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18256919	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halidzor	Halidzor	Halidzor is a village in the Tatev Municipality of the Syunik Province in Armenia. Demographics Population The Statistical Committee of Armenia reported its population was 707 in 2010, up from 602 at the 2001 census. Features The village hosts a station of the Wings of Tatev - the world's longest non-stop double track aerial tramway. Gallery References Populated places in Syunik Province Communities in Syunik Province
18220755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly%20Hunter	Holly Hunter	Holly Hunter (born March 20, 1958) is an American actress. Hunter won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance as Ada McGrath in the 1993 drama film The Piano. She earned three additional Academy Award nominations for Broadcast News (1987), The Firm (1993), and Thirteen (2003). She won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie for the television films Roe vs. Wade (1989) and The Positively True Adventures of the Alleged Texas Cheerleader-Murdering Mom (1993). She also starred in the TNT drama series Saving Grace (2007–2010). Hunter's other film roles include Raising Arizona (1987), Always (1989), Miss Firecracker (1989), Home for the Holidays (1995), Crash (1996), O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), The Incredibles (2004) and its sequel Incredibles 2 (2018), Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016), and The Big Sick (2017), the latter of which earned her a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role. Early life Hunter was born in Conyers, Georgia, the daughter of Marguerite "Dee Dee" (née Catledge), a homemaker, and Charles Edwin Hunter, a part-time sporting goods company representative and farmer with a 250-acre farm. She is the youngest of six children. Her parents encouraged her talent at an early age, and her first acting part was as Helen Keller in a fifth-grade play. She is unable to hear with her left ear due to a childhood case of the mumps. The condition sometimes leads to complications at work, and some movie scenes have to be altered from the script for her to use her right ear. She is irreligious. She began acting at Rockdale County High School in the early 1970s, performing in local productions of Oklahoma, Man of La Mancha, and Fiddler on the Roof. Hunter earned a degree in drama from Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh and for a while performed in local theater, playing ingenue roles at City Theater, then named the City Players. Career Hunter moved to New York City and roomed with fellow actress Frances McDormand, living in the Bronx "at the end of the D [subway] train, just off 205th Street, on Bainbridge Avenue and Hull Avenue". A chance encounter with playwright Beth Henley, when the two were trapped alone in an elevator, led to Hunter's being cast in Henley's plays Crimes of the Heart (succeeding Mary Beth Hurt on Broadway), and Off-Broadway's The Miss Firecracker Contest. "It was like the beginning of 1982. It was on 49th Street between Broadway and Eighth [Avenue] ... on the south side of the street," Hunter recalled in an interview. "[We were trapped] 10 minutes; not long. We actually had a nice conversation. It was just the two of us." Hunter made her film debut in the 1981 slasher movie The Burning. After moving to Los Angeles in 1982, Hunter appeared in TV movies before being cast in a supporting role in 1984's Swing Shift. That year, she had her first collaboration with the writing-directing-producing team of brothers Ethan Coen and Joel Coen, in Blood Simple, making an uncredited appearance as a voice on an answering-machine recording. More film and television work followed until 1987, when she earned a starring role in the Coens' Raising Arizona and was nominated for an Academy Award for her performance in Broadcast News, after which Hunter became a critically acclaimed star. Hunter went on to the screen adaptation of Henley's Miss Firecracker; Steven Spielberg's Always, a romantic drama with Richard Dreyfuss; and the made-for-TV 1989 docudrama Roe vs. Wade about the Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade. Following her second collaboration with Dreyfuss, in Once Around, Hunter garnered critical attention for her work in two 1993 films, resulting in her being nominated for two Academy Awards the same year: Hunter's performance in The Firm won her a nomination as Best Supporting Actress, while her portrayal of a mute Scottish woman entangled in an adulterous affair with Harvey Keitel in Jane Campion's The Piano won her the Best Actress award. Hunter went on to star in the comedy-drama Home for the Holidays and the thriller Copycat, both in 1995. Hunter appeared in David Cronenberg's Crash and as a sardonic angel in A Life Less Ordinary. The following year, Hunter played a recently divorced New Yorker in Richard LaGravenese's Living Out Loud; starring alongside Danny DeVito, Queen Latifah, and Martin Donovan. Hunter rounded out the 1990s with a minor role in the independent drama Jesus' Son and as a housekeeper torn between a grieving widower and his son in Kiefer Sutherland's drama Woman Wanted. Following a supporting role in the Coens' O Brother, Where Art Thou?, Hunter took top billing in the same year's television movie Harlan County War, an account of labor struggles among Kentucky coal-mine workers. Hunter would continue her small screen streak with a role in When Billie Beat Bobby, playing tennis pro Billie Jean King in the fact-based story of King's exhibition match with Bobby Riggs; and as narrator of Eco Challenge New Zealand before returning to film work with a minor role in the 2002 drama Moonlight Mile. The following year found Hunter in the redemption drama Levity. In 2003, Hunter had the role of a mother named Melanie Freeland, whose daughter is troubled and going through the perils of being a teenager in the film Thirteen. The film was critically acclaimed along with Hunter and her co-stars and earned her nominations for the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. In 2004, Hunter starred alongside Brittany Murphy in the romantic satire Little Black Book, and provided the voice for Helen Parr (also known as Elastigirl) in the acclaimed computer-animated superhero film, The Incredibles. She reprised the role in the Disney Infinity video game series, and in the film's long-awaited sequel Incredibles 2 in 2018. In 2005, Hunter starred alongside Robin Williams in the black comedy-drama The Big White. Hunter became an executive producer, and helped develop a starring vehicle for herself with the TNT cable-network drama Saving Grace, which premiered in July 2007. For her acting, she received a Golden Globe Award nomination, two Screen Actors Guild Award nominations, and an Emmy Award nomination. On May 30, 2008, Hunter received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2009, she was awarded the Women in Film Lucy Award. In 2016, Hunter played Senator Finch in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Hunter's likeness was used to portray Senator Finch in the Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice tie-in prequel comics, released by Dr. Pepper on February 3, 2016. Hunter stars opposite Ted Danson in the 2021 NBC comedy Mr. Mayor. Personal life Hunter was married to Janusz Kamiński, cinematographer of Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan, from 1995 until 2001. She has been in a relationship with British actor Gordon MacDonald since 2001. The couple met in San Jose Repertory Theatre's production of playwright Marina Carr's By the Bog of Cats, in which she played a woman abandoned by her lover of 14 years, played by MacDonald. In January 2006, Hunter gave birth to the couple's twin sons, Claude and Press. Filmography Film Television Video games Theme parks Awards and nominations In 1999, Hunter received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2016, Hunter was awarded an Honorary Doctorate degree by her alma mater, Carnegie Mellon University. References External links "What people don't know about Holly" (interview), The Guardian, November 22, 2003 1958 births Living people People from Conyers, Georgia Actresses from Georgia (U.S. state) American film actresses American people of English descent American people of Scottish descent American people of Welsh descent American television actresses American voice actresses Best Actress Academy Award winners Best Actress AACTA Award winners Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners Carnegie Mellon University College of Fine Arts alumni Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses Silver Bear for Best Actress winners Best Actress BAFTA Award winners American agnostics
208214	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%98	უშაფათი	უშაფათი — სოფელი საქართველოში, სამეგრელო-ზემო სვანეთის მხარის სენაკის მუნიციპალიტეტში, თემის ცენტრი (სოფლები: ლეგოგინე, ლეკოკაიე, უშაფათი). მდებარეობს ოდიშის ვაკეზე, ზღვის დონიდან 85 მ სიმაღლეზე. ქალაქ სენაკიდან დაშორებულია 27 კილომეტრით. დემოგრაფია 2014 წლის აღწერის მონაცემებით სოფელში ცხოვრობს 389 ადამიანი. ლიტერატურა სქოლიო სენაკის მუნიციპალიტეტის სოფლები
62481928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%20Azerbaijani%20parliamentary%20election	2020 Azerbaijani parliamentary election	2020 Azerbaijani parliamentary election Parliamentary elections were held in Azerbaijan on 9 February 2020. They were originally scheduled to take place in November 2020, but were brought forward after parliament was dissolved in December 2019. Opposition parties accused President Ilham Aliyev of limiting their ability to campaign and called for a boycott of the election. The ruling New Azerbaijan Party retained its majority, winning 72 of the 125 seats, although this was later reduced to 70 when results in two constituencies were annulled. The second largest party (the Civic Solidarity Party) won only three seats. Electoral system The 125 members of the National Assembly were elected in single-member constituencies using the first-past-the-post system. Campaign A total of 1,314 candidates contested the elections; 1,057 ran as independents, with 246 running as candidates of 19 different parties and 11 as nominees of initiative groups. Although a significant part of the opposition boycotted the elections, some parties (e.g. Musavat) announced that they would participate. Results The New Azerbaijan Party was initially reported to have won 72 seats, with 43 taken by independents. However, the results in four constituencies were later annulled by the Election Commission, with the New Azerbaijan Party and independents both losing two seats. Erkin Gadirli of the Republican Alternative Party won a seat running as an independent. Razi Nurullayev, the chairman of the spitter group from Azerbaijani Popular Front Party won a seat running as an independent. Aftermath The newly elected National Assembly met for the first time on 10 March and elected Sahiba Gafarova as Speaker. References Azerbaijan Azerbaijan Parliamentary election February 2020 events in Asia Parliamentary elections in Azerbaijan Election and referendum articles with incomplete results
77752	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0-%E1%83%9F%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%20%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98	პიერ-ჟოზეფ პრუდონი	პიერ-ჟოზეფ პრუდონი (დ. 15 იანვარი, 1809 — გ. 19 იანვარი, 1865) — ფრანგი პუბლიცისტი, სოციალისტური მიმდევრობის პოლიტიკური ფილოსოფოსი და ეკონომისტი, ანარქიზმის ერთ-ერთი ფუძემდებელი. პირველმა უწოდა საკუთარ თავს „ანარქისტი“ (1848 წლის შემდეგ საკუთარ თავს უკვე „ფედერალისტს“ უწოდებდა). მუშაობდა პუბლიცისტად და თავად ისწავლა ლათინური, რათა ამ ენაზე წიგნების ბეჭდვა შეძლებოდა. პრუდონის ერთ-ერთი ყველაზე ცნობილი გამოთქმაა „საკუთრება მძარცველობაა“ ნაშრომში „რა არის საკუთრება?“, სადაც ის მთავრობისა და საკუთრების პრინციპებს განიხილავდა (თავდაპირველი სათაური იყო „Qu'est-ce que la propriété? Recherche sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement“), მის პირველ მნიშვნელოვან ნაშრომში, რომელიც 1840 წელს გამოქვეყნდა. შეიუმუშავა ე. წ. პრუდონიზმი. ლიტერატურა რესურსები ინტერნეტში პიერ-ჟოზეფ პრუდონი, ბიოგრაფიული ცნობები. ფრანგი პუბლიცისტები ფრანგი ეკონომისტები ანარქისტები დაბადებული 15 იანვარი დაბადებული 1809 გარდაცვლილი 19 იანვარი გარდაცვლილი 1865
131258	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98	ალექსანდრე ერქომაიშვილი	ალექსანდრე ერქომაიშვილი (დ. 1887 — გ. 1937) — ქართველი რევოლუციონერი. რეპრესირებული. ბიოგრაფია დაიბადა 1887 წლის 12 დეკემბერს სოფელ წითელმთაში (ოზურგეთის მაზრა). სწვალობდა თბილისის კომერციულ სასწავლებელში, სადაც ჩაება რევოლუციურ მოძრაობაში. მონაწილეობდა 1905-1907 წლების რევოლუციაში. 1907-1917 წლებში ერქომაიშვილი გადასახლებული იყო ქალაქ კრასნოიარსკში. 1917 წლის თებერვლის რევოლუციის შემდეგ გახდა კრასნოიარსკის მუშათა და ჯარისკაცთა დეპუტატების საბჭოს თავმჯდომარეა. 1917 წლის მაისში ის ერქომაიშვილი თბილისში დაბრუნდა. 1918-1920 წლებში მუშაობდა ცეკავშირში. საქართველოში საბჭოთა ხელისუფლების დამყარების შემდეგ ერქომაიშვილი მუშაობდა სხვადასხვა თანამდებობებზე. იყო სასურსათო საქმეთა სახალხო კომისარი, ამიერკავკასიის საფინანსო ინსტიტუტის დირექტორი, საქართველოს პედაგოგიური ინსტიტუტის რექტორი (1931-1932 წწ.), უმაღლესი სასოფლო-სამეურნეო კომუნისტური სკოლის დირექტორი. დახვრიტეს 1937 წელს. რესურსები ინტერნეტში ქართველი რევოლუციონერები დაბადებული 1887 გარდაცვლილი 1937 ოზურგეთის მუნიციპალიტეტში დაბადებულები საბჭოთა კავშირის რეპრესიების მსხვერპლნი საქართველოში თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის რექტორები ალექსანდრე
13865321	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droshky	Droshky	Droshky A droshky or drosky is a term used for a four-wheeled open carriage used especially in Russia. The vehicle has a long bench on which the driver or passengers sit as if on a saddle, either astride or sideways. From droga, the pole that connects the front and rear axles. See also Horses in Russia References Carriages Russian inventions
57140410	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agata%20Biernat	Agata Biernat	Agata Biernat (born 1989) is a Polish beauty pageant titleholder who won the Miss Polonia 2017. she represented Poland at the Miss World 2018 pageant in China, in December. Personal life Biernat lives in Zduńska Wola, Poland. She has been involved in dance and sport since childhood, since she was a child she trained dance and athletics . She is a dance instructor in many dance styles, including pole dance, as well as fitness instructor and personal trainer. Biernat started to compete at Miss Polonia in 2009. She was placing as the First Runner-up while Maria Nowakowska won the title and competed at the Miss Universe 2010 in Las Vegas. In 2017 she finally won the national title. The Miss Polonia Organization was recently granted the rights to send the Polish contestant to Miss World (their last year was 2006). Agata was chosen to represent Poland and was officially crowned Miss World Poland 2018 in a small ceremony. Since the Miss World and Miss Universe pageants conflict in terms of dates, the new Miss Polonia 2018 will compete in Miss World. Achievements Miss Polonia 2017. References External links misspolonia.com.pl missuniverse.com agatabiernat.com Living people 1989 births Miss World 2018 delegates Polish beauty pageant winners
310289	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94	ერმილე ნაკაშიძე	ერმილე ნაკაშიძე (დ. 8 ივლისი, 1859, მაკვანეთი — გ. 7 მაისი, 1937, თბილისი) — ქართველი აგრონომი, მეღვინე, მეჩაიე, მეჩაიეობის დარგის ერთ-ერთი ფუძემდებელი საქართველოში. ბიოგრაფია განათლება ისტორიული ცნობების თანახმად, ნაკაშიძეების წარჩინებული თავადური გვარიდან მაკვანეთში მხოლოდ ერმილე და ბეჟან ნაკაშიძეები ცხოვრობდნენ. მისი დედა, მაკა, რაჭის ერისთავის, გრიგოლის, ასული იყო. მამა, კაცია ნაკაშიძე, გარდაიცვალა 30 წლის ასაკში, როცა ერმილე 2 წლის იყო. ერმილე ნაკაშიძემ პირველადი განათლება სოფელ ლიხაურის დაწყებით სკოლაში მიიღო, შემდეგ ოზურგეთის საქალაქო სასწავლებელში გადავიდა. აგრონომიის მიმართ ინტერესი ნაკაშიძემ ჯერ კიდევ ოზურგეთში, სკოლაში სწავლისას გამოიჩინა. მან სახლში მოაწყო პატარა სანერგე, სადაც თხილის, ვაშლი,ს თუთისა და კაკლის ნერგებს ამყნიდა და ახალი ჯიშები გამოჰყავდა. მან გამოიყვანა კაკლის გაუმჯობესებული ჯიში, რომელიც ძვირფას სამერქნე მასალას იძლეოდა. 1879 წლიდან ნაკაშიძემ სწავლა ქუთაისის კლასიკურ გიმნაზიაში IV კლასის მოსწავლედ გააგრძელა. გიმნაზიაში მასთან ერთად, მისი მკვიდრი მამიდაშვილი, ექვთიმე თაყაიშვილი და ნიკო მარი სწავლობდნენ. 1883 წელს ნაკაშიძემ დაასრულა გიმნაზია, მაგრამ უსახსრობის გამო ვერ ახერხებდა უმაღლესი განათლების მიღებას მანამ, სანამ ქუთაისის სათავადაზნაურო ბანკმა 5 სტიპენდია არ დანიშნ იმ პირთათვის, ვინც უმაღლეს სასოფლო-სამეურნეო სასწავლებელში წავიდოდა სასწავლებლად. ერთი სტიპენდია ნაკაშიძემ მიიღო და სწავლა პოლონეთში, ნოვოალექსანდრიის (ამჟამინდელი სახელი Puławy) სასოფლო–სამეურნეო და სატყეო ინსტიტუტში გააგრძელა. ის სასწავლებელში ერთადერთი სტუდენტი იყო ამიერკავკასიიდან. საფილოქსერო დასი სწავლის დასრულების შემდეგ, 1886 წელს, ნაკაშიძე დაბრუნდა სამშობლოში და აქტიურად ჩაება საზოგადოებრივ და სამეურნეო ცხოვრებაში. დაბრუნებისთანავე, 1887 წლიდან, ნაკაშიძე ჩაერთო ილია წინამძღვრიშვილის მიერ დაფუძნებული ქართული სამეურნეო სკოლის მუშაობაში. იგი დაინიშნა სასწავლებლის მმართველად. 1892 წელს, წარმატებული შრომის შემდეგ ნაკაშიძემ სასწავლებელი დატოვა და დაიკავა აგრონომ-ინსპექტორის თანამდებობა „ფილოქსერასთან მებრძოლ კავკასიის კომიტეტში“, რომელიც სახელმწიფოს მიერ დაარსებული დაწესებულება იყო და მიზნად ადგილობრივი მევენახეობის გადარჩენას ისახავდა. ნაკაშიძემ მოიარა საქართველოს მევენახეობის თითქმის ყველა რეგიონი, რათა ადგილზე შეემოწმებინა ფილოქსერითა და სხვა დაავადებებით დაზიანებული ვენახების მდგომარეობა და დახმარება გაეწია მოსახლეობისათვის მათ წინააღმდეგ საბრძოლველად. 1892 წლის ივნისში ერმილე ნაკაშიძემ მოიარა იმერეთის მრავალი სოფელი, სადაც ის აკვირდებოდა გავრცელებულ სოკოვან დაავადებებს. პრაქტიკული დახმარება გაუწია მოსახლეობას ვენახების წამლობასთან დაკავშირებით. ის მუშაობდა შემდეგ სოფლებში: ჯოკოეთი, კაცხი, ნავარზეთი, რგანი, ბუნიკაური, სარქველთუბანი, ზადარგანი, ტაბაკრება, დარკვეთი, კრონისი, მღვიმე, ხოლიპირი და წირქვალი. ნაკაშიძემ შეამოწმა აგრეთვე კახეთის რაიონებისა და ზაქათალის ოლქის მევენახეობის მდგომარეობა. იგი დამხმარე პერსონალთან ეწეოდა პროპაგანდას ამ რაიონებში ვაზის წამლობის ახალი წესების დასანერგად. პრაქტიკულად ეხმარებოდა მის მფლობელებს ვენახის მოვლასა და შეწამვლაში, აგრეთვე, ღვინის ტექნოლოგიის გაუმჯობესებაში. ნაკაშიძის იმდროინდელი მოხსენების მიხედვით, სოკოვანი დაავადებებით მეტად დაზიანებული ვენახები იყო ალაზნის გაღმა მხარეში, რასაც ხსნიდა ვაზის შესაწამლი მასალებისა და საწყობების უქონლობით. მხარეში ერთადერთი საწყობი ყვარელში მდებარეობდა და ვერ აკმაყოფილებდა ვენახის მფლობელთა დიდ მოთხოვნილებებს. ნაკაშიძის ძალისხმევამ, გაეუმჯობესებინა დაღუპვის პირას მდგარი კახეთის მევენახეობა, შედეგი გამოიღო – არსებული ვითარება თანდათან უმჯობესდებოდა. მევენახეობისა და მეღვინეობის საკითხებზე მუშაობის შედეგად ნაკაშიძემ 1896 წელს კრებულში „Сборник сведений по виноградарству и виноделии на Кавказе“ გამოსცა ორი ნაშრომი: „Виноградарство в Имеретии“ (Вып. Ш) და „Очерк виноградарства и виноделия Гурии и Мингрелии“ (Вып. IV). ნაკაშიძე „საფილოქსერო დასის“ საქმიანობას ძირითადი დანიშნულების გარდა, იყენებდა პოლიტიკური მიზნითაც, კერძოდ რეგიონებში გლეხთა შორის პოლიტიკური განათლებისა და პროპაგანდის მიზნით. „საფილოქსერო დასში“ ის 1896 წლამდე მუშაობდა, თუმცა შემდგომაც არაოფიციალურად განაგრძობდა მევენახეობის ხელშეწყობას. მოღვაწეობა გურიაში ერმილე ნაკაშიძის მეუღლე ივლიტა (იტა) ასათიანი იყო პედაგოგი, პუბლიცისტი, წერა–კითხვის გამვრცელებელი საზოგადოების წევრი. მან მეუღლესთან ერთად საკუთარ მამულში ოთხკლასიანი სკოლა დააარსა, სადაც ცოლ–ქმარი ერთად ასწავლიდნენ. მათი ოჯახი განათლებისა და კულტურის ერთ-ერთი კერა იყო გურიაში. ერმილე ნაკაშიძეს და მის მეუღლეს 5 შვილი – ერთი ვაჟი და ოთხი ქალიშვილი – ჰყავდათ. მათ შორის ელენე ნაკაშიძე — მედიცინის მეცნიერებათა დოქტორი. შემდგომში 1890-იან წლებში ნაკაშიძემ პრესის მეშვეობით გამოაქვეყნა იდეა სამეურნეო კოლონიების მოწყობისა. მისი ხედვით სამეურნეო განათლების მქონე პირებს სოფლად უნდა მოეწყოთ სანიმუშო მეურნეობები, კოოპერატივები. იდეას დიდი მხარდაჭერა არ ჰქონია. ამიტომ ნაკაშიძემ თავად დააარსა ასეთი კოლონია მშობლიურ სოფელ მაკვანეთში და ბაზად საკუთარი მამული აქცია. 900 კვადრატული საჟენი მიწა მან აჩუქა სოფლის სკოლას საცდელი ნაკვეთების მოსაწყობად, გადასცა მას ლიტერატურა და გამოიწერა პრესა. მისი მეუღლის ხელმძღვანელობით კი ტარდებოდა კურსები სოფლად მცხოვრები ბავშვებისთვის. მეურნეობაში ნაკაშიძემ სხვადასხვა ჯიშის ხეხილი და ვაზი გააშენა, გამოჰყო ნაკვეთი ექსპერიმენტებისთვის, პარალელურად თანამშრომლობდა სხვადასხვა სამეურნეო გამოცემებთან. მან პირველმა აღძრა საკითხი, გახსნილიყო ოზურგეთში სასოფლო-სამეურნეო სასწავლებელი. ამისთვის პროექტი და სასწავლო პროგრამაც შეიმუშავა. მისი პროექტის მიხედვით სასწავლებელში მეაბრეშუმეობა, მეფუტკრეობა, მებაღეობა, მევენახეობა-მეღვინეობა, მესაქონლეობა და მემინდვრეობა უნდა ესწავლებინათ. 1896-1905 წლებში ნაკაშიძე მუშაობდა მიწათმოქმედების დეპარტამენტში აგრონომ-ინსპექტორად. ამ პერიოდში ნაკაშიძე ხელმძღვანელობდა გურია–სამეგრელოსა და აფხაზეთში ჩაისა და თხილის კულტურის ფართოდ გავრცელებას. 1909 წელს იყო მივლენილი ოსმალეთის იმპერიაში, კერძოდ ლაზეთში იქაური თხილის, ჩაისა და თამბაქოს, ასევე სხვა სუბტროპიკული კულტურების მეურნეობების შესასწავლად, რის შემდეგაც მან თხილის საუკეთესო ჯიშები საქართველოში ჩამოიტანა. ამ მოგზაურობის ამსახველ ამბებს მან ვრცელი სტატიები მიუძღვნა. ნაკაშიძე 1905-1911 წლებში ხელმძღვანელობდა ოზურგეთის ჩაის საცდელ პლანტაციას. მან მოსახლეობას შეასწავლა შინამრეწველური წესით ჩაის ფოთლის გადამუშავება. ნაკაშიძემ სოფელ მაკვანეთში მდებარე თავის მამულში, ჩაის პლანტაცია გააშენა, სადაც კუსტარული მეთოდით ამუშავებდა ჩაის ფოთოლს და უშვებდა პროდუქციას. ნაკაშიძემ საკუთარ პროდუქტს საკუთარი და მისივე მეუღლის, იტას სახელების მიხედვით „ერმილიტა“ დაარქვა. ნაკაშიძე დაინტერესებულ მეურნეებს პრესის საშუალებით აწვდიდა რჩევებს ჩაის ბუჩქის მოვლასთან დაკავშირებით, ურჩევდა მათ, რაციონალურად გამოეყენებინათ ფართობი. ნაკაშიძის თაოსნობით მოსახლეობამ სხვა კულტურებთან ერთად, ხელი მოჰკიდა ლიმონის, ფორთოხლის, მანდარინისა და სხვა სუბტროპიკული მცენარეების გაშენებას. 1911 წლის მოხსენებაში მისი ყურადღება დაფნამაც მიიპყრო. მისი თქმით დაფნის ფოთოლს ერთ საუკუნეზე მეტი იყო, რაც სამეგრელოში აგროვებდნენ და ზღვით რუსეთში გაჰქონდათ. როგორც ოზურგეთის თამბაქოს საცდელი პლანტაციის გამგე, მონაწილეობდა თამბაქოს გაშენებისა და მოვლა-მოყვანის საქმეში. 1911 წელს მისი ხელმშღვანელობით დაარსდა „გურიის მებაღეთა საკრედიტო ამხანაგობა“, რომელსაც ორი წლის თავზე უკვე 393 წევრი ჰყავდა. ამხანაგობის მიზანი იყო სამეურნეო დარგების წახალისება, ტექნოლოგიური განათლების გავრცელება. 1914 წელს ერმილე ნაკაშიძის ხელმძღვანელობით, ზვანში, თამბაქოს საცდელ პლანტაციაში, გურიაში პირველი, სრულყოფილი ჩაის გადამამუშავებელი ფაბრიკა აშენდა. ნაკაშიძის სანიმუშო მეურნეობა მძიმედ დაზარალდა 1918 წლის გაზაფხულზე ოსმალეთის იმპერიის ჯარების მიერ ბათუმის ოლქისა და ოზურგეთის მაზრის დაკავების შემდეგ. ოსმალეთის ჯარები ქართულმა ძალებმა შეაჩერეს, თუმცა ოსმალებმა მოახერხეს ქალაქ ოზურგეთისა და მიმდებარე სოფლების დაკავება რამდენიმე თვით და მათი განადგურება. ამას შეეწირა ნაკაშიძის სახლი და მეურნეობა. მან მეურნეობის აღდგენა ვეღარ შეძლო და საცხოვრებლად თბილისში გადავიდა. მოღვაწეობა თბილისში პირველი რესპუბლიკის პერიოდში, 1921 წლამდე, ნაკაშიძე მიწათმოქმედების სამინიტროს სპეციალისტად მიიწვიეს. იგი იყო ჯერ სახალხო მამულების სპეციალისტი, შემდგომ მებაღე-მევენახეობის, სუბტროპიკული და სამკურნალო მცენარეთა განყოფილებების ინსპექტორი და განაგებდა დასავლეთ საქართველოში სუბტროპიკულ და სამკურნალო მცენარეთა კულტურების მიმართულებას. ამავე დროს ხელმძღვანელობდა აღნიშნული დარგების სანერგეებს, 1921 წლიდან, საქართველოს საბჭოთა ოკუპაციის შემდეგ ნაკაშიძე მუშაობდა მიწათმოქმედების სახალხო კომისარიატში და კვლავ ცდილობდა ჩაისა და ციტრუსების გაშენების კამპანიის გაგრძელებას. მისი ძალისხმევით გაიხსნა სასოფლო-სამეურნეო სასწავლებლები აკეთსა და გორაბერეჟოულში. მონაწილეობდა ნოსირსა და მშობლიურ მაკვანეთში ჩაის მეურნეობების გაშენებაში, ზედამხედველობას უწევდა ჩაქვის, სალიბაურისა და ზედუბნის სახალხო სუბტროპიკულ მეურნეობებს. 1925 წელს ის თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის აგრონომიულმა ფაკულტეტმა ლექტორად მიიწვია, მაგრამ ასაკში შესულმა ნაკაშიძემ საუნივერსიტეტო საქმიანობა ვერ შეძლო. 1919 წელს რეპრესიებისას მას პენსია ჩამოართვეს, მაგრამ ძველი ნაცნობი ბოლშევიკების წყალობით, ისევ დაუბრუნეს. პენსიაში გასვლის შემდეგ ნაკაშიძე აქტიურად აგრძელებდა მუშაობას საგამომცემლო მიმართულებით. აქვეყნებდა წერილებს სოფლის მეურნეობის აქტუალურ საკითხებზე, გამოსცა წიგნები და ბროშურები: „პამიდორის შენახვა საზამთროდ“, „ნიადაგი შემოდგომაზე უნდა დაიბაროს” და სხვა. 1928 წელს გამოვიდა ნაკაშიძის წიგნი „ჩაის ბუჩქი, მისი გაშენება და ჩაის დამუშავება“. მევენახეობა – მეღვინეობას ის ისევ დაუბრუნდა 1929 წელს და გამოაქვეყნა წიგნი „მევენახეობა–მეღვინეობა გურია-სამეგრელოში, აჭარაში და აფხაზეთში.“ 1930 წელს ნაკაშიძემ გამოსცა წიგნი „ზეთისხილის ხე, მისი გაშენება და მოვლა“, რომელშიც დაახასიათა ეს მცენარე, აღწერა მისი ბიო-ეკოლოგიური თვისებები, ჯიშები, მოთხოვნილებები ნიადაგისა და ჰავისადმი, გამრავლების ხერხები და სხვა. ი. ქურდიანთან ერთად ნაკაშიძემ 1932 წელს გამოსცა ორტომიანი სახელმძღვანელო – „ტექნიკური კულტურები”, რომელიც აქტიურად გამოიყენებოდა სოფლის მეურნეობის მუშაკებისა და სტუდენტების მიერ. ნაკაშიძის ავტორობით 1934 წელს გამოიცა წიგნი „ნარინჯოვნები“, რომელშიც ყოველმხრივაა დახასიათებული მანდარინი, ფორთოხალი, ლიმონი, ნარინჯი, ლაიმი, სამყურა ლიმონი და სხვა. 1937 წლის რეპრესიებისას დააპატიმრეს მისი ვაჟი ლევანი, რომელსაც ფიზიკოსის განათლება საზღვარგარეთ, გერმანიაში, ჰქონდა მიღებული. შვილის ტრაგედია ნაკაშიძემ ვერ გადაიტანა და იმავე წელსვე გარდაიცვალა. დაკრძალულია თბილისში, ვაკის სასაფლაოზე. ბიბლიოგრაფია 1895. აბუსალათინი (ზეთის მცენარე) და მისი მოშენება, ქუთაისი. „მეურნის“ რედ. გამოცემა. 24 გვ. 1927. თხილი, მისი გაშენება და მოვლა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“, 39 გვ. 1927. სიმინდის ჩრჩილი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 16 გვ. 1928. ჩაის ბუჩქი, მისი გაშენება და ჩაის დამუშავება. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 72გვ. ილ. 1929. მევენახეობა-მეღვინეობა გურია-სამეგრელოში, აჭარაში და აფხაზეთში. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. ტფილისი. 60 გვ. 1930. აბუსალათინი და მისი მოყვანა. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. ტფილისი. 27გვ. 1930. ზეთის ხილის ხე, მისი გაშენება და მოვლა. გამოცემლობა „სახელგამი“. ტფილისი. 19 გვ. 1930. მანდარინის გაშენება და მოვლა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 42გვ. 1931. ლუფა ანუ მცენარის ღრუბელი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 30გვ. 1931. ნაგავიც სიმდიდრეა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 16 გვ. 1931. რამი ანუ ჩინური ჭინჭარი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 39გვ. 1931. საქონლის საკვების დამჟავება ანუ დასილოსება. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 41გვ. 1932. ბეღლის მავნებლები და მათთან ბრძოლა. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 3გვ. ილ. 1932. ტეხნიკური კულტურები. ნაწილი 1. ზეთოვანი მცენარეები (სოია, არახისი, მზესუმზირა, აბუსალათინი). 112 გვ. ტეხნიკური კულტურები. ნაწილი 2. ბოჭკოვანი მცენარეები. 91 გვ. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 1934. ნარინჯოვანნი. ტფილისი. გამომცემლობა „სახელგამი“. 93 გვ. ილ ლიტერატურა კალანდაძე, ბ. „ქართული ღვინისა და ალკოჰოლური სასმელების მატიანე“ გვ. 220 — „პეტიტი“, თბილისი, 2008 სარიშვილი, ი. „სოფლის მეურნეობის ქართველი მოღვაწეები“ გვ. 79 — თბილისი, 1965 რესურსები ინტერნეტში ერმილე ნაკაშიძე, მევენახეობა-მეღვინეობა გურია-სამეგრელოში, აჭარაში და აფხაზეთში ქართველი აგრონომები დაბადებული 8 ივლისი დაბადებული 1848 გარდაცვლილი 7 მაისი გარდაცვლილი 1937 ოზურგეთის მუნიციპალიტეტში დაბადებულები საქართველოს საისტორიო და საეთნოგრაფიო საზოგადოების წევრები
134253	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98	თებეს ლეგიონი	თებეს ლეგიონი (აგრეთვე ცნობილი როგორც აგაუნუმის წამებულები) ქრისტიანული ჰაგიოგრაფიის გმირები. რომაული ლეგიონი, რომელიც შედგებოდა ექვსი ათას ექვსას სამოცდაექვსი ადამიანისგან. ჰაგიოგრაფი წმინდა მორისის მიხედვით, მათ მასიურად მოაქციეს ხალხი ქრისტიანობაზე და ეწამნენ ერთად 286 წელს. მათი ხსენების დღე არის 22 სექტემბერს.
