that lie along a line. The gradient is the change in vertical distance divided by the change in horizontal distance. This gives a measure of the steepness of the line. The intercept (C) is the point where the line crosses the y axis. The intercept can also be defined algebraically as the value of y when x = 0. I work through the first two examples on the second slide with the class and encourage the students to attempt the third question on their mini-whiteboards. If more practice is needed I use the Interactive Excel File to generate further questions. When they are ready students work through the questions on the third slide independently. All the answers are provided in the lesson plan. The plenary extends the learning because the line now has a fractional gradient, negative intercept and students need to choose their own coordinates to use. Rather than calculating the gradient they are asked to explain why it is 2/3. To do this they simply use the method as before leaving the answer as a fraction. I encourage students to use two sets of coordinates, so they can check their working. This also consolidates their method. The equation of the straight line is y = (2/3)x – 1. The next lesson in the Functions, Graphs and Equations unit goes onto plotting quadratic graphs from a table of results where students explore the properties of parabolas. My experience as a Head of Mathematics going through the deep dive OFSTED inspection. How to use ratios and proportional reasoning as a model for finding the original amount after a percentage change. To find the area of compound shapes students need to understand what the word compound means.
History of Switzerland The more recent history of Switzerland as a federal state begins in its current form with the adoption of the Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation in 1848. The forerunners of modern Switzerland were the old Confederation , which had been organized as a loose federation since the end of the 13th century and which had a centralized structure from 1798 to 1803 Helvetic Republic and the "Swiss Confederation", founded in 1803 and reorganized in 1815. The Swiss cantons won in 1648 in the Peace of Westphalia , the sovereignty of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation . This sovereignty was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and the borders of Switzerland that existed before the " French era " and are still valid today, apart from minor deviations, recognized. Important principles in Swiss history are pronounced federalism and, since the Second Peace of Paris in 1815, international neutrality , based on the decisions of the Congress of Vienna. Modern Switzerland goes back to three forerunners: - The " Old Confederation ", a loose structure of different countries and city-states ( confederation of states ), partly on the territory of today's Switzerland. Traditionally, the founding year was the renewal of an older alliance by the Drei Waldstätte Uri , Schwyz and Unterwalden in 1291 . The so-called 13 “places” (cantons) fought for a large degree of autonomy from the Holy Roman Empire , most recently in the Swabian War in 1499. The Peace of Westphalia made the federal estates, their subject areas and allies (“allies”) sovereign under international law, i. H. independent of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. The French invasion of Switzerland and the Helvetic Revolution in 1798 marked the end of what had been divided internally since the Reformation . - Under pressure from the French Republic , i. H. Above all Napoleon Bonapartes, in 1798 the area of the former Old Confederation was largely amalgamated into the centrally structured " Helvetic Republic ". The previously independent states of the Confederation have been degraded to administrative units, partially split up or combined into larger units. After the withdrawal of the French troops in 1802, the Helvetic Republic perished in the civil war between the advocates of the unified state and the federalists. Due to the federal tradition of the old Confederation and its roots in the population, the federalists clearly retained the upper hand, the unitary state was never widely accepted. - In 1803, the representatives of the cantons came to an agreement under the mediation ( French: médiation ) of Napoleon Bonaparte . The "Swiss Confederation" was re-established as a confederation of states through the act of mediation as a confederal constitution. After the fall of Napoleon, this union dissolved again in 1813. The 13 old cantons and the nine newly founded cantons since 1798 then merged to form a new confederation in the federal treaty of August 7, 1815. The structure of the Swiss Confederation, its territorial integrity and “perpetual neutrality” were recognized by the Congress of Vienna in 1814/15. In the 1830s, the aristocratic families, which had regained their strength since 1815 and 1803, were finally politically disempowered in the individual cantons, and the liberal-democratic form of government took hold. After the Sonderbund War on September 12, 1848, the Swiss Confederation was transformed into the federal state with the federal city of Bern, which still exists today, through the adoption of a federal constitution . “Swiss Confederation” or Confoederatio Helvetica continues to serve as the official name . Overview of the history of today's Swiss territory before 1291 The area of today's Switzerland has been populated since the Paleolithic . Only after the last ice age was the Swiss plateau more densely populated, especially the areas around the lakes (→ pile dwellings ). With the beginning of the Iron Age , the Celtic settlement of the Central Plateau began. Celtic finds near La Tène in the canton of Neuchâtel gave the entire period of the younger Iron Age its name (→ Latène culture ). The Celts cultivated trade relations up to the Greek cultural area . It was probably during this phase that the first attempts at writing emerged in Swiss territory as well , although they were not yet of an alphabetical nature. Before the conquest by the Romans, according to the records of the Roman general and politician Julius Caesar in his justification for the Gallic War (→ De bello Gallico ), various Celtic tribes and peoples lived in what is now Switzerland : the Helvetians (Central Plateau), the Lepontier ( Ticino), the Seduner (Valais, Lake Geneva) and the Raetier (Eastern Switzerland). In the course of the expansion of the Roman Empire over the Alps, the area of today's Switzerland was subjugated until the 1st century AD in order to secure the strategically important Alpine passes to Germania. Most of Switzerland was assigned to the Roman province of Germania superior during the imperial era . Eastern Switzerland, Valais and Graubünden belonged to the province of Raetia , parts of Ticino finally to the province of Gallia Transpadana . The centers of Roman Switzerland were the old Helvetic capital Aventicum ( Avenches ) and the Roman colonies Julia Equestris ( Nyon ), Augusta Raurica ( Augst ) and Forum Claudii Vallensium ( Martigny ). Until late antiquity , the Celtic population of Switzerland adopted Roman customs, culture and language, and most recently Christianity . During the reorganization of the Roman provinces in the 3rd century by Emperor Diocletian , northern Switzerland was assigned to the Maxima Sequanorum province and a dense chain of fortified towns, forts and watchtowers was created along the Rhine (→ Danube-Iller-Rhein-Limes ). After the Goths invaded the Western Roman Empire in 401, all Roman troops were withdrawn from the areas north of the Alps to protect Italy. Dominion over western Switzerland passed to the empire of the Burgundians , central and eastern Switzerland were controlled and settled by the Alamanni , while the alpine regions remained in the hands of local Celto-Roman rulers. Some Roman structures shaped Switzerland beyond the end of Roman rule: the road network, the Roman settlements and the old Roman spatial division, in particular the ecclesiastical organization with the diocese borders. In the early Middle Ages , the Romansh population of eastern and central Switzerland adopted the Alemannic language, while in western Switzerland the Burgundian language could not prevail, but instead kept Latin dialects. The French language emerged from this later. In Graubünden and Ticino there were also Latin dialects, from which the Italian and Rhaeto-Romanic languages developed. After a short period of independence, the empires of the Burgundians and the Alemanni were incorporated into the Frankish Empire in the 6th century AD . Under Frankish rule, the entire area of today's Switzerland was Christianized through the work of missionaries and the founding of numerous monasteries, such as St. Gallen , Reichenau , Moutier-Grandval and Romainmôtier . Feudalization also took place in the early Middle Ages: peasants entered into an inheritance relationship with clergy or noble landlords. With the division of the Franconian Empire of Charlemagne by his grandchildren in the Treaty of Verdun (843), western Switzerland came first to Lotharingia , then to a new kingdom of Burgundy , while eastern Switzerland, as part of the tribal duchy of Swabia, became part of eastern Franconia , the later Holy Roman Empire (German Nation) came. After the acquisition of Burgundy by the Ottonian imperial dynasty (1033), the entire area of today's Switzerland belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. For the Roman-German emperors, the Alpine passes were of crucial importance for the control of Italy, especially for the trains to Rome on the occasion of the imperial coronations. For this reason, the emperors owned extensive areas in the Alpine region since the early Middle Ages, which they administered directly as imperial property and not as fiefdoms. In addition, various noble families rivaled in the Alpine region, the Zähringer , Kyburger , Lenzburger , Habsburg and Savoyer . Large areas of Switzerland belonged to various church institutions, for example monasteries, foundations or even directly to the bishops. Some of them managed to rise to the prince's status in the High Middle Ages, such as the prince abbots of St. Gallen or the prince-bishops of Basel , Chur , Sitten and Constance . Formation and growth of the Old Confederation 1291–1515 The extinction of powerful aristocratic families and the disputes between the emperor and the pope favored the independence of the more important cities and valleys of Switzerland in the 13th century. In 1218 Zurich, Bern , Freiburg and Schaffhausen became " imperial cities " after the Zähringers died out ; Uri (1231) and Schwyz (1240) also received the privilege of imperial immediacy . This means that these cities and regions were directly under the emperor or the king and were excluded from the rulership of the local counts. With this, Emperor Friedrich II secured the route from the north over the Gotthard Pass to Italy while he was at war with the Lombard cities, and secured the loyalty of the cities in the fight with Pope Innocent IV. After Friedrich II banned by the Pope in 1245 and for had been declared deposed, Bern, Basel and Zurich also considered Emperor. The end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and the beginning of the interregnum in the empire also marked the transition to the late Middle Ages for what is now Switzerland . At the same time, around 1230, the Gotthard Pass became a trade route with the construction of the Devil's Bridge . The Bündner passes were still more important, however. The three forest sites Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden form the core of the Old Confederation . In 1291, following the death of the Roman-German King Rudolf I of Habsburg, they renewed an older alliance, which has been mythologically transfigured since 1891 as the "foundation" of the Old Confederation (→ Federal Letter of 1291 , → Rütli Oath ). In 1309 King Heinrich VII confirmed the imperial immediacy of Uri and Schwyz and now also included Unterwalden; the three forest sites were placed under a royal governor. In more recent research, the privilege of 1309 is viewed as an important step towards the formation of an alliance later, but the importance of the Federal Letter is viewed as overestimated. The core alliance of the three forest sites in what is now Central Switzerland was gradually expanded to include further partners, above all imperial cities in the Swiss plateau between the Rhine and Aare . In particular, the alliances with the imperial cities of Zurich from 1351 and Bern from 1353, after Bern had won the Laupenkrieg in 1339, contributed significantly to the consolidation of power and territorial expansion, as the cities had large subject areas. It was only through the three cities that the Swiss Confederation achieved a stable political significance, which was also tolerated by the European court centers in Vienna, Paris and Milan. Since the first confrontation in 1315 (→ Battle of Morgarten ), about which little is known and which was only later transfigured in retrospect, there have been repeated conflicts between the noble family of the Habsburgs and the Old Confederation ( Battle of Sempach 1386) which led to the annexation of the Habsburg lands to the left of the Rhine by 1460. At the same time, however, there had always been changing alliances in which parts of the so-called Confederation came to an understanding with the Habsburgs in order to enforce their own expansionist interests. This was one reason for the old Zurich War . Recent research has criticized the fact that source reports have often been taken out of context and interpreted one-sidedly in the sense of national heroic narratives, which has led to a distorted public image of history that still has a political impact today. Rather, the early Confederation was loosely structured and not without role models; It was not until the conquest of Aargau in 1415 that they were forced to cooperate more strongly in order to be able to administer the so-called "common lords". In the Appenzell Wars from 1401 to 1429, the communities of the Appenzellerland fought against the Prince Abbot of St. Gallen . The Appenzell Wars brought the decisive impetus to the separation of the State of Appenzell from the rule of the Prince Abbey of St. Gallen and the rapprochement with the Confederation. The expansionist policy of the city of Bern, which in what is now western Switzerland itself was the center of a " Burgundian Confederation ", led the loosely joined Confederation into a first confrontation on a European level with the Burgundian Duke Charles the Bold . The Burgundian Wars ended with a sensational victory for the Confederation over Burgundy and established the good reputation of the Swiss mercenaries . Since then, "Reislauf", military service in foreign wages, has formed an important part of the economy of the Old Confederation, especially in central Switzerland. Internal disputes between countries and towns were settled in 1481 following the Burgundian Wars by the Stans Decree. After the victory over Burgundy, the Swiss Confederation had become the dominant power in southern Germany. The Swabian nobility, above all the Habsburgs, opposed the growing influence of the Confederates in Central Europe in the Waldshut War of 1468 and in the Swabian War of 1499 in vain. The Swabian War was primarily about implementing the imperial reform of 1495, but actually this was the last attempt by the House of Habsburg to prevail over the Confederates. In the peace treaty at Basel , the German King Maximilian I had to recognize the de facto independence of the Confederation within the Holy Roman Empire . The affiliation of the confederates to the empire remained until 1648. The Swabian War marked the end of the expansion of the Confederation towards the north. In 1513 Appenzell became the last and 13th cantons to join the Old Confederation, which were linked to one another by a complex network of alliances. They ruled common subject areas (→ common rule ) and almost every canton had individual, “individual-town” subject areas, especially the city cantons, in which actually only the city citizens were confederates of equal rank. Around the " XIII-local Confederation " were grouped the associated places , which were connected with the Confederation, but had no say in the only common organ, the daily statute. At that time, areas such as the Valtellina or the city of Mulhouse were still part of the Swiss Confederation. Based on the development at that time, the roots of today's multicultural Switzerland can be reconstructed: Either due to conquests at the time or on a voluntary basis (due to a need for military protection or economic interest), the Romansh-speaking areas were integrated into the confederation. The Habsburg-French conflict that arose after 1477 about Burgundy and the Duchy of Milan drew the Confederation as the main supplier of mercenaries to both warring parties and as an independent power into a conflict at European level. In the Ennetbirgischen campaigns in the context of the Milan wars between 1499 and 1525 the military importance of the Confederation found both its climax and its end. The campaigns to Italy remained victorious for the time being and brought the Confederation control over Ticino and Valtellina as well as the protectorate over the Duchy of Milan. The beginning of the Reformation divided the various parts of the Confederation even more than before and weakened their position in the Italian disputes between Habsburg, the Pope and France. In 1515 the French King Francis I defeated a federal army near Marignano, which had been decimated by the withdrawal of numerous cantons . The Thirteen Places concluded the Eternal Peace in 1516 and a pay alliance with the Kingdom of France in 1521 and received pensions , tariff and trade privileges and political assistance in internal and external conflicts. In addition, a large part of the Ennetberg area was finally assigned to the Confederation. In traditional Swiss history, the expansionist phase of the Confederation ends and gives way to a neutrality out of internal weakness. Whether it is possible to speak of neutrality in view of the pay alliances with France is disputed, especially since Vaud was conquered in 1536. The export of Swiss mercenaries through various federal locations continued after 1515 until the final ban in 1859. Since then, the only exception has been the papal Swiss Guard . Reformation and Counter-Reformation 1519–1712 In Zurich, Ulrich Zwingli began , after surviving the Marignano catastrophe and a plague and now regarded the Bible as the most important measure of decision-making in relation to religion, to reform the church from 1519, which led to the establishment of the Reformed Church . Zwingli preached against the veneration of images, relics and saints, and he was also active against celibacy and the Eucharist . He tried to spread his Reformation throughout Switzerland, as a politician he dreamed of a strengthened Confederation of Reformed faith. An important success for Zwingli was the introduction of the new faith in his hometown of Zurich in 1528. At that time, Zurich was on the side of the Franco-German coalition against Habsburg and the Pope - the introduction of the Reformation should also be seen from this political point of view. Later, the cities of Basel, Schaffhausen and St. Gallen followed the Zurich example, as did Bern. In the estates of Appenzell, Glarus and in the Three Leagues as well as in Thurgau, in the Rhine Valley and in the Prince Abbey of St. Gallen, the Reformation was also largely able to prevail. The estates in Central Switzerland, which were allied with the Pope and opposed to the city cantons, fought bitterly against the Reformation. Zwingli's politics also contributed to alienating the Central Swiss, as he advocated a strong leadership role for the cities of Bern and Zurich in a politically reformed Confederation and the abolition of mercenaries. In contrast to the trading cities in the Central Plateau, the local elite in central Switzerland was dependent on the lucrative mercenary system. The disputes between the Catholic and Reformed estates over the spread of the Reformation in the common rulers led to the two Kappel Wars between Zurich and the central Swiss cantons in 1529/31. In the Second Kappel peace , a compromise was found: Religion Highness was awarded the cantons that could decide what should apply to a belief in their territory. In around 1536, for example, Bern introduced the new faith into the newly conquered areas in Vaud . Furthermore, the spread of the Reformation in the common rulers was stopped. Toggenburg was recognized as a religiously mixed area . In the Three Leagues, the choice of religion was left to the judicial communities, which is why a religious patchwork quilt developed. The conflict between the religions there lasted until the 17th century ( Bündner Wirren ). Geneva was the last city to introduce the Reformation through the influence of Bern in 1541 (a place that has been a part of it since 1526). The local reformer Jean Calvin founded " Calvinism " with his particularly strict interpretation of the Bible . Calvin founded the Geneva Academy in 1559 as a university of the Reformed Faith, which developed Europe-wide influence and made Geneva a “Protestant Rome”. Calvinism spread in France (" Huguenots " is a French transformation of "Confederates"), England (Puritans), Scotland and the Netherlands and from there to America. Only when it came to a head with Calvin did the Reformation gain worldwide importance. While in the Confederation, through the collaboration of the Zurich resident Heinrich Bullinger with Calvin in the Consensus Tigurinus of 1549, an agreement was reached between Reformed and Calvinists on the Last Supper issue, the fronts between Reformed and Lutherans have remained hardened until modern times. Calvinism spread further into the 17th century, especially among the active ruling classes and in the cities of Germany and Eastern Europe. According to Max Weber's controversial thesis of Protestant ethics, the special work ethic of Calvinism is said to have been largely responsible for the later economic success of the Reformed countries. On the Catholic side, Cardinal Matthäus Schiner from Valais should be mentioned as an influential advisor to the young Emperor Charles V , who narrowly failed even with his candidacy for Pope. The Catholic towns in central Switzerland became the starting point for the Counter-Reformation in the Swiss Confederation in the 16th and 17th centuries . The initial spark of the Counter Reformation was the visitation trip of the Italian Cardinal Karl Borromeo to the Confederation in 1570. The first Jesuit school was opened in Lucerne in 1574 and the Collegium Helveticum was founded in Milan in 1579 , a university for Catholic Swiss priests as defined by the Council of Trent . While the country's first official university was founded in Basel in 1460 (by a papal bull ), it ceased to be a Catholic teaching facility due to its later Protestant affiliation. In 1586 the papal nuncio for the Confederation, Giovanni Francesco Bonomi , settled in Lucerne and the Capuchins were called to Switzerland. The Counter-Reformation caused constant conflicts in the mixed cantons. For this reason, the canton of Appenzell split into two half-cantons in 1597. Until the 17th century, large areas of the Swiss Confederation were regained for the Catholic faith, especially in north-western Switzerland ( Diocese of Basel ) and in eastern Switzerland ( Fürstenland , Uznach , Gaster , Sargans ). Through the Reformation the Confederation was weakened in the long term, as joint resolutions of the Reformed and Catholic places in the daily statute were practically impossible. The Tagsatzung was a conference of ambassadors from the various federal locations and was the only joint institution with only very limited legislative and executive powers. The Catholic places even contributed to the fact that Reformed places lost territory. For example, an alliance of Catholic towns with Savoy forced Bern and Wallis in 1567/69 to cede the Chablais and Pays de Gex , which they had conquered in 1536, to Savoy again. The complete admission of the allied Reformed cities of Mulhouse, Geneva, Strasbourg and Constance into the Confederation was also prevented by the Catholic towns. Nevertheless, the reformed Geneva was able to assert itself against the Savoyard attacks ( Escalade 1602). The confessional and political division of the Confederation was sealed in 1586 by the Golden League of the seven Catholic cantons. In the Huguenot Wars in France, the confederates fought in different camps depending on their denomination: The Catholics supported Henry III. , later the League , the Reformed Henry of Navarre . The division of the Confederation in two along the confessional boundaries was somewhat alleviated in 1602 by a pay alliance between the XIII towns without Zurich and France. The focus of European policy with regard to the Swiss Confederation shifted to the Three Leagues , where Spain and France fought for control of the Alpine passes since the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618. As a result, Graubünden was the only country in the Confederation to be devastated by the Thirty Years' War during the “ Bündner Wirren ” 1618-1641. The XIII localities refused to support the three leagues and were thus not drawn into this war, only Bern and Zurich intervened briefly and unsuccessfully in Graubünden in 1620. The Confederation as a whole remained neutral during the Thirty Years' War (see Naval War on Lake Constance 1632–1648 ), but France - the Catholic towns and Spain - provided mercenaries according to the treaty. The main reasons for the neutrality were the outdated military facilities and the religious division. Any partisanship would have meant the civil war and thus the end of the Swiss Confederation: in 1634 an alliance between Zurich and Bern and Sweden was about to be concluded and the Catholic towns negotiated with Spain, with the Swedish defeat at Nördlingen alone preventing the civil war. In the Defensionale von Wil , the first federal military constitution, the XIII Orte decided in 1647 to adopt armed neutrality . Throughout the war, from the German point of view, Switzerland was a calm island of prosperity and relative peace, surrounded by storms. In economic terms, many areas of Switzerland even benefited from the war, as food prices rose sharply due to the widespread devastation in Germany and Italy. In the Peace of Westphalia on October 24, 1648, the Swiss cantons obtained their exemption through the representative Johann Rudolf Wettstein in Art. VI IPO or § 61 IPM : a privilege under imperial law with which an imperial estate lost its direct subordination to the emperor and empire and thus its own Was no longer subject to courts. The interpretation and the consequences of this measure was already controversial among contemporaries, but in the 18th century, following the spreading French doctrine of sovereignty, it was generally understood as a separation from the Holy Roman Empire and mainly interpreted as a recognition of sovereignty under international law . Since then, all federal locations have regarded themselves as sovereign states and dealt diplomatically with other European states on an equal footing. The status of the Swiss Confederation under constitutional and international law was consequently described as a sovereign, neutral republic. The strong aristocratization of the cities in the course of the centralization of sovereignty, the absolutist tendency to exercise power and the economic crisis that followed the “boom” of the Thirty Years' War in Switzerland caused great dissatisfaction in the subject areas of the cities in the Central Plateau, especially among the peasants . In 1653, therefore, the Swiss Peasants' War broke out in the areas ruled by the cities of Bern, Lucerne, Solothurn and Basel , which was brutally suppressed. The war therefore even strengthened aristocratic tendencies and widened the gap between town and country. After the Peasants' War, numerous peasants emigrated to depopulated Germany, where various states attracted immigrants through privileges and financial incentives. Just a few years after the Peasants' War, the project of a federal reform in 1655 caused the religious dispute to break out again. In the First Villmerger War in 1656, Bern and Zurich tried in vain to forcibly change the Second Kappel Peace in their favor. The victory of the Catholic places in the First Battle of Villmergen on January 24, 1656 once again confirmed the poor position of the Reformed in the common dominions. The internal weakness and division of the Confederation did not call into question the pay alliance with France, which was also renewed with Louis XIV by all localities and friends . From then on, the confederates allowed the recruitment of up to 16,000 mercenaries, in return they received trade benefits and regular high cash payments, so-called "pensions". Later France was also declared the arbitrator for internal conflicts in the Confederation and was given the right to march through Switzerland. Due to its close ties with France, the Swiss Confederation effectively became a French protectorate in the 18th century. Nevertheless, after the Edict of Nantes was repealed in 1685, around 60,000 Huguenots were accepted into Reformed Switzerland. They brought a strong revival of the textile and watch industry in the cities and in the Jura. The economic upswing in the cities made the military advantage of the provincial towns fade, which is why the reformed cities gained the upper hand in the Second Villmerger War in 1712 , which was triggered by religious tensions in the prince abbey of St. Gallen. In the Peace of Aarau , which was concluded after the Second Battle of Villmergen , the Catholic towns lost their influence in the common lordships of Baden, Free Offices, and Rapperswil, and Bern had to be included in the administration of the lordships of Thurgau, Rheintal and Sargans. The principle of parity , i.e. equal rights for both denominations in the common rulers, ended Catholic supremacy in the Confederation. Ancien Régime 1712–1798 In the 18th century, the old Swiss Confederation looked like a holdover from the late Middle Ages in view of the centrally ruled monarchies that dominated Europe, as it was by no means a state in the modern sense. Rather, it consisted of a network of sovereign small states that had come together in a loose confederation of states. However, not all areas of Switzerland were equally included in this league. The core was formed by the Thirteen Old Places , which were either urban or rural locations . Zurich, Bern , Lucerne, Freiburg, Solothurn, Schaffhausen and Basel were counted as city places or city republics , while Uri, Schwyz, Glarus, Zug, Obwalden and Nidwalden as well as Appenzell Inner- and Ausserrhoden were counted among the "countries". In addition, there were the subject areas, which were subordinate to the places with full rights and in which a considerable part of the population lived. They were either directly subordinate to one of the 13 places or were administered as common dominions by several places. With the exception of the Appenzell towns, all fully authorized towns had such subject areas, with the majority belonging to the town towns. Bern and Zurich alone account for around two-fifths of the Swiss population. In addition to the thirteen towns and their subject areas, there were also the facing towns of St. Gallen, Graubünden and Valais, which were loosely related to the core. The only common institution of the alliance network functioned the Tagsatzung , in which the fully authorized places were represented with two and the facing places with one ambassador each. Their most important tasks were the administration of the common rulers, foreign policy and defense. However, their power was very limited and decision-making in votes, which required unanimity, was seldom given the envoys instructed by the localities. So it turned out, as was to be shown later, that even when the French marched in, it was unable to offer serious military resistance. The strengthening of state power based on the French model of absolutism resulted in three types of constitution in the various parts of Switzerland, which combined aristocratic forms and divine right with republican traditions: - In the cities of Bern, Solothurn, Freiburg and Lucerne the patriciate , the regiment of less long-established families; - the guild aristocracy in Zurich, Basel and Schaffhausen; it limited the oligarchy of the long-established families through the influence of the guilds; - Finally, in the rural parishes, a common aristocracy also developed between the old landed gentry and the families who had acquired wealth and nobility thanks to their pay service. The absolutist tendencies in the exercise of power brought about a whole series of revolts in the affected subject areas in the 18th century, all of which, however, were suppressed with extreme severity by 1798. Despite European outrage, the maid Anna Göldi was executed in Glarus on June 13, 1782 after the last witch trial in Europe. According to a rough estimate, around 10,000 witch trials took place in what is now Switzerland. The Enlightenment was able to gain a foothold in the Swiss Confederation, despite the aristocratic tendencies. Albrecht von Haller and Jean-Jacques Rousseau sparked a real enthusiasm for Switzerland and a first wave of tourism through their glorification of the naturalness, simplicity and unspoilt nature of the Swiss Confederation. With his theory of the state, Rousseau also made an important contribution to the later emergence of direct democracy. At the same time, Zurich became "Athens on the Limmat" thanks to a collection of scholars known throughout Europe, such as Johann Jakob Bodmer , Salomon Gessner , Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Johann Caspar Lavater . The introduction of reason and planning brought, in addition to the improvement of infrastructure and economy, a relaxation of the strict religious discipline in the reformed places and a rapprochement of denominations under the sign of mutual tolerance. The contemporary poets and scholars created a Swiss national consciousness for the first time by defending the existing or imagined Swiss idiosyncrasies. In 1761/62 these patriotic and enlightening currents manifested themselves in the founding of the Helvetic Society , which campaigned for freedom, tolerance, overcoming class differences and the patriotic solidarity of the confederates. In the second half of the 18th century, literature also discovered the motif of the shared heroic past in front of Marignano, which since then has determined the history of Switzerland as the "battle story" until the late 20th century. By referring back to the common idealized past, the confrontation with the difficult time of confessional tensions could be avoided. The «French Era»: Helvetic and Mediation 1798–1814 In 1798 the Old Confederation, during the French invasion , was taken over by France resp. Troops of Napoleon Bonaparte occupied and the French model of centralized unitary state Helvetic Republic founded. The cantons (previously independent states) were relegated to administrative units and redistributed along the lines of the French departments . During the “Helvetik” the cantons of Léman , Oberland , Aargau , Waldstätte , Säntis , Linth , Thurgau , Bellinzona , Lugano , Rhaetia , Baden and Fricktal were created. Geneva , Mulhouse and the Jura with Biel came to France; Neuchâtel remained Prussian , but no longer had any connection with Switzerland. The capital of the unified state was initially Aarau . Between 1799 and 1803 there were four coups d'état in the Helvetic Republic (among other things, the Vaudois F. Laharpe wanted to establish sole rule - following Napoleon's example in France), the division of the cantons and the constitution were changed several times. 1802 it came after the withdrawal of the French. Troops to a short civil war (" Stecklikkrieg ") between the Unitarians, who for a central state according to French. Role model came in and the federalists who wanted the old cantons to be restored. However, due to their strong federal traditions, the Unitarians had little support from the population. Only with the intervention of Napoléon Bonaparte in 1803 did Switzerland calm down again. Napoleon gathered the political elite of Switzerland in Paris at the Helvetische Consulta and worked with them to draft the mediation act , a new federal constitution that Napoleon guaranteed. The independence of the cantons was strengthened again, and the unitary state became a confederation . According to the mediation act, the “Swiss Confederation”, the official name of the state, comprised 19 cantons, whose constitutions were also included in the mediation act. The 13 old cantons were restored. The cantons of St. Gallen , Graubünden , Aargau , Thurgau , Ticino and Vaud were added . Because of the strategic importance of the Simplon Pass for France, Valais first became an independent republic and became part of France in 1810. Switzerland was a vassal state of France until Napoleon's defeat in the Wars of Liberation in autumn 1813. Swiss troops and mercenaries therefore took part both in the war in Spain and in the Russian campaign. In December 1813, the Swiss state created by Napoleon dissolved again under the pressure of the domestic counter-revolution and the advancing troops of the sixth coalition . For a short time there was considerable tension between the old and the new cantons, and Switzerland was facing civil war. It was only under external pressure from the victorious coalition of the great powers that the sovereign cantons, which were only loosely organized in the Federal Association of 1813, moved closer together in the summer of 1814, so that on August 7, 1815, with the newly joining cantons of Geneva , Valais and Neuchâtel, 22 cantons became involved the so-called federal treaty constituted Switzerland again as a confederation of states . Switzerland as a confederation of states 1814–1847 In 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, the internal and external borders of the Confederation were redefined and recognized internationally for the first time. In connection with the settlement of border conflicts, with road construction, with water corrections, the use of hydropower or to simplify the complicated borderline, only a few border corrections were agreed with the neighboring states in the 19th and 20th centuries . The strengthening of the Confederation through the cession of Geneva, Neuchâtel, Valais and the former Principality of Basel was intended to serve the goal of building a stable buffer between France and Austria. As compensation for the losses of the Vaud and the Aargau, Bern received the areas of the former duchy of Basel including the city of Biel. The northern, catholic part of this area today forms the canton of Jura . However, the acquisition of further areas for Switzerland, such as the area around Geneva, the city of Constance or the Valtellina, failed. In order to free the strategically important Alpine region from France's sphere of influence, in the Second Peace of Paris on November 20, 1815 , the great powers decreed Switzerland to " perpetuate armed neutrality ". Internally, the Confederation was held together during the Restoration by the " Federal Treaty" of 1815, which replaced the mediation act and allowed the cantons to be largely independent. Defense, coinage and customs sovereignty was again transferred to the cantons. As in the old days, the Swiss Federal Diet , which met annually in the three “ suburbs ” of Zurich, Bern and Lucerne, acted as the central authority . The only permanent institution there was a federal chancellery, which moved to the suburbs every year with the assembly. In the cantons of the Central Plateau, the phase of conservative restoration then culminated in the liberal " regeneration " of 1830/31: the aristocratic supremacy was finally broken and replaced by liberal-democratic systems. However, intra-cantonal tensions arose again during a transition phase under somewhat different circumstances: either liberals fought against Catholic conservatives or "old liberals " (supporters of representative democracy with census suffrage ) against "democrats" (supporters of direct democracy with general equal suffrage). In April 1815, the Tambora volcano erupted on the island of Sumbawa in what is now Indonesia with a magnitude of 7 on the volcanic explosion index . Huge amounts of ash and sulfur gas were dispersed around the earth by currents of air. The resulting volcanic winter caused bad harvests and famine in Europe. The summer of the following year 1816, popularly known as the " year without a summer ", was the coldest on record . Numerous European countries, including Switzerland, experienced crop failures, famines and economic crises that caused many people to emigrate. With the Concordat on a common Swiss system of measures and weights of August 17, 1835, the metric system was introduced in Switzerland as the reference (not the measure) system. In the course of the so-called Napoleon trade , the situation between Switzerland and France came to a head in 1838. Prince Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoleon III), who grew up at Arenenberg Castle in the canton of Thurgau and had Thurgau citizenship, had been back in Switzerland since 1837 after going into exile from France to the USA in 1836. He visited his mother on her death bed. When France demanded his expulsion on August 1, 1838, the Thurgau radicals backed the princes who were popular in the canton. When France again mobilized troops against Switzerland, the liberals throughout the country showed solidarity with Thurgau, the federal troops were also mobilized and even Charles-Jules Guiguer de Prangins was appointed general. An escalation was ultimately only avoided by Napoleon's voluntary departure. Due to the ongoing polarization between the liberal (mostly urban-reformed) and the conservative (mostly rural-Catholic) cantons after the free marches, the Catholic cantons of Lucerne , Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , Zug , Friborg and Valais formed a special union in 1845 , to protect their interests. As a result, despite the threat of military intervention by the Viennese guaranteeing powers, the liberal majority of the Diet decided to dissolve the Sonderbund by force, which happened in November 1847 under General Henri Dufour . The Sonderbund War, which lasted only from November 3 to November 28, 1847, was the last armed conflict in Switzerland. According to official information, the Sonderbund War killed 150 people and left around 400 injured. The victory of the liberal cantons paved the way for the centralization and liberalization of the previously loose confederation of more or less democratic individual cantons into a more uniform and tighter parliamentary federal state with a basic federal structure. Foundation and consolidation of the new Swiss federal state The new Swiss Federal Constitution came into force in September 1848. An essential feature of this federal constitution was the standardization of measures and coins as well as the abolition of the many internal tariffs, which created a uniform economic area in Switzerland. The Federal Constitution has only been completely revised twice, in 1874 and 1999 ( “total revision” ). The deposition movements in Neuchâtel from the Kingdom of Prussia in 1857 represented a major foreign policy challenge for the young federal state. While the mobilization was underway under General Dufour , the so-called Neuchâtel trade was managed diplomatically at the last moment . Further border occupations took place during the Austro-Italian wars in 1859 and 1866. The controversy about the role of the Swiss mercenaries in Italy finally led to the ban on traditional “ walking tours ” in 1859 . In 1860, the cession of Savoy to France by Sardinia-Piedmont caused another foreign policy crisis, as nationalist-minded circles under the leadership of Federal Councilor Jakob Stämpfli wanted to exercise Switzerland's right to occupy Chablais , Faucigny and parts of the Genevois . A plebiscite in Savoy, however, resulted in a clear majority in favor of joining France. The so-called Savoy trade was settled by the establishment of a free zone around Geneva. In 1870/71 the Franco-German War made it necessary to occupy the border under General Hans Herzog . In February 1871 around 87,000 men of the defeated French " Bourbaki Army " crossed the border in the cantons of Neuchâtel and Vaud under the eyes of the Swiss Army and were interned (→ Switzerland in the Franco-German War ). The clashes between radicals and conservatives continued after 1848 at the cantonal level. From 1863, a new so-called democratic movement fought for the transition from representative to direct democracy and for economic-social reforms. The democrats received a boost from the increasingly urgent social question as a result of industrialization , which is why the workers' education association Grütli, founded in 1838, and left idealists supported the radical democratic demands. Although individual cantons issued protective provisions for factory workers and children (→ Factory Act of 1864), the workers' problems remained urgent. In the first half of the 19th century, thousands of "homeless" lived in what is now Switzerland; People who were not citizens of any municipality or corporation. Most of them have already lost their ancestors' rights ; The reasons for this were lack of resources, a "dissolute lifestyle", births outside of wedlock, illegal marriages or religious conversions . The smaller group concerned the travelers . Homeless people were not allowed to settle anywhere and therefore moved from place to place. They were not allowed to marry legally and were excluded from municipal welfare. They lived in abject poverty. The Homeless Act of 1850 laid the basis for the formal legal integration of the homeless into society. By 1878 around 30,000 people were forcibly naturalized, some of them against the resistance of the affected communities. However, the law also aimed to make the traveling lifestyles disappear. A large part of the new citizens or their descendants were able to free themselves from their unfortunate situation and integrated themselves into bourgeois society. Some of the travelers evaded assimilation and continued their life on the country road. In 1866 Swiss Jews were granted full civil rights and freedom of settlement throughout Switzerland. Complete freedom of belief, however, only followed with the constitutional revision of 1874 (→ Judaism in Switzerland ). The Democrats gradually fought for constitutional revisions in the cantons. B. in Zurich in 1869 included the introduction of the popular initiative , the mandatory legal referendum and the popular election of the government. After a first failed attempt in 1872, the Federal Constitution was therefore also revised in 1874 in the interests of the Democrats. In addition to the expansion of direct democracy, the new constitution also included a centralization of the defense system and general legal standardization. In 1873, because of the infallibility dogma of the First Vatican Council, the “ culture war ” between the state and the Catholic Church broke out in Switzerland . It was primarily about the influence of the church in the new liberal- secular state. A smaller part of the Roman Catholic believers split off to form the new Christian Catholic Church . There were strong tensions between the Roman Catholic Church and the liberal cantons in the area of the diocese of Basel , especially in the Catholic northern Jura, which was dominated by the reformed Bern. The Kulturkampf found its expression in the Federal Constitution of 1874, for example in the prohibition of the Jesuit order , in the introduction of civil marriage and the granting of full freedom of religion and worship. Since the 1870s in particular, Switzerland has become a center of the anarchist tendency in the international labor movement. This included people such as B. Michail Bakunin , Peter Krapotkin or Johann Most , but also unorganized anarchists like the murderer of Empress Elisabeth of Austria-Hungary , Luigi Lucheni . A regional focus was the Jura , where many journeyman craftsmen from watchmaking joined the movement. Saint-Imier has been the meeting place for international anarchists since 1872. Towards the end of the 19th century, the traditional lines of conflict between liberals and conservatives were softened by the rise of the labor movement. In 1888 cantonal workers' parties merged to form the Socialist Party (SP), today's Social Democratic Party . Only a few years later, the conservative and liberal-democratic movements united in parties at the national level: in 1894 the Free Democratic Party (FdP) and the Conservative-Catholic Party (KK), today's Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP), were founded. At that time, federal politics was dominated by clear majorities by the founders of the liberal democratic state, the liberalists. In 1891 the Federal Assembly elected Joseph Zemp from Lucerne as the first Catholic and representative of the moderate wing of the Catholic-conservative movement to the Federal Council. This began the integration of the Conservative Catholic forces, which were defeated in 1848 and 1874, into the state. Also in the 19th century, on August 9, 1847, in the course of the general industrialization of the country between Zurich and Baden, the first railway line located entirely in Switzerland was opened, which was popularly known as the "Spanish Brötli Railway" . A few years earlier, Basel had already been connected to Strasbourg by a French railway line . The expansion of the Swiss rail network was initially carried out by private rail companies. After serious political and economic disputes over railway construction, many railway companies got into a crisis in the 1870s. Nevertheless, the Gotthard Railway opened in 1882 with financial help from Germany and Italy. After 1898 the railways were nationalized gradually until 1909 and transferred to the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) (→ History of the Swiss Railways ). After the first cantonal postage stamps, Zurich 4 and Zurich 6 , were issued in 1843, the Swiss Post was also founded in 1848 (→ Postal History and Postage Stamps of Switzerland ). On the initiative of Henry Dunant (1828–1910) from Geneva, the later International Committee of the Red Cross was founded in Geneva in 1863 . Through the Geneva Convention , which all European states joined by 1868, the Red Cross was recognized as an auxiliary service of the army and the medical service was neutralized. As the seat of the Red Cross, Geneva became a metropolis with an international presence and attracted other important international organizations into the 20th century. On June 14, 1891, the worst railway accident in Switzerland to date (as of 2020) occurred. When münchenstein rail disaster broke under a coming from Basel train law Simplon rail (JS) of the Gustave Eiffel built railway bridge over the Birs below the village Münchenstein together. 73 passengers were killed and 171 injured. In 1894 the Federal Council introduced a uniform time in Switzerland. The Central European Time CET replaced the various regional time zones. In economic and social terms, the second half of the 19th century was characterized by the industrialization of the Swiss Central Plateau and a sharp increase in the population. Switzerland went from being an agricultural country to being an industrial country. Up until the First World War, the textile industry in Eastern Switzerland was the leader . In its wake, the machine industry and especially in Basel the chemical industry developed. After the emergence of the electrical industry, the first large European river power plant (→ Altes Wasserkraftwerk Rheinfelden ) was built between Rheinfelden AG and Rheinfelden (Baden) , soon followed by numerous smaller and larger hydropower plants to generate electricity for the textile and aluminum industries, and later also for the Private households and the railways. In agriculture (→ History of Agriculture in Switzerland ), grain cultivation was increasingly abandoned in favor of dairy and cattle farming because of the cheaper imports. Cheese, chocolate and condensed milk became important export goods. Despite the industrial boom, the poor economic conditions forced many Swiss to emigrate to North and South America and Russia. The rural exodus caused strong urban growth, so that the percentage of the urban population in the total population rose from 6.4 to 27.6 percent between 1850 and 1920. The first Zionist World Congress took place in Basel in 1897 under the direction of Theodor Herzl . In total, the congress took place ten times in Basel before the state of Israel was founded in 1948, more than in any other city in the world. Since the founding of the federal state, ten federal interventions (with and without the deployment of troops) have taken place in cantons, including on the occasion of the Tonhalle riot in Zurich in 1871, on the occasion of the riots in Göschenen in 1875 and most recently on the occasion of the riots in Geneva in 1932 . First World War Switzerland maintained armed neutrality during the First World War . The border occupation took place under General Ulrich Wille . The Schlieffen Plan Deutsche looked before the war front, France via Belgium and attack rather than via Switzerland of time. Although French and Italian plans existed to attack the Central Powers by marching through Switzerland, Switzerland was spared military attacks on their territory. Almost more dangerous for the continued existence of Switzerland was the political and cultural division of the country along the conflict lines between German and Welsch (→ “ Röstigraben ”) and between bourgeois and socialist. Parts of the German-speaking Swiss population sympathized with the Central Powers (Germany in particular), while France was supported in western Switzerland. In particular, the German - Swiss military elite around General Wille and Chief of Staff Theophil Sprecher von Bernegg were suspected of making pacts with Germany and Austria-Hungary after the “ Obersten Affair ” in western Switzerland . The people's trust in the Swiss military and politics has repeatedly been shaken by affairs and scandals. In 1917 Federal Councilor Arthur Hoffmann attempted to mediate peace between Russia and Germany. Hoffmann finally had to resign under pressure from the Entente because he was accused of wanting to help Germany relieve pressure on the Eastern Front (→ Grimm-Hoffmann affair ). Throughout the war, Switzerland offered humanitarian services, such as the repatriation of internees from both sides, the organization of the exchange of wounded and the offer of recreational stays for the wounded in health resorts. Economically, the world war meant a heavy burden for Switzerland and its people. The sharp rise in federal spending caused the debt to grow, so that a one-off war tax was introduced in 1915 and a war profit tax in 1916. In order to ensure the country's supply of coal, food and steel, the Federal Council agreed to the warring parties monitoring foreign trade and granted them larger loans. Only very late, in October 1917, was rationing introduced initially for bread and in March 1918 for fat. Due to the late introduction of rationing and the lack of a wage replacement scheme for the military men and the rising unemployment as a result of the lack of raw materials and foreign demand, poverty increased in Switzerland. The political parties agreed in August 1914 in a truce , so that at the beginning of the war rested the party disputes. After the international socialist conferences of Zimmerwald (1915) (→ Zimmerwalder Manifesto ) and Kiental (1916) in the canton of Bern, however, the influence of anti-militarist and revolutionary-minded forces within the SP grew strongly. In 1917 the SP decided on a new anti-militarist and revolutionary party program that signaled a clear break with the rest of the party landscape. The worsening social problems strengthened the socialists, especially in the cities. From November 1917 tensions erupted in the form of violent unrest, strikes and demonstrations. The national strike of November 1918 is regarded as the climax of the political confrontation between the "civic bloc", the traditional liberal and conservative forces, and the labor movement. The national strike was put down by the army as an illegal act . Between 1914 and 1917, the future Russian revolutionary leader Lenin lived as a refugee in Switzerland. After the war the Austrian tried Vorarlberg , a connection to Switzerland to achieve. In the Paris suburb agreements , Switzerland's neutrality was confirmed again, but Vorarlberg was definitely assigned to Austria and the neutralization of Haute-Savoie was lifted. In 1920, after a referendum, Switzerland joined the League of Nations , which had its seat in Geneva . This marked the beginning of a phase of differentiated neutrality for Switzerland, which means that it took part in economic but not in military sanctions of the League of Nations. In 1918 and 1919, the Spanish flu was rampant in Switzerland, as in much of the world . According to official statistics, 24,449 people died of the flu in Switzerland between July 1918 and the end of June 1919. This corresponds to 0.62 percent of the total population in 1918. In the absence of a medical reporting requirement, it is assumed that the number of unreported cases is large. In 1919, the bourgeois Federal Council implemented reforms that largely met the demands of the labor movement, for example the introduction of the 48-hour week. In October 1919, the National Council was determined for the first time by proportional representation , which meant an end to the dominance of liberalism and a strong upswing for the socialists. Regardless of this, at the end of the year the SP decided on a party program that put the SP in clear opposition to the bourgeois-democratic state order. Nevertheless, radical socialists split off from the Swiss Communist Party . As a reaction, the big bourgeois parties formed the “ citizens' bloc ”, which provided the Swiss government during the interwar period and politically isolated the SP at the federal level. Swiss domestic politics in the interwar period was shaped by the growing contradictions between farmers and traders on the one hand and the employees or the parties and organizations that represented them. As a new bourgeois force, the farmers', trade and citizens' party (BGB) was founded in 1918 in the canton of Bern by the farmers' leader Rudolf Minger . Originally as a centrist peasant party, it was in opposition to the existing bourgeois and socialist parties, but was nevertheless integrated relatively quickly into the civic bloc and received a seat of government with Minger's election to the Federal Council in 1929. After the end of the war, Switzerland suffered its first economic crisis, which hit eastern Switzerland in particular, where the textile industry practically collapsed due to the lack of foreign demand for luxury products. After the economic situation in Germany stabilized in 1924 (after hyperinflation in 1923 and currency reform ), the economy recovered, but in the course of 1930/31 it was also drawn into the maelstrom of the global economic crisis (in and around Germany and Austria the German banking crisis worsened from June 1931 the economic situation). The collapse of exports to almost a third led to a sharp fall in prices and a rise in unemployment. The public sector tried to bring about an end to the crisis at federal, cantonal and municipal level through emergency work, major projects and various other economic policy interventions. The state's price and wage reduction policy even intensified the crisis through its deflationary effect. In the face of the crisis, there was a strong radicalization among the workers. At the end of 1932, 13 workers were killed in the violent military crackdown on workers' protests in Geneva (→ riots in Geneva 1932 ). As part of the fight against the "Landstreichertum" In 1926 the Fund was Children of the Street of the Pro Juventute established to Yenish children to wrest their parents. The goal was the forced integration of the Yeniche. From 1972 onwards, the federal government reacted to pressure from the media. Another dark chapter in the history of Switzerland in the early 20th century was dealing with so-called contract children . Children from poor or socially difficult backgrounds were usually referred to farmers by the guardianship authorities, who often exploited and / or abused the children as cheap labor. The responsible authorities looked the other way. The practice was not abandoned until the 1970s. At the beginning of the 21st century, the media took up this topic more intensively after it had long been suppressed or tabooed by society. The topic of administrative care was also discussed and worked on. People who did not quite conform to the social norm were locked away without a court order. This practice was also only abandoned after the ratification of the European Convention on Human Rights in 1974. The ongoing crisis also led to the emergence of a right-wing anti-Marxist national renewal movement in Switzerland, the front movement . After the Nazi regime came to power in Germany, the Swiss renewal movements experienced an upswing in the “ Frontenfrühling ” (spring 1933), but they were unable to post any noteworthy political successes. Despite strong political tensions and a crisis of confidence in the state government, the popular initiative launched by the National Front for a total revision of the federal constitution , which should have brought about a fascist reorganization of Switzerland , failed on September 8, 1935 (note: Dollfuss had one in Austria in March Started in 1933 and continued with Schuschnigg from July 1934, see here ). The fascist-national socialist threat brought the SP and the trade union movement with the bourgeois parties closer together. The SP gave up its role in the opposition and recognized national defense and democracy in a new party program. With a resolution of September 27, 1936, the Federal Council devalued the Swiss franc by 30 percent; this contributed to a recovery in the export economy and an end to the economic crisis. With the peace agreement in the metal and watchmaking industry in July 1937 between employer and employee organizations, the period of social partnership and collective labor agreements began . In 1938, Romansh was recognized as the fourth national language in two referendums and the Swiss Penal Code was approved (it came into force on January 1, 1942). With him the death penalty was abolished. The last person to be executed after a civil criminal trial was the 32-year-old three-time murderer Hans Vollenweider on October 18, 1940 . During the Second World War, 17 traitors were shot under military criminal law. Since 1999, the death penalty has also been constitutionally prohibited. After Austria was annexed to the German Reich (March 1938), Switzerland returned to integral neutrality, which was recognized by the League of Nations . Under the impression of German expansion ( armament of the Wehrmacht ), Swiss politicians, scholars and the military reaffirmed Switzerland's intellectual and military will to resist and assert itself. Federal Councilor Hermann Obrecht proclaimed «Anyone who should attack our independence […] will find war waiting! We Swiss will not go on pilgrimages abroad first. " “ Intellectual national defense ” became a formative element of Swiss cultural and intellectual life well into the post-war period . After the introduction of the Nuremberg Race Laws in Germany, the emigration and flight of German Jews to Switzerland increased (→ Judaism in Switzerland ). In 1938 Germany began to mark passports of Jews with a J stamp ( regulation on passports of Jews ). Switzerland only granted asylum to political refugees (and to those who were not persecuted “on racial grounds”). At the Évian Conference in July 1938, Switzerland also refused to accept a certain contingent of refugees on a permanent basis and insisted on remaining solely a transit country , which is why only emigrants were allowed to enter Switzerland who could prove that they could continue their journey as soon as possible. In response, the Jewish National Councilor David Farbstein resigned in 1938 . Second World War After the outbreak of the Second World War , Switzerland again invoked armed neutrality and ordered the general mobilization of the army under General Henri Guisan, Commander-in-Chief . The parliament, citing a state of emergency and applying extra- constitutional emergency law , granted the Federal Council extensive powers that were actually unconstitutional (see state of emergency ) to take direct measures to defend Switzerland and its economic interests, which only had to be approved by the legislature afterwards (→ Power of attorney regime ). During the German invasion of France, the German Wehrmacht in La Charité-sur-Loire came across secret plans that revealed Swiss and French agreements in the event of a German attack on Switzerland. On May 10, 1940, the army triggered the second general mobilization . During the French campaign , around 42,000 French and Polish soldiers fled to Switzerland in early June 1940 and were interned until 1941, some of which were then returned to France. After the French defeat, General Guisan implemented the Réduit Plan to further defend Switzerland, which was now completely enclosed by the Axis powers . In the event of a German invasion, the Central Plateau and its civilian population would have been surrendered and the resistance would have been concentrated on the Alpine massif. At times, the Axis powers planned the invasion of Switzerland ( Operation Tannenbaum ) in general staff simulation games . In this context, with Wilhelm Gustloff, who was later murdered, Rorschach laid the foundations for National Socialist policy in Switzerland. Switzerland was largely spared from military activity during the Second World War, but not entirely untouched. In addition to German airspace violations in the first phase of the war, the Allied bombing war led to constant overflights and accidental bombing of Swiss cities and villages until the end of the war, also because Switzerland introduced the blackout under pressure from the Axis powers. Swiss territory was bombed 77 times, killing 84 people. The most serious incident, with 40 dead, over 100 injured and the loss of cultural assets, was the bombing of Schaffhausen on April 1, 1944. During the Second World War, Switzerland hosted a total of just under four million people in need of protection for a shorter or longer period of time. These included various categories such as interned military personnel (103,000), temporarily admitted border refugees (67,000), children on recreational leave (60,000), civil refugees (approx. 51,000, of which approx. 21,000 were of Jewish descent ), Emigrants (10,000) and political refugees (250). In view of the precarious supply situation, the acceptance of refugees was controversial in politics and the population. In this context, Federal Councilor Eduard von Steiger coined the political catchphrase “the boat is full”. From 1942, the Federal Council ordered tightened measures against illegal border crossings. Since the Swiss asylum law only recognized refugees for political reasons, Jewish refugees who tried to leave Germany or its sphere of influence “on racial grounds” were refused entry to Switzerland. Jews were only recognized as political refugees in July 1944. According to recent investigations, around 24,398 refugees were turned away at the border. A study in Geneva has shown, however, that despite the theoretically closed border, 86 percent of the “illegal” refugees were admitted. In 1942 homosexual acts were legalized in Switzerland. (→ History of homosexuality in Switzerland ). In contrast to the First World War, from 1939 the social burden of active service of the military men was dampened by the introduction of the wage and earnings replacement system, so that social unrest did not materialize. Nevertheless, in the parliamentary elections in 1943, the SP became the strongest faction in the National Council with 56 seats. The election of the Social Democrat Ernst Nobs to the Federal Council seals the integration of the SP into the Swiss party system and the end of the party struggles between the civic bloc and the socialists. Public opinion was controlled by the censors ( press and radio communication department ), and extremist and subversive propaganda was banned. 1940 were Communist Party of Switzerland and the National Movement of Switzerland banned. Numerous Swiss and foreigners were arrested during the war for espionage for Germany. A total of 33 men were sentenced to death during active service for treason, with only 17 judgments being carried out. Numerous other people were sentenced to prison, expatriated or deported. The deployment of troops against the Steiner uprising of 1942 is considered to be the largest military security service in World War II. Between 1933 and 1945 around 1,000 Swiss citizens suffered in the Nazi concentration camps, at least 200 of whom died. No violent confrontation has claimed more Swiss lives in the last 200 years. Many victims could have been helped if official Switzerland had done more for them. In the last years of the war, Germany showed a keen interest in exchanging large numbers of Swiss prisoners for Germans imprisoned in Switzerland. But official Switzerland did not take the chance. The Swiss authorities did not want to advocate an exchange of criminals and those «who had carried out an activity which is also criminalized in Switzerland or which at least seems to be detrimental to Swiss interests (such as espionage against Germany in favor of third countries, Participation in the resistance movement in France, communist activities) ». Swiss people who had actively campaigned against the Nazi dictatorship could not expect any help. (→ Swiss in Nazi concentration camps ) Thanks to the early economic preparation and the rapid introduction of rationing, as well as the “cultivation battle”, the Federal Council was able to ensure that Switzerland was supplied with food (→ Elections plan ). The high financial burdens on the federal budget made it necessary to levy one-off additional taxes and finally, in 1941, to introduce a military tax on income and assets, which still exists today as a direct federal tax. After Switzerland was completely encircled by the Axis powers, the Federal Council was forced to conclude an economic agreement with Germany to regulate the exchange of coal, steel and other war-essential goods. Switzerland had to grant Germany loans in excess of one billion francs. Despite the blockade, Switzerland was still able to supply the Allies with precision instruments that were essential for the war effort. The Allies kept "black lists" since 1939 in order to force the Swiss machine industry to stop exporting to Germany. In March 1945, Switzerland and the Allies agreed in the Currie Agreement to end Swiss exports to Germany and to partially surrender German assets. In the Washington Agreement of 1946, Switzerland finally granted the Allies the confiscation of all German property in Switzerland. The dispute over the so-called looted gold , which had come to Switzerland via the German Reichsbank, was ended with the payment of 250 million francs. After that, the Allies lifted all economic and financial measures against Switzerland. In the same year Switzerland and the Soviet Union established diplomatic relations after the relationship had been heavily burdened for 23 years due to the Conradi affair . Between 1952 and 1971 the Federal Republic of Germany repaid CHF 650 million of the war debt to Switzerland. Switzerland's role in World War II was last revised in the 1990s by the Bergier report . Over 2000 Swiss National Socialists fought in the German Waffen SS during the war . Between October 1944 and February 1945 the Swiss Johannes Pauli (1900–1969) was deputy camp leader in the Bisingen concentration camp . At the end of the war, Pauli fled to Switzerland, where he was arrested in Basel and sentenced to 12 years in prison. The fact that Swiss citizens war crimes in the service of the Nazis committed, was from the German historiography previously worked almost entirely inadequate and the Swiss historiography. Johannes Pauli was found guilty and convicted as only one of four war criminals in Swiss history. Switzerland in the post-war period and during the Cold War In its long tradition during the Cold War, Switzerland saw itself as politically and militarily neutral, but ideologically it clearly belonged to the liberal-western camp. For reasons of neutrality, Switzerland did not join the UN or NATO. The European seat of the UN remained in Geneva after the dissolution of the League of Nations. The superpowers USA and Soviet Union assessed this attitude negatively in 1945, nevertheless they tried to formally resume diplomatic relations, which was reflected in the conclusion of the Washington Agreement . With Resolution 11 of November 15, 1946, the Security Council laid down the conditions for Switzerland to join the International Court of Justice , which it finally joined on July 28, 1948. In the immediate post-war period in particular, undestroyed Switzerland was an important factor in Central Europe both economically and militarily. The beginning of the Cold War led, particularly since 1951, to the armament and modernization of the Swiss army, which was driven forward at great expense. Conscription in the militia army lasted for all Swiss fit for duty from the age of 20 to 50 (army reform 60). The first steps towards nuclear armament were taken by 1967, when Switzerland was regarded as an emerging nuclear country. With the signing of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1969, Switzerland voluntarily gave up the nuclear option. In the post-war period, intellectual national defense was directed against the danger of the country being occupied by the Warsaw Pact troops and against communist infiltration of Switzerland. For this reason, around 13,000 Hungarians were accepted during the Hungarian uprising in 1956 and around 12,000 Czechoslovakians during the Prague Spring in 1968 , who fled the Soviet intervention in their countries. The neutrality of Switzerland favored the so-called “ good offices ” of Switzerland, so that repeated international peace conferences were held in Switzerland, mostly in Geneva, for example the 1954 Indochina conference or the regular summit meetings of the superpowers. The federal popular initiative “Return to direct democracy” was launched in 1946 after it became apparent that the Federal Council no longer wanted to move away from the so-called power of attorney , which it and Parliament had claimed during the Second World War as a result of the war and economic crisis. It was narrowly approved in the referendum on September 11, 1949. This popular initiative indirectly ensured that the Federal Assembly repealed the last powers of attorney by the end of 1952. In 1952, the Civil Rights Act was amended so that Swiss women who married a foreigner did not automatically lose Swiss citizenship . There have always been cases in which expatriated Swiss women were deported to their husbands' often foreign country because of poverty or illness. In some documented cases, the women were even murdered in Nazi concentration camps. In 1969 Pope Paul VI visited. Switzerland. It was the first Pope's visit since 1418. At that time, Pope Martin V, newly elected at the Council of Constance , traveled through the Confederation to Rome. Because Switzerland did not want to join the European Economic Community (EEC) for political reasons, it founded the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960 together with Denmark , Norway , Austria , Portugal , Sweden and the United Kingdom . In 1961, Switzerland was one of the founding members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). On May 6, 1963, Switzerland also joined the Council of Europe . In 1970, the Federal Council took the first steps towards European integration in Switzerland, which in 1972 resulted in a free trade agreement with the EEC . In the same year, Switzerland also signed the European Convention on Human Rights . In 1973 she joined the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Economically, Switzerland experienced an unprecedented boom after 1945 that lasted into the 1970s. During this time, exports increased almost tenfold. With a steadily increasing population, the face of Switzerland changed due to heavy construction activity and increased mobility of the population. The central plateau between Geneva and Lausanne and between Bern and Zurich and St. Gallen in particular lost its rural character due to the urban sprawl. The growing energy demand was met by the construction of five nuclear power plants (→ nuclear energy by country (section Switzerland) ) and the expansion of hydropower generation, etc. a. satisfied by the construction of numerous reservoirs (→ List of reservoirs in Switzerland ). Economic development, particularly in the service sector, led to a sharp increase in private incomes and general prosperity. The expansion of the welfare state (introduction of old-age and survivors' insurance (AHV) in 1947 , disability insurance (IV) in 1959 ) and the reduction of working hours with simultaneous strong economic growth ensured social peace in Switzerland until the 1990s . Since the 1960s, economic growth made it necessary to import “cheap” labor from abroad for the construction and tourism industries. The proportion of the foreign resident population rose between 1960 and 1970 from 10 percent to 17.5 percent, the Italians being the largest group of immigrants, as Italy had signed a contract with Switzerland in 1948 to place Italian workers. Since the end of the boom in the 1970s, fears of foreign infiltration have made themselves felt among parts of the population. Several attempts to limit the number of foreigners in Switzerland through so-called “foreign infiltration initiatives” ( James Schwarzenbach ) failed in the referendum. The Federal Council tried to prevent the permanent settlement of the so-called " guest workers " by enforcing the seasonal statute established in 1934, but only created cases of social hardship and hindered the rapid integration of migrants. At the end of the 1950s, car traffic increased sharply in Switzerland. The existing road network was no longer sufficient for the increased volume of traffic. The law on a national road network passed by parliament in 1960 gave the federal government the authority to build national roads. In 1969 and 1970, Switzerland was suddenly targeted by Palestinian terrorists . On February 18, 1969 four opened Fatah - bombers on the Zurich airport fire on a plane of the Israeli airline El Al . The copilot and an attacker died in the attack (→ attack in Kloten ). On February 21, 1970, the Swissair flight 330 crashed after a package bomb exploded near Würenlingen . All 47 people on board died. The attack by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) was actually aimed at the Israeli airline El-Al. The series of attacks culminated in September 1970 with the hijacking of three passenger planes from Switzerland, the USA and Great Britain with more than 300 hostages to Jordan. The 143 passengers and 12 crew members of Swissair Flugs SR100, like all the other hostages, were released. Then the terrorists blew up the planes. In 2016, a journalist for the Neue Zürcher Zeitung published the thesis that the then foreign minister, Federal Councilor Pierre Graber , with the mediation of Jean Ziegler , had concluded a secret standstill agreement with the then openly terrorist Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO). From now on, Switzerland should be spared further terrorist attacks. In return, Switzerland campaigned for the diplomatic recognition of the PLO at the UN headquarters in Geneva. The prosecution of a Palestinian suspect of the attack on Swissair flight 330, which left 47 dead, was discontinued by the judiciary for reasons that are still unknown. In 1995, the then Federal Prosecutor Carla Del Ponte opened the case again despite the statute of limitations, but closed the case again in 2000 (→ Palestinian terrorist attacks of 1969 and 1970 against Switzerland ). The introduction of women's right to vote and suffrage at the federal level failed for the first time in a referendum in 1959. However, Vaud and Neuchâtel introduced it at cantonal level in the same year, while Basel-Stadt was the first canton to introduce it in German-speaking Switzerland. In 1971, in a referendum (of the Swiss men), women’s right to vote was accepted after decades of struggle. At the cantonal level, the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden last admitted women to the rural community in 1991 under pressure from the federal court . After political equality in 1981, women were also granted legal rights at the social level. In 1984 Elisabeth Kopp (FDP) was the first woman to be elected to the Federal Council. The almost uninterrupted economic growth since 1950 came to an abrupt end in autumn 1973 due to the oil price crisis and, as in most industrialized countries, surprisingly gave way to an economic crisis. Large parts of the world economy were affected by it. However, the crisis was more pronounced in Switzerland than in the other OECD countries. In 1975 the gross domestic product fell by almost 7 percent in real terms. The oversized construction industry and the textile industry were particularly hard hit, as was mechanical and apparatus engineering. The watch industry, which is so important for export and long failed to recognize the importance of the quartz watch , was in dire straits. In addition to falling demand, the export economy also suffered from the strong Swiss franc. The oil price shock drove the already high annual inflation in Switzerland in December 1973 to almost 12 percent. It was not until 1975 that voters, with a large majority, introduced “unrestricted freedom of settlement” for Swiss citizens throughout the country. Until then, the cantons were able to bring welfare recipients back to their home town . Domestically, Switzerland has been shaped by the concordance reached between the leading parties since 1959 , which manifested itself in the so-called magic formula in the distribution of Federal Council seats . The Concordance only got into a crisis after the end of the Cold War in 1989 and the rise of the right-wing conservative Swiss People's Party (SVP), which in 2003 led to the magic formula being blown up. In the post-war period, the population's trust in the authorities was repeatedly tested by political affairs and scandals, such as the Mirage affair in 1964 and the Fichenskandal in 1989 and the P-26 uncovering in 1990 . In 1949, the voters refused to allow the Federal Council to continue the power of attorney by extending the optional referendum to include urgent federal resolutions. In 1968 (→ 1968 movement ) and 1980 (→ youth riots in Switzerland ), the international youth movement led to clashes between young people and the authorities and sometimes bloody riots, especially in Zurich. Politically and socially, the old elites were replaced and spiritual national defense broke up, but at the same time a conservative counter-movement emerged in the bourgeois parties. A striking socio-political dispute arose in this context in 1989 on the occasion of the vote brought about by the Group for a Switzerland without an Army (GSoA) on the abolition of the Swiss army ("Army Abolition Initiative"). Despite the strong commitment of politicians, authorities and the army to keep the army, 35.6 percent of those entitled to vote approved the initiative. Together with the tremors of the Fichen affair, the controversy over the army brought about the final end of spiritual national defense. At the Geneva Summit Conference (1985) the President of the United States Ronald Reagan and the Secretary General of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev met in Switzerland. Between 1980 and 1989, 21 children disappeared in Switzerland, 14 of whom were found abused and murdered. 7 children, including Sarah Oberson , are still missing, despite intensive searches, to this day (as of 2020). Werner Ferrari was arrested in August 1989 and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1995 by the Baden District Court for five murders. In 2007 he was acquitted in one of the cases. With the arrest, the series of missing children ended. The faces of the missing children in the police photos were burned into the collective memory of two generations, that of their parents and that of the children of that time. Switzerland in the 1990s The Federal Council repeatedly failed when it tried to end Switzerland's political self-isolation. In 1986 the electorate rejected Switzerland's accession to the UN and in 1992 also to the European Economic Area (EEA). Despite growing opposition from right-wing bourgeois circles, the Federal Council stuck to its European integration course and in the same year submitted a request for Switzerland to join the EU in Brussels. The rise of the Swiss People's Party (SVP), which was the only party in the Federal Council to oppose European integration, and the negative mood among the people pushed the Federal Council to take the “bilateral path”. Without formal accession, Switzerland implemented EU law autonomously and twice agreed with the EU in bilateral agreements on partial integration of Switzerland into the EU internal market and the liberalization of passenger and freight traffic. The 1990s were also characterized by a long-term economic crisis and low economic growth, which resulted in a sharp rise in public debt. At the same time, the cantons and communes found themselves exposed to intense tax competition, which largely ruled out tax increases. The decline of the Swiss machine and textile industry led to deindustrialization, particularly in eastern Switzerland, which has continued to the present day, for example in the canton of Glarus and the canton of St. Gallen. For the first time since the Second World War, unemployment rose again for a long time to over four percent. The industrial workers were particularly hard hit. Only the international economic boom around the turn of the millennium brought an end to the crisis. Whether Switzerland's non-accession to the EEA or the EU, the failed economic policy of the federal government or the monetary policy of the National Bank were decisive for the long crisis is still politically controversial today. During the 1990s, Switzerland took in numerous refugees from various international conflict regions, in particular from Sri Lanka, Turkey and the former Yugoslavia. During the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995) Switzerland took in almost 30,000 asylum seekers; during the Kosovo conflict (1998/99) it was around 53,000. The significant influx of people from rural areas of Southeast Europe led to socio-political tensions, especially because of the difficult cultural integration of the refugees. The defense policy debate about the future of the Swiss army continued in the 1990s. In 1993 the GSoA narrowly failed in a referendum with its motion to forego the cost-intensive procurement of new F / A-18 combat aircraft . Although the army regained confidence through the first army reform in 1995 , the structural crisis that broke out with the end of the Cold War and the elimination of the real threat scenarios was only partially overcome with the XXI Army Reform. Since the end of the 1990s, the continuation of the militia or a professionalization of the army was up for debate. In the attack on Luxor on November 17, 1997 in Deir el-Bahari , an archaeological excavation site in Egypt , 62 people, including 36 tourists from Switzerland , died in a hail of bullets from Islamic terrorists from the Gamaa Islamija group . On September 2, 1998, a McDonnell Douglas MD-11 crashed into the Atlantic on Swissair Flight 111 from New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport to Geneva off Peggy's Cove , Canada , after a cable fire in the on-board electronics. In the worst accident of Swissair , all 215 passengers and 14 crew members were killed, including 49 Swiss. After a referendum on September 10, 2002, Switzerland became one of the last internationally recognized states to join the United Nations (UNO). (→ Switzerland in the United Nations ). Joining the UN had recently only been fought by right-wing conservative forces around the SVP . On December 10, 2003, Christoph Blocher , the leading figure of the SVP, was elected to the Federal Council in place of Ruth Metzler ( CVP ) . The last time a ruling official was not re-elected occurred in 1872. This ended the phase of political concordance in the Bundesrat that had been going on since 1959 and made way for increased polarization between the parties. Formally, however, the concordance was preserved even with the new composition of the state government. The "deselection" of Christoph Blocher as Federal Councilor on December 12, 2007 through a previous agreement between the center-left groups, CVP, SP and the Greens , clearly revealed the disagreement among the Federal Council parties. The SVP no longer saw itself represented by the moderate SVP politician Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf , who was newly elected to replace Blocher , and announced that it would increasingly oppose the state government. The effects of this implementation of the opposition while maintaining representation in the government on national politics remained modest, however, but led to strong internal party tensions and ultimately to the split of the Civil Democratic Party (BDP) from the SVP. Since the two SVP Federal Councilors Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf and Samuel Schmid joined the BDP, the SVP was no longer represented in the Federal Council until Samuel Schmid resigned at the end of 2008. Since then, she has managed to win back a Federal Council post with former party president Ueli Maurer, but the attack on the seat of Federal Councilor Widmer-Schlumpf held by the BDP on the occasion of the general election in 2011 failed. Since Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf announced her resignation at the end of 2015, the SVP was able to enter the general election of December 9, 2015 with a claim to a second seat . The Vaudois Guy Parmelin prevailed in the third ballot and thus the SVP again has two seats in the Federal Council. The parliamentary elections in 2011 mostly confirmed the expectations. The relatively new parties of the Green Liberals and the BDP were definitely able to establish themselves at the national level and increased the share of voters and seats the most. All other parties lost shares of the vote, most of them the FDP and the SVP. The SVP's disproportionate loss of seats and the SP's gain in seats are explained by the proportional representation system and the Council of States elections, which went very badly for the SVP. The following shifts result in the United Federal Assembly: SVP −10 seats (new 59 seats), SP +5 (57), FDP −6 (51), CVP −5 (41), Greens −5 (17), GLP + 10 (14), BDP +10 (10). In the Federal Council, an alliance of the center-left parties SP, CVP and BDP has a majority with four seats after the SVP failed in the general renewal elections with its attack on Federal Councilor Widmer-Schlumpf. Even after the elections, the SVP continued to oppose European politics, foreigner politics and migration issues. For example, against the recommendation of the government and parliament, it was able to win over the electorate for the acceptance of popular initiatives that aim to automatically expel criminal foreigners ( deportation initiative ) and to restrict immigration through quotas. With the “ termination initiative ” submitted in August 2018, the SVP wants to attack the bilateral agreements with the EU directly for the first time. The narrow acceptance of the mass immigration initiative on February 9, 2014 was followed by a lengthy domestic and foreign policy crisis. The initiative called for immigration to Switzerland to be regulated through quotas, which called the continued existence of the bilateral agreements with the EU into question. Switzerland then refused, referring to the vote, to extend the free movement of people to the new EU member Croatia, whereupon the EU suspended negotiations with Switzerland about participation in the Horizon 2020 research program and the Erasmus + student exchange . Switzerland was thus treated as a third country in these programs. It was not until the end of 2016 that the parties agreed, in the face of fierce resistance from the SVP, to implement the initiative that was compatible with the agreement on the free movement of persons. This implementation in the sense of a job registration requirement was accepted by the EU and Switzerland extended the free movement of people to Croatia on January 1, 2017. Relations between Switzerland and the EU have been shaped since 2017 by negotiations to conclude a framework agreement for the bilateral agreements . This is intended to form an institutional umbrella for the existing and possible new market access agreements as well as to regulate the ongoing adjustment and uniform interpretation of the agreements as well as the settlement of legal disputes. As early as 2012, the EU decided not to conclude any new market access agreements with Switzerland without a solution to these issues. The corresponding negotiating mandate was already approved by the Federal Council on December 18, 2013, but the negotiations dragged on from their official start on May 6, 2014 until December 2018. The final negotiated agreement, however, was not signed by the Federal Council, it is the subject matter broad consultation among parties, associations and cantons. The focus of the discussion are the areas of wage protection, adoption of EU law and the question of arbitration in disputes with the EU. The EU expects Switzerland to provide an official statement on the framework agreement by June 2019. In September 2001, an assassination attempt by a gunman in the parliament of the canton of Zug left 15 people dead. One month later, one of the biggest economic collapses in Swiss history happened: The Swissair aircraft fleet had to remain on the ground due to bankruptcy (commonly referred to as grounding in Switzerland ), and one year later the company finally had to cease operations. Remnants of the airline went into the new company Swiss . In the summer and autumn of 2002, the state exhibition Expo.02 took place in the three-lake landscape around Lake Biel , Lake Neuchâtel and Lake Murten . The venues for the Arteplages (French: «Art Beaches») were Biel / Bienne , Yverdon-les-Bains , Neuchâtel , Murten and a mobile platform on the three lakes themselves, the Arteplage mobile du Jura . Each of the venues was devoted to an overarching theme, so Yverdon to the emotional level, Biel to science, Murten to art and culture, etc. The expo made waves in advance because of a messed up financial planning, but was able to record visitor records in the last few weeks. For the first time since 1954, a major sporting event took place in Switzerland in cooperation with Austria in the summer of 2008 , the European Football Championship . In Switzerland, the venues were (stadiums in brackets): Basel ( St. Jakobspark ), Bern ( Stade de Suisse ), Zurich ( Letzigrund ) and Geneva ( Stade de Genève ). The St. Jakobspark in Basel had 42,500 seats and thus received the largest number of spectators in Switzerland. While the economic upswing at the turn of the millennium was short-lived, the Swiss economy was able to achieve strong economic growth averaging 3 percent again from 2004 to 2008. The highest growth was registered in 2007 with +3.8 percent. As a result of the subprime crisis, there was also a brief recession in Switzerland in 2009 (–1.9%), which was replaced by a renewed growth phase in 2010 (+3%). Overall, Switzerland weathered the effects of the financial crisis and the Swiss franc shock in 2015 surprisingly well and has achieved average GDP growth of 1.4% since 2008. However, this was mainly due to immigration, which is why GDP growth per capita only reached 0.3%. In 2014, Switzerland was one of the very first countries to sign a free trade agreement with the People's Republic of China . Economists and politicians also see the recovery of the Swiss economy in connection with the free movement of persons with the EU, which was introduced in 2002 , thanks to which numerous well-trained specialists from the EU, especially from Germany, have been able to immigrate to Switzerland. Switzerland is one of the few countries in Europe to show population growth due to positive net migration (2012: +84,398 people or +1.1%). The share of the permanent foreign resident population in the total population rose from around 15 percent in 1980 (0.9 million people) to over 25 percent at the end of 2017 (2.1 million people). In the same period, the permanent resident population grew from around 6.3 million to 8.48 million (2017). The Federal Statistical Office expects the population to reach the limit of 8.5 million in 2019. On May 21, 2017, the Swiss population approved the Energy Strategy 2050 with 58.2% yes-votes. As a result, the construction of new nuclear power plants is prohibited. Furthermore, renewable energies and the more efficient use of energy are to be promoted (see measures of the Energy Strategy 2050 ). Another, gloomy capital of Swiss history of the 20th century, in addition to the affairs about the children of the Landstrasse , the contract children and those who were administratively cared for , was only partially dealt with in an expert report in 2019. In many psychiatric clinics in the country, but especially in the Münsterlingen Psychiatric Clinic , illegal drug trials were carried out on more than 3,000 people between 1940 and 1980. Over 30 people died for reasons that were never clear. Psychiatry professor Roland Kuhn was in charge of the experiments . The pharmaceutical companies Geigy, Ciba, Ciba-Geigy (after the merger), Sandoz (all now Novartis ), Hoffmann-La Roche, Wander and, in one case, the US company Wyeth were the suppliers of the drugs and beneficiaries of the trials . According to a study from 2020, the Zurich University of Applied Sciences , a baby out who in the eighties and nineties, around 700 Swiss couples Sri Lanka adopted . Many of the children have been put up for adoption with fake identities. Some of the children were also stolen from their birth parents or conceived on a “baby farm” especially for parents from Europe. The Federal Office of Justice has had the circumstances of the adoptions dealt with under pressure from the children affected, who are now adults. According to the study, the Swiss authorities had known about child trafficking since 1981 and collectively looked the other way. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic , the Federal Council banned events with more than 1000 visitors at the end of February 2020. Therefore u. a. the Engadin Skimarathon , the Geneva Motor Show and the Basel Carnival will all be canceled. On March 16, 2020, the Federal Council declared the “extraordinary situation” in accordance with the Epidemics Act. So u had to a. all shops (except grocery stores), restaurants, bars as well as entertainment and leisure establishments will be closed. Public and private events were banned. Schools and universities have had to switch to distance learning. Pursuant to a decision of the Federal Council of up to 8000 members of the Swiss army in the assistance service to be mobilized to assist the civil authorities. This is the largest group of troops in the Swiss Army since the Second World War. It is the first time since the Second World War that the Federal Council has governed with emergency law for a long time . Timeline of major events Anniversary celebrations and national events - 1891: 600th anniversary - 1991: 700 years of the Swiss Confederation In addition to the anniversary celebrations, the Swiss national exhibitions and federal festivals such as the federal wrestling and alpine festivals and the Unspunnen festival are or were of national identity-creating importance. Order of entry of the cantons into the Confederation Uri Schwyz Unterwalden St. Gallen Graubünden Aargau Thurgau Ticino Vaud Valais Neuchâtel Geneva General recent literature: - Georg Kreis : Switzerland. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Marco Marcacci: Swiss Confederation. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Chronicle of Switzerland . (Red. Christian Schütt / Bernhard Pollmann). Chronicle, Dortmund / Ex Libris, Zurich 1987, ISBN 3-7178-0026-4 . - History of Switzerland and the Swiss. 4th edition. Schwabe, Basel 2006, ISBN 3-7965-2067-7 . - Handbook of Swiss History (collaborator: Hanno Helbling et al.). 2 volumes. Zurich 1972/1977, ISBN 3-85572-021-5 . - Historical lexicon of Switzerland . Schwabe, Basel 2002–2014. - Ulrich Im Hof : The Swiss Myth. Identity - Nation - History 1291–1991 . NZZ, Zurich 1991, ISBN 3-85823-270-X . - Ulrich Im Hof: History of Switzerland. With an afterword by Kaspar von Gruyères . Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-17-019912-5 . - Georg circle (ed.): The history of Switzerland. Schwabe, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-7965-2772-2 . - Thomas Maissen : History of Switzerland . Hier + now, Baden 2010, ISBN 978-3-03919-174-1 . - Thomas Maissen: Swiss hero stories - and what's behind them. Hier + Jetzt, Baden 2015, ISBN 978-3-03919-340-0 . - Otto Marchi : Swiss history for heretics or the wonderful emergence of the Swiss Confederation . Praeger, Zurich 1971 / Zytglogge, Bern 1981 / Rotpunktverlag, Zurich 1985, ISBN 3-85869-035-X . - Bruno Meier : From Morgarten to Marignano. What we know about the creation of the Swiss Confederation. Hier + Jetzt, Baden 2015, ISBN 978-3-03919-233-5 . - Helmut Meyer u. a .: Switzerland and its history . Lehrmittelverlag des Kantons Zürich , Zürich 1998, ISBN 3-906719-96-0 . - Volker Reinhardt : History of Switzerland. Beck, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-406-53601-8 . - Peter Stadler : Epochs in Swiss History . Orell Füssli, Zurich 2003, ISBN 3-280-06014-1 . - Jakob Tanner : History of Switzerland in the 20th Century. Beck, Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-406-68365-7 . Atlases and maps - Hektor Ammann , Karl Schib (Ed.): Historical Atlas of Switzerland . Sauerländer, Aarau 1958. - Jörg Rentsch, Dominik Sauerländer (eds.): Putzger. Historical world atlas - Swiss edition . Cornelsen, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-464-64404-9 . - Historical-biographical lexicon of Switzerland. Administration of the Historical-Biographical Lexicon of Switzerland, Neuchâtel 1921–1934. - Anton von spokesman, Markus Lutz : Complete geographic-statistical hand-lexicon of the Swiss Confederation . HR Sauerlaender, 1856 ( Google eBook ). Johannes Stumpf : Common praiseworthy Eydgnoſ creates Stetten Landen vnd Völckeren Chronik will bechreybung […] . 2 vols. Zurich: Christoph Froschauer 1547/48 ( digitized version), books 4–13. - The two-volume chronicle is divided into thirteen books: - 1st book: Europe - 2. Book: Germany ( Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation ) - 3rd book: France - 4th book: History of Switzerland from Julius Caesar to the establishment of the Confederation (according to Stumpf 1314) with a geographical overview. - 5th - 12th Book: Description of the Swiss districts and places . - 13th book: History of Switzerland from the founding of the Confederation (1314) to the present. - Facsimile edition: Winterthur: Schellenberg 1975. Edition: Ed .: Gagliardi, Müller, Büsser. Basel: Birkhäuser 1952–1955 (= sources on Swiss history. Section 1, Chronicles, N. F., 5–6). - The two-volume chronicle is divided into thirteen books: - Factual issues - Historical Association of the Five Places (ed.): Central Switzerland and the early Confederation. Anniversary publication 700 years of the Swiss Confederation. 2 volumes. Olten 1990. - In the eye of the hurricane. Federal power elites and the Thirty Years War. Edited by André Holenstein, Georg von Erlach and Sarah Rindlisbacher. Hier + Jetzt, Baden 2015, ISBN 978-3-03919-366-0 . - Roger Sablonier : Founding time without confederates. Politics and society in Central Switzerland around 1300. Hier + Jetzt, Baden 2008, ISBN 3-03919-085-7 . - Andres Furger: Switzerland between antiquity and the Middle Ages. NZZ Verlag, Zurich 1996, ISBN 3-85823-560-1 . - Alfred Kölz (Hrsg.): Source book on the recent Swiss constitutional history . 2 Bde. Stämpfli, Bern 1992–1996, ISBN 3-7272-9381-0 (Volume 1: From the end of the old Confederation to 1848 ) / ISBN 3-7272-9383-7 (Volume 2: From 1848 to the present ) . - Alfred Kölz: Modern Swiss constitutional history . 2 vols. Stämpfli, Bern 1992-2004, ISBN 3-7272-9380-2 . (Volume 1: Your basic lines from the end of the Old Confederation to 1848) / ISBN 3-7272-9455-8 (Volume 2: Your basic lines in the Confederation and cantons since 1848). - Hans Rudolf Kurz : Swiss battles . 2nd, revised and expanded edition. Francke, Bern 1977, pp. 165-171, ISBN 3-7720-1369-4 . - Bibliography of Swiss History (BSG) , published annually from 1913 onwards and in a database from 1975 onwards - infoclio.ch, the specialist portal for the history of Switzerland - Diplomatic documents of Switzerland (DDS) - Interactive electoral atlas on the Swiss National Council elections since 1919 - Swissworld, chapter "History" - SRG SSR Timeline, multimedia chronicle of Switzerland - Political Atlas of Switzerland - Christof Dipper : Switzerland - The Birth of Contemporary History from the Spirit of Crisis , Version: 1.0, in: Docupedia Contemporary History , March 22, 2011 - Roger Sablonier: Founding time without confederates. Politics and society in Central Switzerland around 1300. Baden 2008, p. 116ff. - Roger Sablonier: Founding time without confederates. Politics and society in Central Switzerland around 1300. Baden 2008, p. 163ff. - Marc Tribelhorn and Simon Teuscher: No people of free, noble farmers In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of January 13, 2018 - Roger Sablonier: Founding time without confederates. Politics and society in Central Switzerland around 1300. Baden 2008, p. 141ff. - See Thomas Maissen: Schweizer Heldengeschichten - and what's behind them. Baden 2015. - Maissen, Geschichte der Schweiz, pp. 123–125 - Ulrich Pfister: Witches. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Andreas Fankhauser: Helvetic Republic. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Déclaration des Puissances portant reconnaissance et garantie de la neutralité perpétuelle de la Suisse et de l'inviolabilité de son territoire, Paris, le 20 November 1815 - 1816 - The year without a summer on SRF from July 24, 2016 - Disaster in front of a blood-red evening sky in Tages-Anzeiger from April 6, 2015 - "1816 - the year without a summer": The discovery of the last famine in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung on January 4, 2016 - 1816 - the year without a summer: When nature upsets people's lives in Neue Zürcher Zeitung from June 1, 2016 - Frankenstein and Vampire: How the Tambora Explosion Inspires World Literature in Neue Zürcher Zeitung on June 7, 2016 - Dominic Pedrazzini: Napoleon III .. In: Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz . - Thomas Maissen : When Switzerland Succeeds in Revolution , NZZ, August 31, 2018 - Robin Schwarzenbach: Federal Councilor against General: In the middle of the Franco-German War, a dangerous power struggle breaks out in Switzerland In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of January 27, 2020 - admin.ch: Federal law regarding homelessness of December 3, 1850. - Rolf Wolfensberger: Homeless. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Marco Jorio: Die Sans-Papiers von 1850 , In: NZZ Geschichte , No. 27, March 2020, p. 110 - The long path of Swiss Jews to equality in the Berner Zeitung of January 13, 2016 - John Lang Hard: The anarchist movement in Switzerland from its beginnings to the present day and the international leader. Barsinghausen 2012 (Book on Demand). - "The screaming, groaning and groaning of the wounded sounded horrific" In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of June 8, 2020 - Jakob Messerli: Time systems. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . January 25, 2015 , accessed June 5, 2019 . - Marc Tribelhorn: The dawn of a new time - how Switzerland synchronized its clocks with the world 125 years ago In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of May 27, 2019 - At the same time, the term “Swiss” was generally used in northern Germany for the milkers employed on large farms . - Extract from Swiss history . After Karl Dändliker , completely reworked and continued by Max Bandle. 5th revised edition. Zurich 1977, p. 179 - Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, Moshe Schwartz: 1001 Facts Everyone Should Know about Israel . Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, ISBN 978-0-7425-4358-4 ( google.co.il [accessed January 16, 2020]). - Hans-Urs Wili : Federal Interventions. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Urs P. Engeler, Big Brother Switzerland, 1990 - Patrick Imhasly: The Spanish flu - a forgotten catastrophe In: NZZ on Sunday 6 January 2018 - see list of members of the Swiss Federal Council - Gaudenz Meili (script and direction): Treu und Glaube - 50 years peace agreement in the machine and metal industry (1988). Video streaming Condor-Film-AG, Zurich 1987. - Lukas Gschwend: Death penalty. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Federal Council (Switzerland) : Proclamation of the Federal Council and the parliamentary groups regarding neutrality. Swiss National Sound Archives , March 21, 1938, accessed on October 26, 2019 . - Proclamation of the Federal Council and the parliamentary groups regarding neutrality. (PDF) In: Stenographic Bulletin of the Federal Assembly. National Council (Switzerland), March 21, 1938, accessed October 26, 2019 . - Mauro Cerutti: World War II, Second, Section 6: Refugees. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Speech by the Federal President and extraordinary meeting of the Federal Councils and election of the general. National Council (Switzerland), August 28, 1939, accessed October 26, 2019 . - Hans Senn: World War II, Section 1.5: Switzerland affected by the military. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Jörg Krummenacher: Refugee Policy in World War II: Switzerland rejected more refugees than assumed In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of June 9, 2017 - Stefan Mächler: Switzerland in World War II: When the authorities closed the border, they knew what that meant for the rejected Jews In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of August 11, 2017 - ASMZ 2005, Sicherheit Schweiz: Allgemeine Schweizerische Militärzeitschrift, doi: 10.5169 / seals-69835 - Erich Aschwanden: 3700 soldiers surround rebellious Schwyzers In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of September 25, 2017 - Jörg Krummenacher: Swiss people also died in the Nazi concentration camps - there is no memorial for them yet In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of August 10, 2018. - Peer Teuwsen: Swiss concentration camp victims were forgotten for a long time. Now, for the first time, there is a secure list of victims In: NZZ on Sunday October 26, 2019 - Nazis killed over 200 Swiss people in concentration camps In: Blick online from October 27, 2019 - The concentration camp survived - and then spied on by Switzerland In: Blick online from October 28, 2019 - See http://www.gesetze.ch/sr/0.982.1/0.982.1_000.htm - Christoph Wehrli: Looking back - "Save what can be saved" In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of January 9, 2017 - Sabine Bitter: «I wanted to be part of this war». Retrieved April 13, 2018 . - Swiss Nazis - "My grandfather was a murderer" In: SRF from January 21, 2018 - www.hechingen4you.de: Bisingen concentration camp - The perpetrators - War criminals: The concentration camp leader with the Swiss passport: Johannes Pauli, a life with violence In: Bz Basel from May 31, 2020 - Eric Flury-Dasen: Cold War, Section 1: Foreign Policy and Foreign Trade. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/sr/0_193_501/index.html Statute of the International Court of Justice of June 26, 1945 - Marco Jorio: Nuclear weapons. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . - Christian Thumshirn: 60 years Hungarian Revolution: How recorded the Swiss Hungarian refugees in Neue Zürcher Zeitung on 22 October 2016 - Andreas Kley: Power of Attorney Regime. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . August 26, 2013 , accessed April 26, 2020 . - Thousands of Swiss women lost their civil rights by 1952 because they married foreigners In: watson.ch of July 14, 2019 - Silke Margherita Redolfi : The lost daughters 1st edition. Chronos-Verlag / 2019, ISBN 978-3-0340-1504-2 . - Marc Tribelhorn: Pope's visit: For the first time there is no dispute before the Holy Father comes to Switzerland In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of June 20, 2018 - Archived copy ( memento of the original dated August 22, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. - Sensitive deal with terrorists in Tages-Anzeiger from January 20, 2016 - Marcel Gyr: Up close and personal with terrorists , Neue Zürcher Zeitung of January 20, 2016. - Marcel Gyr: Swiss Terror Years Jean Ziegler's Secret Mission , Neue Zürcher Zeitung of January 20, 2016. - Swiss Terror Years: Del Ponte's strange role in the Würenlingen case in Neue Zürcher Zeitung of January 21, 2016 - Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 369. - The end of optimism - how the severe recession of the 1970s changed the political climate In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of May 18, 2020 - Beat Metzler: Closed societies In: Tages-Anzeiger from October 6, 2016 - Annual review 1985: Summit in Geneva on tagesschau.de - Missing cases: The lost children In: NZZ am Sonntag of October 2, 2015 - Archive link ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. - tagesschau.de: Right-wing populist Blocher not re-elected (tagesschau.de archive) - Christof Forster: "The termination initiative creates clarity". In: NZZ January 16, 2018. - persons - how it works and the current status. Federal Department of Foreign Affairs - Tobias Gafafer: "The neverending story of the framework agreement". In: NZZ, December 12, 2018 - Hansueli Schöchli: "Framework agreement between the EU and Switzerland: The five sticking points". In: NZZ, March 1, 2019 . - Gregory Rais, Yves Ammann: Reflections on the cyclical and structural development of the Swiss economy. In: BFS Aktuell, 4 Economics. Federal Statistical Office, Neuchâtel 2013, p. 4. ( Memento of the original dated September 23, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. - Albert Steck: "The boom is over again." In: NZZ on Sunday, March 3, 2019. - State Secretariat for Economic Affairs SECO: Free Trade Agreement, in force since July 1, 2014, bilateral Switzerland - China - Free trade between Switzerland and China: A hardly repeatable success in Neue Zürcher Zeitung of July 1, 2014 - The population of Switzerland 2012. Federal Statistical Office: Neuchâtel 2013 ( Memento of the original from June 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , P. 2 - Federal Statistical Office, Foreign Population - Federal Statistical Office, Key Figures 2017 - Population growth is accelerating. Over 8.5 million in 2019. In: NZZ, June 5, 2014. - Template No. 612.Swiss Federal Chancellery, May 21, 2017, accessed on May 21, 2017 . - Die Menschenversuche von Münsterlingen In: Observer - Drug tests in Münsterlingen: How senior physician “Daddy Long Leg” used his patients as guinea pigs In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of 23 September 2019 - Psychiatric Clinic Münsterlingen: Drug trials on up to 3000 patients In: St. Galler Tagblatt from 23 September 2019 - Drug tests on patients - Much more people affected than expected In: Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen from 23 September 2019 - Swiss authorities tolerated child trafficking in Sri Lanka In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of February 27, 2020 - The Federal Council bans major events due to the coronavirus - some cantons go further In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of February 28, 2020 - The Federal Council: Coronavirus - Federal Council declares the "extraordinary situation" and tightened the measures of March 17, 2020 - Largest troop contingent for an emergency since the Second World War In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung of March 17, 2020 - Andreas Tobler: The crux with historical objectivity. 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During later stages of World War II and post-war period from 1944 to 1950, Germans fled and were expelled to present-day Germany from Eastern Europe, which led to de-Germanisation there. The idea to expel the Germans from the annexed territories was proposed by Winston Churchill, in conjunction with the Polish and Czechoslovak exile governments in London at least since 1942. In late 1944 the Czechoslovak exile government pressed the Allies to espouse the principle of German population transfers. On the other hand, Polish prime minister Tomasz Arciszewski, in an interview for The Sunday Times on 17 December 1944, supported the annexation of Warmia-Masuria, Opole Regency, north-east parts of Lower Silesia (up to the Oder line), and parts of Pomerania (without Szczecin), but he opposed the idea of expulsion. He wanted to naturalise the Germans as Polish citizens and to assimilate them. Joseph Stalin, in concert with other communist leaders, planned to expel all ethnic Germans from east of the Oder and from lands which from May 1945 fell inside the Soviet occupation zones. In 1941, his government had already transported Germans from Crimea to Central Asia. Between 1944 and 1948, millions of people, including ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) and German citizens (Reichsdeutsche), were permanently or temporarily moved from Central and Eastern Europe. By 1950, a total of approximately 12 million Germans had fled or been expelled from east-central Europe into Germany. The West German government put the total at 14.6 million, including a million ethnic Germans who had settled in territories conquered by Nazi Germany during World War II, ethnic German migrants to Germany after 1950, and the children born to expelled parents. The largest numbers came from former eastern territories of Germany ceded to the People’s Republic of Poland and the Soviet Union (about seven million), and from Czechoslovakia (about three million). The areas affected included the former eastern territories of Germany, which were annexed by Poland (refer to Recovered Territories) and the Soviet Union after the war, as well as Germans who were living within the borders of the pre-war Second Polish Republic, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the Baltic States. The Nazis had made plans – only partially completed before the Nazi defeat – to remove many Slavic and Jewish people from Eastern Europe and settle the area with Germans. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions is disputed, with estimates ranging from 500,000-600,000 and up to 2 to 2.5 million. The removals occurred in three overlapping phases, the first of which was the organised evacuation of ethnic Germans by the Nazi government in the face of the advancing Red Army, from mid-1944 to early 1945. The second phase was the disorganised fleeing of ethnic Germans immediately following the Wehrmacht’s defeat. The third phase was a more organised expulsion following the Allied leaders’ Potsdam Agreement, which redefined the Central European borders and approved expulsions of ethnic Germans from the former German territories transferred to Poland, Russia and Czechoslovakia. Many German civilians were sent to internment and labour camps where they were used as forced labour as part of German reparations to countries in eastern Europe. The major expulsions were complete in 1950. Estimates for the total number of people of German ancestry still living in Central and Eastern Europe in 1950 range from 700,000 to 2.7 million. Before World War II, East-Central Europe generally lacked clearly shaped ethnic settlement areas. There were some ethnic-majority areas, but there were also vast mixed areas and abundant smaller pockets settled by various ethnicities. Within these areas of diversity, including the major cities of Central and Eastern Europe, regular interaction among various ethnic groups had taken place on a daily basis for centuries, while not always harmoniously, on every civic and economic level. With the rise of nationalism in the 19th century, the ethnicity of citizens became an issue in territorial claims, the self-perception/identity of states, and claims of ethnic superiority. The German Empire introduced the idea of ethnicity-based settlement in an attempt to ensure its territorial integrity. It was also the first modern European state to propose population transfers as a means of solving “nationality conflicts”, intending the removal of Poles and Jews from the projected post-World War I “Polish Border Strip” and its resettlement with Christian ethnic Germans. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire, and the German Empire at the end of World War I, the Treaty of Versailles pronounced the formation of several independent states in Central and Eastern Europe, in territories previously controlled by these imperial powers. None of the new states were ethnically homogeneous. After 1919, many ethnic Germans emigrated from the former imperial lands back to the Weimar Republic and the First Austrian Republic after losing their privileged status in those foreign lands, where they had maintained minority communities. In 1919 ethnic Germans became national minorities in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Romania. In the following years, the Nazi ideology encouraged them to demand local autonomy. In Germany during the 1930s, Nazi propaganda claimed that Germans elsewhere were subject to persecution. Nazi supporters throughout eastern Europe (Czechoslovakia’s Konrad Henlein, Poland’s Deutscher Volksverband and Jungdeutsche Partei, Hungary’s Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn) formed local Nazi political parties sponsored financially by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs, e.g. by Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle. However, by 1939 more than half of Polish Germans lived outside of the formerly German territories of Poland due to improving economic opportunities. During the Nazi German occupation, many citizens of German descent in Poland registered with the Deutsche Volksliste. Some were given important positions in the hierarchy of the Nazi administration, and some participated in Nazi atrocities, causing resentment towards German speakers in general. These facts were later used by the Allied politicians as one of the justifications for the expulsion of the Germans. The contemporary position of the German government is that, while the Nazi-era war crimes resulted in the expulsion of the Germans, the deaths due to the expulsions were an injustice. During the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, especially after the reprisals for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, most of the Czech resistance groups demanded that the “German problem” be solved by transfer/expulsion. These demands were adopted by the Czechoslovak government-in-exile, which sought the support of the Allies for this proposal, beginning in 1943. The final agreement for the transfer of the Germans was not reached until the Potsdam Conference. The expulsion policy was part of a geopolitical and ethnic reconfiguration of post-war Europe. In part, it was retribution for Nazi Germany’s initiation of the war and subsequent atrocities and ethnic cleansing in Nazi-occupied Europe. Allied leaders Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom, and Joseph Stalin of the USSR, had agreed in principle before the end of the war that the border of Poland’s territory would be moved west (though how far was not specified) and that the remaining ethnic German population were subject to expulsion. They assured the leaders of the émigré governments of Poland and Czechoslovakia, both occupied by Nazi Germany, of their support on this issue. Reasons and Justifications for the Expulsions Given the complex history of the affected regions and the divergent interests of the victorious Allied powers, it is difficult to ascribe a definitive set of motives to the expulsions. The respective paragraph of the Potsdam Agreement only states vaguely: “The Three Governments, having considered the question in all its aspects, recognize that the transfer to Germany of German populations, or elements thereof, remaining in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, will have to be undertaken. They agreed that any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner.” The major motivations revealed were: - A desire to create ethnically homogeneous nation-states: This is presented by several authors as a key issue that motivated the expulsions. - View of a German minority as potentially troublesome: From the Soviet perspective, shared by the communist administrations installed in Soviet-occupied Europe, the remaining large German populations outside post-war Germany were seen as a potentially troublesome ‘fifth column’ that would, because of its social structure, interfere with the envisioned Sovietisation of the respective countries. The Western allies also saw the threat of a potential German ‘fifth column’, especially in Poland after the agreed-to compensation with former German territory. In general, the Western allies hoped to secure a more lasting peace by eliminating the German minorities, which they thought could be done in a humane manner. The proposals from the Polish and Czech governments-in-exile to expel ethnic Germans after the war received support from Winston Churchill and Anthony Eden. - Another motivation was to punish the Germans: the Allies declared them collectively guilty of German war crimes. - Soviet political considerations: Stalin saw the expulsions as a means of creating antagonism between the Soviet satellite states and their neighbours. The satellite states would then need the protection of the Soviet Union. The expulsions served several practical purposes as well. Ethnically Homogeneous Nation-State The creation of ethnically homogeneous nation states in Central and Eastern Europe was presented as the key reason for the official decisions of the Potsdam and previous Allied conferences as well as the resulting expulsions. The principle of every nation inhabiting its own nation state gave rise to a series of expulsions and resettlements of Germans, Poles, Ukrainians and others who after the war found themselves outside their supposed home states. The 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey lent legitimacy to the concept. Churchill cited the operation as a success in a speech discussing the German expulsions. In view of the desire for ethnically homogeneous nation-states, it did not make sense to draw borders through regions that were already inhabited homogeneously by Germans without any minorities. As early as 09 September 1944, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and Polish communist Edward Osóbka-Morawski of the Polish Committee of National Liberation signed a treaty in Lublin on population exchanges of Ukrainians and Poles living on the “wrong” side of the Curzon Line. Many of the 2.1 million Poles expelled from the Soviet-annexed Kresy, so-called ‘repatriants’, were resettled to former German territories, then dubbed ‘Recovered Territories’. Czech Edvard Beneš, in his decree of 19 May 1945, termed ethnic Hungarians and Germans “unreliable for the state”, clearing a way for confiscations and expulsions. View of German Minorities as Potential Fifth Columns Distrust and Enmity One of the reasons given for the population transfer of Germans from the former eastern territories of Germany was the claim that these areas had been a stronghold of the Nazi movement. Neither Stalin nor the other influential advocates of this argument required that expellees be checked for their political attitudes or their activities. Even in the few cases when this happened and expellees were proven to have been bystanders, opponents or even victims of the Nazi regime, they were rarely spared from expulsion. Polish Communist propaganda used and manipulated hatred of the Nazis to intensify the expulsions. With German communities living within the pre-war borders of Poland, there was an expressed fear of disloyalty of Germans in Eastern Upper Silesia and Pomerelia, based on wartime Nazi activities. Created on order of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, a Nazi ethnic German organisation called Selbstschutz carried out executions during Intelligenzaktion alongside operational groups of German military and police, in addition to such activities as identifying Poles for execution and illegally detaining them. To Poles, expulsion of Germans was seen as an effort to avoid such events in the future. As a result, Polish exile authorities proposed a population transfer of Germans as early as 1941. The Czechoslovak government-in-exile worked with the Polish government-in-exile towards this end during the war. Preventing Ethnic Violence The participants at the Potsdam Conference asserted that expulsions were the only way to prevent ethnic violence. As Winston Churchill expounded in the House of Commons in 1944, “Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble… A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by the prospect of disentanglement of populations, not even of these large transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions than they have ever been before”. Polish resistance fighter, statesman and courier Jan Karski warned President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1943 of the possibility of Polish reprisals, describing them as “unavoidable” and “an encouragement for all the Germans in Poland to go west, to Germany proper, where they belong.” Punishment for Nazi Crimes The expulsions were also driven by a desire for retribution, given the brutal way German occupiers treated non-German civilians in the German-occupied territories during the war. Thus, the expulsions were at least partly motivated by the animus engendered by the war crimes and atrocities perpetrated by the German belligerents and their proxies and supporters.Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš, in the National Congress, justified the expulsions on 28 October 1945 by stating that the majority of Germans had acted in full support of Hitler; during a ceremony in remembrance of the Lidice massacre, he blamed all Germans as responsible for the actions of the German state. In Poland and Czechoslovakia, newspapers, leaflets and politicians across the political spectrum, which narrowed during the post-war Communist take-over, asked for retribution for wartime German activities. Responsibility of the German population for the crimes committed in its name was also asserted by commanders of the late and post-war Polish military. Karol Świerczewski, commander of the Second Polish Army, briefed his soldiers to “exact on the Germans what they enacted on us, so they will flee on their own and thank God they saved their lives.” In Poland, which had suffered the loss of six million citizens, including its elite and almost its entire Jewish population due to Lebensraum and the Holocaust, most Germans were seen as Nazi-perpetrators who could now finally be collectively punished for their past deeds. Soviet Political Considerations Stalin, who had earlier directed several population transfers in the Soviet Union, strongly supported the expulsions, which worked to the Soviet Union’s advantage in several ways. The satellite states would now feel the need to be protected by the Soviets from German anger over the expulsions. The assets left by expellees in Poland and Czechoslovakia were successfully used to reward cooperation with the new governments, and support for the Communists was especially strong in areas that had seen significant expulsions. Settlers in these territories welcomed the opportunities presented by their fertile soils and vacated homes and enterprises, increasing their loyalty. Movements in the Later Stages of the War Evacuation and Flight to Areas within Present-Day Germany Late in the war, as the Red Army advanced westward, many Germans were apprehensive about the impending Soviet occupation. Most were aware of the Soviet reprisals against German civilians. Soviet soldiers committed numerous rapes and other crimes. News of atrocities such as the Nemmersdorf massacre were exaggerated and disseminated by the Nazi propaganda machine. Plans to evacuate the ethnic German population westward into present-day Germany, from Poland and the (former) eastern territories of Germany, were prepared by various Nazi authorities toward the end of the war. In most cases, implementation was delayed until Soviet and Allied forces had defeated the German forces and advanced into the areas to be evacuated. The abandonment of millions of ethnic Germans in these vulnerable areas until combat conditions overwhelmed them can be attributed directly to the measures taken by the Nazis against anyone suspected of ‘defeatist’ attitudes (as evacuation was considered) and the fanaticism of many Nazi functionaries in their execution of Hitler’s ‘no retreat’ orders. The first exodus of German civilians from the eastern territories was composed of both spontaneous flight and organised evacuation, starting in mid-1944 and continuing until early 1945. Conditions turned chaotic during the winter when kilometres-long queues of refugees pushed their carts through the snow trying to stay ahead of the advancing Red Army. Refugee treks which came within reach of the advancing Soviets suffered casualties when targeted by low-flying aircraft, and some people were crushed by tanks. The German Federal Archive has estimated that 100-120,000 civilians (1% of the total population) were killed during the flight and evacuations. Polish historians Witold Sienkiewicz and Grzegorz Hryciuk maintain that civilian deaths in the flight and evacuation were “between 600,000 and 1.2 million. The main causes of death were cold, stress, and bombing.” The mobilised Strength Through Joy liner, Wilhelm Gustloff, was sunk in January 1945 by Soviet Navy submarine S-13, killing about 9,000 civilians and military personnel escaping East Prussia in the largest loss of life in a single ship sinking in history. Many refugees tried to return home when the fighting ended. Before 01 June 1945, 400,000 people crossed back over the Oder and Neisse rivers eastward, before Soviet and Polish communist authorities closed the river crossings; another 800,000 entered Silesia through Czechoslovakia. In accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, at the end of 1945 – wrote Hahn & Hahn – 4.5 million Germans who had fled or been expelled were under the control of the Allied governments. From 1946-1950 around 4.5 million people were brought to Germany in organised mass transports from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. An additional 2.6 million released POWs were listed as expellees. Evacuation and Flight to Denmark From the Baltic coast, many soldiers and civilians were evacuated by ship in the course of Operation Hannibal. Between 23 January and 05 May 1945, up to 250,000 Germans, primarily from East Prussia, Pomerania, and the Baltic states, were evacuated to Nazi-occupied Denmark, based on an order issued by Hitler on 04 February 1945. When the war ended, the German refugee population in Denmark amounted to 5% of the total Danish population. The evacuation focused on women, the elderly and children – a third of whom were under the age of fifteen. After the war, the Germans were interned in several hundred refugee camps throughout Denmark, the largest of which was the Oksbøl Refugee Camp with 37,000 inmates. The camps were guarded by Danish Defence units. The situation eased after 60 Danish clergymen spoke in defence of the refugees in an open letter, and Social Democrat Johannes Kjærbøl took over the administration of the refugees on 6 September 1945. On 09 May 1945, the Red Army occupied the island of Bornholm; between 09 May and 01 June 1945, the Soviets shipped 3,000 refugees and 17,000 Wehrmacht soldiers from there to Kolberg. In 1945, 13,492 German refugees died, among them 7,000 children under five years of age. According to Danish physician and historian Kirsten Lylloff, these deaths were partially due to denial of medical care by Danish medical staff, as both the Danish Association of Doctors and the Danish Red Cross began refusing medical treatment to German refugees starting in March 1945. The last refugees left Denmark on 15 February 1949. In the Treaty of London, signed 26 February 1953, West Germany and Denmark agreed on compensation payments of 160 million Danish kroner for its extended care of the refugees, which West Germany paid between 1953 and 1958. Following Germany’s Defeat The Second World War ended in Europe with Germany’s defeat on 08 May 1945. By this time, all of Eastern and much of Central Europe was under Soviet occupation. This included most of the historical German settlement areas, as well as the Soviet occupation zone in eastern Germany. The Allies settled on the terms of occupation, the territorial truncation of Germany, and the expulsion of ethnic Germans from post-war Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary to the Allied Occupation Zones in the Potsdam Agreement, drafted during the Potsdam Conference between 17 July and 02 August 1945. Article XII of the agreement is concerned with the expulsions and reads: The Three Governments, having considered the question in all its aspects, recognise that the transfer to Germany of German populations, or elements thereof, remaining in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, will have to be undertaken. They agree that any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner. The agreement further called for equal distribution of the transferred Germans for resettlement among American, British, French and Soviet occupation zones comprising post-World War II Germany. Expulsions that took place before the Allies agreed on the terms at Potsdam are referred to as “irregular” expulsions (Wilde Vertreibungen). They were conducted by military and civilian authorities in Soviet-occupied post-war Poland and Czechoslovakia in the first half of 1945. In Yugoslavia, the remaining Germans were not expelled; ethnic German villages were turned into internment camps where over 50,000 perished from deliberate starvation and direct murders by Yugoslav guards. In late 1945 the Allies requested a temporary halt to the expulsions, due to the refugee problems created by the expulsion of Germans. While expulsions from Czechoslovakia were temporarily slowed, this was not true in Poland and the former eastern territories of Germany. Sir Geoffrey Harrison, one of the drafters of the cited Potsdam article, stated that the “purpose of this article was not to encourage or legalise the expulsions, but rather to provide a basis for approaching the expelling states and requesting them to co-ordinate transfers with the Occupying Powers in Germany. After Potsdam, a series of expulsions of ethnic Germans occurred throughout the Soviet-controlled Eastern European countries. Property and materiel in the affected territory that had belonged to Germany or to Germans was confiscated; it was either transferred to the Soviet Union, nationalised, or redistributed among the citizens. Of the many post-war forced migrations, the largest was the expulsion of ethnic Germans from Central and Eastern Europe, primarily from the territory of 1937 Czechoslovakia (which included the historically German-speaking area in the Sudeten mountains along the German-Czech-Polish border (Sudetenland)), and the territory that became post-war Poland. Poland’s post-war borders were moved west to the Oder-Neisse line, deep into former German territory and within 80 kilometres of Berlin. Polish refugees from the Soviet Union were resettled in the former German territories that were awarded to Poland after the war. During and after the war, 2,208,000 Poles fled or were expelled from the eastern Polish regions that were annexed by the USSR; 1,652,000 of these refugees were resettled in the former German territories. Refer to Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after WWII. The final agreement for the transfer of the Germans was reached at the Potsdam Conference. According to the West German Schieder commission, there were 4.5 million German civilians present in Bohemia-Moravia in May 1945, including 100,000 from Slovakia and 1.6 million refugees from Poland. Between 700,000 and 800,000 Germans were affected by irregular expulsions between May and August 1945. The expulsions were encouraged by Czechoslovak politicians and were generally executed by order of local authorities, mostly by groups of armed volunteers and the army. Transfers of population under the Potsdam agreements lasted from January until October 1946. 1.9 million ethnic Germans were expelled to the American zone, part of what would become West Germany. More than 1 million were expelled to the Soviet zone, which later became East Germany. About 250,000 ethnic Germans were allowed to remain in Czechoslovakia. According to the West German Schieder commission 250,000 persons who had declared German nationality in the 1939 Nazi census remained in Czechoslovakia; however the Czechs counted 165,790 Germans remaining in December 1955. Male Germans with Czech wives were expelled, often with their spouses, while ethnic German women with Czech husbands were allowed to stay. According to the Schieder commission, Sudeten Germans considered essential to the economy were held as forced labourers. The West German government estimated the expulsion death toll at 273,000 civilians, and this figure is cited in historical literature. However, in 1995, research by a joint German and Czech commission of historians found that the previous demographic estimates of 220,000 to 270,000 deaths to be overstated and based on faulty information. They concluded that the death toll was between 15,000 and 30,000 dead, assuming that not all deaths were reported. The German Red Cross Search Service (Suchdienst) confirmed the deaths of 18,889 people during the expulsions from Czechoslovakia (Violent deaths 5,556; Suicides 3,411; Deported 705; In camps 6,615; During the wartime flight 629; After wartime flight 1,481; Cause undetermined 379; Other misc. 73). In contrast to expulsions from other nations or states, the expulsion of the Germans from Hungary was dictated from outside Hungary. It began on 22 December 1944 when the Soviet Red Army Commander-in-Chief ordered the expulsions. In February 1945 the Soviet-dominated Allied Control Commission ordered the Hungarian Ministry of Interior to compile lists of all ethnic Germans living in the country. Initially the Census Bureau refused to divulge information on Hungarians who had registered as Volksdeutsche, but acceded under pressure from the Hungarian State Protection Authority. Three percent of the German pre-war population (about 20,000 people) had been evacuated by the Volksbund before that. They went to Austria, but many had returned. Overall, 60,000 ethnic Germans had fled. According to the West German Schieder commission report of 1956, in early 1945 between 30-35,000 ethnic German civilians and 30,000 military POW were arrested and transported from Hungary to the Soviet Union as forced labourers. In some villages, the entire adult population was taken to labour camps in the Donbass. 