6913641	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arve%20River%20%28Tasmania%29	Arve River (Tasmania)	Arve River (Tasmania) The Arve River is a river in the southeast region of Tasmania, Australia. The river rises below Devils Backbone in the Hartz Mountains and flows generally north towards the Arve Plains. It reaches its confluence with the Huon River west of Huonville. The river descends over its course. See also List of rivers of Tasmania References Rivers of Tasmania Southern Tasmania
305730	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90	კრევოს უნია	კრევოს უნია — ხელშეკრულება, რომლითაც შეიქმნა დინასტიური გაერთიანება პოლონეთსა და ლიტვას შორის. ლიტვის მეფე იაგაილო დაქორწინდა პოლონეთის დედოფალ იადვიგაზე. კრევოს უნიას ხელი მოაწერეს 1385 წლის 14 აგვისტოს კრევოს ციხესიმაგრეში (თანამედროვე ბელარუსი, სოფელი კრევო). ხელშეკრულების თანახმად იაგაილომ აიღო რამდენიმე ვალდებულება: ლიტვა გადაიყვანა ლათინურ დამწერლობაზე; ხელს შუეწყბდა პოლონეთისათვის დაკარგული ტერიტორიების დაბრუნებას; იადვიგას ყოფილ ქმარს გადაუხდიდა კომპესაციას საქორწინო ხელშეკრულების დარღვევისათვის. ჯარი, საამართლო და საკანონმდებლო ხელისუფლება, აგრეთვე ხაზინა შეინარჩუნა ორივე სამეფომ. უნიამ იარსება 1569 წლამდე, როდესაც ორივე სახელმწიფომ ხელი მოაწერა ლუბლინის უნიას, რომლის ძალითაც ჩამოყალიბდა არჩევითი მონარქია რეჩ პოსპოლიტა. იხილეთ აგრეთვე სამშვიდობო ხელშეკრულებების სია ლიტერატურა პოლონეთის ისტორია
364918	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98	გორის ტროლეიბუსი	გორის ტროლეიბუსი — გაუქმებული ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა ქ. გორში. ეს იყო უკანასკნელი მოქმედი ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა საქართველოს მიერ კონტროლირებად ტერიტორიაზე (ერთადერთი ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა, რომელიც საქართველოში შემორჩა სოხუმის ტროლეიბუსია). ისტორია ტროლეიბუსის სისტემა გორში 1972 წლის 30 აპრილს ამოქმედდა. ამავე წელს გაიხსნა მეორე ხაზიც. 1970-იან წლებში გორის ტროლეიბუსის ქსელი სწრაფად იზრდებოდა, 1979 წლისთვის ქალაქში უკვე 3 ტროლეიბუსის ხაზი იყო. ბოლო, მე-4 ხაზი ექსპლუატაციაში შევიდა 1981 წელს. გორში პირველი ტროლეიბუსები 22 ჩეხოსლოვაკიური Škoda 9Tr იყო, რომლებიც ქალაქმა 1972 წელს მიიღო. ეს ტროლეიბუსები იყო ორ და სამკარიანი. 1984 წელს ქალაქმა მიიღო 3 ახალი Škoda 14Tr. 1990 წელს მოძრავი შემადგენლობა შეივსო 2 ტროლეიბუსით ЗиУ-9. ტროლეიბუსის დეპო მდებარეობდა ცხინვალის გზატკეცილზე. არსებული ხაზები გორის ცენტრს აკავშირებდა გარეუბნებთან და უახლოეს სოფლებთან: № 1: პურის ქარხანა — მიკრორაიონი კვერნაქი — სოფელი ორთაშენი № 2: რკინიგზის სადგური — სოფელი ტინისხიდი № 3: დავით აღმაშენებლის მოედანი — მიკრორაიონი კომბინატი № 4: რკინიგზის სადგური — დავით აღმაშენებლის მოედანი სსრკ-ს დაშლასთან ერთად გორის ტროლეიბუსი აღმოჩნდა მძიმე მდგომარეობაში. ჩეხოსლოვაკიურმა Škoda 9Tr-ებმა უკვე ამოწურეს თავისი რესურსი, ახალი ტროლეიბუსების ყიდვისთვის საჭირო სახსრები კი ტროლეიბუსების პარკს არ გააჩნდა. ამიტომ 1990-იან წლებში მოხდა მოძრავი შემადგენლობის მასიურად ჩამოწერა — ტროლეიბუსები დაშალეს რათა მათი ნაწილები გამოეყენებინათ შედარებით ახალი ტროლეიბუსების შესაკეთებლად. გაუქმდა მარშრუტები № 1 და № 3. 2006 წელს თბილისის ტროლეიბუსის გაუქმების შემდეგ თბილისიდან გორში ჩაიტანეს ათენისგან ნაყიდი ტროლეიბუსები ЗиУ-9. 2006 წლისთვის სულ ორ მარშრუტზე მუშაობდა 12 ტროლეიბუსი. 2008 წლის ომის დროს რუსული ავია დაბომბვების გამო დაზიანდა მარშრუტი № 4, რომელიც ომის შემდეგ აღარ აღდგა. 2008-2010 წლებში ქალაქში მოქმედებდა ერთადერთი მარშრუტი № 2 რკინიგზის სადგურიდან სოფელ ტინისხიდამდე. 2009 წელს ტროლეიბუსების პარკი შეივსო რუსთავიდან ჩამოტანილი ტროლეიბუსებით, სადაც ტროლეიბუსი გაუქმდა. გორის ტროლეიბუსი თავისი არსებობის ბოლო წელს მუშაობდა 9-დან 16:30 საათამდე და მგზავრობის ღირებულება 10 თეთრი იყო. 2010 წლის 29 მარტს გორში ტროლეიბუსების მოძრაობა შეწყდა, ხოლო ამავე წლის აპრილში მიღებულ იქნა ტროლეიბუსის გაუქმების გადაწყვეტილება. გორის ტროლეიბუსი ფილმებში გორის ტროლეიბუსის ხილვა შეიძლება რენი ჰარლინის ფილმში „აგვისტოს 5 დღე“, როცა ფილმის მთავარი გმირები სხედან კაფეში სტალინის გამზირზე და უკანა პლანზე გაივლის ტროლეიბუსი Škoda 9Tr. საქართველოს ტროლეიბუსის სისტემების სია ბათუმი (გაუქმებულია) გორი (გაუქმებულია) ზესტაფონი (შეწყდა მშენებარე) ზუგდიდი (გაუქმებულია) თბილისი (გაუქმებულია) ოზურგეთი (გაუქმებულია) რუსთავი (გაუქმებულია) სამტრედია (გაუქმებულია) სოხუმი (მოქმედია) ფოთი (გაუქმებულია) ქობულეთი (შეწყდა მშენებარე) ქუთაისი (გაუქმებულია) ცხინვალი (გაუქმებულია) ჭიათურა (გაუქმებულია) წყარო ლიტერატურა KLEMENT, Radim. Konec trolejbusů v Gruzii. Československý dopravák. 2010, roč. IX., čís. 4, s. 40–44. რესურსები ინტერნეტში გორის Škoda 9Tr და Škoda 14Tr-ის ფოტო გორი ტროლეიბუსის სისტემები საქართველოში‎
68001234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossacks%20%28video%20games%20series%29	Cossacks (video games series)	Cossacks (video games series) Cossacks is a series of real-time strategy video games developed by Ukrainian video game developer GSC Game World for Microsoft Windows. Games Cossacks: European Wars (2001) Cossacks II: Napoleonic Wars (2005) Cossacks 3 (2016) Reception References External links Cossacks Official website Real-time strategy video games Video game franchises introduced in 2001 Video games developed in Ukraine Windows games
35326487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby%20Hirose	Ruby Hirose	Ruby Hirose Ruby Sakae Hirose (1904–1960) was an American biochemist and bacteriologist. She did research on blood clotting and thrombin, allergies, and researched cancer using antimetabolites. Family and early life Ruby Hirose was born to Shiusaka (father) Hirose and Tome (née Kurai) in Kent, Washington, on August 30, 1904. She was the second child of seven children in the family, but because the first child died very young, grew up as the oldest child of six in the family. She had four sisters and one brother, and they lived in the White River (Shirakawa) area around Seattle. The second child in the family was Fumiko, two years younger than Ruby. Fumi, as she was called, contracted tuberculosis as did her mother. Fumi died in 1925 and her mother Tome died in 1934. The third child in the family was brother Kimeo, who was two years younger than Fumi and excelled in sports in high school, lettering in three sports, and was named football captain and class treasurer. He lived until 1991. Mary, the next sibling, was a year younger than Kimeo. The last two children were twin girls: Toki and Tomo, born in 1912, were three years younger than Mary and 9 years younger than Ruby. Sister Tomo died in 1928 at age 16. Ruby's father was born in a Tokyo suburb, only had a middle school education, and according to Ruby, was in some type of manufacturing in Japan, but it failed. Ruby's mother Tome's family were dry goods merchants. After Shiusaka's business failed, they decided to come to America, settle in the Seattle area, and try farming for a living. Because the Naturalization Act of 1870 only extended citizenship rights to African Americans, Asians were deemed "aliens ineligible for citizenship". Several states, but specifically Washington, used this status to deny Asians from owning property because they were "aliens ineligible for citizenship", which was a way to discriminate without reference to particular racial categories. These provisions were not held unconstitutional until 1952. Thus, the lease for the Hirose land and some later land purchases were in Ruby's name because she was a natural-born American. In high school, Ruby said she felt no particular prejudice, but that later Japanese American children did. She said that the teachers showed prejudice in favor of the white pupils. Still, Ruby was popular and took part in athletics and sang in the glee club and in the operetta. Ruby said her preference was to associate with white students in high school as well as college, as opposed to associating with the Japanese children. Ruby was somewhat religious, attending Sunday School at the First Methodist Church and also taking part in the Japanese Students Christian Association which met at the University YMCA. She also helped at the Japanese Baptist Church in Seattle, but preferred to attend the American churches. Education at University of Washington The Issei, or first generation, were the first people to immigrate to the U.S. from Japan. Because of this, they wanted their children, the Nisei (of which Ruby was one), to learn Japanese language, culture, and religious traditions. The White River Buddhist Church was the second Buddhist church in King County In 1912, the White River Japanese Language School ("Nihongo Gakko") was opened at and under the auspices of the White River Buddhist Church. The area of White River was called Shirakawa, which literally means White River in Japanese. Shirakawa included the areas of Auburn, Thomas, and Christopher. In 1929, Ruby's father, Shiusaku Hirose, was the president of the Thomas Japanese Association. Under his leadership, they purchased the "Yank Hotel" and refurbished it to become the Thomas Japanese Language School. This building had twice the space for classrooms and was much closer to Thomas Grade School, that most students, including Ruby attended. However, after a few years, Shiusaku had a falling out with others in the organization and quit. Sadly, he was widowed in 1934 and moved to Los Angeles in 1936. When the war broke out in 1941, he was working in a hotel in Los Angeles and requested a permit to return to Seattle to join with his daughter Mary before the evacuation and internment process began. In April, 1942, after Executive Order 9066 had been issued, the FBI began rounding up people that were active in the Japanese American community, including Shiusaku. He was detained by the FBI and was given a hearing at the INS in Seattle in May and was paroled, probably because there was little or no evidence of any espionage or crimes. Ruby attended Thomas Grade school, and would have walked to attend the Thomas Japanese Language School. She was the first Nisei (2nd generation) Japanese American to graduate from Auburn High School in Auburn, WA in 1922. Ruby was admitted to the University of Washington and would have entered in fall of 1922. Hirose earned her bachelor's degree in 1926 (in pharmacy) and her master's degree in pharmacology from the University of Washington in 1928. Women had just achieved the right to vote in 1920 and prohibition had just gone into effect the same year (and would not be repealed until 1933). While she was earning her master's degree at University of Washington, she was living in the Catherine P. Blaine Home in Seattle, sponsored by the Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The Blaine Home was part of the Japanese and Korean section in Seattle of Woman's Home Missionary Society. Second-generation problem In December of in 1925, the Japanese Students' Christian Association (JSCA) held a conference in Asilomar, California. Ruby had been an active member of the JSCA and attended the conference. A major topic at this conference was something called the "second-generation problem", which, briefly stated, resulted from the cultural differences between the Issei (first generation) from Japan and the Nisei (second generation) born in America. Although both the Issei and Nisei had a common cultural heritage, the Nisei were native English speakers and for the most part lived their day-to-day lives immersed in American, not Japanese culture. The conference created a Committee On Second Generation Problem, led by Roy Akagi, a PhD student and JSCA leader which included Ruby Hirose, who would have been entering her Senior year at University of Washington, as well as students from Stanford, Caltech, and Occidental College, and produced a report about this problem. They outlined the situation as having several aspects from the viewpoint of the Nisei: (1) Relation to First Generation, (2) Relation to American Society, (3) Vocational and Employment Guidance, (4) Standard of Social Conduct, and (5) Religious Life. These young people were having identity issues, although in 1925, they didn't call them that. They were worried about how to respect and carry on their culture, but also wanted to be full-fledged Americans in an environment that was racially prejudiced and had a real lack of job opportunities. Japanese Americans were excluded from owning land, but agriculture was a big part of the Japanese American experience in those days. It would turn out later when they were incarcerated due to World War II, many of the successful Issei and Nisei lost all of the businesses that they had built. One of the proposed strategies for handling the vocational problem was to emphasize higher education, which Ruby certainly did, becoming one of the earliest Japanese American PhDs in the United States. Other strategies included cooperating with other American organizations such as churches, YMCA and YWCA. PhD at University of Cincinnati Hirose received a fellowship and moved to Cincinnati and the University of Cincinnati where she worked on her PhD in biochemistry. While at the University of Cincinnati, in 1931, Ruby received the Moos Fellowship in Internal Medicine. She was elected to membership in 1931 and was an active participant in Sigma Xi, an honorary fraternity for the advancement of research. Ruby was also active in the Cincinnati chapter of Iota Sigma Pi, a national honorary women's chemical fraternity, serving as Vice President in 1931 In 1932, she graduated with her PhD and her thesis was entitled "Nature of Thrombin and Its Manner of Action". A paper based on this thesis was later published in the American Journal of Physiology in 1934 with the title "The Second Phase of Thrombin Action: Fibrin Resolution". Career She worked at the University of Cincinnati until being hired by the research division of the William S. Merrell Company where she researched serums and antitoxins. In 1940, the American Chemical Society held its meeting in Cincinnati during April 8–12. A report to the meeting indicated that there was increasing opportunity for women in the industry. It noted that in the Cincinnati section of the American Chemical Society, out of 300 members, there were ten women members and Dr. Ruby Hirose was listed as one of the ten members. During World War II, Ruby was connected with the Kettering Laboratory of Applied Physiology, University of Cincinnati. She also taught microbiology and did research on cancer at Indiana University using antimetabolites. In 1946, she published a paper called "Diffusion of sulfonamides from emulsified ointment bases", which concerned the characteristics of diffusion of sulfa drugs in various types of bases. In 1958, she joined the Lebanon (Pennsylvania) Veterans Administration Hospital as a bacteriologist. Prior to this, she was affiliated with the Ft. Benjamin Harrison Hospital in Indianapolis and the VA Hospital in Dayton, OH. Japanese American concentration camps Three of Ruby's family members were incarcerated in the U.S. Government's concentration camps for Japanese Americans. Mother Tome and sister Fumi were already deceased by the time WW II started and Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066. Sister Toki lived in Hawaii and so was not interned. Ruby was living in Cincinnati and so therefore was not interned either. Brother Kimeo was interned at Poston War Relocation Center, while sister Mary and her father Shiusaku were sent to Minidoka, which is now Minidoka National Historic Site. Leukemia and death Ruby Hirose died of acute myeloid leukemia in West Reading, Pennsylvania, on October 7, 1960, at the age of 56 and was survived by sisters Mary and Toki, and brother Kimeo. Her surviving family buried her at the Auburn Pioneer Cemetery in Auburn, Washington. References External links American women chemists University of Washington School of Pharmacy alumni 1904 births 1960 deaths Place of birth missing University of Cincinnati alumni 20th-century American women scientists 20th-century American chemists American people of Japanese descent Deaths from leukemia
17196292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanatile%20District	Yanatile District	Yanatile District is one of eight districts of the province Calca in Peru. Ethnic groups The people in the district are mainly indigenous citizens of Quechua descent. Quechua is the language which the majority of the population (69.84%) learnt to speak in childhood, 28.33% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language (2007 Peru Census). Climate References
461803	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanacetum	Tanacetum	Tanacetum is a genus of about 160 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, native to many regions of the Northern Hemisphere. They are known commonly as tansies. The name tansy can refer specifically to Tanacetum vulgare, which may be called the common tansy or garden tansy for clarity. The generic name Tanacetum means 'immortality' in Botanical Latin, since tansy was once placed between the burial sheets of the dead to repel vermin. Other familiar species include costmary (T. balsamita) and feverfew (T. parthenium). Tansies are mainly perennial herbs, but some are annuals and subshrubs. Some are a few centimeters tall and some reach . They vary in form, with one or more branching stems growing erect or prostrate, usually from rhizomes. They are hairy to hairless in texture, and most are aromatic. The leaves are alternately arranged, the blades sometimes borne on petioles. They are usually deeply lobed and may have toothed edges. Most species have flowers in loose or dense inflorescences. The flower has layers of distinct phyllaries around its base and may be flat to hemispheric in shape. The flower has many yellow disc florets, sometimes over 300. Some species have ray florets in shades of yellow, or white with yellowish bases. Some species lack true ray florets but have flat yellowish disc florets that look like rays. The fruit is a ribbed, glandular cypsela, usually with a pappus on the end. Selected species Species include: Tanacetum abrotanifolium (L.) Druce Tanacetum abrotanoides Tanacetum achilleifolium (M. Bieb.) Sch. Bip. Tanacetum alatavicum Tanacetum annuum – Moroccan Tansy, Blue Tansy Tanacetum argenteum (Lam.) Willd. Tanacetum atkinsonii (C.B.Clarke) Kitam. Tanacetum balsamita L. – costmary Tanacetum bipinnatum (L.) Sch. Bip. – Lake Huron tansy, camphor tansy Tanacetum camphoratum Less. – dune tansy Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch. Bip. – Dalmatian insect-flower, Dalmatian pyrethrum Tanacetum coccineum (Willd.) Grierson – garden pyrethrum, painted daisy, Persian insect-flower Tanacetum corymbosum (L.) Sch. Bip. – scentless feverfew, corymbflower tansy Tanacetum densum (Labill.) Sch. Bip. Tanacetum falconeri Tanacetum ferulaceum (Sch. Bip.) Walp. Tanacetum haradjanii (Rech. f.) Grierson Tanacetum kaschgarianum Tanacetum krylovianum Tanacetum macrophyllum (Waldst. & Kit.) Sch. Bip. – rayed tansy Tanacetum microphyllum DC. Tanacetum niveum Tanacetum parthenifolium (Willd.) Sch. Bip. Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. – feverfew Tanacetum pinnatum Tanacetum polycephalum Tanacetum poteriifolium (Nordm.) Grierson Tanacetum praeteritium (Horw.) Heywood Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum (Webb) Sch. Bip. – dusty-miller, silver-lace Tanacetum pulchrum Tanacetum richterioides Tanacetum santolina Tanacetum scopulorum Tanacetum tanacetoides Tanacetum tatsienense Tanacetum vulgare L. – common tansy, garden tansy, golden-buttons Gallery of species References Asteraceae genera Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
67172	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98	კოტბუსი	კოტბუსი — ქალაქი აღმოსავლეთ გერმანიაში, პოტსდამის შემდეგ მეორე უდიდესი ქალაქი ბრანდენბურგის მხარეში. ქალაქი ითვლება ქვედა ლუჟიცაში სორბების პოლირიკურ და კულტურულ ცენტრად. სორბული ენა ქალაქში ოფიციალური ენაა. სწორედ სორბებს მიეწერებათ კოტბუსის დაარსება მე-10 საუკუნეში და მისი სახელწოდებაც მომდინარეობს სორბული სიტყვიდან კოპ’სებუზ, რაც მდინარისპირა ბილიკს ნიშნავს. სორბების ენის და კულტურის შენარჩუნების მიზნით კოტბუსში მოქმედებს სორბული სკოლა. მეორე მსოფლიო ომის დროს კოტბუსის განაშენიანება განადგურდა. კოტბუსი ცნობილია როგორც საუნივესიტეტო ქალაქი. აქ მდებარეობს ბრანდენბურგის ტექნიკური უნივერსიტეტი. რესურსები ინტერნეტში . ბრანდენბურგის ქალაქები
12873	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%20%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98	ალეკ გინესი	ალეკ გინესი სერ ალეკ გინესი, (დ. 2 აპრილი, 1914, ლონდონი — გ. 5 აგვისტო, 2000) — ინგლისელი მსახიობი და რეჟისორი. ბიოგრაფია თეატრალური განათლება მიიღო ფ. კომპტონის კერძო სტუდიაში. ლონდონის თეატრ „ოლდ ვიკში“ გინესმა განასახიერა ჰამლეტის, რიჩარდ II-ის (შექსპირის „ჰამლეტი“, „რიჩარდ II“), ხლესტაკოვის (გოგოლის „რევიზორი“), ხოლო სხვა თეატრებში დომიტრი კარამაზოვის (დოსტოევსკის „ძმები კარამაზოვების“ მიხედვით) და სხვა როლები. დადგა სპექტაკლები: შექსპირის „მეთორმეტე ღამე“ და „ჰამლეტი“. ფილმოგრაფია რესურსები ინტერნეტში გინესის გამოსვლები თეატრალურ არქივში, ბრისტოლი ოსკარის მფლობელი კინომსახიობები ინგლისელი მსახიობები დაბადებული 2 აპრილი დაბადებული 1914 გარდაცვლილი 5 აგვისტო გარდაცვლილი 2000
240724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham%20%28district%29	Cham (district)	Cham (district) Cham is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the south and clockwise) the districts of Regen, Straubing-Bogen, Regensburg and Schwandorf and by the Czech Plzeň Region. History The first historical date in the regional history is the year 748, when the bishop of Regensburg ordered the foundation of a monastery in the sparsely populated region. About 100 years later, the royal castle of Cham was built and became a summer residence for the Holy Roman Emperors. The region was called Campriche or Mark Cham. In 1204, the Mark Cham became subject to Bavaria, in 1352 to the Electorate of the Palatinate and in the 17th century back to Bavaria. Nowadays, Cham still enjoys the laid-back lifestyle from the days of yore. Many projects have been initiated to give this area an impetus to grow, yet in spite of this, it is still one of the least-populated regions in Germany. Geography The district is located in the northern parts of the Bavarian Forest. It is situated within the borders of the Upper Bavarian Forest Nature Park. The highest mountain is the Großer Arber at 1439 m, located near the Germany–Czech Republic border. The Regen river enters the district in the southeast and leaves to the west; most of the settled places are situated along this river and its main tributary, the Chamb coming from the Czech border. Coat of arms The upper part of the arms is occupied by the blue and white checkered pattern of Bavaria. Below the church of Chammünster is displayed (today belonging to the town of Cham), which was built in 748 within a famous monastery. Towns and municipalities References External links Official website (German) Districts of Bavaria
1519794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karabakh%20horse	Karabakh horse	Karabakh horse The Karabakh horse is a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse breed. It is named after the Karabakh region, from which the breed originates. The breed is noted for its good temperament and speed; in 2004, a Karabakh horse named Kishmish from an Aghdam stud farm covered in and in . The Karabakh is thought to be influenced by Persian horses and the Akhal-Teke, Kabarda, Turkoman and Arabian breeds, and it influenced the development of the Russian Don during the 19th century. It is bred primarily in Azerbaijan's Shaki region. The breed numbers below 1,000, and it is threatened with extinction. History The Karabakh region was known for the quality of its horses; the classical historian Strabo describes the Armenian province of “Orchistene" as supplying the kingdom with the "most cavalry." According to some sources, tens of thousands of horses with golden-chestnut coloring (characteristic of Karabakhs) were seized by the Arabs during their eighth- and ninth-century conquest of Arran. The Karabakh has close links to the Akhal-Teke (which is bred in Turkmenistan) and the Turkoman horse, which is bred in Iran. Some historians believe that they were originally a single breed and significantly influenced the development of the Arabian horse. These facts were found out after numerous studies in the 19th century. The breed acquired its present characteristics during the 18th and 19th centuries. In Transcaucasia, Karabakh Khanate was known as a place for breeding of horses. Factory of the khanate was the main farm of purebred horses, which were not held for sale, but were only presented as gifts. According to Diterikhs, in 1797, right after the death of Agha Mohammad , Ibragim khan got his stable. There is some evidence that Ibrahim-Khalil (1763–1806), ruler of the Karabakh Khanate, had a herd numbering 3,000–4,000 (primarily Karabakhs). During the 19th century, Karabakhs became popular in Europe. An English company purchased 60 Karabakh mares from Mehdigulu Khan Javanshir, the last ruler of the Karabakh Khanate, at a large 1823 sale. Although its numbers were impacted in 1826 during the Russo-Iranian war, the breed remained intact. The Karabakh played a significant role in the formation of the Russian Don breed. The heir of Russian general Valerian Madatov sold all his horses, including 200 Karabakh mares, to a breeder in the Don region in 1836. The mares were used to improve the Russian Don into the 20th century. Karabakh numbers sharply decreased again during the early 20th century, primarily because of civil and ethnic wars in the Caucasus in general and the Karabakh region in particular. The breeding enterprise established by the Karabakh khans and developed by their heirs was destroyed in 1905. Karabakhs were bred to other breeds, resulting in changes including a reduction in size. In 1949, the breed was revived at the Agdam stud in Azerbaijan. Seven years later, the Karabakh stallion Zaman and an Akhal-Teke named Mele-Kush were presented to Queen Elizabeth II by the Soviet government. The breed experienced another setback during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Before the 1993 capture of Agdam by Armenian forces, most of the Karabakh horses were moved from the Agdam stud. They are currently bred in winter pastures on the lowland Karabakh plains between Barda and Agjabadi. During the years of Russian Empire In 1805 Karabakh became part of Russia. Mehdigulu Khan, who ruled after Ibragim Khan, was not interested in the development of stud farms. As a consequence the quantity of khan horses was decreasing. In 1822, Mehdigulu Khan ran away to Persia, and his best horses were presented as gifts to his close people. Unlike Mehdigulu Khan, his daughter Khurshidbanu Natavan was actively engaged in the development of stud farms. Natavan's Karabakh horses took part in the Exposition Universelle (1867), agricultural exhibition in Moscow (1869), in Tbilisi (1882) and were awarded golden medals and certificates of honour. Karabakh horses were also awarded at the Second All-Russian Exhibition in 1869: Meymun – silver medal, Tokmak – bronze medal. At the Exposition Universelle (1867) in Paris, Khan got a silver medal. According to modern Azerbaijani sources, not only Khan's daughter, but also many Karabakh bays owned stud farms. Among them were Ugurlu Bay, Jafargulu Khan, Rustam Bay Behbudov, Kerim-aga Javanshir, Shamil bay and others. Overall in the middle of the 19th century, there were 11 stud farms, with 250 stallions and 1450 fillies. Karabakh horses were used by Russian officers who served in the Caucasus. Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin, who traveled to Arzurum in 1829, wrote in his travel notes that young Russian officers were riding Azerbaijani horses. On 21 May 1843, the coat of arms of Shusha was approved and Karabkh horse was depicted on it. In the Soviet Union In 1948, the Soviets began a breeding program which included the use of nine Arabian stallions, as no pure Karabakh stallions were available at the time. During the years of Azerbaijan Republic Karabakh horses are bred at two stud farms: in the village of Lambaran of the Barda region, and in Agstafa. Private stud farms exist in line with state enterprises. Because of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the number of horses significantly decreased. This happened because horses were often moved from one place to another and pregnant fillies experienced miscarriages. Moreover, horses were bred in unsatisfactory conditions. In 2013, Chovqan, a traditional Karabakh horse riding game in the Republic of Azerbaijan, was included in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List. As of 2015, the Azerbaijani Ministry of Agriculture the export of Karabakh horses is banned and the Ministry focuses on the breeding of the small amount of still existing Karabakh horses. On 13 February 2017, the Organisational Committee of the Islamic Solidarity Games introduced mascots: Karabakh horses Inca, that represented beauty and tenderness, and Casur, that stood out with self-confidence and love of freedom. Modern times The Karabakh horse is the national animal of Azerbaijan and the official symbol of the Agdam and Shaki districts. The horse, of great cultural importance to the people of Azerbaijan, appears in literature and on postage stamps. Qarabağ FK's logo contains two rearing horses, based on the Karabakh horse. According to Kurban Said's novel Ali and Nino, "I looked at the horse and was struck numb. There stood the red-golden miracle of Karabakh ... one of the twelve golden horses in the whole world ..." A horse in Karabakh is described in Mikhail Lermontov's poem, "Demon". In 2012, the breed appeared at the Royal Windsor Horse Show to perform at the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. A monument to the Karabakh horse was unveiled in Belgium in March 2017, and the Karabakh was the mascot of the 2017 Islamic Solidarity Games. On May 16, 2022, Queen Elizabeth II was presented with a Karabakh horse named Shohrat (Glory) as gift from President Ilham Aliyev of Azerbaijan. Characteristics The Karabakh is hardy, strong, tough and sure-footed, standing high. It has a small, well-defined head, a straight profile with a broad forehead, and large nostrils. The neck is set high, average in length, muscular and elegant. It has a compact body, with well-defined and well-developed muscles. The shoulder is often upright. The horse has a deep chest, a sloping croup and long, fine, strong legs with small joints. Its chest is narrow and it is not very deep through the girth, due to the Akhal-Teke influence. The skin is thin and soft, with a shiny coat. The main colors are chestnut and bay, with a characteristic golden tint; some are gray, and palominos and buckskins are rare. White markings are permitted. As well as being fast and agile, the Karabakh is known for its endurance and loyalty. They are known for their endurance as the 19th century French Geographer Reclus Elisée describes in his book L'Homme et la terre (The Earth and its Inhabitants) their strength as: "The Karabakh horses, however, which climb the cliffs like goats, are said to be the finest in Transcaucasia" See also Azerbaijan horse Chernomor (horse) References Horse breeds Karabakh Horse breeds originating in Azerbaijan National symbols of Azerbaijan
18882395	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malibeyli	Malibeyli	Malibeyli or Ajapnyak is a village de facto part of Stepanakert city in the breakaway Republic of Artsakh, de jure in the Shusha District of Azerbaijan. References External links Stepanakert Populated places in Shusha District
3195592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softly%2C%20as%20I%20Leave%20You%20%28album%29	Softly, as I Leave You (album)	Softly, as I Leave You (album) Softly, as I Leave You is a 1964 studio album by American singer Frank Sinatra. Arranged by Ernie Freeman, several tracks such as "Softly, as I Leave You", "Then Suddenly Love" and "Available" departed from Sinatra's signature vocal jazz style by flirting with a more contemporary pop sound. The rest of the album is pieced together with leftovers from various early-'60s sessions, from many different arrangers and conductors. The title track was the first of at least four attempts to mimic the chart success of Dean Martin's #1 hit "Everybody Loves Somebody", using a driving beat, heavy strings and choral tracks. Sinatra, arranger Ernie Freeman and producer Jimmy Bowen would incorporate the same sound to songs like "When Somebody Loves You", "Tell Her You Love Her (Each Day)" and "Somewhere in Your Heart" with only minor chart success. Track listing "Emily" (Johnny Mandel, Johnny Mercer) – 2:58 "Here's to the Losers" (Robert Wells, Jack Segal) – 3:05 "Dear Heart" (Jay Livingston, Ray Evans, Henry Mancini) – 2:43 "Come Blow Your Horn" (Sammy Cahn, Jimmy Van Heusen) – 3:07 "Love Isn't Just for the Young" (Bernard Knee, Herb Miller) – 2:57 "I Can't Believe I'm Losing You" (Don Costa, Phil Zeller) – 2:43 "Pass Me By" (Cy Coleman, Carolyn Leigh) – 2:25 "Softly, as I Leave You" (Hal Shaper, Antonio DeVita, Giorgio Calabrese) – 2:50 "Then Suddenly Love" (Roy Alfred, Paul Vance) – 2:15 "Available" (Cahn, Ned Wynn, L.B. Marks) – 2:47 "Talk to Me Baby" (Robert Emmett Dolan, Mercer) – 3:00 "The Look of Love" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:43 Notes Tracks 1, 3 and 7 recorded on October 3, 1964 Uncredited Background Singers perform on Tracks 1, 3 and 7-10 The Orchestra on Tracks 1, 3 and 6-7 includes 9 Violins Tracks 2 and 5 recorded on July 31, 1963 The Orchestra on Tracks 2, 5 and 8-10 includes 12 Violins "Come Blow Your Horn" recorded on January 21, 1963 Jimmy Van Heusen is also known as James Van Heusen The Orchestra on Tracks 4 and 12 includes 10 Violins "I Can't Believe I'm Losing You" recorded on April 8, 1964 Tracks 8-10 recorded on July 17, 1964 "Talk to Me Baby" recorded on December 3, 1963 The Orchestra on "Talk to Me Baby" includes 14 Violins Robert Emmett Dolan is also known as Robert Dolan "The Look of Love" recorded on August 27, 1962 Personnel Main Frank Sinatra - vocals (2, 4-6, 11-12, lead on 1, 3, 7-10) Don Costa - arranger (6, 11), conductor (11) Ernie Freeman - arranger, conductor (8-10) Neal Hefti - conductor (12) Billy May - arranger (7) Marty Paich - arranger, conductor (2, 5) Nelson Riddle - arranger (1, 3-4, 6, 12), conductor (1, 3-4, 6-7) Strings LeRoy Collins - viola (2, 5) Joe Comfort - string bass (4) Joseph DiFiore - viola (8-10) Joseph DiTullio - cello (12) Justin DiTullio - cello (2, 5, 8-10, 12) Alvin Dinkin - viola (1, 3, 7-11) Cecil Figelsky - viola (2, 5) Eddie Gilbert - string bass (11) Anne Goodman - cello (1, 3, 6-10) Stanley Harris - viola (2, 4-5, 11-12) Allan Harshman - viola (2, 4-5, 12) Armand Kaproff - cello (1-3, 5-7) Louis Kievman - viola (2, 5) Ray Kramer - cello (2, 4-5, 11) Edgar Lustgarten - cello (1, 3, 7, 11-12) Virginia Majewski - viola (1-3, 5, 7, 11) Joe Mondragon - string bass (2, 5, 8–10) Alex Neiman - viola (6, 8-10, 12) Gareth Nuttycombe - viola (8-10) Ralph Peña - string bass (1, 3, 6-7, 12) David Pratt - cello (6) Kurt Reher - cello (4, 8-11) Paul Robyn - viola (4, 6, 11) Nino Rosso - cello (11-12) Emmett Sargeant - cello (8-10) Eleanor Slatkin - cello (2, 4-5) Horns and Woodwinds Harry Betts - trombone (12) Hoyt Bohannon - trombone (11) Robert Bryant - trumpet (8-10) Conte Candoli - trumpet (2, 5) Pete Candoli - trumpet (6) John Cave - French horn (1, 3-4, 7, 11) Gene Cipriano - saxophone (1, 3-4, 7), flute (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 7) Buddy Collette - woodwinds (8–10) Bob Cooper - saxophone, clarinet, bass clarinet (2, 5) Vincent DeRosa - French horn (1, 3-4, 7, 11) Henry Edison - trumpet (6) Don Fagerquist - trumpet (4, 12) Chuck Gentry - saxophone (1, 3, 7, 11), bass clarinet (11), woodwinds (1, 3, 7) Arthur Gleghorn - saxophone, flute (11) Conrad Gozzo - trumpet (12) Herman Gunkler - saxophone, flute (12) William Hinshaw - French horn (6) Paul Horn - saxophone, flute, clarinet (2, 5) Joe Howard - trombone (2, 5) Jules Jacob - oboe (11), saxophone (11-12), clarinet, bass clarinet (12) Plas Johnson - saxophone (1, 3-4, 7, 12), flute (12), clarinet (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 6-7) Harry Klee - saxophone (1-5, 7, 11), flute (2, 4-5, 11), clarinet (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 6-7) Joe Koch - saxophone, bass clarinet (4, 12), woodwinds (6) Ronny Lang - saxophone, flute (12) Richard Leith - trombone (2, 5) Cappy Lewis - trumpet (1, 3-4, 6-7) Sinclair Lott - French horn (12) Arthur Maebe - French horn (12) Gail Martin - trombone (6) Dick Nash - trombone (2, 4-6, 11-12) Ted Nash - saxophone, flute (2, 5) Jack Nimitz - clarinet (2, 5), saxophone, bass clarinet (2, 5, 11) Dick Noel - trombone (4, 11-12) Tommy Pederson - trombone (6) Richard Perissi - French horn (1-3, 5, 7, 12) Al Porcino - trumpet (2, 5, 12) George Roberts - bass trombone (4, 11) Willie Schwartz - saxophone (1, 3-4, 7, 11), clarinet (4, 11), flute (4), woodwinds (1, 3, 6-7) George Seaberg - trumpet (4) Tom Shepard - trombone (4, 6) Shorty Sherock - trumpet (4, 6) Gene Sherry - French horn (2, 5-6) Ken Shroyer - bass trombone (1, 3, 7, 12) George Smith - saxophone, clarinet (11) Ray Triscari - trumpet (2, 5) Champ Webb - woodwinds (6) Stu Williamson - trumpet (2, 5, 12) Other Instrumentalists Dale Anderson - congas, timpani (2, 5) Hal Blaine - drums (8-10) Irv Cottler - drums (1-3, 5-7, 11-12), chimes (12) Aida Dagort - harp (4) Frank Flynn - timpani, bells (12) Carl Fortina - accordion (11) Gene Garf - piano (8-10) Bobby Gibbons - guitar (1, 3, 7-11) Al Hendrickson - guitar (2, 5, 8-10) Kathryn Julye - harp (2, 5-6, 11) Mel Lewis - drums (4) Bill Miller - piano (All Tracks) Verlye Mills - harp (12) Emil Richards - percussion (1, 3, 6-11), timpani (4) Ray Sherman - piano (1, 3, 7-10) Ann Mason Stockton - harp (1, 3, 7) Tommy Tedesco - guitar (1, 3, 7-10) Vincent Terri - guitar (1, 3, 7) Al Viola - guitar (1, 3-4, 6-7, 11-12) References 1964 albums Frank Sinatra albums Albums arranged by Marty Paich Albums arranged by Nelson Riddle Albums arranged by Billy May Reprise Records albums Albums arranged by Ernie Freeman Albums conducted by Nelson Riddle Albums conducted by Neal Hefti Albums produced by Jimmy Bowen Albums produced by Sonny Burke
15756994	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kribul	Kribul	Kribul (old version: Krabul) is a village in Southwestern Bulgaria. It is located in the Satovcha Municipality, Blagoevgrad Province. Kribul Hill on Trinity Peninsula in Antarctica is named after the village. Geography The village of Kribul is located in the Western Rhodope Mountains. It belongs to the Chech region. History In the vicinity of Kribul after archeological research were found the remains of a late medieval church. In 1873 Kribul (Kraboul) had male population of 140 Pomaks and 50 houses. According to Vasil Kanchov, in 1900, Kribul (Крабулъ) was populated by 550 Bulgarian Muslims According to Stefan Verković at the end of the 19th century the village had male population of 180 Pomaks and 50 houses. Religions The population is Muslim. Notes Villages in Blagoevgrad Province Chech