6,000 died there as a result of hardships and ill-treatment. Data from the Russian archives, which was based on an actual enumeration, put the number of ethnic Germans registered by the Soviets in Hungary at 50,292 civilians, of whom 31,923 were deported to the USSR for reparations labour implementing the Order 7161. 9% (2,819) were documented as having died. In 1945, official Hungarian figures showed 477,000 German speakers in Hungary, including German-speaking Jews, 303,000 of whom had declared German nationality. Of the German nationals, 33% were children younger than 12 or elderly people over 60; 51% were women. On 29 December 1945, the post-war Hungarian Government, obeying the directions of the Potsdam Conference agreements, ordered the expulsion of anyone identified as German in the 1941 census, or had been a member of the Volksbund, the SS, or any other armed German organisation. Accordingly, mass expulsions began. The rural population was affected more than the urban population or those ethnic Germans determined to have needed skills, such as miners. Germans married to Hungarians were not expelled, regardless of sex. The first 5,788 expellees departed Wudersch on 19 January 1946. About 180,000 German-speaking Hungarian citizens were stripped of their citizenship and possessions, and expelled to the Western zones of Germany. By July 1948, 35,000 others had been expelled to the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. Most of the expellees found new homes in the south-west German province of Baden-Württemberg, but many others settled in Bavaria and Hesse. Other research indicates that, between 1945 and 1950, 150,000 were expelled to western Germany, 103,000 to Austria, and none to eastern Germany. During the expulsions, numerous organized protest demonstrations by the Hungarian population took place. Acquisition of land for distribution to Hungarian refugees and nationals was one of the main reasons stated by the government for the expulsion of the ethnic Germans from Hungary. The botched organisation of the redistribution led to social tensions. 22,445 people were identified as German in the 1949 census. An order of 15 June 1948 halted the expulsions. A governmental decree of 25 March 1950 declared all expulsion orders void, allowing the expellees to return if they so wished. After the fall of Communism in the early 1990s, German victims of expulsion and Soviet forced labour were rehabilitated. Post-Communist laws allowed expellees to be compensated, to return, and to buy property. There were reportedly no tensions between Germany and Hungary regarding expellees. In 1958, the West German government estimated, based on a demographic analysis, that by 1950, 270,000 Germans remained in Hungary; 60,000 had been assimilated into the Hungarian population, and there were 57,000 “unresolved cases” that remained to be clarified. The editor for the section of the 1958 report for Hungary was Wilfried Krallert, a scholar dealing with Balkan affairs since the 1930s when he was a Nazi Party member. During the war, he was an officer in the SS and was directly implicated in the plundering of cultural artifacts in eastern Europe. After the war, he was chosen to author the sections of the demographic report on the expulsions from Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The figure of 57,000 “unresolved cases” in Hungary is included in the figure of 2 million dead expellees, which is often cited in official German and historical literature. Refer to Operation Black Tulip (1945). After World War II, the Dutch government decided to expel the German expatriates (25,000) living in the Netherlands. Germans, including those with Dutch spouses and children, were labelled as “hostile subjects” (“vijandelijke onderdanen”). The operation began on 10 September 1946 in Amsterdam, when German expatriates and their families were arrested at their homes in the middle of the night and given one hour to pack 50 kg of luggage. They were only allowed to take 100 guilders with them. The remainder of their possessions were seized by the state. They were taken to internment camps near the German border, the largest of which was Mariënbosch concentration camp, near Nijmegen. About 3,691 Germans (less than 15% of the total number of German expatriates in the Netherlands) were expelled. The Allied forces occupying the Western zone of Germany opposed this operation, fearing that other nations might follow suit. Poland, including Former German Territories Refer to Flight and Expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II and Recovered Territories. Throughout 1944 until May 1945, as the Red Army advanced through Eastern Europe and the provinces of eastern Germany, some German civilians were killed in the fighting. While many had already fled ahead of the advancing Soviet Army, frightened by rumours of Soviet atrocities, which in some cases were exaggerated and exploited by Nazi Germany’s propaganda, millions still remained. A 2005 study by the Polish Academy of Sciences estimated that during the final months of the war, 4 to 5 million German civilians fled with the retreating German forces, and in mid-1945, 4.5 to 4.6 million Germans remained in the territories under Polish control. By 1950, 3,155,000 had been transported to Germany, 1,043,550 were naturalised as Polish citizens and 170,000 Germans still remained in Poland. According to the West German Schieder commission of 1953, 5,650,000 Germans remained in what would become Poland’s new borders in mid-1945, 3,500,000 had been expelled and 910,000 remained in Poland by 1950. According to the Schieder commission, the civilian death toll was 2 million; in 1974, the German Federal Archives estimated the death toll at about 400,000 (The controversy regarding the casualty figures is covered below in the section on casualties). During the 1945 military campaign, most of the male German population remaining east of the Oder–Neisse line were considered potential combatants and held by Soviet military in detention camps subject to verification by the NKVD. Members of Nazi party organisations and government officials were segregated and sent to the USSR for forced labour as reparations. In mid-1945, the eastern territories of pre-war Germany were turned over to the Soviet-controlled Polish military forces. Early expulsions were undertaken by the Polish Communist military authorities even before the Potsdam Conference placed them under temporary Polish administration pending the final Peace Treaty, in an effort to ensure later territorial integration into an ethnically homogeneous Poland. The Polish Communists wrote: “We must expel all the Germans because countries are built on national lines and not on multinational ones.” The Polish government defined Germans as either Reichsdeutsche, people enlisted in first or second Volksliste groups; or those who held German citizenship. Around 1,165,000 German citizens of Slavic descent were “verified” as “autochthonous” Poles. Of these, most were not expelled; but many chose to migrate to Germany between 1951-1982, including most of the Masurians of East Prussia. At the Potsdam Conference (17 July to 02 August 1945), the territory to the east of the Oder–Neisse line was assigned to Polish and Soviet Union administration pending the final peace treaty. All Germans had their property confiscated and were placed under restrictive jurisdiction. The Silesian voivode Aleksander Zawadzki in part had already expropriated the property of the German Silesians on 26 January 1945, another decree of 2 March expropriated that of all Germans east of the Oder and Neisse, and a subsequent decree of 06 May declared all “abandoned” property as belonging to the Polish state. Germans were also not permitted to hold Polish currency, the only legal currency since July, other than earnings from work assigned to them. The remaining population faced theft and looting, and also in some instances rape and murder by the criminal elements, crimes that were rarely prevented nor prosecuted by the Polish Militia Forces and newly installed communist judiciary. In mid-1945, 4.5 to 4.6 million Germans resided in territory east of the Oder-Neisse Line. By early 1946, 550,000 Germans had already been expelled from there, and 932,000 had been verified as having Polish nationality. In the February 1946 census, 2,288,000 people were classified as Germans and subject to expulsion, and 417,400 were subject to verification action, to determine nationality. The negatively verified people, who did not succeed in demonstrating their “Polish nationality”, were directed for resettlement. Those Polish citizens who had collaborated or were believed to have collaborated with the Nazis, were considered “traitors of the nation” and sentenced to forced labour prior to being expelled. By 1950, 3,155,000 German civilians had been expelled and 1,043,550 were naturalised as Polish citizens. 170,000 Germans considered “indispensable” for the Polish economy were retained until 1956, although almost all had left by 1960. 200,000 Germans in Poland were employed as forced labour in communist-administered camps prior to being expelled from Poland. These included Central Labour Camp Jaworzno, Central Labour Camp Potulice, Łambinowice and Zgoda labour camp. Besides these large camps, numerous other forced labour, punitive and internment camps, urban ghettos and detention centres, sometimes consisting only of a small cellar, were set up. The German Federal Archives estimated in 1974 that more than 200,000 German civilians were interned in Polish camps; they put the death rate at 20-50% and estimated that over 60,000 probably died. Polish historians Witold Sienkiewicz and Grzegorz Hryciuk maintain that the internment: resulted in numerous deaths, which cannot be accurately determined because of lack of statistics or falsification. At certain periods, they could be in the tens of percent of the inmate numbers. Those interned are estimated at 200-250,000 German nationals and the indigenous population and deaths might range from 15,000 to 60,000 persons.” Note: The indigenous population were former German citizens who declared Polish ethnicity. Historian R.M. Douglas describes a chaotic and lawless regime in the former German territories in the immediate post-war era. The local population was victimised by criminal elements who arbitrarily seized German property for personal gain. Bilingual people who were on the Volksliste during the war were declared Germans by Polish officials who then seized their property for personal gain. The Federal Statistical Office of Germany estimated that in mid-1945, 250,000 Germans remained in the northern part of the former East Prussia, which became the Kaliningrad Oblast. They also estimated that more than 100,000 people surviving the Soviet occupation were evacuated to Germany beginning in 1947. German civilians were held as “reparations labour” by the USSR. Data from the Russian archives, newly published in 2001 and based on an actual enumeration, put the number of German civilians deported from Poland to the USSR in early 1945 for reparations labour at 155,262; 37% (57,586) died in the USSR. The West German Red Cross had estimated in 1964 that 233,000 German civilians were deported to the USSR from Poland as forced laborers and that 45% (105,000) were dead or missing. The West German Red Cross estimated at that time that 110,000 German civilians were held as forced labour in the Kaliningrad Oblast, where 50,000 were dead or missing. The Soviets deported 7,448 Poles of the Armia Krajowa from Poland. Soviet records indicated that 506 Poles died in captivity. Tomasz Kamusella maintains that in early 1945, 165,000 Germans were transported to the Soviet Union. According to Gerhardt Reichling, an official in the German Finance office, 520,000 German civilians from the Oder-Neisse region were conscripted for forced labor by both the USSR and Poland; he maintains that 206,000 perished. The attitudes of surviving Poles varied. Many had suffered brutalities and atrocities by the Germans, surpassed only by the German policies against Jews, during the Nazi occupation. The Germans had recently expelled more than a million Poles from territories they annexed during the war. Some Poles engaged in looting and various crimes, including murders, beatings, and rapes against Germans. On the other hand, in many instances Poles, including some who had been made slave laborers by the Germans during the war, protected Germans, for instance by disguising them as Poles. Moreover, in the Opole (Oppeln) region of Upper Silesia, citizens who claimed Polish ethnicity were allowed to remain, even though some, not all, had uncertain nationality, or identified as ethnic Germans. Their status as a national minority was accepted in 1955, along with state subsidies, with regard to economic assistance and education. The attitude of Soviet soldiers was ambiguous. Many committed atrocities, most notably rape and murder, and did not always distinguish between Poles and Germans, mistreating them equally. Other Soviets were taken aback by the brutal treatment of the German civilians and tried to protect them Richard Overy cites an approximate total of 7.5 million Germans evacuated, migrated, or expelled from Poland between 1944 and 1950. Tomasz Kamusella cites estimates of 7 million expelled in total during both the “wild” and “legal” expulsions from the recovered territories from 1945 to 1948, plus an additional 700,000 from areas of pre-war Poland. Refer to Deportation of Germans from Romania after World War II. The ethnic German population of Romania in 1939 was estimated at 786,000. In 1940 Bessarabia and Bukovina were occupied by the USSR, and the ethnic German population of 130,000 was deported to German-held territory during the Nazi-Soviet population transfers and 80,000 from Romania. 140,000 of these Germans were resettled in German-occupied Poland; in 1945 they were caught up in the flight and expulsion from Poland. Most of the ethnic Germans in Romania resided in Transylvania, the northern part of which was annexed by Hungary during World War II. The pro-German Hungarian government, as well as the pro-German Romanian government of Ion Antonescu allowed Germany to enlist the German population in Nazi-sponsored organisations. During the war 54,000 of the male population was conscripted by Nazi Germany, many into the Waffen-SS. In mid-1944 roughly 100,000 Germans fled from Romania with the retreating German forces. According to the West German Schieder commission report of 1957, 75,000 German civilians were deported to the USSR as forced labour and 15% (approximately 10,000) did not return. Data from the Russian archives which was based on an actual enumeration put the number of ethnic Germans registered by the Soviets in Romania at 421,846 civilians, of whom 67,332 were deported to the USSR for reparations labour, and that 9% (6,260) died. The roughly 400,000 ethnic Germans who remained in Romania were treated as guilty of collaboration with Nazi Germany and were deprived of their civil liberties and property. Many were impressed into forced labour and deported from their homes to other regions of Romania. In 1948, Romania began a gradual rehabilitation of the ethnic Germans: they were not expelled, and the communist regime gave them the status of a national minority, the only Eastern Bloc country to do so. In 1958 the West German government estimated, based on a demographic analysis, that by 1950, 253,000 were counted as expellees in Germany or the West, 400,000 Germans still remained in Romania, 32,000 had been assimilated into the Romanian population, and that there were 101,000 “unresolved cases” that remained to be clarified. The figure of 101,000 “unresolved cases” in Romania is included in the total German expulsion dead of 2 million which is often cited in historical literature. 355,000 Germans remained in Romania in 1977. During the 1980s many began to leave, with over 160,000 leaving in 1989 alone. By 2002, the number of ethnic Germans in Romania was 60,000. Soviet Union and Annexed Territories Refer to Evacuation of East Prussia (1945). The Baltic, Bessarabian and ethnic Germans in areas that became Soviet-controlled following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 were resettled to Nazi Germany, including annexed areas like Warthegau, during the Nazi-Soviet population exchange. Only a few returned to their former homes when Germany invaded the Soviet Union and temporarily gained control of those areas. These returnees were employed by the Nazi occupation forces to establish a link between the German administration and the local population. Those resettled elsewhere shared the fate of the other Germans in their resettlement area. The ethnic German minority in the USSR was considered a security risk by the Soviet government, and they were deported during the war in order to prevent their possible collaboration with the Nazi invaders. In August 1941 the Soviet government ordered ethnic Germans to be deported from the European USSR, by early 1942, 1,031,300 Germans were interned in “special settlements” in Central Asia and Siberia. Life in the special settlements was harsh and severe, food was limited, and the deported population was governed by strict regulations. Shortages of food plagued the whole Soviet Union and especially the special settlements. According to data from the Soviet archives, by October 1945, 687,300 Germans remained alive in the special settlements; an additional 316,600 Soviet Germans served as labour conscripts during World War II. Soviet Germans were not accepted in the regular armed forces but were employed instead as conscript labour. The labour army members were arranged into worker battalions that followed camp-like regulations and received Gulag rations. In 1945 the USSR deported to the special settlements 203,796 Soviet ethnic Germans who had been previously resettled by Germany in Poland. These post-war deportees increased the German population in the special settlements to 1,035,701 by 1949. According to J. Otto Pohl, 65,599 Germans perished in the special settlements. He believes that an additional 176,352 unaccounted for people “probably died in the labour army”. Under Stalin, Soviet Germans continued to be confined to the special settlements under strict supervision, in 1955 they were rehabilitated but were not allowed to return to the European USSR. The Soviet-German population grew despite deportations and forced labour during the war; in the 1939 Soviet census the German population was 1.427 million. By 1959 it had increased to 1.619 million. The calculations of the West German researcher Gerhard Reichling do not agree to the figures from the Soviet archives. According to Reichling a total of 980,000 Soviet ethnic Germans were deported during the war; he estimated that 310,000 died in forced labour. During the early months of the invasion of the USSR in 1941 the Germans occupied the western regions of the USSR that had German settlements. A total of 370,000 ethnic Germans from the USSR were deported to Poland by Germany during the war. In 1945 the Soviets found 280,000 of these resettlers in Soviet-held territory and returned them to the USSR; 90,000 became refugees in Germany after the war. Those ethnic Germans who remained in the 1939 borders of the Soviet Union occupied by Nazi Germany in 1941 remained where they were until 1943, when the Red Army liberated Soviet territory and the Wehrmacht withdrew westward. From January 1943, most of these ethnic Germans moved in treks to the Warthegau or to Silesia, where they were to settle. Between 250,000 and 320,000 had reached Nazi Germany by the end of 1944. On their arrival, they were placed in camps and underwent ‘racial evaluation’ by the Nazi authorities, who dispersed those deemed ‘racially valuable’ as farm workers in the annexed provinces, while those deemed to be of “questionable racial value” were sent to work in Germany. The Red Army captured these areas in early 1945, and 200,000 Soviet Germans had not yet been evacuated by the Nazi authorities, who were still occupied with their ‘racial evaluation’. They were regarded by the USSR as Soviet citizens and repatriated to camps and special settlements in the Soviet Union. 70,000 to 80,000 who found themselves in the Soviet occupation zone after the war were also returned to the USSR, based on an agreement with the Western Allies. The death toll during their capture and transportation was estimated at 15% to 30%, and many families were torn apart. The special “German settlements” in the post-war Soviet Union were controlled by the Internal Affairs Commissioner, and the inhabitants had to perform forced labour until the end of 1955. They were released from the special settlements by an amnesty decree of 13 September 1955, and the Nazi collaboration charge was revoked by a decree of 23 August 1964. They were not allowed to return to their former homes and remained in the eastern regions of the USSR, and no individual’s former property was restored. Since the 1980s, the Soviet and Russian governments have allowed ethnic Germans to emigrate to Germany. Different situations emerged in northern East Prussia regarding Königsberg (renamed Kaliningrad) and the adjacent Memel territory around Memel (Klaipėda). The Königsberg area of East Prussia was annexed by the Soviet Union, becoming an exclave of the Russian Soviet Republic. Memel was integrated into the Lithuanian Soviet Republic. Many Germans were evacuated from East Prussia and the Memel territory by Nazi authorities during Operation Hannibal or fled in panic as the Red Army approached. The remaining Germans were conscripted for forced labour. Ethnic Russians and the families of military staff were settled in the area. In June 1946, 114,070 Germans and 41,029 Soviet citizens were registered as living in the Kaliningrad Oblast, with an unknown number of unregistered Germans ignored. Between June 1945 and 1947, roughly half a million Germans were expelled. Between 24 August and 26 October 1948, 21 transports with a total of 42,094 Germans left the Kaliningrad Oblast for the Soviet Occupation Zone. The last remaining Germans were expelled between November 1949 (1,401 people) and January 1950 (7). Thousands of German children, called the “wolf children”, had been left orphaned and unattended or died with their parents during the harsh winter without food. Between 1945-1947, around 600,000 Soviet citizens settled in the oblast. Before World War II, roughly 500,000 German-speaking people (mostly Danube Swabians) lived in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Most fled during the war or emigrated after 1950, thanks to the “displaced persons” act (of 1948); some were able to emigrate to the United States. During the final months of World War II a majority of the ethnic Germans fled Yugoslavia with the retreating Nazi forces. After the liberation, Yugoslav Partisans exacted revenge on ethnic Germans for the wartime atrocities of Nazi Germany, in which many ethnic Germans had participated, especially in the Banat area of the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia. The approximately 200,000 ethnic Germans remaining in Yugoslavia suffered persecution and sustained personal and economic losses. About 7,000 were killed as local populations and partisans took revenge for German wartime atrocities. From 1945-1948 ethnic Germans were held in labour camps where about 50,000 perished. Those surviving were allowed to emigrate to Germany after 1948. According to West German figures in late 1944 the Soviets transported 27,000 to 30,000 ethnic Germans, a majority of whom were women aged 18 to 35, to Ukraine and the Donbass for forced labour; about 20% (5,683) were reported dead or missing. Data from Russian archives published in 2001, based on an actual enumeration, put the number of German civilians deported from Yugoslavia to the USSR in early 1945 for reparations labour at 12,579, where 16% (1,994) died. After March 1945, a second phase began in which ethnic Germans were massed into villages such as Gakowa and Kruševlje that were converted into labour camps. All furniture was removed, straw placed on the floor, and the expellees housed like animals under military guard, with minimal food and rampant, untreated disease. Families were divided into the unfit women, old, and children, and those fit for slave labour. A total of 166,970 ethnic Germans were interned, and 48,447 (29%) perished. The camp system was shut down in March 1948. In Slovenia, the ethnic German population at the end of World War II was concentrated in Slovenian Styria, more precisely in Maribor, Celje, and a few other smaller towns (like Ptuj and Dravograd), and in the rural area around Apače on the Austrian border. The second-largest ethnic German community in Slovenia was the predominantly rural Gottschee County around Kočevje in Lower Carniola, south of Ljubljana. Smaller numbers of ethnic Germans also lived in Ljubljana and in some western villages in the Prekmurje region. In 1931, the total number of ethnic Germans in Slovenia was around 28,000: around half of them lived in Styria and in Prekmurje, while the other half lived in the Gottschee County and in Ljubljana. In April 1941, southern Slovenia was occupied by Italian troops. By early 1942, ethnic Germans from Gottschee/Kočevje were forcefully transferred to German-occupied Styria by the new German authorities. Most resettled to the Posavje region (a territory along the Sava river between the towns of Brežice and Litija), from where around 50,000 Slovenes had been expelled. Gottschee Germans were generally unhappy about their forced transfer from their historical home region. One reason was that the agricultural value of their new area of settlement was perceived as much lower than the Gottschee area. As German forces retreated before the Yugoslav Partisans, most ethnic Germans fled with them in fear of reprisals. By May 1945, only a few Germans remained, mostly in the Styrian towns of Maribor and Celje. The Liberation Front of the Slovenian People expelled most of the remainder after it seized complete control in the region in May 1945. The Yugoslavs set up internment camps at Sterntal and Teharje. The government nationalized their property on a “decision on the transition of enemy property into state ownership, on state administration over the property of absent people, and on sequestration of property forcibly appropriated by occupation authorities” of 21 November 1944 by the Presidency of the Anti-Fascist Council for the People’s Liberation of Yugoslavia. After March 1945, ethnic Germans were placed in so-called “village camps”. Separate camps existed for those able to work and for those who were not. In the latter camps, containing mainly children and the elderly, the mortality rate was about 50%. Most of the children under 14 were then placed in state-run homes, where conditions were better, though the German language was banned. These children were later given to Yugoslav families, and not all German parents seeking to reclaim their children in the 1950s were successful. West German government figures from 1958 put the death toll at 135,800 civilians. A recent study published by the ethnic Germans of Yugoslavia based on an actual enumeration has revised the death toll down to about 58,000. A total of 48,447 people had died in the camps; 7,199 were shot by partisans, and another 1,994 perished in Soviet labour camps. Those Germans still considered Yugoslav citizens were employed in industry or the military, but could buy themselves free of Yugoslav citizenship for the equivalent of three months’ salary. By 1950, 150,000 of the Germans from Yugoslavia were classified as “expelled” in Germany, another 150,000 in Austria, 10,000 in the United States, and 3,000 in France. According to West German figures 82,000 ethnic Germans remained in Yugoslavia in 1950. After 1950, most emigrated to Germany or were assimilated into the local population. The population of Kehl (12,000 people), on the east bank of the Rhine opposite Strasbourg, fled and was evacuated in the course of the Liberation of France, on 23 November 1944. The French Army occupied the town in March 1945 and prevented the inhabitants from returning until 1953. Refer to Deportation of Germans from Latin America during World War II. Fearing a Nazi Fifth Column, between 1941 and 1945 the US government facilitated the expulsion of 4,058 German citizens from 15 Latin American countries to internment camps in Texas and Louisiana. Subsequent investigations showed many of the internees to be harmless, and three-quarters of them were returned to Germany during the war in exchange for citizens of the Americas, while the remainder returned to their homes in Latin America. At the start of World War II, colonists with German citizenship were rounded up by the British authorities and sent to internment camps in Waldheim and Bethlehem of Galilee. 661 Templers were deported to Australia via Egypt on 31 July 1941, leaving 345 in Palestine. Internment continued in Tatura, Victoria, Australia, until 1946-1947. In 1962 the State of Israel paid 54 million Deutsche Marks in compensation to property owners whose assets were nationalised. Estimates of total deaths of German civilians in the flight and expulsions, including forced labour of Germans in the Soviet Union, range from 500,000 to a maximum of 3.0 million people. Although the German government’s official estimate of deaths due to the flight and expulsions has stood at 2 million since the 1960s, the publication in 1987-1989 of previously classified West German studies has led some historians to the conclusion that the actual number was much lower – in the range of 500,000 to 600,000. English language sources have put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government figures from the 1960s. West German Government Estimates of the Death Toll - In 1950 the West German Government made a preliminary estimate of 3.0 million missing people (1.5 million in pre-war Germany and 1.5 million in Eastern Europe) whose fate needed to be clarified. These figures were superseded by the publication of the 1958 study by the Statistisches Bundesamt. - In 1953 the West German government ordered a survey by the Suchdienst (search service) of the German churches to trace the fate of 16.2 million people in the area of the expulsions; the survey was completed in 1964 but kept secret until 1987. The search service was able to confirm 473,013 civilian deaths; there were an additional 1,905,991 cases of persons whose fate could not be determined. - From 1954 to 1961 the Schieder commission issued five reports on the flight and expulsions. The head of the commission Theodor Schieder was a rehabilitated former Nazi party member who was involved in the preparation of the Nazi Generalplan Ost to colonise eastern Europe. The commission estimated a total death toll of about 2.3 million civilians including 2 million east of the Oder Neisse line. - The figures of the Schieder commission were superseded by the publication in 1958 of the study by the West German government Statistisches Bundesamt, Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste (The German Expulsion Casualties). The authors of the report included former Nazi party members, de:Wilfried Krallert, Walter Kuhn and de:Alfred Bohmann. The Statistisches Bundesamt put losses at 2,225,000 (1.339 million in pre-war Germany and 886,000 in Eastern Europe). In 1961 the West German government published slightly revised figures that put losses at 2,111,000 (1,225,000 in pre-war Germany and 886,000 in Eastern Europe). - In 1969, the federal West German government ordered a further study to be conducted by the German Federal Archives, which was finished in 1974 and kept secret until 1989. The study was commissioned to survey crimes against humanity such as deliberate killings, which according to the report included deaths caused by military activity in the 1944-1945 campaign, forced labour in the USSR and civilians kept in post-war internment camps. The authors maintained that the figures included only those deaths caused by violent acts and inhumanities (Unmenschlichkeiten) and do not include post-war deaths due to malnutrition and disease. Also not included are those who were raped or suffered mistreatment and did not die immediately. They estimated 600,000 deaths (150,000 during flight and evacuations, 200,000 as forced labour in the USSR and 250,000 in post-war internment camps. By region 400,000 east of the Oder Neisse line, 130,000 in Czechoslovakia and 80,000 in Yugoslavia). No figures were given for Romania and Hungary. - A 1986 study by Gerhard Reichling “Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen” (the German expellees in figures) concluded 2,020,000 ethnic Germans perished after the war including 1,440,000 as a result of the expulsions and 580,000 deaths due to deportation as forced labourers in the Soviet Union. Reichling was an employee of the Federal Statistical Office who was involved in the study of German expulsion statistics since 1953. The Reichling study is cited by the German government to support their estimate of 2 million expulsion deaths. The West German figure of 2 million deaths in the flight and expulsions was widely accepted by historians in the West prior to the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the end of the Cold War. The recent disclosure of the German Federal Archives study and the Search Service figures have caused some scholars in Germany and Poland to question the validity of the figure of 2 million deaths; they estimate the actual total at 500-600,000. The German government continues to maintain that the figure of 2 million deaths is correct. The issue of the “expellees” has been a contentious one in German politics, with the Federation of Expellees staunchly defending the higher figure. Analysis by Rüdiger Overmans In 2000 the German historian Rüdiger Overmans published a study of German military casualties; his research project did not investigate civilian expulsion deaths. In 1994, Overmans provided a critical analysis of the previous studies by the German government which he believes are unreliable. Overmans maintains that the studies of expulsion deaths by the German government lack adequate support; he maintains that there are more arguments for the lower figures than for the higher figures (“Letztlich sprechen also mehr Argumente für die niedrigere als für die höhere Zahl”). In a 2006 interview, Overmans maintained that new research is needed to clarify the fate of those reported as missing. He found the 1965 figures of the Search Service to be unreliable because they include non-Germans; the figures according to Overmans include military deaths; the numbers of surviving people, natural deaths and births after the war in Eastern Europe are unreliable because the Communist governments in Eastern Europe did not extend full cooperation to West German efforts to trace people in Eastern Europe; the reports given by eyewitnesses surveyed are not reliable in all cases. In particular, Overmans maintains that the figure of 1.9 million missing people was based on incomplete information and is unreliable. Overmans found the 1958 demographic study to be unreliable because it inflated the figures of ethnic German deaths by including missing people of doubtful German ethnic identity who survived the war in Eastern Europe; the figures of military deaths is understated; the numbers of surviving people, natural deaths and births after the war in Eastern Europe are unreliable because the Communist governments in Eastern Europe did not extend full cooperation to West German efforts to trace people in Eastern Europe. Overmans maintains that the 600,000 deaths found by the German Federal Archives in 1974 is only a rough estimate of those killed, not a definitive figure. He pointed out that some deaths were not reported because there were no surviving eyewitnesses of the events; also there was no estimate of losses in Hungary, Romania and the USSR. Overmans conducted a research project that studied the casualties of the German military during the war and found that the previous estimate of 4.3 million dead and missing, especially in the final stages of the war, was about one million short of the actual toll. In his study Overmans researched only military deaths; his project did not investigate civilian expulsion deaths; he merely noted the difference between the 2.2 million dead estimated in the 1958 demographic study, of which 500,000 have so far have been verified. He found that German military deaths from areas in Eastern Europe were about 1.444 million, and thus 334,000 higher than the 1.1 million figure in the 1958 demographic study, lacking documents available today included the figures with civilian deaths. Overmans believes this will reduce the number of civilian deaths in the expulsions. Overmans further pointed out that the 2.225 million number estimated by the 1958 study would imply that the casualty rate among the expellees was equal to or higher than that of the military, which he found implausible. Analysis by Historian Ingo Haar In 2006, Haar called into question the validity of the official government figure of 2 million expulsion deaths in an article in the German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung. Since then Haar has published three articles in academic journals that covered the background of the research by the West German government on the expulsions. Haar maintains that all reasonable estimates of deaths from expulsions lie between around 500,000 and 600,000, based on the information of Red Cross Search Service and German Federal Archives. Harr pointed out that some members of the Schieder commission and officials of the Statistisches Bundesamt involved in the study of the expulsions were involved in the Nazi plan to colonize Eastern Europe. Haar posits that figures have been inflated in Germany due to the Cold War and domestic German politics, and he maintains that the 2.225 million number relies on improper statistical methodology and incomplete data, particularly in regard to the expellees who arrived in East Germany. Haar questions the validity of population balances in general. He maintains that 27,000 German Jews who were Nazi victims are included in the West German figures. He rejects the statement by the German government that the figure of 500-600,000 deaths omitted those people who died of disease and hunger, and has stated that this is a “mistaken interpretation” of the data. He maintains that deaths due to disease, hunger and other conditions are already included in the lower numbers. According to Haar the numbers were set too high for decades, for post-war political reasons. Studies in Poland In 2001, Polish researcher Bernadetta Nitschke puts total losses for Poland at 400,000 (the same figure as the German Federal Archive study). She noted that historians in Poland have maintained that most of the deaths occurred during the flight and evacuation during the war, the deportations to the USSR for forced labour and, after the resettlement, due to the harsh conditions in the Soviet occupation zone in post-war Germany. Polish demographer Piotr Eberhardt found that, “Generally speaking, the German estimates… are not only highly arbitrary, but also clearly tendentious in presentation of the German losses.” He maintains that the German government figures from 1958 overstated the total number of the ethnic Germans living in Poland prior to the war as well as the total civilian deaths due to the expulsions. For example, Eberhardt points out that “the total number of Germans in Poland is given as equal to 1,371,000. According to the Polish census of 1931, there were altogether only 741,000 Germans in the entire territory of Poland.” Study by Hans Henning Hahn and Eva Hahn German historians Hans Henning Hahn and Eva Hahn published a detailed study of the flight and expulsions that is sharply critical of German accounts of the Cold War era. The Hahns regard the official German figure of 2 million deaths as an historical myth, lacking foundation. They place the ultimate blame for the mass flight and expulsion on the wartime policy of the Nazis in Eastern Europe. The Hahns maintain that most of the reported 473,013 deaths occurred during the Nazi organized flight and evacuation during the war, and the forced labour of Germans in the Soviet Union; they point out that there are 80,522 confirmed deaths in the post-war internment camps. They put the post-war losses in eastern Europe at a fraction of the total losses: Poland- 15,000 deaths from 1945 to 1949 in internment camps; Czechoslovakia- 15,000-30,000 dead, including 4,000-5,000 in internment camps and ca. 15,000 in the Prague uprising; Yugoslavia- 5,777 deliberate killings and 48,027 deaths in internment camps; Denmark- 17,209 dead in internment camps; Hungary and Romania – no post-war losses reported. The Hahns point out that the official 1958 figure of 273,000 deaths for Czechoslovakia was prepared by Alfred Bohmann, a former Nazi Party member who had served in the wartime SS. Bohmann was a journalist for an ultra-nationalist Sudeten-Deutsch newspaper in post-war West Germany. The Hahns believe the population figures of ethnic Germans for eastern Europe include German-speaking Jews killed in the Holocaust. They believe that the fate of German-speaking Jews in Eastern Europe deserves the attention of German historians (“Deutsche Vertreibungshistoriker haben sich mit der Geschichte der jüdischen Angehörigen der deutschen Minderheiten kaum beschäftigt.”) German and Czech Commission of Historians In 1995, research by a joint German and Czech commission of historians found that the previous demographic estimates of 220,000 to 270,000 deaths in Czechoslovakia to be overstated and based on faulty information. They concluded that the death toll was at least 15,000 people and that it could range up to a maximum of 30,000 dead, assuming that not all deaths were reported. Rebuttal by the German Government The German government still maintains that the figure of 2-2.5 million expulsion deaths is correct. In 2005 the German Red Cross Search Service put the death toll at 2,251,500 but did not provide details for this estimate. On 29 November 2006, State Secretary in the German Federal Ministry of the Interior, Christoph Bergner, outlined the stance of the respective governmental institutions on Deutschlandfunk (a public-broadcasting radio station in Germany) saying that the numbers presented by the German government and others are not contradictory to the numbers cited by Haar and that the below 600,000 estimate comprises the deaths directly caused by atrocities during the expulsion measures and thus only includes people who were raped, beaten, or else killed on the spot, while the above two million estimate includes people who on their way to post-war Germany died of epidemics, hunger, cold, air raids and the like. Schwarzbuch der Vertreibung by Heinz Nawratil A German lawyer, Heinz Nawratil, published a study of the expulsions entitled Schwarzbuch der Vertreibung (“Black Book of Expulsion”). Nawratil claimed the death toll was 2.8 million: he includes the losses of 2.2 million listed in the 1958 West German study, and an estimated 250,000 deaths of Germans resettled in Poland during the war, plus 350,000 ethnic Germans in the USSR. In 1987, German historian Martin Broszat (former head of the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich) described Nawratil’s writings as “polemics with a nationalist-rightist point of view and exaggerates in an absurd manner the scale of ‘expulsion crimes’.” Broszat found Nawratil’s book to have “factual errors taken out of context.” German historian Thomas E. Fischer calls the book “problematic”. James Bjork (Department of History, King’s College London) has criticised German educational DVDs based on Nawratil’s book. Condition of the Expellees after Arriving in Post-War Germany Those who arrived were in bad condition—particularly during the harsh winter of 1945-1946, when arriving trains carried “the dead and dying in each carriage (other dead had been thrown from the train along the way)”. After experiencing Red Army atrocities, Germans in the expulsion areas were subject to harsh punitive measures by Yugoslav partisans and in post-war Poland and Czechoslovakia. Beatings, rapes and murders accompanied the expulsions. Some had experienced massacres, such as the Ústí (Aussig) massacre, in which 80-100 ethnic Germans died, or Postoloprty massacre, or conditions like those in the Upper Silesian Camp Łambinowice (Lamsdorf), where interned Germans were exposed to sadistic practices and at least 1,000 died. Many expellees had experienced hunger and disease, separation from family members, loss of civil rights and familiar environment, and sometimes internment and forced labour. Once they arrived, they found themselves in a country devastated by war. Housing shortages lasted until the 1960s, which along with other shortages led to conflicts with the local population. The situation eased only with the West German economic boom in the 1950s that drove unemployment rates close to zero. France did not participate in the Potsdam Conference, so it felt free to approve some of the Potsdam Agreements and dismiss others. France maintained the position that it had not approved the expulsions and therefore was not responsible for accommodating and nourishing the destitute expellees in its zone of occupation. While the French military government provided for the few refugees who arrived before July 1945 in the area that became the French zone, it succeeded in preventing entrance by later-arriving ethnic Germans deported from the East. Britain and the US protested against the actions of the French military government but had no means to force France to bear the consequences of the expulsion policy agreed upon by American, British and Soviet leaders in Potsdam. France persevered with its argument to clearly differentiate between war-related refugees and post-war expellees. In December 1946 it absorbed into its zone German refugees from Denmark, where 250,000 Germans had travelled by sea between February and May 1945 to take refuge from the Soviets. These were refugees from the eastern parts of Germany, not expellees; Danes of German ethnicity remained untouched and Denmark did not expel them. With this humanitarian act the French saved many lives, due to the high death toll German refugees faced in Denmark. Until mid-1945, the Allies had not reached an agreement on how to deal with the expellees. France suggested immigration to South America and Australia and the settlement of ‘productive elements’ in France, while the Soviets’ SMAD suggested a resettlement of millions of expellees in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The Soviets, who encouraged and partly carried out the expulsions, offered little cooperation with humanitarian efforts, thereby requiring the Americans and British to absorb the expellees in their zones of occupation. In contradiction with the Potsdam Agreements, the Soviets neglected their obligation to provide supplies for the expellees. In Potsdam, it was agreed that 15% of all equipment dismantled in the Western zones – especially from the metallurgical, chemical and machine manufacturing industries – would be transferred to the Soviets in return for food, coal, potash (a basic material for fertiliser), timber, clay products, petroleum products, etc. The Western deliveries started in 1946, but this turned out to be a one-way street. The Soviet deliveries – desperately needed to provide the expellees with food, warmth, and basic necessities and to increase agricultural production in the remaining cultivation area – did not materialise. Consequently, the US stopped all deliveries on 03 May 1946, while the expellees from the areas under Soviet rule were deported to the West until the end of 1947. In the British and US zones the supply situation worsened considerably, especially in the British zone. Due to its location on the Baltic, the British zone already harbored a great number of refugees who had come by sea, and the already modest rations had to be further shortened by a third in March 1946. In Hamburg, for instance, the average living space per capita, reduced by air raids from 13.6 square metres in 1939 to 8.3 in 1945, was further reduced to 5.4 square metres in 1949 by billeting refugees and expellees. In May 1947, Hamburg trade unions organized a strike against the small rations, with protesters complaining about the rapid absorption of expellees. The US and Britain had to import food into their zones, even as Britain was financially exhausted and dependent on food imports having fought Nazi Germany for the entire war, including as the sole opponent from June 1940 to June 1941 (the period when Poland and France were defeated, the Soviet Union supported Nazi Germany, and the United States had not yet entered the war). Consequently, Britain had to incur additional debt to the US, and the US had to spend more for the survival of its zone, while the Soviets gained applause among Eastern Europeans – many of whom were impoverished by the war and German occupation – who plundered the belongings of expellees, often before they were actually expelled. Since the Soviet Union was the only power among the Allies that allowed and/or encouraged the looting and robbery in the area under its military influence, the perpetrators and profiteers blundered into a situation in which they became dependent on the perpetuation of Soviet rule in their countries to not be dispossessed of the booty and to stay unpunished. With ever more expellees sweeping into post-war Germany, the Allies moved towards a policy of assimilation, which was believed to be the best way to stabilise Germany and ensure peace in Europe by preventing the creation of a marginalised population. This policy led to the granting of German citizenship to the ethnic German expellees who had held citizenship of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania, etc. before World War II. When the Federal Republic of Germany was founded, a law was drafted on 24 August 1952 that was primarily intended to ease the financial situation of the expellees. The law, termed the Lastenausgleichsgesetz, granted partial compensation and easy credit to the expellees; the loss of their civilian property had been estimated at 299.6 billion Deutschmarks (out of a total loss of German property due to the border changes and expulsions of 355.3 billion Deutschmarks). Administrative organisations were set up to integrate the expellees into post-war German society. While the Stalinist regime in the Soviet occupation zone did not allow the expellees to organise, in the Western zones expellees over time established a variety of organisations, including the All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights. The most prominent – still active today – is the Federation of Expellees (Bund der Vertriebenen, or BdV). “War Children” of German Ancestry in Western and Northern Europe Refer to War Children. In countries occupied by Nazi Germany during the war, sexual relations between Wehrmacht soldiers and local women resulted in the birth of significant numbers of children. Relationships between German soldiers and local women were particularly common in countries whose population was not dubbed “inferior” (Untermensch) by the Nazis. After the Wehrmacht’s withdrawal, these women and their children of German descent were often ill-treated. Legacy of the Expulsions With at least 12 million Germans directly involved, possibly 14 million or more, it was the largest movement or transfer of any single ethnic population in European history and the largest among the post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe (which displaced 20 to 31 million people in total). The exact number of Germans expelled after the war is still unknown, because most recent research provides a combined estimate which includes those who were evacuated by the German authorities, fled or were killed during the war. It is estimated that between 12 and 14 million German citizens and foreign ethnic Germans and their descendants were displaced from their homes. The exact number of casualties is still unknown and is difficult to establish due to the chaotic nature of the last months of the war. Census figures placed the total number of ethnic Germans still living in Eastern Europe in 1950, after the major expulsions were complete, at approximately 2.6 million, about 12 percent of the pre-war total. The events have been usually classified as population transfer or as ethnic cleansing. R.J. Rummel has classified these events as democide, and a few scholars go as far as calling it a genocide. Polish sociologist and philosopher Lech Nijakowski objects to the term “genocide” as inaccurate agitprop. The expulsions created major social disruptions in the receiving territories, which were tasked with providing housing and employment for millions of refugees. West Germany established a ministry dedicated to the problem, and several laws created a legal framework. The expellees established several organisations, some demanding compensation. Their grievances, while remaining controversial, were incorporated into public discourse. During 1945 the British press aired concerns over the refugees’ situation; this was followed by limited discussion of the issue during the Cold War outside West Germany. East Germany sought to avoid alienating the Soviet Union and its neighbours; the Polish and Czechoslovakian governments characterised the expulsions as “a just punishment for Nazi crimes”. Western analysts were inclined to see the Soviet Union and its satellites as a single entity, disregarding the national disputes that had preceded the Cold War. The fall of the Soviet Union and the reunification of Germany opened the door to a renewed examination of the expulsions in both scholarly and political circles. A factor in the ongoing nature of the dispute may be the relatively large proportion of German citizens who were among the expellees and/or their descendants, estimated at about 20% in 2000. A 1993 novel Summer of Dead Dreams written by Harry Thürk – a German author who left Upper Silesia annexed by Poland shortly after the war had ended – contained graphic depictions of the treatment of Germans by Soviets and Poles in Thürk’s hometown of Prudnik. It depicted the maltreatment of Germans while also acknowledging German guilt, as well as Polish animosity toward Germans and, in specific instances, friendships between Poles and Germans despite the circumstances. Thürk’s novel, when serialised in Polish translation by the Tygodnik Prudnicki (“Prudnik Weekly”) magazine, was met with criticism from some Polish residents of Prudnik, but also with praise, because it revealed to many local citizens that there had been a post-war German ghetto in the town and addressed the tensions between Poles and Soviets in post-war Poland. The serialisation was followed by an exhibition on Thurk’s life in Prudnik’s town museum. Status in International Law International law on population transfer underwent considerable evolution during the 20th century. Before World War II, several major population transfers were the result of bilateral treaties and had the support of international bodies such as the League of Nations. The tide started to turn when the charter of the Nuremberg trials of German Nazi leaders declared forced deportation of civilian populations to be both a war crime and a crime against humanity, and this opinion was progressively adopted and extended through the remainder of the century. Underlying the change was the trend to assign rights to individuals, thereby limiting the rights of nation-states to impose fiats which could adversely affect such individuals. The Charter of the then-newly formed United Nations stated that its Security Council could take no enforcement actions regarding measures taken against World War II “enemy states”, defined as enemies of a Charter signatory in World War II. The Charter did not preclude action in relation to such enemies “taken or authorized as a result of that war by the Governments having responsibility for such action.” Thus, the Charter did not invalidate or preclude action against World War II enemies following the war. This argument is contested by Alfred de Zayas, an American professor of international law. ICRC’s legal adviser Jean-Marie Henckaerts posited that the contemporary expulsions conducted by the Allies of World War II themselves were the reason why expulsion issues were included neither in the UN Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, nor in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950, and says it “may be called ‘a tragic anomaly’ that while deportations were outlawed at Nuremberg they were used by the same powers as a ‘peacetime measure'”. It was only in 1955 that the Settlement Convention regulated expulsions, yet only in respect to expulsions of individuals of the states who signed the convention. The first international treaty condemning mass expulsions was a document issued by the Council of Europe on 16 September 1963, Protocol No 4 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Securing Certain Rights and Freedoms Other than Those Already Included in the Convention and in the First Protocol, stating in Article 4: “collective expulsion of aliens is prohibited.” This protocol entered into force on 02 May 1968, and as of 1995 was ratified by 19 states. There is now general consensus about the legal status of involuntary population transfers: “Where population transfers used to be accepted as a means to settle ethnic conflict, today, forced population transfers are considered violations of international law.” No legal distinction is made between one-way and two-way transfers, since the rights of each individual are regarded as independent of the experience of others. Although the signatories to the Potsdam Agreements and the expelling countries may have considered the expulsions to be legal under international law at the time, there are historians and scholars in international law and human rights who argue that the expulsions of Germans from Central and Eastern Europe should now be considered as episodes of ethnic cleansing, and thus a violation of human rights. For example, Timothy V. Waters argues in “On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing” that if similar circumstances arise in the future, the precedent of the expulsions of the Germans without legal redress would also allow the future ethnic cleansing of other populations under international law. In the 1970s and 1980s a Harvard-trained lawyer and historian, Alfred de Zayas, published Nemesis at Potsdam and A Terrible Revenge, both of which became bestsellers in Germany. De Zayas argues that the expulsions were war crimes and crimes against humanity even in the context of international law of the time, stating, “the only applicable principles were the Hague Conventions, in particular, the Hague Regulations, ARTICLES 42-56, which limited the rights of occupying powers – and obviously occupying powers have no rights to expel the populations – so there was the clear violation of the Hague Regulations.” He argued that the expulsions violated the Nuremberg Principles. In November 2000, a major conference on ethnic cleansing in the 20th century was held at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, along with the publication of a book containing participants’ conclusions. The former United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights José Ayala Lasso of Ecuador endorsed the establishment of the Centre Against Expulsions in Berlin. José Ayala Lasso recognised the “expellees” as victims of gross violations of human rights. De Zayas, a member of the advisory board of the Centre Against Expulsions, endorses the full participation of the organisation representing the expellees, the Bund der Vertriebenen (Federation of Expellees), in the Centre in Berlin. The Berlin Centre A Centre Against Expulsions was to be[when?] set up in Berlin by the German government based on an initiative and with active participation of the German Federation of Expellees. The Centre’s creation has been criticised in Poland. It was strongly opposed by the Polish government and president Lech Kaczyński. Former Polish prime minister Donald Tusk restricted his comments to a recommendation that Germany pursue a neutral approach at the museum. The museum apparently did not materialise. The only project along the same lines in Germany is “Visual Sign” (Sichtbares Zeichen) under the auspices of the Stiftung Flucht, Vertreibung, Versöhnung (SFVV). Several members of two consecutive international Advisory (scholar) Councils criticised some activities of the foundation and the new Director Winfried Halder resigned. Dr Gundula Bavendamm is a current Director. British historian Richard J. Evans wrote that although the expulsions of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe was done in an extremely brutal manner that could not be defended, the basic aim of expelling the ethnic German population of Poland and Czechoslovakia was justified by the subversive role played by the German minorities before World War II. Evans wrote that under the Weimar Republic the vast majority of ethnic Germans in Poland and Czechoslovakia made it clear that they were not loyal to the states they happened to live under, and under Nazi rule, the German minorities in Eastern Europe were willing tools of German foreign policy. Evans also wrote that many areas of eastern Europe featured a jumble of various ethnic groups aside from Germans, and that it was the destructive role played by ethnic Germans as instruments of Nazi Germany that led to their expulsion after the war. Evans concluded by positing that the expulsions were justified as they put an end to a major problem that plagued Europe before the war; that gains to the cause of peace were a further benefit of the expulsions; and that if the Germans had been allowed to remain in Eastern Europe after the war, West Germany would have used their presence to make territorial claims against Poland and Czechoslovakia, and that given the Cold War, this could have helped cause World War III. Historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that the expulsions of the Sudeten Germans was justified as the Germans themselves had scrapped the Munich Agreement. In January 1990, President of Czechoslovakia, Václav Havel, requested forgiveness on his country’s behalf, using the term expulsion rather than transfer. Public approval for Havel’s stance was limited; in a 1996 opinion poll, 86% of Czechs stated they would not support a party that endorsed such an apology. The expulsion issue surfaced in 2002 during the Czech Republic’s application for membership in the European Union, since the authorisation decrees issued by Edvard Beneš had not been formally renounced. In October 2009, Czech President Václav Klaus stated that the Czech Republic would require exemption from the European Charter of Fundamental Rights to ensure that the descendants of expelled Germans could not press legal claims against the Czech Republic. Five years later, in 2014, the government of Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka decided that the exemption was “no longer relevant” and that the withdrawal of the opt-out “would help improve Prague’s position with regard to other EU international agreements.” In June 2018, German Chancellor Angela Merkel said that there had been “no moral or political justification” for the post-war expulsion of ethnic Germans. Misuse of Graphical Materials Nazi propaganda pictures produced during the Heim ins Reich and pictures of expelled Poles are sometimes published to show the flight and expulsion of Germans. This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article < https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944-1950) >; it is used under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA). You may redistribute it, verbatim or modified, providing that you comply with the terms of the CC-BY-SA.
Updated: Dec 30, 2019 Would you rather watch a video than read? Here is a video version of this post: Many biology classes use the chi-squared statistical test during heredity units. Chi-squared can help determine the inheritance pattern of a trait by statistically comparing the predicted outcomes with the actual data. The variables for a chi-squared calculation are expected (e) and observed (o) values. The observed values come from collected data, while expected values are based on the predicted frequencies (which students often learn to find from Punnett squares). This example will use chi-squared to check if a hypothesized inheritance pattern appears to be correct. The term “inheritance pattern” describes the way in which genotypes lead to phenotypes for a trait. For example, a trait with an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern is determined by a single gene that is not located on a sex chromosome (autosomal) and that only one copy of the allele for the trait is necessary to produce the trait’s phenotype (dominant). This example uses data from the Heredity I: Eye Color and Tails simulation. We are examining a white-eye trait in a fictional organism. We need to select a cross where one individual has white eyes and the other has black eyes. The tails don't matter in this case, but it is easier if both parents either have a tail or both are tailless. The example used here starts with black eyed females and white eyed males. The first pair selected is called the P generation, and these are all assumed to be homozygous for whichever version of the trait they have. The offspring of the P generation are the F1 generation. In this example, there are 56 black eye females and 60 black eye males in this F1 generation. Once the F1 data is recorded, select the F1 cross. The F1 cross is between members of the F1 generation. The offspring of the F1 cross are the F2 generation. In the F2 generation there are 38 females with black eyes, 34 males with black eyes, 15 white eye females, and 17 white eye males. To analyze the data, we'll first look at the F1 data. In this case, 100 % of the F1 generation has black eyes. Based on this, we’re going hypothesize that this eye color gene is autosomal and that black eyes are dominant. The F2 data will be used to test this. One question that students frequently ask is “Do I have to separate males and females?” If you don’t separate out the numbers for males and females, you may miss if a trait is X-linked. Of course, this assumes that the animal uses XY sex determination. Most mammals do use this method, in addition to fruit flies, which are a commonly used organism for genetic study (although the process is different in fruit flies than in mammals). However, many animals use different methods. Here's a video that introduces a few variations. For the most part when biology classes look at heredity, XY sex determination is the default method. For the analysis, we’re going to represent the black eye allele with a 'B' and the white eye allele with a 'b'. The P generation individuals with black eyes have the genotype BB and the white eye individuals are bb. Each black eyed parent passes on the black allele (B) and each white eye parent passes on the white allele (b). All F1 individuals have one black eye allele and one white eye allele (Bb). We hypothesize that the black eye allele is dominant, so heterozygotes (Bb) will have the black eye phenotype. To do the chi-squared test we need expected values for the F2 generation. To get the F2 expected, we cross the heterozygotes from the F1 generation. For this example, we’ll visualize the cross with a Punnett square. The Punnett square shows that we expect 75% of the F2 generation to have black eyes and 25% to have white eyes. We hypothesize that the black/white eye color gene is autosomal (located on a chromosome that doesn't determine sex), so we expect an even split of males and females. To get the probability that an individual has black eyes and is female, we multiply the probability of an individual having black eyes by the probability of an individual being female. 75% x 50% is 37.5%, so we expect 37.5% of the F2 generation to be black eyed females. Remember that you can do this math in fractions (3/4 x 1/2 = 3/8) or frequencies (0.75 x 0.5 = .375) if you prefer. We expect 37.5% to be black eye males, 12.5% to be white eye females and 12.5% to be white eye males. We will use these expected percentages (or frequencies/fractions) to find the expected value that will be used for the 'e' variable of the chi-squared equation. First, find the total number of individuals in the F2 generation by adding all of the F2 results. In this example, there are 104 individuals in the F2 generation. Then, multiply the expected percentages by the total. For the black eyed females, 104 x 37.5% is 39. This means we expect 39 individuals to be females with black eyes. In this example, the results are all whole numbers, but it you get an answer with a decimal, there isn't any need to round to whole numbers; just use the decimal for your chi-squared calculations. Now that we have calculated the expected values (e), we have all the variables we need for the chi-squared calculation. Remember that o represents the data collected from the F2 generation. When doing the chi squared calculation, use the corresponding observed and expected values for a category (black eyed females) together. For the chi-squared calculation, subtract the expected from the observed, square that, and then divide by the expected for each of the categories. This example has four categories; black eye females, black eye males, white eye females, and white eye males. After completing the calculation for each category, add the resulting values to get the chi-squared value. In this case the chi-squared value is 2.2. The critical value table helps us to interpret the chi-squared results. To find the critical value on the table we need to know two pieces of information; the degrees of freedom and the p-value. The degrees of freedom is the number of categories minus 1. We have four categories, so there are three degrees of freedom. The p-value is the probability that the results could be due to chance. High school biology situations typically use a p-value of 0.05. Looking at the chi-square table, the 3 degrees of freedom column and the 0.05 p-value row give us a critical value of 7.82. To interpret the results, compare the chi-squared value to the critical value. If the chi-squared value is greater than the critical value the hypothesis is rejected. This means that the observed values do not match the expected. If the Chi-squared value is not greater than the critical value, then we fail to reject the hypothesis. Failing to rejecting the hypothesis means that there probably is not a difference between the observed and expected. For the example, the chi-squared value of 2.2 is less than the critical value of 7.82. Based on that, we do not reject the hypothesis. This means that our expected values are statistically equivalent to the values observed in the data. We conclude that the inheritance pattern we used to determine the F2 generation percentages is likely to be the correct interpretation. Our final conclusion is that the data is consistent with this eye color trait being determined by an autosomal gene and that the black eye allele is dominant and the white eye allele is recessive.
When this is plotted, the area below the curve represents computers and textbooks that are not being used, and the area above the curve represents donations that cannot happen with the available resources. The area above the curve is called the production possibility frontier, and the curve (the line itself) is sometimes called the opportunity cost curve. The entire graph is sometimes referred to as the production possibility curve. The non-profit could provide 10 textbooks and 10 computers, but this is not using all of its resources. This would be represented by a plot beneath the curve. A plot would be placed above the curve in the frontier area if the company wanted to give more than its resources provided, such as 85 textbooks and no computers or 42 textbooks and 10 computers—it simply can’t do it based on available resources. For an Economy This technique can be used by economists to determine the set of points at which a country’s economy is most efficiently allocating its resources to produce as many goods as possible. If the production level is on the curve, the country can only produce more of one good if it produces less of some other good. If the economy is producing less than the quantities indicated by the curve, this signifies that resources are not being used to their full potential. In this case, it is possible to increase the production of some goods without cutting production in other areas. The production possibility frontier demonstrates that there are limits on production, given that the assumptions hold. Therefore, each economy must decide what combination of goods and services should be produced to attain maximum resource efficiency. PPF on a National Scale Imagine a national economy that can produce only two things: wine and cotton. If points A, B, and C are plotted on a curve, it represents the economy’s most efficient use of resources. For instance, producing five units of wine and five units of cotton (point B) is just as attainable as producing three units of wine and seven units of cotton. Point X represents an inefficient use of resources, while point Y represents a goal that the economy simply cannot attain with its present levels of resources. As we can see, for this economy to produce more wine, it must give up some of the resources it is currently using to produce cotton (point A). If the economy starts producing more cotton (represented by points B and C), it would need to divert resources from making wine and, consequently, it will produce less wine than it is producing at point A. Moreover, by moving production from point A to B, the economy must decrease wine production by a small amount in comparison to the increase in cotton output. But if the economy moves from point B to C, wine output will be reduced by about 50%, while the cotton output only increases by about 75%. Keep in mind that A, B, and C all represent the most efficient allocation of resources for the economy. The nation must decide how to achieve the PPF and which combination to use. For example, if more wine is in demand, the cost of increasing its output is proportional to the cost of decreasing cotton production. Markets play an important role in telling the economy what the PPF should look like. How the Curve Can Change Consider point X in the figure above. If a country is producing at point X, it means its resources are not being used efficiently—that is, the country is not producing enough cotton or wine, given the potential of its resources. On the other hand, point Y, as we mentioned above, represents an unattainable output level. An economy can only be produced on the PPF curve in theory. Economies constantly struggle to reach an optimal production capacity. Scarcity always forces an economy to forgo some choice in favor of another. The only way for the curve to move outward to point Y is if there were an improvement in cotton and grape harvesting technology because the available resources—land, labor, and capital—generally remain constant. As output increased, the PPF curve would be pushed outwards. A new curve, represented in the figure on which Y would fall, would show the new optimal allocation of resources. When the PPF shifts outwards, it implies growth in an economy. When it shifts inwards, the economy is shrinking due to a failure to allocate resources and optimal production capability. A shrinking economy could result from a decrease in supplies or a deficiency in technology. PPF and the Pareto Efficiency The Pareto Efficiency, a concept named after Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, measures the efficiency of the commodity allocation on the PPF. The Pareto Efficiency states that any point within the PPF curve is inefficient because the total output of commodities is below the output capacity. Conversely, any point outside the PPF curve is impossible because it represents a mix of commodities that will require more resources to produce than are currently obtainable. Therefore, in situations with limited resources, the only efficient commodity mixes lie along the PPF curve, with one commodity on the X-axis and the other on the Y-axis. An economy may be able to produce all of the goods and services it needs to function using the PPF as a guide. However, this may lead to an overall inefficient allocation of resources and hinder future growth when the benefits of trading with other countries are considered. What Are the 3 Assumptions of the Production Possiblity Frontier? There are four common assumptions in the model: - The economy is assumed to have only two goods that represent the market - The supply of resources is fixed or constant - Technology and techniques remain constant - All resources are efficiently and fully used What Is the Importance of the Production Possibilities Frontier? The PPF demonstrates whether resources are being used efficiently and fully when everything else remains constant. Thus, the variables can be changed to see how the curve reacts, letting you observe different outcomes. How Do You Calculate the Production Possibility Frontier? The simplest method is to use Excel or Google Sheets. Fill two columns with two variable values, highlight the data, and use the chart wizard. Create an XY scatter plot chart and label the X and Y axes. What Is the Purpose of the Production Possibilities Frontier in Economics? Because the PPF is a curve based on the data of two variables representing resources between two goods, the data can be manipulated to observe how scarcity, growth, inefficiency, efficiency, and other factors can affect production. Why Is the Production Possibility Frontier Called the Opportunity Cost Curve? The PPF identifies the options when making a decision. When you decide on one action, you lose the opportunity the other action provides. Thus, there is an opportunity cost; the PPF curve plots this. The Bottom Line The production possibilities curve illustrates the maximum possible output for two products when there are limited resources. It also illustrates the opportunity cost of making decisions about allocating resources. Businesses and economists use the PPF to consider possible production scenarios by changing resource variables. The PPF allows businesses to learn how variables influence production or decide which products to manufacture. Economists can use it to learn how much of a specific good can be produced in a country while not producing another good to analyze economic efficiency levels and growth.
The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States that spanned from the 1890s to the 1920s. The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and corruption in government. The movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office a further means of direct democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies (Trust Busting) and corporations through antitrust laws. These antitrust laws were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors. Many progressives supported prohibition of alcoholic beverages, ostensibly to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons, but others out of a religious motivation. At the same time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a "purer" female vote into the arena. A third theme was building an Efficiency Movement in every sector that could identify old ways that needed modernizing, and bring to bear scientific, medical and engineering solutions; a key part of the efficiency movement was scientific management, or "Taylorism". Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made "scientific" the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science. In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Republicans Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes , as well as Democrats William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith. Yet, leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics. Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential non-governmental Progressive Era reformers. Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels; later, it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and business people. Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe and adopted numerous policies, such as a major transformation of the banking system by creating the Federal Reserve System in 1913. Reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the "one best system". Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, stubbornness, corruption, and injustices of the Gilded Age, the Progressives were committed to changing and reforming every aspect of the state, society and economy. Significant changes enacted at the national levels included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, election reforms to stop corruption and fraud, and women's suffrage through the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Muckraking: exposing corruptionEdit Magazines experienced a boost in popularity in 1900, with some attaining circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. In the beginning of the age of Mass media the rapid expansion of national advertising led to the cover price of popular magazines falling sharply to about 10 cents, lessening the financial barrier to consuming them. Another factor contributing to the dramatic upswing in magazine circulation was the prominent coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business, especially by journalists and writers who were labeled muckrakers. They wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. Relying on their own investigative journalism; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption. Muckraking magazines, notably McClure's, took on corporate monopolies and crooked political machines while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and social issues like child labor. The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Others such as Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell is famed for her criticisms of John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. In 1905 Samuel Hopkins Adams showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, while Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle exposed the unsanitary and inhumane practices of the meat packing industry. In 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed a blistering indictment of corruption in the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck. The Progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and technology as the grand solution to society's flaws. They looked to education as the key to bridging the gap between their present wasteful society and technologically enlightened future society. Characteristics of Progressivism included a favorable attitude toward urban-industrial society, belief in mankind's ability to improve the environment and conditions of life, belief in an obligation to intervene in economic and social affairs, a belief in the ability of experts and in the efficiency of government intervention. Scientific management, as promulgated by Frederick Winslow Taylor, became a watchword for industrial efficiency and elimination of waste, with the stopwatch as its symbol. Across the nation, middle-class women organized on behalf of social reforms during the Progressive Era. Using the language of municipal housekeeping women were able to push such reforms as Prohibition, women's suffrage, child-saving, and public health. Middle class women formed local clubs, which after 1890 were coordinated by the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC). Historian Paige Meltzer puts the GFWC in the context of the Progressive Movement, arguing that its policies: built on Progressive-era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During the Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs: as "municipal housekeepers," they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and well being of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community's needs and used their "maternal" expertise to lobby, create, and secure a place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman Julia Lathrop's leadership in the Children's Bureau. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive-era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children, to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to the state to help implement their vision of social justice. The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an American women's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing woman suffrage legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women's right to vote. Carrie Chapman Catt was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. A breakaway group, the National Woman's Party, tightly controlled by Alice Paul, used civil disobedience to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul's members chained themselves to the White House fence in order to get arrested, then went on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring the war and attracting radical anti-war elements. The number of rich families climbed exponentially, from 100 or so millionaires in the 1870s, to 4000 in 1892 and 16,000 in 1916. Many subscribed to Andrew Carnegie's credo outlined in The Gospel of Wealth that said they owed a duty to society that called for philanthropic giving to colleges, hospitals, medical research, libraries, museums, religion and social betterment. In the early 20th century, American philanthropy matured, with the development of very large, highly visible private foundations created by Rockefeller, and Carnegie. The largest foundations fostered modern, efficient, business-oriented operations (as opposed to "charity") designed to better society rather than merely enhance the status of the giver. Close ties were built with the local business community, as in the "community chest" movement. The American Red Cross was reorganized and professionalized. Several major foundations aided the blacks in the South, and were typically advised by Booker T. Washington. By contrast, Europe and Asia had few foundations. This allowed both Carnegie and Rockefeller to operate internationally with powerful effect. Many Progressives sought to enable the citizenry to rule more directly and circumvent machines, bosses and professional politicians. The institution of the initiative and referendums made it possible to pass laws without the involvement of the legislature, while the recall allowed for the removal of corrupt or under-performing officials, and the direct primary let people democratically nominate candidates, avoiding the professionally dominated conventions. Thanks to the efforts of Oregon State Representative William S. U'Ren and his Direct Legislation League, voters in Oregon overwhelmingly approved a ballot measure in 1902 that created the initiative and referendum processes for citizens to directly introduce or approve proposed laws or amendments to the state constitution, making Oregon the first state to adopt such a system. U'Ren also helped in the passage of an amendment in 1908 that gave voters power to recall elected officials, and would go on to establish, at the state level, popular election of U.S. Senators and the first presidential primary in the United States. In 1911, California governor Hiram Johnson established the Oregon System of "Initiative, Referendum, and Recall" in his state, viewing them as good influences for citizen participation against the historic influence of large corporations on state lawmakers. These Progressive reforms were soon replicated in other states, including Idaho, Washington, and Wisconsin, and today roughly half of U.S. states have initiative, referendum and recall provisions in their state constitutions. About 16 states began using primary elections to reduce the power of bosses and machines. The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, requiring that all senators be elected by the people (they were formerly appointed by state legislatures). The main motivation was to reduce the power of political bosses, who controlled the Senate seats by virtue of their control of state legislatures. The result, according to political scientist Henry Jones Ford, was that the United States Senate had become a "Diet of party lords, wielding their power without scruple or restraint, on behalf of those particular interests" that put them in office. A coalition of middle-class reform-oriented voters, academic experts, and reformers hostile to the political machines started forming in the 1890s and introduced a series of reforms in urban America, designed to reduce waste, inefficiency and corruption, by introducing scientific methods, compulsory education and administrative innovations. The pace was set in Detroit Michigan, where Republican mayor Hazen S. Pingree first put together the reform coalition. Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets and administrative structures of local governments. Progressive mayors took the lead in many key cities, such as Cleveland, Ohio (especially Mayor Tom Johnson); Toledo, Ohio; Jersey City, New Jersey; Los Angeles; Memphis, Tennessee; Louisville, Kentucky; and many other cities, especially in the western states. In Illinois, Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state government. In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert La Follette Sr., the Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a major source of ideas and expertise. As late as 1920, half the population lived in rural areas. They experienced their own progressive reforms, typically with the explicit goal of upgrading country life. By 1910 most farmers subscribed to a farm newspaper, where editors promoted efficiency as applied to farming. Special efforts were made to reach the rural South and remote areas, such as the mountains of Appalachia and the Ozarks. The most urgent need was better transportation. The railroad system was virtually complete; the need was for much better roads. The traditional method of putting the burden on maintaining roads on local landowners was increasingly inadequate. New York State took the lead in 1898, and by 1916 the old system had been discarded in every area. Demands grew for local and state government to take charge. With the coming of the automobile after 1910, urgent efforts were made to upgrade and modernize dirt roads designed for horse-drawn wagon traffic. The American Association for Highway Improvement was organized in 1910. Funding came from automobile registration, and taxes on motor fuels, as well as state aid. In 1916, federal-aid was first made available to improve post-roads, and promote general commerce. Congress appropriated $75 million over a five-year period, with the Secretary of Agriculture in charge through the Bureau of Public Roads, in cooperation with the state highway departments. There were 2.4 million miles of rural dirt rural roads in 1914; 100,000 miles had been improved with grading and gravel, and 3000 miles were given high quality surfacing. The rapidly increasing speed of automobiles, and especially trucks, made maintenance and repair a high priority. Concrete was first used in 1933, and expanded until it became the dominant surfacing material in the 1930s. The South had fewer cars and trucks and much less money, but it worked through highly visible demonstration projects like the "Dixie Highway." Rural schools were often poorly funded, one room operations. Typically, classes were taught by young local women before they married, with only occasional supervision by county superintendents. The progressive solution was modernization through consolidation, with the result of children attending modern schools. There they would be taught by full-time professional teachers who had graduated from the states' teachers colleges, were certified, and were monitored by the county superintendents. Farmers complained at the expense, and also at the loss of control over local affairs, but in state after state the consolidation process went forward. Numerous other programs were aimed at rural youth, including 4-H clubs, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. County fairs not only gave prizes for the most productive agricultural practices, they also demonstrated those practices to an attentive rural audience. Programs for new mothers included maternity care and training in baby care. The movement's attempts at introducing urban reforms to rural America often met resistance from traditionalists who saw the country-lifers as aggressive modernizers who were condescending and out of touch with rural life. The traditionalists said many of their reforms were unnecessary and not worth the trouble of implementing. Rural residents also disagreed with the notion that farms needed to improve their efficiency, as they saw this goal as serving urban interests more than rural ones. The social conservatism of many rural residents also led them to resist attempts for change led by outsiders. Most important, the traditionalists did not want to become modern, and did not want their children inculcated with alien modern values through comprehensive schools that were remote from local control. The most successful reforms came from the farmers who pursued agricultural extension, as their proposed changes were consistent with existing modernizing trends toward more efficiency and more profit in agriculture. Overseas possessions: the PhilippinesEdit Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as: - steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated Port of Manila; dredging the River Pasig,; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey. In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law’s failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines’ best path to development. Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women's Clubs. Across the South black communities developed their own Progressive reform projects. Typical projects involved upgrading schools, modernizing church operations, expanding business opportunities, fighting for a larger share of state budgets, and engaging in legal action to secure equal rights. Reform projects were especially notable in rural areas, where the great majority of Southern blacks lived. Although there were some achievements that improved conditions for African Americans and other non-white minorities, the Progressive Era was the nadir of American race relations. While white Progressives in principle believed in improving conditions for minority groups, there were wide differences in how this was to be achieved. Some, such as Lillian Wald, fought to alleviate the plight of poor African Americans. Many, though, were concerned with enforcing, not eradicating, racial segregation. In particular, the mixing of black and white pleasure-seekers in 'black-and-tan' clubs troubled Progressive reformers. The Progressive ideology espoused by many of the era attempted to correct societal problems created by racial integration following the Civil War by segregating the races and allowing each group to achieve its own potential. That is to say that most Progressives saw racial integration as a problem to be solved, rather than a goal to be achieved. As white progressives sought to help the white working-class, clean-up politics, and improve the cities, the country instated the system of racial segregation known as Jim Crow. Legal historian Herbert Hovenkamp, argues that while many early progressives inherited the racism of Jim Crow, as they begin to innovate their own ideas, they would embrace behaviorism, cultural relativism and marginalism which stress environmental influences on humans rather than biological inheritance. He states that ultimately progressives "were responsible for bringing scientific racism to an end". Family and foodEdit Progressives believed that the family was the foundation stone of American society, and the government, especially municipal government, must work to enhance the family. Local public assistance programs were reformed to try to keep families together. Inspired by crusading Judge Ben Lindsey of Denver, cities established juvenile courts to deal with disruptive teenagers without sending them to adult prisons. The purity of food, milk and drinking water became a high priority in the cities. At the state and national levels new food and drug laws strengthened urban efforts to guarantee the safety of the food system. The 1906 federal Pure Food and Drug Act, which was pushed by drug companies and providers of medical services, removed from the market patent medicines that had never been scientifically tested. With the decrease in standard working hours, urban families had more leisure time. Many spent this leisure time at movie theaters. Progressives advocated for censorship of motion pictures as it was believed that patrons (especially children) viewing movies in dark, unclean, potentially unsafe theaters, might be negatively influenced in witnessing actors portraying crimes, violence, and sexually suggestive situations. Progressives across the country influenced municipal governments of large urban cities, to build numerous parks where it was believed that leisure time for children and families could be spent in a healthy, wholesome environment, thereby fostering good morals and citizenship. Some Progressives sponsored eugenics as a solution to excessively large or underperforming families, hoping that birth control would enable parents to focus their resources on fewer, better children. Progressive leaders like Herbert Croly and Walter Lippmann indicated their classically liberal concern over the danger posed to the individual by the practice of Eugenics. The Catholics strongly opposed birth control proposals such as eugenics. The Progressives fixed some of their reforms into law by adding amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 to the US Constitution. The 16th amendment made an income tax legal (this required an amendment due to Article One, Section 9 of the Constitution, which required that direct taxes be laid on the States in proportion to their population as determined by the decennial census). The Progressives also made strides in attempts to reduce political corruption through the 17th amendment (direct election of U.S. Senators). The most radical and controversial amendment came during the anti-German craze of World War I that helped the Progressives and others push through their plan for prohibition through the 18th amendment (once the Progressives fell out of power the 21st amendment repealed the 18th in 1933). The ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, which recognized women's suffrage was the last amendment during the progressive era. Another significant constitutional change that began during the progressive era was the incorporation of the Bill of Rights so that those rights would apply to the states. In 1920, Benjamin Gitlow was convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917 and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court, where the justices decided that the First Amendment applied to the states as well as the federal government. Prior to that time, the Bill of Rights was considered to apply only to the federal government, not the states. Prohibition was the outlawing of the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol. Drinking itself was never prohibited. Throughout the Progressive Era, it remained one of the prominent causes associated with Progressivism at the local, state and national level, though support across the full breadth of Progressives was mixed. It pitted the minority urban Catholic population against the larger rural Protestant element, and Progressivism's rise in the rural communities was aided in part by the general increase in public consciousness of social issues of the temperance movement, which achieved national success with the passage of the 18th Amendment by Congress in late 1917, and the ratification by three-fourths of the states in 1919. Prohibition was essentially a religious movement backed by the Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Scandinavian Lutherans and other evangelical churches. Activists were mobilized by the highly effective Anti-Saloon League. Timberlake (1963) argues the dries sought to break the liquor trust, weaken the saloon base of big-city machines, enhance industrial efficiency, and reduce the level of wife beating, child abuse, and poverty caused by alcoholism. Agitation for prohibition began during the Second Great Awakening in the 1840s when crusades against drinking originated from evangelical Protestants. Evangelicals precipitated the second wave of prohibition legislation during the 1880s, which had as its aim local and state prohibition. During the 1880s, referendums were held at the state level to enact prohibition amendments. Two important groups were formed during this period. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was formed in 1874. The Anti-Saloon League was formed in 1893, uniting activists from different religious groups. The third wave of prohibition legislation, of which national prohibition was the grand climax, began in 1907, when Georgia passed a statewide prohibition law. By 1917, two thirds of the states had some form of prohibition laws and roughly three quarters of the population lived in dry areas. In 1913, the Anti-Saloon League first publicly appealed for a prohibition amendment. They preferred a constitutional amendment over a federal statute because although harder to achieve, they felt it would be harder to change. In 1913, Congress passed the Webb-Kenyon Act, which forbade the transport of liquor into dry states. As the United States entered World War I, the Conscription Act banned the sale of liquor near military bases. In August 1917, the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act banned production of distilled spirits for the duration of the war. The War Prohibition Act, November, 1918, forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages (more than 2.75% alcohol content) until the end of demobilization. The drys worked energetically to secure two-third majority of both houses of Congress and the support of three quarters of the states needed for an amendment to the federal constitution. Thirty-six states were needed, and organizations were set up at all 48 states to seek ratification. In late 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment; it was ratified in 1919 and took effect in January 1920. It prohibited the manufacturing, sale or transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The Volstead Act, 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5% and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try. Consumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not eradicate the use of alcohol, it certainly decreased alcohol consumption during the period. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed in 1933, with the passage of the Twenty-First Amendment, thanks to a well-organized repeal campaign led by Catholics (who stressed personal liberty) and businessmen (who stressed the lost tax revenue). The Progressives sought to reform and modernize schools at the local level. The era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the number of schools and students attending them, especially in the fast-growing metropolitan cities. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a high school diploma. The result was the rapid growth of the educated middle class, who typically were the grass roots supporters of Progressive measures. During the Progressive Era, many states began passing compulsory schooling laws. An emphasis on hygiene and health was made in education, with physical and health education becoming more important and widespread. Medicine and lawEdit The "Flexner Report" of 1910, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation, professionalized American medicine by discarding the scores of local small medical schools and focusing national funds, resources, and prestige on larger, professionalized medical schools associated with universities. Prominent leaders included the Mayo Brothers whose Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, became world-famous for innovative surgery. In the legal profession, the American Bar Association set up in 1900 the Association of American Law Schools (AALS). It established national standards for law schools, which led to the replacement of the old system of young men studying law privately with established lawyers by the new system of accredited law schools associated with universities. Progressive scholars, based at the emerging research universities such as Harvard, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin and California, worked to modernize their disciplines. The heyday of the amateur expert gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. Their explicit goal was to professionalize and make "scientific" the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science. Professionalization meant creating new career tracks in the universities, with hiring and promotion dependent on meeting international models of scholarship. The Progressive Era was one of general prosperity after the Panic of 1893—a severe depression—ended in 1897. The Panic of 1907 was short and mostly affected financiers. However, Campbell (2005) stresses the weak points of the economy in 1907–1914, linking them to public demands for more Progressive interventions. The Panic of 1907 was followed by a small decline in real wages and increased unemployment, with both trends continuing until World War I. Campbell emphasizes the resulting stress on public finance and the impact on the Wilson administration's policies. The weakened economy and persistent federal deficits led to changes in fiscal policy, including the imposition of federal income taxes on businesses and individuals and the creation of the Federal Reserve System. Government agencies were also transformed in an effort to improve administrative efficiency. In the Gilded Age (late 19th century) the parties were reluctant to involve the federal government too heavily in the private sector, except in the area of railroads and tariffs. In general, they accepted the concept of laissez-faire, a doctrine opposing government interference in the economy except to maintain law and order. This attitude started to change during the depression of the 1890s when small business, farm, and labor movements began asking the government to intercede on their behalf. By the start of the 20th century, a middle class had developed that was leery of both the business elite and the radical political movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The Progressives argued the need for government regulation of business practices to ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a law regulating railroads in 1887 (the Interstate Commerce Act), and one preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890 (the Sherman Antitrust Act). These laws were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), Democratic President Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921), and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives came to power. Many of today's U.S. regulatory agencies were created during these years, including the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission. Muckrakers were journalists who encouraged readers to demand more regulation of business. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) was influential and persuaded America about the supposed horrors of the Chicago Union Stock Yards, a giant complex of meat processing plants that developed in the 1870s. The federal government responded to Sinclair's book and The Neill-Reynolds Report with the new regulatory Food and Drug Administration. Ida M. Tarbell wrote a series of articles against Standard Oil, which was perceived to be a monopoly. This affected both the government and the public reformers. Attacks by Tarbell and others helped pave the way for public acceptance of the breakup of the company by the Supreme Court in 1911. When Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected President with a Democratic Congress in 1912 he implemented a series of Progressive policies in economics. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment was ratified, and a small income tax was imposed on higher incomes. The Democrats lowered tariffs with the Underwood Tariff in 1913, though its effects were overwhelmed by the changes in trade caused by the World War that broke out in 1914. Wilson proved especially effective in mobilizing public opinion behind tariff changes by denouncing corporate lobbyists, addressing Congress in person in highly dramatic fashion, and staging an elaborate ceremony when he signed the bill into law. Wilson helped end the long battles over the trusts with the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. He managed to convince lawmakers on the issues of money and banking by the creation in 1913 of the Federal Reserve System, a complex business-government partnership that to this day dominates the financial world. In 1913, Henry Ford dramatically increased the efficiency of his factories by large-scale use of the moving assembly line, with each worker doing one simple task in the production of automobiles. Emphasizing efficiency, Ford more than doubled wages (and cut hours from 9 a day to 8), attracting the best workers and sharply reducing labor turnover and absenteeism. His employees could and did buy his cars, and by cutting prices over and over he made the Model T cheap enough for millions of people to buy in the U.S. and in every major country. Ford's profits soared and his company dominated the world's automobile industry. Henry Ford became the world-famous prophet of high wages and high profits. Labor unions, especially the American Federation of Labor (AFL), grew rapidly in the early 20th century, and had a Progressive agenda as well. After experimenting in the early 20th century with cooperation with business in the National Civic Federation, the AFL turned after 1906 to a working political alliance with the Democratic party. The alliance was especially important in the larger industrial cities. The unions wanted restrictions on judges who intervened in labor disputes, usually on the side of the employer. They finally achieved that goal with the Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932. The influx of immigration grew steadily after 1896, with most new arrivals being unskilled workers from eastern and southern Europe. These immigrants were able to find work in the steel mills, slaughterhouses, and construction crews of the emergent mill towns and industrial cities of the late 19th century. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 halted most transcontinental immigration, only after 1919 did the flow of immigrants resume. Starting in the 1880s, the labor unions aggressively promoted restrictions on immigration, especially restrictions on Chinese, Japanese and Korean immigrants. In combination with the racist attitudes of the time, there was a fear that large numbers of unskilled, low-paid workers would defeat the union's efforts to raise wages through collective bargaining. In addition, rural Protestants distrusted the urban Catholics and Jews who comprised most of the immigrants after 1890, and on those grounds opposed immigration. On the other hand, the rapid growth of the industry called for a greater and expanding labour pool that could not be met by natural birth rates. As a result many large corporations were opposed to immigration restrictions. By the early 1920s a consensus had been reached that the total influx of immigration had to be restricted, and a series of laws in the 1920s accomplished that purpose. A handful of eugenics advocates were also involved in immigration restriction for their own pseudo-scientific reasons. Immigration restriction continued to be a national policy until after World War II. During World War I, the Progressives strongly promoted Americanization programs, designed to modernize the recent immigrants and turn them into model American citizens, while diminishing loyalties to the old country. These programs often operated through the public school system, which expanded dramatically. In the 1940s typically historians saw the Progressive Era as a prelude to the New Deal and dated it from 1901 (when Roosevelt became president) to the start of World War I in 1914 or 1917. Historians have moved back in time emphasizing the Progressive reformers at the municipal and state levels in the 1890s. End of the EraEdit Much less settled is the question of when the era ended. Some historians who emphasize civil liberties decry their suppression during World War I and do not consider the war as rooted in Progressive policy. A strong anti-war movement headed by noted Progressives including Jane Addams, was suppressed after Wilson's 1916 re-election, a victory largely enabled by his campaign slogan, "He kept us out of the war." The slogan was no longer accurate by April 6 of the following year, when Wilson surprised much of the Progressive base that twice elected him and asked a joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. The Senate voted 82–6 in favor; the House agreed, 373–50. Some historians see the so-called "war to end all wars" as a globalized expression of the American Progressive movement, with Wilson's support for a League of Nations as its climax. The politics of the 1920s was unfriendly toward the labor unions and liberal crusaders against business, so many if not most historians who emphasize those themes write off the decade. Urban cosmopolitan scholars recoiled at the moralism of prohibition, the intolerance of the nativists and the KKK, and on those grounds denounced the era. Richard Hofstadter, for example, in 1955 wrote that prohibition, "was a pseudo-reform, a pinched, parochial substitute for reform" that "was carried about America by the rural-evangelical virus". However, as Arthur S. Link emphasized, the Progressives did not simply roll over and play dead. Link's argument for continuity through the twenties stimulated a historiography that found Progressivism to be a potent force. Palmer, pointing to leaders like George Norris, says, "It is worth noting that progressivism, whilst temporarily losing the political initiative, remained popular in many western states and made its presence felt in Washington during both the Harding and Coolidge presidencies." Gerster and Cords argue that, "Since progressivism was a 'spirit' or an 'enthusiasm' rather than an easily definable force with common goals, it seems more accurate to argue that it produced a climate for reform which lasted well into the 1920s, if not beyond." Some social historians have posited that the KKK may in fact fit into the Progressive agenda, if Klansmen are protrayed as "ordinary white Protestants" primarily interested in purification of the system, which had long been a core Progressive goal. This however ignores the violence and racism central to Klan ideology and activities, that had nothing to do with improving society, so much as enforcing racial hierarchies. While some Progressive leaders became reactionaries, that usually happened in the 1930s, not in the 1920s, as exemplified by William Randolph Hearst, Herbert Hoover, Al Smith and Henry Ford. Business progressivism in 1920sEdit What historians have identified as "business progressivism", with its emphasis on efficiency and typified by Henry Ford and Herbert Hoover reached an apogee in the 1920s. Wik, for example, argues that Ford's "views on technology and the mechanization of rural America were generally enlightened, progressive, and often far ahead of his times." Tindall stresses the continuing importance of the Progressive movement in the South in the 1920s involving increased democracy, efficient government, corporate regulation, social justice, and governmental public service. William Link finds political Progressivism dominant in most of the South in the 1920s. Likewise it was influential in the Midwest. Historians of women and of youth emphasize the strength of the Progressive impulse in the 1920s. Women consolidated their gains after the success of the suffrage movement, and moved into causes such as world peace, good government, maternal care (the Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921), and local support for education and public health. The work was not nearly as dramatic as the suffrage crusade, but women voted and operated quietly and effectively. Paul Fass, speaking of youth, says "Progressivism as an angle of vision, as an optimistic approach to social problems, was very much alive." International influences that sparked many reform ideas likewise continued into the 1920s, as American ideas of modernity began to influence Europe. By 1930 a block of progressive Republicans in the Senate who were urging Hoover to take more vigorous action to fight the depression. There were about a dozen members of this group including William Borah of Idaho, George W. Norris of Nebraska, Robert M. La Follette Jr., of Wisconsin, Gerald Nye of North Dakota, Hiram Johnson of California and Bronson M. Cutting of New Mexico. While these western Republicans could stir up issues, they could rarely forge a majority, since they were too individualistic and did not form a unified caucus. Hoover himself had sharply moved to the right, and paid little attention to their liberal ideas. By 1932 this group was moving toward support for Roosevelt's New Deal. They remain staunch isolationists deeply opposed to any involvement in Europe. Outside the Senate, however, a strong majority of the surviving Progressives from the 1910s had become conservative opponents of new deal economic planning. Notable progressive leadersEdit - Jane Addams, social reformer - Susan B. Anthony, suffragist - Robert P. Bass, New Hampshire politician - Charles A. Beard, historian and political scientist - Louis Brandeis, Supreme Court justice - William Jennings Bryan, Democratic presidential nominee in 1896, 1900, 1908; Secretary of State - Lucy Burns, suffragist - Andrew Carnegie, steel magnate, philanthropist - Carrie Chapman Catt, suffragist - Winston Churchill, author (not the British politician) - Herbert Croly, journalist - Clarence Darrow, lawyer - John Dewey, philosopher - W. E. B. Du Bois, Black scholar - Thomas Edison, inventor - Irving Fisher, economist - Abraham Flexner, education - Henry Ford, automaker - Henry George, writer on political economy - Charlotte Perkins Gilman, feminist - Susan Glaspell, playwright, novelist - Emma Goldman, anarchist, philosopher, writer - Lewis Hine, photographer - Charles Evans Hughes, statesman - William James, philosopher - Hiram Johnson, Governor of California - Mary Harris "Mother" Jones, union activist - Samuel M. Jones, politician, reformer - Florence Kelley, child advocate - Robert M. La Follette, Sr., Governor of Wisconsin - Fiorello LaGuardia, U.S. Congressman from New York; New York City mayor - Walter Lippmann, journalist - Mayo Brothers, medicine - Fayette Avery McKenzie, sociology - John R. Mott, YMCA leader - George Mundelein, Catholic leader - Alice Paul, suffragist - Ulrich B. Phillips, historian - Gifford Pinchot, conservationist - Walter Rauschenbusch, theologian of Social Gospel - Jacob Riis, reformer - John D. Rockefeller, Jr., philanthropist - Theodore Roosevelt, President - Elihu Root, statesman - Margaret Sanger, birth control activist - Anna Howard Shaw, suffragist - Upton Sinclair, novelist - Albion Small, sociologist - Ellen Gates Starr, sociologist - Lincoln Steffens, reporter - Henry Stimson, statesman - William Howard Taft, President and Chief Justice - Ida Tarbell, muckraker - Frederick Winslow Taylor, efficiency expert - Frederick Jackson Turner, historian - Thorstein Veblen, economist - Lester Frank Ward, sociologist - Woodrow Wilson, President - Ida B. Wells, Black leader - Burton Kendall Wheeler, Montana politician - John D. Buenker, John C. Burnham, and Robert M. Crunden, Progressivism (1986) pp 3–21 - James H. Timberlake, Prohibition and the progressive movement, 1900–1920 (1970) pp 1–7. - On purification, see David W. Southern, The Malignant Heritage: Yankee Progressives and the Negro Question, 1900–1915 (1968); Southern, The Progressive Era And Race: Reaction And Reform 1900–1917 (2005); Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition (1976) p 170; and Aileen Kraditor, The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement: 1890–1920 (1967). 134–36. - Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968) - Joseph Dorfman, The economic mind in American civilization, 1918–1933 vol 3, 1969 - Barry Karl, Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics (1975) - George Mowry, The California Progressives (1963) p 91. - Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (1998) - Michael Kazin; et al. (2011). The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political Turn up History. Princeton University Press. p. 181. ISBN 9781400839469. - Lewis L. Gould, America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914 (2000) - David B. Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Harvard UP, 1974), p. 39 - David E. Kyvig, Explicit and authentic acts: amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776–1995 (Kansas UP, 1996) pp. 208–14;Hedwig Richter: TRANSNATIONAL REFORM AND DEMOCRACY: ELECTION REFORMS IN NEW YORK CITY AND BERLIN AROUND 1900, in: Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 15 (2016), 149-175 (URL: https://www.academia.edu/25338056/_TRANSNATIONAL_REFORM_AND_DEMOCRACY_ELECTION_REFORMS_IN_NEW_YORK_CITY_AND_BERLIN_AROUND_1900_in_Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era_15_2016_149-175 - Peter C. Holloran et al. eds. (2009). The A to Z of the Progressive Era. Scarecrow Press. p. 266. - Herbert Shapiro, ed., The muckrakers and American society (Heath, 1968), contains representative samples as well as academic commentary. - Robert Miraldi, ed. The Muckrakers: Evangelical Crusaders (Praeger, 2000) - Harry H. Stein, "American Muckrakers and Muckraking: The 50-Year Scholarship," Journalism Quarterly, (1979) 56#1 pp. 9–17 - John D. Buenker, and Robert M. Crunden. Progressivism (1986); Maureen Flanagan, America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890–1920s (2007) - Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift Scientific Management in the Progressive Era 1890–1920 (1964) 656 - Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (1970). - J.-C. Spender; Hugo Kijne (2012). Scientific Management: Frederick Winslow Taylor’s Gift to the World?. Springer. p. 63. - Paige Meltzer, "The Pulse and Conscience of America" The General Federation and Women's Citizenship, 1945–1960," Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies (2009), Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 52–76. online - Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle (1959), pp. 208–17. - Corrine M. McConnaughy, The Woman Suffrage Movement in America: A Reassessment (2013). - Nancy F. 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Charles Evans Hughes: politics and reform in New York, 1905–1910 (1967). - Wiebe, Robert. "Business Disunity and the Progressive Movement, 1901–1914," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 44#4 (1958), pp. 664–85. in JSTOR
The Essential Stonehenge Mark Littmann holds an endowed fellowship in science writing at the University of Tennessee. Fred Espenak is an astrophysicist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. Ken Wilcox was a research chemist and an adjunct professor of physics and astronomy at Bartlesville Wesleyan College. Together they wrote, Totality: Eclipses of the Sun, which takes us to eclipses past, present, and future, and explains why people travel to the ends of the Earth to observe them. In the excerpt below we learn about the connection between Stonehenge and eclipses. Stonehenge was begun about 2800 B.C. by a people who had no written language, no wheeled vehicles, no draft animals, and no metal tools. To dig holes in the ground, they used the antlers of deer. The initial Stonehenge consisted of a circular embankment 350 feet (107 meters) in diameter, four marker stones set in a rectangle, some postholes, and the Heel Stone. The Heel Stone was apparently the first of the great boulders brought to this site as construction commenced. But it may not have stood alone. A similar huge stone stood just to its left as seen from the center of Stonehenge. In that ancient time, the Sun at the beginning of summer probably rose between the famed Heel Stone and its now-vanished companion, and the alignment with sunrise at the summer solstice was probably exact. For someone standing at the center of Stonehenge, the embankment served to level the horizon of rolling hills. Within the embankment, four stones- the Station stones- outlined a rectangle offering interesting lines of sight. The short side of the rectangle pointed toward the same spot on the horizon that the two Heel Stones framed, the position where the Sun rose farthest north of east, marking the commencement of summer. Facing in the opposite direction along the short side of the rectangle, an observer would see the place where the Sun set farthest south of west, signaling the beginning of winter. In contrast, the long sides of the rectangle provided alignments for crucial rising and setting positions of the Moon. Looking southeast along the length of the rectangle, an observer was facing the point on the horizon where the summer full moon would rise farthest south. In the opposite direction, looking northwest, this early astronomer’s gaze was led to the spot on the horizon where the winter full moon would set farthest north. These positions marked the north and south limits of the Moon’s motion. The structure of Stonehenge offers additional testimony to its builders’ efforts to understand the motion of the Moon. Evidence of small holes near the remaining Heel Stone strongly suggests that the users of Stonehenge observed and marked the excursion of the Moon as much as 5° north and south of the Sun’s limit. This motion above and below this Sun’s position is caused by the tilt of the Moon’s orbit to the Earth’s path around the Sun. Because of this tilt, the Moon does not pass directly in front of the Sun (a solar eclipse) or directly into the Earth’s shadow (a lunar eclipse) each month. Because the builders of Stonehenge had discovered and accurately recorded the range in the rising and setting positions of the Sun and Moon and had built a monument that marked these positions with precision, they may have been able to recognize when the Moon was on course to intercept the position of the Sun, to cause a solar eclipse. Perhaps they could tell when the Moon was headed for a position directly opposite the Sun, which would carry it into the shadow of the Earth for a lunar eclipse. They almost certainly could not predict where or what kind of solar eclipse would be seen, but they might have been able to warn that on a particular day or night, an eclipse of the Sun or Moon was possible. In the last phase of building at Stonehenge, two concentric circles of holes were dug just outside the Sarsen Circle – one with 30 holes and the other with 29. These circles reinforce the evidence that astronomers at Stonehenge were counting off the 29 1/2 day cycle of lunar phases, from new moon to full moon and back to new moon again. Eclipses of the Sun can only take place at new moon; lunar eclipses can only occur at full moon. If indeed the lunar phasing cycle was watched carefully, perhaps some ancient genius noticed a periodicity in eclipses as well. With a knowledge of that period, that early astronomer could have converted a mere warning of a possible eclipse into a prediction of a likely eclipse, especially for lunar eclipses, which are visible over half the Earth. The builders of Stonehenge left no written records of their objectives or results, so we must judge from the monument and its alignments what they knew. Whatever that was, the thought it so worth celebrating that the rulers and apparently the common people were willing to devote vast amounts of time, physical effort, and ingenuity to raising a lasting monument of great size, precision, and beauty.
Excel VBA OverFlow Error Errors are part and parcel of any coding language but finding why that error is coming is what makes you stand apart from the crowd in interviews. Errors are not strange to VBA codingVBA CodingVBA code refers to a set of instructions written by the user in the Visual Basic Applications programming language on a Visual Basic Editor (VBE) to perform a specific task.. Errors are not intentional, so that makes finding the cause for the error makes the hard task. In VBA, we have some of the pre-defined errors, and knowing about them makes you fix the bug very quickly. In this article, we will show you about the RUN TIME ERROR 6: OverFlow. Follow the full article to know about the error, reasons for the VBA overflow error, and how to fix them. What is Run Time Error 6: Overflow Error in VBA? When we declare the variable, we assign a data type to them. We should be completely aware of the pros and cons of each data type—this where Run Time Error 6: OverFlow comes into the picture. When we overload the data type with the value, which is more than the capacity of the data type, then we will get this error. For example: If you declare the variable as Byte. Dim Number As Byte The byte data type can hold values from 0 to 255. Now I will assign the value as 240. Number = 240 This should work fine because the value we have assigned is less than the limit of Byte’s value of 255. The moment we assign the value, which is more than 255, it leads to the error of Run Time Error 6: OverFlow. This is the general overview of the Run Time Error 6: OverFlow. We will see some of the examples in detail. Examples of Run Time Error 6: OverFlow in VBA Let’s see some examples of VBA OverFlow Error in Excel. Example 1: OverFlow Error with Byte Data Type As I told, it is important to know the pros and cons of the VBA data typeVBA Data TypeThe data type is the core character of any variable. It represents what type and range of value we can store in the variable. Data types are built-in VBA, and users or developers need to know which kind of value can be held in which data type. we are going to use. For example, look at the below code. Sub OverFlowError_Example1() Dim Number As Byte Number = 256 MsgBox Number End Sub For the variable “Number,” I have assigned the value as 256. When I run this code, we will get the below error. This is because the data type Byte can hold values from 0 to 255. So it causes an error. To fix the error, either we have to change the data type, or we have to reduce the value we have assigned to the variable “Number.” Example 2: VBA OverFlow Error with Integer Data Type VBA integerVBA IntegerIn VBA, an integer is a data type that may be assigned to any variable and used to hold integer values. In VBA, the bracket for the maximum number of integer variables that can be kept is similar to that in other languages. Using the DIM statement, any variable can be defined as an integer variable. is a data type that can hold values from -32768 to 32767. For example, look at the below code. Sub OverFlowError_Example2() Dim MyValue As Integer MyValue = 25656 MsgBox MyValue End Sub When I run this code, we will get the value of the variable “MyValue” in the message box, i.e., 25656. Now I will reassign the number to the variable as “45654”. Sub OverFlowError_Example2() Dim MyValue As Integer MyValue = 45654 MsgBox MyValue End Sub Now, if I try to run the code, it will cause an error because the data type we have declared can only hold the maximum of 32767 for positive numbers, and for negative numbers limit is -32768. Example 3: VBA OverFlow Error with Long Data Type The long data type is the most often used data type in Excel VBA. This can hold values from –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,486,647. Anything above that will cause an error. Sub OverFlowError_Example3() Dim MyValue As Long MyValue = 5000 * 457 MsgBox MyValue End Sub This will cause an overflow error. To fix this issue, we need to use the function CLNG in VBACLNG In VBAVBA CLng or "VBA Convert to Long" is an in-built Excel function that facilitates converting the numerical values or data exceeding the long data type limit into the acceptable data type.. Below is an example of the same. Sub OverFlowError_Example3() Dim MyValue As Long MyValue = CLng (5000) * 457 MsgBox MyValue End Sub This should work fine. This is the overview of the Run Time Error 6: OverFlow. To solve this error, we need to completely aware of the data types. So go back to basics, do the basics right, then everything will fall in place. You can download this VBA Overflow Error Excel Template here – VBA OverFlow Error Excel Template This has been a guide to VBA OverFlow Error. Here we learn how Run Time Overflow Error 6 occurs in Excel VBA and how to handle this error along with practical examples and a downloadable template. Below are some useful excel articles related to VBA –
i. Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with some quantity. ii. 1 km = m. iii. Standard unit of length is . iv. The length of curved line can be measured using a . v. is the distance between two points or ends of an object. vi. means the change in position of an object with time. i. The choice of device used for the measurement depends on the type of measurement to be made. ii. Our senses are reliable for accurate measurement. iii. 1m = 100cm. iv. 5km = 5000cm. v. Motion of a child on a swing is periodic motion. vi. Motion of a wheel of a cycle is random motion. Ans. Measuring tape Ans. Rectilinear or linear motion Q5. Which unit of length is used to measure a large distance? Q6. Write one example of circular motion. Ans. Motion of hands of a clock Q7. Write one example of rectilinear motion. Ans. Motion of an apple falling from a tree Q8. Write one example of periodic motion. Ans. A bouncing ball Q9. Name the type of motion in which a body moves along a curved path. Ans. Circular or Rotational motion Q10. Name the type of motion in which motion repeats after equal time interval. Ans. Periodic motion Ans. 1 km = 1000m 1340/1000 = 1.340 km Ans. Each side = 5 x 10 = 50mm (All sides of square are equal) Ans. The fixed quantity with which we compare an unknown quantity is called unit. Q14. When object is said to be in rest? Ans. If the position of an object does not change with time, it is said to be at rest. Q15. What do you understand by ‘measurement’? Ans. Measurement means the comparison of some unknown quantity with a known fixed quantity of same kind. Q16. What is the common in between hand span, pace, angul and fist? Ans. All of these are non-standard units of measurement that changes from person to person. Q17. When object is said to be in motion? Ans. When an object changes its position with time with respect to another object, it is said to be in motion. Q18. Why is the hand span not considered as a reliable unit for measuring the length? Ans. Hand span is not considered as a reliable unit for measuring the length because length of hand span varies from person to person. Q19. What do you understand by standard unit of measurement? Ans.The unit which is acceptable to the majority of people as a basic unit of measurement is called standard unit of measurement.