23366462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect	Insect	Insects (from Latin ) are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. Their blood is not totally contained in vessels; some circulates in an open cavity known as the haemocoel. Insects are the most diverse group of animals; they include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living organisms. The total number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million; potentially over 90% of the animal life forms on Earth are insects. Nearly all insects hatch from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, and can include a usually immobile pupal stage in those groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis. Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of . The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants. Adult insects typically move about by walking, flying, or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, composed of the front and rear on one side with the middle on the other side. Insects are the only invertebrate group with members able to achieve sustained powered flight, and all flying insects derive from one common ancestor. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with larval adaptations that include gills, and some adult insects are aquatic and have adaptations for swimming. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light. Humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides, and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves, fruits, or wood. Some species are parasitic, and may vector diseases. Some insects perform complex ecological roles; blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion but also spread diseases. Insect pollinators are essential to the life cycle of many flowering plant species on which most organisms, including humans, are at least partly dependent; without them, the terrestrial portion of the biosphere would be devastated. Many insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms produce silk and honey bees produce honey, and both have been domesticated by humans. Insects are consumed as food in 80% of the world's nations, by people in roughly 3000 ethnic groups. Human activities also have effects on insect biodiversity. Etymology The word insect comes from the Latin word , meaning "with a notched or divided body", or literally "cut into", from the neuter singular perfect passive participle of , "to cut into, to cut up", from "into" and from "to cut"; because insects appear "cut into" three sections. The Latin word was introduced by Pliny the Elder who calqued the Ancient Greek word éntomon "insect" (as in entomology) from éntomos "cut into sections" or "cut in pieces"; éntomon was Aristotle's term for this class of life, also in reference to their "notched" bodies. The English word insect first appears documented in 1601 in Holland's translation of Pliny. Translations of Aristotle's term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh (from "to cut" and , "animal"), Serbo-Croatian (from , "to cut"), Russian ([], from , "to cut"), etc. In common parlance, insects are also called bugs (derived from Middle English bugge meaning "scarecrow, hobgoblin") though this term usually includes all terrestrial arthropods. The term is also occasionally extended to colloquial names for freshwater or marine crustaceans (e.g. Balmain bug, Moreton Bay bug, mudbug) and used by physicians and bacteriologists for disease-causing germs (e.g. superbugs), but entomologists to some extent reserve this term for a narrow category of "true bugs", insects of the order Hemiptera, such as cicadas and shield bugs. Definitions The precise definition of the taxon Insecta and the equivalent English name "insect" varies; three alternative definitions are shown in the table. In the broadest circumscription, Insecta sensu lato consists of all hexapods. Traditionally, insects defined in this way were divided into "Apterygota" (the first five groups in the table)—the wingless insects—and Pterygota—the winged and secondarily wingless insects. However, modern phylogenetic studies have shown that "Apterygota" is not monophyletic, and so does not form a good taxon. A narrower circumscription restricts insects to those hexapods with external mouthparts, and comprises only the last three groups in the table. In this sense, Insecta sensu stricto is equivalent to Ectognatha. In the narrowest circumscription, insects are restricted to hexapods that are either winged or descended from winged ancestors. Insecta sensu strictissimo is then equivalent to Pterygota. For the purposes of this article, the middle definition is used; insects consist of two wingless taxa, Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and Zygentoma (silverfish), plus the winged or secondarily wingless Pterygota. Phylogeny and evolution External phylogeny Although traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes, more recent analysis indicates closer evolutionary ties with crustaceans. In the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, form a clade, the Pancrustacea. Insects form a single clade, closely related to crustaceans and myriapods. Other terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes, millipedes, scorpions, spiders, woodlice, mites, and ticks are sometimes confused with insects since their body plans can appear similar, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton. However, upon closer examination, their features differ significantly; most noticeably, they do not have the six-legged characteristic of adult insects. A phylogenetic tree of the arthropods places the insects in the context of other hexapods and the crustaceans, and the more distantly-related myriapods and chelicerates. Internal phylogeny The internal phylogeny is based on the works of Sroka, Staniczek & Bechly 2014, Prokop et al. 2017 and Wipfler et al. 2019. Taxonomy Traditional morphology-based or appearance-based systematics have usually given the Hexapoda the rank of superclass, and identified four groups within it: insects (Ectognatha), springtails (Collembola), Protura, and Diplura, the latter three being grouped together as the Entognatha on the basis of internalized mouth parts. Supraordinal relationships have undergone numerous changes with the advent of methods based on evolutionary history and genetic data. A recent theory is that the Hexapoda are polyphyletic (where the last common ancestor was not a member of the group), with the entognath classes having separate evolutionary histories from the Insecta. Many of the traditional appearance-based taxa are paraphyletic, so rather than using ranks like subclass, superorder, and infraorder, it has proved better to use monophyletic groupings (in which the last common ancestor is a member of the group). The following represents the best-supported monophyletic groupings for the Insecta. Insects can be divided into two groups historically treated as subclasses: wingless insects, known as Apterygota, and winged insects, known as Pterygota. The Apterygota consisted of the primitively wingless orders Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and Zygentoma (silverfish). However, Apterygota is not a monophyletic group, as Archaeognatha are the sister group to all other insects, based on the arrangement of their mandibles, while Zygentoma and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. It was originally believed that Archaeognatha possessed a single phylogenetically primitive condyle each (thus the name "Monocondylia"), where all more derived insects have two, but this has since been shown to be incorrect; all insects, including Archaeognatha, have dicondylic mandibles, but archaeognaths possess two articulations that are homologous to those in other insects, though slightly different. The Zygentoma themselves possibly are not monophyletic, with the family Lepidotrichidae being a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota and the remaining Zygentoma). Paleoptera and Neoptera are the winged orders of insects differentiated by the presence of hardened body parts called sclerites, and in the Neoptera, muscles that allow their wings to fold flatly over the abdomen. Neoptera can further be divided into incomplete metamorphosis-based (Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera) and complete metamorphosis-based groups. It has proved difficult to clarify the relationships between the orders in Polyneoptera because of constant new findings calling for revision of the taxa. For example, the Paraneoptera have turned out to be more closely related to the Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. The recent molecular finding that the traditional louse orders Mallophaga and Anoplura are derived from within Psocoptera has led to the new taxon Psocodea. Phasmatodea and Embiidina have been suggested to form the Eukinolabia. Mantodea, Blattodea, and Isoptera are thought to form a monophyletic group termed Dictyoptera. The Exopterygota likely are paraphyletic in regard to the Endopterygota. The Neuropterida are often lumped or split on the whims of the taxonomist. Fleas are now thought to be closely related to boreid mecopterans. Many questions remain in the basal relationships among endopterygote orders, particularly the Hymenoptera. Evolutionary relationships Insects are prey for a variety of organisms, including terrestrial vertebrates. The earliest vertebrates on land existed 400 million years ago and were large amphibious piscivores. Through gradual evolutionary change, insectivory was the next diet type to evolve. Insects were among the earliest terrestrial herbivores and acted as major selection agents on plants. Plants evolved chemical defenses against this herbivory and the insects, in turn, evolved mechanisms to deal with plant toxins. Many insects make use of these toxins to protect themselves from their predators. Such insects often advertise their toxicity using warning colors. This successful evolutionary pattern has also been used by mimics. Over time, this has led to complex groups of coevolved species. Conversely, some interactions between plants and insects, like pollination, are beneficial to both organisms. Coevolution has led to the development of very specific mutualisms in such systems. Evolutionary history The oldest possible insect is Leverhulmia known from the Early Devonian aged Windyfield chert, which may represent a primitive wingless insect. The oldest known flying insects appeared during the mid-Carboniferous, around 328–324 million years ago, and the group subsequently underwent a rapid explosive diversification. Claims that they originated substantially earlier during the Silurian or Devonian based on molecular clock estimates are unlikely based on the fossil record, and are likely analytical artefacts. Four large-scale radiations of insects have occurred: beetles (from about 300 million years ago), flies (from about 250 million years ago), moths and wasps (both from about 150 million years ago). These four groups account for the majority of described species. The remarkably successful Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, and ants) appeared as long as 200 million years ago in the Triassic period, but achieved their wide diversity more recently in the Cenozoic era, which began 66 million years ago. Some highly successful insect groups evolved in conjunction with flowering plants, a powerful illustration of coevolution. Diversity Estimates of the total number of insect species, or those within specific orders, often vary considerably. Globally, averages of these estimates suggest there are around 1.5 million beetle species and 5.5 million insect species, with about 1 million insect species currently found and described. E. O. Wilson has estimated that the number of insects living at any one time are around 10 quintillion (10 billion billion). Between 950,000 and 1,000,000 of all described species are insects, so over 50% of all described eukaryotes (1.8 million) are insects (see illustration). With only 950,000 known non-insects, if the actual number of insects is 5.5 million, they may represent over 80% of the total. As only about 20,000 new species of all organisms are described each year, most insect species may remain undescribed, unless the rate of species descriptions greatly increases. Of the 24 orders of insects, four dominate in terms of numbers of described species; at least 670,000 identified species belong to Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera or Lepidoptera. As of 2017, at least 66 insect species extinctions had been recorded in the previous 500 years, generally on oceanic islands. Declines in insect abundance have been attributed to artificial lighting, land use changes such as urbanization or agricultural use, pesticide use, and invasive species. Studies summarized in a 2019 review suggested that a large proportion of insect species is threatened with extinction in the 21st century. The ecologist Manu Sanders notes that the 2019 review was biased by mostly excluding data showing increases or stability in insect population, with the studies limited to specific geographic areas and specific groups of species. A larger 2020 meta-study, analyzing data from 166 long-term surveys, suggested that populations of terrestrial insects are decreasing rapidly, by about 9% per decade. Claims of pending mass insect extinctions or "insect apocalypse" based on a subset of these studies have been popularized in news reports, but often extrapolate beyond the study data or hyperbolize study findings. Other areas have shown increases in some insect species, although trends in most regions are currently unknown. It is difficult to assess long-term trends in insect abundance or diversity because historical measurements are generally not known for many species. Robust data to assess at-risk areas or species is especially lacking for arctic and tropical regions and a majority of the southern hemisphere. Morphology and physiology External Insects have segmented bodies supported by exoskeletons, the hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but interconnected units, or tagmata: a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, zero to three simple eyes (or ocelli) and three sets of variously modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax is made up of three segments: the prothorax, mesothorax and the metathorax. Each thoracic segment supports one pair of legs. The meso- and metathoracic segments may each have a pair of wings, depending on the insect. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, though in a few species of insects, these segments may be fused together or reduced in size. The abdomen also contains most of the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive internal structures. Considerable variation and many adaptations in the body parts of insects occur, especially wings, legs, antenna and mouthparts. Segmentation The head is enclosed in a hard, heavily sclerotized, unsegmented, exoskeletal head capsule, or epicranium, which contains most of the sensing organs, including the antennae, ocellus or eyes, and the mouthparts. Of all the insect orders, Orthoptera displays the most features found in other insects, including the sutures and sclerites. Here, the vertex, or the apex (dorsal region), is situated between the compound eyes for insects with a hypognathous and opisthognathous head. In prognathous insects, the vertex is not found between the compound eyes, but rather, where the ocelli are normally. This is because the primary axis of the head is rotated 90° to become parallel to the primary axis of the body. In some species, this region is modified and assumes a different name. The thorax is a tagma composed of three sections, the prothorax, mesothorax and the metathorax. The anterior segment, closest to the head, is the prothorax, with the major features being the first pair of legs and the pronotum. The middle segment is the mesothorax, with the major features being the second pair of legs and the anterior wings. The third and most posterior segment, abutting the abdomen, is the metathorax, which features the third pair of legs and the posterior wings. Each segment is delineated by an intersegmental suture. Each segment has four basic regions. The dorsal surface is called the tergum (or notum) to distinguish it from the abdominal terga. The two lateral regions are called the pleura (singular: pleuron) and the ventral aspect is called the sternum. In turn, the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum, the notum for the mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the metanotum. Continuing with this logic, the mesopleura and metapleura, as well as the mesosternum and metasternum, are used. The abdomen is the largest tagma of the insect, which typically consists of 11–12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax. Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum and sternum. Terga are separated from each other and from the adjacent sterna or pleura by membranes. Spiracles are located in the pleural area. Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube. Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite. Ventral sclerites are sometimes called laterosternites. During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects, 11 abdominal segments are present. In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments, but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis. Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable. If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes, confusion reigns: adult Protura have 12 segments, Collembola have 6. The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments, and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10-segmented abdomen. Exoskeleton The insect outer skeleton, the cuticle, is made up of two layers: the epicuticle, which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and a lower layer called the procuticle. The procuticle is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers: an outer layer known as the exocuticle and an inner layer known as the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, criss-crossing each other in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and hardened. The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many insects during their larval stages, e.g., caterpillars. It is also reduced in soft-bodied adult insects. During growth insects goes through a various number of instars where the old exoskeleton is shed, but once they reach sexual maturity, they stop molting. The exceptions are apterygote (ancestrally wingless) insects. Mayflies are the only insects with a sexually immature instar with functional wings, called subimago. As an adaptation to life on land, insects have evolved a gene that creates an enzyme called multicopper oxidase-2 (MCO2), which uses atmospheric oxygen to harden their cuticle, unlike crustaceans which use calcium for the same purpose. This makes their exoskeleton into a lightweight material. The gene is insect specific and not found in any other groups of arthropods, including hexapods like springtails and diplurans. Insects are the only invertebrates to have developed active flight capability, and this has played an important role in their success. Their flight muscles are able to contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse, allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily be possible. Having their muscles attached to their exoskeletons is efficient and allows more muscle connections. Internal Nervous system The nervous system of an insect can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. The head capsule is made up of six fused segments, each with either a pair of ganglia, or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain. The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect's esophagus, called the subesophageal ganglion. The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly Musca domestica, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion. At least some insects have nociceptors, cells that detect and transmit signals responsible for the sensation of pain. This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of larvae of the common fruit-fly Drosophila to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one. The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe. Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects, there is no consensus that insects feel pain consciously Insects are capable of learning. Digestive system An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins, polysaccharides, fats and nucleic acids. These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. There is extensive variation among different orders, life stages, and even castes in the digestive system of insects. This is the result of extreme adaptations to various lifestyles. The present description focuses on a generalized composition of the digestive system of an adult orthopteroid insect, which is considered basal to interpreting particularities of other groups. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the alimentary canal, which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food unidirectionally from the mouth to the anus. It has three sections, each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut. The salivary glands (element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut. Foregut The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut (element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx, esophagus and crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Digestion starts in buccal cavity (mouth) as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (mostly amylases), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders. From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus, and then onward to the midgut, as in most insects. Alternately, the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus, or the crop could just be a diverticulum, or fluid-filled structure, as in some Diptera species. Midgut Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the midgut (element 13 in numbered diagram), also known as the mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut. In some insects, the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary. For example, specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut, and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut. Hindgut In the hindgut (element 16 in numbered diagram), or proctodaeum, undigested food particles are joined by uric acid to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs 90% of the water in these fecal pellets, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus (element 17), completing the process of digestion. Envaginations at the anterior end of the hindgut form the Malpighian tubules, which form the main excretory system of insects. Excretory system Insects may have one to hundreds of Malpighian tubules (element 20). These tubules remove nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph of the insect and regulate osmotic balance. Wastes and solutes are emptied directly into the alimentary canal, at the junction between the midgut and hindgut. Reproductive system The reproductive system of female insects consist of a pair of ovaries, accessory glands, one or more spermathecae, and ducts connecting these parts. The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes, called ovarioles, which vary in size and number by species. The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can develop being also influenced by ovariole design. Female insects are able make eggs, receive and store sperm, manipulate sperm from different males, and lay eggs. Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance, transport and fertilization, as well as for protection of eggs. They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called oothecae. Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized. For males, the reproductive system is the testis, suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body. Most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside. A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle, which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female. The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm. The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and, as a result, has a cuticular lining. The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to form the intromittent organ, the aedeagus. The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm, except for the germ cells, or spermatogonia, which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis. Respiratory system Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea (element 8 in numbered diagram). In most insects, air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen and thorax called spiracles. The respiratory system is an important factor that limits the size of insects. As insects get larger, this type of oxygen transport is less efficient and thus the heaviest insect currently weighs less than 100 g. However, with increased atmospheric oxygen levels, as were present in the late Paleozoic, larger insects were possible, such as dragonflies with wingspans of more than . There are many different patterns of gas exchange demonstrated by different groups of insects. Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and diffusive ventilation, to discontinuous gas exchange. During continuous gas exchange, oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released in a continuous cycle. In discontinuous gas exchange, however, the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest. Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by diffusion rather than physically taking in the oxygen. Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration. As larvae, many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water, while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies, which may be held or trapped in special structures. Circulatory system Because oxygen is delivered directly to tissues via tracheoles, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system is open; it has no veins or arteries, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube that pulses peristaltically. This dorsal blood vessel (element 14) is divided into two sections: the heart and aorta. The dorsal blood vessel circulates the hemolymph, arthropods' fluid analog of blood, from the rear of the body cavity forward. Hemolymph is composed of plasma in which hemocytes are suspended. Nutrients, hormones, wastes, and other substances are transported throughout the insect body in the hemolymph. Hemocytes include many types of cells that are important for immune responses, wound healing, and other functions. Hemolymph pressure may be increased by muscle contractions or by swallowing air into the digestive system to aid in molting. Hemolymph is also a major part of the open circulatory system of other arthropods, such as spiders and crustaceans. Reproduction and development The majority of insects hatch from eggs. The fertilization and development takes place inside the egg, enclosed by a shell (chorion) that consists of maternal tissue. In contrast to eggs of other arthropods, most insect eggs are drought resistant. This is because inside the chorion two additional membranes develop from embryonic tissue, the amnion and the serosa. This serosa secretes a cuticle rich in chitin that protects the embryo against desiccation. In Schizophora however the serosa does not develop, but these flies lay their eggs in damp places, such as rotting matter. Some species of insects, like the cockroach Blaptica dubia, as well as juvenile aphids and tsetse flies, are ovoviviparous. The eggs of ovoviviparous animals develop entirely inside the female, and then hatch immediately upon being laid. Some other species, such as those in the genus of cockroaches known as Diploptera, are viviparous, and thus gestate inside the mother and are born alive. Some insects, like parasitic wasps, show polyembryony, where a single fertilized egg divides into many and in some cases thousands of separate embryos. Insects may be univoltine, bivoltine or multivoltine, i.e. they may have one, two or many broods (generations) in a year. Other developmental and reproductive variations include haplodiploidy, polymorphism, paedomorphosis or peramorphosis, sexual dimorphism, parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism. In haplodiploidy, which is a type of sex-determination system, the offspring's sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives. This system is typical in bees and wasps. Polymorphism is where a species may have different morphs or forms, as in the oblong winged katydid, which has four different varieties: green, pink and yellow or tan. Some insects may retain phenotypes that are normally only seen in juveniles; this is called paedomorphosis. In peramorphosis, an opposite sort of phenomenon, insects take on previously unseen traits after they have matured into adults. Many insects display sexual dimorphism, in which males and females have notably different appearances, such as the moth Orgyia recens as an exemplar of sexual dimorphism in insects. Some insects use parthenogenesis, a process in which the female can reproduce and give birth without having the eggs fertilized by a male. Many aphids undergo a form of parthenogenesis, called cyclical parthenogenesis, in which they alternate between one or many generations of asexual and sexual reproduction. In summer, aphids are generally female and parthenogenetic; in the autumn, males may be produced for sexual reproduction. Other insects produced by parthenogenesis are bees, wasps and ants, in which they spawn males. However, overall, most individuals are female, which are produced by fertilization. The males are haploid and the females are diploid. Insect life-histories show adaptations to withstand cold and dry conditions. Some temperate region insects are capable of activity during winter, while some others migrate to a warmer climate or go into a state of torpor. Still other insects have evolved mechanisms of diapause that allow eggs or pupae to survive these conditions. Metamorphosis Metamorphosis in insects is the biological process of development all insects must undergo. There are two forms of metamorphosis: incomplete metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis. Incomplete metamorphosis Hemimetabolous insects, those with incomplete metamorphosis, change gradually by undergoing a series of molts. An insect molts when it outgrows its exoskeleton, which does not stretch and would otherwise restrict the insect's growth. The molting process begins as the insect's epidermis secretes a new epicuticle inside the old one. After this new epicuticle is secreted, the epidermis releases a mixture of enzymes that digests the endocuticle and thus detaches the old cuticle. When this stage is complete, the insect makes its body swell by taking in a large quantity of water or air, which makes the old cuticle split along predefined weaknesses where the old exocuticle was thinnest. Immature insects that go through incomplete metamorphosis are called nymphs or in the case of dragonflies and damselflies, also naiads. Nymphs are similar in form to the adult except for the presence of wings, which are not developed until adulthood. With each molt, nymphs grow larger and become more similar in appearance to adult insects. Complete metamorphosis Holometabolism, or complete metamorphosis, is where the insect changes in four stages, an egg or embryo, a larva, a pupa and the adult or imago. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a larva, which is generally worm-like in form. This worm-like form can be one of several varieties: eruciform (caterpillar-like), scarabaeiform (grub-like), campodeiform (elongated, flattened and active), elateriform (wireworm-like) or vermiform (maggot-like). The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa, a stage marked by reduced movement and often sealed within a cocoon. There are three types of pupae: obtect, exarate or coarctate. Obtect pupae are compact, with the legs and other appendages enclosed. Exarate pupae have their legs and other appendages free and extended. Coarctate pupae develop inside the larval skin. Insects undergo considerable change in form during the pupal stage, and emerge as adults. Butterflies are a well-known example of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, although most insects use this life cycle. Some insects have evolved this system to hypermetamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis is a trait of the most diverse insect group, the Endopterygota. Endopterygota includes 11 Orders, the largest being Diptera (flies), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants), and Coleoptera (beetles). This form of development is exclusive to insects and not seen in any other arthropods. Senses and communication Many insects possess very sensitive and specialized organs of perception. Some insects such as bees can perceive ultraviolet wavelengths, or detect polarized light, while the antennae of male moths can detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers. The yellow paper wasp (Polistes versicolor) is known for its wagging movements as a form of communication within the colony; it can waggle with a frequency of 10.6±2.1 Hz (n=190). These wagging movements can signal the arrival of new material into the nest and aggression between workers can be used to stimulate others to increase foraging expeditions. There is a pronounced tendency for there to be a trade-off between visual acuity and chemical or tactile acuity, such that most insects with well-developed eyes have reduced or simple antennae, and vice versa. There are a variety of different mechanisms by which insects perceive sound; while the patterns are not universal, insects can generally hear sound if they can produce it. Different insect species can have varying hearing, though most insects can hear only a narrow range of frequencies related to the frequency of the sounds they can produce. Mosquitoes have been found to hear up to 2 kHz, and some grasshoppers can hear up to 50 kHz. Certain predatory and parasitic insects can detect the characteristic sounds made by their prey or hosts, respectively. For instance, some nocturnal moths can perceive the ultrasonic emissions of bats, which helps them avoid predation. Insects that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to home in on their hosts. Some insects display a rudimentary sense of numbers, such as the solitary wasps that prey upon a single species. The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched. Some species of wasp always provide five, others twelve, and others as high as twenty-four caterpillars per cell. The number of caterpillars is different among species, but always the same for each sex of larva. The male solitary wasp in the genus Eumenes is smaller than the female, so the mother of one species supplies him with only five caterpillars; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell. Light production and vision A few insects, such as members of the families Poduridae and Onychiuridae (Collembola), Mycetophilidae (Diptera) and the beetle families Lampyridae, Phengodidae, Elateridae and Staphylinidae are bioluminescent. The most familiar group are the fireflies, beetles of the family Lampyridae. Some species are able to control this light generation to produce flashes. The function varies with some species using them to attract mates, while others use them to lure prey. Cave dwelling larvae of Arachnocampa (Mycetophilidae, fungus gnats) glow to lure small flying insects into sticky strands of silk. Some fireflies of the genus Photuris mimic the flashing of female Photinus species to attract males of that species, which are then captured and devoured. The colors of emitted light vary from dull blue (Orfelia fultoni, Mycetophilidae) to the familiar greens and the rare reds (Phrixothrix tiemanni, Phengodidae). Most insects, except some species of cave crickets, are able to perceive light and dark. Many species have acute vision capable of detecting minute movements. The eyes may include simple eyes or ocelli as well as compound eyes of varying sizes. Many species are able to detect light in the infrared, ultraviolet and visible light wavelengths. Color vision has been demonstrated in many species and phylogenetic analysis suggests that UV-green-blue trichromacy existed from at least the Devonian period between 416 and 359 million years ago. The individual lenses in compound eyes are immobile, and it was therefore presumed that insects were not able to focus. But research on fruit flies, which is the only insects studied so far, has shown that photoreceptor cells underneath each lens move rapidly in and out of focus in a series of movements called photoreceptor microsaccades. This gives them a much clearer image of the world than previously assumed. Sound production and hearing Insects were the earliest organisms to produce and sense sounds. Hearing has evolved independently at least 19 times in different insect groups. Insects make sounds mostly by mechanical action of appendages. In grasshoppers and crickets, this is achieved by stridulation. Cicadas make the loudest sounds among the insects by producing and amplifying sounds with special modifications to their body to form tymbals and associated musculature. The African cicada Brevisana brevis has been measured at 106.7 decibels at a distance of . Some insects, such as the Helicoverpa zea moths, hawk moths and Hedylid butterflies, can hear ultrasound and take evasive action when they sense that they have been detected by bats. Some moths produce ultrasonic clicks that were once thought to have a role in jamming bat echolocation. The ultrasonic clicks were subsequently found to be produced mostly by unpalatable moths to warn bats, just as warning colorations are used against predators that hunt by sight. Some otherwise palatable moths have evolved to mimic these calls. More recently, the claim that some moths can jam bat sonar has been revisited. Ultrasonic recording and high-speed infrared videography of bat-moth interactions suggest the palatable tiger moth really does defend against attacking big brown bats using ultrasonic clicks that jam bat sonar. Very low sounds are also produced in various species of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea and Neuroptera. These low sounds are simply the sounds made by the insect's movement. Through microscopic stridulatory structures located on the insect's muscles and joints, the normal sounds of the insect moving are amplified and can be used to warn or communicate with other insects. Most sound-making insects also have tympanal organs that can perceive airborne sounds. Some species in Hemiptera, such as the corixids (water boatmen), are known to communicate via underwater sounds. Most insects are also able to sense vibrations transmitted through surfaces. Communication using surface-borne vibrational signals is more widespread among insects because of size constraints in producing air-borne sounds. Insects cannot effectively produce low-frequency sounds, and high-frequency sounds tend to disperse more in a dense environment (such as foliage), so insects living in such environments communicate primarily using substrate-borne vibrations. The mechanisms of production of vibrational signals are just as diverse as those for producing sound in insects. Some species use vibrations for communicating within members of the same species, such as to attract mates as in the songs of the shield bug Nezara viridula. Vibrations can also be used to communicate between entirely different species; lycaenid (gossamer-winged butterfly) caterpillars, which are myrmecophilous (living in a mutualistic association with ants) communicate with ants in this way. The Madagascar hissing cockroach has the ability to press air through its spiracles to make a hissing noise as a sign of aggression; the death's-head hawkmoth makes a squeaking noise by forcing air out of their pharynx when agitated, which may also reduce aggressive worker honey bee behavior when the two are close. Chemical communication Chemical communications in animals rely on a variety of aspects including taste and smell. Chemoreception is the physiological response of a sense organ (i.e. taste or smell) to a chemical stimulus where the chemicals act as signals to regulate the state or activity of a cell. A semiochemical is a message-carrying chemical that is meant to attract, repel, and convey information. Types of semiochemicals include pheromones and kairomones. One example is the butterfly Phengaris arion which uses chemical signals as a form of mimicry to aid in predation. In addition to the use of sound for communication, a wide range of insects have evolved chemical means for communication. These semiochemicals are often derived from plant metabolites including those meant to attract, repel and provide other kinds of information. Pheromones, a type of semiochemical, are used for attracting mates of the opposite sex, for aggregating conspecific individuals of both sexes, for deterring other individuals from approaching, to mark a trail, and to trigger aggression in nearby individuals. Allomones benefit their producer by the effect they have upon the receiver. Kairomones benefit their receiver instead of their producer. Synomones benefit the producer and the receiver. While some chemicals are targeted at individuals of the same species, others are used for communication across species. The use of scents is especially well-developed in social insects. are nonstructural materials produced and secreted to the cuticle surface to fight desiccation and pathogens. They are important, too, as pheromones, especially in social insects. Social behavior Social insects, such as termites, ants and many bees and wasps, are the most familiar species of eusocial animals. They live together in large well-organized colonies that may be so tightly integrated and genetically similar that the colonies of some species are sometimes considered superorganisms. It is sometimes argued that the various species of honey bee are the only invertebrates (and indeed one of the few non-human groups) to have evolved a system of abstract symbolic communication where a behavior is used to represent and convey specific information about something in the environment. In this communication system, called dance language, the angle at which a bee dances represents a direction relative to the sun, and the length of the dance represents the distance to be flown. Though perhaps not as advanced as honey bees, bumblebees also potentially have some social communication