Abolitionism in the United States was a movement which sought to end slavery in the United States, being active from the colonial era until the American Civil War, which saw the abolition of American slavery. The abolitionist movement originated in Western Europe during the Age of Enlightenment, seeking to end the transatlantic slave trade and outlaw the institution of slavery in European colonies in the Americas. In Colonial America, German settlers issued the 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, which would initiate the American abolitionist movement. Before the Revolutionary War, evangelical colonists were the primary advocates for the abolition of slavery and the slave trade, doing so on humanitarian grounds. Georgia, the last of the Thirteen Colonies to be established, originally prohibited slavery upon its founding, a decision which was eventually reversed. During and after the Revolutionary War, all Northern states, beginning with the issuing of An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery by the state of Pennsylvania in 1780, passed legislation abolishing slavery. These acts, however, did not usually lead to the emancipation of enslaved African-Americans living in the north, as their intention was primarily to outlaw the slave trade rather than the institution itself. Massachusetts ratified their constitution in 1780, and included within was a clause which declared all men equal. Based upon said clause, several freedom suits were filed by enslaved African-Americans living in Massachusetts, which eventually led to the abolition of the institution in the state. In the state of New York, the enslaved population was transformed into indentured servants before being granted full emancipation in 1827. In other states, abolitionist legislation passed only provided freedom for the children of the enslaved. In the American South, similar freedom suits were rejected by the courts, who issued statements which said that the rights in the state constitution did not apply to African Americans. All U.S. states abolished the transatlantic slave trade by 1790. South Carolina, which had abolished the slave trade in 1787, reversed said decision in 1803. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery as new states were admitted to the Union. The federal government abolished the transatlantic slave trade in 1808, prohibited it in the District of Columbia in 1850, and made slavery unconstitutional altogether in 1865. This was a direct result of the Union victory in the American Civil War. The central issue of the war was slavery. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist "as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States". He does not include opponents of slavery such as Abraham Lincoln, the U.S. president during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, which called for the gradual abolition of slavery in the years preceding the outbreak of war. The religious component of American abolitionism is fundamental. It began with the Quakers, then moved to the other Protestants with the Second Great Awakening. Many leaders were ministers. Saying slavery was sinful made its evil easy to understand, and tended to arouse fervor for the cause. The debate about slavery was often based on what the Bible said or didn't say about it. John Brown, who had studied the Bible for the ministry, proclaimed that he was "an instrument of God". As such, abolitionism in the United States has been identified by historians as an expression of moralism, It often operated in tandem with another social reform effort, the temperance movement. Slavery was also attacked, to a lesser degree, as harmful on economic grounds. Evidence was that the South, with many enslaved African-Americans on plantations, was definitely poorer than the North, which had few. Abolitionism in Colonial America The first statement against slavery in Colonial America was written in 1688 by the Religious Society of Friends. On 18 February 1688, Francis Daniel Pastorius of Germantown, Pennsylvania, drafted the 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery, a two-page condemnation of the practice of slavery and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The intention of the document was to stop slavery within the Quaker community, where 70% of Quakers owned slaves between 1681 and 1705. It acknowledged the universal rights of all people. While the Quaker establishment did not take action at that time, the unusually early, clear and forceful argument in the 1688 Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery initiated the spirit that finally led to the end of slavery in the Society of Friends (1776) and in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1780). The Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by such Quaker leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby, and John Woolman. Slavery was banned in the colony of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733. The colony's founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm: If we allow slaves we act against the very principles by which we associated together, which was to relieve the distresses. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy and bring into perpetual slavery the poor people who now live there free. The struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742. Between 1764 and 1774, seventeen enslaved African-Americans appeared the Massachusetts courts in freedom suits, spurred on the decision made in the Somerset v. Stewart case, which although not applying the colonies was still received positively by American abolitionists. Boston lawyer Benjamin Kent represented them. In 1766, Kent won a case (Slew v. Whipple) to liberate Jenny Slew, a mixed-race woman who had been kidnapped in Massachusetts and then handled as a slave. According to historian Steven Pincus, many of the colonial legislatures worked to enact laws that would limit slavery. The Provincial legislature of Massachusetts Bay, as noted by historian Gary B. Nash, approved a law "prohibiting the importation and purchase of slaves by any Massachusetts citizen." The Loyalist governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson, vetoed the law, an action which prompted angered reaction from the general public. During the formation of the country The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage (Pennsylvania Abolition Society) was the first American abolition society, formed 14 April 1775, in Philadelphia, primarily by Quakers. The society suspended operations during the American Revolutionary War and was reorganized in 1784, with Benjamin Franklin as its first president. Rhode Island Quakers, associated with Moses Brown, were among the first in America to free slaves. Benjamin Rush was another leader, as were many Quakers. John Woolman gave up most of his business in 1756 to devote himself to campaigning against slavery along with other Quakers. One of the first articles advocating the emancipation of slaves and the abolition of slavery was written by Thomas Paine. Titled "African Slavery in America", it appeared on 8 March 1775 in the Postscript to the Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser. The Constitution had several provisions which accommodated slavery, although none used the word. Passed unanimously by the Congress of the Confederation in 1787, the Northwest Ordinance forbade slavery in the Northwest Territory, a vast area (the future Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin) in which slavery had been legal, but population was sparse. American abolitionism began very early, well before the United States was founded as a nation. An early law passed by Roger Williams and Samuel Gorton because it contradicted their Protestant beliefs abolished slavery (but not temporary indentured servitude) in Rhode Island in 1652; however, it floundered within 50 years, and Rhode Island became involved in the slave trade in 1700. Samuel Sewall, a prominent Bostonian and one of the judges at the Salem Witch Trials, wrote The Selling of Joseph in protest of the widening practice of outright slavery as opposed to indentured servitude in the colonies. This is the earliest-recorded anti-slavery tract published in the future United States. In 1777, independent Vermont, not yet a state, became the first polity in North America to prohibit slavery: slaves were not directly freed, but masters were required to remove slaves from Vermont. The first state to begin a gradual abolition of slavery was Pennsylvania, in 1780. All importation of slaves was prohibited, but none were freed at first, only the slaves of masters who failed to register them with the state, along with the "future children" of enslaved mothers. Those enslaved in Pennsylvania before the 1780 law went into effect were not freed until 1847. In the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin, a slaveholder for most of his life, was a leading member of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, the first recognized organization for abolitionists in the United States. Massachusetts took a much more radical position. In 1783, its Supreme Court, in the case of Commonwealth v. Nathaniel Jennison, reaffirmed the case of Brom and Bett v. Ashley, which held that even slaves were people that had a constitutional right to liberty. This gave freedom to slaves, effectively abolishing slavery. States with a greater economic interest in slaves, such as New York and New Jersey, passed gradual emancipation laws. While some of these laws were gradual, these states enacted the first abolition laws in the entire "New World". In New Jersey, slavery was not prohibited until the Thirteenth Amendment. All of the other states north of Maryland began gradual abolition of slavery between 1781 and 1804, based on the Pennsylvania model and by 1804, all the Northern states had passed laws to abolish it. Some slaves continued in involuntary, unpaid "indentured servitude" for two more decades, and others were moved south and sold to new owners in slave states. Some individual slaveholders, particularly in the upper South, freed slaves, sometimes in their wills. Many noted they had been moved by the revolutionary ideals of the equality of men. The number of free blacks as a proportion of the black population in the upper South increased from less than 1 percent to nearly 10 percent between 1790 and 1810 as a result of these actions. Some slave owners, concerned about the increase in free blacks, which they viewed as destabilizing, freed slaves on condition that they emigrate to Africa. The South after 1804 The institution remained solid in the South, and that region's customs and social beliefs evolved into a strident defense of slavery in response to the rise of a stronger anti-slavery stance in the North. In 1835 alone, abolitionists mailed over a million pieces of anti-slavery literature to the South, giving rise to the gag rules in Congress, after the theft of mail from the Charleston, South Carolina, post office, and much back-and-forth about whether postmasters were required to deliver this mail. According to the Postmaster General, they were not. Under the Constitution, the importation of enslaved persons could not be prohibited until 1808 (20 years). As the end of the 20 years approached, an Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves sailed through Congress with little opposition. President Jefferson supported it, and it went effect on January 1, 1808. In 1820, the Act to Protect the Commerce of the United States and Punish the Crime of Piracy was passed. This law made importing slaves into the United States a death penalty offense. The Confederate States of America continued this prohibition with the sentence of death and prohibited the import of slaves. Abolitionism's sudden emergence In 1830 most Americans were, at least in principle, opposed to slavery. The problem was how to end it, and what would become of the slaves once they were free: "we cherish the hope...that proper means will be devised for the disposal of the blacks", as it was tactlessly put in The Philanthropist.:59 In the 1830s there was a progressive shift in thinking in the North. Mainstream opinion changed from gradual emancipation and resettlement of freed blacks in Africa, sometimes a condition of their manumission, to immediatism: freeing all the slaves immediately and sorting out the problems later. This change was in many cases sudden, a consequence of the individual's coming in direct contact with the horrors of American slavery, or hearing of them from a credible source. As it was put by Amos Adams Lawrence, who witnessed the capture and return to slavery of Anthony Burns, "we went to bed one night old-fashioned, conservative, Compromise Union Whigs and waked up stark mad Abolitionists." Garrison and immediate emancipation The American beginning of abolitionism as a political movement is usually dated from 1 January 1831, when Wm. Lloyd Garrison (as he always signed himself) published the first issue of his new weekly newspaper, The Liberator (1831), which appeared without interruption until slavery in the United States was abolished in 1865, when it closed. This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Abolitionists included those who joined the American Anti-Slavery Society or its auxiliary groups in the 1830s and 1840s, as the movement fragmented.:78 The fragmented anti-slavery movement included groups such as the Liberty Party; the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society; the American Missionary Association; and the Church Anti-Slavery Society. Historians traditionally distinguish between moderate antislavery reformers or gradualists, who concentrated on stopping the spread of slavery, and radical abolitionists or immediatists, whose demands for unconditional emancipation often merged with a concern for Black civil rights. However, James Stewart advocates a more nuanced understanding of the relationship of abolition and antislavery prior to the Civil War: While instructive, the distinction [between antislavery and abolition] can also be misleading, especially in assessing abolitionism's political impact. For one thing, slaveholders never bothered with such fine points. Many immediate abolitionists showed no less concern than did other white Northerners about the fate of the nation's "precious legacies of freedom". Immediatism became most difficult to distinguish from broader anti-Southern opinions once ordinary citizens began articulating these intertwining beliefs.:78 Anti-slavery advocates were outraged by the murder on 7 November 1837 of Elijah Parish Lovejoy, a white man and editor of an abolitionist newspaper, by a pro-slavery mob in Illinois. This was soon followed by the destruction by arson, three days after it opened, of abolition's great new building, Pennsylvania Hall. Except for the burning of the U.S. Capitol and the White House by the British during the War of 1812, it was the worst case of arson in the country up to that date. Fire companies were prevented by violence from saving the building. Nearly all Northern politicians, such as Abraham Lincoln, rejected the "immediate emancipation" called for by the abolitionists, seeing it as "extreme". Indeed, many Northern leaders, including Lincoln, Stephen Douglas (the Democratic nominee in 1860), John C. Frémont (the Republican nominee in 1856), and Ulysses S. Grant married into slave-owning Southern families without any moral qualms. Antislavery as a principle was far more than just the wish to prevent the expansion of slavery. After 1840, abolitionists rejected this because it let sin continue to exist; they demanded that slavery end everywhere, immediately and completely. John Brown was the only abolitionist to have actually planned a violent insurrection, though David Walker promoted the idea. The abolitionist movement was strengthened by the activities of free African Americans, especially in the Black church, who argued that the old Biblical justifications for slavery contradicted the New Testament. African-American activists and their writings were rarely heard outside the Black community. However, they were tremendously influential on a few sympathetic white people, most prominently the first white activist to reach prominence, Wm. Lloyd Garrison, who was its most effective propagandist. Garrison's efforts to recruit eloquent spokesmen led to the discovery of ex-slave Frederick Douglass, who eventually became a prominent activist in his own right. Eventually, Douglass would publish his own widely distributed abolitionist newspaper, North Star. In the early 1850s, the American abolitionist movement split into two camps over the question of whether the United States Constitution did or did not protect slavery. This issue arose in the late 1840s after the publication of The Unconstitutionality of Slavery by Lysander Spooner. The Garrisonians, led by Garrison and Wendell Phillips, publicly burned copies of the Constitution, called it a pact with slavery, and demanded its abolition and replacement. Another camp, led by Lysander Spooner, Gerrit Smith, and eventually Douglass, considered the Constitution to be an anti-slavery document. Using an argument based upon Natural Law and a form of social contract theory, they said that slavery fell outside the Constitution's scope of legitimate authority and therefore should be abolished. Another split in the abolitionist movement was along class lines. The artisan republicanism of Robert Dale Owen and Frances Wright stood in stark contrast to the politics of prominent elite abolitionists such as industrialist Arthur Tappan and his evangelist brother Lewis. While the former pair opposed slavery on a basis of solidarity of "wage slaves" with "chattel slaves", the Whiggish Tappans strongly rejected this view, opposing the characterization of Northern workers as "slaves" in any sense. (Lott, 129–30) Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting the Underground Railroad.[full citation needed] This was made illegal by the federal Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, arguably the most hated and most openly evaded federal legislation in the nation's history. Nevertheless, participants like Harriet Tubman, Henry Highland Garnet, Alexander Crummell, Amos Noë Freeman, and others continued with their work. Abolitionists were particularly active in Ohio, where some worked directly in the Underground Railroad. Since only the Ohio River separated free Ohio from slave Kentucky, it was a popular destination for fugitive slaves. Supporters helped them there, in many cases to cross Lake Erie by boat, into Canada. The Western Reserve area of northeast Ohio was "probably the most intensely antislavery section of the country." The Oberlin-Wellington Rescue got national publicity. Abolitionist John Brown grew up in Hudson, Ohio. In the South, members of the abolitionist movement or other people opposing slavery were often targets of lynch mob violence before the American Civil War. Numerous known abolitionists lived, worked, and worshipped in downtown Brooklyn, from Henry Ward Beecher, who auctioned slaves into freedom from the pulpit of Plymouth Church, to Nathan Egelston, a leader of the African and Foreign Antislavery Society, who also preached at the Bridge Street African Methodist Episcopal Church, and lived on Duffield Street. His fellow Duffield Street residents Thomas and Harriet Truesdell were leading members of the abolitionist movement. Mr. Truesdell was a founding member of the Providence Anti-slavery Society before moving to Brooklyn in 1838. Harriet Truesdell was also very active in the movement, organizing an antislavery convention in Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia). Another prominent Brooklyn-based abolitionist was Rev. Joshua Leavitt, trained as a lawyer at Yale, who stopped practicing law in order to attend Yale Divinity School, and subsequently edited the abolitionist newspaper The Emancipator and campaigned against slavery, as well as advocating other social reforms. In 1841, Leavitt published The Financial Power of Slavery, which argued that the South was draining the national economy due to its reliance on enslaved workers. In 2007, Duffield Street was given the name Abolitionist Place, and the Truesdells' home at 227 Duffield received landmark status in 2021. Abolitionism at colleges Western Reserve College Both Garrison's newspaper The Liberator and his book Thoughts on African Colonization (1832) arrived shortly after publication at Western Reserve College, in Hudson, Ohio, which was briefly the center of abolitionist discourse in the United States. (John Brown grew up in Hudson.) The readers, including college president Charles Backus Storrs, found Garrison's arguments and evidence convincing. Abolition versus colonization rapidly became the primary issue on the campus, to the point that Storrs complained in writing that nothing else was being discussed.:26 The college's chaplain and theology professor Beriah Green said that "his Thoughts and his paper (The Liberator) are worthy of the eye and the heart of every American.":49 Green delivered in the college chapel in November and December 1832 four sermons supporting immediate abolition of slavery. These so offended the college's trustees, more conservative than either the students or the faculty, that Green resigned, expecting that he would be fired. Elizur Wright, another professor, resigned soon afterwards and became the first secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, of which Green was the first president. Storrs contracted tuberculosis, took a leave of absence, and died within six months.:28 This left the school with only one of its four professors. Oneida Institute for Science and Industry Green was soon hired as the new president of the Oneida Institute. Under the previous president, George Washington Gale, there had been a mass walkout of students; among the issues was Gale's lack of support for abolition. He accepted the position on conditions that 1) he be allowed to preach "immediatism", immediate emancipation, and 2) that African-American students be admitted on the same terms as white students. These were accepted, and we know the names of 16 Blacks who studied there. Native American students, of whom we know the names of two, were openly accepted as well. Under Green, Oneida became "a hotbed of anti-slavery activity.":44 It was "abolitionist to the core, more so than any other American college.":46 For Presbyterian minister and Bible professor Green, slavery was not just an evil but a sin, and abolitionism was what Christ's principles mandated. Under him a cadre of abolitionists was trained, who then carried the abolitionist message, via lectures and sermons, throughout the North. Many future well-known black leaders and abolitionists were students at Oneida while Green was president. These include William Forten (son of James Forten), Alexander Crummell, Rev. Henry Highland Garnet and Rev. Amos Noë Freeman. Lane Theological Seminary The Oneida Institute did not have an incident, like that of Western Reserve, which brought national attention to it. Its successor, Lane Theological Seminary, in Cincinnati, did. "Lane was Oneida moved west.":55 Leading the exodus from Oneida was a former Oneida student, and private student of Gale before that, Theodore Dwight Weld. He had been hired by the philanthropist brothers, and abolitionists, Arthur and Lewis Tappan, to find a location for a national manual labor school, since Oneida, a manual labor school, was a disappointment, according to Weld and his student followers. (The manual labor school movement had students work about 3 hours a day on farms or in small factories or plants, such as Oneida's printing shop, and was intended to provide needy students with funds for their education – a form of work-study – while at the same time providing them the newly recognized health and spiritual (psychological) benefits of exercise.) At the same time that Weld was scouting a location for a new school, the barely-functioning Lane Theological Seminary was looking for students. Based on Weld's recommendation, the Tappans approved the choice, and started giving Lane much of the financial support they had previously given Oneida. Weld, though on paper enrolled as a student at Lane, was de facto its head, choosing, through his recommendations to the Tappans, the president (Lyman Beecher, after Charles Grandison Finney, who became later the second president of Oberlin, turned it down), and telling the trustees whom to hire.:54 Students, many of whom considered him the real leader of Lane,:77 responded to Weld's announcement of the new school. [Y]oung men gathered in Cincinnati "as from the hives of the north". Most of them were from western New York. H. B. Stanton and a few others from Rochester floated down the Ohio from Pittsburgh on a raft. More than a score came from Oneida Institute. Even more arrived from Utica and Auburn, Finney's converts all. From Tennessee came Weld's disciple, Marius Robinson, and across the Ohio from Kentucky came James Thome, scion of a wealthy planting family. Up from Alabama journeyed two others of Weld's disciples, the sons of the Rev. Dr. Allan. From Virginia came young Hedges; and from Missouri, Andrew, of the famous family of Benton. From the South came another, James Bradley, a Negro who had bought his freedom from slavery with the earnings of his own hands. Most of these students were mature; only eleven were less than twenty-one years old; twelve of them had been agents for the national benevolent societies, and six were married men with families. The theological class was the largest that had ever gathered in America, and its members were deeply conscious of their importance.:46 Lane ended up with about 100 students, the most of any seminary in America. One of Weld's key contentions (and of Puritan abolition sentiment in general) was that slavery was inherently anti-family. While slave marriage was technically illegal, it happened frequently. Slave owners expected their slaves to have many children to replace their numbers, after the import of slaves had been banned in 1808. The intrinsically financial nature of slaves meant that slaves were frequently bought and sold, ripping apart families. In his 1839 book American Slavery as It Is, Weld showed just how brutal the slave trade was towards families. To the very family focused Puritans, this was one of the greatest crimes of slavery. Weld's descriptions of families destroyed would later serve the basis for scenes in Uncle Tom's Cabin, including Uncle Tom being sold and separated from the children. Lane Seminary debates No sooner had this disparate group of former Oneida students and others arrived at Lane, under the leadership of Weld, they formed an anti-slavery society. They then proceeded to hold a well-publicized series of debates on abolition versus African colonialism, lasting 18 evenings, and decided that abolitionism was a much better solution to slavery. In fact no real debate took place, since no one appeared to defend slavery. These "debates", which were well publicized, alarmed Lane's president Lyman Beecher and the school's trustees. Adding to their alarm were the classes the students were holding in the Black community, teaching Blacks to read. Fearing violence, since Cincinnati was strongly anti-abolitionist (see Cincinnati riots of 1829), they immediately prohibited any future such "off-the-topic" discussions and activities. The students, again led by Weld, felt that abolitionism was so important–it was their responsibility as Christians to promote it–that they resigned en masse, joined by Asa Mahan, a trustee who supported the students. With support from the Tappans, they briefly tried to establish a new seminary, but as this did not prove a practical solution they accepted a proposal that they move to the new Oberlin Collegiate Institute. Oberlin Collegiate Institute Due to its students' anti-slavery position, Oberlin soon became one of the most liberal colleges and accepted African-American students. Along with Garrison, Northcutt and Collins were proponents of immediate abolition. Abby Kelley Foster became an "ultra abolitionist" and a follower of William Lloyd Garrison. She led Susan B. Anthony as well as Elizabeth Cady Stanton into the anti-slavery cause. After 1840, "abolition" usually referred to positions similar to Garrison's. It was largely an ideological movement led by about 3,000 people, including free blacks and free people of color, many of whom, such as Frederick Douglass in New England, and Robert Purvis and James Forten in Philadelphia, played prominent leadership roles. Douglass became legally free during a two-year stay in England, as British supporters raised funds to purchase his freedom from his American owner Thomas Auld, and also helped fund his abolitionist newspapers in the United States. Abolitionism had a strong religious base including Quakers, and people converted by the revivalist fervor of the Second Great Awakening, led by Charles Finney in the North, in the 1830s. Belief in abolition contributed to the breaking away of some small denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church. Evangelical abolitionists founded some colleges, most notably Bates College in Maine and Oberlin College in Ohio. The movement attracted such figures as Yale president Noah Porter and Harvard president Thomas Hill. In the North, most opponents of slavery supported other modernizing reform movements such as the temperance movement, public schooling, and prison- and asylum-building. They were split on the issue of women's activism and their political role, and this contributed to a major rift in the Society. In 1839, brothers Arthur Tappan and Lewis Tappan left the Society and formed the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, which did not admit women. Other members of the Society, including Charles Turner Torrey, Amos Phelps, Henry Stanton, and Alanson St. Clair, in addition to disagreeing with Garrison on the women's issue, urged taking a much more activist approach to abolitionism and consequently challenged Garrison's leadership at the Society's annual meeting in January 1839. When the challenge was beaten back, they left and founded the New Organization, which adopted a more activist approach to freeing slaves. Soon after, in 1840, they formed the Liberty Party, which had as its sole platform the abolition of slavery. By the end of 1840, Garrison himself announced the formation of a third new organization, the Friends of Universal Reform, with sponsors and founding members including prominent reformers Maria Chapman, Abby Kelley Foster, Oliver Johnson, and Bronson Alcott (father of Louisa May Alcott). Abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison repeatedly condemned slavery for contradicting the principles of freedom and equality on which the country was founded. In 1854, Garrison wrote: I am a believer in that portion of the Declaration of American Independence in which it is set forth, as among self-evident truths, "that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Hence, I am an abolitionist. Hence, I cannot but regard oppression in every form – and most of all, that which turns a man into a thing – with indignation and abhorrence. Not to cherish these feelings would be recreancy to principle. They who desire me to be dumb on the subject of slavery, unless I will open my mouth in its defense, ask me to give the lie to my professions, to degrade my manhood, and to stain my soul. I will not be a liar, a poltroon, or a hypocrite, to accommodate any party, to gratify any sect, to escape any odium or peril, to save any interest, to preserve any institution, or to promote any object. Convince me that one man may rightfully make another man his slave, and I will no longer subscribe to the Declaration of Independence. Convince me that liberty is not the inalienable birthright of every human being, of whatever complexion or clime, and I will give that instrument to the consuming fire. I do not know how to espouse freedom and slavery together. Uncle Tom's Cabin The most influential abolitionist publication was Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), the best-selling novel and play by Harriet Beecher Stowe, who had attended the anti-slavery debates at Lane, of which her father, Lyman Beecher, was the president. Outraged by the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 (which made the escape narrative part of everyday news), Stowe emphasized the horrors that abolitionists had long claimed about slavery. Her depiction of the evil slave owner Simon Legree, a transplanted Yankee who kills the Christ-like Uncle Tom, outraged the North, helped sway British public opinion against the South, and inflamed Southern slave owners who tried to refute it by showing some slave owners were humanitarian. It inspired numerous anti-Tom, pro-slavery novels, several written and published by women. The Constitution and ending slavery The Republican strategy of using the Constitution Two diametrically opposed anti-slavery position emerged regarding the United States Constitution. The Garrisonians emphasized that the document permitted and protected slavery, and was therefore "an agreement with hell" that had to be rejected in favor of immediate emancipation. The mainstream anti-slavery position adopted by the new Republican party argued that the Constitution could and should be used to eventually end slavery. They assumed that the Constitution gave the government no authority to abolish slavery directly. However, there were multiple tactics available to support the long-term strategy of using the Constitution as a battering ram against the peculiar institution. First Congress could block the admission of any new slave states. That would steadily move the balance of power in Congress and the electoral college in favor of freedom. Congress could abolish slavery in the District of Columbia and the territories. Congress could use the commerce clause to end the interstate slave trade, thus crippling the steady movement of slavery from the southeast to the southwest. Congress could recognize free blacks as full citizens, and insist on due process rights to protect fugitive slaves from being captured and returned to bondage. Finally the government could use patronage powers to promote the anti-slavery cause across the country, especially in the border states. Pro slavery elements considered the Republican strategy to be much more dangerous to their cause than radical abolitionism. Lincoln's election was met by secession. Indeed, the Republican strategy mapped the "crooked path to abolition" that prevailed during the Civil War. Events leading to emancipation In the 1850s, the slave trade remained legal in all 16 states of the American South. While slavery was fading away in the cities and border states, it remained strong in plantation areas that grew cash crops such as cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco or hemp. By the 1860 United States Census, the slave population in the United States had grown to four million. American abolitionism, after Nat Turner's revolt ended its discussion in the South, was based in the North, and white Southerners alleged it fostered slave rebellion. The white abolitionist movement in the North was led by social reformers, especially William Lloyd Garrison, founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and writers such as John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Black activists included former slaves such as Frederick Douglass, and free blacks such as the brothers Charles Henry Langston and John Mercer Langston, who helped to found the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society.[a] Compromise of 1850 The Compromise of 1850 attempted to resolve issues surrounding slavery caused by the War with Mexico and the admission to the Union of the slave Republic of Texas. The Compromise of 1850 was proposed by "The Great Compromiser" Henry Clay; support was coordinated by Senator Stephen A. Douglas. Through the compromise, California was admitted as a free state after its state convention unanimously opposed slavery there, Texas was financially compensated for the loss of its territories northwest of the modern state borders, and the slave trade (not slavery) was abolished in the District of Columbia. The Fugitive Slave Law was a concession to the South. Abolitionists were outraged, because the new law required Northerners to help in the capture and return of runaway slaves. In 1854, Congress passed the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which opened those territories to slavery if the local residents voted that way. The antislavery gains made in previous compromises were reversed. A firestorm of outrage brought together former Whigs, Know-Nothings, and former Free Soil Democrats to form a new party in 1854–56, the Republican Party. It included a program of rapid modernization involving the government promotion of industry, railroads, banks, free homesteads, and colleges, all to the annoyance of the South. The new party denounced the Slave Power – that is the political power of the slave owners who supposedly controlled the national government for their own benefit and to the disadvantage of the ordinary white man. The Republicans wanted to achieve the gradual extinction of slavery by market forces, because its members believed that free labor was superior to slave labor. Southern leaders said the Republican policy of blocking the expansion of slavery into the West made them second-class citizens, and challenged their autonomy. With the 1860 presidential victory of Abraham Lincoln, seven Deep South states whose economy was based on cotton and slavery decided to secede and form a new nation. The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with the firing on Fort Sumter in South Carolina. When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the rebellion, four more slave states seceded. Explorer and abolitionist John C. Frémont ran as the first Republican nominee for president in 1856. The new party crusaded on the slogan: "Free soil, free silver, free men, Frémont and victory!" Although he lost, the party showed a strong base. It dominated in Yankee areas of New England, New York and the northern Midwest, and had a strong presence in the rest of the North. It had almost no support in the South, where it was roundly denounced in 1856–60 as a divisive force that threatened civil war. Without using the term "containment", the new Party in the mid-1850s proposed a system of containing slavery, once it gained control of the national government. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy: The federal government would surround the south with free states, free territories, and free waters, building what they called a "cordon of freedom" around slavery, hemming it in until the system's own internal weaknesses forced the slave states one by one to abandon slavery. Abolitionists demanded immediate emancipation, not a slow-acting containment. They rejected the new party, and in turn its leaders reassured voters they were not trying to abolish slavery in the U.S. altogether, which was politically impossible, and were just working against its spread. John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry Historian Frederick Blue called John Brown "the most controversial of all 19th-century Americans".[full citation needed] When Brown was hanged after his attempt to start a slave rebellion in 1859, church bells rang across the North, there was a 100-gun salute in Albany, New York, large memorial meetings took place throughout the North, and famous writers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau joined other Northerners in praising Brown. Whereas Garrison was a pacifist, Brown believed violence was unfortunately necessary to end slavery. The raid, though unsuccessful in the short term, helped Lincoln get elected, and moved the Southern states to secede, bringing as consequence the Civil War. Some historians regard Brown as a crazed lunatic, while David S. Reynolds hails him as the man who "killed slavery, sparked the civil war, and seeded civil rights". For Ken Chowder he is "the father of American terrorism".[full citation needed] His raid in October 1859 involved a band of 22 men who seized the Federal armory at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (since 1863, West Virginia), knowing it contained tens of thousands of weapons. Brown believed the South was on the verge of a gigantic slave uprising and that one spark would set it off. Brown's supporters George Luther Stearns, Franklin B. Sanborn, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Theodore Parker, Samuel Gridley Howe, and Gerrit Smith were all abolitionists, members of the so-called Secret Six who provided financial backing for Brown's raid. Brown's raid, says historian David Potter, "was meant to be of vast magnitude and to produce a revolutionary slave uprising throughout the South". The raid did not go as expected. He hoped to have quickly a small army of runaway slaves, but made no provision to inform these potential runaways, although he got a little local support. Lt. Colonel Robert E. Lee of the U.S. Army was dispatched to put down the raid, and Brown was quickly captured. He was tried for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, murder, and inciting a slave revolt, was found guilty of all charges, and was hanged. At his trial, Brown exuded a remarkable zeal and single-mindedness that played directly to Southerners' worst fears. Under Virginia law there was a month between the sentencing and the hanging, and in those weeks Brown spoke gladly with reporters and anyone else who wanted to see him, and wrote many letters. Few individuals did more to cause secession than John Brown, because Southerners believed he was right about an impending slave revolt. The day of his execution, Brown prophesied, "the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood. I had as I now think vainly flattered myself that without very much bloodshed it might be done." American Civil War The American Civil War began with the stated goal of preserving the Union, and Lincoln said repeatedly that on the topic of slavery, he was only opposed to its spread to the Western territories. This view of the war progressively changed, one step at a time, as public sentiment evolved, until by 1865 the war was seen in the North as primarily concerned with ending slavery. The first federal act taken against slavery during the war occurred on 16 April 1862, when Lincoln signed the District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, which abolished slavery in Washington, D.C. A few months later, on June 19, Congress banned slavery in all federal territories, fulfilling Lincoln's 1860 campaign promise. Meanwhile, the Union suddenly found itself dealing with a steady stream of thousands of escaped slaves, achieving freedom, or so they hoped, by crossing Union lines. In response, Congress passed the Confiscation Acts, which essentially declared escaped slaves from the South to be confiscated war property, and thus did not have to be returned to their Confederate owners. Although the initial act did not mention emancipation, the second Confiscation Act, passed on 17 July 1862, stated that escaped or liberated slaves belonging to anyone who participated in or supported the rebellion "shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves." Pro-Union forces gained control of the border states of Maryland, Missouri, and West Virginia; all three states would abolish slavery before the end of the war. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, effective 1 January 1863, which carefully declared only those slaves in Confederate states to be free. The United States Colored Troops began operations in 1863. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was repealed in June 1864. Eventually support for abolition was enough to pass the Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in December 1865, which abolished slavery everywhere in the United States, freeing more than 50,000 people still enslaved in Kentucky and Delaware, in 1865 the only states in which slavery still existed. The Thirteenth Amendment also abolished slavery among the Native American tribes. Variations by area Abolition in the North The abolitionist movement began about the time of the United States' independence. Quakers played a big role. The first abolition organization was the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, which first met in 1775; Benjamin Franklin was its president. The New York Manumission Society was founded in 1785 by powerful politicians: John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and Aaron Burr. There is quite a bit of confusion about the dates in which slavery was abolished in the Northern states, because "abolishing slavery" meant different things in different states. (Theodore Weld, in his pamphlet opposing slavery in the District of Columbia, gives a detailed chronology.) It is true that beginning with the independent Republic of Vermont in 1777, all states north of the Ohio River and the Mason–Dixon line that separated Pennsylvania from Maryland passed laws that abolished slavery, although in some cases this did not apply to existing slaves, only ther future offspring. These included the first abolition laws in the entire New World: the Massachusetts Constitution, adopted in 1780, declared all men to have rights, making slavery unenforceable, and it disappeared through the individual actions of both masters and slaves. However what the abolition forces passed in 1799 in New York state was an Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery. New Jersey abolished slavery in 1804, but in 1860 a dozen blacks were still held as "perpetual apprentices". At the Constitutional Convention of 1787, slavery was the most contentious topic. Outright prohibition of slavery was impossible, as the Southern states (Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware) would never have agreed. The only restriction on slavery that could be agreed on was the prohibition of the importation of slaves, and even that prohibition was postponed for 20 years. By that time, all the states except South Carolina had laws abolishing or severely limiting the importation of slaves. When 1808 approached, then-President Thomas Jefferson, in his 1806 annual message to Congress (State of the Union), proposed legislation, approved by Congress with little controversy in 1807, prohibiting the importation of slaves into the United States effective the first day the Constitution permitted, 1 January 1808. As he put it, this would "withdraw the citizens of the United States from all further participation in those violations of human rights...which the morality, the reputation, and the best of our country have long been eager to proscribe". However, about 1,000 slaves per year continued to be illegally brought (smuggled) into the United States; see Wanderer and Clotilda. This was primarily via Spanish Florida and the Gulf Coast; the United States acquired Florida from Spain in 1819, effective 1821, in part as a slave-control measure: no imports coming in, and certainly no fugitives escaping into a refuge. Congress declined to pass any restriction on the lucrative interstate slave trade, which expanded to replace the supply of African slaves (see Slavery in the United States#Slave trade). Manumission by Southern owners After 1776, Quaker and Moravian advocates helped persuade numerous slaveholders in the Upper South to free their slaves. Manumissions increased for nearly two decades. Many individual acts by slaveholders freed thousands of slaves. Slaveholders freed slaves in such numbers that the percentage of free black people in the Upper South increased from 1 to 10 percent, with most of that increase in Virginia, Maryland and Delaware. By 1810 three-quarters of blacks in Delaware were free. The most notable of men offering freedom was Robert Carter III of Virginia, who freed more than 450 people by "Deed of Gift", filed in 1791. This number was more slaves than any single American had freed before or after. Often slaveholders came to their decisions by their own struggles in the Revolution; their wills and deeds frequently cited language about the equality of men supporting the decision to set slaves free. The era's changing economy also encouraged slaveholders to release slaves. Planters were shifting from labor-intensive tobacco to mixed-crop cultivation and needed fewer slaves. Together with African Americans freed before the Revolution, the newly free black families began to thrive[ambiguous]. By 1860, 91.7% of the blacks in Delaware and 49.7% of the those in Maryland were free. Such early free families often formed the core of artisans, professionals, preachers, and teachers in future generations. During Congressional debate in 1820 on the proposed Tallmadge Amendment, which sought to limit slavery in Missouri as it became a state, Rufus King declared that "laws or compacts imposing any such condition [slavery] upon any human being are absolutely void, because contrary to the law of nature, which is the law of God, by which he makes his ways known to man, and is paramount to all human control". The amendment failed and Missouri became a slave state. According to historian David Brion Davis, this may have been the first time in the world that a political leader openly attacked slavery's perceived legality in such a radical manner. Beginning in the 1830s, the U.S. Postmaster General refused to allow the mails to carry abolition pamphlets to the South. Northern teachers suspected of abolitionism were expelled from the South, and abolitionist literature was banned. One Northerner, Amos Dresser (1812–1904), in 1835 was tried in Nashville, Tennessee, for possessing anti-slavery publications, convicted, and as punishment was whipped publicly. Southerners rejected the denials of Republicans that they were abolitionists. They pointed to John Brown's attempt in 1859 to start a slave uprising as proof that multiple Northern conspiracies were afoot to ignite slave rebellions. Although some abolitionists did call for slave revolts, no evidence of any other Brown-like conspiracy has been discovered. The North felt threatened as well, for as Eric Foner concludes, "Northerners came to view slavery as the very antithesis of the good society, as well as a threat to their own fundamental values and interests". The famous, "fiery" abolitionist Abby Kelley Foster, from Massachusetts, was considered an "ultra" abolitionist who believed in full civil rights for all black people. She held to the view that the freed slaves would colonize Liberia. Parts of the anti-slavery movement became known as "Abby Kellyism". She recruited Susan B Anthony and Lucy Stone to the movement. Effingham Capron, a cotton and textile scion, who attended the Quaker meeting where Abby Kelley Foster and her family were members, became a prominent abolitionist at the local, state, and national levels. The local anti-slavery society at Uxbridge, Massachusetts, had more than 25% of the town's population as members. Religion and morality The Second Great Awakening of the 1820s and 1830s in religion inspired groups that undertook many types of social reform. For some that included the immediate abolition of slavery as they considered it sinful to hold slaves as well as to tolerate slavery. Opposition to slavery, for example, was one of the works of piety of the Methodist Churches, which were established by John Wesley. "Abolitionist" had several meanings at the time. The followers of William Lloyd Garrison, including Wendell Phillips and Frederick Douglass, demanded the "immediate abolition of slavery", hence the name, also called "immediatism". A more pragmatic group of abolitionists, such as Theodore Weld and Arthur Tappan, wanted immediate action, but were willing to support a program of gradual emancipation, with a long intermediate stage. "Antislavery men", such as John Quincy Adams, did not call slavery a sin. They called it an evil feature of society as a whole. They did what they could to limit slavery and end it where possible, but were not part of any abolitionist group. For example, in 1841, John Quincy Adams represented the Amistad African slaves in the Supreme Court of the United States and argued that they should be set free. In the last years before the war, "antislavery" could refer to the Northern majority, such as Abraham Lincoln, who opposed expansion of slavery or its influence, as by the Kansas–Nebraska Act or the Fugitive Slave Act. Many Southerners called all these abolitionists, without distinguishing them from the Garrisonians. Historian James Stewart (1976) explains the abolitionists' deep beliefs: "All people were equal in God's sight; the souls of black folks were as valuable as those of whites; for one of God's children to enslave another was a violation of the Higher Law, even if it was sanctioned by the Constitution." Irish Catholics in America seldom challenged the role of slavery in society as it was protected at that time by the U.S. Constitution. They viewed the abolitionists as anti-Catholic and anti-Irish. Irish Catholics were generally well received by Democrats in the South. In contrast, most Irish Nationalists and Fenians supported the abolition of slavery. Daniel O'Connell, the Catholic leader of the Irish in Ireland, supported abolition in the United States. He organized a petition in Ireland with 60,000 signatures urging the Irish of the United States to support abolition. John O'Mahony, a founder of the Irish Republican Brotherhood was an abolitionist and served as colonel in the 69th Infantry Regiment during the Civil War. The Irish Catholics in America were recent immigrants; most were poor and very few owned slaves. They had to compete with free blacks for unskilled labor jobs. They saw abolitionism as the militant wing of evangelical anti-Catholic Protestantism. The Catholic Church in America had long ties in slaveholding Maryland and Louisiana. Despite a firm stand for the spiritual equality of black people, and the resounding condemnation of slavery by Pope Gregory XVI in his bull In supremo apostolatus issued in 1839, the American church continued in deeds, if not in public discourse, to avoid confrontation with slave-holding interests. In 1861, the Archbishop of New York wrote to Secretary of War Cameron: "That the Church is opposed to slavery ... Her doctrine on that subject is, that it is a crime to reduce men naturally free to a condition of servitude and bondage, as slaves." No American bishop supported extra-political abolition or interference with states' rights before the Civil War. The secular Germans of the Forty-Eighter immigration were largely anti-slavery. Prominent Forty-Eighters included Carl Schurz and Friedrich Hecker. German Lutherans seldom took a position on slavery, but German Methodists were anti-slavery. Black abolitionist rhetoric Historians and scholars have largely overlooked the work of black abolitionists, instead, they have focused much of their scholarly attention on a few black abolitionists, such as Frederick Douglass. Black abolitionists, though like Martin Delany and James Monroe Whitfield to name only two others, played an undeniably large role in shaping the movement. Although it is impossible to generalize an entire rhetorical movement, black abolitionists can largely be characterized by the obstacles that they faced and the ways in which these obstacles informed their rhetoric. Black abolitionists had the distinct problem of having to confront an often hostile American public, while still acknowledging their nationality and struggle. As a result, many black abolitionists "intentionally adopted aspects of British, New England, and Midwestern cultures". Furthermore, much of abolitionist rhetoric, and black abolitionist rhetoric in particular, were influenced by the Puritan preaching heritage. William Lloyd Garrison's abolitionist newsletter the Liberator noted in 1847, "the Anti-Slavery cause cannot stop to estimate where the greatest indebtedness lies, but whenever the account is made up there can be no doubt that the efforts and sacrifices of the WOMEN, who helped it, will hold a most honorable and conspicuous position." As the Liberator states, women played a crucial role as leaders in the anti-slavery movement. Angelina and Sarah Grimké were the first female antislavery agents, and played a variety of roles in the abolitionist movement. Though born in the South, the Grimké sisters became disillusioned with slavery and moved North to get away from it. Perhaps because of their birthplace, the Grimké sisters' critiques carried particular weight and specificity. Angelina Grimké spoke of her thrill at seeing white men do manual labor of any kind. Their perspectives as native Southerners as well as women, brought a new important point of view to the abolitionist movement. In 1836, they moved to New York and began work for the Anti-Slavery Society, where they met and were impressed by William Lloyd Garrison. The sisters wrote many pamphlets (Angelina's "Appeal to the Christian Women of the South" was the only appeal directly to Southern women to defy slavery laws) and played leadership roles at the first Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women in 1837. The Grimkés later made a notable speaking tour around the north, which culminated in Angelina's February 1838 address to a Committee of the Legislature of Massachusetts. Lucretia Mott was also active in the abolitionist movement. Though well known for her women's suffrage advocacy, Mott also played an important role in the abolitionist movement. During four decades, she delivered sermons about abolitionism, women's rights, and a host of other issues. Mott acknowledged her Quaker beliefs' determinative role in affecting her abolitionist sentiment. She spoke of the "duty (that) was impressed upon me at the time I consecrated myself to that Gospel which anoints 'to preach deliverance to the captive, to set at liberty them that are bruised ..." Mott's advocacy took a variety of forms: she worked with the Free Produce Society to boycott slave-made goods, volunteered with the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, and helped slaves escape to free territory. Abby Kelley Foster, with a strong Quaker heritage, helped lead Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone into the abolition movement, and encouraged them to take on a role in political activism. She helped organize and was a key speaker at the first National Women's Rights Convention, held in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1850. (The better-known Seneca Falls Convention, held in 1848, was not national). She was an "ultra" abolitionist who believed in immediate and complete civil rights for all slaves. Since 1841, however, she had resigned from the Quakers over disputes about not allowing anti-slavery speakers in meeting houses (including the Uxbridge monthly meeting where she had attended with her family), and the group disowned her. Abby Kelley became a leading speaker and the leading fundraiser for the American Anti-slavery Society. Radical abolitionism became known as "Abby Kelleyism". Other leaders in the abolitionist movement were Lydia Maria Child, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth. But even beyond these well-known women, abolitionism maintained impressive support from white middle-class and some black women. It was these women who performed many of the logistical, day-to-day tasks that made the movement successful. They raised money, wrote and distributed propaganda pieces, drafted and signed petitions, and lobbied the legislatures. Though abolitionism sowed the seeds of the women's rights movement, most women became involved in abolitionism because of a gendered religious worldview, and the idea that they had feminine, moral responsibilities. For example, in the winter of 1831–1832, women sent three petitions to the Virginia legislature, advocating emancipation of the state's slave population. The only precedent for such action was Catharine Beecher's organization of a petition protesting the Cherokee removal. The Virginia petitions, while the first of their kind, were by no means the last. Similar backing increased leading up to the Civil War. Even as women played crucial roles in abolitionism, the movement simultaneously helped stimulate women's-rights efforts. A full 10 years before the Seneca Falls Convention, the Grimké sisters were travelling and lecturing about their experiences with slavery. As Gerda Lerner says, the Grimkés understood their actions' great impact. "In working for the liberation of the slave," Lerner writes, "Sarah and Angelina Grimké found the key to their own liberation. And the consciousness of the significance of their actions was clearly before them. 'We Abolition Women are turning the world upside down.'" Women gained important experiences in public speaking and organizing that stood them in good stead going forward. The Grimké sisters' public speaking played a critical part in legitimizing women's place in the public sphere. Some Christian women created cent societies to benefit abolition movements, where many women in a church would each pledge to donate one cent a week to help abolitionist causes. The July 1848 Seneca Falls Convention grew out of a partnership between Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton that blossomed while the two worked, at first, on abolitionist issues. Indeed, the two met at the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in the summer of 1840. Mott brought oratorical skills and an impressive reputation as an abolitionist to the nascent women's rights movement. Abolitionism brought together active women and enabled them to make political and personal connections while honing communication and organizational skills. Even Sojourner Truth, commonly associated with abolitionism, delivered her first documented public speech at the 1850 National Women's Rights Convention in Worcester. There, she argued for women's reform activism. Anti-abolitionism in the North It is easy to overstate the support for abolitionism in the North. "From Maine to Missouri, from the Atlantic to the Gulf, crowds gathered to hear mayors and aldermen, bankers and lawyers, ministers and priests denounce the abolitionists as amalgamationists, dupes, fanatics, foreign agents, and incendiaries." The whole abolitionist movement, the cadre of anti-slavery lecturers, was primarily focused on the North: convincing Northerners that slavery should be immediately abolished, and freed slaves given rights. A majority of white Southerners, though by no means all, supported slavery; there was a growing feeling in favor of emancipation in North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky, until the panic resulting from Nat Turner's 1831 revolt put an end to it.:14:111 But only a minority in the North supported abolition, seen as an extreme, "radical" measure. (See Radical Republicans.) Horace Greeley remarked in 1854 that he had "never been able to discover any strong, pervading, over-ruling Anti Slavery sentiment in the Free States." Free blacks were subject in the North as well as in the South to conditions almost inconceivable today (2019). Although the picture is neither uniform nor static, in general free blacks in the North were not citizens and could neither vote nor hold public office. They could not give testimony in court and their word was never taken against a white man's word, as a result of which white crimes against blacks were rarely punished.:154–155 Black children could not study in the public schools, even though Black taxpayers helped support them,:154 and there were only a handful of schools for Black students, like the African Free School in New York, the Abiel Smith School in Boston, and the Watkins Academy for Negro Youth in Baltimore. When schools for negroes were set up in Ohio in the 1830s, the teacher of one slept in it every night "for fear whites would burn it", and at another, "a vigilance committee threatened to tar and feather [the teacher] and ride her on a rail if she did not leave".:245–246 "Black education was a dangerous pursuit for teachers." Most colleges would not admit blacks. (Oberlin Collegiate Institute was the first college that survived to admit them by policy; the Oneida Institute was a short-lived predecessor.) In wages, housing, access to services, and transportation, separate but equal or Jim Crow treatment would have been a great improvement. The proposal to create the country's first college for negros, in New Haven, Connecticut, got such strong local opposition (New Haven Excitement) that it was quickly abandoned. Schools in which blacks and whites studied together in Canaan, New Hampshire, and Canterbury, Connecticut, were physically destroyed by mobs. Southern actions against white abolitionists took legal channels: Amos Dresser was tried, convicted, and publicly whipped in Knoxville, and Reuben Crandall, Prudence Crandall's younger brother, was arrested in Washington D.C., and was found innocent, although he died soon of tuberculosis he contracted in jail. (The prosecutor was Francis Scott Key.) In Savannah, Georgia, the mayor and alderman protected an abolitionist visitor from a mob. In the North there was far more serious violence by mobs, what the press sometimes called "mobocracy". In 1837 Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy, who published an abolitionist newspaper, was killed by a mob in Illinois. Only six months later, the large, modern, and expensive new hall which the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society built in Philadelphia in 1838, was burned by a mob three days after it opened. There were other anti-abolitionist riots in New York (1834), Cincinnati (1829, 1836, and 1841), Norwich, Connecticut (1834), Washington, D.C. (1835), Philadelphia (1842), and Granville, Ohio (following the Ohio State Anti-Slavery Convention, 1836), although there was also a pro-abolition riot (more precisely a pro-fugitive slave riot) in Boston in 1836 (and see Jerry Rescue). Between 1835 and 1838, anti-abolitionist violence "settled into a routine feature of public life in virtually all the major northern cities". Giving to blacks the same rights that whites had, as Garrison called for, was "far outside the mainstream of opinion in the 1830s.":27 Some opposed even allowing blacks to join abolitionist organizations. The one time that Garrison defended Southern slave-owners was when he compared them with anti-abolitionist Northerners: I found [in the North] contempt more bitter, opposition more active, detraction more relentless, prejudice more stubborn, and apathy more frozen, than among slave owners themselves.:36–37:42 [T]he prejudice of race appears to be stronger in the States which have abolished slavery, than in those where it still exists; and nowhere is it so intolerant as In those States where servitude has never been known.:460 Similarly, Harriet Beecher Stowe stated that "The bitterness of Southern slaveholders was tempered by many considerations of kindness for servants born in their houses, or upon their estates; but the Northern slaveholder traded in men and women whom he never saw, and of whose separations, tears, and miseries he determined never to hear.":607 The pro-slavery reaction to abolitionism Slave owners were angry over the attacks on what some Southerners (including the politician John C. Calhoun) referred to as their "peculiar institution" of slavery. Starting in the 1830s, Southerners developed a vehement and growing ideological defense of slavery. Slave owners claimed that slavery was not a nevessary evil, or an evil of any sort; slavery was a positive good for masters and slaves alike, and it was explicitly sanctioned by God. Biblical arguments were made in defense of slavery by religious leaders such as the Rev. Fred A. Ross and political leaders such as Jefferson Davis. Southern Biblical interpretations contradicted those of the abolitionists; a popular one was that the curse on Noah's son Ham and his descendants in Africa justified enslaving blacks. Abolitionists responded, denying that neither God nor the Bible endorses slavery, at least as practiced in the Antebellum South. Colonization and the founding of Liberia In the early 19th century, a variety of organizations were established that advocated relocation of black people from the United States, most prominently the American Colonization Society (ACS), founded in 1816. The ACS enjoyed the support of prominent Southern leaders such as Henry Clay and James Monroe who saw it as a convenient means of relocating free blacks whom they perceived as a threat to their control over enslaved blacks. Starting in the 1820s, the ACS and affiliated state societies assisted a few thousand free blacks to move to the newly established colonies in West Africa that were to form the Republic of Liberia. From 1832 onward most of the migrants were enslaved people who had been freed on the condition that they go to Liberia. Many migrants died of local diseases, but enough survived for Liberia to declare independence in 1847. The Americo-Liberians formed a ruling elite whose treatment of the native population followed the lines of disdain for African culture they had acquired in America. Most African Americans opposed colonization, and simply wanted to be given the rights of free citizens in the United States. One notable opponent of such plans was the wealthy free black abolitionist James Forten of Philadelphia. In 1832, prominent white abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison published his book Thoughts on African Colonization, in which he attacked severely the policy of sending blacks to (not "back to") Africa, and specifically the American Colonization Society. The Colonization Society, which he had previously supported, is "a creature without heart, without brains, eyeless, unnatural, hypocritical, relentless and unjust.":15 "Colonization", according to Garrison, was not a plan to eliminate slavery, but to protect it. As it was put by a Garrison supporter: It is no object of the Colonization Society to ameliorate the condition of the slave.... The thing is, to get them out of the way; the welfare of the negro is not consulted at all.:13, 15 Garrison also pointed out that a majority of the colonists died of disease, and the number of free blacks actually resettled in the future Liberia was minute in comparison to the number of slaves in the United States. As put by the same supporter: As a remedy for slavery, it must be placed amongst the grossest of all delusions. In fifteen years it has transported less than three thousand persons to the African coast; while the increase on their numbers, in the same period, is about seven hundred thousand!":11 - Abolitionism in France - Abolitionism in New Bedford, Massachusetts - Abolitionism in Boston, Massachusetts - Abolitionism in the United Kingdom - John Quincy Adams and abolitionism - Compensated emancipation - Fire-Eaters, pro-slavery secessionists - History of slavery - List of opponents of slavery - James Redpath - Slavery among Native Americans in the United States - Slavery in Canada - Slavery in the colonial United States - Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom - Treatment of the enslaved in the United States - George Washington and slavery - The American Anti-Slavery Society offered twelve of the Lane Rebels "commissions and employment". "On our way to our lecturing field, we stopped at Putnam and assisted [in April of 1835] in the formation of the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society." The American Anti-Slavery Society soon had up to 70 agents. [W]e gathered at Cleveland, where, by the grace of Judge Sterling, his law office was made free to us for the purpose, and there was opened a school of abolition, where, copying documents, with hints, discussions and suggestions, we spent two weeks in earnest and most profitable drill. A chemical question arose, which related to tar and feathers and how to erase their stain. This practical question was disposed of in a single lesson. The names of those availing themselves of this course were: T. D. Weld, S[ereno] W. Streeter, Edward Weld, H. B. Stanton, H[untington] Lyman, James A. Thome, J[ohn] W. Alvord, M[arcus] R. Robinson, George Whipple and W. T. Allan.:67–68 - For the famous image see Jonathan Rinck, "Abolition's Indelible Image." Michigan History Magazine (Nov/Dec 2009) 93#6 pp 8–11. - "Nic Butler, "The End of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade" (Charleston County Public Library, 2018)". 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The Abolitionist Dilemma: The Antislavery Movement and the Northern Negro (PDF). New England Quarterly. 34. pp. 50–73. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2019. - Chapman, John Jay (1921). William Lloyd Garrison. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press. - Tocqueville, Alexis de (1864). Bowen, Francis (ed.). Democracy in America. 1. Translated by Reeve, Henry (4th ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sever and Frances. - Stowe, Harriet Beecher (June 1879). "The Education of Freedmen". North American Review. 128 (271): 605–615. JSTOR 25100763. - "John C. Calhoun" Archived 9 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Clemson University - David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage (2006), pp. 186–92. - Mitchell Snay, "American Thought and Southern Distinctiveness: The Southern Clergy and the Sanctification of Slavery", Civil War History (1989) 35(4): 311–28; Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, The Mind of the Master Class: History and Faith in the Southern Slaveholders' Worldview (2005), pp. 505–27. - "History Haunts War-Torn Liberia". National Geographic. July 2003. Archived from the original on 25 August 2014. - Wiggins, John H. (1838). A review of anti-abolition sermon, preached at Pleasant Valley, N. Y., by Rev. Benjamin F. Wile, August, 1838. Whitesboro, New York: Press of the Oneida Institute. - Abzug, Robert H. Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination. Oxford, 1994. ISBN 0-19-503752-9. - Bacon, Jacqueline. The Humblest May Stand Forth: Rhetoric, Empowerment, and Abolition. University of South Carolina Press, 2002. ISBN 1-57003-434-6. - Barnes, Gilbert H. The Anti-Slavery Impulse 1830–1844. Reprint, 1964. ISBN 0-7812-5307-1. - Berlin, Ira and Leslie Harris (eds.) Slavery in New York. New Press, 2005. ISBN 1-56584-997-3. - Blue, Frederick J. No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics. Louisiana State University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8071-2976-3. - Bordewich, Fergus M. Bound for Canaan: The Underground Railroad and the War for the Soul of America. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-052430-8. - Carey, Brycchan. From Peace to Freedom: Quaker Rhetoric and the Birth of American Antislavery, 1657–1761. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012. - Child, Lydia Maria. (1833). An Appeal in Favor of That Class of Americans Called Africans. Boston: Allen and Ticknor. "Dangerous Ideas: Controversial Works from the William L. Clements Library – An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans". Archived from the original on 20 September 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2016. - Cogliano, Francis D (2006). Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2499-7. - Crawford, Alan Pell (2008). Twilight at Monticello: The Final Years of Thomas Jefferson. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6079-5. - Davis, David Brion, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World Oxford, 2006. ISBN 0-19-514073-7. - Delbanco, Andrew. The Abolitionist Imagination. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. - Dinius, Marcy J. (2018). "Press". Early American Studies. 16 (4): 747–755. doi:10.1353/eam.2018.0045 – via Project MUSE. - Filler, Louis. The Crusade Against Slavery 1830–1860. 1960. ISBN 0-917256-29-8. - Frost, Karolyn Smardz; Osei, Kwasi (Cover design); South, Sunny (Cover art) (2007). I've Got a Home in Glory Land: A Lost Tale of the Underground Railroad. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-16481-2. ISBN 978-0-374-53125-6. - David Nathaniel Gellman. Emancipating New York: The Politics of Slavery And Freedom, 1777–1827 Louisiana State University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-8071-3174-1. - Griffin, Clifford S. Their Brothers' Keepers: Moral Stewardship in the United States 1800–1865. Rutgers University Press, 1967. ISBN 0-313-24059-0. - Hammond, John Craig and Matthew Mason (eds.) Contesting Slavery: The Politics of Bondage and Freedom in the New American Nation. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2011. - Harrold, Stanley. The Abolitionists and the South, 1831–1861. University Press of Kentucky, 1995. ISBN 0-8131-0968-X. - Harrold, Stanley. The American Abolitionists. Longman, 2000. ISBN 0-582-35738-1. - Harrold, Stanley. The Rise of Aggressive Abolitionism: Addresses to the Slaves. University Press of Kentucky, 2004. ISBN 0-8131-2290-2. - Hassard, John R. G. The Life of John Hughes: First Archbishop of New York. Arno Press, 1969 - Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" New-York Journal of American History 2004 65(3): 16–24. ISSN 1551-5486 - Huston, James L. "The Experiential Basis of the Northern Antislavery Impulse2. Journal of Southern History 56:4 (November 1990): 609–640. - Locke, Mary S. (1968). Anti-Slavery in America From the Introduction of African Slaves to the Prohibition of the Slave Trade (1619-1808). ISBN 978-0-3843-3290-4. - Mayer, Henry All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery St. Martin's Press, 1998. ISBN 0-312-18740-8. - McKivigan, John R. The War Against Proslavery Religion: Abolitionism and the Northern Churches, 1830–1865 Cornell University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-8014-1589-6. - McPherson, James M. The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP. Princeton University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-691-04637-9. - Oakes, James. The Crooked Path to Abolition: Abraham Lincoln and the Antislavery Constitution (W.W. Norton, 2021). - Oakes, James. Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865 (W. W. Norton, 2012) - Osofsky, Gilbert. "Abolitionists, Irish Immigrants, and the Dilemmas of Romantic Nationalism" American Historical Review 1975 80(4): 889–912. ISSN 0002-8762 in JSTOR - Perry, Lewis and Michael Fellman, eds. Antislavery Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Abolitionists. Louisiana State University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-8071-0889-8. - Peterson, Merrill D. John Brown: The Legend Revisited. University Press of Virginia, 2002. ISBN 0-8139-2132-5. - Peterson, Merrill D. (1960). The Jefferson Image in the American Mind. University of Virginia Press. p. 548. ISBN 0-8139-1851-0. - Pierson, Michael D. Free Hearts and Free Homes: Gender and American Antislavery Politics. University of North Carolina Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8078-2782-7. - Quarles, Benjamin. "Sources of Abolitionist Income", Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1945) 32#1 pp. 63–76 in JSTOR - Schafer, Judith Kelleher. Becoming Free, Remaining Free: Manumission and Enslavement in New Orleans, 1846–1862. Louisiana State University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8071-2862-7. - Salerno, Beth A. Sister Societies: Women's Antislavery Organizations in Antebellum America. Northern Illinois University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-87580-338-5. - Speicher, Anna M. The Religious World of Antislavery Women: Spirituality in the Lives of Five Abolitionist Lecturers. Syracuse University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8156-2850-1. - Stauffer, John. The Black Hearts of Men: Radical Abolitionists and the Transformation of Race. Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-674-00645-3. - Virginia General Assembly (1860). Report of the Joint Committee on the Harpers Ferry Outrages, January 26, 1860. - Vorenberg, Michael. Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-65267-7. - Wilson, Thomas D. The Oglethorpe Plan: Enlightenment Design in Savannah and Beyond. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-8139-3290-3. - Zilversmit, Arthur. The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North. University of Chicago Press, 1967. ISBN 0-226-98332-3. \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Abolitionism in the United States\| \|Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier's Encyclopedia article Abolitionists.\| - Original Document Proposing Abolition of Slavery 13th Amendment - "John Brown's body and blood" by Ari Kelman: a review in the TLS, 14 February 2007. - Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice - Elijah Parish Lovejoy: A Martyr on the Altar of American Liberty - Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com - John Brown Museum - American Abolitionism - James Monroe Whitfield black Abolitionist poet "America and other poems" 1853 - American Abolitionists and Antislavery Activists, comprehensive list of abolitionist and anti-slavery activists and organizations in the United States, including historic biographies and anti-slavery timelines, bibliographies, etc. - Underground Railroad: Escape from Slavery \| Scholastic.com[permanent dead link] - National Underground Railroad Freedom Center in Cincinnati, Ohio - The Liberator Files, Horace Seldon's collection and summary of research of William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator original copies at the Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts. - University of Detroit Mercy Black Abolitionist Archive, a collection of over 800 speeches by antebellum blacks and approximately 1,000 editorials from the period. - Maps about "Slavery" in the U.S. at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library
A power inverter, or inverter, is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source. This document is collection of information on power inverter technology and gives links to DIY circuits – both good and bad design with comments. Power inverters are often used to generate mains power from battery power in locations where mains power is not available. Inverters are an important part of conventional and renewable power systems such as solar, fuel cell, electrical energy storage systems, wind power plants and gas turbine power systems. An inverter is required to convert the DC electricity from photovoltaic generation or battery storage, to AC. There are many different types of power inverters for different needs. The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. An ideal power inverter will produce same kind of power that is available from mains outlet, which typically means sine waveform 60 Hz 11-120V AC or 50 Hz 220-240V AC. That kind of power source can power all mains powered devices as long as enough power is available. Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is desirable because many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine wave AC power source. The standard electric utility provides a sine wave, typically with minor imperfections but sometimes with significant distortion. Most inverters are designed to generate single phase mains power like you get from normal mains outlet plug, but there are also power inverters that make three phase power. Several different main inverter type are available: - True sine wave inverters produce voltage equal to or better than the grid supply. They may incorporate a battery charger, which allows a generator or CHP unit to be used to charge up the batteries when natural charging conditions are poor. - Modified sine wave inverters are less complicated but they may not successfully run some appliances, and they may produce a hum. These are not recommended for an average house with many electronic appliances and are not very common now. - Grid-connected inverters allow for a connection to the grid, they may incorporate a battery charger and they can provide back-up power if the grid power fails. - AC coupled inverters are designed for use for a micro-grid, i.e. a property with several houses or a remote rural settlement with no national grid connection. - Also application specific inverters are also available that are designed for a specific uses like to be installed inside equipment. There are small cheap inverter circuit design that output power that is neither sine-wave or at normal mains frequency. They work with some types of loads and not with other. Because producing sine-wave power is complicated and expensive, there are many simpler power inverter designs that produce output that is “close enough” for some devices to be operated from them. When using a power inverter that has different output than sine-wave AC at mains frequency, you need to be careful to make equipment selection so that your device and power inverter are compatible with each other. Many cheap power inverters output square wave waveform and there are variations to that towards sine-wave, those are compatible with quite many device but not all. In addition there are special inverters that output AC at different than mains frequency, which are useful only in some special applications. There are also devices that are called inverters by sellers, but output DC instead (should be called DC-DC converters) that work only with some devices like some switch mode mains power supplies. When selecting inverter type other an sine-wave, you need to be careful that inverter and intended load are compatible, because if they are are not then the combination does not work and is possible that the device and/or power inverter are damaged in trying. Smaller popular consumer and commercial devices designed to mimic line power typically range from 150 to 3000 watts. The price of commercial inverter vary a lot depending on inverter power rating and design. Generally higher the power rating and more closely the output is sine-wave, more the inverter costs. Expect to pay about $30 to $50 for a standard 200-watt modified wave inverter and about $150 to $250 for a pure sine wave inverter. It depends on the application if the higher price is justified or not. A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC power source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage depends on the specific circuits. The most common input voltage is 12 V DC for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a rechargeable 12 V lead acid battery or automotive electrical outlet. There are also inverters designed to operate at higher voltages like 24V (trucks), 48V and higher up to few hundred volts. The runtime of an inverter powered by batteries is dependent on the battery power and the amount of power being drawn from the inverter at a given time. A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process, and the typical electronic power inverters fall to this category. An inverter built using electronics components can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, pulse width modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit design. Common types of inverters produce square waves or quasi-square waves. - One method is to converts DC to AC at battery level and use a line-frequency transformer to create the output voltage. This is old know technology, but the downside is that the needed transformer is big and expensive. - Many modern power inverter designs use a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC (up to needed mains voltage peak voltage) and then converts to AC with suitable circuitry (switching transistors). The square wave inverter are very simple and easy to make but that is not suitable for sensitive Electric appliances, Modified sine wave inverters are gives output as close as to the sine wave but not pure as much we have receive from wall outlet. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signal based inverters are produce output as pure sine wave and it can be used for any electric appliance that meets the inverter output range. Electrical safety of inverters When using power inverter, you expect that inverters and converters are safe, functional and compliant with relevant standards. Power inverters handle large amounts of power and output potentially lethal voltages, so you need to be careful with them. Galvanic isolation (typically implemented with transformer) is used to protect against electric shock and to suppress electrical noise in sensitive devices. Inverters produce heat and need ventilation. Many inverters have built-in fans, which in turn consume electricity to keep themselves cool. - Electrical safety testing: IEC/EN/UL 62109-1/-2, IEC/EN 62477-1, UL 1741, C22.2 No. 107.1, etc. - Electromagnetic compatibility testing: IEC/EN 61000-6-1/-2/-3/-4, FCC, etc. - Grid connection testing: IEC 61727, EN 50438, IEEE 1547.1, UL 1741SA, VDE 0126-1-1, VDE-AR-N4105, VDE 4110/4120/4130, CEI 0-16/21, G83/G59, AS 4777.2, etc. Inverters should: be mounted above the floor and on a wall or shelf, have ventilation or cooled air flow, be protected from sunlight, be easy to access for emergency operation, have a switch or fuse to isolate the inverter from the electrical systems and be in close proximity to the batteries. They must also be: protected from dust, protected from overheating, electrically isolated in case of an emergency, protected from damage by lightning and connected to the batteries with large cables (there may be substantial current flows, voltage drops). Keep in mind that typically inverters are not capable of providing any sustained (more than a second) surge currents, so the rated output current is all that can be delivered. When faced with a short-circuit, the rated output current is all that can be delivered, but more than likely, the reduced line voltage due to the fault will cause the inverter to shut down. Limited output current capability can cause situation that downstream circuit breakers might not trip in case of short circuit like they do with normal mains power. It depends on your electrical system protection design if this is a problem or not. Be warned on the connection of inverters and some electrical protection devices. The ac output of a utility-interactive inverter should not be connected to a GFCI or AFCI breaker as these devices are not designed to be backfed and will be damaged if backfed. These devices have terminals marked line and load and have not been identified/tested/listed for back feeding. Use caution when connecting the inverter directly to your battery. Have the unit turned off when making connections. When making connection to the battery, keep in mind that you must have some form of protective device (fuse, breaker) between your battery and the inverter electronics. That protective device can be within the wiring from the battery to the inverter or integrated within the power inverter device. Use correct size breaker and correct size cable. Keep in mind that in car power inverters can drain your battery quickly unless your engine is running and charging your battery. Most inverters have an audible alarm when they sense a lowered power source and some better ones have protection that shuts them off when it senses a low battery. You need to consider the temperature. We need to consider the temperature rise to ensure the normal operation of an inverter and will not cause some damage to the operator. Second, it needs to be considered about fire safety performance of the power inverter at the time of production. After all, power inverter is electronic products. So there will be some possibility for failures when it works. Regardless if the inverter is transformer-based or transformerless, some sort of isolation will be needed. Both for user safety and reliability of electronics. The voltage after conversion is up to 120V or 240V, and this voltage will cause some harm to the operator. To minimize the possibility of damage to the controller in the event of a fault condition, there must be some type of isolation between the power and logic voltage domains. Do not use the inverter near flammable materials. Do not place the inverter in areas such as battery compartments where fumes or gases may accumulate. The inverter should not be installed in the engine compartment, due to possible water/oil/acid contamination, and excessive heat under the hood, as well as potential danger from gasoline fumes and the spark that an inverter can occasionally produce. It’s best to run battery cables to a dry, cool inverter mounting location. Keep the inverter dry. Do not expose it to rain or moisture. DO NOT operate the inverter if you, the inverter, the device being operated, or any other surfaces that may come in contact with any power source are wet. Water and many other liquids can conduct electricity which may lead to serious injury or death. Square wave inverter circuits Square wave inverters are the simplest quite widely useful power inverter circuits, so there are very many such designs posted on-line. Here are some inverter circuit examples with comments to take a look. A transformer based square wave inverter is basically quite simple circuit. You basically need a center tapped mains transformer that matches the voltage conversion you need (typically from 12V to 230V) and a control circuit that switches power to the either side of the coil on at the right rate (mains frequency 50 or 60 Hz). There are several things that needs to be handled carefully on the circuit: the power on time needs to be same on both sides of transformer (difference causes DC current to transformer that saturates it’s core), the switching needs to be done efficiently (not to much power loss), both sides switch transformer must not be on at the same time, you need to handle the inductive issues of transformer etc… While the basics are simple, a good implementation needs to take account many issues. The circuits here are posted here just as an example with my comments how I see them with quick circuit overlook – I have not personally tested those circuit and there is no guarantee that they will work as intended. WARNING: Power inverter circuits are potentially dangerous. Any mistake in the circuit or building them can potentially cause electrocute someone, damage expensive components, damage device being powered, damage the power source, start a fire or cause electromagnetic interference. This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce. It is is best suited to low-sensitivity applications such as lighting and heating. The downside is that square wave output can produce “humming” when connected to audio equipment and is generally unsuitable for sensitive electronics. Inverter – circuit design Part1- Covering basic function Inverter – circuit design part2- Covering selection of power semiconductor Inverter – circuit design Part3 – Covering spikes generated How NOT to make a Modified Square Wave Inverter How to make inverter 12V To 220V using TL494 \| square wave inverter & 200 Watt Here is an example of one not very ideal inverter design seen at electronics.stackexchange.com. WARNING While the circuit looks plausible, it may need more development to be a good inverter. The point where conduction switches from Q1 to Q6 is critical. There is no active turnoff for either transistor, and these things tend to turn off slower than they turn on, resulting in a transient short circuit when both are conducting. Often we see a series inductor in the transformer supply to handle this, or more complicated transistor driving. Unfortunately, a good power inverter is anything but trivial. The above points are just a couple of things that can trip you up, there may be more. FETs generally make for a better design these days than bipolar transistors because with suitable FET you can have much less power losses than with this old 2N3055 transistor. The transistor based astable oscillator does not guarantee 50% drive for both transformer coil halves. Here is a design from gadgetronicx.com. Similarly we have designed a Square wave Inverter circuit that is capable of driving 220v device and handles 60 Watt load. This circuit is powered from a DC battery and turn it into AC voltage to power some loads such as lights and other AC elements within the limit of 60 Watts. The circuit is designed to be used with 12v Battery.. The working principle of this circuit starts with IC 555 which is wired as Astable Multivibrator that drives a H-bridge driver circuit. The advantage of this H-bridge based design idea is that you you can use a transformer with just single coil, but the disadvantage is that you need more transistors. The potential issues on this design seem to be that using 555 like this does not guarantee accurate 50% drive for both current directions to transformer and this H-drive design has a risk that on the output of the low and high side transformers can be briefly turned both on (increasing power loss). Engineersgarage.com has also a contributed inverter circuit example of quite similar 555 time based design using center tapped transformer. You can compare this design to the design above (still has many similar design issues). When the circuit is powered up by the 12V DC then the 555-timer starts generating a 50 Hz square wave at its output pin (pin 3 of the 555 IC). The generated square wave is of 12V but the AC appliances require 220 V for their operation. So this 12 V square wave needs to be boost up to a 220 V waveform. For stepping up, first of all, two MOSFET stages are used as switches. One stage is directly connected to the 555 output and another one is connected through a logic inverter designed with the help of switching transistor BC547. A center tap transformer is used to step up the square wave from 12 V to 220 V. At the primary of the transformer, the centre tap wire is directly connected to the 12 V DC source and the remaining two are connected with the drain of both the MOSFET stages. Eleccircuit has a very basic power inverter design using FETs and 4047: This is AC Inverter. Input 12VDC from car battery to output 220V AC 50Hz or 60Hz at Square wave signal.The main part is CD4047 (or IC 4047 Series) and output driver FETs. The transformer is 10V-CT-10V, Primary : 220V Secondary. and current 3A up for power output than 100W. The Integrated Circuit (IC) CD4047 is wired as an astable multivibrator. CD4047 is a CMOS Low Power monostable/astable multivibrator that is often used for converting DC current signal to AC signal because it can offer 50% duty cycle of astable output and both direct and inverted polarity outputs (easy direct drive to both side transistors). Electrocircuits.org has another CD4047 Inverter Circuit Diagram. It is a simple Push Pull CD4047 Inverter circuit diagram which uses only few components. It can output 100W to 150W AC power at 10V to 12V battery and centre taped transformer (12V-0V-12V, 5A). This circuit has a good description of operation: The Integrated Circuit (IC) CD4047 is wired as an astable multivibrator. The two oscillating outputs are out of phase, the frequencies of the oscillations are determined by the 50K variable resistor. The power MOSFETs (IRF3205) amplifies each half of the alternating voltage produced by the oscillator to the output power transformer which steps up the voltage from 12V DC to 230V AC. The documentation says that you can increase the output power to up to 1000W or more by adding more power MOSFETs in parallel, greater power transformer, and larger battery power bank. Inverter Circuit Using Arduino is a project post to tell how to construct a very simple inverter using Arduino Uno. The advantage of using arduino is we can customize the output parameters, and mainly we can upgrade this square wave inverter to pure sine wave inverter by just writing a new code without any hardware changes (Program only given for Square wave). If you are intermediate in arduino projects, you can easily tweak the hardware and code to add more features like low battery warning, automatic voltage correction, and quick automatic mains changeover and even you may add LCD display to show voltage readings and on-going status. Two MOSFETs are employed which can handle around 300 Watt power with heat sink mounted. If you want to more power you may choose more powerful MOSFET. Keep in mind that the transformer’s voltage and current parameter also decides maximum output power.
This article was co-authored by our trained team of editors and researchers who validated it for accuracy and comprehensiveness. wikiHow's Content Management Team carefully monitors the work from our editorial staff to ensure that each article is backed by trusted research and meets our high quality standards. This article has been viewed 144,144 times. A scientific calculator provides functions that make common calculations easy. While each calculator is slightly different, every model has the basic functions needed for middle and high school math courses. Once you understand how to use its features, it will help you on your way towards mathematical success. This article will use the TI-30X IIS calculator. X Research source Be sure to check the instruction manual for your own calculator. Instructions for pressing buttons will be in code. Part 1 of 2: Using Basic Operational FunctionsDownload Article 1Use the basic operation symbols to perform basic operations. These operations include addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (×), and division (÷). - You have to hit the equals (=) sign to complete a calculation using these symbols. - Use these functions the same way you would on a basic calculator. For example, to find 12/4, enter . 2Don’t worry about order of operations. A scientific calculator will automatically calculate using the correct order. - For example, if your problem is 2 - 4 × -3 ÷ 2, you can type , and the calculator will automatically do the order of operations for you. 3Change the order of operations using the parentheses keys. This will override the calculator’s order of operations. - Hit the beginning parentheses before you hit your first number, and hit the ending parentheses after you hit your last number. The calculator will complete that calculation before you enter your next functions. - If you need, you can also nest parentheses, though be sure that you can keep track of them. 4Fix your mistakes. If you accidentally hit a wrong key, hit the button. This will clear the last button you pressed, but will not clear any calculations you’ve made. 5Clear your work. To clear the line, hit the button. Chances are, you can scroll up to see past calculations. You can hit delete with each line in order to get rid of these. 6Explore all the functions on the calculator. To use some functions, you might have to use the key. These functions are listed above the button, similar to how symbols are listed above the number keys on a keyboard. To use these functions, hit the 2nd key first. Getting the syntax right for some operations may involve switching the order between the operation and the number. - For the TI-30X IIS, one of the 2nd functions is to turn off the calculator. Simply press . Part 2 of 2: Using Common Functions for AlgebraDownload Article 1Make a fraction. While there are buttons to do this, fractions are much easier to type in manually. The reason is that most scientific calculators only output in decimal format. - For example, to evaluate 4/5 + 6/7, type in to get approximately 1.657. Use parentheses for more complex operations. - To convert back to fractions, use to get the answer in mixed fractions. 2Square a number. Do this using the button. Type in the number you want to square, then hit the that button. - For example, to square the number 12, type . - To find powers of any number, use the key. For example, type to get 243. 3Find a square root. Type to display the square root. - To find the square root of 9, type . 4Find logarithms. There are two buttons for logarithms. The is the logarithm base 10. Use whichever one is appropriate. - For example, to find the logarithm base 10 of 100, simply type . 5Use the exponential function. The exponential function is found by typing . If you need to use Euler's number only, use e to the first power. - For example, to find the natural log of e, type in . 6Find trigonometric functions. Sine, cosine, and tangent come standard with any scientific calculator. To use these buttons, be sure that you know whether to use degrees or radians. To convert, use the button to highlight DEG or RAD. Other calculators will generally have a button that converts between these two systems. - For example, if you wanted to find the sine of 60 degrees, make sure that you are in degree mode by checking the lower right of the display. Then, type . 7Find the reciprocal of a number. Do this using the button. On some calculators, it may be labeled as instead. Type in the number you want to find the reciprocal of, then hit the reciprocal button. - For example, to find the reciprocal of 3, type . QuestionHow do I make 7/3 on a calculator?Community AnswerFractions mean division. Type in 7÷3. QuestionHow do I calculate 2 to the 64th power?Community AnswerPress the "2" button, then the "xʸ" (the y is above the x on a calculator) button. Then type in "64". QuestionHow do I do brackets on the calculator?Community AnswerYou can't, but I'm sure parentheses will work fine in place of square/curly brackets. Brackets are used by some people because the expression has groups in groups (e.g. 1+[4(2+1)+3]). QuestionHow can I make the parenthesis with my scientific calculator?Top AnswererIf your scientific calculator has them (and most of them do), press each parenthetical in the order you want it to be used. The calculator will base it's answer on the order of operations where the stuff inside the parenthesis would be evaluated first, if placed inside the parenthesis correctly. If you try to place the ending parenthesis before the starting parenthesis, the calculator should give you an error - making sure that you start again with the correct sign. Each scientific calculator has the parentheticals in a different spot, but your owner's manual should tell you where to find them. QuestionHow do I do x on a scientific calculator when doing an algebra problem?Community AnswerWhen doing an equation that specifies an unknown as X, usually when you go to enter the equation as a posed question the calculator knows that you are going to use the X as the designation for an unknown amount, and reads it like all the other letters. See your instruction book where the topic is equations. QuestionHow can I use a calculator to solve a math question?Community AnswerYou probably have to figure out the formula first, if it's not already written down for you. Then, you just replace the formula with numbers and type it into the calculator. - Remember that you are responsible for converting the answer after the calculator does its job. It is much more useful to have those skills than to be skilled at using a particular model. - The TI-30X IIS is pretty loose with closing parentheses for operations. For example, you do not need to close the parentheses when evaluating logarithms or trig functions. - When choosing a scientific calculator, consider what math classes besides algebra you'll be using it for. You should choose a calculator that will take you through several years of the math classes you anticipate taking. In recent years, it is more beneficial to use a graphing calculator for more advanced courses, like calculus. - Take a look at several calculators before you buy to familiarize yourself with their layouts. You can work with the calculator application available with your operating system, if it has a scientific calculator setting, or an online calculator, to familiarize yourself with some of the functions of a standalone scientific calculator before you buy. 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Create question papers online in minutes with your name and logo. 3,00,000+ questions to choose from. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry General Introduction: Importance and scope of chemistry. Nature of matter, laws of chemical combination, Dalton's atomic theory: concept of elements, atoms and molecules. Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept and molar mass, percentage composition, empirical and molecular formula, chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Structure of Atom Discovery of Electron, Proton and Neutron, atomic number, isotopes and isobars. Thomson's model and its limitations. Rutherford's model and its limitations, Bohr's model and its limitations, concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, de Broglie's relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept of orbitals, quantum numbers, shapes of s, p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals - Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic configuration of atoms, stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties Significance of classification, brief history of the development of periodic table, modern periodic law and the present form of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements -atomic radii, ionic radii, inert gas radii, Ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valency. Nomenclature of elements with atomic number greater than 100. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters, Lewis structure, polar character of covalent bond, covalent character of ionic bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of covalent molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization, involving s,p and d orbitals and shapes of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theory of homonuclear diatomic molecules(qualitative idea only), hydrogen bond. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry States of Matter Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, types of bonding, melting and boiling points, role of gas laws in elucidating the concept of the molecule, Boyle's law, Charles law, Gay Lussac's law, Avogadro's law, ideal behaviour, empirical derivation of gas equation, Avogadro's number, ideal gas equation. Deviation from ideal behaviour, liquefaction of gases, critical temperature, kinetic energy and molecular speeds (elementary idea), Liquid State- vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative idea only, no mathematical derivations) Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Thermodynamics Concepts of System and types of systems, surroundings, work, heat, energy, extensive and intensive properties, state functions. First law of thermodynamics -internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity and specific heat, Hess's law of constant heat summation, enthalpy of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, ionization, solution and dilution. Second law of Thermodynamics (brief introduction) Introduction of entropy as a state function, Gibb's energy change for spontaneous and non spontaneous processes, criteria for equilibrium. Third law of thermodynamics (brief introduction). Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Equilibrium Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of equilibrium, law of mass action, equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium - Le Chatelier's principle, ionic equilibrium- ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization, ionization of poly basic acids, acid strength, concept of pH, Henderson Equation, hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea), buffer solution, solubility product, common ion effect (with illustrative examples). Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Redox Reactions Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, balancing redox reactions, in terms of loss and gain of electrons and change in oxidation number, applications of redox reactions. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Hydrogen Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen, hydrides-ionic covalent and interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water, hydrogen peroxide -preparation, reactions and structure and use; hydrogen as a fuel. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry The s-Block Elements Group 1 and Group 2 Elements General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties (such as ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and halogens, uses. Preparation and Properties of Some Important Compounds: Sodium Carbonate, Sodium Chloride, Sodium Hydroxide and Sodium Hydrogencarbonate, Biological importance of Sodium and Potassium. Calcium Oxide and Calcium Carbonate and their industrial uses, biological importance of Magnesium and Calcium. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry The p-Block Elements Group 13 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group, Boron - physical and chemical properties, some important compounds, Borax, Boric acid, Boron Hydrides, Aluminium: Reactions with acids and alkalies, uses. Group 14 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first elements. Carbon-catenation, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties; uses of some important compounds: oxides. Important compounds of Silicon and a few uses: Silicon Tetrachloride, Silicones, Silicates and Zeolites, their uses. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Organic Chemistry Some Basic Principles and Techniques General introduction, methods of purification, qualitative and quantitative analysis, classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds. Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation. Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond: free radicals, carbocations, carbanions, electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Hydrocarbons Classification of Hydrocarbons - Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes - Nomenclature, isomerism, conformation (ethane only), physical properties, chemical reactions including free radical mechanism of halogenation, combustion and pyrolysis. Alkenes - Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water, hydrogen halides (Markownikov's addition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation, mechanism of electrophilic addition. Alkynes - Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character of alkynes, addition reaction of - hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides and water. Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature, benzene: resonance, aromaticity, chemical properties: mechanism of electrophilic substitution. Nitration, sulphonation, halogenation, Friedel Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group in monosubstituted benzene. Carcinogenicity and toxicity. Download CBSE Test Papers for CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Environmental Chemistry Environmental pollution - air, water and soil pollution, chemical reactions in atmosphere, smog, major atmospheric pollutants, acid rain, ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone layer, greenhouse effect and global warming- pollution due to industrial wastes, green chemistry as an alternative tool for reducing pollution, strategies for control of environmental pollution. Subscribe complete study pack and get unlimited access to selected subjects. Effective cost is only ₹ 12.5/- per subject per month. Based on the latest CBSE & NCERT syllabus. Install myCBSEguide mobile app for FREE sample papers, Test Papers, Revision Notes, Previous year question papers, NCERT solutions and MCQ tests Create papers in minutes Print with your name & Logo Download as PDF 3 Lakhs+ Questions Based on CBSE Blueprint Best fit for Schools & Tutors No software required, no contract to sign. 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Like Earth, our Twin planet Venus’s origins began around 4.5 billion years ago, in a gyrating cloud of dust, rock and rubble. In many ways, the two planets are similar—in size, density and gravity. Both have iron-rich cores, mantles filled with churning molten rock, and thin, rocky crusts that cover their surface. Scientists suspect that, at one point, the surface of Venus looked a lot like Earth, with plate tectonics and shallow water oceans. Then, 2 billion years into its life, everything changed. Shallow oceans on the Venusian surface began to evaporate, according to NASA. The amount of radiation emitted by the sun grew stronger and stronger. Atmospheric water vapor disintegrated, and hydrogen floated out into space, leaving a wealth of oxygen left to be cobbled into a choking cloud of carbon dioxide. This cloud would encircle the planet for billions of years, trapping the Sun’s heat and energy in what scientists have dubbed a “runaway greenhouse effect.” Under these conditions, the planet absorbs more heat from the sun than it is able to radiate back out into space. I'm Your Venus, I'm Your Fire The surface of Venus is now far less-inviting. It is the hottest planet in the solar system—scorching surface temperatures clock in at 880 degrees Fahrenheit, which is hot enough to melt lead. Ultra high temperatures have rendered the search for life on Venus's surface all but futile. Researchers don't think we're likely to find any sort of living organism—in any form. For centuries, Venus was shrouded in mystery—literally. Scientists weren't able to peer past its cloudy atmosphere and weren't certain it even had a rocky surface. That's also one of the reasons why the planet is the brightest non-moon object in the sky—its bright, white haze reflects light readily. Its atmosphere is also a staggering 90 times more dense than Earth’s, we've recently discovered, exerting crushing forces on the planet's surface. That thick atmosphere, made of 96.5 percent carbon dioxide, 3.1 percent nitrogen with piercing droplets of sulfuric acid, does a marvelous job of insulating the planet in a cushion of fire. It doesn't sound very hospitable, but oddly, scientists believe the upper reaches of its thick atmosphere may be the spot we'd be most likely to find life. This is despite the fact that winds in the upper Venusian atmosphere churn and spiral at speeds of more than 220 miles per hour. Temperatures at these altitudes are much more habitable—closer to that of Earth's surface. A 2018 paper published in the journal Astrobiology, suggested that dark, swirling clouds in Venus's atmosphere could be indicative of swirling colonies of light-absorbing bacteria. Venus's close proximity to the sun, while still in the habitable zone, likely kicked off this unfortunate planetary process. It’s dramatic, but some researchers see the sweltering demise of Venus as a harbinger of things to come if we aren't able to control our own levels of carbon dioxide. In any case, there are lessons to learn about our own future weather and climate from Venus’s atmosphere. A Hidden Rocky Surface Venus's impenetrable rocky surface is just as intriguing as its atmosphere. The crust is riddled with mountains, valleys, and volcanoes—like Maxwell Montes, the planet's highest peak, which stretches 20,000 feet above the surface. Atmospheric pressure on the surface of the planet, which has a radius of just 3,760 miles, is equivalent to what you might find more than half a mile beneath the ocean. Large plateaus of lava spread across the planet's hemispheres. Last year, a paper published Aug. 9 in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets called into question the composition of some of these highland plateaus, and, in turn, the Venus’s water-logged history. Instead of being composed fully of granitic rock, researchers reanalyzed old Magellan data and posited that these landforms could be made of basaltic lava. Basaltic rocks do not need water to form, unlike granitic rocks. Our understanding of the surface of Venus is changing all the time. Venusian volcanoes on may be a lot more active than previously thought, according to research published on January 3, 2020, in the journal Science Advances. Researchers analyzed rates of weathering in olivine crystals—the chemical signature of which ESA's Venus Express Orbiter discovered in the early 2000s—and found that lavas containing these chemically altered minerals would have been just days old. Venus has strange features seen nowhere else in the solar system, too. For example, ring-like structures jut out, warping the planet’s surface, according to Space.com. It does have craters, but only large ones—most meteoroids large enough to create craters smaller than .09 miles burn up as they tumble through the atmosphere. Interestingly. the planet itself is the only one named for a woman. Venusian surface features are named after powerful female historical figures, such as Sacajawea and the Roman goddess Diana. In a Weird Orbit Venus also has a highly unusual orbit and rotation. It's one of two planets in our solar system—here's to you, Uranus!—to rotate "backwards" from east to west instead of from west to east. And with no axial tilt, there are also no seasons. Because Venus rotates extremely slowly on its axis, a single day on the planet is equivalent to 243 Earth days, but it takes Venus 225 Earth days to orbit the sun. So, yes, a year on Venus is shorter than a day on Venus. Curiously, Venus also has a nearly circular orbit, whereas, other planets that circle the sun do so on along an elliptical orbit. Because of Venus's sluggish race around the solar system, its iron core isn't able to generate a robust, protective magnetosphere like we have here on Earth. Eventually, like every other inner, rocky planet in our solar system, Venus will be gulped up by the sun. Fortunately, researchers say this won’t happen for roughly 7 billion years. A Soviet Obsession A new mission to Venus could be on the horizon. Recently, scientists have suggested lofting a fleet of hot-air balloons equipped with super-sensitive seismometers that can capture infrasound waves down into the thick Venusian atmosphere. Others have hatched wild plans to launch "cloud cities" in the upper reaches of the Venusian atmosphere. The last NASA spacecraft to venture to Venus was Magellan, which spun around the planet more than 15,000 times in four years before crashing into its surface in 1994. Magellan painted a previously never-before-seen picture of the planet, mapping more than 90 percent of its surface. Before that, Mariner 2, sped past Venus, gathering temperature and atmospheric readings of the planet, along with the Pioneer orbiter of the 1980s. In the 1970s, the Soviet Union sent several probes to Venus, including the first spacecraft to successfully land on another planet, Venera 7, which touched down on the rocky surface on December 15, 1970, before being crushed and melted by Venus’ extreme pressure and scorching heat. In total, the Soviet Union sent seven missions to Venus, and returned a number of images, important atmospheric readings, and soil analysis. The European Space Agency's orbiter, Venus Express, which launched in 2006 circled the planet for eight years, revealed secrets about its dark side, and found evidence of lightning. The agency has ambitious goals to revisit the sweltering planet. At a meeting in Madrid in 2019, scientists proposed sending a pair of orbiters, a handful of landers, a balloon, and rocket which would return samples to Earth. Currently, Akatsuki, JAXA's spacecraft, which launched in 2010, is the sole spacecraft orbiting the planet. It's unlocked secrets about the planet's atmosphere and, in 2017, caught sight of a strange atmospheric disturbance, an arc of gravity waves, which washed over the planet and slowed its rotation. In December 2019, Park Solar Probe, which isn’t designed to study planets, swung close to Venus. While the spacecraft primarily studies the sun’s plasma, it will use the flyby to study the location of the Venus's bow shock, a protective boundary around planetary objects that protects them from solar winds, and make measurements about the loss of Venus’s atmosphere. In July, 2020, and Feb., 2021, Parker will circle back around to measure atmosphere loss, which is caused by intense solar winds, again. The greatest challenge of visiting Venus, of course, is designing a lander that can survive the trials of operating on its scorching surface. NASA has steadily increased its investments in developing "hot technologies," which can last up to weeks on surfaces as hot as Venus. Hopefully, someday, we'll get there.
- Colonization of the asteroids The asteroids have long been suggested as possible sites for human colonization. This idea is popular in science fiction. Asteroid mining, a proposed industrial process in which asteroids are mined for valuable materials, especially platinum group metals, may be automated or require a crew to remain at the target asteroid. - Low gravity greatly reduces the cost and risk of "landing" compared to the much deeper gravity wells of the Moon or Mars, and simplifies construction technologies (such as cranes) and reduces structural strength requirements - Large number of possible sites, with over 300,000 asteroids identified to date - Asteroids' chemical composition varies (see asteroid spectral types), providing a variety of materials usable in building and fueling spacecraft and space habitats. The Trojan asteroids, in Jupiter's orbit, may be primarily extinct comets. - Some Earth-crossing asteroids require less energy (delta-V) to reach from Earth than the Moon. - Material mined from asteroids could be a basis for a trade economy, and precious metals may even be returned to Earth or other colonized worlds from asteroid mines for economic gain. - High surface/volume ratio enables effective exploration and exploitation of mineral resources and provides maximal portion of useful building ground on the surface and interior. - High vacuum and low gravity would facilitate the evolution of some hi-tech industries such as material engineering and physical electronics (crystal growth, epitaxy). - Many asteroids (especially the extinct comet cores) contain large amounts (more than 5% of total composition) of water and other volatiles, as well as carbon, which are all necessary for life support. - Isaac Asimov pointed out the advantage of building cities inside hollowed out asteroids, since the volume of all the asteroids put together is a great deal more than that of a mile-high building covering the Earth would be, and thus could accommodate a large population. - Low gravity. Humans would have to adapt, or some form of artificial gravity would have to be implemented. - Most asteroids are far from the Sun. The main asteroid belt is roughly 2 to 4 times further from the Sun than Earth. This means that the available solar energy (solar constant) is 4 to 16 times less, although building large reflectors to collect sunlight is possible in space. - Many asteroids may merely be loose agglomerations of dust and rocks, which may be very difficult to use. - Asteroids are vulnerable to Solar radiation, lacking similarities like Earth's ozone layer and magnetosphere (though some may have a magnetic field, they are bound to be considerably weaker by comparison). Shielding with several meters of asteroidal regolith is a trivial solution to this problem. - Asteroids have no or very little atmosphere. - Smaller objects may collide with the asteroid and cause significant damage. Asteroids of special interest - (6178) 1986 DA is a potentially metallic near-Earth asteroid. - 216 Kleopatra is a metallic main-belt asteroid. Asteroid colonies in science fiction - See Asteroids in fiction. - David Gump, Space Enterprise: Beyond NASA, Praeger Publishers, 1990, ISBN 0-275-93314-8. - Mining the Sky: Untold Riches from the Asteroids, Comets, and Planets - The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Mining the Near-Earth Asteroids, M. J. Sonter. - Mining Asteroids at the Wayback Machine (archived February 5, 2005), IEEE Spectrum, August 2001. Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: Colonization of the outer Solar System — Space colonization Solar System Inner Mercury Venus Earth Moon Lagrange points Mars Phobos Deimos Asteroids Ceres Outer Jupiter Io … Wikipedia Colonization of the Moon — Lunar outpost redirects here. For NASA s plan to construct an outpost between 2012 and 2024, see Lunar outpost (NASA). Moonbase redirects here. For other uses, see Moonbase (disambiguation). 1986 artist concept The colonization of the Moon is the … Wikipedia Colonization of the inner Solar System — Space colonization Solar System Inner Mercury Venus Earth Moon Lagrange points Mars Phobos Deimos Asteroids Ceres Outer Jupiter Io … Wikipedia European colonization of the Americas — First colonization British colonization Courlandish colonization Danish colonization Dutch colonization … Wikipedia Mining the Sky: Untold Riches from the Asteroids, Comets, and Planets — is a book by John S. Lewis which discusses the development of interplanetary space within our solar system. Lewis makes a prediction that the abundant natural resources of the solar system, including effectively limitless solar energy, could… … Wikipedia Asteroids in fiction — Asteroids and asteroid belts are a staple of science fiction stories.Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places which human beings might colonize; as resources for extracting minerals; as a hazard encountered by… … Wikipedia Colonization on Earth — The colonization on Earth includes: Colonization in Europe Colonization of the Americas Colonization of Africa Colonization of Asia Colonization of Oceania Antarctica Ocean colonization See also Space colonization Colonies in antiquity… … Wikipedia Colonization of Mars — An artist s conception of the colonization of Mars, with a cutaway showing part of the interior The colonization of Mars by humans is the focus of speculation and serious study because the surface conditions and availability of water on Mars make … Wikipedia Colonization — For other uses, see Colonization (disambiguation). World empires and colonies 2007 Colonization (or colonisation) occurs whenever any one or more species populate an area. The term, which is derived from the Latin colere, to inhabit, cultivate,… … Wikipedia Colonization of Venus — Venus The colonization of Venus has been a subject of much speculation and many works of science fiction since before the dawn of spaceflight, and is still much discussed. With the discovery of Venus hostile surface environment, attention has… … Wikipedia
Addition and subtraction problems should be presented in both horizontal and vertical written format. Lessons for this standard Resources cannot be aligned to this standard, browse sub-standards to find lessons. Similar standards in other grades The identity property of addition states that if zero is added to a given number, the sum is the same as the given number. The identity property of multiplication states that if a given number is multiplied by one, the product is the same as the given number. Grade three students should explore and apply the properties of addition as strategies for solving addition and subtraction problems using a variety of representations (e.g., manipulatives, diagrams, symbols, etc.). The associative property of multiplication states that the product stays the same when the grouping of factors is changed (e.g., 6 × (3 × 5) = (6 × 3) × 5). The distributive property states that multiplying a sum by a number gives the same result as multiplying each addend by the number and then adding the products: 8 x 7 = 8 (5 + 2), (8 x 5) + (8 x 2), 40 + 16 all equal 56; 5 x 23 = 5 (20 + 3), (5 x 20) + (5 x 3), 100 + 15 all equal 115. The associative property of addition states that the sum stays the same when the grouping of addends is changed (e.g., 15 + (35 + 16) = (15 + 35) + 16).
The first so-called exoplanet was discovered by researchers at the Pennsylvania State University in 1993. They found planets around a pulsar. Since then 330 exoplanets have been found (March 2009) outside our Solar System. The first exoplanet to orbit around an ordinary Sun-like star has been discovered. This was followed by first detection of an exoplanet with an atmosphere (1995); the first Earth-like exoplanet, which is made up of carbon or silicon-based rocks rather than acting as gas giants. Ground-based as well as space telescopes have discovered them rather quickly. One of the most striking advances in the use of telescopes has occurred in interferometry, especially optical interferometry. It produces spatial resolutions, unimaginable until recently in single aperture telescopes. For instance, the twin Keck telescopes on Hawaii’s Mauna Kea, now function as the Keck Interferometer. Seven of the Mauna Kea telescopes are joined by fibre optics in the OHANA (Optical Hawaiian Array for Nanoradian Astronomy) network. Baselines of up to 800 metres separated the telescopes. The challenge here is to keep the distance between telescopes constant to within a faction of a wavelength of visible light. In a related technique, light from a star can be ‘cancelled’ out only to see the light from an exoplanet, believed to orbit it. The technique was developed since the light from the star would be so bright that the planet would be invisible, just like a torchlight near a powerful car headlight. The technique, called nulling interferometry, is needed to observe a single star, using several satellites spread out in time. The light arriving at different telescopes is combined in an interferometer. Ground-based telescopes measure the wobble of stars caused by the pull of orbiting planets. Another technique, based on photometry, which shows the size of the planet, seeks to detect distant planets by measuring the minute dimming of the star as an orbiting planet passes between it and the Earth. Such a passage of a planet is called a transit. The background light from a star, scattered by the telescope’s mirror is suppressed to obtain a clean exoplanet signal. The dimming of the starlight directly reflects the size ratio between the star and the planet. An European satellite, COROT, launched in December 2006, is designed to detect Earth-like planets by registering the slight changes in the luminous intensity of the star due to the passage of a planet in front of it, using a highly precise photometric telescope. Photometry is a complement to spectroscopy which provides an estimate of a planet’s mass and not its size. COROT was put into a polar orbit of about 850 km and is oriented in such a way the Sun will always be behind the entrance pupil of the telescope. The spacecraft has a line of sight in the same direction for 150 days at a time, and it would thus observe some 120,000 faint stars for extrasolar planets. Most recently, it has found a planet orbiting a star similar to the Sun, only about 1500 light years from the Earth. At least 40 terrestrial planets and thousands of gaseous ones may be located. The data would enable ground-based telescopes determine the mass and density. It will reject ‘stray’ light not directly coming from the target CORT has paved the way for NASA’s Kepler mission (launched in March 2009) and Darwin mission, expected after 2015. A telescope based on the Moon has also been suggested. It can provide up to 14 days of continuous observing time, as against no more than 12 hours a night by a telescope on the ground. The far side of the Moon offers electro-magnetically quite sites that could host a sensitive radio telescope. However, opinion is divided on the advantages of a Moon-based telescope. Some astronomers are of the view that the logistics of operating a telescope on the Moon and the maneuverability of the dish would be difficult, whereas radio interferometry using a few spacecraft could provide a better alternative. - New Theories In Astronomy! - What are Pulsars in Space? - Presence of Helium in Stars and Planets – An Estimate - How telescope played a vital role in understanding the universe? - What is the Speed of light? - Why does the moon change? - What happens when the sun finally dies - What are Gamma rays? - What are X-Ray Astronomy Satellites? - 31 Space gifts for men - 31 Space Gifts for Kids - Solar System - 35 Space Gifts for Women - How Helium was discovered? The Journey from Sun to Earth
PointersIn earlier chapters, variables have been explained as locations in the computer's memory which can be accessed by their identifier (their name). This way, the program does not need to care about the physical address of the data in memory; it simply uses the identifier whenever it needs to refer to the variable. For a C++ program, the memory of a computer is like a succession of memory cells, each one byte in size, and each with a unique address. These single-byte memory cells are ordered in a way that allows data representations larger than one byte to occupy memory cells that have consecutive addresses. This way, each cell can be easily located in the memory by means of its unique address. For example, the memory cell with the address always follows immediately after the cell with address and precedes the one with , and is exactly one thousand cells after and exactly one thousand cells before . When a variable is declared, the memory needed to store its value is assigned a specific location in memory (its memory address). Generally, C++ programs do not actively decide the exact memory addresses where its variables are stored. Fortunately, that task is left to the environment where the program is run - generally, an operating system that decides the particular memory locations on runtime. However, it may be useful for a program to be able to obtain the address of a variable during runtime in order to access data cells that are at a certain position relative to it. Address-of operator (&)The address of a variable can be obtained by preceding the name of a variable with an ampersand sign (), known as address-of operator. For example: This would assign the address of variable to ; by preceding the name of the variable with the address-of operator (), we are no longer assigning the content of the variable itself to , but its address. The actual address of a variable in memory cannot be known before runtime, but let's assume, in order to help clarify some concepts, that is placed during runtime in the memory address . In this case, consider the following code fragment: The values contained in each variable after the execution of this are shown in the following diagram: First, we have assigned the value to (a variable whose address in memory we assumed to be ). The second statement assigns the address of , which we have assumed to be . Finally, the third statement, assigns the value contained in to . This is a standard assignment operation, as already done many times in earlier chapters. The main difference between the second and third statements is the appearance of the address-of operator (). The variable that stores the address of another variable (like in the previous example) is what in C++ is called a pointer. Pointers are a very powerful feature of the language that has many uses in lower level programming. A bit later, we will see how to declare and use pointers. Dereference operator ()As just seen, a variable which stores the address of another variable is called a pointer. Pointers are said to "point to" the variable whose address they store. An interesting property of pointers is that they can be used to access the variable they point to directly. This is done by preceding the pointer name with the dereference operator (). The operator itself can be read as "value pointed to by". Therefore, following with the values of the previous example, the following statement: This could be read as: " equal to value pointed to by ", and the statement would actually assign the value to , since is , and the value pointed to by (following the example above) would be . It is important to clearly differentiate that refers to the value , while (with an asterisk preceding the identifier) refers to the value stored at address , which in this case is . Notice the difference of including or not including the dereference operator (I have added an explanatory comment of how each of these two expressions could be read): The reference and dereference operators are thus complementary: - is the address-of operator, and can be read simply as "address of" - is the dereference operator, and can be read as "value pointed to by" Thus, they have sort of opposite meanings: An address obtained with can be dereferenced with . Earlier, we performed the following two assignment operations: Right after these two statements, all of the following expressions would give true as result: The first expression is quite clear, considering that the assignment operation performed on was . The second one uses the address-of operator (), which returns the address of , which we assumed it to have a value of . The third one is somewhat obvious, since the second expression was true and the assignment operation performed on was . The fourth expression uses the dereference operator () that can be read as "value pointed to by", and the value pointed to by is indeed . So, after all that, you may also infer that for as long as the address pointed to by remains unchanged, the following expression will also be true: Declaring pointersDue to the ability of a pointer to directly refer to the value that it points to, a pointer has different properties when it points to a than when it points to an or a . Once dereferenced, the type needs to be known. And for that, the declaration of a pointer needs to include the data type the pointer is going to point to. The declaration of pointers follows this syntax: where is the data type pointed to by the pointer. This type is not the type of the pointer itself, but the type of the data the pointer points to. For example: These are three declarations of pointers. Each one is intended to point to a different data type, but, in fact, all of them are pointers and all of them are likely going to occupy the same amount of space in memory (the size in memory of a pointer depends on the platform where the program runs). Nevertheless, the data to which they point to do not occupy the same amount of space nor are of the same type: the first one points to an , the second one to a , and the last one to a . Therefore, although these three example variables are all of them pointers, they actually have different types: , , and respectively, depending on the type they point to. Note that the asterisk () used when declaring a pointer only means that it is a pointer (it is part of its type compound specifier), and should not be confused with the dereference operator seen a bit earlier, but which is also written with an asterisk (). They are simply two different things represented with the same sign. Let's see an example on pointers: Notice that even though neither nor are directly set any value in the program, both end up with a value set indirectly through the use of . This is how it happens: First, is assigned the address of firstvalue using the address-of operator (). Then, the value pointed to by is assigned a value of . Because, at this moment, is pointing to the memory location of , this in fact modifies the value of . In order to demonstrate that a pointer may point to different variables during its lifetime in a program, the example repeats the process with and that same pointer, . Here is an example a little bit more elaborated: Each assignment operation includes a comment on how each line could be read: i.e., replacing ampersands () by "address of", and asterisks () by "value pointed to by". Notice that there are expressions with pointers and , both with and without the dereference operator (). The meaning of an expression using the dereference operator () is very different from one that does not. When this operator precedes the pointer name, the expression refers to the value being pointed, while when a pointer name appears without this operator, it refers to the value of the pointer itself (i.e., the address of what the pointer is pointing to). Another thing that may call your attention is the line: This declares the two pointers used in the previous example. But notice that there is an asterisk () for each pointer, in order for both to have type (pointer to ). This is required due to the precedence rules. Note that if, instead, the code was: would indeed be of type , but would be of type . Spaces do not matter at all for this purpose. But anyway, simply remembering to put one asterisk per pointer is enough for most pointer users interested in declaring multiple pointers per statement. Or even better: use a different statement for each variable. Pointers and arraysThe concept of arrays is related to that of pointers. In fact, arrays work very much like pointers to their first elements, and, actually, an array can always be implicitly converted to the pointer of the proper type. For example, consider these two declarations: The following assignment operation would be valid: After that, and would be equivalent and would have very similar properties. The main difference being that can be assigned a different address, whereas can never be assigned anything, and will always represent the same block of 20 elements of type . Therefore, the following assignment would not be valid: Let's see an example that mixes arrays and pointers: Pointers and arrays support the same set of operations, with the same meaning for both. The main difference being that pointers can be assigned new addresses, while arrays cannot. In the chapter about arrays, brackets () were explained as specifying the index of an element of the array. Well, in fact these brackets are a dereferencing operator known as offset operator. They dereference the variable they follow just as does, but they also add the number between brackets to the address being dereferenced. For example: These two expressions are equivalent and valid, not only if is a pointer, but also if is an array. Remember that if an array, its name can be used just like a pointer to its first element. Pointer initializationPointers can be initialized to point to specific locations at the very moment they are defined: The resulting state of variables after this code is the same as after: When pointers are initialized, what is initialized is the address they point to (i.e., ), never the value being pointed (i.e., ). Therefore, the code above shall not be confused with: Which anyway would not make much sense (and is not valid code). The asterisk () in the pointer declaration (line 2) only indicates that it is a pointer, it is not the dereference operator (as in line 3). Both things just happen to use the same sign: . As always, spaces are not relevant, and never change the meaning of an expression. Pointers can be initialized either to the address of a variable (such as in the case above), or to the value of another pointer (or array): Pointer arithmeticsTo conduct arithmetical operations on pointers is a little different than to conduct them on regular integer types. To begin with, only addition and subtraction operations are allowed; the others make no sense in the world of pointers. But both addition and subtraction have a slightly different behavior with pointers, according to the size of the data type to which they point. When fundamental data types were introduced, we saw that types have different sizes. For example: always has a size of 1 byte, is generally larger than that, and and are even larger; the exact size of these being dependent on the system. For example, let's imagine that in a given system, takes 1 byte, takes 2 bytes, and takes 4. Suppose now that we define three pointers in this compiler: and that we know that they point to the memory locations , , and , respectively. Therefore, if we write: , as one would expect, would contain the value 1001. But not so obviously, would contain the value 2002, and would contain 3004, even though they have each been incremented only once. The reason is that, when adding one to a pointer, the pointer is made to point to the following element of the same type, and, therefore, the size in bytes of the type it points to is added to the pointer. This is applicable both when adding and subtracting any number to a pointer. It would happen exactly the same if we wrote: Regarding the increment () and decrement () operators, they both can be used as either prefix or suffix of an expression, with a slight difference in behavior: as a prefix, the increment happens before the expression is evaluated, and as a suffix, the increment happens after the expression is evaluated. This also applies to expressions incrementing and decrementing pointers, which can become part of more complicated expressions that also include dereference operators (). Remembering operator precedence rules, we can recall that postfix operators, such as increment and decrement, have higher precedence than prefix operators, such as the dereference operator (). Therefore, the following expression: is equivalent to . And what it does is to increase the value of (so it now points to the next element), but because is used as postfix, the whole expression is evaluated as the value pointed originally by the pointer (the address it pointed to before being incremented). Essentially, these are the four possible combinations of the dereference operator with both the prefix and suffix versions of the increment operator (the same being applicable also to the decrement operator): A typical -but not so simple- statement involving these operators is: Because has a higher precedence than , both and are incremented, but because both increment operators () are used as postfix and not prefix, the value assigned to is before both and are incremented. And then both are incremented. It would be roughly equivalent to: Like always, parentheses reduce confusion by adding legibility to expressions. Pointers and constPointers can be used to access a variable by its address, and this access may include modifying the value pointed. But it is also possible to declare pointers that can access the pointed value to read it, but not to modify it. For this, it is enough with qualifying the type pointed to by the pointer as . For example: Here points to a variable, but points to it in a -qualified manner, meaning that it can read the value pointed, but it cannot modify it. Note also, that the expression is of type , but this is assigned to a pointer of type . This is allowed: a pointer to non-const can be implicitly converted to a pointer to const. But not the other way around! As a safety feature, pointers to are not implicitly convertible to pointers to non-. One of the use cases of pointers to elements is as function parameters: a function that takes a pointer to non- as parameter can modify the value passed as argument, while a function that takes a pointer to as parameter cannot. Note that uses pointers that point to constant elements. These pointers point to constant content they cannot modify, but they are not constant themselves: i.e., the pointers can still be incremented or assigned different addresses, although they cannot modify the content they point to. And this is where a second dimension to constness is added to pointers: Pointers can also be themselves const. And this is specified by appending const to the pointed type (after the asterisk): The syntax with and pointers is definitely tricky, and recognizing the cases that best suit each use tends to require some experience. In any case, it is important to get constness with pointers (and references) right sooner rather than later, but you should not worry too much about grasping everything if this is the first time you are exposed to the mix of and pointers. More use cases will show up in coming chapters. To add a little bit more confusion to the syntax of with pointers, the qualifier can either precede or follow the pointed type, with the exact same meaning: As with the spaces surrounding the asterisk, the order of const in this case is simply a matter of style. This chapter uses a prefix , as for historical reasons this seems to be more extended, but both are exactly equivalent. The merits of each style are still intensely debated on the internet. Pointers and string literalsAs pointed earlier, string literals are arrays containing null-terminated character sequences. In earlier sections, string literals have been used to be directly inserted into , to initialize strings and to initialize arrays of characters. But they can also be accessed directly. String literals are arrays of the proper array type to contain all its characters plus the terminating null-character, with each of the elements being of type (as literals, they can never be modified). For example: This declares an array with the literal representation for , and then a pointer to its first element is assigned to . If we imagine that is stored at the memory locations that start at address 1702, we can represent the previous declaration as: Note that here is a pointer and contains the value 1702, and not , nor , although 1702 indeed is the address of both of these. The pointer points to a sequence of characters. And because pointers and arrays behave essentially in the same way in expressions, can be used to access the characters in the same way arrays of null-terminated character sequences are. For example: Both expressions have a value of (the fifth element of the array). Pointers to pointersC++ allows the use of pointers that point to pointers, that these, in its turn, point to data (or even to other pointers). The syntax simply requires an asterisk () for each level of indirection in the declaration of the pointer: This, assuming the randomly chosen memory locations for each variable of , , and , could be represented as: With the value of each variable represented inside its corresponding cell, and their respective addresses in memory represented by the value under them. The new thing in this example is variable , which is a pointer to a pointer, and can be used in three different levels of indirection, each one of them would correspond to a different value: - is of type and a value of - is of type and a value of - is of type and a value of void pointersThe type of pointer is a special type of pointer. In C++, represents the absence of type. Therefore, pointers are pointers that point to a value that has no type (and thus also an undetermined length and undetermined dereferencing properties). This gives pointers a great flexibility, by being able to point to any data type, from an integer value or a float to a string of characters. In exchange, they have a great limitation: the data pointed to by them cannot be directly dereferenced (which is logical, since we have no type to dereference to), and for that reason, any address in a pointer needs to be transformed into some other pointer type that points to a concrete data type before being dereferenced. One of its possible uses may be to pass generic parameters to a function. For example: is an operator integrated in the C++ language that returns the size in bytes of its argument. For non-dynamic data types, this value is a constant. Therefore, for example, is 1, because has always a size of one byte. Invalid pointers and null pointersIn principle, pointers are meant to point to valid addresses, such as the address of a variable or the address of an element in an array. But pointers can actually point to any address, including addresses that do not refer to any valid element. Typical examples of this are uninitialized pointers and pointers to nonexistent elements of an array: Neither nor point to addresses known to contain a value, but none of the above statements causes an error. In C++, pointers are allowed to take any address value, no matter whether there actually is something at that address or not. What can cause an error is to dereference such a pointer (i.e., actually accessing the value they point to). Accessing such a pointer causes undefined behavior, ranging from an error during runtime to accessing some random value. But, sometimes, a pointer really needs to explicitly point to nowhere, and not just an invalid address. For such cases, there exists a special value that any pointer type can take: the null pointer value. This value can be expressed in C++ in two ways: either with an integer value of zero, or with the keyword: Here, both and are null pointers, meaning that they explicitly point to nowhere, and they both actually compare equal: all null pointers compare equal to other null pointers. It is also quite usual to see the defined constant be used in older code to refer to the null pointer value: is defined in several headers of the standard library, and is defined as an alias of some null pointer constant value (such as or ). Do not confuse null pointers with pointers! A null pointer is a value that any pointer can take to represent that it is pointing to "nowhere", while a pointer is a type of pointer that can point to somewhere without a specific type. One refers to the value stored in the pointer, and the other to the type of data it points to. Pointers to functionsC++ allows operations with pointers to functions. The typical use of this is for passing a function as an argument to another function. Pointers to functions are declared with the same syntax as a regular function declaration, except that the name of the function is enclosed between parentheses () and an asterisk () is inserted before the name: In the example above, is a pointer to a function that has two parameters of type . It is directly initialized to point to the function : In computer science, a pointer is a programming language object, whose value refers to (or "points to") another value stored elsewhere in the computer memory using its memory address. A pointer references a location in memory, and obtaining the value stored at that location is known as dereferencing the pointer. As an analogy, a page number in a book's index could be considered a pointer to the corresponding page; dereferencing such a pointer would be done by flipping to the page with the given page number and reading the text found on the indexed page. Pointers to data significantly improve performance for repetitive operations such as traversing strings, lookup tables, control tables and tree structures. In particular, it is often much cheaper in time and space to copy and dereference pointers than it is to copy and access the data to which the pointers point. Pointers are also used to hold the addresses of entry points for called subroutines in procedural programming and for run-time linking to dynamic link libraries (DLLs). In object-oriented programming, pointers to functions are used for bindingmethods, often using what are called virtual method tables. A pointer is a simple, more concrete implementation of the more abstract referencedata type. Several languages support some type of pointer, although some have more restrictions on their use than others. While "pointer" has been used to refer to references in general, it more properly applies to data structures whose interface explicitly allows the pointer to be manipulated (arithmetically via pointer arithmetic) as a memory address, as opposed to a magic cookie or capability where this is not possible. Because pointers allow both protected and unprotected access to memory addresses, there are risks associated with using them particularly in the latter case. Primitive pointers are often stored in a format similar to an integer; however, attempting to dereference or "look up" a pointer whose value was never a valid memory address would cause a program to crash. To alleviate this potential problem, as a matter of type safety, pointers are considered a separate type parameterized by the type of data they point to, even if the underlying representation is an integer. Other measures may also be taken (such as validation & bounds checking), to verify the contents of the pointer variable contain a value that is both a valid memory address and within the numerical range that the processor is capable of addressing. Harold Lawson is credited with the 1964 invention of the pointer. In 2000, Lawson was presented the Computer Pioneer Award by the IEEE “[f]or inventing the pointer variable and introducing this concept into PL/I, thus providing for the first time, the capability to flexibly treat linked lists in a general-purpose high level language”. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the wordpointer first appeared in print as a stack pointer in a technical memorandum by the System Development Corporation. In computer science, a pointer is a kind of reference. A data primitive (or just primitive) is any datum that can be read from or written to computer memory using one memory access (for instance, both a byte and a word are primitives). A data aggregate (or just aggregate) is a group of primitives that are logically contiguous in memory and that are viewed collectively as one datum (for instance, an aggregate could be 3 logically contiguous bytes, the values of which represent the 3 coordinates of a point in space). When an aggregate is entirely composed of the same type of primitive, the aggregate may be called an array; in a sense, a multi-byte word primitive is an array of bytes, and some programs use words in this way. In the context of these definitions, a byte is the smallest primitive; each memory address specifies a different byte. The memory address of the initial byte of a datum is considered the memory address (or base memory address) of the entire datum. A memory pointer (or just pointer) is a primitive, the value of which is intended to be used as a memory address; it is said that a pointer points to a memory address. It is also said that a pointer points to a datum [in memory] when the pointer's value is the datum's memory address. More generally, a pointer is a kind of reference, and it is said that a pointer references a datum stored somewhere in memory; to obtain that datum is to dereference the pointer. The feature that separates pointers from other kinds of reference is that a pointer's value is meant to be interpreted as a memory address, which is a rather low-level concept. References serve as a level of indirection: A pointer's value determines which memory address (that is, which datum) is to be used in a calculation. Because indirection is a fundamental aspect of algorithms, pointers are often expressed as a fundamental data type in programming languages; in statically (or strongly) typed programming languages, the type of a pointer determines the type of the datum to which the pointer points. Use in data structures When setting up data structures like lists, queues and trees, it is necessary to have pointers to help manage how the structure is implemented and controlled. Typical examples of pointers are start pointers, end pointers, and stack pointers. These pointers can either be absolute (the actual physical address or a virtual address in virtual memory) or relative (an offset from an absolute start address ("base") that typically uses fewer bits than a full address, but will usually require one additional arithmetic operation to resolve). Relative addresses are a form of manual memory segmentation, and share many of its advantages and disadvantages. A two-byte offset, containing a 16-bit, unsigned integer, can be used to provide relative addressing for up to 64 kilobytes of a data structure. This can easily be extended to 128K, 256K or 512K if the address pointed to is forced to be aligned on a half-word, word or double-word boundary (but, requiring an additional "shift left" bitwise operation—by 1, 2 or 3 bits—in order to adjust the offset by a factor of 2, 4 or 8, before its addition to the base address). Generally, though, such schemes are a lot of trouble, and for convenience to the programmer absolute addresses (and underlying that, a flat address space) is preferred. A one byte offset, such as the hexadecimal ASCII value of a character (e.g. X'29') can be used to point to an alternative integer value (or index) in an array (e.g. X'01'). In this way, characters can be very efficiently translated from 'raw data' to a usable sequential index and then to an absolute address without a lookup table. Use in control tables Control tables that are used to control program flow usually make extensive use of pointers. The pointers, usually embedded in a table entry, may, for instance, be used to hold the entry points to subroutines to be executed, based on certain conditions defined in the same table entry. The pointers can however be simply indexes to other separate, but associated, tables comprising an array of the actual addresses or the addresses themselves (depending upon the programming language constructs available). They can also be used to point to earlier table entries (as in loop processing) or forward to skip some table entries (as in a switch or "early" exit from a loop). For this latter purpose, the "pointer" may simply be the table entry number itself and can be transformed into an actual address by simple arithmetic. Pointers are a very thin abstraction on top of the addressing capabilities provided by most modern architectures. In the simplest scheme, an address, or a numeric index, is assigned to each unit of memory in the system, where the unit is typically either a byte or a word – depending on whether the architecture is byte-addressable or word-addressable – effectively transforming all of memory into a very large array. The system would then also provide an operation to retrieve the value stored in the memory unit at a given address (usually utilizing the machine's general purpose registers). In the usual case, a pointer is large enough to hold more addresses than there are units of memory in the system. This introduces the possibility that a program may attempt to access an address which corresponds to no unit of memory, either because not enough memory is installed (i.e. beyond the range of available memory) or the architecture does not support such addresses. The first case may, in certain platforms such as the Intel x86 architecture, be called a segmentation fault (segfault). The second case is possible in the current implementation of AMD64, where pointers are 64 bit long and addresses only extend to 48 bits. Pointers must conform to certain rules (canonical addresses), so if a non-canonical pointer is dereferenced, the processor raises a general protection fault. On the other hand, some systems have more units of memory than there are addresses. In this case, a more complex scheme such as memory segmentation or paging is employed to use different parts of the memory at different times. The last incarnations of the x86 architecture support up to 36 bits of physical memory addresses, which were mapped to the 32-bit linear address space through the PAE paging mechanism. Thus, only 1/16 of the possible total memory may be accessed at a time. Another example in the same computer family was the 16-bit protected mode of the 80286 processor, which, though supporting only 16 MB of physical memory, could access up to 1 GB of virtual memory, but the combination of 16-bit address and segment registers made accessing more than 64 KB in one data structure cumbersome. In order to provide a consistent interface, some architectures provide memory-mapped I/O, which allows some addresses to refer to units of memory while others refer to device registers of other devices in the computer. There are analogous concepts such as file offsets, array indices, and remote object references that serve some of the same purposes as addresses for other types of objects. Pointers are directly supported without restrictions in languages such as PL/I, C, C++, Pascal, FreeBASIC, and implicitly in most assembly languages. They are primarily used for constructing references, which in turn are fundamental to constructing nearly all data structures, as well as in passing data between different parts of a program. In functional programming languages that rely heavily on lists, pointers and references are managed abstractly by the language using internal constructs like cons. When dealing with arrays, the critical lookup operation typically involves a stage called address calculation which involves constructing a pointer to the desired data element in the array. In other data structures, such as linked lists, pointers are used as references to explicitly tie one piece of the structure to another. Pointers are used to pass parameters by reference. This is useful if the programmer wants a function's modifications to a parameter to be visible to the function's caller. This is also useful for returning multiple values from a function. Pointers can also be used to allocate and deallocate dynamic variables and arrays in memory. Since a variable will often become redundant after it has served its purpose, it is a waste of memory to keep it, and therefore it is good practice to deallocate it (using the original pointer reference) when it is no longer needed. Failure to do so may result in a memory leak (where available free memory gradually, or in severe cases rapidly, diminishes because of an accumulation of numerous redundant memory blocks). The basic syntax to define a pointer is: This declares as the identifier of an object of the following type: - pointer that points to an object of type This is usually stated more succinctly as " is a pointer to ." Because the C language does not specify an implicit initialization for objects of automatic storage duration, care should often be taken to ensure that the address to which points is valid; this is why it is sometimes suggested that a pointer be explicitly initialized to the null pointer value, which is traditionally specified in C with the standardized macro : Dereferencing a null pointer in C produces undefined behavior, which could be catastrophic. However, most implementations simply halt execution of the program in question, usually with a segmentation fault. However, initializing pointers unnecessarily could hinder program analysis, thereby hiding bugs. In any case, once a pointer has been declared, the next logical step is for it to point at something: This assigns the value of the address of to . For example, if is stored at memory location of 0x8130 then the value of will be 0x8130 after the assignment. To dereference the pointer, an asterisk is used again: This means take the contents of (which is 0x8130), "locate" that address in memory and set its value to 8. If is later accessed again, its new value will be 8. This example may be clearer if memory is examined directly. Assume that is located at address 0x8130 in memory and at 0x8134; also assume this is a 32-bit machine such that an int is 32-bits wide. The following is what would be in memory after the following code snippet is executed: Address Contents 0x8130 0x00000005 0x8134 0x00000000 (The NULL pointer shown here is 0x00000000.) By assigning the address of to : yields the following memory values: Address Contents 0x8130 0x00000005 0x8134 0x00008130 Then by dereferencing by coding: the computer will take the contents of (which is 0x8130), 'locate' that address, and assign 8 to that location yielding the following memory: Address Contents 0x8130 0x00000008 0x8134 0x00008130 Clearly, accessing will yield the value of 8 because the previous instruction modified the contents of by way of the pointer . In C, array indexing is formally defined in terms of pointer arithmetic; that is, the language specification requires that be equivalent to . Thus in C, arrays can be thought of as pointers to consecutive areas of memory (with no gaps), and the syntax for accessing arrays is identical for that which can be used to dereference pointers. For example, an array can be declared and used in the following manner: This allocates a block of five integers and names the block , which acts as a pointer to the block. Another common use of pointers is to point to dynamically allocated memory from malloc which returns a consecutive block of memory of no less than the requested size that can be used as an array. While most operators on arrays and pointers are equivalent, the result of the operator differs. In this example, will evaluate to (the size of the array), while will evaluate to , the size of the pointer itself. Default values of an array can be declared like: If is located in memory starting at address 0x1000 on a 32-bit little-endian machine then memory will contain the following (values are in hexadecimal, like the addresses): 0 1 2 3 1000 2 0 0 0 1004 4 0 0 0 1008 3 0 0 0 100C 1 0 0 0 1010 5 0 0 0 Represented here are five integers: 2, 4, 3, 1, and 5. These five integers occupy 32 bits (4 bytes) each with the least-significant byte stored first (this is a little-endian CPU architecture) and are stored consecutively starting at address 0x1000. The syntax for C with pointers is: - means 0x1000; - means 0x1004: the "+ 1" means to add the size of 1 , which is 4 bytes; - means to dereference the contents of . Considering the contents as a memory address (0x1000), look up the value at that location (0x0002); - means element number , 0-based, of which is translated into . The last example is how to access the contents of . Breaking it down: - is the memory location of the (i)th element of , starting at i=0; - takes that memory address and dereferences it to access the value. C linked list Below is an example definition of a linked list in C. This pointer-recursive definition is essentially the same as the reference-recursive definition from the Haskell programming language: is the empty list, and is a cons cell of type with another link also of type . The definition with references, however, is type-checked and does not use potentially confusing signal values. For this reason, data structures in C are usually dealt with via wrapper functions, which are carefully checked for correctness. Pass-by-address using pointers Pointers can be used to pass variables by their address, allowing their value to be changed. For example, consider the following C code: Dynamic memory allocation In some programs, the required memory depends on what the user may enter. In such cases the programmer needs to allocate memory dynamically. This is done by allocating memory at the heap rather than on the stack, where variables usually are stored. (Variables can also be stored in the CPU registers, but that's another matter) Dynamic memory allocation can only be made through pointers, and names (like with common variables) can't be given. Pointers are used to store and manage the addresses of dynamically allocated blocks of memory. Such blocks are used to store data objects or arrays of objects. Most structured and object-oriented languages provide an area of memory, called the heap or free store, from which objects are dynamically allocated. The example C code below illustrates how structure objects are dynamically allocated and referenced. The standard C library provides the function for allocating memory blocks from the heap. It takes the size of an object to allocate as a parameter and returns a pointer to a newly allocated block of memory suitable for storing the object, or it returns a null pointer if the allocation failed. The code below illustrates how memory objects are dynamically deallocated, i.e., returned to the heap or free store. The standard C library provides the function for deallocating a previously allocated memory block and returning it back to the heap. On some computing architectures, pointers can be used to directly manipulate memory or memory-mapped devices. Assigning addresses to pointers is an invaluable tool when programming microcontrollers. Below is a simple example declaring a pointer of type int and initialising it to a hexadecimal address in this example the constant 0x7FFF: In the mid 80s, using the BIOS to access the video capabilities of PCs was slow. Applications that were display-intensive typically used to access CGA video memory directly by casting the hexadecimal constant 0xB8000 to a pointer to an array of 80 unsigned 16-bit int values. Each value consisted of an ASCII code in the low byte, and a colour in the high byte. Thus, to put the letter 'A' at row 5, column 2 in bright white on blue, one would write code like the following: Typed pointers and casting In many languages, pointers have the additional restriction that the object they point to has a specific type. For example, a pointer may be declared to point to an integer; the language will then attempt to prevent the programmer from pointing it to objects which are not integers, such as floating-point numbers, eliminating some errors. For example, in C would be an integer pointer and would be a char pointer. The following would yield a compiler warning of "assignment from incompatible pointer type" under GCC because and were declared with different types. To suppress the compiler warning, it must be made explicit that you do indeed wish to make the assignment by typecasting it which says to cast the integer pointer of to a char pointer and assign to . A 2005 draft of the C standard requires that casting a pointer derived from one type to one of another type should maintain the alignment correctness for both types (220.127.116.11 Pointers, par. 7): In languages that allow pointer arithmetic, arithmetic on pointers takes into account the size of the type. For example, adding an integer number to a pointer produces another pointer that points to an address that is higher by that number times the size of the type. This allows us to easily compute the address of elements of an array of a given type, as was shown in the C arrays example above. When a pointer of one type is cast to another type of a different size, the programmer should expect that pointer arithmetic will be calculated differently. In C, for example, if the array starts at 0x2000 and is 4 bytes whereas is 1 byte, then will point to 0x2004, but would point to 0x2001. Other risks of casting include loss of data when "wide" data is written to "narrow" locations (e.g. ), unexpected results when bit-shifting values, and comparison problems, especially with signed vs unsigned values. Although it is impossible in general to determine at compile-time which casts are safe, some languages store run-time type information which can be used to confirm that these dangerous casts are valid at runtime. Other languages merely accept a conservative approximation of safe casts, or none at all. Making pointers safer As a pointer allows a program to attempt to access an object that may not be defined, pointers can be the origin of a variety of programming errors. However, the usefulness of pointers is so great that it can be difficult to perform programming tasks without them. Consequently, many languages have created constructs designed to provide some of the useful features of pointers without some of their pitfalls, also sometimes referred to as pointer hazards. In this context, pointers that directly address memory (as used in this article) are referred to as raw pointers, by contrast with smart pointers or other variants. One major problem with pointers is that as long as they can be directly manipulated as a number, they can be made to point to unused addresses or to data which is being used for other purposes. Many languages, including most functional programming languages and recent imperative languages like Java, replace pointers with a more opaque type of reference, typically referred to as simply a reference, which can only be used to refer to objects and not manipulated as numbers, preventing this type of error. Array indexing is handled as a special case. A pointer which does not have any address assigned to it is called a wild pointer. Any attempt to use such uninitialized pointers can cause unexpected behavior, either because the initial value is not a valid address, or because using it may damage other parts of the program. The result is often a segmentation fault, storage violation or wild branch (if used as a function pointer or branch address). In systems with explicit memory allocation, it is possible to create a dangling pointer by deallocating the memory region it points into. This type of pointer is dangerous and subtle because a deallocated memory region may contain the same data as it did before it was deallocated but may be then reallocated and overwritten by unrelated code, unknown to the earlier code. Languages with garbage collection prevent this type of error because deallocation is performed automatically when there are no more references in scope. Some languages, like C++, support smart pointers, which use a simple form of reference counting to help track allocation of dynamic memory in addition to acting as a reference. In the absence of reference cycles, where an object refers to itself indirectly through a sequence of smart pointers, these eliminate the possibility of dangling pointers and memory leaks. Delphi strings support reference counting natively. The Rust programming language introduces a borrow checker, pointer lifetimes, and an optimisation based around optional types for null pointers to eliminate pointer bugs, without resorting to a garbage collector. Main article: Null pointer A null pointer has a value reserved for indicating that the pointer does not refer to a valid object. Null pointers are routinely used to represent conditions such as the end of a list of unknown length or the failure to perform some action; this use of null pointers can be compared to nullable types and to the Nothing value in an option type. An autorelative pointer is a pointer whose value is interpreted as an offset from the address of the pointer itself; thus, if a data structure has an autorelative pointer member that points to some portion of the data structure itself, then the data structure may be relocated in memory without having to update the value of the auto relative pointer. The cited patent also uses the term self-relative pointer to mean the same thing. However, the meaning of that term has been used in other ways: - to mean an offset from the address of a structure rather than from the address of the pointer itself; - to mean a pointer containing its own address, which can be useful for reconstructing in any arbitrary region of memory a collection of data structures that point to each other. A based pointer is a pointer whose value is an offset from the value of another pointer. This can be used to store and load blocks of data, assigning the address of the beginning of the block to the base pointer. In some languages, a pointer can reference another pointer, requiring multiple dereference operations to get to the original value. While each level of indirection may add a performance cost, it is sometimes necessary in order to provide correct behavior for complex data structures. For example, in C it is typical to define a linked list in terms of an element that contains a pointer to the next element of the list: This implementation uses a pointer to the first element in the list as a surrogate for the entire list. If a new value is added to the beginning of the list, has to be changed to point to the new element. Since C arguments are always passed by value, using double indirection allows the insertion to be implemented correctly, and has the desirable side-effect of eliminating special case code to deal with insertions at the front of the list: In this case, if the value of is less than that of , the caller's is properly updated to the address of the new item. A basic example is in the argv argument to the main function in C (and C++), which is given in the prototype as —this is because the variable itself is a pointer to an array of strings (an array of arrays), so is a pointer to the 0th string (by convention the name of the program), and is the 0th character of the 0th string. In some languages, a pointer can reference executable code, i.e., it can point to a function, method, or procedure. A function pointer will store the address of a function to be invoked. While this facility can be used to call functions dynamically, it is often a favorite technique of virus and other malicious software writers. Main article: Dangling pointer A dangling pointer is a pointer that does not point to a valid object and consequently may make a program crash or behave oddly. In the Pascal or C programming languages, pointers that are not specifically initialized may point to unpredictable addresses in memory. The following example code shows a dangling pointer: Here, may point to anywhere in memory, so performing the assignment can corrupt an unknown area of memory or trigger a segmentation fault. In doubly linked lists or tree structures, a back pointer held on an element 'points back' to the item referring to the current element. These are useful for navigation and manipulation, at the expense of greater memory use. Pointer declaration syntax overview These pointer declarations cover most variants of pointer declarations. Of course it is possible to have triple pointers, but the main principles behind a triple pointer already exist in a double pointer. The () and have a higher priority than *. Where a pointer is used as the address of the entry point to a program or start of a function which doesn't return anything and is also either uninitialized or corrupted, if a call or jump is nevertheless made to this address, a "wild branch" is said to have occurred. The consequences are usually unpredictable and the error may present itself in several different ways depending upon whether or not the pointer is a "valid" address and whether or not there is (coincidentally) a valid instruction (opcode) at that address. The detection of a wild branch can present one of the most difficult and frustrating debugging exercises since much of the evidence may already have been destroyed beforehand or by execution of one or more inappropriate instructions at the branch location. If available, an instruction set simulator can usually not only detect a wild branch before it takes effect, but also provide a complete or partial trace of its history. Simulation using an array index It is possible to simulate pointer behavior using an index to an (normally one-dimensional) array. Primarily for languages which do not support pointers explicitly but do support arrays, the array can be thought of and processed as if it were the entire memory range (within the scope of the particular array) and any index to it can be thought of as equivalent to a general purpose register in assembly language (that points to the individual bytes but whose actual value is relative to the start of the array, not its absolute address in memory). Assuming the array is, say, a contiguous 16 megabyte character data structure, individual bytes (or a string of contiguous bytes within the array) can be directly addressed and manipulated using the name of the array with a 31 bit unsigned integer as the simulated pointer (this is quite similar to the C arrays example shown above). Pointer arithmetic can be simulated by adding or subtracting from the index, with minimal additional overhead compared to genuine pointer arithmetic. Support in various programming languages Ada is a strongly typed language where all pointers are typed and only safe type conversions are permitted. All pointers are by default initialized to , and any attempt to access data through a pointer causes an exception to be raised. Pointers in Ada are called access types. Ada 83 did not permit arithmetic on access types (although many compiler vendors provided for it as a non-standard feature), but Ada 95 supports “safe” arithmetic on access types via the package . Several old versions of BASIC for the Windows platform had support for STRPTR() to return the address of a string, and for VARPTR() to return the address of a variable. Visual Basic 5 also had support for OBJPTR() to return the address of an object interface, and for an ADDRESSOF operator to return the address of a function. The types of all of these are integers, but their values are equivalent to those held by pointer types. Newer dialects of BASIC, such as FreeBASIC or BlitzMax, have exhaustive pointer implementations, however. In FreeBASIC, arithmetic on pointers (equivalent to C's ) are treated as though the pointer was a byte width. pointers cannot be dereferenced, as in C. Also, casting between and any other type's pointers will not generate any warnings. C and C++ In C and C++ pointers are variables that store addresses and can be null. Each pointer has a type it points to, but one can freely cast between pointer types (but not between a function pointer and an object pointer). A special pointer type called the “void pointer” allows pointing to any (non-function) object, but is limited by the fact that it cannot be dereferenced directly (it shall be cast). The address itself can often be directly manipulated by casting a pointer to and from an integral type of sufficient size, though the results are implementation-defined and may indeed cause undefined behavior; while earlier C standards did not have an integral type that was guaranteed to be large enough, C99 specifies the typedef name defined in , but an implementation need not provide it. C++ fully supports C pointers and C typecasting. It also supports a new group of typecasting operators to help catch some unintended dangerous casts at compile-time. Since C++11, the C++ standard library also provides smart pointers (, and ) which can be used in some situations as a safer alternative to primitive C pointers. C++ also supports another form of reference, quite different from a pointer, called simply a reference or reference type. Pointer arithmetic, that is, the ability to modify a pointer's target address with arithmetic operations (as well as magnitude comparisons), is restricted by the language standard to remain within the bounds of a single array object (or just after it), and will otherwise invoke undefined behavior. Adding or subtracting from a pointer moves it by a multiple of the size of its datatype. For example, adding 1 to a pointer to 4-byte integer values will increment the pointer's pointed-to byte-address by 4. This has the effect of incrementing the pointer to point at the next element in a contiguous array of integers—which is often the intended result. Pointer arithmetic cannot be performed on pointers because the void type has no size, and thus the pointed address can not be added to, although gcc and other compilers will perform byte arithmetic on as a non-standard extension, treating it as if it were . Pointer arithmetic provides the programmer with a single way of dealing with different types: adding and subtracting the number of elements required instead of the actual offset in bytes. (Pointer arithmetic with pointers uses byte offsets, because is 1 by definition.) In particular, the C definition explicitly declares that the syntax , which is the -th element of the array , is equivalent to , which is the content of the element pointed by . This implies that is equivalent to , and one can write, e.g., or equally well to access the fourth element of an array . While powerful, pointer arithmetic can be a source of computer bugs. It tends to confuse novice programmers, forcing them into different contexts: an expression can be an ordinary arithmetic one or a pointer arithmetic one, and sometimes it is easy to mistake one for the other. In response to this, many modern high-level computer languages (for example Java) do not permit direct access to memory using addresses. Also, the safe C dialect Cyclone addresses many of the issues with pointers. See C programming language for more discussion. The pointer, or , is supported in ANSI C and C++ as a generic pointer type. A pointer to can store the address of any object (not function), and, in C, is implicitly converted to any other object pointer type on assignment, but it must be explicitly cast if dereferenced. K&R C used for the “type-agnostic pointer” purpose (before ANSI C). C++ does not allow the implicit conversion of to other pointer types, even in assignments. This was a design decision to avoid careless and even unintended casts, though most compilers only output warnings, not errors, when encountering other casts. In C++, there is no (reference to void) to complement (pointer to void), because references behave like aliases to the variables they point to, and there can never be a variable whose type is .
Fig. 2.3 First version of the multiplication hardware The first operand is called the multiplicand and the second the multiplier. The final result is called the product. As you may recall, the algorithm learned in grammar school is to take the digits of the multiplier one at a time from right to left, multiplying the multiplicand by the single digit of the multiplier and shifting the intermediate product one digit to the left of the earlier intermediate products. The first observation is that the number of digits in the product is considerably larger than the number in either the multiplicand or the multiplier. In fact, if we ignore the sign bits, the length of the multiplication of an n-bit multiplicand and an m-bit multiplier is a product that is n + m bits long. That is, n + m bits are required to represent all possible products. Hence, like add, multiply must cope with overflow because we frequently want a 32-bit product as the result of multiplying two 32-bit numbers. In this example we restricted the decimal digits to 0 and 1. With only two choices, each step of the multiplication is simple: 1. Just place a copy of the multiplicand in the proper place if the multiplier digit is a 1, or 2. Place 0 (0 ¥ multiplicand) in the proper place if the digit is 0. The multiplier is in the 32-bit Multiplier register and that the 64-bit Product register is initialized to 0. Over 32 steps a 32-bit multiplicand would move 32 bits to the left. Hence we need a 64-bit Multiplicand register, initialized with the 32-bit multiplicand in the right half and 0 in the left half. This register is then shifted left 1 bit each step to align the multiplicand with the sum being accumulated in the 64-bit Product register. Moore’s Law has provided so much more in resources that hardware designers can now build a much faster multiplication hardware. Whether the multiplicand is to be added or not is known at the beginning of the multiplication by looking at each of the 32 multiplier bits. Faster multiplications are possible by essentially providing one 32-bit adder for each bit of the multiplier: one input is the multiplicand ANDed with a multiplier bit and the other is the output of a prior adder. · In the signed multiplication, convert the multiplier and multiplicand to positive numbers and then remember the original signs. · The algorithms should then be run for 31 iterations, leaving the signs out of the calculation · The shifting steps would need to extend the sign of the product for signed numbers. When the algorithm completes, the lower word would have the 32-bit product. Fig.2.5 Faster multiplier · Faster multiplications are possible by essentially providing one 32-bit adder for each bit of the multiplier: one input is the multiplicand ANDed with a multiplier bit, and the other is the output of a prior adder. · Connect the outputs of adders on the right to the inputs of adders on the left, making a stack of adders 32 high. · The above figure shows an alternative way to organize 32 additions in a parallel tree. Instead of waiting for 32 add times, we wait just the log2 (32) or five 32-bit add times. · Multiply can go even faster than five add times because of the use of carry save adders. · It is easy to pipeline such a design to be able to support many multiplies simultaneously Multiply in MIPS MIPS provides a separate pair of 32-bit registers to contain the 64-bit product, called Hi and Lo. To produce a properly signed or unsigned product, MIPS has two instructions: multiply (mult) and multiply unsigned (multu). To fetch the integer 32-bit product, the programmer uses move from lo (mflo). The MIPS assembler generates a pseudoinstruction for multiply that specifies three generalpurpose registers, generating mflo and mfhi instructions to place the product into registers. Booth’s Algorithm Registers and Setup • 3 n bit registers, 1 bit register logically to the right of Q (denoted as Q-1 ) • Register set up — Q register <- multiplier — Q-1 <- 0 — M register <- multiplicand — A register <- — Count <- n • Product will be 2n bits in A Q registers Booth’s Algorithm Control Logic • Bits of the multiplier are scanned one at a a time (the current bit Q0 ) • As bit is examined the bit to the right is considered also (the previous bit Q-1 ) Fig. 2.6 Booth algrithm 00: Middle of a string of 0s, so no arithmetic operation. 01: End of a string of 1s, so add the multiplicand to the left half of the product (A). 10: Beginning of a string of 1s, so subtract the multiplicand from the left half of the product (A). 11: Middle of a string of 1s, so no arithmetic operation. • Then shift A, Q, bit Q-1 right one bit using an arithmetic shift • In an arithmetic shift, the msb remains
Central angle is equal to the degree measure of its intercepted arc. for the circle at right with center c, is a central angle. an inscribed angle is an angle with its vertex on the circle and whose sides intersect the circle. the arc formed by the intersection of the two sides of the angle and the circle is called an intercepted arc. is an inscribed angle, by software geometry central and inscribed angles name id date period n ililccf.j q prnepsveorbvlerdo.find the measure of the arc or central angle Worksheet by software honors math central and inscribed angles x flhlkcx. 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Apr, s worksheet by software software infinite geometry name arcs and central angles date period name the arc made by the given angle. this worksheet covers central and inscribed angles in on a circle. while their problems are different t.Inscribed angles and central angles this worksheet will help you explore the relationship between inscribed angles and their corresponding central angles. 2. Geometry Circle Theorems Arcs Angles Puzzle Worksheet Worksheets Lets have an inscribed angle that looks like this. so this situation, the center, you can kind of view it as its inside of the angle. my inscribed angle. and i want to find a relationship between this inscribed angle and the central angle subtending to same arc. 3. 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Engaging Teach Central Angle Inscribed Intercepted Arc Circle Theorems Math Geometry Studying Inscribed angles inscribed angles are angles whose vertices are on a circle and that intersect an arc on the circle. the measure of an inscribed angle is half of the measure of the intercepted arc and half the measure of.Inscribed angles. an inscribed angle in a circle is formed by two chords that have a common end point on the circle. 10. Geometry Central Angles Interior Exterior Secant Tangent Lesson Plans Teaching This common end point is the vertex of the angle. here, the circle with center o has the inscribed angle a b c. the other end points than the vertex, a and c Inscribed angles date period state if each angle is an inscribed angle. if it is, name the angle and the intercepted arc. 11. 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High School Special Education Math Teacher Blog Ideas Resources Secondary Ma Finding missing angles using angles in a circle theorem. use the diagrams to complete the sentences following each one. is an inscribed angle subtended by arc. the central angle subtended by the same arc is. therefore, the measurement of is. rot is a central angle Inscribed angles date period state if each angle is an inscribed angle. 18. Inscribed Angle Circle Theorems Math Central and inscribed angles answer key download central and inscribed angles answer download download this nice and read the central and inscribed angles answer key.you will not find this anywhere online. look at any books now and should you not have a lot of geometry video tutorial goes deeper into circles and angle measures. 19. Inscribed Angles Circle Discovery Angle Activities Quadrilaterals Lessons Angles in a circle worksheet worksheets for all from central angles and inscribed angles worksheet answer key source. a b c k l m x v w l m k find the measure of the arc or angle indicated. probably would have been good to add that in the directions. 20. Inscribed Angles Circles Partner Worksheet Teaching Math Word Problem Worksheets Central angles angles with the vertex located at the center of the circle.the measure of the central angle is the same as the measure of the arc it intercepts. for example if the measure of the central angle is, then the measure of the intercepted arc is also. 21. Inscribed Angles Math Lib Activity Distance Learning Work Inscribed angles angles with the vertex located on the circumference of the circle. the measure of the inscribed angle is half.Finding missing angle and arc measures in problems involving central and inscribed angles. worksheet. worksheet key. worksheet. 22. 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Practice Angles Circles Central Inscribed Geometry High School Junior S. locations.Oct, kinetic vs. potential energy worksheet. name period date unit energy kinetic versus potential energy practice part this graph shows a ball rolling from a to g. which letter shows the ball when it has the maximum kinetic Temperature, rate and potential energy diagrams worksheet answers. 27. Circles Guided Notes Worksheets High School Geometry Math Activities Secondary The circle is then called a circumscribed circle. how could you use the arc formed by those chords to determine the measure of the angle those.Some of the worksheets displayed are arcs and central angles, assignment, to, name block geometry work date, find the length of the segment round your, inscribed and central angles in a circle, arcs and central angles, angles arcs and segments in circles polygons and circles g. 28. Valentine Color Number Circle Geometry Inscribed Angles Math Online 29. Circles Central Inscribed Angles Shading Design 6 Pages Solving Equations Literal R and diameter radius to include the concepts of central angles, arcs, and inscribed angles. a central angle is any angle between two radii of the circle where the vertex of the angle is the center point of the circle. the arc is the distance along the spanned by the central angle. 30. Circles Central Inscribed Angles Quiz Secondary Math Teaching Each vertex is an angle whose legs intersect the circle at the adjacent vertices.the measurement in degrees of an angle like this is equal to one half the measurement in degrees of the. inscribed angles and intercepted arcs an.Angle cab in the figure below. theorem an inscribed angle is half the measure of the central angle intercepting the same arc. angle angle angle angle two or more inscribed angles intercepting the same arc are equal. angle angle. problem in the figure below chord ca has a length of cm. 31. Add Central Inscribed Angles Math Angle Activities Secondary Classroom Types of.Inscribed angles date period state if each angle is an inscribed angle. if it is, name the angle and the intercepted arc. a b c k l m x v w l m k find the measure of the arc or angle indicated. a b c v w x f e d p d c b Before we begin, lets state a few important theorems. theorem if two angles inscribed in a circle intercept the same arc, then they are equal to each other. theorem if an angle inside a circle intercepts a diameter, then the angle has a measure of. now lets use these theorems to find the values of some angles example find the measure of the angle indicated. 32. Angles Circle Worksheet Lovely 2 Measuring Arcs Answers Math Theorems Teaching Geometry In terms of angles as rotations, concept finding the trig values of points on unit circle examples if, y are the coordinates of any point on the unit circle, and is the angle of rotation from the to point p, then moderate set requires rounding answers to tenth place with the radius of circles ranging between and. in the hard worksheets, the radius is rendered in decimal and the task is to round your answers to two decimal places. use pi. wherever necessary. explore some of these worksheets for, worksheets answers to odd problems textbook assignments chapter systems of equations and inequalities. 33. 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Angles Formed Secants Tangents Math Teaching Geometry Courses Methods View full document. inscribed and central angles in a circle mathwarehouse.com all rights reserved commercial use prohibited teachers feel free to make copies of this worksheet Inscribed angle theorem the measure of an inscribed angle is equal to the measure of the intercepted arc. y z inscribed angle intercepted arc. the measure of an inscribed angle is equal to the measure of the intercepted arc. x y q r p s t find the value of x and y in the figure.Circles central and inscribed angles worksheet this worksheet covers the concepts central and inscribed angles in circles. 35. Applet Illustrates Inscribed Angles Subtended Arc Congruent Math Geometry Formulas Apps Students are given multiple situations and types of central and inscribed angles. when they find their answer, they look in the solution angles. worksheets are inscribed angles date period,,, inscribed and central angles in a circle, inscribed angles and polygons, chapter section inscribed angles, secant tangent and tangent tangent angles, inscribed and circumscribed quadrilaterals. click on icon or print icon to worksheet to print or download.An inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex lies on the circle and whose sides contain chords of a circle. h angle is an inscribed angle. before we start, lets look at two theorems. theorem in the same or congruent circles, if two central angles are congruent, their arcs are congruent. 36. 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Arcs Angles Graphic Organizer Finding Unknown Arc Angle Measures Based Geometry High School Teaching Math Teacher Name a c date b d b d b d period mathworksheet.org c a c a c b d b d b d e c a c Central angles and inscribed angles worksheet answer key angles in a circle worksheet worksheets for all from. since the interior angles of a regular polygon are all the same size, the exterior angles must also be equal to one another. responsible for accurately drawing two polygons on separate sheets of paper.Test and worksheet generators for math teachers. all worksheets created with infinite geometry. worksheets. arcs and central angles arcs and chords circumference and area inscribed angles tangents to circles secant angles and angles segment help measurement and geometry properties of polygons and circles angle measure, central angles, and inscribed angles example question properties of polygons and circles a quadrilateral is shown, and the angle measures of interior angles are given. 38. Arcs Central Angles Worksheet This central and inscribed angles worksheet is suitable for grade. in this central and inscribed angles worksheet, graders identify and solve different problems that include determining inscribed angles and intercepted arcs. first, they determine the measure of point p if the given angles Central angles and inscribed angles worksheet answer key. additionally, if all the vertices of a polygon lie on a circle, then the polygon is inscribed in the circle, and inscribed quadrilateral theorem. the circle is then called a circumscribed circle. how could you use the arc formed by those chords to determine the measure of the angle those. 39. 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Center Angle Arc Length Circles Partner Paper Fun Math Super Teacher Lesson In the case of a pentagon, the interior angles have a measure of . therefore, each inscribed angle creates an arc of use the inscribed angle formula and the formula for the angle of a tangent and a secant to arrive at the worksheet at httpswww.kutasoftware. comfreeige.htmlgo to httpsmaemap.commathgeometry for more geometry support me. Central angles worksheet solve for x. assume that lines which appear to be diameters are actual diameters. find the measure of the arc or central angle indicated. assume that lines which appear to be diameters are actual diameters. 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Proportions (Step 2) - Step 2. Collect Data, Check Conditions, and Summarizing the Data - The Four Steps in Hypothesis Testing After the hypotheses have been stated, the next step is to obtain a sample (on which the inference will be based), collect relevant data, and summarize them. It is extremely important that our sample is representative of the population about which we want to draw conclusions. This is ensured when the sample is chosen at random. Beyond the practical issue of ensuring representativeness, choosing a random sample has theoretical importance that we will mention later. In the case of hypothesis testing for the population proportion (p), we will collect data on the relevant categorical variable from the individuals in the sample and start by calculating the sample proportion p-hat (the natural quantity to calculate when the parameter of interest is p). Let’s go back to our three examples and add this step to our figures. As we mentioned earlier without going into details, when we summarize the data in hypothesis testing, we go a step beyond calculating the sample statistic and summarize the data with a test statistic. Every test has a test statistic, which to some degree captures the essence of the test. In fact, the p-value, which so far we have looked upon as “the king” (in the sense that everything is determined by it), is actually determined by (or derived from) the test statistic. We will now introduce the test statistic. The test statistic is a measure of how far the sample proportion p-hat is from the null value p0, the value that the null hypothesis claims is the value of p. In other words, since p-hat is what the data estimates p to be, the test statistic can be viewed as a measure of the “distance” between what the data tells us about p and what the null hypothesis claims p to be. Let’s use our examples to understand this: The problem with looking only at the difference between the sample proportion, p-hat, and the null value, p0 is that we have not taken into account the variability of our estimator p-hat which, as we know from our study of sampling distributions, depends on the sample size. For this reason, the test statistic cannot simply be the difference between p-hat and p0, but must be some form of that formula that accounts for the sample size. In other words, we need to somehow standardize the difference so that comparison between different situations will be possible. We are very close to revealing the test statistic, but before we construct it, let’s be reminded of the following two facts from probability: Fact 1: When we take a random sample of size n from a population with population proportion p, then Fact 2: The z-score of any normal value (a value that comes from a normal distribution) is calculated by finding the difference between the value and the mean and then dividing that difference by the standard deviation (of the normal distribution associated with the value). The z-score represents how many standard deviations below or above the mean the value is. Thus, our test statistic should be a measure of how far the sample proportion p-hat is from the null value p0 relative to the variation of p-hat (as measured by the standard error of p-hat). Recall that the standard error is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution for a given statistic. For p-hat, we know the following: To find the p-value, we will need to determine how surprising our value is assuming the null hypothesis is true. We already have the tools needed for this process from our study of sampling distributions as represented in the table above. Hopefully you now understand more about the reasons we need probability in statistics!! Now we will formalize the definition and look at our remaining examples before moving on to the next step, which will be to determine if a normal distribution applies and calculate the p-value. It represents the difference between the sample proportion and the null value, measured in standard deviations (standard error of p-hat). The picture above is a representation of the sampling distribution of p-hat assuming p = p0. In other words, this is a model of how p-hat behaves if we are drawing random samples from a population for which Ho is true. Notice the center of the sampling distribution is at p0, which is the hypothesized proportion given in the null hypothesis (Ho: p = p0.) We could also mark the axis in standard error units, For example, if our null hypothesis claims that the proportion of U.S. adults supporting the death penalty is 0.64, then the sampling distribution is drawn as if the null is true. We draw a normal distribution centered at 0.64 (p0) with a standard error dependent on sample size, - Note that under the assumption that Ho is true (and if the conditions for the sampling distribution to be normal are satisfied) the test statistic follows a N(0,1) (standard normal) distribution. Another way to say the same thing which is quite common is: “The null distribution of the test statistic is N(0,1).” By “null distribution,” we mean the distribution under the assumption that Ho is true. As we’ll see and stress again later, the null distribution of the test statistic is what the calculation of the p-value is based on. Let’s go back to our remaining two examples and find the test statistic in each case: Comments about the Test Statistic: - We mentioned earlier that to some degree, the test statistic captures the essence of the test. In this case, the test statistic measures the difference between p-hat and p0 in standard errors. This is exactly what this test is about. Get data, and look at the discrepancy between what the data estimates p to be (represented by p-hat) and what Ho claims about p (represented by p0). - You can think about this test statistic as a measure of evidence in the data against Ho. The larger the test statistic, the “further the data are from Ho” and therefore the more evidence the data provide against Ho. - It should now be clear why this test is commonly known as the z-test for the population proportion. The name comes from the fact that it is based on a test statistic that is a z-score. - Recall fact 1 that we used for constructing the z-test statistic. Here is part of it again: When we take a random sample of size n from a population with population proportion p0, the possible values of the sample proportion p-hat (when certain conditions are met) have approximately a normal distribution with a mean of p0… and a standard deviation of This result provides the theoretical justification for constructing the test statistic the way we did, and therefore the assumptions under which this result holds (in bold, above) are the conditions that our data need to satisfy so that we can use this test. These two conditions are: i. The sample has to be random. ii. The conditions under which the sampling distribution of p-hat is normal are met. In other words: - Here we will pause to say more about condition (i.) above, the need for a random sample. In the Probability Unit we discussed sampling plans based on probability (such as a simple random sample, cluster, or stratified sampling) that produce a non-biased sample, which can be safely used in order to make inferences about a population. We noted in the Probability Unit that, in practice, other (non-random) sampling techniques are sometimes used when random sampling is not feasible. It is important though, when these techniques are used, to be aware of the type of bias that they introduce, and thus the limitations of the conclusions that can be drawn from them. For our purpose here, we will focus on one such practice, the situation in which a sample is not really chosen randomly, but in the context of the categorical variable that is being studied, the sample is regarded as random. For example, say that you are interested in the proportion of students at a certain college who suffer from seasonal allergies. For that purpose, the students in a large engineering class could be considered as a random sample, since there is nothing about being in an engineering class that makes you more or less likely to suffer from seasonal allergies. Technically, the engineering class is a convenience sample, but it is treated as a random sample in the context of this categorical variable. On the other hand, if you are interested in the proportion of students in the college who have math anxiety, then the class of engineering students clearly could not possibly be viewed as a random sample, since engineering students probably have a much lower incidence of math anxiety than the college population overall. Let’s check the conditions in our three examples. Checking that our data satisfy the conditions under which the test can be reliably used is a very important part of the hypothesis testing process. Be sure to consider this for every hypothesis test you conduct in this course and certainly in practice. - STEP 1: State the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses, Ho and Ha. - STEP 2: Obtain a random sample, collect relevant data, and check whether the data meet the conditions under which the test can be used. If the conditions are met, summarize the data using a test statistic. - STEP 3: Find the p-value of the test. - STEP 4: Based on the p-value, decide whether or not the results are statistically significant and draw your conclusions in context. - Note: In practice, we should always consider the practical significance of the results as well as the statistical significance. With respect to the z-test, the population proportion that we are currently discussing we have: Step 1: Completed Step 2: Completed Step 3: This is what we will work on next.