behaviors. Bombus terrestris, for example, exhibit a faster learning curve for visiting unfamiliar, yet rewarding flowers, when they can see a conspecific foraging on the same species. Only insects that live in nests or colonies demonstrate any true capacity for fine-scale spatial orientation or homing. This can allow an insect to return unerringly to a single hole a few millimeters in diameter among thousands of apparently identical holes clustered together, after a trip of up to several kilometers' distance. In a phenomenon known as philopatry, insects that hibernate have shown the ability to recall a specific location up to a year after last viewing the area of interest. A few insects seasonally migrate large distances between different geographic regions (e.g., the overwintering areas of the monarch butterfly). Care of young The eusocial insects build nests, guard eggs, and provide food for offspring full-time. Most insects, however, lead short lives as adults, and rarely interact with one another except to mate or compete for mates. A small number exhibit some form of parental care, where they will at least guard their eggs, and sometimes continue guarding their offspring until adulthood, and possibly even feeding them. Another simple form of parental care is to construct a nest (a burrow or an actual construction, either of which may be simple or complex), store provisions in it, and lay an egg upon those provisions. The adult does not contact the growing offspring, but it nonetheless does provide food. This sort of care is typical for most species of bees and various types of wasps. Locomotion Flight Insects are the only group of invertebrates to have developed flight. The evolution of insect wings has been a subject of debate. Some entomologists suggest that the wings are from paranotal lobes, or extensions from the insect's exoskeleton called the nota, called the paranotal theory. Other theories are based on a pleural origin. Another theory suggest the wings are actually made up of both the notum and the pleuron. These theories include suggestions that wings originated from modified gills, spiracular flaps or as from an appendage of the epicoxa. The epicoxal theory suggests the insect wings are modified epicoxal exites, a modified appendage at the base of the legs or coxa. In the Carboniferous age, some of the Meganeura dragonflies had as much as a wide wingspan. The appearance of gigantic insects has been found to be consistent with high atmospheric oxygen. The respiratory system of insects constrains their size, however the high oxygen in the atmosphere allowed larger sizes. The largest flying insects today are much smaller, with the largest wingspan belonging to the white witch moth (Thysania agrippina), at approximately . Insect flight has been a topic of great interest in aerodynamics due partly to the inability of steady-state theories to explain the lift generated by the tiny wings of insects. But insect wings are in motion, with flapping and vibrations, resulting in churning and eddies, and the misconception that physics says "bumblebees can't fly" persisted throughout most of the twentieth century. Unlike birds, many small insects are swept along by the prevailing winds although many of the larger insects are known to make migrations. Aphids are known to be transported long distances by low-level jet streams. As such, fine line patterns associated with converging winds within weather radar imagery, like the WSR-88D radar network, often represent large groups of insects. Radar can also be deliberately used to monitor insects. Walking Many adult insects use six legs for walking, with an alternating tripod gait. This allows for rapid walking while always having a stable stance; it has been studied extensively in cockroaches and ants. For the first step, the middle right leg and the front and rear left legs are in contact with the ground and move the insect forward, while the front and rear right leg and the middle left leg are lifted and moved forward to a new position. When they touch the ground to form a new stable triangle the other legs can be lifted and brought forward in turn and so on. The purest form of the tripedal gait is seen in insects moving at high speeds. However, this type of locomotion is not rigid and insects can adapt a variety of gaits. For example, when moving slowly, turning, avoiding obstacles, climbing or slippery surfaces, four (tetrapod) or more feet (wave-gait) may be touching the ground. Insects can also adapt their gait to cope with the loss of one or more limbs. Cockroaches are among the fastest insect runners and, at full speed, adopt a bipedal run to reach a high velocity in proportion to their body size. As cockroaches move very quickly, they need to be video recorded at several hundred frames per second to reveal their gait. More sedate locomotion is seen in the stick insects or walking sticks (Phasmatodea). A few insects have evolved to walk on the surface of the water, especially members of the Gerridae family, commonly known as water striders. A few species of ocean-skaters in the genus Halobates even live on the surface of open oceans, a habitat that has few insect species. Insect walking is of particular interest as practical form of robot locomotion. The study of insects and bipeds has a significant impact on possible robotic methods of transport. This may allow new hexapod robots to be designed that can traverse terrain that robots with wheels may be unable to handle. Swimming A large number of insects live either part or the whole of their lives underwater. In many of the more primitive orders of insect, the immature stages are spent in an aquatic environment. Some groups of insects, like certain water beetles, have aquatic adults as well. Many of these species have adaptations to help in under-water locomotion. Water beetles and water bugs have legs adapted into paddle-like structures. Dragonfly naiads use jet propulsion, forcibly expelling water out of their rectal chamber. Some species like the water striders are capable of walking on the surface of water. They can do this because their claws are not at the tips of the legs as in most insects, but recessed in a special groove further up the leg; this prevents the claws from piercing the water's surface film. Other insects such as the Rove beetle Stenus are known to emit pygidial gland secretions that reduce surface tension making it possible for them to move on the surface of water by Marangoni propulsion (also known by the German term Entspannungsschwimmen). Ecology Insect ecology is the scientific study of how insects, individually or as a community, interact with the surrounding environment or ecosystem. Insects play one of the most important roles in their ecosystems, which includes many roles, such as soil turning and aeration, dung burial, pest control, pollination and wildlife nutrition. An example is the beetles, which are scavengers that feed on dead animals and fallen trees and thereby recycle biological materials into forms found useful by other organisms. These insects, and others, are responsible for much of the process by which topsoil is created. Defense and predation Insects are mostly soft bodied, fragile and almost defenseless compared to other, larger lifeforms. The immature stages are small, move slowly or are immobile, and so all stages are exposed to predation and parasitism. Insects then have a variety of defense strategies to avoid being attacked by predators or parasitoids. These include camouflage, mimicry, toxicity and active defense. Camouflage is an important defense strategy, which involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment. This sort of protective coloration is common and widespread among beetle families, especially those that feed on wood or vegetation, such as many of the leaf beetles (family Chrysomelidae) or weevils. In some of these species, sculpturing or various colored scales or hairs cause the beetle to resemble bird dung or other inedible objects. Many of those that live in sandy environments blend in with the coloration of the substrate. Most phasmids are known for effectively replicating the forms of sticks and leaves, and the bodies of some species (such as O. macklotti and Palophus centaurus) are covered in mossy or lichenous outgrowths that supplement their disguise. Very rarely, a species may have the ability to change color as their surroundings shift (Bostra scabrinota). In a further behavioral adaptation to supplement crypsis, a number of species have been noted to perform a rocking motion where the body is swayed from side to side that is thought to reflect the movement of leaves or twigs swaying in the breeze. Another method by which stick insects avoid predation and resemble twigs is by feigning death (catalepsy), where the insect enters a motionless state that can be maintained for a long period. The nocturnal feeding habits of adults also aids Phasmatodea in remaining concealed from predators. Another defense that often uses color or shape to deceive potential enemies is mimicry. A number of longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) bear a striking resemblance to wasps, which helps them avoid predation even though the beetles are in fact harmless. Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera. Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species (the mimic) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species (the model). Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian. One of the most famous examples, where the viceroy butterfly was long believed to be a Batesian mimic of the inedible monarch, was later disproven, as the viceroy is more toxic than the monarch, and this resemblance is now considered to be a case of Müllerian mimicry. In Müllerian mimicry, inedible species, usually within a taxonomic order, find it advantageous to resemble each other so as to reduce the sampling rate by predators who need to learn about the insects' inedibility. Taxa from the toxic genus Heliconius form one of the most well known Müllerian complexes. Chemical defense is another important defense found among species of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, usually being advertised by bright colors, such as the monarch butterfly. They obtain their toxicity by sequestering the chemicals from the plants they eat into their own tissues. Some Lepidoptera manufacture their own toxins. Predators that eat poisonous butterflies and moths may become sick and vomit violently, learning not to eat those types of species; this is actually the basis of Müllerian mimicry. A predator who has previously eaten a poisonous lepidopteran may avoid other species with similar markings in the future, thus saving many other species as well. Some ground beetles of the family Carabidae can spray chemicals from their abdomen with great accuracy, to repel predators. Pollination Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in the reproduction of plants, thereby enabling fertilisation and sexual reproduction. Most flowering plants require an animal to do the transportation. While other animals are included as pollinators, the majority of pollination is done by insects. Because insects usually receive benefit for the pollination in the form of energy rich nectar it is a grand example of mutualism. The various flower traits (and combinations thereof) that differentially attract one type of pollinator or another are known as pollination syndromes. These arose through complex plant-animal adaptations. Pollinators find flowers through bright colorations, including ultraviolet, and attractant pheromones. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology. Parasitism Many insects are parasites of other insects such as the parasitoid wasps. These insects are known as entomophagous parasites. They can be beneficial due to their devastation of pests that can destroy crops and other resources. Many insects have a parasitic relationship with humans such as the mosquito. These insects are known to spread diseases such as malaria and yellow fever and because of such, mosquitoes indirectly cause more deaths of humans than any other animal. Relationship to humans As pests Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic (e.g. lice, bed bugs), transmit diseases (mosquitoes, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods (locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, as in research for companies to produce insecticides, but increasingly rely on methods of biological pest control, or biocontrol. Biocontrol uses one organism to reduce the population density of another organism—the pest—and is considered a key element of integrated pest management. Despite the large amount of effort focused at controlling insects, human attempts to kill pests with insecticides can backfire. If used carelessly, the poison can kill all kinds of organisms in the area, including insects' natural predators, such as birds, mice and other insectivores. The effects of DDT's use exemplifies how some insecticides can threaten wildlife beyond intended populations of pest insects. In beneficial roles Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the environment and to humans. Some insects, like wasps, bees, butterflies and ants, pollinate flowering plants. Pollination is a mutualistic relationship between plants and insects. As insects gather nectar from different plants of the same species, they also spread pollen from plants on which they have previously fed. This greatly increases plants' ability to cross-pollinate, which maintains and possibly even improves their evolutionary fitness. This ultimately affects humans since ensuring healthy crops is critical to agriculture. As well as pollination ants help with seed distribution of plants. This helps to spread the plants, which increases plant diversity. This leads to an overall better environment. A serious environmental problem is the decline of populations of pollinator insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for pollination management in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field, orchard or greenhouse at bloom time. Another solution, as shown in Delaware, has been to raise native plants to help support native pollinators like L. vierecki. The economic value of pollination by insects has been estimated to be about $34 billion in the US alone. Products made by insects. Insects also produce useful substances such as honey, wax, lacquer and silk. Honey bees have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for beekeepers. The silkworm has greatly affected human history, as silk-driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world. Pest control. Insectivorous insects, or insects that feed on other insects, are beneficial to humans if they eat insects that could cause damage to agriculture and human structures. For example, aphids feed on crops and cause problems for farmers, but ladybugs feed on aphids, and can be used as a means to significantly reduce pest aphid populations. While birds are perhaps more visible predators of insects, insects themselves account for the vast majority of insect consumption. Ants also help control animal populations by consuming small vertebrates. Without predators to keep them in check, insects can undergo almost unstoppable population explosions. Medical uses. Insects are also used in medicine, for example fly larvae (maggots) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene, as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Recently insects have also gained attention as potential sources of drugs and other medicinal substances. Adult insects, such as crickets and insect larvae of various kinds, are also commonly used as fishing bait. In research Insects play important roles in biological research. For example, because of its small size, short generation time and high fecundity, the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in the genetics of eukaryotes. D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles like genetic linkage, interactions between genes, chromosomal genetics, development, behavior and evolution. Because genetic systems are well conserved among eukaryotes, understanding basic cellular processes like DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies can help to understand those processes in other eukaryotes, including humans. The genome of D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000, reflecting the organism's important role in biological research. It was found that 70% of the fly genome is similar to the human genome, supporting the evolution theory. As food In some cultures, insects form part of the normal diet. In Africa, for instance, locally abundant species of both locusts and termites are a common traditional human food source. Some, especially deep-fried cicadas, are considered to be delicacies. Insects have a high protein content for their mass, and some authors suggest their potential as a major source of protein in human nutrition. In most first-world countries, however, entomophagy (the eating of insects), is taboo. They are also recommended by militaries as a survival food for troops in adversity. Since it is impossible to eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects are inadvertently present in many foods, especially grains. Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit their quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock. Because of the abundance of insects and a worldwide concern of food shortages, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations considers that the world may have to, in the future, regard the prospects of eating insects as a food staple. Insects are noted for their nutrients, having a high content of protein, minerals and fats and are eaten by one-third of the global population. As feed Several insect species such as the black soldier fly or the housefly in their maggot forms, as well as beetle larvae such as mealworms can be processed and used as feed for farmed animals such as chicken, fish and pigs. In other products Black soldier fly larvae can provide protein, fats for use in cosmetics, and chitin. Also, insect cooking oil, insect butter and fatty alcohols can be made from such insects as the superworm (Zophobas morio). As pets Many species of insects are sold and kept as pets. There are special hobbyist magazines such as "Bugs" (now discontinued). In culture Scarab beetles held religious and cultural symbolism in Old Egypt, Greece and some shamanistic Old World cultures. The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality. In Mesopotamian literature, the epic poem of Gilgamesh has allusions to Odonata that signify the impossibility of immortality. Among the Aborigines of Australia of the Arrernte language groups, honey ants and witchetty grubs served as personal clan totems. In the case of the 'San' bush-men of the Kalahari, it is the praying mantis that holds much cultural significance including creation and zen-like patience in waiting. See also Chemical ecology Defense in insects Entomology Ethnoentomology Flying and gliding animals Insect biodiversity Insect ecology Insect pheromones Insect-borne diseases Prehistoric insects Pain in invertebrates Adipokinetic hormone Notes References External links Insect species and observations on iNaturalist Insects of North America Overview of Orders of Insects A Safrinet Manual for Entomology and Arachnology SPC Tree of Life Project – Insecta, Insecta Movies Insect Morphology Overview of insect external and internal anatomy Fossil Insect Database International Palaeoentological Society UF Book of Insect Records InsectImages.org 24,000 high resolution insect photographs BBC Nature: Insect news, and video clips from BBC programmes past and present. The Nature Explorers Many insect video clips. Insects Entomology Insects described in 1758 Extant Early Devonian first appearances
342012	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D-%E1%83%93%E1%83%94-%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D	სინკო-დე-მაიო	სინკო-დე-მაიო (ხუთი მაისი) — მექსიკის ეროვნული დღესასწაული, პუებლის ბრძოლაში (5 მაისი, 1862 წ.) გამარჯვების აღსანიშნავად. დღესასწაული ასევე ფართოდ აღინიშნება აშშ-შიც (ძირითადად ლათინოამერიკელების მიერ, რომლებიც ამერიკა-მექსიკის ომის შემდგომ ამერიკის მიერ ანექსირებულ სამხრეთის შტატებში ცხოვრობენ. მაგ: კალიფორნია, არიზონა, ნიუ-მექსიკო, ტეხასი). აღნიშნულ დღესასწაულს ხშირად მოიხსენიებენ, როგორც მექსიკურ წმინდა პატრიკის დღეს. სინკო დე მაიოს დროს სუფრა მექსიკური კერძებითაა გაწყობილი, ფონს კი ამშვენებს ეროვნული ცეკვები და მუსიკა. ამ დღეს ეწყობა დიდი ფესტივალები და კარნავალები. ზოგიერთ რაიონში დღესასწაული კვირაობით გრძელდება. რესურსები ინტერნეტში სინკო დე მაიო — პუებლოში გამარჯვების დღე მექსიკის ისტორია მექსიკის ეროვნული დღესასწაულები
265846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20Moldova	Culture of Moldova	Culture of Moldova The culture of Moldova is unique and influenced by the Romanian origins of its majority population, as well as the Slavic and minority Gagauz populations. The traditional Latin origins of Romanian culture reach back to the 2nd century, the period of Roman colonization in Dacia. During the centuries following the Roman withdrawal in 271, the population of the region was influenced by contact with the Byzantine Empire, Slavic peoples, Hungarian people, and later by the Ottoman Turks. Slavic migration into the region began in the 6th century and continued gradually through the early 19th century. A heavy Polish influence occurred from the 14th through 16th centuries, when the Principality of Moldova was connected to Poland by a trade route and was briefly a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland. Since the 18th century, several waves of Poles emigrated to the land which constitutes the majority of modern Moldova. Beginning in the 19th century, a strong Western European (particularly French) influence came to be evident in literature and the arts. The resulting melting pot has produced a rich cultural tradition. Although foreign contact was an inevitable consequence of the region's geographical location, their influence only served to enhance a vital and resilient popular culture. The population of what once was the Principality of Moldavia (1359–1859) had come to identify itself widely as "Moldovan" by the 14th century, but continued to maintain close cultural links with other Romanian groups. After 1812, the eastern Moldovans, those inhabiting Bessarabia and Transnistria, were also influenced by Slavic culture during the periods of 1812–1917, and during 1940–1989 they were influenced by Russia. The geographical area that is now modern Moldova was formed under the conditions of contacts with the East Slavic population, and later under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. In 1812, the territory of modern Moldova was liberated from Ottoman rule and incorporated into the Bessarabian province of the Russian Empire, which had a great influence on the development of the culture of the region. After the October Revolution in 1918, Romania annexed the nation for 22 years, and the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on the left bank of the Dniester, as a result of which culture developed under a stronger Russian influence under Soviet administrative control, as well as by ethnic Russian or Russian-speaking immigration. By 1918, Bessarabia was one of the least developed, and least educated European regions of the Russian Empire. In 1930, Moldova's literacy rate was 40%, while Romania itself had a 38% literacy rate according to the 1930 Romanian census. Especially low was the literacy rate for women, less than 10% in 1918, to just under 50% in 1940. Although Soviet authorities promoted education, the region's cultural ties with Romania were slowly eroded due to administrative policies. With many ethnic Romanian intellectuals, either fleeing, being killed after 1940, or being deported both during and after World War II, Bessarabia's cultural and educational situation changed drastically and became more Russified. After the 1960s, Soviet authorities developed urban cultural and scientific institutions that were subsequently filled with Russians, and diverse ethnic groups from across the Soviet Union. Much of the urban culture came from Moscow, while the primarily rural ethnic Romanian population was allowed to express itself in folklore and folk art. Folk culture Although the folk arts flourished, similarities with Romanian culture were hidden. Music and dance, particularly encouraged by Soviet authorities, were made into a showcase, but were subtly changed to hide their Romanian origins. For example, the national folk costume, in which the traditional Romanian moccasin (opinca) was replaced by the Russian boot. Moldova's traditional folk culture is very rich. The ancient folk ballads, such as "Mioriţa" and "Meşterul Manole", play a central role in this traditional culture. Folk traditions, including ceramics and weaving, continue to be practiced in rural areas. The folk culture tradition is promoted at the national level and is represented by, among other groups, the folk choir, Doina. Literary culture The first Moldovan books, religious texts, appeared in the mid-17th century. Prominent figures in Moldova's cultural development include Dosoftei, Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, metropolitan of Kiev Petru Movilă, scholars Nicolae Milescu-Spãtaru, Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), and Ion Neculce, Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni, Alexandru Donici, Constantin Stamati, Costache Negruzzi, historian and philologist Bogdan P. Hasdeu (1836–1907), author Ion Creangă (1837–1889), and poet Mihai Eminescu (1850–1889). Varlaam published the first books. Dosoftei founded numerous schools and published a lot. Cantemir wrote the first thorough geographical, ethnographical, and economic description of the country in Descriptio Moldaviae (Berlin, c. 1714). Modern writers include Vladimir Beşleagă, Nicolae Dabija, Ion Druţă, Victor Teleucă, and Grigore Vieru. In 1991, a total of 520 books were published in Moldova, of which 402 were in Romanian, 108 in Russian, eight in Gagauz, and two in Bulgarian. In the early 1990s, Moldova had twelve professional theaters. All performed in Romanian, except the A.P. Chekhov Russian Drama Theater in Chişinău, and the Russian Drama and Comedy Theater in Tiraspol, both of which performed solely in Russian, and the Licurici Republic Puppet Theater, in Chişinău, which performed in both Romanian and Russian. Members of ethnic minorities manage a number of folklore groups and amateur theaters throughout the country. Cuisine Moldovan cuisine consists mainly of traditional European foods, such as beef, pork, potatoes, cabbage, cheese, and a variety of cereal grains. Popular alcoholic beverages are divin (Moldovan brandy), beer, and local wine. Very popular dishes include manti (a type of dumpling filled with meat and vegetables, which is wrapped in a dough wrapper, and served with a spicy sour cream), ciorbă (a sour soup consisting of meat and vegetables, served with sauerkraut, polenta, or rice), pelmeni (another type of dumpling, filled with meat and onions, but sometimes mushrooms, turnips, and sauerkraut are added), borscht (made with beets, tomatoes, and other vegetables to form a stew), and sarma (a dish made with stuffed cabbage rolls, accompanied by sauerkraut and mămăligă). Other common foods in Moldova include grilled meats, other grains, dairy products, and mămăligă (a type of polenta made with cornmeal, and mashed into a porridge). Sports See also Music of Moldova Religion in Moldova History of the Jews in Bessarabia References External links Information about Moldova from the page of the Moldovan Ministry of Culture and Tourism www.moldova.md about Moldovan culture www.tur.md about Moldovan rest
12254180	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svitlovodsk%20Raion	Svitlovodsk Raion	Svitlovodsk Raion was a raion (district) of Kirovohrad Oblast in central Ukraine. The administrative center of the raion was the city of Svitlovodsk, which is incorporated separately as a city of oblast significance and did not belong to the raion. The raion was abolished on 18 July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Kirovohrad Oblast to four. The area of Svitlovodsk Raion was merged into Oleksandriia Raion. The last estimate of the raion population was At the time of disestablishment, the raion consisted of one hromada, Velyka Andrusivka rural hromada with the administration in the selo of Velyka Andrusivka. References Former raions of Kirovohrad Oblast 1962 establishments in Ukraine Ukrainian raions abolished during the 2020 administrative reform
1027767	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izora%20Armstead	Izora Armstead	Izora Armstead Izora Margaret Rhodes-Armstead (July 6, 1942 – September 16, 2004) was an American singer-songwriter. Known for her distinctive alto voice, Armstead first achieved successful as one half of the duo Two Tons O' Fun, along with Martha Wash, as they sang backup for American disco singer Sylvester. The duo obtained their own record deal as Two Tons O'Fun in 1979. They released three consecutive songs that were hits on the Dance Chart. The duo was renamed The Weather Girls in 1982 after the release of their single "It's Raining Men", their most successful single. As a duo, The Weather Girls released five albums and were also featured on Sylvester's albums. After The Weather Girls disbanded in 1988, Armstead released a single, "Don't Let Love Slip Away" (1991). In 1991, she reformed The Weather Girls with her daughter Dynelle Rhodes, who had been one of the duo's background singers. Over the course of a decade, they released three albums: Double Tons of Fun (1993), Think Big! (1995), and Puttin' On The Hits (1999). On September 16, 2004, Armstead died from heart failure in San Leandro, California. Early life Izora M. Rhodes was born on July 6, 1942, in Houston, Texas. She moved to San Francisco, California with her family when she was a child. At the young age of four, she began playing piano and later began singing at age eight. Rhodes eventually became the lead vocalist and pianist of San Francisco Inspirational Choir. Rhodes studied classical music at San Francisco Conservatory. She modeled herself after her favorite singers Mahalia Jackson and Clara Ward. By 1975, Rhodes had a total of seven children, six boys and a girl, that she raised as a single parent. To support her children, Rhodes worked as a bartender and a nurse assistant. In addition, Rhodes also worked as a piano and vocal teacher. In 1976, Rhodes married a new husband and changed her last name to Armstead. According to the autobiography book The Fabulous Sylvester: The Legend, the Music, the Seventies in San Francisco written by Joshua Gamson, she had a total of eleven children (four of which are allegedly step-children) with then-new husband [Armstead]. Now Izora Armstead, she eventually landed in a short-lived gospel group called N.O.W. (News of the World), which would include neighborhood friend Martha Wash. Career 1976–1981: Sylvester and Two Tons O' Fun In February 1976, friend Martha Wash auditioned as a backup singer before American singer-songwriter Sylvester and his manager Brent Thomson. Impressed with her vocal performance, Sylvester inquired if she had another large black friend who could sing, after which she introduced him to Izora Rhodes. Although he referred to them simply as "the girls", Wash and Rhodes formed a musical duo called Two Tons O' Fun (sometimes referred to as "The Two Tons"). Two Tons O' Fun debuted as Sylvester's backing vocalists on his self-titled third album Sylvester, released in 1977. The duo sang backup vocals on the album's singles "Down, Down, Down" and "Over and Over", which charted at number eighteen on the Billboard Dance chart. In 1978, Sylvester released his fourth album Step II, which also featured The Two Tons' background vocals throughout the album. "Dance (Disco Heat)", the album's lead single which featured The Tons, peaked at number one on Billboard Dance chart and became their first number-one single on that chart. In 1979, Two Tons O' Fun sang background on Sylvester's live album Living Proof. Later that year, the duo secured their own record deal with Fantasy Records. On January 24, 1980, the duo released their debut self-titled album Two Tons of Fun. The album spawned two top-five dance singles: "Earth Can Be Just Like Heaven" and "I Got the Feeling". Their second album Backatcha was released later that year. The album spawned a single "I Depend On You" that peaked at number seventy-two on the Dance chart. 1982–1988: The Weather Girls In September 1982, the duo released their single "It's Raining Men". The song became their biggest hit, peaking at number one on the Dance chart and number forty-six on Billboard'''s Hot 100 chart. Following the success of the song, Two Tons o Fun changed their group name to The Weather Girls. On January 22, 1983, they released their third album Success. The album's titled-track "Success" was released as the second single and peaked at number eighty-nine on the R&B chart. In 1985, The Weather Girls released their fourth album Big Girls Don't Cry. In 1988, The Weather Girls released their self-titled fifth album The Weather Girls, the final album featuring Armstead and Wash. Shortly after the release of the album, The Weather Girls were dropped from Columbia and soon disbanded to pursue solo careers. 1989–1991: Solo career Following the disbandment of The Weather Girls, Armstead pursued a brief solo career. She began touring as a solo artist, performing songs from The Weather Girls. In 1991, she released a single "Don't Let Love Slip Away". 1991–2004: Reformation of The Weather Girls After a three-year hiatus and Wash pursuing her solo career, Armstead reformed The Weather Girls with her daughter Dynelle Rhodes and relocated to Germany in 1991. Their first album together Double Tons of Fun was released in 1993. The album's lead single "Can You Feel It" peaked at number two Billboard's Dance chart. The song also peaked at number 75 on Germany's music chart, their second single to enter that chart since "It's Raining Men". While touring the club circuit, the album's third single "We Shall All Be Free" peaked at number 80 on Germany's music chart. Their follow-up album Think Big! was released in December 1995. The album saw Armstead's contribution as a songwriter and penning several songs, including the album's third single "The Sound of Sex (Ooh Gitchie O-La-La-Ay)" which was written with her daughter. The album also contained a cover version of Sylvester's 1979 disco hit "Stars", recorded as a duet with Scottish pop singer Jimmy Somerville. In 1999, The Weather Girls released eighth studio album Puttin' On The Hits'' which contained a collection of covered disco songs. In 2002, they joined the Disco Brothers for a participation in the German National Final for the Eurovision Song Contest, with their song "Get Up". Overall, the group finished in thirteenth place. Final years and death Armstead's final recording was the single "Big Brown Girl" with The Weather Girls, released in 2004. In August 2004, Armstead returned to the Bay Area to undergo treatment for heart-related problems. In mid-September 2004, Armstead was checked into San Leandro Hospital after her condition deteriorated. On September 16, 2004, Armstead died from heart failure at the age of 62 in 2004 in San Leandro, California. She was survived by her seven children. Her funeral was held at St. John Missionary Baptist Church in San Francisco, California. She was laid to rest in Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, California. Legacy As of 2004, Armstead's voice has collectively accumulated a total of three number-one dance singles: "Dance (Disco Heat)" (1978) and "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" (1978) with Sylvester; and "It's Raining Men" with The Weather Girls. Her single "It's Raining Men" was ranked the song at thirty-five on VH1's list of the 100 Greatest Dance Songs in 2000, and also at thirty-five in their 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders of the 1980s in 2009. Armstead's daughter Dynelle Rhodes received the rights to The Weather Girls name. Rhodes added a then-new member Ingrid Arthur to The Weather Girls and began performing as a tribute to Armstead. The Weather Girls' album "Totally Wild" (2005) was dedicated to Armstead. In 2012, Rhodes replaced Ingrid Arthur with Dorrey Lin Lyles. On September 14, 2014, Mighty Real: A Fabulous Sylvester Musical, a Broadway musical about Sylvester, debuted in New York City. Armstead's likeness was featured in the production and she was portrayed by actress Anastacia McCleskey. Discography Singles 1991: "Don't Let Love Slip Away" References External links 1942 births 2004 deaths 20th-century African-American women singers African-American record producers African-American women writers American contemporary R&B singers American contraltos American dance musicians American disco musicians American expatriates in Germany American women pop singers American house musicians American hi-NRG musicians American music publishers (people) African-American women singer-songwriters American soul singers Columbia Records artists Singers from San Francisco Songwriters from San Francisco American women in electronic music 21st-century African-American women singers Burials at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park Singer-songwriters from California The Weather Girls members
239553	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%20%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98	ბერნარდ ბერენსონი	ბერნარდ ბერენსონი (დ. 26 ივნისი, 1865, ვილნო — გ. 7 ოქტომბერი, 1959, ფლორენცია) — ამერიკელი ხელოვნების ისტორიკოსი. დაამთავრა ჰარვარდის უნივერსიტეტი (1887). ამერიკული ხელოვნების და ლიტერატურის აკადემიისა და ევროპული რამდენიმე აკადემიის წევრი. 1900 წლიდან ცხოვრობდა იტალიაში. 1890 და 1900-იანი წლების დასაწყისის შრომებში ბერნსონმა პირველმა განსაზღვრა იტალიური აღორძინების სხვადასხვა სკოლისა და მხატვართა შემოქმედების სტილისტური თავისებურებანი. ბერნსონმა დიდი მუშაობა ჩაატარა იტალიელ მხატვართა სურათების ატრიბუციისათვის. ლიტერატურა ამერიკელი ხელოვანები დაბადებული 26 ივნისი დაბადებული 1865 გარდაცვლილი 7 ოქტომბერი გარდაცვლილი 1959