The Neolithic Revolution, Neolithic Demographic Transition, Agricultural Revolution, or First Agricultural Revolution was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures during the Neolithic period from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making an increasingly larger population possible. These settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants to learn how they grew and developed. This new knowledge led to the domestication of plants. Archaeological data indicates that the domestication of various types of plants and animals happened in separate locations worldwide, starting in the geological epoch of the Holocene around 12,500 years ago. It was the world's first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution greatly narrowed the diversity of foods available, resulting in a downturn in the quality of human nutrition. The Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food-producing techniques. During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (non-nomadic) societies based in built-up villages and towns. These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation, with activities such as irrigation and deforestation which allowed the production of surplus food. Other developments found very widely are the domestication of animals, pottery, polished stone tools, and rectangular houses. These developments, sometimes called the Neolithic package, provided the basis for centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g. writing), densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, more trade, the development of non-portable art and architecture, and property ownership. The earliest known civilization developed in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (c. 6,500 BP); its emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age. The relationship of the above-mentioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture, their sequence of emergence, and empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate, and varies from place to place, rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution. The Levant saw the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE, followed by sites in the wider Fertile Crescent. - 1 Agricultural transition - 2 Early harvesting of cereals (23,000 BP) - 3 Domestication of plants - 4 Development and diffusion - 5 Domestication of animals - 6 Consequences - 7 Archaeogenetics - 8 Comparative chronology - 9 See also - 10 References - 11 Bibliography - 12 External links The term Neolithic Revolution was coined in 1923 by V. Gordon Childe to describe the first in a series of agricultural revolutions in Middle Eastern history. The period is described as a "revolution" to denote its importance, and the great significance and degree of change affecting the communities in which new agricultural practices were gradually adopted and refined. The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent and perhaps 8000 BCE in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Melanesia. This transition everywhere seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter-gatherer way of life to a more settled, agrarian-based one, with the inception of the domestication of various plant and animal species—depending on the species locally available, and probably also influenced by local culture. Recent archaeological research suggests that in some regions such as the Southeast Asian peninsula, the transition from hunter-gatherer to agriculturalist was not linear, but region-specific. There are several competing (but not mutually exclusive) theories as to the factors that drove populations to take up agriculture. The most prominent of these are: - The Oasis Theory, originally proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, popularized by V. Gordon Childe in 1928 and summarised in Childe's book Man Makes Himself. This theory maintains that as the climate got drier due to the Atlantic depressions shifting northward, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals, which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. However, today this theory has little support amongst archaeologists because subsequent climate data suggests that the region was getting wetter rather than drier. - The Hilly Flanks hypothesis, proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948, suggests that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros mountains, where the climate was not drier as Childe had believed, and fertile land supported a variety of plants and animals amenable to domestication. - The Feasting model by Brian Hayden suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power, such as giving feasts, to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food, which drove agricultural technology. - The Demographic theories proposed by Carl Sauer and adapted by Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery posit an increasingly sedentary population that expanded up to the carrying capacity of the local environment and required more food than could be gathered. Various social and economic factors helped drive the need for food. - The evolutionary/intentionality theory, developed by David Rindos and others, views agriculture as an evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, it led to specialization of location and then full-fledged domestication. - Peter Richerson, Robert Boyd, and Robert Bettinger make a case for the development of agriculture coinciding with an increasingly stable climate at the beginning of the Holocene. Ronald Wright's book and Massey Lecture Series A Short History of Progress popularized this hypothesis. - The postulated Younger Dryas impact event, claimed to be in part responsible for megafauna extinction and ending the last glacial period, could have provided circumstances that required the evolution of agricultural societies for humanity to survive. The agrarian revolution itself is a reflection of typical overpopulation by certain species following initial events during extinction eras; this overpopulation itself ultimately propagates the extinction event. - Leonid Grinin argues that whatever plants were cultivated, the independent invention of agriculture always took place in special natural environments (e.g., South-East Asia). It is supposed that the cultivation of cereals started somewhere in the Near East: in the hills of Palestine or Egypt. So Grinin dates the beginning of the agricultural revolution within the interval 12,000 to 9,000 BP, though in some cases the first cultivated plants or domesticated animals' bones are even of a more ancient age of 14–15 thousand years ago. - Andrew Moore suggested that the Neolithic Revolution originated over long periods of development in the Levant, possibly beginning during the Epipaleolithic. In "A Reassessment of the Neolithic Revolution", Frank Hole further expanded the relationship between plant and animal domestication. He suggested the events could have occurred independently over different periods of time, in as yet unexplored locations. He noted that no transition site had been found documenting the shift from what he termed immediate and delayed return social systems. He noted that the full range of domesticated animals (goats, sheep, cattle and pigs) were not found until the sixth millennium at Tell Ramad. Hole concluded that "close attention should be paid in future investigations to the western margins of the Euphrates basin, perhaps as far south as the Arabian Peninsula, especially where wadis carrying Pleistocene rainfall runoff flowed." Early harvesting of cereals (23,000 BP) Use-wear analysis of five glossed flint blades found at Ohalo II, a 23,000-years-old fisher-hunter-gatherers’ camp on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Northern Israel, provides the earliest evidence for the use of composite cereal harvesting tools. The Ohalo site is at the junction of the Upper Paleolithic and the Early Epipaleolithic, and has been attributed to both periods. The wear traces indicate that tools were used for harvesting near-ripe semi-green wild cereals, shortly before grains are ripe and disperse naturally. The studied tools were not used intensively, and they reflect two harvesting modes: flint knives held by hand and inserts hafted in a handle. The finds shed new light on cereal harvesting techniques some 8,000 years before the Natufian and 12,000 years before the establishment of sedentary farming communities in the Near East. Furthermore, the new finds accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site and the use of stone-made grinding implements. Domestication of plants Once agriculture started gaining momentum, around 9000 BCE, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that would favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds. Plants with traits such as small seeds or bitter taste would have been seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following season; successive years of harvesting spontaneously selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer. Daniel Zohary identified several plant species as "pioneer crops" or Neolithic founder crops. He highlighted the importance of wheat, barley and rye, and suggested that domestication of flax, peas, chickpeas, bitter vetch and lentils came a little later. Based on analysis of the genes of domesticated plants, he preferred theories of a single, or at most a very small number of domestication events for each taxon that spread in an arc from the Levantine corridor around the Fertile Crescent and later into Europe. Gordon Hillman and Stuart Davies carried out experiments with varieties of wild wheat to show that the process of domestication would have occurred over a relatively short period of between 20 and 200 years. Some of the pioneering attempts failed at first and crops were abandoned, sometimes to be taken up again and successfully domesticated thousands of years later: rye, tried and abandoned in Neolithic Anatolia, made its way to Europe as weed seeds and was successfully domesticated in Europe, thousands of years after the earliest agriculture. Wild lentils presented a different problem: most of the wild seeds do not germinate in the first year; the first evidence of lentil domestication, breaking dormancy in their first year, appears in the early Neolithic at Jerf el Ahmar (in modern Syria), and lentils quickly spread south to the Netiv HaGdud site in the Jordan Valley. The process of domestication allowed the founder crops to adapt and eventually become larger, more easily harvested, more dependable[clarification needed] in storage and more useful to the human population. Selectively propagated figs, wild barley and wild oats were cultivated at the early Neolithic site of Gilgal I, where in 2006 archaeologists found caches of seeds of each in quantities too large to be accounted for even by intensive gathering, at strata datable to c. 11,000 years ago. Some of the plants tried and then abandoned during the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East, at sites like Gilgal, were later successfully domesticated in other parts of the world. Once early farmers perfected their agricultural techniques like irrigation (traced as far back as the 6th millennium BCE in Khuzistan), their crops would yield surpluses that needed storage. Most hunter-gatherers could not easily store food for long due to their migratory lifestyle, whereas those with a sedentary dwelling could store their surplus grain. Eventually granaries were developed that allowed villages to store their seeds longer. So with more food, the population expanded and communities developed specialized workers and more advanced tools. The process was not as linear as was once thought, but a more complicated effort, which was undertaken by different human populations in different regions in many different ways. Spread of crops: the case of barley One of the world’s most important crops, barley, was domesticated in the Near East around 11,000 years ago (circa 9,000 BCE). Barley is a highly resilient crop, able to grown in varied and marginal environments, such as in regions of high altitude and latitude. Archaeobotanical evidence shows that barley had spread throughout Eurasia by 2,000 BCE. To further elucidate the routes by which barley cultivation was spread through Eurasia, genetic analysis was used to determine genetic diversity and population structure in extant barley taxa. Genetic analysis shows that cultivated barley spread through Eurasia via several different routes, which were most likely separated in both time and space. Development and diffusion Beginnings in the Levant The site of Gesher in modern Israel is the earliest known Neolithic site according to calibrated Carbon 14 datation, at 10,459 BCE ± 348 years. This suggests that Gesher may have been the center of a Neolithic revolution, from which the new technology then spread. Agriculture appeared first in Southwest Asia about 2,000 years later, around 10,000–9,000 years ago. The region was the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley), four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea), and flax. Domestication was a slow process that unfolded across multiple regions, and was preceded by centuries if not millennia of pre-domestication cultivation. Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the Epipalaeolithic site of Ohalo II, dating to around 19,400 BP, has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plants for food consumption and suggests that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption. Tell Aswad is the oldest site of agriculture, with domesticated emmer wheat dated to 10,800 BP. Soon after came hulled, two-row barley - found domesticated earliest at Jericho in the Jordan valley and at Iraq ed-Dubb in Jordan. Other sites in the Levantine corridor that show early evidence of agriculture include Wadi Faynan 16 and Netiv Hagdud. Jacques Cauvin noted that the settlers of Aswad did not domesticate on site, but "arrived, perhaps from the neighbouring Anti-Lebanon, already equipped with the seed for planting". In the Eastern Fertile Crescent, evidence of cultivation of wild plants has been found in Choga Gholan in Iran dated to 12,000 BP, suggesting there were multiple regions in the Fertile Crescent where domestication evolved roughly contemporaneously. The Heavy Neolithic Qaraoun culture has been identified at around fifty sites in Lebanon around the source springs of the River Jordan, but never reliably dated. Archeologists trace the emergence of food-producing societies in the Levantine region of southwest Asia at the close of the last glacial period around 12,000 BCE, and developed into a number of regionally distinctive cultures by the eighth millennium BCE. Remains of food-producing societies in the Aegean have been carbon-dated to around 6500 BCE at Knossos, Franchthi Cave, and a number of mainland sites in Thessaly. Neolithic groups appear soon afterwards in the Balkans and south-central Europe. The Neolithic cultures of southeastern Europe (the Balkans and the Aegean) show some continuity with groups in southwest Asia and Anatolia (e.g., Çatalhöyük). Current evidence suggests that Neolithic material culture was introduced to Europe via western Anatolia. All Neolithic sites in Europe contain ceramics, and contain the plants and animals domesticated in Southwest Asia: einkorn, emmer, barley, lentils, pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle. Genetic data suggest that no independent domestication of animals took place in Neolithic Europe, and that all domesticated animals were originally domesticated in Southwest Asia. The only domesticate not from Southwest Asia was broomcorn millet, domesticated in East Asia.The earliest evidence of cheese-making dates to 5500 BCE in Kujawy, Poland. The diffusion across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about 2,500 years (6500 BCE - 4000 BCE). The Baltic region was penetrated a bit later, around 3500 BCE, and there was also a delay in settling the Pannonian plain. In general, colonization shows a "saltatory" pattern, as the Neolithic advanced from one patch of fertile alluvial soil to another, bypassing mountainous areas. Analysis of radiocarbon dates show clearly that Mesolithic and Neolithic populations lived side by side for as much as a millennium in many parts of Europe, especially in the Iberian peninsula and along the Atlantic coast. Carbon 14 evidence The spread of the Neolithic from the Near East Neolithic to Europe was first studied quantitatively in the 1970s, when a sufficient number of Carbon 14 age determinations for early Neolithic sites had become available. Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza discovered a linear relationship between the age of an Early Neolithic site and its distance from the conventional source in the Near East (Jericho), thus demonstrating that, on average, the Neolithic spread at a constant speed of about 1 km/yr. More recent studies confirm these results and yield the speed of 0.6–1.3 km/yr at 95% confidence level. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA Since the original human expansions out of Africa 200,000 years ago, different prehistoric and historic migration events have taken place in Europe. Considering that the movement of the people implies a consequent movement of their genes, it is possible to estimate the impact of these migrations through the genetic analysis of human populations. Agricultural and husbandry practices originated 10,000 years ago in a region of the Near East known as the Fertile Crescent. According to the archaeological record this phenomenon, known as “Neolithic”, rapidly expanded from these territories into Europe. However, whether this diffusion was accompanied or not by human migrations is greatly debated. Mitochondrial DNA –a type of maternally inherited DNA located in the cell cytoplasm- was recovered from the remains of Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farmers in the Near East and then compared to available data from other Neolithic populations in Europe and also to modern populations from South Eastern Europe and the Near East. The obtained results show that substantial human migrations were involved in the Neolithic spread and suggest that the first Neolithic farmers entered Europe following a maritime route through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands. The earliest Neolithic sites in South Asia are Bhirrana in Haryana dated to 7570-6200 BC, and Mehrgarh, dated to between 6500 and 5500 BC, in the Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan; the site has evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats). There is strong evidence for causal connections between the Near-Eastern Neolithic and that further east, up to the Indus Valley. There are several lines of evidence that support the idea of connection between the Neolithic in the Near East and in the Indian subcontinent. The prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (modern Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site in the north-west Indian subcontinent, dated as early as 8500 BCE. Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than barley and a small amount of wheat. There is good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh, but the wheat varieties are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey. A detailed satellite map study of a few archaeological sites in the Baluchistan and Khybar Pakhtunkhwa regions also suggests similarities in early phases of farming with sites in Western Asia. Pottery prepared by sequential slab construction, circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles, and large granaries are common to both Mehrgarh and many Mesopotamian sites. The postures of the skeletal remains in graves at Mehrgarh bear strong resemblance to those at Ali Kosh in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran. Despite their scarcity, the 14C and archaeological age determinations for early Neolithic sites in Southern Asia exhibit remarkable continuity across the vast region from the Near East to the Indian Subcontinent, consistent with a systematic eastward spread at a speed of about 0.65 km/yr. In South India, the Neolithic began by 6500 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ash mounds[clarification needed] from 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. In East Asia The first agricultural center in northern China is believed to be the homelands of the early Sino-Tibetan-speakers, associated with the Houli, Peiligang, Cishan, and Xinglongwa cultures, clustered around the Yellow River basin. It was the domestication center for foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) with evidence of domestication of these species approximately 8,000 years ago. These species were subsequently widely cultivated in the Yellow River basin (7,500 years ago). Soybean was also domesticated in northern China 4,500 years ago. Orange and peach also originated in China. They were cultivated around 2500 BC. The second agricultural center in southern China are associated with the ancestors of modern Southeast Asians and clustered around the Yangtze River basin. Rice was domesticated in this region, together with the development of paddy field cultivation, between 13,500 to 8,200 years ago. There are two possible centers of domestication for rice. The first, and most likely, is in the lower Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of early Austronesian speakers and associated with the Kauhuqiao, Hemudu, Majiabang, and Songze cultures. It is characterized by typical Austronesian innovations, including stilt houses, jade carving, and boat technologies. Their diet were also supplemented by acorns, water chestnuts, foxnuts, and pig domestication. The second is in the middle Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the early Hmong-Mien-speakers and associated with the Pengtoushan and Daxi cultures. Both of these regions were heavily populated and had regular trade contacts with each other, as well as with early Austroasiatic speakers to the west, and early Kra-Dai speakers to the south, facilitating the spread of rice cultivation throughout southern China. The millet and rice-farming cultures also first came into contact with each other at around 9,000 to 7,000 BP, resulting in a corridor between the millet and rice cultivation centers where both rice and millet were cultivated. At around 5,500 to 4,000 BP, there was increasing migration into Taiwan from the early Austronesian Dapenkeng culture, bringing rice and millet cultivation technology with them. During this period, there is evidence of large settlements and intensive rice cultivation in Taiwan and the Penghu Islands, which may have resulted in overexploitation. Bellwood (2011) proposes that this may have been the impetus of the Austronesian expansion which started with the migration of the Austronesian-speakers from Taiwan to the Philippines at around 5,000 BP. Austronesians carried rice cultivation technology to Island Southeast Asia along with other domesticated species. The new tropical island environments also had new food plants that they exploited. They carried useful plants an animals during each colonization voyage, resulting in the rapid introduction of domesticated and semi-domesticated species throughout Oceania. They also came into contact with the early agricultural centers of Papuan-speaking populations of New Guinea as well as the Dravidian-speaking regions of South India and Sri Lanka by around 3,500 BP. They acquired further cultivated food plants like bananas and peppers from them, and in turn introduced Austronesian technologies like wetland cultivation and outrigger canoes. During the 1st millennium AD, they also colonized Madagascar and the Comoros, bringing Southeast Asian food plants, including rice, to East Africa. On the African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel and West Africa. By contrast, Agriculture in the Nile River Valley is thought to have developed from the original Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent. Many grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been found of a neolithic domesticated crop-based economy dating around 7,000 BP. Unlike the Middle East, this evidence appears as a "false dawn" to agriculture, as the sites were later abandoned, and permanent farming then was delayed until 6,500 BP with the Tasian and Badarian cultures and the arrival of crops and animals from the Near East. Bananas and plantains, which were first domesticated in Southeast Asia, most likely Papua New Guinea, were re-domesticated in Africa possibly as early as 5,000 years ago. Asian yams and taro were also cultivated in Africa. The most famous crop domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands is coffee. In addition, khat, ensete, noog, teff and finger millet were also domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands. Crops domesticated in the Sahel region include sorghum and pearl millet. The kola nut was first domesticated in West Africa. Other crops domesticated in West Africa include African rice, yams and the oil palm. Agriculture spread to Central and Southern Africa in the Bantu expansion during the 1st millennium BC to 1st millennium AD. In the Americas Maize (corn), beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica, with maize beginning about 4000 BC, squash as early as 6000 BC, and beans by no later than 4000 BC. Potatoes and manioc were domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower, sumpweed and goosefoot around 2500 BC. Sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the second millennium BC, referred to as the formative period. In New Guinea Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea shows evidence of the cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops, dating back to 11,000 BP. Two potentially significant economic species, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea sp.), have been identified dating at least to 10,200 calibrated years before present (cal BP). Further evidence of bananas and sugarcane dates to 6,950 to 6,440 BP. This was at the altitudinal limits of these crops, and it has been suggested that cultivation in more favourable ranges in the lowlands may have been even earlier. CSIRO has found evidence that taro was introduced into the Solomon Islands for human use, from 28,000 years ago, making taro cultivation the earliest crop in the world. It seems to have resulted in the spread of the Trans–New Guinea languages from New Guinea east into the Solomon Islands and west into Timor and adjacent areas of Indonesia. This seems to confirm the theories of Carl Sauer who, in "Agricultural Origins and Dispersals", suggested as early as 1952 that this region was a centre of early agriculture. Domestication of animals When hunter-gathering began to be replaced by sedentary food production it became more profitable to keep animals close at hand. Therefore, it became necessary to bring animals permanently to their settlements, although in many cases there was a distinction between relatively sedentary farmers and nomadic herders.[original research?] The animals' size, temperament, diet, mating patterns, and life span were factors in the desire and success in domesticating animals. Animals that provided milk, such as cows and goats, offered a source of protein that was renewable and therefore quite valuable. The animal’s ability as a worker (for example ploughing or towing), as well as a food source, also had to be taken into account. Besides being a direct source of food, certain animals could provide leather, wool, hides, and fertilizer. Some of the earliest domesticated animals included dogs (East Asia, about 15,000 years ago), sheep, goats, cows, and pigs. Domestication of animals in the Middle East The Middle East served as the source for many animals that could be domesticated, such as sheep, goats and pigs. This area was also the first region to domesticate the dromedary. Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds. He dated this industry to the Epipaleolithic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic as it is evidently not Paleolithic, Mesolithic or even Pottery Neolithic. The presence of these animals gave the region a large advantage in cultural and economic development. As the climate in the Middle East changed and became drier, many of the farmers were forced to leave, taking their domesticated animals with them. It was this massive emigration from the Middle East that would later help distribute these animals to the rest of Afroeurasia. This emigration was mainly on an east-west axis of similar climates, as crops usually have a narrow optimal climatic range outside of which they cannot grow for reasons of light or rain changes. For instance, wheat does not normally grow in tropical climates, just like tropical crops such as bananas do not grow in colder climates. Some authors, like Jared Diamond, have postulated that this East-West axis is the main reason why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North Africa, while it did not reach through the North-South axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South Africa, where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years. Similarly, the African Zebu of central Africa and the domesticated bovines of the fertile-crescent — separated by the dry sahara desert — were not introduced into each other's region. Despite the significant technological advance, the Neolithic revolution did not lead immediately to a rapid growth of population. Its benefits appear to have been offset by various adverse effects, mostly diseases and warfare. The introduction of agriculture has not necessarily led to unequivocal progress. The nutritional standards of the growing Neolithic populations were inferior to that of hunter-gatherers. Several ethnological and archaeological studies conclude that the transition to cereal-based diets caused a reduction in life expectancy and stature, an increase in infant mortality and infectious diseases, the development of chronic, inflammatory or degenerative diseases (such as obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases) and multiple nutritional deficiencies, including vitamin deficiencies, iron deficiency anemia and mineral disorders affecting bones (such as osteoporosis and rickets) and teeth. Average height went down from 5'10" (178 cm) for men and 5'6" (168 cm) for women to 5'5" (165 cm) and 5'1" (155 cm), respectively, and it took until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels. The traditional view is that agricultural food production supported a denser population, which in turn supported larger sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and specialization in diverse forms of new labor. The development of larger societies led to the development of different means of decision making and to governmental organization. Food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated their communities by other means and monopolized decision-making. Jared Diamond (in The World Until Yesterday) identifies the availability of milk and cereal grains as permitting mothers to raise both an older (e.g. 3 or 4 year old) and a younger child concurrently. The result is that a population can increase more rapidly. Diamond, in agreement with feminist scholars such as V. Spike Peterson, points out that agriculture brought about deep social divisions and encouraged gender inequality. Andrew Sherratt has argued that following upon the Neolithic Revolution was a second phase of discovery that he refers to as the secondary products revolution. Animals, it appears, were first domesticated purely as a source of meat. The Secondary Products Revolution occurred when it was recognised that animals also provided a number of other useful products. These included: - hides and skins (from undomesticated animals) - manure for soil conditioning (from all domesticated animals) - wool (from sheep, llamas, alpacas, and Angora goats) - milk (from goats, cattle, yaks, sheep, horses, and camels) - traction (from oxen, onagers, donkeys, horses, camels, and dogs) - guarding and herding assistance (dogs) Sherratt argued that this phase in agricultural development enabled humans to make use of the energy possibilities of their animals in new ways, and permitted permanent intensive subsistence farming and crop production, and the opening up of heavier soils for farming. It also made possible nomadic pastoralism in semi arid areas, along the margins of deserts, and eventually led to the domestication of both the dromedary and Bactrian camel. Overgrazing of these areas, particularly by herds of goats, greatly extended the areal extent of deserts. Living in one spot would have more easily permitted the accrual of personal possessions and an attachment to certain areas of land. From such a position, it is argued[by whom?], prehistoric people were able to stockpile food to survive lean times and trade unwanted surpluses with others. Once trade and a secure food supply were established, populations could grow, and society would have diversified into food producers and artisans, who could afford to develop their trade by virtue of the free time they enjoyed because of a surplus of food. The artisans, in turn, were able to develop technology such as metal weapons. Such relative complexity would have required some form of social organisation to work efficiently, so it is likely that populations that had such organisation, perhaps such as that provided by religion, were better prepared and more successful. In addition, the denser populations could form and support legions of professional soldiers. Also, during this time property ownership became increasingly important to all people. Ultimately, Childe argued that this growing social complexity, all rooted in the original decision to settle, led to a second Urban Revolution in which the first cities were built. Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly than it had during the time in which hunter-gatherer societies existed. Inadequate sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths and sickness following the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the animal to the human population. Some examples of infectious diseases spread from animals to humans are influenza, smallpox, and measles. In concordance with a process of natural selection, the humans who first domesticated the big mammals quickly built up immunities to the diseases as within each generation the individuals with better immunities had better chances of survival. In their approximately 10,000 years of shared proximity with animals, such as cows, Eurasians and Africans became more resistant to those diseases compared with the indigenous populations encountered outside Eurasia and Africa. For instance, the population of most Caribbean and several Pacific Islands have been completely wiped out by diseases. 90% or more of many populations of the Americas were wiped out by European and African diseases before recorded contact with European explorers or colonists. Some cultures like the Inca Empire did have a large domestic mammal, the llama, but llama milk was not drunk, nor did llamas live in a closed space with humans, so the risk of contagion was limited. According to bioarchaeological research, the effects of agriculture on physical and dental health in Southeast Asian rice farming societies from 4000 to 1500 B.P. was not detrimental to the same extent as in other world regions. In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that Europeans and East Asians benefited from an advantageous geographical location that afforded them a head start in the Neolithic Revolution. Both shared the temperate climate ideal for the first agricultural settings, both were near a number of easily domesticable plant and animal species, and both were safer from attacks of other people than civilizations in the middle part of the Eurasian continent. Being among the first to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles, and neighboring other early agricultural societies with whom they could compete and trade, both Europeans and East Asians were also among the first to benefit from technologies such as firearms and steel swords. The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human genetic markers. 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(received July 2005) "Early and mid Holocene tool-use and processing of taro (Colocasia esculenta), yam (Dioscorea sp.) and other plants at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea" (Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 33, Issue 5, May 2006) - Loy, Thomas & Matthew Spriggs (1992), " Direct evidence for human use of plants 28,000 years ago: starch residues on stone artefacts from the northern Solomon Islands" (Antiquity Volume: 66, Number: 253, pp. 898–912) - "The Development of Agriculture". Genographic Project. Archived from the original on 2016-04-14. Retrieved 2017-07-21. - McGourty, Christine (2002-11-22). "Origin of dogs traced". BBC News. Retrieved 2006-11-29. - Fleisch, Henri., Notes de Préhistoire Libanaise : 1) Ard es Saoude. 2) La Bekaa Nord. 3) Un polissoir en plein air. BSPF, vol. 63. - Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. Jared Diamond (1997). - James C. Scott,Against the Grain: a Deep History of the Earliest States, NJ:Yale UP, (2017), "The world's population in 10 000 BC, according to a careful estimate was roughly 4 million. A full five thousand years later it has risen only to 5 million...One likely explanation for this apparent human progress in subsistance techniques together with a long period of demographic stagnation is that epidemologically this was perhaps the most lethal period in human history". - Sands DC, Morris CE, Dratz EA, Pilgeram A (2009). "Elevating optimal human nutrition to a central goal of plant breeding and production of plant-based foods". Plant Sci (Review). 177 (5): 377–389. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.07.011. PMC 2866137. PMID 20467463. - O'Keefe JH, Cordain L (2004). "Cardiovascular disease resulting from a diet and lifestyle at odds with our Paleolithic genome: how to become a 21st-century hunter-gatherer". Mayo Clin Proc (Review). 79 (1): 101–108. doi:10.4065/79.1.101. PMID 14708953. - Shermer, Michael (2001). The Borderlands of Science. Oxford University Press. p. 250. - Hermanussen, Michael; Poustka, Fritz (July–September 2003). "Stature of early Europeans". Hormones (Athens). 2 (3): 175–178. doi:10.1159/000079404. PMID 17003019. - Eagly, Alice H.; Wood, Wendy (June 1999). "The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles". American Psychologist. 54 (6): 408–423. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.408. - Diamond, Jared (May 1987). "The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race". Discover Magazine: 64–66. - Peterson, V. Spike (2014-07-03). "Sex Matters". International Feminist Journal of Politics. 16 (3): 389–409. doi:10.1080/14616742.2014.913384. ISSN 1461-6742. - Sherratt 1981 - Furuse, Y.; Suzuki, A.; Oshitani, H. (2010). "Origin of measles virus: Divergence from rinderpest virus between the 11th and 12th centuries". Virology Journal. 7: 52. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-52. PMC 2838858. PMID 20202190. - Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. Jared Diamond, 1997 - Halcrow, S. E.; Harris, N. J.; Tayles, N.; Ikehara‐Quebral, R.; Pietrusewsky, M. (2013). "From the mouths of babes: Dental caries in infants and children and the intensification of agriculture in mainland Southeast Asia". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 150 (3): 409–420. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22215. PMID 23359102. - "BBC – History – Ancient History in depth: Overview: From Neolithic to Bronze Age, 8000–800 BC". Retrieved 2017-07-21. - Semino, O; et al. (2004). "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area". American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 1023–34. doi:10.1086/386295. PMC 1181965. PMID 15069642. - Lancaster, Andrew (2009). "Y Haplogroups, Archaeological Cultures and Language Families: a Review of the Multidisciplinary Comparisons using the case of E-M35" (PDF). Journal of Genetic Genealogy. 5 (1). - Liverani, Mario (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Routledge. p. 13, Table 1.1 "Chronology of the Ancient Near East". ISBN 9781134750917. - Shukurov, Anvar; Sarson, Graeme R.; Gangal, Kavita (7 May 2014). "The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia". PLOS ONE. 9 (5): 1-20 and Appendix S1. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. ISSN 1932-6203. - Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Arpin, Trina; Pan, Yan; Cohen, David; Goldberg, Paul; Zhang, Chi; Wu, Xiaohong (29 June 2012). "Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China". Science. 336 (6089): 1696–1700. doi:10.1126/science.1218643. ISSN 0036-8075. - Thorpe, I. J. (2003). The Origins of Agriculture in Europe. Routledge. p. 14. ISBN 9781134620104. - Price, T. Douglas (2000). Europe's First Farmers. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780521665728. - Jr, William H. Stiebing; Helft, Susan N. (2017). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 9781134880836. - Bailey, Douglass. (2001). Balkan Prehistory: Exclusions, Incorporation and Identity. Routledge Publishers. ISBN 0-415-21598-6. - Bailey, Douglass. (2005). Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. Routledge Publishers. ISBN 0-415-33152-8. - Balter, Michael (2005). The Goddess and the Bull: Catalhoyuk, An Archaeological Journey to the Dawn of Civilization. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-4360-9. - Bellwood, Peter (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Blackwell. 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SQA Higher Maths Sine, cosine rules This page covers the following topics: 1. Sine rule 2. Problems with sine rule 3. Cosine rule 4. Problems with cosine rule When solving word problems with the sine rule it is best to draw a picture and label the known angles/side lengths. When solving word problems with the cosine rule it is best to draw a picture and label the known angles/side lengths. Use the cosine rule to find angle A, given a = 5, b = 7 and c = 6. Find the length of pole A. Give your answer with two decimal places. The diagram shows a ladder propped against a slightly slanted wall. Find the angle between the ladder and the wall. A triangle is created using 3 poles. The poles are 20 m, 25 m and 23 m in length. Find the angle between the 20 m and 23 m poles. Two match sticks are held up with their tips against each other. Both match sticks are 5 cm long. The angle between them is 65º. Find the distance between the bottom of the match sticks along the ground. End of page
Experimental research is the most familiar type of research design for individuals in the physical sciences and a host of other fields. This is mainly because experimental research is a classical scientific experiment, similar to those performed in high school science classes. Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant and exposing one of them to sunlight, while the other is kept away from sunlight. Let the plant exposed to sunlight be called sample A, while the latter is called sample B. If after the duration of the research, we find out that sample A grows and sample B dies, even though they are both regularly wetted and given the same treatment. Therefore, we can conclude that sunlight will aid growth in all similar plants. Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or more independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or more dependent variables to measure their effect on the latter. The effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables is usually observed and recorded over some time, to aid researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion regarding the relationship between these 2 variable types. The experimental research method is widely used in physical and social sciences, psychology, and education. It is based on the comparison between two or more groups with a straightforward logic, which may, however, be difficult to execute. Mostly related to a laboratory test procedure, experimental research designs involve collecting quantitative data and performing statistical analysis on them during research. Therefore, making it an example of quantitative research method. The types of experimental research design are determined by the way the researcher assigns subjects to different conditions and groups. They are of 3 types, namely; pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, and true experimental research. In pre-experimental research design, either a group or various dependent groups are observed for the effect of the application of an independent variable which is presumed to cause change. It is the simplest form of experimental research design and is treated with no control group. Although very practical, experimental research is lacking in several areas of the true-experimental criteria. The pre-experimental research design is further divided into three types In this type of experimental study, only one dependent group or variable is considered. The study is carried out after some treatment which was presumed to cause change, making it a posttest study. This research design combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying out a test on a single group before the treatment is administered and after the treatment is administered. With the former being administered at the beginning of treatment and later at the end. In a static-group comparison study, 2 or more groups are placed under observation, where only one of the groups is subjected to some treatment while the other groups are held static. All the groups are post-tested, and the observed differences between the groups are assumed to be a result of the treatment. The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-experimental research bearing a resemblance to the true experimental research, but not the same. In quasi-experiments, the participants are not randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in settings where randomization is difficult or impossible. This is very common in educational research, where administrators are unwilling to allow the random selection of students for experimental samples. Some examples of quasi-experimental research design include; the time series, no equivalent control group design, and the counterbalanced design. The true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or disprove a hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of experimental design and may be carried out with or without a pretest on at least 2 randomly assigned dependent subjects. The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be random. The classification of true experimental design include: The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method, while the other two are tested using the pretest-posttest method. Experimental research examples are different, depending on the type of experimental research design that is being considered. The most basic example of experimental research is laboratory experiments, which may differ in nature depending on the subject of research. During the semester, students in a class are lectured on particular courses and an exam is administered at the end of the semester. In this case, the students are the subjects or dependent variables while the lectures are the independent variables treated on the subjects. Only one group of carefully selected subjects are considered in this research, making it a pre-experimental research design example. We will also notice that tests are only carried out at the end of the semester, and not at the beginning. Further making it easy for us to conclude that it is a one-shot case study research. Before employing a job seeker, organizations conduct tests that are used to screen out less qualified candidates from the pool of qualified applicants. This way, organizations can determine an employee's skill set at the point of employment. In the course of employment, organizations also carry out employee training to improve employee productivity and generally grow the organization. Further evaluation is carried out at the end of each training to test the impact of the training on employee skills, and test for improvement. Here, the subject is the employee, while the treatment is the training conducted. This is a pretest-posttest control group experimental research example. Let us consider an academic institution that wants to evaluate the teaching method of 2 teachers to determine which is best. Imagine a case whereby the students assigned to each teacher is carefully selected probably due to personal request by parents or due to stubbornness and smartness. This is a no equivalent group design example because the samples are not equal. By evaluating the effectiveness of each teacher's teaching method this way, we may conclude after a post-test has been carried out. However, this may be influenced by factors like the natural sweetness of a student. For example, a very smart student will grab more easily than his or her peers irrespective of the method of teaching. Experimental research contains dependent, independent and extraneous variables. The dependent variables are the variables being treated or manipulated and are sometimes called the subject of the research. The independent variables are the experimental treatment being exerted on the dependent variables. Extraneous variables, on the other hand, are other factors affecting the experiment that may also contribute to the change. The setting is where the experiment is carried out. Many experiments are carried out in the laboratory, where control can be exerted on the extraneous variables, thereby eliminating them. Other experiments are carried out in a less controllable setting. The choice of setting used in research depends on the nature of the experiment being carried out. Experimental research may include multiple independent variables, e.g. time, skills, test scores, etc. Experimental research design can be majorly used in physical sciences, social sciences, education, and psychology. It is used to make predictions and draw conclusions on a subject matter. Some uses of experimental research design are highlighted below. The changes observed during this period are recorded and evaluated to determine its effectiveness. This process can be carried out using different experimental research methods. The other person is placed in a room with a few other people, enjoying human interaction. There will be a difference in their behaviour at the end of the experiment. For example, when finding it difficult to choose how to position a button or feature on the app interface, a random sample of product testers are allowed to test the 2 samples and how the button positioning influences the user interaction is recorded. Data collection methods in experimental research are the different ways in which data can be collected for experimental research. They are used in different cases, depending on the type of research being carried out. When researching the effect of social interaction on human behavior, the subjects who are placed in 2 different environments are observed throughout the research. No matter the kind of absurd behavior that is exhibited by the subject during this period, it's condition will not be changed. This may be a very risky thing to do in medical cases because it may lead to death or worse medical conditions. This method is commonly used in engineering and operational research for learning purposes and sometimes as a tool to estimate possible outcomes of real research. Some common situation software are Simulink, MATLAB, and Simul8. Not all kinds of experimental research can be carried out using simulation as a data collection tool. It is very impractical for a lot of laboratory-based research that involves chemical processes. Surveys can be shared with the respondents both physically and electronically. When collecting data through surveys, the kind of data collected depends on the respondent, and researchers have limited control over it. Formplus is the best tool for collecting experimental data using surveys. It has relevant features that will aid the data collection process and can also be used in other aspects of experimental research. This is because it takes place in a real-life setting, where extraneous variables cannot be eliminated. Therefore, it is more difficult to conclude non-experimental studies, even though they are much more flexible and allow for a greater range of study fields. Experimental research designs are often considered to be the standard in research designs. This is partly due to the common misconception that research is equivalent to scientific experiments—a component of experimental research design. In this research design, one or more subjects or dependent variables are randomly assigned to different treatments (i.e. independent variables manipulated by the researcher) and the results are observed to conclude. One of the uniqueness of experimental research is in its ability to control the effect of extraneous variables. Experimental research is suitable for research whose goal is to examine cause-effect relationships, e.g. explanatory research. It can be conducted in the laboratory or field settings, depending on the aim of the research that is being carried out. Switch to a paperless office with functional online forms that just work, even offline.Start Free Trial You may also like: Confounding variables are common in research and can affect the outcome of your study. This is because the external influence from the ... There is a general misconception around research that once the research is non-experimental, then it is non-scientific, making it more ... Researchers in medicine, nursing, psychology, and some social science fields are found to group their subjects of study into cohorts before ... The bulk of human decisions relies on evidence, that is, what can be measured or proven as valid. In choosing between plausible ...
A graphic depiction of a nuclear fusion reaction. Two nuclei fuse into one, emitting a neutron. Reactions that created new elements to this moment were similar, with the only possible difference that several singular neutrons sometimes were released, or none at all. The heaviest[a]atomic nuclei are created in nuclear reactions that combine two other nuclei of unequal size[b] into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the beam of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only fuse into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion. The strong interaction can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly accelerated in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus. Coming close alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for approximately 10−20 seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus. If fusion does occur, the temporary merger—termed a compound nucleus—is an excited state. To lose its excitation energy and reach a more stable state, a compound nucleus either fissions or ejects one or several neutrons,[c] which carry away the energy. This occurs in approximately 10−16 seconds after the initial collision.[d] The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam. In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products)[e] and transferred to a surface-barrier detector, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival. The transfer takes about 10−6 seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long. The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the energy, and the time of the decay are measured. Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, as it has unlimited range. Nuclei of the heaviest elements are thus theoretically predicted and have so far been observed to primarily decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: alpha decay and spontaneous fission;[f] these modes are predominant for nuclei of superheavy elements. Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be determined arithmetically.[g] Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.[h] The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize one of the heaviest elements is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made.[i] The city center of Darmstadt, the namesake of darmstadtium In the same series of experiments, the same team also carried out the reaction using heavier nickel-64 ions. During two runs, 9 atoms of 271Ds were convincingly detected by correlation with known daughter decay properties: 208 82Pb + 64 28Ni → 271 110Ds + 1 0n Prior to this, there had been failed synthesis attempts in 1986–87 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (then in the Soviet Union) and in 1990 at the GSI. A 1995 attempt at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory resulted in signs suggesting but not pointing conclusively at the discovery of a new isotope 267Ds formed in the bombardment of 209Bi with 59Co, and a similarly inconclusive 1994 attempt at the JINR showed signs of 273Ds being produced from 244Pu and 34S. Each team proposed its own name for element 110: the American team proposed hahnium after Otto Hahn in an attempt to resolve the situation on element 105 (which they had long been suggesting this name for), the Russian team proposed becquerelium after Henri Becquerel, and the German team proposed darmstadtium after Darmstadt, the location of their institute. The IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) recognised the GSI team as discoverers in their 2001 report, giving them the right to suggest a name for the element. Using Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, darmstadtium should be known as eka-platinum. In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called ununnilium (with the corresponding symbol of Uun), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who called it "element 110", with the symbol of E110, (110) or even simply 110. The name darmstadtium (Ds) was suggested by the GSI team in honor of the city of Darmstadt, where the element was discovered. The GSI team originally also considered naming the element wixhausium, after the suburb of Darmstadt known as Wixhausen where the element was discovered, but eventually decided on darmstadtium.Policium had also been proposed as a joke due to the emergency telephone number in Germany being 1-1-0. The new name darmstadtium was officially recommended by IUPAC on August 16, 2003. Darmstadtium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Nine different isotopes of darmstadtium have been reported with atomic masses 267, 269–271, 273, 277, and 279–281, although darmstadtium-267 is unconfirmed. Three darmstadtium isotopes, darmstadtium-270, darmstadtium-271, and darmstadtium-281, have known metastable states, although that of darmstadtium-281 is unconfirmed. Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, but some undergo spontaneous fission. Stability and half-lives This chart of decay modes according to the model of the Japan Atomic Energy Agency predicts several superheavy nuclides within the island of stability having total half-lives exceeding one year (circled) and undergoing primarily alpha decay, peaking at 294Ds with an estimated half-life of 300 years. All darmstadtium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive; in general, the heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter. The most stable known darmstadtium isotope, 281Ds, is also the heaviest known darmstadtium isotope; it has a half-life of 12.7 seconds. The isotope 279Ds has a half-life of 0.18 seconds, while the unconfirmed 281mDs has a half-life of 0.9 seconds. The remaining seven isotopes and two metastable states have half-lives between 1 microsecond and 70 milliseconds. Some unknown darmstadtium isotopes may have longer half-lives, however. Theoretical calculation in a quantum tunneling model reproduces the experimental alpha decay half-life data for the known darmstadtium isotopes. It also predicts that the undiscovered isotope 294Ds, which has a magic number of neutrons (184), would have an alpha decay half-life on the order of 311 years; exactly the same approach predicts a ~3500-year alpha half-life for the non-magic 293Ds isotope, however. Other than nuclear properties, no properties of darmstadtium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that darmstadtium (and its parents) decays very quickly. Properties of darmstadtium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available. Prediction of the probable chemical properties of darmstadtium has not received much attention recently. Darmstadtium should be a very noble metal. The predicted standard reduction potential for the Ds2+/Ds couple is 1.7 V. Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 10 elements, the most stable oxidation states of darmstadtium are predicted to be the +6, +4, and +2 states; however, the neutral state is predicted to be the most stable in aqueous solutions. In comparison, only palladium and platinum are known to show the maximum oxidation state in the group, +6, while the most stable states are +4 and +2 for both nickel and palladium. It is further expected that the maximum oxidation states of elements from bohrium (element 107) to darmstadtium (element 110) may be stable in the gas phase but not in aqueous solution. Darmstadtium hexafluoride (DsF6) is predicted to have very similar properties to its lighter homologue platinum hexafluoride (PtF6), having very similar electronic structures and ionization potentials. It is also expected to have the same octahedral molecular geometry as PtF6. Other predicted darmstadtium compounds are darmstadtium carbide (DsC) and darmstadtium tetrachloride (DsCl4), both of which are expected to behave like their lighter homologues. Unlike platinum, which preferentially forms a cyanidecomplex in its +2 oxidation state, Pt(CN)2, darmstadtium is expected to preferentially remain in its neutral state and form Ds(CN)2− 2 instead, forming a strong Ds–C bond with some multiple bond character. Physical and atomic Darmstadtium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and to crystallize in the body-centered cubic structure, unlike its lighter congeners which crystallize in the face-centered cubic structure, because it is expected to have different electron charge densities from them. It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 26–27 g/cm3. In comparison, the densest known element that has had its density measured, osmium, has a density of only 22.61 g/cm3. The outer electron configuration of darmstadtium is calculated to be 6d8 7s2, which obeys the Aufbau principle and does not follow platinum's outer electron configuration of 5d9 6s1. This is due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s2 electron pair over the whole seventh period, so that none of the elements from 104 to 112 are expected to have electron configurations violating the Aufbau principle. The atomic radius of darmstadtium is expected to be around 132 pm. Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of darmstadtium has yet to have been established due to the short half-lives of darmstadtium isotopes and a limited number of likely volatile compounds that could be studied on a very small scale. One of the few darmstadtium compounds that are likely to be sufficiently volatile is darmstadtium hexafluoride (DsF 6), as its lighter homologue platinum hexafluoride (PtF 6) is volatile above 60 °C and therefore the analogous compound of darmstadtium might also be sufficiently volatile; a volatile octafluoride (DsF 8) might also be possible. For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide, at least four atoms must be produced, the half-life of the isotope used must be at least 1 second, and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week. Even though the half-life of 281Ds, the most stable confirmed darmstadtium isotope, is 12.7 seconds, long enough to perform chemical studies, another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of darmstadtium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained. Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the darmstadtium isotopes and have automated systems experiment on the gas-phase and solution chemistry of darmstadtium, as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements; some of the separation techniques used for bohrium and hassium could be reused. However, the experimental chemistry of darmstadtium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium. The more neutron-rich darmstadtium isotopes are the most stable and are thus more promising for chemical studies. However, they can only be produced indirectly from the alpha decay of heavier elements, and indirect synthesis methods are not as favourable for chemical studies as direct synthesis methods. The more neutron-rich isotopes 276Ds and 277Ds might be produced directly in the reaction between thorium-232 and calcium-48, but the yield is expected to be low. Furthermore, this reaction has already been tested without success, and more recent experiments that have successfully synthesized 277Ds using indirect methods show that it has a short half-life of 3.5 ms, not long enough to perform chemical studies. The only known darmstadtium isotope with a half-life long enough for chemical research is 281Ds, which would have to be produced as the granddaughter of 289Fl. ^In nuclear physics, an element is called heavy if its atomic number is high; lead (element 82) is one example of such a heavy element. The term "superheavy elements" typically refers to elements with atomic number greater than 103 (although there are other definitions, such as atomic number greater than 100 or 112; sometimes, the term is presented an equivalent to the term "transactinide", which puts an upper limit before the beginning of the hypothetical superactinide series). Terms "heavy isotopes" (of a given element) and "heavy nuclei" mean what could be understood in the common language—isotopes of high mass (for the given element) and nuclei of high mass, respectively. ^In 2009, a team at JINR led by Oganessian published results of their attempt to create hassium in a symmetric 136Xe + 136Xe reaction. They failed to observe a single atom in such a reaction, putting the upper limit on the cross section, the measure of probability of a nuclear reaction, as 2.5 pb. In comparison, the reaction that resulted in hassium discovery, 208Pb + 58Fe, had a cross section of ~20 pb (more specifically, 19+19 −11 pb), as estimated by the discoverers. ^The greater the excitation energy, the more neutrons are ejected. If the excitation energy is lower than energy binding each neutron to the rest of the nucleus, neutrons are not emitted; instead, the compound nucleus de-excites by emitting a gamma ray. ^The definition by the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party states that a chemical element can only be recognized as discovered if a nucleus of it has not decayed within 10−14 seconds. This value was chosen as an estimate of how long it takes a nucleus to acquire its outer electrons and thus display its chemical properties. This figure also marks the generally accepted upper limit for lifetime of a compound nucleus. ^This separation is based on that the resulting nuclei move past the target more slowly then the unreacted beam nuclei. The separator contains electric and magnetic fields whose effects on a moving particle cancel out for a specific velocity of a particle. Such separation can also be aided by a time-of-flight measurement and a recoil energy measurement; a combination of the two may allow to estimate the mass of a nucleus. ^Since mass of a nucleus is not measured directly but is rather calculated from that of another nucleus, such measurement is called indirect. Direct measurements are also possible, but for the most part they have remained unavailable for heaviest nuclei. The first direct measurement of mass of a superheavy nucleus was reported in 2018 at LBNL. Mass was determined from the location of a nucleus after the transfer (the location helps determine its trajectory, which is linked to the mass-to-charge ratio of the nucleus, since the transfer was done in presence of a magnet). ^Spontaneous fission was discovered by Soviet physicist Georgy Flerov, a leading scientist at JINR, and thus it was a "hobbyhorse" for the facility. In contrast, the LBL scientists believed fission information was not sufficient for a claim of synthesis of an element. They believed spontaneous fission had not been studied enough to use it for identification of a new element, since there was a difficulty of establishing that a compound nucleus had only ejected neutrons and not charged particles like protons or alpha particles. They thus preferred to link new isotopes to the already known ones by successive alpha decays. ^For instance, element 102 was mistakenly identified in 1957 at the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm, Stockholm County, Sweden. There were no earlier definitive claims of creation of this element, and the element was assigned a name by its Swedish, American, and British discoverers, nobelium. It was later shown that the identification was incorrect. The following year, LBNL was unable to reproduce the Swedish results and announced instead their synthesis of the element; that claim was also disproved later. JINR insisted that they were the first to create the element and suggested a name of their own for the new element, joliotium; the Soviet name was also not accepted (JINR later referred to the naming of element 102 as "hasty"). The name "nobelium" remained unchanged on account of its widespread usage. ^Different sources give different values for half-lives; the most recently published values are listed. ^ abcdefghijklmnopqHoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands. ISBN978-1-4020-3555-5. ^"Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Сиборгий (экавольфрам)" [Popular library of chemical elements. Seaborgium (eka-tungsten)]. n-t.ru (in Russian). Retrieved January 7, 2020. Reprinted from "Экавольфрам" [Eka-tungsten]. Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Серебро — Нильсборий и далее [Popular library of chemical elements. Silver through nielsbohrium and beyond] (in Russian). Nauka. 1977. ^Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S.; Janik, R.; Leino, M. (1995). "Production and decay of 269110". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 277. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..277H. doi:10.1007/BF01291181. S2CID125020220. ^Barber, R. C.; Greenwood, N. N.; Hrynkiewicz, A. Z.; Jeannin, Y. P.; Lefort, M.; Sakai, M.; Ulehla, I.; Wapstra, A. P.; Wilkinson, D. H. (1993). "Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 65 (8): 1757. doi:10.1351/pac199365081757. S2CID195819585. (Note: for Part I see Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 63, No. 6, pp. 879–886, 1991) ^Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Petley, B. W.; Vogt, E. (2001). "On the discovery of the elements 110–112 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 73 (6): 959. doi:10.1351/pac200173060959. S2CID97615948. ^Chatt, J. (1979). "Recommendations for the naming of elements of atomic numbers greater than 100". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 51 (2): 381–384. doi:10.1351/pac197951020381. ^Lazarev, Yu. A.; Lobanov, Yu.; Oganessian, Yu.; Utyonkov, V.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Rigol, J.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Iliev, S.; Subbotin, V. G.; Sukhov, A. M.; Buklanov, G. V.; Gikal, B. N.; Kutner, V. B.; Mezentsev, A. N.; Subotic, K.; Wild, J. F.; Lougheed, R. W.; Moody, K. J. (1996). "α decay of 273110: Shell closure at N=162". Physical Review C. 54 (2): 620–625. Bibcode:1996PhRvC..54..620L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.54.620. PMID9971385. ^ abUtyonkov, V. K.; Brewer, N. T.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Rykaczewski, K. P.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Dimitriev, S. N.; Grzywacz, R. K.; Itkis, M. G.; Miernik, K.; Polyakov, A. N.; Roberto, J. B.; Sagaidak, R. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Shumeiko, M. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Voinov, A. A.; Subbotin, V. G.; Sukhov, A. M.; Karpov, A. V.; Popeko, A. G.; Sabel'nikov, A. V.; Svirikhin, A. I.; Vostokin, G. K.; Hamilton, J. H.; Kovrinzhykh, N. D.; Schlattauer, L.; Stoyer, M. A.; Gan, Z.; Huang, W. X.; Ma, L. (January 30, 2018). "Neutron-deficient superheavy nuclei obtained in the 240Pu+48Ca reaction". Physical Review C. 97 (14320): 014320. Bibcode:2018PhRvC..97a4320U. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.97.014320. ^Hofmann, S.; Heinz, S.; Mann, R.; Maurer, J.; Khuyagbaatar, J.; Ackermann, D.; Antalic, S.; Barth, W.; Block, M.; Burkhard, H. G.; Comas, V. F.; Dahl, L.; Eberhardt, K.; Gostic, J.; Henderson, R. A.; Heredia, J. A.; Heßberger, F. P.; Kenneally, J. M.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I.; Kratz, J. V.; Lang, R.; Leino, M.; Lommel, B.; Moody, K. J.; Münzenberg, G.; Nelson, S. L.; Nishio, K.; Popeko, A. G.; et al. (2012). "The reaction 48Ca + 248Cm → 296116* studied at the GSI-SHIP". The European Physical Journal A. 48 (5): 62. Bibcode:2012EPJA...48...62H. doi:10.1140/epja/i2012-12062-1. S2CID121930293. ^ abThayer, John S. (2010), "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements", Relativistic Methods for Chemists, Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics, 10, p. 82, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2, ISBN978-1-4020-9974-8 ^ abDüllmann, Christoph E. (2012). "Superheavy elements at GSI: a broad research program with element 114 in the focus of physics and chemistry". Radiochimica Acta. 100 (2): 67–74. doi:10.1524/ract.2011.1842. S2CID100778491. ^Moody, Ken (November 30, 2013). "Synthesis of Superheavy Elements". In Schädel, Matthias; Shaughnessy, Dawn (eds.). The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements (2nd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 24–8. ISBN9783642374661.
Until now we have dealt with various calculations of functions and equations where x is either in the base or the exponent. When x is the exponent the function is known as an exponential function. We will now see how an exponential function appears graphically. As with any function whatsoever, an exponential function may be correspondingly represented on a graph. We will begin with two functions as examples - one where the base is greater than 1 and the other where the base is smaller than is smaller than 1. In this function the base is 2. The function is inclining. In this function the base is 0.1. The function is declining. An exponential function may generally be written as: The following graph depicts four different curves indicating how an exponential function behaves depending on whether C and a are positive or negative. The curves are identical but inverted in the various quadrants: No curve ever intersects the x-axis but only approaches Videolesson: show how to rewrite the given
Molecular geometry the name given to the geometry that describes the shape of a molecule. It can also be defined as the positions of the atomic nuclei in molecules. Not all molecules have the same shape of course. The shape of a molecule depends on the position of the molecules electrons. The molecular structure is a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms that create a molecule. The shape of a molecule is determined by the number of bonded electron pairs that are surrounding the atom, and by how many of the pairs are in a bond. The bonded atoms in a molecule are accountable for establishing the molecular geometry. The most well-known theory for displaying and describing different molecular shapes is the VESPR Theory. The VESPR Theory clearly states that electrons in compounds will arrange themselves as far apart as possible. VESPR stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion. The valence shell is the outer-most shell, occupied by electrons, of an atom that contains the electrons that are involved in a bond. According to the theory, molecular geometry is predicted by starting with the electron pair geometry of the central atom and then adding atoms to one or all of the electron pairs. The VESPR Theory will result in six different molecular shapes: Linear, Trigonal Planar, Bent, Pyramidal, Tetrahedral, and Octahedral. A linear shape is between two atoms or three atoms that involve a multiple bond. The bond angle is 180 degrees like a flat line would measure to. A trigonal planar has a 120 degrees bond angle and consists of a central atom with three bonds and no unshared pairs. An example would be Aluminum Chloride (AlCl3). Bent has a central atom with two bonds and two unshared pairs. The bond angle is 105 degrees. If you were determining the molecular shape of PH3 you would find yourself with a central atom with three and one unshared pair, which can be described as pyramidal. This pyramid shape has a bond angle of 107 degrees. Another shape is tetrahedral. A tetrahedral has a bond angle of 109.5 degrees. It has a central atom with four bonds, no unshared pairs. The last molecular shape is octahedral. The geometry for this molecule has a central atom with six pairs of electrons. So molecular geometry is an overall arrangement of atoms. The arrangement is displayed as different molecular shapes with bond angles and electron pairs. The shapes are determined from the percise position of the electrons.
One-Digit Addition and Subtraction No Regrouping (T) In this addition and subtraction instructional activity, students find the sums and differences to 36 single digit problems. They do not regroup in these problems. 1st - 2nd Math 3 Views 2 Downloads Grade 1 Supplement Set A3 - Number & Operations: Addition & Subtraction on the Number Line Hop your way through a mathematical equation with your first grade class as they learn the idea of moving up and down the number line. Adding and subtracting like little frogs is an engaging and clever way to teach/reinforce this concept. K - 2nd Math CCSS: Adaptable Study Jams! + & - Without Regrouping Addition and subtraction are essential skills for all young mathematicians. Explain the step-by-step process with respect to place value using these real-world examples. Focus is on numbers in the tens, hundreds, and thousands, making... 1st - 4th Math CCSS: Adaptable Solve Addition Problems: Using Complements of 10 In a base ten number system, knowing the complements of ten is a huge help when learning addition with larger numbers. The third video is this series models how these special pairs of numbers can be used along with expanded notation to... 5 mins 2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Designed Add Up To Four 2-Digit Numbers by Using Addition Facts and Friendly Numbers Learning to recognize friendly numbers is a big step in developing fluency with addition. Looking at multiple real world examples, the instructor models how to rearrange addition number sentences and use friendly numbers to quickly and... 5 mins 1st - 3rd Math CCSS: Designed Addition and Subtraction Pick n Mix Teach your class how to mentally solve whole number addition and subtraction problems using compensation from tidy numbers including equal additions. They use appropriate recording techniques and predict the usefulness of strategies for... 2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Adaptable
Circle Worksheets This section contains all of the graphic previews for the Circle Worksheets. We have a triangle fact sheet, identifying triangles, area and perimeters, the triangle inequality theorem, triangle inequalities of angles and angles, triangle angle sum, the exterior angle theorem, angle bisectors, median of triangles, finding a centroid from a graph and a set of vertices for your use. The students will be completing Homework Parallel and Perpendicular Lines Worksheets. And by definition, a square– all of its sides are equal. Show the students that it is best to determine the shape of the polygon and then how many sides there are and which might be equal. Have students return to their desks quietly. So all we have to do is add up the lengths of these blue segments right over here. We have Pythagorean Theorem practice problems worksheets, homeeork formula single quadrant worksheets, distance formula four quadrant worksheets, and Pythagorean Theorem definitions worksheets for your use. If you’re seeing this message, it means we’re having trouble loading external resources on our website. SUBJECT: Mathematics TITLE: 17.1/17.2 Explore and Find Suggest us how to improve StudyLib For complaints, use another form. Have students take turns completing the questions on slides eight and nine. The length of one is 2. So it’s going to be 2 plus 2 plus perimwter plus 2 plus 2, or essentially five 2’s. So you could say it’s 7 meters plus 7 meters plus 7 meters plus 7 meters, or it’s 4 times 7 meters or 28 meters. Add to collection s Add to saved. Add this document to collection s. Triangle Worksheets Geometry Worksheets. Circle Pracitce This section contains all of the graphic previews for the Circle Worksheets. What is the perimeter of the square? So you have 4 sides that are all 7 meters long. Geometry Think Tac Toe. Show the students that it is best to determine homewlrk shape of the polygon and then how many sides there are and which might be equal. Here is a graphic preview for all of the Geometry Worksheets Sections. Angles Worksheets Geometry Worksheets. Finding perimeter when a side length is missing. Explain to students what they will be doing at their desks. Or another way moddel thinking about it is it’s 5 times 2, which is going to be Let’s do one more. Area and Perimeter Geometry Worksheets. So it’s a regular pentagon, which means all of its sides have the same length. And you would have nad gotten 24 centimeters. Pythagorean Theorem Geometry Worksheets. Perimeter of a shape (video) \| Perimeter \| Khan Academy Provide students with the challenge worksheet Problem Solving Find perimeter when given side lengths. Constructions Worksheets Geometry Worksheets. We have translation, rotation, and reflection of objects, and identifying transformations worksheets for your use. Circumference and Perimeter Worksheet 1. And they give us a side of one. Geometry Worksheets \| Geometry Worksheets for Practice and Study Trigonometry Worksheets This section contains all of the graphic previews for the Trigonometry Worksheets. The other way we could have thought about this is you could have looked at the length of each of these sides. You can add this document to your study collection s Sign in Available only to authorized users. For peeimeter, use another form. So 2 units long times 5 sides is going to be 10 units.
How to Write a Taylor Series in Python A Taylor series is a representation of a function using an infinite sum. Computers often make approximations of the values of a trigonometric, exponential or other transcendental function by summing a finite number of the terms of its Taylor series, and you can recreate this process in Python. The terms of the sum are based on successive derivatives of the function, so you'll need to identify a pattern in the values of those derivatives to write a formula for each term of the series. Then, use a loop to accumulate the sum, controlling the accuracy of your approximation with the number of iterations of the loop. Consult the definition of the Taylor series to understand how each term may be computed. Each term of the series is indexed, typically by "n," and its value is related to the nth derivative of the function being represented. For simplicity's sake, use 0 for the value of "a" on your first attempt. This special version of the Taylor series is called the Maclaurin series. Try the sine function, since its successive derivatives are easy to determine. Write down several values of the nth derivative of the sine function evaluated at 0. If n is 0, the value is 0. If n is 1, the value is 1. If n is 2, the value is 0. If n is 3, the value is -1. From here, the pattern repeats, so disregard every even-indexed term of the Taylor series since it's multiplied by 0. A formula for each term of the resulting series is:(-1)^n/(2n+1)!x^(2n+1)"2n+1" is used in place of "n" to re-index the series, effectively discarding the even-indexed terms without changing the index itself. The (-1)^n factor accounts for the alternation between positive and negative of successive terms. This preliminary math work might seem extraneous, but the Python code will be far easier to write and reuse on other Taylor series if the index always starts at 0 and counts upward in increments of 1. Open the Python interpreter. Start by typing the following commands to define several variables:sum = 0x = .5236The "sum" variable will be used to accumulate the sum of the Taylor series as each term is computed. The variable "x" is the angle (in radians) for which you want to approximate the sine function. Set it to whatever you like. Import the "math" module with the following command so you have access to the "pow" and "factorial" functions:import math Initiate a "for" loop, setting the number of iterations with the "range" function:for n in range(4):This will cause the index variable, n, to start at zero and count up to 4. Even this small number of iterations will yield a surprisingly accurate result. The loop does not execute immediately and will not begin until you've specified the whole block of code to iterate over. Type the following command to add the value of each successive term to "sum:" sum += math.pow(-1,n)/math.factorial(2n+1)math.pow(x,2n+1) Notice that the command is indented with a tab, which indicates to Python that it's part of the "for" loop. Also note how "pow" and "factorial" are used in place of the "^" and "!" notation. The formula to the right of the "+=" assignment operator is identical to the one in Step 2, but written in Python syntax. Press "Enter" to add a blank line. To Python, this indicates termination of the "for" loop, so the calculation is executed. Type the command "sum" to reveal the result. If you used the value of x given in Step 3, the result is very close to .5, the sine of pi/6. Try the process again for different values of x and for different numbers of iterations of the loop, checking your results against the "math.sin(x)" function. You've implemented in Python the very process many computers use to compute values for sine and other transcendental functions. Tips & Warnings - Indent and type the command "sum" on the second line of the "for" loop to get a running total of the sum as the code executes. This reveals how each successive term of the series brings the sum closer and closer to the actual value of the function.
New fossil footprints excavated at the famous Laetoli site in Tanzania suggest that our bipedal ancestors had a wide range of body sizes. Walking on two hind limbs, or bipedalism, is one of the defining characteristics of the evolutionary lineage that gave rise to modern humans. Though fragments of fossilized bones suggest that this adaptation might date as far back as 7 million years ago (Zollikofer et al., 2005), this interpretation remains controversial. The earliest unequivocal evidence of bipedalism comes not from bones, but from footprints made some 3.66 million years ago and preserved at a site in Laetoli, Tanzania (Leakey and Hay, 1979). However, it is widely agreed that bipedalism most likely evolved in an ancestor whose brain was no bigger than that of a chimpanzee, and who had not yet started to make and use tools. The footprints preserved at Laetoli are what are known as "trace fossils", because they are traces of behavior rather than the petrified remains of actual body parts. The footprints were formed when three of our distant hominin relatives – most likely members of the species Australopithecus afarensis (White and Suwa, 1987) – walked in the same direction across wet volcanic ash. Millions of years later, in 1976, their preserved footprints were discovered by British paleoanthropologist Mary Leakey and co-workers, and the prints were fully excavated by 1978. Since then, the scientific and public interest in the Laetoli footprints has been extraordinary. They are mentioned in hundreds, if not thousands, of scientific works, and a Google search for "Laetoli footprints" returns 52,600 hits. Now, in eLife, Marco Cherin of the University of Perugia and Sapienza University of Rome and colleagues – who are based at institutions in Tanzania and Italy – report the discovery of a second set of preserved footprints from Laetoli (Masao et al., 2016). These new trace fossils are the same age as the first ones, and were found at a site called "Site S", which is 150 meters south of "Site G", where the original discovery was made. Cherin and colleagues – who include Fidelis Masao of the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania as first author – present captivating graphics and photographs of the new footprints and describe their setting (Figure 1). The tracks at both Site G and Site S are well preserved in the same hardened volcanic ash known as the "Footprint Tuff" on the southern edge of the Serengeti Plains. It appears that the environment when the footprints were made was not unlike what is seen in this region today – a mix of bushland, woodland and grassland with a nearby forest along the river. Footprints from a rhinoceros, a giraffe, some prehistoric horses and guinea fowl were found at the site. However, the new hominin footprints are most definitely the star attractions. They were left by two individuals – referred to as S1 and S2 – who again were most likely A. afarensis. Like the trace fossils at Site G, the newly found footprints follow a path that heads north-northwest. However, only the multiple footprints from S1 are especially informative; S2 is known from just a single print that is abnormal due to apparent slipping. When photographs of the S1 prints were carefully compared to casts of footprints from Site G, the two sets appeared to be similar in many respects. For example, the heel impressions are deep and oval, and the big toes are in line with the other toes. So far, Masao et al. have only described the features of the prints and analyzed how weight was transferred through the foot in a qualitative manner that is consistent with the earlier interpretation of the footprints at Site G (Robbins, 1987). Although the big toe appears to be the longest digit, it was not always where most force was applied when the foot pushed off from the ground (as tends to be the case for modern humans). Instead, the deepest impression in some footprints (indicating the most force) occurred more to the side of the foot. Individual toes cannot be distinguished easily from the prints, but a clear ridge was formed across the footprint when the toes gripped the wet volcanic ash and pushed it backward. At this stage of their analysis, Masao et al. have chosen not to weigh in on the debate over how similar the footprints are to those of modern humans. Previously, some have taken the footprints at Site G as early evidence that A. afarensis walked in a remarkably human-like manner (e.g., Raichlen et al., 2010; Crompton et al., 2012). Others have contested this conclusion (e.g., Meldrum et al., 2011). In fact, a recent analysis strongly suggested that the Laetoli footprints were significantly different from those of a modern human walking barefoot, and actually in some ways more similar to chimpanzee footprints (Hatala et al., 2016). Masao et al. also report several important measurements including the length and width of the prints, the angle of gait, and the step and stride lengths. Based in part on these measurements, they predicted the weight and height (or body mass and stature) of the individuals who left the footprints at the two sites. The prints at Site S were most likely left by individuals who were taller and heavier than any of the three that left prints at Site G. Of the five individuals, the lightest one left footprints at Site G and likely weighed 28.5 kg, while the heaviest walked at Site S and is estimated to have weighed as much as 48.1 kg. These estimates for body mass fit comfortably within the wide interval calculated for this species based upon fossils of its limb bones (Grabowski et al., 2015). The predicted maximum height for the S1 individual is a different matter and is surprisingly tall at roughly 165 cm. Masao et al. interpret their new data as indicating that different A. afarensis individuals might have had very different body sizes. Variation of this magnitude could imply big differences between males and females – a phenomenon referred to as "sexual dimorphism". However, this would only be the case if we assume that all the footprints are from adults, and not if younger individuals made some of the smaller ones. Nevertheless, and as Masao et al. acknowledge, the height estimates depend on a previously reported relationship between foot length and stature (Dingwall et al., 2013). It is important to note that foot length has only been roughly estimated for this ancient species, and that the height estimates would change if a different foot length-to-stature ratio was used. For example, Homo floresiensis – a species of ancient hominid from Indonesia (which have been commonly referred to as "hobbits"; Jungers et al., 2009) – had a different ratio, and if this was used instead, the estimates for the height of the tallest individual at Laetoli (S1) would shrink down to 132–148 cm. Furthermore, the shortest (called G1) would become even shorter at approximately 100 cm: a height that is more similar to that of "Lucy", the iconic skeleton of a female A. afarensis. Looking back, 2016 has been a banner year for trace fossils in human evolution (e.g., Bennett et al., 2016; Liutkus-Pierce et al., 2016; Roach et al., 2016), and these new sets of footprints from Laetoli are a fitting capstone to the year. To judge by the profound scientific impact of the first set of Laetoli footprints, we can expect the new ones to figure prominently in future narratives of the origins of humans. They will likely stimulate new research and debate for years to come. Laetoli's lost tracks: 3D generated mean shape and missing footprintsScientific Reports 6:21916.https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21916 Human-like external function of the foot, and fully upright gait, confirmed in the 3.66 million year old Laetoli hominin footprints by topographic statistics, experimental footprint-formation and computer simulationJournal of the Royal Society Interface 9:707–719.https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2011.0258 Body mass estimates of hominin fossils and the evolution of human body sizeJournal of Human Evolution 85:75–93.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.05.005 Laetoli footprints reveal bipedal gait biomechanics different from those of modern humans and chimpanzeesProceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 283:20160235.https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.0235 Radioisotopic age, formation, and preservation of Late Pleistocene human footprints at Engare Sero, TanzaniaPalaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 463:68–82.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.09.019 Ichnotaxonomy of the laetoli trackways: The earliest hominin footprintsJournal of African Earth Sciences 60:1–12.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2011.01.003 Hominid footprints from Site GIn: M. D Leakey, J. M Harris, editors. Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 497–502. Hominid footprints at Laetoli: facts and interpretationsAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology 72:485–514.https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330720409 Downloads (link to download the article as PDF) Download citations (links to download the citations from this article in formats compatible with various reference manager tools) Open citations (links to open the citations from this article in various online reference manager services) Chris Smith from The Naked Scientists interviews Marco Cherin. Fossil footprints reveal that some of our human-like ancestors could have been taller than we thought.

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