492128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis	Crisis	Crisis A crisis (: crises; : critical) is any event or period that will lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group, or all of society. Crises are negative changes in the human or environmental affairs, especially when they occur abruptly, with little or no warning. More loosely, a crisis is a testing time for an emergency. Etymology The English word crisis was borrowed from the Latin, which in turn was borrowed from the Greek krisis 'discrimination, decision, crisis'. The noun is derived from the verb krinō, which means 'distinguish, choose, decide'. In English, crisis was first used in a medical context, for the time in the development of a disease when a change indicates either recovery or death, that is, a turning-point. It was also used for a major change in the development of a disease. By the mid-seventeenth century, it took on the figurative meaning of a "vitally important or decisive stage in the progress of anything", especially a period of uncertainty or difficulty, without necessarily having the implication of a decision-point. Definition A crisis is often linked to the concept of psychological stress and used to suggest a frightening or fraught experience. In general, crisis is the situation of a "complex system" (family, economy, society. Note that simple systems do not enter crises. We can speak about a crisis of moral values, an economical or political crisis, but not a motor crisis) when the system functions poorly (the system still functions, but does not break down), an immediate decision is necessary to stop the further disintegration of the system, but the causes of the dysfunction are not immediately identified (the causes are so many, or unknown, that it is impossible to take a rational, informed decision to reverse the situation). The crisis has several defining characteristics. Seeger, Sellnow, and Ulmer say that crises have four defining characteristics that are "specific, unexpected, and non-routine events or series of events that [create] high levels of uncertainty and threat or perceived threat to an organization's high priority goals." Thus the first three characteristics are that the event is 1. unexpected (i.e., a surprise) 2. creates uncertainty 3. is seen as a threat to important goals Venette argues that "crisis is a process of transformation where the old system can no longer be maintained." Therefore the fourth defining quality is the need for change. If change is not needed, the event could more accurately be described as a failure. Apart from natural crises that are inherently unpredictable (volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, etc.) most of the crises that we face are created by man. Hence the requirements of their being 'unexpected' depend upon man failing to note the onset of crisis conditions. Some of our inability to recognize crises before they become dangerous is due to denial and other psychological responses that provide succor and protection for our emotions. A different set of reasons for failing to notice the onset of crises is that we allow ourselves to be 'tricked' into believing that we are doing something for reasons that are false. In other words, we are doing the wrong things for the right reasons. For example, we might believe that we are solving the threats of climate change by engaging in economic trading activity that has no real impact on the climate. Mitroff and Silvers posit two reasons for these mistakes, which they classify as Type 3 (inadvertent) and Type 4 (deliberate) errors. The effect of our inability to attend to the likely results of our actions can result in a crisis. From this perspective, we might usefully learn that failing to understand the real causes of our difficulties is likely to lead to repeated downstream 'blowback'. Where states are concerned, Michael Brecher, based on case studies of the International Crisis Behavior (ICB) project, suggested a different way of defining crisis as conditions are perceptions held by the highest level decision-makers of the actor concerned: 1. threat to basic values, with a simultaneous or subsequent 2. high probability of involvement in military hostilities, and the awareness of 3. finite time for response to the external value threat. Chinese word for "crisis" It is frequently said in Western motivational speaking that the Chinese word for "crisis" is composed of two Chinese characters signifying "danger" and "opportunity" respectively. This is, however, considered by linguists to be a misperception. Political crisis Economic An economic crisis is a sharp transition to a recession. See for example 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, Argentine economic crisis (1999–2002), South American economic crisis of 2002, Economic crisis of Cameroon. Crisis theory is a central achievement in the conclusions of Karl Marx's critique of Capital. A financial crisis may be a banking crisis or currency crisis. Environmental Crises pertaining to the environment include: Environmental disaster An environmental disaster is a disaster that is due to human activity and should not be confused with natural disasters (see below). In this case, the impact of humans' alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences. It can include the deaths of animals (including humans) and plant systems, or severe disruption of human life, possibly requiring migration. Natural disaster A natural disaster is the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake, landslide) which moves from potential in to an active phase, and as a result affects human activities. Human vulnerability, exacerbated by the lack of planning or lack of appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, structural, and human losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster, their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. For lists of natural disasters, see the list of disasters or the list of deadliest natural disasters. Endangered species An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in number, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. An endangered species is usually a taxonomic species, but may be another evolutionary significant unit. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has classified 38 percent of the 44,837 species assessed by 2008 as threatened. International For information about crises in the field of study in international relations, see crisis management and international crisis. In this context, a crisis can be loosely defined as a situation where there is a perception of threat, heightened anxiety, expectation of possible violence and the belief that any actions will have far-reaching consequences (Lebow, 7–10). Personal A personal crisis occurs when an individual can no longer cope with a situation. This is preceded by events of an extraordinary nature triggering extreme tension and stress within an individual, i.e., the crisis, which then requires major decisions or actions to resolve. Crises can be triggered by a wide range of situations including, but not limited to, extreme weather conditions, sudden change in employment/financial state, medical emergencies, long-term illness, and social or familial turmoil. Crises are simply a change in the events that comprise the day-to-day life of a person and those in their close circle, such as the loss of a job, extreme financial hardship, substance addiction/abuse, and other situations that are life-altering and require action that is outside the "normal" daily routine. A person going through a crisis experiences a state of mental disequilibrium, in which the ego struggles to balance both internal and external demands. In this case, said person resorts to coping mechanisms to deal with the stress. Various coping mechanisms include: High emotions (crying, physical withdrawal) Defence mechanisms (denial, repression) Making rash decisions Acting out Putting things on hold In some cases, it is difficult for an individual undergoing a crisis to adapt to the situation. As it is outside of their normal range of functioning, it is common that one endures a struggle to control emotions. This lack of control can lead to suicidal tendencies, substance abuse, trouble with the law and general avoidance of resources available for help. One such resource used to aid an individual in crisis is their social support system, which can come in the form of family, friends, coworkers, or health professionals. It is important that a support system consists of people that the individual trusts. Although these support systems play a crucial role in aiding an individual through a crisis, they are also the underlying cause of two thirds of mental health crises. The aforementioned mental health crises can include marital issues, abandonment, parental conflict and family struggles. In order to aid someone in a crisis, it is crucial to be able to identify the signs that indicate they are undergoing an internal conflict. These signs, as well as the aforementioned coping mechanisms, include: Irrational and/or narrow thinking Lowered attention span Unclear motives Disorganized approach to problem-solving Resistance to communication Inability to differentiate between large and small issues Change/alteration to social networks Ways to manage a crisis As aforementioned, a crisis to this day can be overcome by implementing mechanisms such as: sleep, rejection, physical exercise, meditation and thinking. To assist individuals in regaining emotional equilibrium, intervention can be used. The overall goal of crisis intervention is to get the individual back to a pre-crisis level of functioning or higher with the help of a social support group. As said by Judith Swan, there's a strong correlation between the client's emotional balance and the trust in their support system in helping them throughout their crisis. The steps of crisis intervention are: to assess the situation based on behavior patterns of the individual, decide what type of help is needed (make a plan of action), and finally to take action/intervention, based on the individual's skills to regain equilibrium. In the context of natural disasters and other climate change-related crises, emotional activation is common. Collective processing of emotional experiences is an important part of enabling individuals to increase in their resilience, leading to greater community engagement and a sense of belongingness. When appropriate support for emotional experiences is provided, climate change-induced emotions are adaptive. The Registered Nurses’ Association of Ontario proposed the ABC model for dealing with client's interventions in crises: Benefits of listening in a crisis Moreover, another method for helping individuals who are suffering in a crisis is active listening; it is defined as seeing circumstances from another perspective and letting the other person know that the negotiator (the helper) understands their perspective. Through this, they establish trust and rapport by demonstrating empathy, understanding, and objectivity in a non-judgmental way. It is important for the negotiator to listen to verbal and non-verbal reactions of the person in need, in order to be able to label the emotion that the individual is showing. Thus, this demonstrates that the helper is tuned in emotionally. Furthermore, there are other techniques that can be used to demonstrate active listening such as paraphrasing, silence, and reflecting or mirroring. The goal in active listening is to keep the person talking about their situation. In chaos theory When the control parameter of a chaotic system is modified, the chaotic attractor touches an unstable periodic orbit inside the basin of attraction inducing a sudden expansion in the attractor. This phenomenon is termed as interior crisis in a chaotic system. See also Chinese word for "crisis" Constitutional crisis Coup d'état Crisis cafe Crisis state Crisis management Hostage crisis Humanitarian crisis Distress signal Mayday SOS Ecological crisis Energy crisis Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management Mid-life crisis Revolution War Water crisis Crysis References Further reading Borodzicz, E. P. 2005 'Risk, Crisis and Security Management' John Wileys, Chichester. Jäger, Johannes. "Crisis" (2012). University Bielefeld - Center for InterAmerican Studies. Lebow, RN, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis: 1981. The Rancho Bernardo Hopkins University Press, . Takis Fotopoulos: "The Multidimensional Crisis and Inclusive Democracy" Special Issue, "The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy", 2005. Rüdiger Graf, Konrad Jarausch. “Crisis” in Contemporary History and Historiography in "Docupedia Zeitgeschichte", March 27, 2017. External links Security International relations Strategic management
441397	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%20%28%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%29	ყოზლუ (მრავალმნიშვნელოვანი)	ყოზლუ (მრავალმნიშვნელოვანი) ყოზლუ შეიძლება აღნიშნავდეს: ყოზლუ — სოფელი აზერბაიჯანში, ლაჩინის რაიონი ყოზლუ — სოფელი აზერბაიჯანში, ქალბაჯარის რაიონი
221587	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vollenhovia%20subtilis	Vollenhovia subtilis	Vollenhovia subtilis — ფეხსახსრიანთა ტიპის მწერთა კლასის ჭიანჭველასებრთა ერთ-ერთი ნაირსახეობა Vollenhovia-ს გვარიდან. მიეკუთვნება Ponerinae-ს ქვეოჯახს.. სქოლიო ჭიანჭველები
45628412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataulacus%20taprobanae	Cataulacus taprobanae	Cataulacus taprobanae is a species of ant of the subfamily Myrmicinae. It is a widespread species that can be found in Sri Lanka, India, and China. References External links at antwiki.org Flicker.com Animaldiversity.org Myrmicinae Hymenoptera of Asia Insects described in 1853
535712	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%29	პავია (ილოილო)	პავია (ილოილო) პავია (ოფიციალურად პავიის მუნიციპალიტეტი; ) ― მეორე კლასის მუნიციპალიტეტი ილოილოს პროვინციის პროვინციაში, ფილიპინებში. 2020 წლის აღწერით, მუნიციპალიტეტის მოსახლეობა 70 388 ადამიანს შეადგენს. მოიცავს 18 ბარანგაის. კლიმატი რესურსები ინტერნეტში Iloilo Travel Website Philippine Census Information Local Governance Performance Management System სქოლიო ილოილოს პროვინციის მუნიციპალიტეტები
466206	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90	სქიმა	სქიმა (– გარეგნული სახე, ფორმა) — მონაზვნობისა და ბერობის უმაღლესი ასკეტიკური ხარისხი მართლმადიდებლურ ეკლესიაში. სამონაზვნო სქიმა სიმბოლურად გამოხატავს უდაბნოში მოღვაწე წმინდა იოანე ნათლისმცემელს, რომელიც აქლემის ბეწვით იყო მოსილი, წელზე კი ტყავის სარტყელი ერტყა. სქიმა გვხვდება ორ ხარისხში, ესენია: მცირე სქიმა და დიდი სქიმა. მცირე სქიმით — იმოსებიან მორჩილები ბერად ან მონაზვნად აღკვეცისას. დიდი სქიმის — მიმღები ბერების ხარისხის სახელწოდებას წინ ემატება „სქიმ“ (სქიმმონაზონი, სქიმიღუმენი, სქიმარქიმანდრიტი). ჩვეულებრივ ისინი ცხოვრობენ სხვა საძმოებისგან განცალკევებით. იოანე პეტრიწის განმარტება სქიმის შესახებ: „სქიმა ეწოდების ნაკვეთსა, ხოლო მონაზონნი რა შეიმოსენ სქიმასა, ჯერ–არს განიკვეთოს მსოფლიოთა საქმეთაგან. სქიმაჲ, რომელ არს ნაკვეთი.“ ლიტერატურა ლ. ბარბაქაძე, „ჯიბის ცნობარი მართლმორწმუნე ქრისტიანისათვის“, თბილისი, 2013 წ. „იოანე პეტრიწის თარგმანები“, წიგნი II, გვ. 11, 3. მღვდელმსახურის შესამოსელი
378603	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn%20%28%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%29	Dawn (დოუნ რობინსონის ალბომი)	Dawn (დოუნ რობინსონის ალბომი) Dawn — ამერიკელი მომღერალ-კომპოზიტორ დოუნ რობინსონის სადებიუტო სტუდიური ალბომი. იგი გამოიცა 2002 წლის 29 იანვარს, Atlantic Records-ისა და LeftSide Entertainment-ის მიერ. ალბომი გამოვიდა რობინსონის En Vogue-იდან ექვსი და Lucy Pearl-იდან წასვლიდან ერთი წლის შემდეგ. მასში შეტანილია სინგლი „Envious“. ისტორია En Vogue-იდან 1997 წელს წასვლის შემდეგ რობინსონმა დაიწყო სოლოკარიერა. თავდაპირველად იგი გამოჩნდა მიწვეული ვოკალისტის სახით The Firm-ის ჰიტ-სინგლში „Firm Biz“. 1999 წელს იგი შეუერთდა Lucy Pearl-ს, რომელთანაც ალბომი ჩაწერა. 2001 წელს რობინსონმა გააფორმა კონტრაქტი Dr. Dre-ს Aftermath Records-თან და დაიწყო მუშაობა სადებიუტო ალბომზე. თუმცა, ლეიბლი დატოვა მის დასრულებამდე. მოგვიანებით იგი გადავიდა Atlantic Records-ზე და გააგრძელა მომავალ დისკზე მუშაობა, რომელსაც უკვე Dawn ეწოდებოდა. FB Entertainment-ის კომპილაციურ ალბომში მოხვდა მისი სიმღერა „Good Life“, რომელმაც დადებითი შეფასებები მიიღო. იგი მოგვიანებით მის ალბომში შევიდა. საბოლოოდ, დისკში მოხვდა მის მიერ დაწერილი ან თანაავტორობით შექმნილი შვიდი სიმღერა. სხვა ავტორებს შორის არიან ტრევონ პოტსი, აივენ ბარიოსი, კერვინ ჰეგინზი, Pajam, კენი სკაი და კრისტოფერ უორიორი. რობინსონის პირველი სინგი „Envious“ რადიოსთვის გამოვიდა 2001 წლის 18 სექტემბერს, ხოლო მისი მუსიკალური ვიდეო პრემიერა BET-ზე გაიმართა. სიმღერა ეთერში ზომიერად გადიოდა და Billboard-ის Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles-ში #99 ადგილამდე ავიდა. ამასთან, Hot Singles Sales-ში მას #42, ხოლო R&B Hip-Hop Singles Sales-ში — #41 პოზიცია ეკავა. ალბომი გამოვიდა 2002 წლის 29 იანვარს და ახლდა დადებითი შეფასებები. Billboard-ის Heatseekers-ის ჩარტში იგი #22 პოზიციამდე ავიდა. ეს იყო En Vogue-ის სოლო წევრების შემოქმედებაში მესამე სოლოალბომი - მას შემდეგ, რაც საკუთარი გამოსცეს ტერი ელისმა და რონა ბენეტმა. სიმღერების სია Set It Off (ალენ გორდონი, ელის სიმონსი, ნეიტ ბატლერი) - 4:43 Still (კრისტოფერ უორიორი, დოუნ რობინსონი) – 4:03 Party, Party (კერვინ ჰეგინზი, აივენ ბარიასი, დოუნ რობინსონი) – 3:55 Get Up Again (კერვინ ჰეგინზი, აივენ ბარიასი, დოუნ რობინსონი, ფრენკი რემანო) – 4:59 Envious (კაუენ კ. პოლი, მილტონ დეივისი, დოუნ რობინსონი, ემბერ ჯეიდ იანგი) - 3:52 Meaning Of A Woman (კენი სკაი, დოუნ რობინსონი, შონ კუკი კუკი) – 3:44 I Don't Know Why (ტრეივონ პოტსი) – 4:05 Fed Up (პოლ დ. ალენი, ჯ. მოსი) – 3:23 Our Child (კენი სკაი, დოუნ რობინსონი, შონ კუკი კუკი) – 4:30 How Long (კენი სკაი, დოუნ რობინსონი, შონ კუკი კუკი) – 2:48 Read It In My Eyes (ტრეივონ პოტსი, რიჩარდ რუდოლფი) – 4:56 You Will Never (ტრეივონ პოტსი) – 3:20 სქოლიო 2002 წლის სადებიუტო ალბომები Atlantic Records-ის ალბომები
380907	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%29	ირასემა (რორაიმა)	ირასემა (რორაიმა) ირასემა — მუნიციპალიტეტი ბრაზილიაში, რორაიმის შტატში; მდებარეობს ზღვის დონიდან 80 მეტრზე. მიეკუთვნება რორაიმის შტატის სამხრეთ მეზორეგიონს. შედის ეკონომიკურ-სტატისტიკურ მიკრორეგიონ კარაკარაის შემადგენლობაში. 2010 წლის მონაცემებით, მოსახლეობა 8 696 ადამიანს შეადგენდა, მოსახლეობის სიმჭიდროვე 0.6 კმ²-ზე. ფართობი 14 412 688 კმ²-ია. იხილეთ აგრეთვე რორაიმა ბრაზილიის შტატები რესურსები ინტერნეტში ბრაზილიის სტატისტიკის ეროვნული ინსტიტუტი ბრაზილიის სტატისტიკის ეროვნული ინსტიტუტი, ზოგადი სტატისტიკა რორაიმის მუნიციპალიტეტები
527594	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%20%28%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%29	სან-ისიდრო (ისაბელა)	სან-ისიდრო (ისაბელა) სან-ისიდრო (ოფიციალურად სან-ისიდროს მუნიციპალიტეტი) ― მეხუთე კლასის მუნიციპალიტეტი ისაბელას პროვინციაში, ფილიპინებში. 2020 წლის აღწერით, მუნიციპალიტეტის მოსახლეობა 27 044 ადამიანს შეადგენს. მოიცავს 13 ბარანგაის. კლიმატი რესურსები ინტერნეტში Municipal Profile at the National Competitiveness Council of the Philippines San Isidro at the Isabela Government Website Local Governance Performance Management System Philippine Census Information სქოლიო ისაბელას მუნიციპალიტეტები
549297	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90	ქურთის მუნიციპალიტეტის დროშა	ქურთის მუნიციპალიტეტის დროშა — ქურთის მუნიციპალიტეტის სახელმწიფო სიმბოლო გერბთან ერთად. მიღებულია ქურთის მუნიციპალიტეტის საკრებულოს მიერ, 2010 წლის 25 მაისის №3 დადგენილებით. აღწერილობა დროშის მეწამულ ველზე მოთავსებულია ქურთას გერბი. დროშის პროპორციაა 2:3. რესურსები ინტერნეტში ქურთის მუნიციპალიტეტის გერბი და დროშა საქართველოს მუნიციპალური დროშები ქურთის მუნიციპალიტეტი
543418	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%20%E1%83%A3%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94	მარიამ უგრელიძე	მარიამ უგრელიძე მარიამ ქრისტეფორეს ასული უგრელიძე (დ. 26 იანვარი, 1885, დიღომი (სოფელი) — გ. 20 მაისი, 1960, დიდუბის პანთეონი) — ქართველი ექიმი. ბიოგრაფია 1904 წლიდან საწვლობდა პეტერბურგის ქალთა უმაღლეს სამედიცინო კურსებზე. 1909 წელს დაამთავრა მონპელიეს უნივერსიტეტის სამედიცინო ფაკულტეტი. 1914 წელს ლოზანას (შვეიცარია) უნივერსიტეტი. 1905 წლის იანვრის რევოლუციის დროს იგი ქუჩებში დახმარებას უწევდა დაჭრილ მუშებს. რევოლუციური აღტკინება სტუდენტთა გარკვეულ ნაწილსაც გადაედო. იგი დაუკავშირდა სოციალ-დემოკრატთა ორგანიზაციას. მეფის აგენტებს ეს შეუმჩნეველი არ დარჩენიათ და 1906 წელს დააპატიმრეს. მას ბრალად ედებოდა სამხედრო ნაწილებში რევოლუციური პროკლამაციების გავრცელება. 2 წელიწადს ამყოფეს ციხეში, შემდეგ ემიგრაციაში. 1918 წელს დაბრუნდა სამშობლოში. მუშაობა დაიწყო სამხედრო ჰოსპიტალში, ხოლო ერთი წლის შემდეგ ქალაქის პირველ საავადმყოფოს ბავშვთა განყოფილებაში. 1921 წლის მარტში თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტში პედიატრიის კათედრა დაარსდა, რომლის ფუძემდებელი პროფესორი სიმონ გოგიტიძე გახლდათ, ძირითად საქმიანობას კი კათედრაზე მარიამ უგრელიძე ასრულებდა. 1930 წელსი მას მეცნიერებათა დოქტორის ხარისხი მიენიჭა და სამკურნალო ფაკულტეტის ბავშვთა სნეულებათა კათედრის გამგედ დაინიშნა. მომდევნო ოცდაათი წლის განმავლობაში ინტენსიურ საექიმო, პედაგოგიურ, სამეცნიერო და საზოგადოებრივ მუშაობას ეწეოდა ბავშვთა ჯანდაცვის კუთხით. მას სამოცდაათზე მეტი მეცნიერული ნაშრომი აქვს შესრულებული. მათი უმრავლესობა თარგმნილია სხვადასხვა ენაზე და წაკითხულია საერთაშორისო კონსილიუმებსა და კონფერენციებზე. მისი ნაშრომები ეხება ბავშვთა ასაკის როგორც ფიზიოლოგიის, ისე პათოლოგიის, თერაპიისა და ჰიგიენის მნიშვნელოვან პრობლემებს. იგი ბევრს მუშაობდა მედიცინის ისტორიის საკითხებზეც საქართველოში. ფასდაუდებელია მისი ნაშრომები ბავშვის ფიზიკური განვითარების, ბავშვის კვების, რაქიტის, დისტროფიის, რევმატიზმის, ტუბერკულოზისა და აეროთერაპიის შესახებ. პედიატრი, პირველი ქართველი პროფესორი ქალი. ბიბლიოგრაფია ჩვილ ბავშვთა ფაღარათობის წამლობა, საქბიომედგამი და სტ.,1938. გვ. 19 ახალშობილთა პერიფერიული ლიმფატიური ჯირყვლების მდგომარეობის შესახებ, ტფილისი, 1927. გვ. 442 ლიტერატურა მამულიშვილთა სავანე, თბ., 1994, გვ.330 რესურესბი ინტერნეტში ქართველი ექიმები დაბადებული 26 იანვარი დაბადებული 1885 გარდაცვლილი 20 მაისი გარდაცვლილი 1960
44380	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20of%20Russia	Anna of Russia	Anna of Russia Anna Ioannovna, also russified as Anna Ivanovna and sometimes anglicized as Anne, served as regent of the duchy of Courland from 1711 until 1730 and then ruled as Empress of Russia from 1730 to 1740. Much of her administration was defined or heavily influenced by actions set in motion by her uncle, Peter the Great, such as the lavish building projects in St. Petersburg, funding the Russian Academy of Science, and measures which generally favored the nobility, such as the repeal of a primogeniture law in 1730. In the West, Anna's reign was traditionally viewed as a continuation of the transition from the old Muscovy ways to the European court envisioned by Peter the Great. Within Russia, Anna's reign is often referred to as a "dark era". Early life Anna was born in Moscow as the daughter of Tsar Ivan V by his wife Praskovia Saltykova. Ivan V was co-ruler of Russia along with his younger half-brother Peter the Great, but he was mentally disabled and reportedly had limited capacity of administering the country effectively, and Peter effectively ruled alone. Ivan V died in February 1696, when Anna was only three years old, and her half-uncle became the sole ruler of Russia. Although Anna was the fourth child of her parents, she had only one surviving elder sister, Catherine, and one younger sister, Praskovia. The three girls were raised in a disciplined and austere manner by their widowed mother, a stern lady of sterling character. Born into a family of relatively modest means, Praskovia Saltykova had been an exemplary wife to a mentally disabled man, and expected her daughters to live up to her own high standards of morality and virtue. Anna grew up within a milieu which cherished womanly virtue and domesticity above all else, and placed strong emphasis on thrift, charity and religious observances. Her education consisted of French, German, religious texts and folklore, leavened with some music and dancing. As she grew older, she developed into an obstinate girl, with a mean streak, earning her the nickname "Iv-anna the Terrible". Anna was famed for her big cheek, "which, as shown in her portraits", says Thomas Carlyle, "was comparable to a Westphalian ham". In time, her uncle Peter the Great ordered the family to move from Moscow to St. Petersburg. This meant a change of not just location but also society, and this had a significant effect on Anna. She greatly enjoyed the splendour of court and the lavishness of high society, which was very different from the austerity preferred by her mother. Courland Regency In 1710, Peter the Great arranged for the 17-year-old Anna to marry Frederick William, Duke of Courland, who was about the same age as her. Her wedding was held on a grand scale, as per her own inclinations, on 11 November 1710; and her uncle gave her a fabulous dowry of 200,000 roubles. At the feast which followed the wedding, two dwarfs performed a parody by jumping out of enormous pies and dancing on the tables. The newly wedded couple spent several weeks in Russia before proceeding to Courland. Only twenty miles out of St. Petersburg, on the road to Courland, on 21 January 1711, Duke Frederick died. The cause of death was uncertain - it has been attributed variously to a chill or to the effects of alcohol. After her husband died, Anna proceeded to Mitau (now known as Jelgava), the capital of Courland (now western Latvia) and ruled that province for almost twenty years, from 1711 to 1730. During this period, the Russian resident, Count Peter Bestuzhev, was her adviser (and sometimes lover). She never remarried after the death of her husband, but her enemies said she conducted a love affair with Duke Ernst Johann von Biron, a prominent courtier, for many years. Accession In 1730, Tsar Peter II (grandson of Anna's uncle Peter the Great) died childless at a young age. His death rendered extinct the male line of the Romanov dynasty, which had ruled Russia for over a century, since 1613. There were four possible candidates for the throne: the three surviving daughters of Ivan V, namely Catherine (born 1691), Anna herself (born 1693) and Praskovya (born 1694), and the sole surviving daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth (born 1709). Ivan V had been the older brother of Peter the Great and co-ruler with him, and by that reckoning, his daughters may be considered to have the prior claim. However, if seen from the perspective that the successor should be the nearest kin of the most recent monarch, then the daughters of Peter the Great were nearer to the throne, because they were the aunts of the recently deceased Tsar Peter II. The dilemma was made greater because the daughters of Peter the Great had been born out of wedlock, and had been legitimized later by him, after he formally married their mother Catherine I, who had previously been a maid in his household. On the other hand, Praskovia Saltykova, the wife of Ivan V, had been a nobleman's daughter and a devoted wife and mother; moreover, she had been a lady greatly respected for her many virtues, not least her chastity. Finally, the Russian Supreme Privy Council led by Prince Dmitri Golitzyn selected Anna, the second daughter of Ivan V, to be the new Empress of Russia. She was selected in preference to her elder sister Catherine even though Catherine was at that time resident in Russia whereas Anna was not. There were some reasons for this: Anna was a childless widow and there was no immediate danger of an unknown foreigner wielding power in Russia; she also had some experience of government, because she had been administering her late husband's duchy of Courland for almost two decades. Catherine, on the other hand, was married to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She was now separated from him and living in Russia, which was in itself disgraceful; and whether her husband was present or absent, his existence could raise problems at her very coronation. His intervention in government affairs at some later point could hardly be prevented, especially since Catherine had a daughter by him. In that event, since he was ruling prince of ancient lineage with years of experience, he would not be as amenable to the council's advice as a Russian princess. Also, the fact that Catherine had a daughter already would provide a certainty of succession which the nobles perhaps preferred not to have. The Supreme Privy Council preferred the childless and widowed Duchess of Courland. They hoped that she would feel indebted to the nobles and remain a figurehead at best, and malleable at worst. To make sure of that, the Council convinced Anna to sign a declaration of "Conditions" to her accession, modeled after a Swedish precedent, which stated that Anna was to govern according to their counsel and was not permitted to declare war, call for peace, impose new taxes or spend the revenue of the state without their consent. Without the consent of the council, she could not punish nobility without trial, make grants of estates or villages, appoint high officials, or promote anyone (foreign or Russian) to court office. The deliberations of the council were held even as Peter II lay dying of smallpox during the winter of 1729–30. The document of "Conditions" was presented to Anna in January, and she signed the same on 18 January 1730, which was just around the time of his death. The ceremony of endorsement was held at her capital, Mitau in Courland (now known as Jelgava), and she then proceeded to the Russian capital. On 20 February 1730, shortly after her arrival, Empress Anna exercised her prerogative to do away with her predecessor's Privy Council and dissolved that body. The Supreme Privy Council which had stipulated those onerous "Conditions" had been composed largely of the families of the princes Dolgorouki and Galitzin. Within a matter of days, another faction rose at court which was opposed to the domination of these two families. On 7 March 1730, a group of people belonging to this faction (numbering between 150 and 800 people, depending on the source) arrived at the palace and petitioned the empress to repudiate the "Conditions" and assume the autocracy of her predecessors. Among those who urged Anna to do so was her elder sister Catherine. Anna duly repudiated the document of Conditions, and for good measure sent some of the framers of the document to the scaffold, and many others to Siberia. She then assumed autocratic powers and ruled as an absolute monarch, in the same fashion as her predecessors. On the night that Anna tore up the Conditions, an aurora borealis appeared in the sky, making the horizon "appear in all blood" in the words of one contemporary, which was widely taken to be a dark omen of what Anna's reign would be like. Strong-willed and eccentric, Anna was known for her cruelty and vulgar sense of humor. She forced Prince Mikhail Alekseevich Golitsyn to become her court jester and had him married off to her unattractive Kalmyk maid Avdotya Buzheninova. To celebrate the wedding, the Empress had an ice palace measuring thirty-three feet high and eighty feet long built together with icy beds, steps, chairs, windows and even logs of ice in a fireplace of ice. Prince Golitsyn and his bride were placed in a cage atop an elephant and paraded through the streets to this structure, to spend their wedding night in the ice palace, despite it being an extremely cold night in the dead of winter. Empress Anna told the couple to make love and keep their bodies close if they did not wish to freeze to death. Eventually, the couple survived when the maid traded a pearl necklace for a sheepskin coat from one of the guards. An enthusiastic hunter, Anna always kept a rifle by her window so she could blast away at birds at all hours of the day whenever she felt the urge to hunt. Empress of Russia Anna continued to lavish architectural advances in St. Petersburg. She completed a waterway that began construction under Peter the Great and called for seafaring ships to accompany this new canal and continue naval expansion. Anna's lover Ernst Johann von Biron was a Baltic German and due to his influence Baltic Germans were favored with government offices, leading to the resentment of the ethnic Russian nobility, though the American historian Walter Moss cautioned that the popular image of the Bironovschina as one of total Baltic German domination of Russia is exaggerated. Cadet Corps Anna founded the Cadet Corps in 1731, one year after coming to the throne. The Cadet Corps was a group of young boys starting at the age of eight being trained for the military. It incorporated a very rigorous training program which included all the schooling necessary for someone to hold an important position in the military. As time went on, the program was improved upon by other emperors and empresses, such as Catherine the Great. These began to include the arts and sciences into cadets' schooling, alongside established studies of military topics. Academy of Science Anna continued to fund the Russian Academy of Science, started by Peter the Great. This school was designed to further the sciences in Russia, in order to help the country reach the level of the Western countries of that period. Some of the subjects taught were mathematics, astronomy, and botany. The Academy of Science was also responsible for many expeditions; a notable example was the Bering Sea Expedition. While attempting to determine if America and Asia had been at one point connected, Siberia and its people was also studied. These studies were referenced long after the expedition returned from Siberia. The academy suffered interference from outside parties. Frequently the government and the church would meddle with funding and experimentation, altering data to match their respective points of view. This school of science was very small, never exceeding a population of twelve students in the university and barely over a hundred in the secondary school. Still, it was a huge step forward for education in Russia. Many of the teachers and professors were imported from Germany, bringing a Western viewpoint to instruction students received. Some of the students taught by these German professors later became advisors or teachers to future leaders, such as Catherine the Great's tutor, Adodurov. During Anna's reign the Academy of Science began to include the Arts into the program, as there was no school for the arts yet, and the Empress was a firm supporter of the arts. Theatre, architecture, engraving, and journalism were all added to the curriculum. It was during this time the foundation of what is now the world-famous Russian Ballet was laid down. The Secret Office of Investigation Anna resurrected the Secret Office of Investigation, whose purpose was to punish those convicted of political crimes, although some cases were occasionally taken that were not of a political nature. It has been rumored since Anna's reign that Biron was the power behind the Secret Office of Investigation when in fact it was run by the senator A. I. Ushakov. The punishments meted out for the convicted were often very painful and disgusting. For example, some people that had supposedly been plotting against the government had their noses slit in addition to being beaten with the knout. Russian authorities listed a total of around 20,000 Russians—including some of the highest native nobility—who fell victim to Biron and Anna's police. Office for the Affairs of New Converts The government under Anna established an Office for the Affairs of New Converts in 1740 to expand the conversion to Orthodoxy. The office which was situated in the Bogoroditsky Monastery in Kazan was staffed by monks and aided by state authorities. Under the empress' decree, they presided under a huge increase in converts where converts were provided goods and cash in return for a "reward for accepting baptism". However, intimidation and violence also played a role in conversions, a Chuvash petition described how the clergy "mercilessly beat them and baptized them against their will", besides this, hundreds of mosques were destroyed. By the 1750s, over 400,000 pagans and Muslims converted. Nobility Anna gave many privileges to the nobility. In 1730 she ensured the repeal of Peter the Great's primogeniture law prohibiting the division of estates among heirs. Starting in 1731 landlords were made responsible for their serfs' taxes, which had the effect of tightening their economic bondage further. In 1736, the age for a noble to begin his compulsory service to the state changed to 20 with a 25-year service time. Anna and her government also determined that if a family had more than one son, one could now stay behind to run the family estate. Westernization Westernization continued after Peter the Great's reign in areas of prominent Western culture such as the Academy of Science, cadet corps education, and imperial culture including theater and opera. Although not at the fast-paced speed of Westernization under her Uncle Peter's reign, it is evident that a culture of the expansion of knowledge continued during Anna's rule and affected mostly the nobility. It is argued that this success in Westernization is due to the efforts of the German court nobility; the foreigners' impacts are viewed both positively and negatively. Anna's reign was different from that of other imperial Russian rulers in one respect: her court was almost entirely made up of foreigners, the majority of whom were German. Some observers have argued that historians isolate her rule from Russian history due to their long-term prejudice towards Germans, towards whom Anna seems to have been sympathetic. There is a lot of mention of Germans throughout the reign of Anna. For example, she often gave them ruling positions in her cabinet and other important decision-making positions. This was because she had very little trust in the Russians. It was because of this strong German influence in government that many Russians came to resent them. Foreign affairs During Anna's reign Russia became involved in two major conflicts, the War of the Polish Succession (1733–1735) and another Turkish war. In the former, Russia worked with Austria to support Augustus II's son Augustus against the candidacy of Stanisław Leszczyński who was dependent on the French and amiable with Sweden and the Ottomans. Russia's involvement with the conflict was quickly over, however, and the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739) was much more important. In 1732 Nader Shah had forced Russia to return the lands in northern mainland Persia that had been taken during Peter the Great's Russo-Persian War; the Treaty of Resht furthermore permitted an alliance against the Ottoman Empire, the common enemy and, in any case, the provinces of Shirvan, Ghilan, and Mazanderan had been a net drain on the imperial treasury for the entirety of their occupation. Three years later, in 1735, conforming to the Treaty of Ganja, the remainder of the territories taken more than a decade earlier from Persia in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus were returned as well. The war against the Turks took four and a half years, a hundred thousand men, and millions of rubles; its burdens caused great stress on the people of Russia, and it only gained Russia the city of Azov and its environs. Its effects, however, were greater than they first appeared. Osterman's policy of southern expansion prevailed over the 1711 Peace of Pruth signed by Peter the Great. Münnich had given Russia its first campaign against Turkey that had not ended in crushing disaster and dissipated the illusion of Ottoman invincibility. He had further shown that Russia's grenadiers and hussars could defeat twice their number of janissaries and spahis. The Tatar hordes of the Crimea had been exterminated and Russia's signal and unexpected successes greatly increased its prestige within Europe. The Russians also established a protectorate over the khan of the Kirghiz, sending officers to assist his short-lived conquest of Khiva. Two Chinese embassies to Anna's court, first at Moscow in 1731, then at St Petersburg the following year, were the only ones China dispatched to Europe through the 18th century. These embassies were unique also in that they represented the only occasions where officials of the Chinese Empire kowtowed before a foreign ruler. Relationship with Biron After being widowed just weeks following her wedding, Anna never remarried. As empress of Russia, she enjoyed the power she held over all men and may have thought that marriage would undermine her power and position. Nevertheless, Anna's reign is often referred to as "The Age of Biron", after her German lover Ernst Johann Biron. Historians concur that Biron not only had a strong influence on Anna's domestic and foreign policies, but also that at times he wielded power solely without reference to the Empress. Anna was attracted to Biron's personal charm and he proved to be a good companion to her, but his name became synonymous with cruelty and terror. In public perception these negative qualities became the hallmark of Anna's reign. Death and succession As her health declined Anna declared her grandnephew, Ivan VI, as her successor and appointed Biron as regent. This was an attempt to secure the line of her father, Ivan V, and exclude the descendants of Peter the Great from inheriting the throne. It was recorded that she had an ulcer on her kidneys, and she continued having attacks of gout; as her condition worsened, her health began to fail. Anna died on 17 October 1740 at the age of 47 from a kidney stone that made for a slow and painful death. The tsaritsa's final words focused on Biron. Ivan VI was only a two-month-old baby at the time, and his mother, Anna Leopoldovna, was detested for her German counsellors and relations. As a consequence, shortly after Anna's death, Elizabeth Petrovna, legitimized daughter of Peter the Great, managed to gain the favor of the populace, locked Ivan VI in a dungeon, and exiled his mother. Anna was buried three months later on 15 January 1741, leaving behind uncertainty for the future of Russia. Legacy In the West, Anna's reign was traditionally viewed as a continuation of the transition from the old Muscovy ways to the European court envisioned by Peter the Great. Her government, on the whole, was prudent, beneficial and even glorious; but it was undoubtedly severe and became at last universally unpopular. Within Russia Anna's reign is often referred to as a "dark era". The issue with her reign derives from her personality flaws. Even considering the need of Russian rulers to avoid displays of weakness, Anna's rule involved questionable actions towards her subjects. She was known to enjoy hunting animals from the palace windows and, on more than a few occasions, humiliated individuals with disabilities. The issues of serfdom, peasant and lower class slavery, taxation, dishonesty, and rule through constant fear persisted in Russia during her rule. Her empire was described by Lefort, the Saxon minister, as being "comparable to a storm-threatened ship, manned by a pilot and crew who are all drunk or asleep. . . with no considerable future". Anna's war with Turkey, economic issues, and conspiracy revolving around her accession all bring to light an ominous glow of the empress' reign. She restored the court in St. Petersburg and brought Russia's political atmosphere back to where Peter the Great had intended, and its grandeur was almost unmatched in Europe or Asia; but such lavish court life was overshadowed by the thousands of men slaughtered in war. See also Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917) Tsars of Russia family tree Notes References External links – Historical reconstruction "The Romanovs". StarMedia. Babich-Design(Russia, 2013) \|- 1693 births 1740 deaths 18th-century regents 18th-century Russian monarchs 18th-century women from the Russian Empire Royalty from Moscow Tsarevnas of Russia Empresses regnant of Russia House of Romanov Eastern Orthodox monarchs Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg Duchesses of Courland 18th-century women rulers Deaths from kidney disease Daughters of Russian emperors Female regents
85079	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%20II	კრისტიან II	კრისტიან II (დ. 1 ივლისი, 1481, ნიუბორგი — გ. 25 იანვარი, 1559, კოლუნბორგი) — დანიის მეფე 1513, 13 აპრილიდან, ნორვეგიისა ამავე წლის 22 ივილისიდან 1524 5 აგვისტომდე (პირველად), 1531 წლის 29 ნოემბრიდან 1532 წლის 1 ივლისამდე (მეფე ფრედერიკ I-ის ედგა ოპოზიციაში) და 1520 წლის 6 მარტიდან 1521 წლამდე შვედეთის. ოლდენბურგების დინასტიიდან. მეფე ჰანსისა და ქრისტინა საქსონელის ვაჟი. (1461–1521). რესურსები ინტერნეტში ენციკლოპედია „ბრიტანიკა“ ნორვეგიის მეფეები შვედეთის მეფეები დანიის მეფეები ოლდენბურგები დაბადებული 1 ივლისი დაბადებული 1481 გარდაცვლილი 25 იანვარი გარდაცვლილი 1559 XVI საუკუნის ევროპის მონარქები
53311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann%20von%20Helmholtz	Hermann von Helmholtz	Hermann von Helmholtz Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (31 August 1821 – 8 September 1894) was a German physicist and physician who made significant contributions in several scientific fields, particularly hydrodynamic stability. The Helmholtz Association, the largest German association of research institutions, is named in his honor. In the fields of physiology and psychology, Helmholtz is known for his mathematics concerning the eye, theories of vision, ideas on the visual perception of space, color vision research, the sensation of tone, perceptions of sound, and empiricism in the physiology of perception. In physics, he is known for his theories on the conservation of energy and on the electrical double layer, work in electrodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, and on a mechanical foundation of thermodynamics. As a philosopher, he is known for his philosophy of science, ideas on the relation between the laws of perception and the laws of nature, the science of aesthetics, and ideas on the civilizing power of science. Biography Early years Helmholtz was born in Potsdam, the son of the local gymnasium headmaster, Ferdinand Helmholtz, who had studied classical philology and philosophy, and who was a close friend of the publisher and philosopher Immanuel Hermann Fichte. Helmholtz's work was influenced by the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant. He tried to trace their theories in empirical matters like physiology. As a young man, Helmholtz was interested in natural science, but his father wanted him to study medicine. Helmholtz earned a medical doctorate at Medicinisch-chirurgisches Friedrich-Wilhelm-Institute in 1842 and served a one-year internship at the Charité hospital (because there was financial support for medical students). Trained primarily in physiology, Helmholtz wrote on many other topics, ranging from theoretical physics, to the age of the Earth, to the origin of the Solar System. University posts Helmholtz's first academic position was as a teacher of anatomy at the Academy of Arts in Berlin in 1848. He then moved to take a post of associate professor of physiology at the Prussian University of Königsberg, where he was appointed in 1849. In 1855 he accepted a full professorship of anatomy and physiology at the University of Bonn. He was not particularly happy in Bonn, however, and three years later he transferred to the University of Heidelberg, in Baden, where he served as professor of physiology. In 1871 he accepted his final university position, as professor of physics at the Humboldt University in Berlin. Research Mechanics His first important scientific achievement, an 1847 treatise on the conservation of energy, was written in the context of his medical studies and philosophical background. His work on energy conservation came about while studying muscle metabolism. He tried to demonstrate that no energy is lost in muscle movement, motivated by the implication that there were no vital forces necessary to move a muscle. This was a rejection of the speculative tradition of Naturphilosophie which was at that time a dominant philosophical paradigm in German physiology. Drawing on the earlier work of Sadi Carnot, Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron and James Prescott Joule, he postulated a relationship between mechanics, heat, light, electricity and magnetism by treating them all as manifestations of a single force, or energy in today's terminology. He published his theories in his book Über die Erhaltung der Kraft (On the Conservation of Force, 1847). In the 1850s and 60s, building on the publications of William Thomson, Helmholtz and William Rankine popularized the idea of the heat death of the universe. In fluid dynamics, Helmholtz made several contributions, including Helmholtz's theorems for vortex dynamics in inviscid fluids. Sensory physiology Helmholtz was a pioneer in the scientific study of human vision and audition. Inspired by psychophysics, he was interested in the relationships between measurable physical stimuli and their correspondent human perceptions. For example, the amplitude of a sound wave can be varied, causing the sound to appear louder or softer, but a linear step in sound pressure amplitude does not result in a linear step in perceived loudness. The physical sound needs to be increased exponentially in order for equal steps to seem linear, a fact that is used in current electronic devices to control volume. Helmholtz paved the way in experimental studies on the relationship between the physical energy (physics) and its appreciation (psychology), with the goal in mind to develop "psychophysical laws." The sensory physiology of Helmholtz was the basis of the work of Wilhelm Wundt, a student of Helmholtz, who is considered one of the founders of experimental psychology. More explicitly than Helmholtz, Wundt described his research as a form of empirical philosophy and as a study of the mind as something separate. Helmholtz had, in his early repudiation of Naturphilosophie, stressed the importance of materialism, and was focusing more on the unity of "mind" and body. Ophthalmic optics In 1851, Helmholtz revolutionized the field of ophthalmology with the invention of the ophthalmoscope; an instrument used to examine the inside of the human eye. This made him world-famous overnight. Helmholtz's interests at that time were increasingly focused on the physiology of the senses. His main publication, titled Handbuch der Physiologischen Optik (Handbook of Physiological Optics or Treatise on Physiological Optics; English translation of the 3rd volume here), provided empirical theories on depth perception, color vision, and motion perception, and became the fundamental reference work in his field during the second half of the nineteenth century. In the third and final volume, published in 1867, Helmholtz described the importance of unconscious inferences for perception. The Handbuch was first translated into English under the editorship of James P. C. Southall on behalf of the Optical Society of America in 1924–5. His theory of accommodation went unchallenged until the final decade of the 20th century. Helmholtz continued to work for several decades on several editions of the handbook, frequently updating his work because of his dispute with Ewald Hering who held opposite views on spatial and color vision. This dispute divided the discipline of physiology during the second half of the 1800s. Nerve physiology In 1849, while at Königsberg, Helmholtz measured the speed at which the signal is carried along a nerve fibre. At that time most people believed that nerve signals passed along nerves immeasurably fast. He used a recently dissected sciatic nerve of a frog and the calf muscle to which it attached. He used a galvanometer as a sensitive timing device, attaching a mirror to the needle to reflect a light beam across the room to a scale which gave much greater sensitivity. Helmholtz reported transmission speeds in the range of 24.6 – 38.4 meters per second. Acoustics and aesthetics In 1863, Helmholtz published Sensations of Tone, once again demonstrating his interest in the physics of perception. This book influenced musicologists into the twentieth century. Helmholtz invented the Helmholtz resonator to identify the various frequencies or pitches of the pure sine wave components of complex sounds containing multiple tones. Helmholtz showed that different combinations of resonator could mimic vowel sounds: Alexander Graham Bell in particular was interested in this but, not being able to read German, misconstrued Helmholtz' diagrams as meaning that Helmholtz had transmitted multiple frequencies by wire—which would allow multiplexing of telegraph signals—whereas, in reality, electrical power was used only to keep the resonators in motion. Bell failed to reproduce what he thought Helmholtz had done but later said that, had he been able to read German, he would not have gone on to invent the telephone on the harmonic telegraph principle. The translation by Alexander J. Ellis was first published in 1875 (the first English edition was from the 1870 third German edition; Ellis's second English edition from the 1877 fourth German edition was published in 1885; the 1895 and 1912 third and fourth English editions were reprints of the second). Electromagnetism Helmholtz studied the phenomena of electrical oscillations from 1869 to 1871, and in a lecture delivered to the Naturhistorisch-medizinischen Vereins zu Heidelberg (Natural History and Medical Association of Heidelberg) on 30 April 1869, titled On Electrical Oscillations he indicated that the perceptible damped electrical oscillations in a coil joined up with a Leyden jar were about 1/50th of a second in duration. In 1871, Helmholtz moved from Heidelberg to Berlin to become a professor in physics. He became interested in electromagnetism, and the Helmholtz equation is named for him. Although he did not make major contributions to this field, his student Heinrich Rudolf Hertz became famous as the first to demonstrate electromagnetic radiation. Oliver Heaviside criticised Helmholtz's electromagnetic theory because it allowed the existence of longitudinal waves. Based on work on Maxwell's equations, Heaviside pronounced that longitudinal waves could not exist in a vacuum or a homogeneous medium. Heaviside did not note, however, that longitudinal electromagnetic waves can exist at a boundary or in an enclosed space. Philosophy Helmholtz wavered between empiricism and transcendentalism in his philosophy of science. Quotation Whoever, in the pursuit of science, seeks after immediate practical utility may rest assured that he seeks in vain. — Academic Discourse (Heidelberg 1862) Students and associates Other students and research associates of Helmholtz at Berlin included Max Planck, Heinrich Kayser, Eugen Goldstein, Wilhelm Wien, Arthur König, Henry Augustus Rowland, Albert A. Michelson, Wilhelm Wundt, Fernando Sanford and Michael I. Pupin. Leo Koenigsberger, who was his colleague 1869–1871 in Heidelberg, wrote the definitive biography of him in 1902. Honours and legacy In 1873, Helmholtz was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society. In 1881, Helmholtz was elected Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. On 10 November 1881, he was awarded the Légion d'honneur: au grade de Commandeur, or Level 3 – a senior grade. (No. 2173). In 1883, Professor Helmholtz was honoured by the Emperor, being raised to the nobility, or Adel. The Adelung meant that he and his family were now styled: von Helmholtz. The distinction was not a peerage or title, but it was hereditary and conferred a certain social cachet. Helmholtz was conferred with Honorary Membership of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1884. The largest German association of research institutions, the Helmholtz Association, is named after him. The asteroid 11573 Helmholtz and the lunar crater Helmholtz as well as the crater Helmholtz on Mars were named in his honour. In Charlottenburg, Berlin, the street Helmholtzstraße is named after von Helmholtz. Works Translated works On the Conservation of Force (1847) HathiTrust On the Conservation of Force (1895) Introduction to a Series of Lectures Delivered at Carlsruhe in the Winter of 1862–1863, English translation On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music (downloadable from California Digital Library) Third Edition of English Translation, based on Fourth German Edition of 1877, By Hermann von Helmholtz, Alexander John Ellis, Published by Longmans, Green, 1895, 576 pages On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music (downloadable from Google Books) Fourth Edition, By Hermann von Helmholtz, Alexander John Ellis, Published by Longmans, Green, 1912, 575 pages Treatise on Physiological Optics (1910) three volumes. English translation by Optical Society of America (1924–25). Popular lectures on scientific subjects (1885) Popular lectures on scientific subjects second series (1908) See also Helmholtz coil List of people from Berlin List of things named after Hermann von Helmholtz Neo-Kantianism Theory of Colours References Notes Citations Sources Cahan, David Helmholtz: A Life in Science. University of Chicago Press, 2018. . Cohen, Robert, and Wartofsky, Marx, eds. and trans. Reidel. Helmholtz: Epistemological Writings, 1977. Ewald, William B., ed. From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press, 1996. 1876. "The origin and meaning of geometrical axioms", 663–88. 1878. "The facts in perception", 698–726. 1887. "Numbering and measuring from an epistemological viewpoint", 727–52. Groundwater, Jennifer. Alexander Graham Bell: The Spirit of Invention. Calgary: Altitude Publishing, 2005. . Jackson, Myles W. Harmonious Triads: Physicists, Musicians, and Instrument Makers in Nineteenth-Century Germany (MIT Press, 2006). Kahl, Russell, ed. Wesleyan. Selected Writings of Hermann von Helmholtz, Uni. Press., 1971. Koenigsberger, Leo. Hermann von Helmholtz, translated by Frances A. Welby (Dover, 1965) MacKenzie, Catherine. Alexander Graham Bell. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2003. . Retrieved 29 July 2009. Shulman, Seth. The Telephone Gambit: Chasing Alexander Bell's Secret. New York: Norton & Company, 2008. . Further reading David Cahan: Helmholtz: A Life in Science (University of Chicago, 2018). David Cahan (Ed.): Hermann von Helmholtz and the Foundations of Nineteenth-Century Science. Univ. California, Berkeley 1994, . Gregor Schiemann: Hermann von Helmholtz's Mechanism: The Loss of Certainty. A Study on the Transition from Classical to Modern Philosophy of Nature. Dordrecht: Springer 2009, . Steven Shapin, "A Theorist of (Not Quite) Everything" (review of David Cahan, Helmholtz: A Life in Science, University of Chicago Press, 2018 937 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. 66, no. 15 (10 October 2019), pp. 29–31. Franz Werner: Hermann Helmholtz´ Heidelberger Jahre (1858–1871). (= Sonderveröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Heidelberg 8). Mit 52 Abbildungen. Berlin / Heidelberg (Springer) 1997. Kenneth L. Caneva: Helmholtz and the Conservation of Energy: Contexts of Creation and Reception. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2021, ISBN 978-0-262-04573-5 External links "Hermann von Helmholtz" (Obituary). Royal Society (Great Britain). (1894). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. London: Printed by Taylor and Francis. "Hermann von Helmholtz" by Leo Koenigsberger (Oxford: Clarendon press, 1906) from Internet Archive "Hermann von Helmholtz" article by Lydia Patton, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy J. G. McKendrick Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (London : Unwin, 1899) Biography, bibliography and access to digital sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen) Helmholtz's (1867) Handbuch der physiologischen Optik – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library 1821 births 1894 deaths Acousticians Color scientists Fluid dynamicists Foreign Members of the Royal Society Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences German biophysicists 19th-century German physicists German untitled nobility German ophthalmologists Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences People from Potsdam Scientists from the Province of Brandenburg Recipients of the Copley Medal Recipients of the Matteucci Medal Thermodynamicists Academic staff of the University of Bonn Academic staff of Heidelberg University Academic staff of the University of Königsberg Vision scientists Auditory scientists Physicians of the Charité Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala
532597	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D	ბესაო	ბესაო (ოფიციალურად ბესაოს მუნიციპალიტეტი) ― მეხუთე კლასის მუნიციპალიტეტი მთის პროვინციის პროვინციაში, ფილიპინებში. 2020 წლის აღწერით, მუნიციპალიტეტის მოსახლეობა 6 873 ადამიანს შეადგენს. მოიცავს 14 ბარანგაის. კლიმატი რესურსები ინტერნეტში Official Website of Besao, Mountain Province Philippine Census Information სქოლიო მთის პროვინციის მუნიციპალიტეტები
14142371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Georgian%20presidential%20election	2008 Georgian presidential election	2008 Georgian presidential election Presidential elections were held in Georgia on 5 January 2008, moved forward from autumn 2008 by President Mikheil Saakashvili after the 2007 demonstrations. A double referendum on when to hold the legislative elections and on NATO membership was held on the same date. Saakashvili was declared the winner with 53.7% of the votes, despite accusations of electoral fraud from the Georgian opposition. International observers welcomed the elections as "the first genuinely competitive presidential election" in the history of Georgia, and said, despite observed irregularities, the elections generally met the democratic standards. Background In November 2007, tens of thousands of Georgians protested outside the parliament in the capital, Tbilisi, urging President Mikhail Saakashvili to step down. The crowd also called for early parliamentary elections. They accused Saakashvili of heading a corrupt, authoritarian government and wanted him to be ousted democratically. The protests turned violent when the police used tear gas and water cannons to dislodge the protesters from the territory adjoining to the Parliament building, and prevented the demonstrators from resuming the protests. The government accused the Russian secret services of being involved in an attempted coup d'état and declared a nationwide state of emergency, which lasted until 16 November 2007. In addition, on 8 November, President Saakashvili announced a compromise solution to hold an early presidential election on 5 January 2008. Pursuant to the Constitution of Georgia, Saakashvili resigned on 25 November to launch his pre-election campaign. In late December, Badri Patarkatsishvili, a business tycoon and presidential candidate who had pledged his financial support to the November rallies, became embroiled in a major controversy. The authorities released a series of audio and video recordings of two separate meetings between a high-ranking Interior Ministry official Erekle Kodua, Patarkatsishvili himself and the head of his pre-election campaign, Valeri Gelbakhiani. According to these materials, Patarkatsishvili attempted to bribe Kodua into claiming voter fraud and taking part in what the Georgian officials described as an attempted coup d'état on January 6, 2008, the day after the scheduled presidential elections. The plan included staging a mass manifestation against the government and "neutralizing" the Interior Minister Vano Merabishvili. Patarkatsishvili confirmed that he met with Kodua in London, but denied the bribe was in connection to a coup plot. Instead, he claimed his intention was to uncover official plans to rig the election. He also confirmed that he had offered Kodua "a huge amount of money" in exchange for defecting from the authorities to avert the possible use of government force against the planned January rallies. On December 26, 2007, several leading journalists defected from Imedi TV, co-owned by Patarkatsishvili. Later that day, the television station’s management announced that Imedi TV temporarily suspended broadcasts until the station's "legal status in respect of ownership is clarified." "By doing so we are distancing from dirty political games", said Giorgi Targamadze, head of the Imedi TV's political programs. The opposition politicians formerly allied with him also made attempts to distance themselves from Patarkatsishvili and condemned what they described as illegal methods used by both the authorities and "other forces," apparently referring to Patarkatsishvili. On December 28, 2007, Patarkatsishvili announced that he would withdraw his bid for presidency, but would remain a candidate until January 4, 2008. On January 3, 2008, he reversed himself and decided to run in presidential elections. In response, his top campaign official Giorgi Zhvania (brother of the late Prime Minister Zurab Zhvania) resigned, declaring that Patarkasishvili does not have a reputation one would expect of a country's president. Meanwhile, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) released two interim reports on the election campaign, saying that the "legal framework [was] generally favorable to the conduct of democratic elections in Georgia, if implemented in good faith." However, they expressed concerns about "a highly polarized political environment" within the country's political spectrum, including the allegations of Saakashvili's use of administrative resources and the lack of balance in Georgian media. On December 28, 2007, Saakashvili vowed to lead Georgia into NATO and to restore its territorial integrity in his second term if reelected. He stated he would hand over a united Georgia to his successor after the end of his second term. The pre-election period in Georgia was also marked with rising tensions in breakaway Abkhazia. Early in January 2008, the Georgian media reported attacks on ethnic Georgians in the Gali district controlled by the de facto Abkhaz administration. The reports said that the Georgians living in Abkhazia were being intimidated by local Abkhaz officials to prevent them from participating in Georgia's presidential election. At least seven houses owned by ethnic Georgians were destroyed by fire. Although Abkhaz officials rejected the accusations, the acting Georgian president Nino Burjanadze warned that attempts were being made to add conflict on the eve of the election. Candidates Badri Patarkatsishvili, a business oligarch who made a fortune in Russia, announced he would be a candidate on 10 November 2007. The opposition parties stated they would nominate a single candidate, who would have a "great chance of winning the election." The nominee would not be Patarkatsishvili, former Defence Minister Irakli Okruashvili or the activist Tina Khidasheli. On November 12, the opposition parties nominated MP Levan Gachechiladze, a leader of the 2007 Georgian demonstrations, as their common candidate. The Georgian Labour Party supported its leader Shalva Natelashvili as a candidate instead of Gachechiladze, and the New Right nominated MP Davit Gamkrelidze as their candidate. Saakashvili was nominated as his party's candidate on 23 November. Twenty-two citizens of Georgia expressed willingness to run in the elections. According to the Georgian election code each of them had to submit at least 50,000 signatures of supporters in order to be registered by the Central Election Commission as official candidates. In total, thirteen candidates submitted signatures, but only seven were recognized by the Central Election Commission (CEC) as eligible to run for the presidency: Levan Gachechiladze, nominated by the nine-party opposition coalition Davit Gamkrelidze, leader of the New Right Gia Maisashvili, leader of the Party of the Future Shalva Natelashvili, leader of the Georgian Labour Party Badri Patarkatsishvili, a business and media tycoon Mikheil Saakashvili, the ex-president and the leader of ruling United National Movement Irina Sarishvili-Chanturia, the only female presidential candidate and the leader of the Russian-leaning Hope Party. Opinion polls In a November 2007 pre-election poll held by the weekly Mteli Kvira, the opposition candidate Gachechiladze defeated Saakashvili by 2% (18% to 16%). In a December 2007 poll commissioned by Saakashvili's party, the BCG company surveyed 13,000 respondents throughout Georgia and showed that 29.5% of voters were still undecided. 36.7% said they would vote for Saakashvili, followed by Gachechiladze with 9.7%; Patarkatsishvili – 4.7%; Gamkrelidze – 3%; Natelashvili – 2.5%; Maisashvili and Sarishvili had less than 1% each. One percent said they would vote for none of the candidates. The survey showed that 63.5% of those who had decided to vote for one of the candidates would vote for Saakashvili, followed by Gachechiladze and Patarkatsishvili with 16.7% and 8.1%, respectively. Another survey, also commissioned by Saakashvili's party, was overseen by the U.S. based Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research, but conducted by the Georgian ACT group. This survey involved 1,500 respondents and found that 41% would vote for Saakashvili, followed by Gachechiladze – 11.1%; Patarkatsishvili – 6.5%; Natelashvili – 3.5%; Gamkrelidze – 2.1%; Maisashvili and Sarishvili – less than 1% each. 20.6% were undecided and 2.3% said they wouldn’t vote for any candidate. Of those who had decided to vote for one of the candidates, 64% said they would vote for Saakashvili, followed by Gachechiladze and Patarkatsishvili with 17% and 10%, respectively. On December 23, 2007, the pro-opposition Imedi TV announced that an organization called Dialogue for Development of Democracy had conducted an opinion poll between December 17 and December 21. The survey showed that 22.1% of the 2,100 surveyed would support Levan Gachechiladze, followed by Mikheil Saakashvili with 20.3%; Badri Patarkatsishvili – 19.1%; Shalva Natelashvili – 6.5%; Davit Gamkrelidze – 4.9%; Giorgi Maisashvili – 1.1% and Irina Sarishvili – 0.2%. The survey reported that 21.7% remained undecided. A survey, commissioned once again by Saakashvili’s campaign from Greenberg Quinlan Rosner, was published on January 3, 2008. It showed that Saakashvili had the support of 42 percent, compared to 19 percent for Levan Gachechiladze, 11 percent for Badri Patarkatsishvili, 5 percent for Shalva Natelashvili, 4 percent for David Gamkrelidze, and 1 percent for Gia Maisashvili; 2 percent would not vote or vote blank, and 16 percent were undecided. The survey reported only a minority of Georgian voters felt the presidential elections would not be fair. Conduct In addition to local watchdogs, 29 international or foreign organizations (including OSCE, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, and International Crisis Group) observed the elections. Early on election day all polling stations were opened with the exception of the highland village of Shatili where heavy snow thwarted the process. Exit polls All major national television broadcasters planned to conduct their own exit polls and commissioned seven local research groups. The first exit poll results were conflicting: According to a survey commissioned by 4 TV stations (Georgian Public Broadcaster, Rustavi 2, Mze, and Achara TV) from the Georgian Institute of Public Affairs (GIPA), Ilia Chavchavadze State University and two think-tanks – the Caucasus Institute for Peace, Democracy and Development (CIPDD) and the Georgian Foundation for Strategic and International Studies (GFSIS), Mikheil Saakashvili was winning with a narrow absolute majority of 53.5% of the votes, with Levan Gachechiladze coming second with 29.1%. Voter turnout was 46.4%. Twenty-three percent of respondents refused to say for whom they had voted. The poll had a 2% margin of error. The figures were provisional, with final results not expected for another few hours. According to a relatively unknown Ukrainian think tank "Common European Cause", which claimed to have interviewed 10,000 people at 200 polling stations, Gachechiladze won the most votes (31%), followed by Saakashvili (24.4%) and Patarkatsishvili (20.3%). Results The Central Election Committee stated the turnout was 56.17%, or 1,912,943 voters. As announced by the Central Election Committee on 20:00 (16:00 GMT) of January 6, data from 2,605 precincts had been counted and showed Saakashvili in the lead with 51.95% of the votes, and Gachechiladze in second place with 25.14%. 2 days later, with votes from more polling stations having been counted, Saakashvili was leading with 52.21%, Gachechiladze following him with 25.26% of the votes. On 9 January 2008, with 98.8% of the ballots counted, Saakashvili had 52.21%, meaning he could not fall below the 50% which would result in a run-off. By territory Municipalities of Kurta and Eredvi Reactions The opposition candidates claimed the polls were rigged and the exit-polls false. Supporters for Levan Gachechiladze were waiting for official results, but the candidate himself called for a January 6 meeting in Tbilisi to protect the true results of the election. On that day, about 7000 to 9000 supporters of the opposition went to the Rike Square in Tbilisi. Opposition leaders urged their adherents to return on 8 January and to celebrate the victory of Levan Gachechiladze. While that rally was called off, the opposition united in a large rally in downtown Tbilisi once again on 13 January, claiming vote-rigging had taken place, demanding a run-off, and asking for the resignation of the head of the CEC. The protests continued through inauguration day, 20 January. On 10 January, Badri Patarkatsishvili was charged with attempting to organise a terrorist attack and plotting a coup. The Georgian Human Rights Ombudsman, Sozar Subari, was highly critical of the election proceedings. In addition to identifying breaches of the law, his report stated: Meanwhile, the OSCE and EU election observers stated that the election met democratic standards, but there were problems that had to be addressed. Western observers also hailed it as "the first genuinely competitive presidential election, which enabled the Georgian people to express their political choice." The EU called on all political forces in Georgia to respect the election results and "to engage constructively and democratically in order to ensure that Georgia continues moving forward." NATO also welcomed the election, saying it was "an important step in Georgia’s democratic development." By contrast, the Russian Foreign Ministry condemned the vote and described it as neither free nor fair: "The presidential race was marked by the widespread use of administrative resources, open pressure on opposition candidates and severe limitations on their access to financial and media sources." In an interview with the German newspaper Frankfurter Rundschau, German diplomat Dieter Boden, the head of the OSCE Election Observation Mission, stated the elections were massively falsified and that there were "rude, negligent and intentional manipulations during the vote count that were detected by our observers". He spoke of a "chaotic situation" within the electoral commission. On January 10, however, a representative of the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights mission in Georgia, Rasto Kuzel, declared that the OSCE had not changed its positive evaluation of the January 5 presidential election. The OSCE Office explained: "Mr. Boden's published statements do not quite reflect what he really said, and we shall look into how that happened" and that "the interview was not published completely. Some definitions were cut from the interview." On January 11, Boden stated that the confusion "was the result of a journalist's misinterpretation" and said the final report would be published in February 2008. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) final report was critical of the conduct of the election: Notes References External links Georgian presidential election, 2008, Electoral Geography 2.0 Georgia Vote 2008, EurasiaNet Elections 2008. Civil Georgia Central Election Commission of Georgia Presidential election Presidential elections in Georgia (country) Georgia Georgia
157068	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A2%E1%83%91%E1%83%90	წუნდის ტბა	წუნდის ტბა — მეწყრული წარმოშობის ტბა საქართველოში, ასპინძის მუნიციპალიტეტში. მდებარეობს მდინარე მტკვრის მარჯვენა მხარეს, ზღვის დონიდან 1539 მ სიმაღლეზე. განფენილია თმოგვის ციხესიმაგრის ნანგრევების სიახლოვეს. სარკის ფართობი — 0,034 კმ², აუზის ფართობი 1,8 კმ². საშუალო სიღრმე 6,6 მ, მაქსიმალური სიღრმე 10,8 მ. წყლის მოცულობა 284 ათ. მ³. ტბის ქვაბული წარმოქმნილია ახალქალაქის ლავური პლატოს დასავლეთი პერიფერიის დამეწყვრის შედეგად მდინარე მტკვრის ხეობაში. წარსულში ტბა აფეთქების კრატერად ანუ მაარად მიაჩნდათ. საზრდოობს თოვლის, წვიმისა და მიწისქვეშა წყლით. ტბა გაუდინარი და მტკნარია. აქვს მიწისქვეშა ჩამონადენი. სქოლიო სამცხე-ჯავახეთის მხარის ტბები
49861	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra%20Feodorovna%20%28Alix%20of%20Hesse%29	Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)	Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) Alexandra Feodorovna (– 17 July 1918), Princess Alix of Hesse and by Rhine at birth, was the last Empress of Russia as the consort of Emperor Nicholas II from their marriage on until his forced abdication on . A favourite granddaughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, she was, like her grandmother, one of the most famous royal carriers of haemophilia and bore a haemophiliac heir, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia. Her reputation for encouraging her husband's resistance to the surrender of autocratic authority and her known faith in the Russian mystic Grigori Rasputin severely damaged her popularity and that of the Romanov monarchy in its final years. She and her immediate family were all murdered while in Bolshevik captivity in 1918, during the Russian Revolution. In 2000, the Russian Orthodox Church canonized her as Saint Alexandra the Passion Bearer. Appearance and personality Alexandra was a noted beauty. Her maternal grandmother Queen Victoria praised her as "a most lovely child." Her friend Anna Vyrubova described her as "tall...and delicately, beautifully shaped, with exquisitely white neck and shoulders. Her abundant hair, red gold, was so long that she could easily sit upon it when it was unbound. Her complexion was clear and as rosy as a little child's. The Empress had large eyes, deep gray and very lustrous." A lady-in-waiting, Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden, said that she was "a tall, slim girl" with "beautiful luminous eyes," "regular features," a "very good complexion," and "beautiful golden hair." An imperial courtier commented favourably about "her wonderful hair which lay like a heavy crown on her head and large dark-blue eyes beneath long lashes." In 1905, her daughters' tutor Pierre Gilliard wrote that "the Tsarina was still a beautiful woman at that time. She was tall and slender and carried herself superbly. But all this ceased the moment one looked into her eyes—those speaking, grey-blue eyes which mirrored the emotions of a sensitive soul." Alexandra was shy. When her grandmother Queen Victoria insisted that she play the piano for others, she felt that her "clammy hands... [were] literally glued to the keys" and later described the experience as "one of the worst ordeals" of her life. When she was empress, a page in the imperial household described her as "so obviously nervous of conversation" and claimed that "at moments when she needed to show some social graces or a charming smile, her face would become suffused with little red spots and she would look intensely serious." Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia noted that she "is terribly shy... It's noticeable that she does not have her mother-in-law's charm, and still does not, therefore, inspire general adulation." Nadine Wonar-Larsky, her lady-in-waiting, noted that she was "extremely shy even at such an informal affair as receiving" Wonlar-Larsky and her mother to tea. An imperial courtier noted that "when she was conversing or grew tired, her face became covered in red blotches [and] her hands were red and fleshy." She herself admitted that during social functions, she "long[ed] to disappear into the ground." She told her friend Marie Bariatinsky that "I am not made to shine before an assembly—I have not got the easy nor the witty talk one needs for that." This was often mistaken as haughtiness. Her brother Ernest Louis reflected that "she would unsmilingly tilt her head to one side if something displeased her, with the result that people often thought that she was unhappy, or bored, or simply capricious." Her daughters' tutor Pierre Gilliard reflected that "the reserve which so many people had taken as an affront and had made her so many enemies was rather the effect of a natural timidity, as it were—a mask covering her sensitiveness." Even from a young age, Alexandra was serious and melancholic. Her first cousin and childhood friend Princess Marie Louise said that she had "a curious atmosphere of fatality." Princess Marie Louise allegedly asked her, "Alix, you always play at being sorrowful; one day the Almighty will send you some real crushing sorrows, and then what are you going to do?" Sir George William Buchanan, who was a diplomat for Alexandra's grandmother Queen Victoria, reflected that Alexandra had a "sad and pathetic expression." Alexandra was devoutly religious. Although she loved Nicholas II, she initially refused his proposal because she refused to convert from Lutheranism and join the Russian Orthodox Church, as was expected of all wives of Russian emperors. She told Nicholas that even though "it grieves me terribly and makes me very unhappy" not to marry him, leaving the Lutheran church would be "a wrongful thing." Generous to her friends, she would try to help others: her lady-in-waiting Sophie Buxhoeveden wrote that she was "ready to do literally anything for her friends" and that "she would take up things and people with violent enthusiasm." Alexandra admitted that "I am of the preacher type. I want to help others in life, to help them to fight their battles and bear their crosses.". Such feelings give a clue to her friendship with the plain, naïve Anna Vyrubova whom she consoled after a brief and disastrous marriage. Princess Alice had encouraged in her children the importance of and potential learning from literature and Alexandra grew up well-read in English and German. In her first years as empress, she translated Russian writings and studied Russian music to improve her command of the language. She read Leo Tolstoy's novels and discussed them with her husband. Alexandra enjoyed music. When she was young, she played the banjo and sang duets for hours with Queen Victoria's lady-in-waiting Minnie Cochrane. She enjoyed playing the piano with her daughter Olga, who inherited her musical talent. Early life Alexandra was born on 6 June 1872 at the New Palace in Darmstadt as Princess Alix Viktoria Helene Luise Beatrix of Hesse and by Rhine, a grand duchy then part of the German Empire. She was the sixth child and fourth daughter among the seven children of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and his first wife, Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, the second daughter of Queen Victoria and her husband Albert, Prince Consort. Alix was baptized on 1 July 1872 (her parents' tenth wedding anniversary) in the Protestant Lutheran Church and given the names of her mother and each of her mother's four sisters, some of which were transliterated into German. Her mother wrote to Queen Victoria, "'Alix' we gave for 'Alice' as they murder my name here: 'Ali-ice' they pronounce it, so we thought 'Alix' could not so easily be spoilt." Her mother gave her the nickname of "Sunny", due to her cheerful disposition, a name adopted later by her husband. Her British relatives nicknamed her as "Alicky", to distinguish her from her aunt-by-marriage, Alexandra, Princess of Wales, who was known within the family as Alix. Alix's godparents were the Prince and Princess of Wales (her maternal uncle and aunt), Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (her maternal aunt), the Duchess of Cambridge (her great-great-aunt), the Tsesarevich and Tsesarevna of Russia (her future parents-in-law), and Princess Anna of Prussia. Alix's older brother Prince Friedrich of Hesse and by Rhine ("Frittie") suffered from hemophilia and died in May 1873 after a fall, when Alix was about one year old. Of her siblings, Alix was closest to Princess Marie ("May"), who was two years younger; they were noted as "inseparable". In November 1878, diphtheria swept through the House of Hesse; Alix, her three sisters, her brother Ernst ("Ernie"), and their father fell ill. Elisabeth ("Ella"), Alix's older sister, was visiting their paternal grandmother, and escaped the outbreak. Alix's mother Alice tended to the children herself, rather than abandon them to nurses and doctors. Alice fell ill and died on 14 December 1878, when Alix was six years old. This was the 17th anniversary of Alice's own father's death. Marie also died, but the rest of the siblings survived. She described her childhood before her mother and sister's deaths as "unclouded, happy babyhood, of perpetual sunshine, then of a great cloud". Queen Victoria doted on the motherless Alix and became a surrogate mother to her. She felt highly protective of Alix and declared that "while I live Alicky, til she is married, will be more than ever my own child." She handpicked Alix's tutors and instructed them to send detailed reports back to Windsor every month. She invited Alix and her surviving siblings to England for their holidays, and they grew close to their British cousins. Every birthday and Christmas, she sent Alix gifts of dresses, jewelry, lace, and dolls. Unlike her other siblings, Alix signed herself "your loving and grateful child," rather than grandchild, in her letters. Alix reflected that she saw Queen Victoria as "the best and dearest of grandmamas," "a very august person," "a Santa Clause," and "the dearest and kindest Woman alive." When she was betrothed to Nicholas, Alix assured Victoria that "my marrying will [not] make a difference to my love for You." When Queen Victoria died in 1901, Alix openly wept at her memorial service in Saint Petersburg and shocked the Russian courtiers who considered her cold and unfeeling. Along with her sister, Princess Irene, Alix was a bridesmaid at the 1885 wedding of her godmother and maternal aunt, Princess Beatrice, to Prince Henry of Battenberg. At the age of 15, she attended Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee celebrations in 1887. In March 1892, when Alix was nineteen years old, her father Grand Duke Louis IV, died of a heart attack. According to her biographer, Baroness Buxhoeveden, Alix regarded the death of her father as the greatest sorrow of her life. Buxhoeveden recalled in her 1928 biography that "for years she could not speak of him, and long after when she was in Russia, anything that reminded her of him would bring her to the verge of tears". Proposed matches Queen Victoria greatly favored Alix and she wanted Alix to become the Queen Consort of the United Kingdom, which she considered "the greatest position there is." On 2 March 1888, she wrote to Alix's oldest sister Victoria that "My heart and mind are bent on securing dear Alicky for either Eddie or Georgie." She pressured Alix to accept a proposal from her first cousin and the heir apparent to the British throne, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale. In 1889, Victoria invited Alix and Eddy to Balmoral in hopes that they would fall in love. Eddy grew infatuated with her and proposed, but Alix was not interested in him and rejected his proposal. However, Victoria still persisted and tried to convince Alix of the benefits of the match. Victoria wrote to Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine, Alix's older sister, that Alix "should be made to reflect seriously on the folly of throwing away the chance of a very good husband, kind, affectionate and steady, and of entering a united happy family and a very good position which is second to none in the world!" Alix's older sister Ella opposed the match because "he [Eddy] does not look over strong and is too stupid." In May 1890, Alix wrote a letter to Eddy that although it "pained her to pain him," she only saw him as a cousin and could not marry him. She wrote to Victoria that she would marry Eddy if she were "forced" by the family but that both of them would be miserable. Victoria was disappointed, but she decided that Alix had shown "great strength of character" in refusing to acquiesce to such strong pressure. In 1891, Queen Victoria tried to arrange a match between Alix and Prince Maximilian of Baden. She asked Louis to invite Max to Darmstadt as soon as possible. When he arrived in Darmstadt, Max told Alix that he intended to propose to her. Alix was surprised and unhappy, and she later reflected that "I did not know him at all." She asked her older sister Victoria to intervene and help her reject Max politely. Engagement In 1884, Alix attended the wedding of her sister Elisabeth to Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich in St. Petersburg. At this wedding, the 12-year-old Alix met the 16-year-old Tsesarevich Nicholas, nephew of the groom and heir-apparent to the Imperial throne of Russia. In his diary Nicholas called Alix "sweet little Alix" and declared "we love each other." He gave her a brooch as a sign of his affection, and they scratched their names into a windowpane. In January 1890, Alix visited her sister Ella in Russia. She and Nicholas skated together, met at tea parties, and played badminton. Nicholas wrote in his diary: "It is my dream to one day marry Alix H. I have loved her for a long time, but more deeply and strongly since 1889 when she spent six weeks in Petersburg. For a long time, I have resisted my feeling that my dearest dream will come true." Alix's sister Ella and her husband Sergei were enthusiastically in favor of the match between Nicholas and Alix. The future Edward VII told his mother Queen Victoria that "Ella will move heaven and earth to get [Alix] to marry a Grand Duke." Ella wrote to Ernest, "God grant this marriage will come true." Nicholas and Alix were second cousins through a great-grandmother, Princess Wilhelmina of Baden, and they were third cousins once removed through Frederick William II of Prussia, who was Alix's great-great-grandfather and Nicholas's great-great-great-grandfather. Nicholas's mother, Empress Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark), was Alix's godmother and the younger sister of Alexandra of Denmark, who married Alix's uncle Edward VII. Her sister Ella had married Nicholas's uncle Sergei. Her uncle Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, had married Nicholas's aunt Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia. Queen Victoria opposed the match to Nicholas. She personally liked Nicholas, but she disliked Russia and Nicholas's father and worried that Alix would not be safe in Russia. She wrote to Alix's older sister Victoria of her suspicions that Sergei and Ella were encouraging the match. After the betrothal was announced, she reflected: "The more I think of sweet Alicky's marriage the more unhappy I am. Not as to the personality for I like [Nicholas] very much but on account of the country and the awful insecurity to which that poor child will be exposed." Alexander and Maria Feodorovna were both vehemently anti-German and did not want Alix as a daughter-in-law. Maria Feodorovna told her sister Alexandra of Denmark that the youngest daughter of an undistinguished grand duke was not worthy to marry the heir to the Russian throne, and she believed that Alix was too tactless and unlikeable to be a successful empress. Alexander favored Princess Hélène of Orléans, the tall, dark-haired daughter of Philippe, Comte de Paris, pretender to the throne of France. Nicholas was not attracted to Hélène, writing in his diary: "Mama made a few allusions to Hélène, daughter of the Comte de Paris. I myself want to go in one direction and it is evident that Mama wants me to choose the other one." Hélène also resisted this match, as she was Roman Catholic and her father refused to allow her to convert to Russian Orthodoxy. Alexander sent emissaries to Princess Margaret of Prussia, sister of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Nicholas declared that he would rather become a monk than marry Margaret; she in turn was unwilling to convert to the Russian Orthodox Church from being Protestant. When his health failed in 1894, Alexander III decided to allow Nicholas to marry Alix so that he could secure the succession. Maria reluctantly permitted Nicholas to propose to Alix. Nicholas was ecstatic and immediately inquired about Alix. Despite her love for Nicholas, Alix was initially reluctant to marry Nicholas because she did not want to renounce her Lutheran faith to join the Orthodox church. She wrote to Nicholas that "I cannot [convert to Orthodoxy] against my conscience" because "What happiness can come from a marriage which begins without the real blessing of God?" Nicholas was devastated, but he remained hopeful because Ella assured him that Alix was "utterly miserable" and had a "deep and pure" love for him. Nicholas begged her "not [to] say 'no' directly" and declared, "Do you think there can exist any happiness in the whole world without you!" In April 1894, Alix's brother Ernest Louis married Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Princess Victoria was Alexander III's niece by his sister Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia and Nicholas's first cousin, so several Russians attended the wedding, including Grand Dukes Vladimir, Sergei and Paul, Grand Duchesses Elisabeth Feodorovna and Maria Pavlovna, and Nicholas. Nicholas was determined to convince Alix to marry him. He was evidently confident in his future success: he brought Father Ioann Yanyshev, confessor to the Imperial family, to teach Alix about Russian Orthodoxy, and he brought Ekaterina Adolfovna Schneider, to teach Alix Russian. The day after his arrival in Coburg, Nicholas proposed to Alix and tried for two hours to convince her to convert to Orthodoxy. She wept continuously but refused. Ella spoke to Alix afterwards, and she convinced Alix that she did not need to renounce Lutheranism to convert to Orthodoxy. Ella herself had not been required to abjure her Lutheran faith when she converted to Orthodoxy. The next day, Alix spoke to Wilhelm II (who hoped that a German empress would lead to better German-Russian relations) and Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (a German princess who had converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy to marry Nicholas's uncle Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia). She accepted Nicholas's second proposal. Following the engagement, Alix returned to England and her grandmother. In June, Nicholas travelled to England to visit her and attend the christening of the eldest son of Prince George, Duke of York. Alix and Nicholas were both named as godparents of the boy, who reigned briefly as Edward VIII of the United Kingdom in 1936. Alix wrote to her old governess that "I am more happy than words can express. At last, after these five sad years!" Nicholas declared that "my soul was brimming with joy and life." In September, as Alexander III's health declined, Nicholas obtained the permission of his dying father to summon Alix to the Romanovs' Livadia Palace in Crimea. Escorted by her sister Ella from Warsaw to the Crimea, she traveled by ordinary passenger train. The dying tsar insisted on receiving Alix in full dress uniform and gave her his blessing. Empress of Russia Wedding On 1 November 1894, Alexander III died at the age of 49. Nicholas was confirmed as Tsar Nicholas II. The next day, Alix was received into the Russian Orthodox Church as "the truly believing Grand Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna." However, she was not required to repudiate Lutheranism. Alix wanted to take the name Yekaterina, but Nicholas wanted her to take the name Alexandra so that they could be a second Nicholas and Alexandra. He was inspired by his great-grandfather Nicholas I and his great-grandmother Alexandra Feodorovna. Alexandra, the Prince and Princess of Wales, and Nicholas's Greek relatives accompanied the coffin of Alexander III first through Moscow and St. Petersburg. The funeral of Alexander III occurred on 19 November. On 26 November 1894, Alexandra and Nicholas married in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace of Saint Petersburg. Court mourning could be relaxed because it was the birthday of Nicholas's mother, now Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. Many Russians considered Alexandra a bad omen because she arrived so soon after the death of Emperor Alexander: "She has come to us behind a coffin. She brings misfortune with her." Alexandra herself wrote to her sister: "Our wedding seemed to me, a mere continuation of the funeral liturgy for the dead Tsar, with one difference; I wore a white dress instead of a black one." Coronation On 14 May 1896, Alexandra and Nicholas were crowned at the Dormition Cathedral in the Kremlin. Five hundred thousand Russians gathered in Moscow to watch the entertainment, eat the court-sponsored food, and collect the gifts in honor of their new tsar. There were rumors that there was not enough food for everyone, so the crowd rushed towards the gift tables. The police failed to maintain order, and a thousand Russians were trampled to death at the Khodynka Field. Nicholas and Alexandra were horrified by the deaths, and they decided not to attend the ball that the French ambassador, the Marquis de Montebello, hosted in their honor. Nicholas's uncles urged him to attend so as not to offend the French and give credence to the rumors that the German Alexandra was prejudiced against the French. Sergei Witte commented, "We expected the party would be called off. Instead it took place as if nothing had happened and the ball was opened by Their Majesties dancing a quadrille." The British ambassador informed Queen Victoria that "the Empress appeared in great distress, her eyes reddened by tears." The next day, Alexandra and Nicholas visited the wounded and paid for the coffins of the dead. However, many Russians took the disaster at Khodynka Field as an omen that Nicholas's reign would be unhappy. Others used the circumstances of the tragedy and the behaviour of the royal establishment to underscore the heartlessness of the autocracy and the contemptible shallowness of the young tsar and his "German woman". Rejection by the Russian people Alexandra was extremely unpopular among her husband's Russian subjects. Her shy and introverted nature was interpreted as arrogance and coldness, and she struggled to win friends. The Russian court judged her as "devoid of charm, wooden, cold eyes, holds herself as if she'd swallowed a yardstick." Alexandra struggled to communicate. She spoke English and German fluently, but she struggled to speak French, the official language of the court, and she did not start to learn Russian until she became empress. She eventually learned Russian, but she spoke haltingly with a strong accent. Alexandra failed to understand her public role at court as the empress. Traditionally, the empress led the social scene and hosted numerous balls. However, Alexandra was shocked by the love affairs and gossip that characterized parties. She declared that "the heads of the young ladies of St. Petersburg are filled with nothing but thoughts of young officers," and she crossed off the names of noblemen and noblewomen whom she deemed scandalous from the invitation lists until no one was left. Many people in St. Petersburg society dismissed Alexandra as a prude. In one of her first balls, Alexandra sent a lady-in-waiting to reprimand a young woman in a low-cut gown: "Her Majesty wants me to tell you that in Hesse-Darmstadt we don't wear our dresses this way." The unnamed woman replied, "Pray tell Her Majesty that in Russia we do wear our dresses this way." In 1896, she launched the "Help Through Handwork" project. She wanted to create a series of workshops in which noblewomen would teach poor peasants how to sew and raise funds for needy families. Alexandra had a difficult relationship with her mother-in-law, Maria Feodorovna. Unlike other European courts of the day, Russian protocol gave the dowager empress seniority in rank to the empress. At royal balls, Maria entered on her son's arm and Alexandra followed on the arm of one of the grand dukes. Maria was so accustomed to the tradition that she was surprised when Alexandra was bitter about her junior role at court. The crown jewels were the property of the current Empress, but Maria refused to relinquish them to Alexandra. Maria begrudgingly surrendered the magnificent collection when Alexandra threatened to not wear jewels to official court events. Alexandra was unpopular in the imperial family. She was a fervent advocate of the "divine right of kings" and believed that it was unnecessary to attempt to secure the approval of the people, according to her aunt, German Empress Victoria, who wrote to Queen Victoria that "Alix is very imperious and will always insist on having her own way; she will never yield one iota of power she will imagine she wields..." She dreaded social functions and enjoyed being alone with Nicholas, so she did not host the balls and parties that a tsarina normally would. Members of the imperial family resented that she closed off their access to the tsar and the inner court. She disliked Nicholas's uncle, Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich. She declared that Vladimir's sons Kirill, Boris and Andrei were irredeemably immoral. In 1913, she refused Boris's proposal for the hand of Grand Duchess Olga. During the war, Vladimir's wife, Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna openly criticized Alexandra. Insecure about her modest origins as a minor German princess, Alexandra insisted on being treated with the full honors due to an empress. In 1896, Alexandra and Nicholas went on a European tour. When Wilhelm II lent her an antique silver toilette service that had once belonged to Queen Louise of Prussia, she was insulted and declared that only a gold service was suitable for an empress. She dressed herself "with great magnificence". At the Russian court, courtiers mocked for her "dress[ing] in the heavy brocade of which she was so fond, and with diamonds scattered all over her, in defiance of good taste and common sense." Alexandra refused to court the public because she believed that the Russian people automatically loved and revered their emperor and empress. When she and Nicholas were traveling to Crimea by train, hundreds of peasants wore their best clothes and waited overnight to see the imperial couple. Nicholas went to the window and waved, but Alexandra refused to open the curtains and acknowledge the crowd. Dowager Empress Maria was furious that "[Alexandra] thinks the Imperial family should be 'above that sort of thing.' What does she mean? Above winning the people's affection?...And yet, how often she complains of the public indifference toward her." Queen Victoria worried about Alexandra's unpopularity in her new country, and she advised her granddaughter: "I've ruled more than 50 years ... and nevertheless every day I think about what I need to do to retain and strengthen the love of my subjects ... It is your first duty to win their love and respect." Alexandra replied, "You are mistaken, my dear grandmamma; Russia is not England. Here we do not need to earn the love of the people. The Russian people revere their Tsars as divine beings ... As far as Petersburg society is concerned, that is something which one may wholly disregard." Struggle to bear an heir On 15 November 1895, Alexandra gave birth to her eldest child and daughter, Olga, at the Alexander Palace. Many Russians and members of the imperial family were disappointed in the sex of the child, but Nicholas and Alexandra were delighted with their daughter and doted on her. The birth of Olga did not change Grand Duke George's position as Nicholas's heir presumptive. The Pauline Laws implemented by Tsar Paul I forbade women from taking the Romanov throne as long as any male Romanov was alive. If Alexandra did not bear a son, Nicholas's heirs would be his brothers and uncles. However, few worried because Alexandra was only 23, so she was expected to be able to bear a son soon. A few months after giving birth to Olga, Alexandra was pregnant again. Due to the stress of the coronation, she had a miscarriage. No announcement was made, because she had not publicly confirmed her pregnancy yet. However, there were unfounded and malicious rumors in St. Petersburg that Alexandra had become pregnant by a lover and aborted the baby to hide her infidelity. On 10 June 1897, Alexandra gave birth to her second child and daughter, Tatiana. Nicholas was overjoyed, but the members of his family were unhappy and worried. When she woke up from the chloroform, Alexandra saw the "anxious and troubled faces" around her and "burst into loud hysterics." She cried, "My God, it is again a daughter. What will the nation say, what will the nation say?" Alexandra's inability to have a son made her even more unpopular among the Russians. Nicholas's brother George said that he was disappointed not to have a nephew to relieve him of his duties as heir: "I was already preparing to go into retirement, but it was not to be. On 26 June 1899, Alexandra gave birth to her third child and daughter, Maria. Queen Victoria sent Alexandra a telegram when Maria was born: "I am so thankful that dear Alicky has recovered so well, but I regret the third girl for the country." Grand Duke Konstantin fretted: "And so there's no Heir. The whole of Russia will be disappointed by this news." Russians saw the birth of a third daughter as proof that Alexandra was bad luck. Two weeks after Maria's birth, Nicholas's brother George died and their younger brother Michael became the heir presumptive to the throne. Courtiers flocked to Michael and treated him as the heir apparent, which distressed Alexandra. In October 1900, Nicholas became ill with abdominal typhus and was confined to bedrest for five weeks. The cabinet were forced to discuss what would happen if Nicholas would die. Alexandra was pregnant with Anastasia, and she insisted that she be named regent in the hope that she would bear a son. However, Nicholas's ministers refused: If Nicholas died, Michael would become tsar. If Alexandra's baby was a boy, Michael would renounce the throne in his nephew's favor. Alexandra was not satisfied, and she grew to distrust Nicholas's ministers for trying to "steal" her future son's inheritance. On 18 June 1901, Alexandra gave birth to Anastasia. Nicholas's sister, Grand Duchess Xenia, exclaimed, "My God! What a disappointment!… a fourth girl!" The French diplomat Maurice Paléologue reported: "The German [Alexandra] has the evil eye. Thanks to her nefarious influence our Emperor is doomed to catastrophe." The Russian peasants decided that "the Empress was not beloved in heaven or she would have borne a son." Alexandra and Nicholas turned to the faith in hopes of having a son. Shortly after Anastasia's birth, Grand Duchess Militza Nikolaevna introduced Alexandra to a mystic named Philippe Nizier-Vachot. He was an unlicensed quack who claimed that he could use his magnetic powers to change the sex of a baby inside the womb. Nicholas contrived a medical diploma from the Imperial Military Medical Academy for Philippe and made him State Councilor and military doctor. Nicholas's mother (Maria), sister (Xenia), and sister-in-law (Ella) were alarmed and warned him and Alexandra to stay away from Philippe, but the imperial couple did not heed their advice. In the end of 1901, Alexandra seemed to have become pregnant again, and Philippe swore that she was carrying a boy. By the summer of 1902, it was clear that the Empress was not pregnant. Grand Duke Constantine Constantinovich of Russia wrote, "From 8 August we have been waiting every day for confirmation of the Empress's pregnancy. Now we have suddenly learned that she is not pregnant, indeed that there never was any pregnancy, and that the symptoms that led to suppose it were in fact only anaemia!". In reality, Alexandra had had a molar pregnancy. On 19 August 1902, she had suffered a discharge of "a spherical, fleshy mass the size of a walnut", which Dr. Dmitry Ott confirmed was a dead fertilized egg in the fourth week of gestation. To save face, the court physicians published a bulletin on 21 August claiming that Alexandra had "a straightforward miscarriage, without any complications." Humiliated, Alexandra sent Philippe to France. In 1903, Alexandra and Nicholas decided to support the canonisation of Seraphim of Sarov. Before he left Russia, Philippe told them that Seraphim would grant Alexandra a son. Seraphim was a monk in the Tambov region who had supposedly performed local miracles, he had been dead for seventy years. The Metropolitan of Moscow reluctantly agreed to canonize the saint. On 19 August, Alexandra and Nicholas bathed in the Sarov Spring in which Seraphim had once bathed and prayed that the sacred waters would bless them with a son. In 1904, Alexandra became pregnant. There was high anticipation for a son. As her due date drew near, a newspaper noted that "a few days will decide whether the Czarina is to be the most popular woman in Russia, or regarded by the great bulk of the people as a castaway – under the special wrath of God." On 12 August 1904, Alexandra gave birth to Alexei Nikolaevich in Peterhof. Alexei's birth affirmed Nicholas and Alexandra's faith in Philippe. In her diary, Nicholas's sister Olga wrote, "I am sure it was Seraphim who brought it about." Nicholas wrote to Militza to "pass on our gratitude and joy … to Philippe." Relationship with her children Alexandra had a distant relationship with Olga. She relied on Olga to keep her younger siblings in order. Her letters to Olga include frequent reminders to mind her siblings: "Remember above all to always be a good example to the little ones" and "Try to have a serious word with Tatiana and Maria about how they should conduct themselves towards God." Olga was frustrated by trying to keep her boisterous siblings in order, and she complained that her mother had no time for her. Olga preferred her father. Alexandra was closest to her second daughter, Tatiana. Tatiana resembled Alexandra the most in terms of appearance and personality. She was described by her paternal aunt Xenia: "[Tatiana] and her mother are like as two peas in a pod!.... so pretty." She was cautious and reserved, and she was unquestioningly devoted to Alexandra. During the family's final months, she helped her mother by pushing her about the house in a wheelchair. Maria felt insecure about her role in the family, and Alexandra frequently assured Maria that she was as loved as her siblings: "Sweet child you must promise me never again to think that nobody loves you. How did such an extraordinary idea get into your little head? Get it quickly out again." Maria worried that Alexandra favored Anastasia over her, and Alexandra reassured her that "I have no secrets with Anastasia." Anastasia physically resembled Alexandra, but her boisterous, mischievous personality was very different from her mother's. She was dubbed the shvibzik, Russian for "imp." During the family's last months, Anastasia was the only one who could make the melancholy Alexandra laugh. Alexandra doted on Alexei because he was her only son and the heir to the Russian Empire. The children's tutor Pierre Gilliard wrote, "Alexei was the centre of a united family, the focus of all its hopes and affections. His sisters worshipped him. He was his parents' pride and joy. When he was well, the palace was transformed. Everyone and everything in it seemed bathed in sunshine." Alexandra was obsessed with trying to protect him from his disease of haemophilia. According to Gilliard, she "press[ed] the little boy to her with the convulsive movement of a mother who always seems in fear of her child's life." She sat at Alexei's bedside for days as he suffered through his fatal attacks. She feared that he would injure himself in tantrums, so she spoiled him and never punished him. Despite her fears of never bearing a son, Alexandra loved her daughters and called them her "little four-leaved clover." She wrote that "our girlies are our joy and happiness" and "the apostles of God." Health Alexandra's health was never robust and her frequent pregnancies, with four daughters in six years and her son three years after, drew from her energy. Her biographers, including Robert K. Massie, Carolly Erickson, Greg King, and Peter Kurth, attribute the semi-invalidism of her later years to nervous exhaustion from obsessive worry over the fragile tsarevich, who suffered from haemophilia. She spent most of her time in bed or reclining on a chaise in her boudoir or on a veranda. This immobility enabled her to avoid the social occasions that she found distasteful. Alexandra regularly took a herbal medicine known as adonis vernalis in order to regulate her pulse. She was constantly tired, slept badly, and complained of swollen feet. She ate little, but never lost weight (except for the last year of her life). She may have suffered from Graves disease (hyperthyroidism), a condition resulting in high levels of the thyroid hormone, which can also result in atrial fibrillation, poor heartbeat and lack of energy. Haemophilia and Rasputin Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich of Russia was heir apparent to the throne of Russia and the only son of Nicholas and Alexandra. Shortly after his birth, the court doctors realized that he had haemophilia. After his umbilical cord was cut, his stomach bled for days and his blood did not clot. Nicholas wrote that Alexei lost "1/8 to 1/9 of the total quantity" of his blood in 48 hours. Haemophilia had entered the royal houses of Europe via the daughters of Queen Victoria, including Alexandra's mother, Princess Alice. In the early 20th century, haemophilia was fatal and the average life expectancy of haemophiliacs was age 13. Alexandra's brother, Friedrich, and maternal uncle Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, had died young of haemophilia. Alexandra's sister Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine and first cousin Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg were also carriers of the haemophilia gene, and they had haemophiliac sons. Alexandra felt immense guilt that she had passed down the disease to her son. Shortly after Alexei's diagnosis, she wept and told the nurse, "If only you knew how fervently I've prayed for God to protect my son from our inherited curse." Nicholas' sister Xenia called haemophilia "the terrible disease of the English family", and members of the imperial family blamed Alexandra for "contaminating the Romanovs with the diseases of her own race." Since the incurable illness threatened the sole son and heir of the emperor, the imperial family decided to keep his condition secret from the Russian people. They wanted to limit social instability because of uncertainty. At first, Alexandra turned to Russian doctors to treat Alexei. Their treatments generally failed. Burdened with the threats to her son from any fall or cut, Alexandra turned toward faith for comfort. She studied the Orthodox faith and saints, and spent hours daily praying in her private chapel for deliverance. Grigori Rasputin, a peasant from Siberia, appeared to have a cure for her son by praying for him and became powerful in court as a result. Over time, Alexandra grew to believe that Rasputin was the only man who could save her son's life. Rasputin was straightforward with Alexandra and told her, "Neither the Emperor nor you can do without me. If I am not there to protect you, you will lose your son... within six months." Alexandra blinded herself to evidence of Rasputin's debauchery and the harm his presence did to imperial prestige. The director of the national police told Alexandra that a drunk Rasputin had exposed himself at a popular Moscow restaurant and bragged that Nicholas gave him sexual access to her, but she blamed the account on malicious gossip. "Saints are always calumniated," she once wrote. "He is hated because we love him." Nicholas recognized Rasputin's faults, but he felt powerless to do anything about the man who seemingly saved his only son's life. Pierre Gilliard wrote, "He did not like to send Rasputin away, for if Alexei died, in the eyes of the mother, he would have been the murderer of his own son." From the start, members of the court exchanged gossip about Rasputin. Although some of St. Petersburg's top clergy accepted him as a living prophet, others angrily denounced him as a fraud and a heretic. Made up stories from his life in Siberia were heard in St. Petersburg. For instance, he was said to conduct weddings for villagers in exchange for sleeping on the first night with the bride. He lived in St. Petersburg with his two daughters and two housekeepers, and was often visited by persons seeking his blessing, a healing, or a favour with the tsarina. Women, enchanted by the healer, also came to Rasputin for advice and individual blessings and received a private audience in his apartment, jokingly called the "Holy of Holies". Rasputin liked to preach a unique theology that one must become familiar with sin before having a chance to overcome it. No one believed that Rasputin could heal Alexei, so court officials were confused as to why Alexandra was so dependent on him. In 1912, Alexei suffered a life-threatening haemorrhage in the thigh while the family was at Spała in Poland. Alexandra sat for days at his bedside, and she rarely ate or slept. She cried helplessly when Alexei begged for death and asked her to bury him in a forest instead of the mausoleum with his Romanov ancestors. The doctors expected Alexei to die, and a priest performed his last rites. The court officials prepared an official telegram to announce the death of the tsarevich. In desperation, Alexandra sent a telegram to Rasputin, who replied: "God has seen your tears and heard your prayers. Do not grieve. The Little One will not die. Do not allow the doctors to bother him too much." To the shock of his doctors, Alexei recovered his health and survived. From 1912, Alexandra came to rely increasingly on Rasputin and to believe in his ability to ease Alexei's suffering. It looked like this reliance enhanced Rasputin's political power, but it is hard to detach gossips from the truth. His role in the court seriously undermined Romanov rule during the First World War. Rasputin was assassinated to end his perceived interference in political matters, on 30 December 1916. Amongst the conspirators were the nobleman Prince Felix Yusupov, who was married to Nicholas II's niece, Princess Irina of Russia, and Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, who was once close to Nicholas and Alexandra's family. World War I The outbreak of World War I was a pivotal moment for Russia and Alexandra. The war pitted the Russian Empire of the Romanov dynasty against the German Empire of the Hohenzollern dynasty. When Alexandra learned of the Russian mobilization, she stormed into her husband's study and said: "War! And I knew nothing of it! This is the end of everything." Alexandra's ties to Germany made her more unpopular among some societies in Russia. Her brother Ernest Louis ruled the Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine, so he fought with the Germans. The German Emperor, Wilhelm II, was Alexandra's first cousin. Alexandra's sister, Irene, was married to Wilhelm's brother, Henry. Ironically, Alexandra was an ardent Russian patriot and disliked the German Emperor. She privately wrote that Wilhelm II "is really nothing but a clown. He has no real worth. His only virtues are his strict morals and his conjugal fidelity." High society in St.Petersburg, renamed to the Russified Petrograd, accused her of collaboration with the Germans. In Petrograd, there was a rumor that Alexandra was hiding her brother Ernest in Russia. In 1916, Alexandra's lady-in-waiting wrote that she was asked "in all seriousness whether the Grand Duke of Hesse was not hidden in the cellars of the palace." Alexandra worked as a nurse to wounded soldiers, but her efforts went unappreciated. In Petrograd, there were rumors that Alexandra and Rasputin were carrying on nightly conversations with Wilhelm II in Berlin to negotiate a dishonorable peace. When Nicholas travelled to the front line in 1915 to take personal command of the army, he left Alexandra in charge as regent in the capital. Her brother-in-law, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich recorded, "When the Emperor went to war of course his wife governed instead of him." It looked like Alexandra fired and appointed ministers based on Rasputin's self-serving advice, but those close to the imperial family circle have denied this. In only sixteen months, she appointed four prime ministers, five ministers of interior, and three ministers of war. "After the middle of 1915," wrote Florinsky, "the fairly honorable and efficient group who formed the top of the bureaucratic pyramid degenerated into a rapidly changing succession of the appointees of Rasputin." Alexei Polivanov was an excellent official who was credited with revitalizing the Imperial Russian Army, but Alexandra declared, "I don't like the choice of Minister of War Polivanov. Is he not our Friend's [Rasputin's] enemy?" The general Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich disliked Rasputin, because Rasputin saw and told Alexandra that the grand duke was deliberately currying favor in the army and overshadowing Nicholas II so that he could claim the throne. On 16 June, Alexandra wrote to the tsar, "I have absolutely no faith in N.... [he has] gone against a Man of God (Rasputin), his work can't be blessed or his advice good... Russia will not be blessed if her sovereign lets a Man of God sent to help him be persecuted, I am sure." She insisted to Nicholas that "[Rasputin] has your interest and Russia's at heart. It is not for nothing God sent him to us, only we must pay more attention to what He says. His words are not lightly spoken and the importance of having not only his prayers but his advice is great." Ever a believer in autocracy, Alexandra persuaded Nicholas that he must never relinquish his absolute power as Emperor. She wrote to him: "You are master and sovereign of Russia. Almighty God set you in place, and they should all bow down before your wisdom and steadfastness." She advised him to "Be Peter the Great, Ivan the Terrible, Emperor Paul-- crush them all." She criticized the Duma and declared "they want to discuss things not concerning them and bring more discontent—they must be kept away.... We are not ready for constitutional government." During the war, there was great concern within the imperial house about the influence empress Alexandra had upon state affairs through the Tsar, and the influence Rasputin was believed to have upon her, as it was considered to provoke the public and endanger the safety of the imperial throne and the survival of the monarchy. On behalf of the imperial relatives of the tsar, both Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna and Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna had been selected to mediate and ask Empress Alexandra to banish Rasputin from court to protect her and the throne's reputation, the former twice, but without success. In parallel, several of the grand dukes had tried to intervene with the tsar, but with no more success. During this conflict of 1916–1917, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna reportedly planned a coup d'état to depose the tsar with the help of four regiments of the Russian Imperial Guard which were to invade the Alexander Palace, force the tsar to abdicate and replace him with his underage son under the regency of her son Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich. There are documents which support the fact that, in this critical situation, the Empress Dowager Maria Feodorovna was involved in a planned coup d'état to depose her son from the throne in order to save the monarchy. The plan was reportedly for Maria to make a final ultimatum to the tsar to banish Rasputin unless he wished for her to leave the capital, which would be the signal to unleash the coup. Exactly how she planned to replace her son is unconfirmed, but two versions are available: first, that Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich would take power in her name, and that she herself would thereafter become ruling empress; the other version claims that she and Grand Duke Paul would replace the tsar with his son, the heir to the throne, Maria's grandson Alexei, upon which Maria and Paul would share power as regents during his minority. Reportedly, Empress Alexandra was informed about the planned coup, and when Maria Feodorovna made the ultimatum to the Tsar, the empress convinced him to order his mother to leave the capital. Consequently, the dowager empress left Petrograd to live in the Mariinskyi Palace in Kiev the same year. She never again returned to Russia's capital. Revolution (1917) World War I put what proved to be an unbearable burden on Imperial Russia's government and economy, both of which were dangerously weak. Mass shortages and hunger became the daily situation for tens of millions of Russians due to the disruptions of the war economy. Fifteen million men were diverted from agricultural production to fight in the war, and the transportation infrastructure (primarily railroads) was diverted towards war use, exacerbating food shortages in the cities as available agricultural products could not be brought to urban areas. Inflation was rampant. This, combined with the food shortages and the poor performance by the Russian military in the war, generated a great deal of anger and unrest among the people in Petrograd and other cities. The decision of the tsar to take personal command of the military was disastrous, as he was directly blamed for all losses. His relocation to the front, leaving the Empress in charge of the government, helped undermine the Romanov dynasty. The poor performance of the military led to rumours believed by the people that the German-born empress was part of a conspiracy to help Germany win the war. Moreover, within several months of taking personal command of the army, the tsar replaced several capable ministers with less able men at the empress's and Rasputin's behest; most notable among these replacements was replacing N. B. Shcherbatov with Alexei Khvostov as minister of the interior. The severe winter of 1916–17 essentially doomed Imperial Russia. Food shortages worsened and famine gripped the cities. The mismanagement and failures of the war turned the soldiers against the tsar. By 1917, the tsar realized that Russia could not fight the war much longer, and as railroads carried troops to the front there was little capacity left to bring food to the cities. By March 1917, conditions had worsened even more. Steelworkers went out on strike on 7 March, and the following day, crowds hungry for bread began rioting on the streets of Petrograd to protest food shortages and the war. After two days of rioting, the tsar ordered the army to restore order and on 11 March they fired on the crowd. That very same day, the Duma, the elected legislature, urged the tsar to take action to ameliorate the concerns of the people. The tsar responded by dissolving the Duma. On 12 March soldiers sent to suppress the rioting crowds mutinied and joined the rebellion, thus providing the spark to ignite the February Revolution (like the later October Revolution of November 1917, the Russian Revolutions of 1917 get their names due to the Old Style calendar). Soldiers and workers set up the "Petrograd Soviet" of 2,500 elected deputies while the Duma declared a Provisional Government on 13 March. Alexander Kerensky was a key player in the new regime. The Duma informed the tsar that day that he must abdicate. In an effort to put an end to the uprising in the capital, Nicholas tried to get to Petrograd by train from army headquarters at Mogilev. The route was blocked so he tried another way. His train was stopped at Pskov where, after receiving advice from his generals, he first abdicated the throne for himself and later, on seeking medical advice, for himself and his son, the Tsarevich Alexei. Alexandra was now in a perilous position as the wife of the deposed tsar, hated by the Russian people. There were attempts made by the mutinous Tsarskoye Selo garrison to storm the Alexander Palace, but the palace was successfully defended by the palace guards. The palace guards and other troops gradually left for the capital after being informed about the abdication, and Alexandra asked the Duma to put in place security measures for her and her household in view of the riots and violence in the nearby capital. On 18 March Mikhail Rodzianko sent the newly appointed Minister of War, Alexander Guchkov, and General Lavr Kornilov to Alexandra to inspect the security of the Palace, which resulted in an officer being appointed to maintain the security of the palace as well as a channel of communication between the palace and the Duma. After this, Alexandra noticed that the guards defending the palace gradually come to wear handkerchiefs around their wrists, signalling that they supported the Duma, which also meant that she and her children, while being defended from immediate harm, were nevertheless under de facto house arrest from that moment on. Alexandra and her children and household were not molested in any way, and the household was left to continue its everyday life as before, with the exception of occasional power cuts. On 21 March, Kornilov informed Alexandra that she was formally under house arrest, and the members of the household were informed that they were free to leave if they wished, but if they chose to stay, they would have to obey the same rules as pertained to the house arrest of Alexandra. The following day, on 22 March, Nicholas finally was allowed to return to the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoe Selo, where he was placed under arrest with his family. Alexandra told him that "the husband and father was of more value in her eyes than the Emperor whose throne she had shared." Imprisonment (1917–1918) The Provisional Government formed after the revolution kept Nicholas, Alexandra, and their children confined under house arrest in their home, the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo. They were visited by Alexander Kerensky from the government, who interviewed Alexandra regarding her involvement in state affairs and Rasputin's involvement in them through his influence over her. She answered that as she and her spouse kept no secrets from each other, they often discussed politics and she naturally gave him advice to support him; as for Rasputin, he had been a true holy man of God, and his advice had been only in the interest of the good of Russia and the imperial family. After the interview, Kerensky told the tsar that he believed that Alexandra had told him the truth and was not lying. The Provisional Government did not wish to keep the family in Russia, particularly as both the family as well as the government were under threat from the Bolsheviks; they trusted that the former tsar and his family would be received in Great Britain, and ensured that inquiries were being made. Despite the fact he was a first cousin of both Nicholas and Alexandra, George V refused to allow them and their family permission to evacuate to the United Kingdom, as he was alarmed by their unpopularity in his country and the potential repercussions to his own throne. After this, it was suggested they be moved to France. However, although the French government was never asked, British diplomats in France reported that the family was not likely to be welcome there, as anti-German feelings were strong in France during the war and Alexandra was widely unpopular because she was believed to be a sympathizer of Germany. The Provisional Government was reportedly very disappointed that no foreign state seemed to be willing to receive the family, and was forced to act and relocate them within Russia, as the security situation was becoming more and more difficult. In August 1917, the family were moved to Tobolsk in Siberia, a step by the Kerensky government designed to remove them from the capital and possible harm. Nicholas and Alexandra had themselves suggested to be moved to the Livadia Palace in the Crimea, but Kerensky deemed this to be too dangerous: to get to the Crimea, they would have to travel through Central Russia, an area which was at that time affected by widespread revolutionary violence and riots where the upper classes and aristocracy was attacked by the public and their mansions burned. Tobolsk in Siberia was, in contrast to Central and Southern Russia, a calm and peaceful place with greater security and more sympathy for the former tsar. There were indications that the Provisional Government were actually attempting to transport them out of Russia by the Trans-Siberian Railway, thus fulfilling the government's wish to have them expelled, but now via a different route, after the first attempt to exile them to Europe had failed. However, this plan was not revealed to the family, and if it had indeed been the intent of the government, it had to be cancelled because of a strong Bolshevik presence in Yekaterinburg and other cities along the Trans-Siberian Railway east of Tobolsk, and the family therefore continued to their official destination. From Tobolsk, Alexandra managed to send a letter to her sister-in-law, Xenia Alexandrovna, in Crimea: Alexandra and her family remained in Tobolsk until after the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917. The fall of the Provisional Government and the Bolshevik's accession to power greatly worsened their position. In 1918, they were subsequently moved to Bolshevik controlled Yekaterinburg. Nicholas, Alexandra and their daughter Maria arrived at the Ipatiev House on 30 April 1918. On entering their new prison, they were ordered to open all their luggage. Alexandra immediately objected. Nicholas tried to come to her defence saying, "So far we have had polite treatment and men who were gentlemen but now -" The former Tsar was quickly cut off. The guards informed him he was no longer at Tsarskoye Selo and that refusal to comply with their request would result in his removal from the rest of his family; a second offence would be rewarded with hard labour. Fearing for her husband's safety, Alexandra quickly gave in and allowed the search. On the window frame of what was to be her last bedroom in the Ipatiev House, Alexandra scrawled a swastika, her favourite good luck symbol, and pencilled the date 17/30 April 1918. In May, the rest of the family arrived in Yekaterinburg. They had not been able to travel earlier due to the illness of Alexei. Alexandra was pleased to be reunited with her family once more. Seventy-five men did guard duty at the Ipatiev House. Many of the men were factory workers from the local Zlokazovsky Factory and the Verkh-Isetsk Factory. The commandant of the Ipatiev House, Alexander Avadeyev was described as "a real Bolshevik". The majority of witnesses recall him as coarse, brutish and a heavy drinker. If a request for a favour on behalf of the family reached Avadeyev, he always gave the same response, "Let them go to hell!" The guards in the house often heard him refer to the deposed tsar as "Nicholas the Blood-Drinker" and to Alexandra as "The German Bitch". For the Romanovs, life at the Ipatiev House was a nightmare of uncertainty and fear. The imperial family never knew if they would still be in the Ipatiev House from one day to the next or if they might be separated or killed. The privileges allowed to them were few. For an hour each afternoon they could exercise in the rear garden under the watchful eye of the guards. Alexei could still not walk, and his sailor Nagorny had to carry him. Alexandra rarely joined her family in these daily activities. Instead she spent most of her time sitting in a wheelchair, reading the Bible or the works of St. Seraphim. At night the Romanovs played cards or read; they received little mail from the outside world, and the only newspapers they were allowed were outdated editions. Dmitri Volkogonov and other Soviet historians believe that indirect evidence indicates that Vladimir Lenin personally ordered the execution of the imperial family, although official Soviet accounts place the responsibility for the decision with the Ural Regional Soviet. Leon Trotsky, in his diary, makes it quite clear that the execution took place on the authority of Lenin. Trotsky wrote: On 4 July 1918, Yakov Yurovsky, the chief of the Yekaterinburg Cheka, was appointed commandant of the Ipatiev House. Yurovsky was a loyal Bolshevik, a man Moscow could rely on to carry out its orders regarding the imperial family. Yurovsky quickly tightened security. From the imperial family he collected all of their jewellery and valuables. These he placed in a box which he sealed and left with the prisoners. Alexandra kept only two bracelets which her uncle Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, had given her as a child and which she could not take off. He did not know that the former tsarina and her daughters wore concealed on their person diamonds, emeralds, rubies and ropes of pearls. These would be discovered only after the executions. Yurovsky had been given the order for the execution on 13 July. On Sunday, 14 July 1918, two priests came to the Ipatiev House to celebrate the Divine Liturgy. One of the priests, Father Storozhev later recalled: Execution Tuesday, 16 July 1918 passed normally for the former imperial family. At four o'clock in the afternoon, Nicholas and his daughters took their usual walk in the small garden. Early in the evening Yurovsky sent away the fifteen-year-old kitchen boy Leonid Sedinev, saying that his uncle wished to see him. At 7 p.m., Yurovsky summoned all the Cheka men into his room and ordered them to collect all the revolvers from the outside guards. With twelve heavy military revolvers lying before him on the table he said, "Tonight, we shoot the entire family, everybody." Upstairs Nicholas and Alexandra passed the evening playing bezique; at ten thirty, they went to bed. The former tsar, tsarina, and all of their family, including the gravely ill Alexei, along with several family servants, were executed by firing squad and bayonets in the basement of the Ipatiev House, where they had been imprisoned, early in the morning of 17 July 1918, by a detachment of Bolsheviks led by Yakov Yurovsky. In the basement room of the Ipatiev House, Alexandra complained that there were no chairs for them to sit on, whereupon Nicholas asked for and received three chairs from the guards. Minutes later, at about 2:15 a.m., a squad of soldiers, each armed with a revolver, entered the room. Their leader Yurovsky ordered the entire party to stand; Alexandra complied "with a flash of anger", and Yurovsky then casually pronounced, "Your relations have tried to save you. They have failed and we must now shoot you." Nicholas rose from his chair and only had time to utter "What...?" before he was shot several times, not (as is usually said) in the head, but in the chest; his skull bears no bullet wounds, but his ribs were shattered by at least three fatal bullet wounds. Standing about six feet from the gunmen and facing them, Alexandra watched the execution of her husband and two manservants before military commissar Peter Ermakov took aim at her. She instinctively turned away from him and began to make the sign of the cross, but before she could finish the gesture, Ermakov killed her with a single gunshot which, as she had partly turned away, entered her head just above the left ear and exited at the same spot above her right ear. After all the victims had been shot, Ermakov in a drunken haze stabbed Alexandra's body and that of her husband, shattering both their rib cages and chipping some of Alexandra's vertebrae. Identification of remains After the execution of the Romanov family in the Ipatiev House, Alexandra's body, along with those of Nicholas, their children and some faithful retainers who died with them, was stripped and the clothing burnt according to the Yurovsky Note, a secret report by Yurovsky, which came to light in the late 1970s, but did not become public knowledge until the 1990s. Initially, the bodies were thrown down a disused mine-shaft at Ganina Yama, 12 miles (19 km) north of Yekaterinburg. A short time later, the bodies were retrieved. Their faces were smashed and the bodies, dismembered and disfigured with sulphuric acid, were hurriedly buried under railway sleepers with the exception of two of the children whose bodies were not discovered until 2007. The Yurovsky Note helped the authorities to locate the bodies. The missing bodies were those of a daughter—Maria or Anastasia—and Alexei. In the early 1990s, following the fall of the Soviet Union, the bodies of the majority of the Romanovs were located along with their loyal servants, exhumed and formally identified. Preliminary results of genetic analysis carried out on the remains of a boy and a young woman believed to belong to Nicholas II's son and heir Alexei, and daughter Anastasia or Maria were revealed on 22 January 2008. The Ekaterinburg region's chief forensic expert said, "Tests conducted in Yekaterinburg and Moscow allowed DNA to be extracted from the bones, which proved positive," Nikolai Nevolin said. "Once the genetic analysis has been completed in Russia, its results will be compared with test results from foreign experts." Nevolin said the final results would be published in April or May 2008. Certainty about the remains definitively put an end to the claim that Anna Anderson could be connected with the Romanovs, as all remaining bodies would be accounted for. DNA analysis represented a key means of identifying the bodies. A blood sample from Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (a grandson of Alexandra's oldest sister, Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine) was employed to identify Alexandra and her daughters through their mitochondrial DNA. They belonged to Haplogroup H (mtDNA). Nicholas was identified using DNA obtained from, among others, his late brother Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia. Grand Duke George had died of tuberculosis in the late 1890s and was buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St Petersburg. Burial Alexandra, Nicholas II and three daughters plus the servants who were killed with them were reinterred in the St. Catherine Chapel of the Peter and Paul Cathedral at the Peter and Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg in 1998, with much ceremony, on the eightieth anniversary of the execution. Sainthood In 1981, Alexandra and her immediate family were recognised as martyrs by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. In 2000, Alexandra was canonized as a saint and passion bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church, together with her husband Nicholas II, their children and others including her sister Grand Duchess Elisabeth Feodorovna and the Grand Duchess's fellow nun Varvara. In popular culture The best-selling 1895 American novel The Princess Aline by Richard Harding Davis was based on his infatuation with Alexandra. Rasputin and the Empress (1932), a fictionalized film less famous than the lawsuit it spawned. Alexandra was portrayed by Ethel Barrymore. The highly fictionalized 1966 film Rasputin, the Mad Monk, in which Renée Asherson portrayed the Empress. A rather romanticised version of Alexandra's life was dramatized in the 1971 movie Nicholas and Alexandra, based on the book by the same title written by Robert Massie, in which the tsaritsa/Empress was played by Janet Suzman. The song "Rasputin" is a 1978 Euro-disco hit single by the Germany-based group Boney M. It tells of Alexandra's alleged affair with Rasputin. 1974's Fall of Eagles, a BBC series dramatizing the demise of the ruling families of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. Alexandra, portrayed by American actress Gayle Hunnicutt, is a prominent character in the series. Rasputin: Dark Servant of Destiny is a 1996 HBO TV film for which Greta Scacchi won an Emmy for her portrayal of Empress Alexandra. Rasputin: The Mad Monk (1997), a biographical documentary. Anastasia (1997), an American animated musical fantasy drama film produced by Fox Animation Studios, where Empress Alexandra appears in flashbacks. The Romanovs: An Imperial Family (2000), a Russian film that explores the last year of the Imperial family after Nicholas's abdication, the house arrest of the family and eventual execution. Lynda Bellingham plays Empress Alexandra. The Lost Prince, a BBC mini-series made in 2003 about Prince John of the United Kingdom, the youngest son of King George V, in which Alexandra is played by Lithuanian actress Ingeborga Dapkūnaitė. The episode "Love and Revolution" devoted to the fall of the Romanov dynasty is featured in the Danish television A Royal Family, a series about the descendants of King Christian IX of Denmark. Alexandra Feodorovna is a main character in the stage play Ekaterinburg by David Logan. The 2019 Netflix docudrama The Last Czars explores the reign, and eventual demise, of Tsar Nicholas II. Alexandra was portrayed by Susanna Herbert. The execution of the Romanov family is depicted in Season 5, Episode 6 of Netflix docudrama The Crown, which is titled "Ipatiev House." Honours National decorations : Dame of the Order of the Golden Lion, 28 March 1888 : Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St. Catherine, April 1894 Foreign decorations : Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion : Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown, 7 March 1896 : Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 9 April 1896 : Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 5 September 1896 : Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of Charity, 1 July 1902 : Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 23 April 1896 : Queen Victoria Golden Jubilee Medal, 1887 Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 1st Class, 1896 Persian Empire: Order of the Sun, 1st Class, 1900 Archives Alexandra Feodorovna's letters to Anna Vyrubova and Lili Dehn, written in the years 1916–1918, are preserved in the "Romanov collection" in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University (New Haven, Connecticut, USA). Documents about Alexandra and her family (including photographs and correspondence) can also be found in the Archive of the House of Hesse, which is kept in Fasanerie Palace in Eichenzell, Germany. Ancestry References Citations General sources Denton, C. S., Absolute Power, London: Arcturus Publishing, 2006. Finestone, Jeffrey, The Last Courts of Europe, London: J M Dent & Sons, 1981. Hall, Coryne, Little Mother of Russia, Holmes & Meier Publishers, 2001. Hall, Coryne & Van Der Kiste, John, Once a Grand Duchess Xenia, Sister of Nicholas II, Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 2002. King, Greg, The Last Empress, Citadel Press Book, 1994. . King, Greg The Court of the Last Tsar, John Wiley & Sons, 2006. . Kurth, Peter, Tsar: The Lost World of Nicholas and Alexandra, Allen & Unwin, 1995. Lyons, Marvin, Nicholas II: The Last Tsar, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. Massie, Robert, Nicholas and Alexandra, London: Pan Books, 1967. online free to borrow Massie, Robert, The Romanovs: The Final Chapter, New York: Ballantine Books, 1995. Tames, Richard, Last of the Tsars, London: Pan Books, 1972. Vorres, Ian, The Last Grand Duchess, London: Finedawn Publishers, 1985 (3rd edition) External links "God in All Things: The Religious Outlook of Russia's Last Empress" by Janet Ashton Judge Not Lest Ye Be Judged' – in Defence of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna" by Paul Gilbert Paul Gilbert (Covers in part the tsarina's health) \|- 1872 births 1918 deaths 19th-century women from the Russian Empire 20th-century Russian women 20th-century Christian saints Russian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Lutheranism Duchesses of Holstein-Gottorp Russian grand duchesses by marriage Princesses in Germany House of Hesse-Darmstadt House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov Ladies of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert Empresses consort of Russia Russian people of German descent Russian people of English descent Executed royalty Executed German women Executed Russian women 20th-century executions by Russia Eastern Orthodox people executed by the Soviet Union Murdered Russian royalty Passion bearers Victims of Red Terror in Soviet Russia Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg Nicholas II of Russia Nobility from Darmstadt Executed people from Hesse Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel Christian female saints of the Late Modern era Eastern Orthodox royal saints Grand Cordons of the Order of the Precious Crown Royal reburials Nurses from the Russian Empire People executed by Russia by firing squad Women who experienced pregnancy loss Daughters of monarchs
146584	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90	შუა საუკუნეების ქართული მინა	შუა საუკუნეების ქართული მინა და მინის ჭურჭელი მოიცავს საქართველოს ტერიტორიაზე არქეოლოგიური გათხრების შედეგად ან შემთხვევით გამოვლენილ ფეოდალური ხანის მინის მასალის ჭურჭელს, რომლებიც პირველიდან XVIII საუკუნემდე პერიოდს განეკუთვნება. ტერმინი მოიცავს არა მარტო საქართველოში ადგილობრივ ნაწარმს, არამედ ახლო აღმოსავლეთიდან და ევროპიდან შემოტანილ მინის ჭურჭელსაც. ამ დარგში ადგილობრივი ხელოსნობის არსებობის შესახებ ქართული წერილობითი წყაროები თითქმის არაფერს იტყობინებიან. არაფერია ნათქვამი უცხოურ წყაროებშიც, თუმცა გათხრებმა და სხვა არაპირდაპირმა წყაროებმა საქართველოს ტერიტორიაზე მრავლად გამოავლინა არა მარტო მინის ჭურჭელი, არამედ მინის საწარმოებიც. არქეოლოგიური მასალა და გამოკვლევა მინის ჭურჭელი არქეოლოგიური გათხრების შედეგად აღმოჩენილია აღმოსავლეთ საქართველოს შემდეგ პუნქტებში: დმანისში (1936-1937 და 1960-1970 წლები), გუდარეხსა (1938-1939 წლები) და უჯარმაში (1950-1952 წლები). არქეოლოგიური მასალა მოიპოვება ასევე თბილისიდან — 1948-1949 წწ. „სამასი არაგველის ბაღთან“ კერამიკული სახელოსნოს, 1956-1957 წწ. ერეკლე II-ის მოედანზე და 1966-1967, 1969, 1971 წწ. დედაციხეზე არქეოლოგიური თხრითა და აგრეთვე შემთხვევით მოპოვებული მასალები; რუსთავიდან — 1949-1951 წლებში ნაქალაქარზა და სამაროვანზე, ხოლო 1959-1962, 1965, 1972-1975 წლებში ნაციხვარზე ამონათხარი და შემთხვევით მოპოვებული მასალები; ბოლნისში — ლამაზ გორაზე 1959 წელს არქეოლოგიური გათხრებით მოპოვებული მასალები; იყალთოდან 1944 წელს გაწმენდითი სამუშაოებისას, ხოლო კახეთის ყარაღაჯიდან — 1965 წელს შემთხვევით მოპოვებული მასალები. საგანგებოდ არაა შესწავლილი დმანისში აღმოჩენილი მინის ჭურჭელი. მისი პირველი გამთხრელი ლ მუსხელიშვილი დმანისის ნაქალაქარსა და მთელ არქეოლოგიურ მასალას X-XIV საუკუნეების დასაწყისით ათარიღებს; აქვე ვარაუდობს მინისწარმოებასაც და აღნიშნავს, რომ დმანისის მინის კოლექცია საინტერესოა და ღირსია სპეციალური შესწავლისა. დმანისის შემდგომმა გათხრებმა დაადასტურა ქალაქში მინის წარმოების არსებობა. ექსპედიციის ხელმძღვანელი, ვ. ჯაფარიძე აღნიშნავს, რომ დმანისური მინის ნაწარმი, სამკაულების გამოკლებით, ჯერ კიდევა არაა სათანადოდ შესწავლილი. ასევე საგანგებოდ არაა შესწავლილი არც XII-XIII საუკუნეების გუდარეხის სამონასტრო კომპლექსისა და უჯარმის ციხე-ქალაქის მინის ჭურჭელი. მათი აღმოჩენის ფაქტები შესაბამის ანგარიშებშია აღნიშნული. შედარებით უკეთაა გამოკვლეული რუსთავის ნაქალაქარზე აღმოჩენილი მინის ჭურჭელი. ამ თემას თავის ნაშრომებში ვრცლად ეხებიან გ. ლომთათიძე, ნ. უგრელიძე, ლ. ჭილაშვილი. მათ მიერ ნაქალაქარის მარჯვენა ნაპირის სამაროვნის მინის ჭურჭელი დათარიღებულია IV-V საუკუნეებით, ხოლო მარცხენა სანაპიროს ნაქალაქარისა და სამაროვანისა ზოგადად — XI-XIII საუკუნეებით. ეს მკვლევარები აღნიშნავენ ასევე რუსთავის ნაქალაქარზე მინის ადგილობრივი წარმოების შესაძლებლობასაც. იმავეს აღნიშნავს გ. ლომთათიძე ნაციხვარის შესახებაც და თავის ანგარიშებში მეტ–ნაკლებად ეხება მინის აქაურ ადგილობრივ ნაწარმს. თბილისში „300 არაგველის ბაღთან“ აღმოჩენილი კერამიკული სახელოსნოს 1948 წლის გათხრების შედეგად მოპოვებულ მინის ნაწარმს გ. ლომთათიძე სახელოსნოს თანადროულად მიიჩნევს — XII-XIII საუკუნეები. ხოლო ნ. უგრელიძე 1948-1949 წლების მასალას XI-XIII საუკუნეებით ათარიღებს. ამ მასალებიდან გამოყოფენ ორ ჯგუფს: ჭურჭელსა და სამაჯურებს. გ. ლომთათიძის დასკვნით, შეინიშნება დასპეციალება საპარფიუმერო ჭურჭლის სახით; ხოლო ნ. უგრელიძე გამოყოფს სასმისებს, ბოთლისებრ და სანელსაცხებლე-საწამლე ჭურჭელს; აღნიშნავს, რომ ეს ნაწარმი მაღალხარისხოვნად ვერ ჩაითვლება. თბილისში ერეკლე II–ის მოედანზე აღმოჩენილი მინის ნაწარმი განიხილეს ი. გძელიშვილმა და ო. ტყეშელაშვილმა. ამ მასალაში ოთხი ქრონოლოგიური ჯგუფია გამოყოფილი: VII-VIII, IX-X, XI-XIII და XVII-XVIII საუკუნეები. მერი ჩხატარაშვილი თვლის, რომ აქ ხშირად ნივთის რაობა სწორად არაა გაგებული და დათარიღებაშიც უზუსტობებია. ბოლნისში, ლამაზი გორის სამონასტრო კომპლექსის თხრისას მოპოვებული მინის მასალა ჯ. ამირანაშვილს ზოგადად აქვს დათარიღებული V-IX და X-XIII საუკუნეებით. ცალკეა გამოყოფილი VI-VIII საუკუნეების ფაცეტებიანი ჭურჭელი. ძალიან სუსტადაა შესწავლილი გვიანი ხანის მინის ჭურჭელი. ეს ნაწილობრივ არქეოლოგიური ხარვეზითაც აიხსნება. ამ ძირითადი არქეოლოგიური პუნქტების გარდა ქართული მინის ნაწარმი გამოვლენილია მცხეთაში, ურბნისში, სიონში, გრემში, ორბეთსა და ნატბეურში (მინის საწარმოებიდან); აგრეთვე, მცირე რაოდენობით, დასავლეთ საქართველოდან. ამ ნიმუშებს ფართოდ განიხილავს მერი ჩხატარაშვილი. ისტორია მინა ძველ საქართველოში ძირითადად ჭურჭლის, ასევე სამკაულების დასამზადებლად გამოიყენებოდა. ქართულ მასალის მხრივ (თიხა, ლითონი, ხე, ქვა და სხვა) მრავალფეროვან ჭურჭელს შორის მინას ერთ-ერთი განსაკუთრებული ადგილი უკავია. მინისაგან პირველ ხანებში, თითქმის ყველგან პატარა გამჭვირვალე და სქელკედლებიან ჭურჭელს ამზადებდნენ. შემდგომში, ახალ ტექნიკურ მიღწევებთან ერთად, იგი უფრო მასობრივი და მრავალფეროვანი გახდა. თანდათან გაიზარდა მინის ნაწარმზე მოთხოვნა და საქართველოშიც მინა დროთა განმავლობაში ფუფუნების საგნიდან ყოველდღიურ საყოფაცხოვრებო ნივთად იქცა. ჩვ. წ. I საუკუნიდან მოყოლებული საქართველოს ტერიტორიაზე, ისევე როგორც მთელ გვიანანტიკურ სამყაროში, მინის ჭურჭელი ფართოდაა გავრცელებული. გვიანანტიკურ ხანასთან შედარებით, რომლისათვისაც მთელ სამყაროში სტანდარტული ფორმების არსებობაა დამახასიათებელი, შუა საუკუნეებში და განსაკუთრებით კი შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში, მიუხედავად ფორმათა მსგავსებისა, ზოგადად მინის ნაწარმი იჩენს ლოკალურ თავისებურებებს. არქეოლოგიურ გათხრებში აღმოჩენილი მასალიდან ადრეფეოდალური ხანის ნაწარმი ყველაზე უკეთ რუსთავსა და თბილისშია გამოვლენილი; ამავე ხანის დასაწყისი პერიოდის (IV–V საუკუნეები) მასალა კი — მხოლოდ რუსთავში. ყველაზე მძალავრად და კარგად, თითქმის ყველგან წარმოდგენილია შუაფეოდალური ხანა. გვიანფეოდალური ხანის მინა კი ძირითადად თბილისის დედაციხიდან და კახეთის ყარაღაჯიდანაა ცნობილი. ადრე, შუა და გვიანფეოდალური მინის ნაწარმი (ძირითადად ჭურჭელი) ერთმანეთისაგან განსხვავდება როგორც მინითა და მოყვანილობით, ისე შემკულობით. ადრეფეოდალური ნიმუშები ძირითადად გვიანანტიკური ხანის ნიმუშების მსგავსია. ადრე და შუა ფეოდალური ხანის მინის ნაწარმში ყველაზე უკეთ წარმოდგენილია სასუფრე ჭურჭელი, რომელშიც მრავალფეროვნებით გამოირჩევა სასმისები. ადრეფეოდალური ხანა ადრეფეოდალურ ხანაში ძირითადად გვხვდება თხელკედლიანი მომწვანო-მონაცრისფრო ან სქელკედლიანი მომწვანო მინისაგან ნაკეთები სხვადასხვაგვარად (ხალებით, ფაცეტებით, ხორკლებით, ძაფებით, ტალღურად) შემკული ღრმა ფიალისებრი სასმისები. ამ ხანის მთელ მანძილზე გვხვდება ე. წ. ფეხიანი სასმისები; ისინი, უკვე მცირე რაოდენობით არსებობას განაგრძობს IX-X საუკუნეებში და შემდეგ ქრება. ასევე IX-X საუკუნეებში ჩნდება ახალი ტიპები, შემკობის ახალი სახეები, რომელთაგან ზოგი მაშინვე კვდება, ზოგი კი შემდგომ განვითარებას განიცდის შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში. მერი ჩხატარაშვილი ადრეფეოდალურ მინის ნაწარმში დანიშნულების მიხედვით ოთხ ძირითად ჯგუფს გამოყოფს: სანელსაცხებლეები; სუფრის ჭურჭელი — სასმისები; ლამპარი; ალამბიკი. სანელსაცხებლეები ძირითადად რუსთავის IV-V საუკუნეებით დათარიღებული სამარხებიდანაა წარმოდგენილი (ნაქალაქარი, მტკვრის მარჯვენა ნაპირი), ზოგი კი შემთხვევითაა აღმოჩენილი. სანელსაცხებლეთა ჯგუფში მერი ჩხატარაშვილი გამოყოფს ორ ქვეჯგუფს — ყალიბში გამობერილსა და თავისუფლად გამობერილ სანელსაცხებლეებს. იგი ვრცლად განიხილავს ამ ქვეჯგუფებში შემავალ ცალკეულ ნიმუშებს და ათარიღებს თითოეულ მათგანს, ზოგადად კი ამ ნიმუშებს IV საუკუნიდან X საუკუნემდე პერიოდს მიაკუთვნებს. მინის ეს ნაწარმი დამზადებული უნდა იყოს ადგილობრივად, რუსთავში, თბილისსა და დმანისში; არის ასევე რამდენიმე უცხოეთიდან შემოტანილი ნიმუშიც, მათ შორის ირანიდან და ერაყიდან. ადრეფეოდალური ხანის დასასრულს კულტურული ფენებიდან მომდინარე მასალებს შორის უკვე ძირითადად საყოფაცხოვრებო დანიშნულების მინის ჭურჭელია წარმოდგენილი; მათ შორის სუფრის ჭურჭელი — სასმისები (II ჯგუფი). ამ ჯგუფში ტექნიკის მიხედვით გამოყოფილია სამი ჯგუფი — ყალიბში ჩამოსხმული, ყალიბში გამობერილი და თავისუფლად გამობერილი ჭურჭელი. ადრეფეოდალურ საქართველოში სუფრის ჭურჭელი (სასმისები) მრავალფეროვანია, მერი ჩხატარაშვილი ამ ჯგუფში ცხრა ტიპს ასახელებს. ეს მასალები ძირითადად VI-X საუკუნეებს მიეკუთვნება. შუა საუკუნეების საქართველოში, როგორც ჩანს, თიხისა და ლითონის ჭრაქებთან ერთად გავრცელებული იყო მინის ჭრაქი — ლამპარიც, რომელიც ლითონის ბუდეში იდგმებოდა. ისინი სხვადასხვა ტიპის, ზომისა და ფერისაა. მინის ლამპრებს რომაული ხანიდან იყენებდნენ. მისი ფართოდ გავრცელება დაკავშირებულია ბაზილიკების მშენებლობასთან, რაც თავის მხრივ ქრისტიანობის გავრცელებას უკავშირდება. საქართველოში მინის ლამპრები მთელი ადრეფეოდალური ხანის განმავლობაში გვხვდება. ის განსაკუთრებით მრავლადაა ბიჭვინთის ნაქალაქარზე, დამზადებულია გამობერვით. ფიქრობენ, რომ ადრებეოდალური ხანის სასმისთა უმრავლესობას ლამპრებადაც იყენებდნენ. ამ ხანაში გავრცელებული იყო ფეხიანი, ბუდეში ჩასადგმელი და ყურიანი, ჩამოსაკიდებელი ლამპრები. ხანის დასასრულს ჭარბობს ყურებიანი ლამპრები, რომლებიც არსებობას შემდეგ ხანებშიც განაგრძობს. მეოთხე ჯგუფს მიეკუთვნება სპეციალური დანიშნულების ალქიმიური ჭურჭელი —„ალამბიკი“. ამგვარი ჭურჭლის ორი ნატეხია რუსთავის ნაციხვრიდან, ერთი კი — მცხეთიდან. ალამბიკები საქართველოში დღეს თითოოროლაა აღმოჩენილი, ხოლო სფერო-კონუსები, რომლის ადგილობრივ წარმოებას საქართველოშიც უშვებენ და რომლებთანაც ალამბიკს პირდაპირი დამოკიდებულება აქვს, საქართველოში, მეზობელ ქვეყნებთან შედარებით, მცირეა. სადღეისოდ ცოტაა ცნობილი ასევე საქართველოში ალქიმიის განვითარების შესახებ, რისთვისაც საჭირო იყო ეს ჭურჭელი. შუაფეოდალური ხანა შუაფეოდალური ხანის უფერული, მომწვანო ან მწვანე მინის სასმისთა ფორმები უფრო მრავალგვარი, დახვეწილი და მოხდენილია. აქაც გვაქვს ფიალისებრი, თუმცა სადა, ან შედარებით მაღალი სასმისები. ძირითად ტიპს ძირ-ქუსლზე მდგარი სასმისები წარმოადგენს, ეომლწბიც შესაძლოა ადრეფეოდალური ხანის დასასრულამდე არსებული ფეხიანი სასმისების კონსტრუქციის ერთგვარ გაგრძელებას წარმოადგენდეს. შემკულობის მხრივ ადრეფეოდალური ნაწარმი უფრო მრავალგვარია, შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში კი მინის ჭურჭელს ძირითადად ზედ დადნობილი ძაფებითა და ხვეული კოპებით ამკობდნენ, ხშირად ფერადით. ამგვარად შემკულ ჭურჭელს დეკორატიული იერი ჰქონდა. შემკობის ამგვარი ხერხი მახლობელ აღმოსავლეთსა და დასავლეთშიც იყო მიღებული. ამიერკავკასიაში ასე შემკული მინის ნაწარმი განსაკუთრებით მრავალია სომხეთსა და საქართველოში, უფრო იშვიათია აზერბაიჯანის ტერიტორიაზე. მერი ჩხატარაშვილი შუაფეოდალური ხანის მინის ნაწარმში დანიშნულების მხრივ გამოყოფს ხუთ ძირითად ჯგუფს, რომელთაგან თითოეული თავისუფალი ბერვითაა დამზადებული: სუფრის ჭურჭელი (სასმისები, სურები, ბოთლები, სამარილეები); პირის საფარეშო და სააფთიაქო ჭურჭელი; მათარა; ლამპარი; შიბაქი. შუაფეოდალური ხანის სუფრის ჭურჭელი ძალიან მრავალფეროვანია, ისინი ზოგადად XI–დან XIII საუკუნემდე პერიოდს მიეკუთვნება. ამ ჯგუფში შემავალ ტიპებს მერი ჩხატარაშვილი დეტალურად განიხილავს და ცალკეულ ნიმუშებს ათარიღებს. ამ ნიმუშებს შორის არის შემოტანილი მინის ჭურჭელიც; სხვადასხვა ზომისა და შემკულობის მსგავსი ნიმუშები გვხვდება ჩრდილოეთ კავკასიაში, დვინში, განჯაში და სხვა. თუმცა, დასტურდება საქართველოში ადგილობრივი წარმოებაც; ამას მოწმობს საქართველოს ნაქალაქარებში აღმოჩენილი ძირზე სარტყლიანი სასმისების სიმრავლე და განსხვავება უცხოური ანალოგიური მასალისაგან. გამოთქმულია მოსაზრება, რომ ჩრდილოეთ კავკასიის ალანთა სამარხებში (ზმეისკის კატაკომბები) აღმოჩენილი ამგვარი სასმისები და მინის სხვა ჭურჭელიც საქართველოდან უნდა იყოს გატანილი. მინის სხვა ნაწარმთან ერთად შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში გვხვდება პირის საფარეშო და სააფთიაქო ჭურჭელიც (II ჯგუფი). სხვადასხვა მოყვანილობისა და ზომის ჭურჭელს ხმარობდნენ სურნელოვანი სითხეების, მალამოებისა და საღებავების შესანახად, წამლებისათვის და სხვა. ამგვარი დანიშნულებისათვის ქიმიური მდგრადობის გამო მინის ჭურჭელი ყველა სხვა ნივთიერებისაგან დამზადებულ ჭურჭელზე უკეთესი იყო. მესამე ჯგუფს ქმნის მინის დაბალი მათარები; ისინი შესქელებული პირითა და ვიწრო ყელით ხასიათდება. ტანი ოვალურადაა გაბრტყელებული და შემკულია ძალიან დამახასიათებელი ყურებით; დმანისიდან და ბოლნისიდან ამგვარი ყურებია კედლებითურთ. ისინი სხვადასხვა ზომისაა. ორივეს მინა მომწვანო მოყვითალოა, სქელკედლიანი და ბუშტულებიანი; ზუსტად ანალოგიური ყურებიანი მათარები არის დვინში, დათარიღებულია შუაფეოდალური ხანით. ამ ხანის ლამპრები (IV ჯგუფი) ძირითადად მწვანეა, ადრეფეოდალური ლამპრებთან შედარებით ყურები უფრო დიდი და არცთუ ფაქიზი ნახელავი აქვს. ყურები ხშირად განსხვავებული ფერისაა. ასეთი ნიმუშებია თბილისიდან და დმანისიდან. მაგალითად, მომწვანო მინის ლამპრებს აქვს მუქი ყვითელი ან მუქი მწვანე ყურები. შუაფეოდალური მინის ლამპრები საქართველოში გვაქვს თბილისის სახელოსნოდან, ერეკლეს მოედნიდან, დმანისიდან, რუსთავის ნაქალაქარიდან და რუსთავის ნაციხვარიდან, ასევე ლამაზი გორიდან. ამ ხანაში გვხვდება ასევე მინისაგან დამზადებული სააკვნე მოწყობილობა — შიბაქი. იგი ნაკეთებია მწვანე, ბუშტულებიანი მინისაგან. საქართველოში აღმოჩენილი შიბაქები უცხოური ანალოგიური მასალის მიხედვით დათარიღებულია XI-XIV საუკუნეებით. გვიანფეოდალური ხანა გვიანფეოდალური მინის ნაწარმი საქართველოში სრულიად განსხვავებულია ადრე და შუაფეოდალურისაგან. იგივე შეიძლება ითქვას ამიერკავკასიის მასშტაბითაც (სომხეთი, აზერბაიჯანი). ამ პერიოდის მინის ნაწარმში დანიშნულების მიხედვით ხუთი ძირითადი ჯგუფია გამოყოფილი: სუფრის ჭურჭელი (სურა, ბოთლი) ქილა მათარა დეკორატიული ჭურჭელი ლამპარი სუფრის ჭურჭელში დამატებით რამდენიმე ტიპი გამოიყოფა. მათთვის დამახასიათებელია სადა ან სხვადასხვაგვარად შემკული მაღალი ყელი. ყველა გამობერვითაა მიღებული. გვიანფეოდალური ხანის ქილები (II ჯგუფი) აღმოჩენილია თბილისის დედაციხეზე — სულ 12 ცალი. ისინი ხასიათდებიან გადაშლილი პირით, გამოყვანილი ყელით, სწორი კედლებით, მაღალკონუსურად შედრეკილი ძირით. მერი ჩხატარაშვილი ქილებს მიაკუთვნებს ასევე თბილისის დედაციხეზე აღმოჩენილ კიდევ ორ ნატეხს, რომლებსაც სხვა ქილებისაგან განსხვავებით პირთან არათანაბარი სიგანის სარტყელი აქვს დადნობილი. დედაციხეზეა ასევე აღმოჩენილი მათარის ცხრა ძირი (III ჯგუფი). მათი მსგავსი მათარა დაცულია საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმში (შემახის ოლქიდან ჩამოტანილი) და ერმიტაჟში. ეს ორი უკანასკნელი ერთმანეთს უფრო ჰგავს, ვიდრე თბილისის ნიმუშებს. ცალკე ჯგუფს ქმნის ე. წ. დეკორატიული ჭურჭელი, რომელიც ფერადი მინით დამზადებულ მეტად მდიდრულად შემკულ ნაწარმს წარმოადგენს. ჭურჭელს აქვს ლურჯი, ზოგჯერ ღვინისფერ ტეხილი და ტალღოვანი ზედ დადნობილი ზაფები ან დაკენჭილი სარტყლები; ზოგჯერ — თავისივე ფერის ძაფები ან მოზრდილი თვლები. თვლებიანი კედლის პატარა სამი ნატეხი მოპოვებულია თბილისის დედაციხიდან, ერეკლეს მოედნიდან, ყარაღაჯიდან. ასეთივე ნატეხები არის ლორეში. გვიან ხანაში ამგვარი თვლებით სულ სხვადასხვაგვარ ჭურჭელს ამკობდნენ. ამიტომ, ზუსტად დადგენა იმისა, თუ რომელ ჭურჭელს ეკუთვნის საქართველოში აღმოჩენილი ნატეხები, ჭირს. მცხეთაში, სვეტიცხოველთან, სასახლის თხრისას აღმოჩენილია ასევე ლამპრები. აქაური მასალები უმთავრესად უკავშირდება მარიამისა და როსტომ მეფის მიერ სასახლის აღდგენა–განახლებისა (XVII საუკუნის I ნახევარი) და შემდგომ ამ ადგიალს გლეხთა დარბაზული ტიპის სახლების არსებობის (XVIII საუკუნე) პერიოდს. სვეტიცხოველთან ლამპრის ნატეხები სასახლის ან ტაძრის კუთვნილი უნდა იყოს და ზოგადად XVII-XVIII საუკუნეებით თარიღდება წარმოება საწარმოები ადრეფეოდალურ ხანაში ადრეფეოდალური ხანის დასაწყისის, IV-V საუკუნეების ჭურჭელი რუსთავის სამარხულ ინვენტარშია კარგად წარმოდგენილი, ხოლო შემდგომ, ამ ხანის დასასრულისათვის, მცხეთისაგან განსხვავებით, აქ მინის ჭურჭელი მხოლოდ კულტურულ ფენებშია. მცხეთის IV-VIII საუკუნეების მინის ჭურჭელი ამ ქალაქის თავისებურებადაა მიჩნეული და სავარაუდოდ აქვეა წარმოებული. არაბთა ბატონობის დასრულების შემდეგ, ისევე როგორც მთელი აღმოსავლეთის ქვეყნები, საქართველოც ეკონომიკურ აღმავლობას განიცდის. ამ პერიოდში საქართველოში ვითარდება მინის წარმოებაც. ამ დროის მაღალხარისხიანი მინის საწარმოთაგან აღსანიშნავია ორბეთი. ამავე ხანაში მინის წარმოების აღმავლობას აღნიშნავენ სომხეთში, აზერბაიჯანში, ბიზანტიასა და შუა აზიაში. აღმოსავლეთ საქართველოში ადრეფეოდალური ხანის ჭურჭელი კარგადაა წარმოდგენილი. გვხვდება როგორც აღმოსავლეთისათვის საერთო ტიპები, ასევე განსხვავებულიც. თვითონ საქართველოს ნაქალაქართა კულტურული ფენებიდან მოპოვებული მასალისა და ორბეთის მინის საწარმოს ნიმუშების შედარება ცხადყოფს, რომ ისინი სხვადასხვა საწარმოებს განეკუთვნებიან. ბოლნისში, ლამაზი გორის სამონასტრო კომპლექსიდან ჩანს წარმოების ნაშთები — მინის წიდა, ნადუღი, წუნი ნაწარმი. ცნობილია, რომ ქართული მონასტრები ხელოსნობის მნიშვნელოვანი კერებიც იყო. ეს ყველაფერი მონასტერში მინის საწარმოს არსებობაზე მიუთითებს. საწარმოები შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში ქართული მინის ნაწარმი განსაკუთრებით მრავალფეროვანია შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში. მინის ადგილობრივ წარმოებას არაერთი მკვლევარი ვარაუდობდა დმანისში, თბილისსა და რუსთავში. შუაფეოდალური ნაქალაქარების შესწავლის შედეგად დადგინდა, რომ ყველა მათგანს საკუთარი მინის წარმოება ჰქონდა. მართალია უშუალოდ საწარმოები დღეისათვის აღმოჩენილი არაა, მაგრამ წარმოების ნაშთების არსებობა (ნაწარმის წუნი, განსხვავებული მინა და ტიპები). მინის საწარმოს არსებობას ვარაუდობენ ასევე უჯარმაში, თუმცა მასალის მცირერიცხოვნობის გამო ეს დღეისათვის საკამათოა. თბილისში მინის წარმოების შესახებ საინტერესო ცნობებს შეიცავს სპარსული თხზულება „სამყაროს საკვირველებანი“. აქ ავტორი XII საუკუნის დასასრულისა და XIII საუკუნის დასაწყისის თბილისის ხიდის მახლობლად მოწყობილ საბაზრო ადგილზე გასაყიდ საქონელს შორის მინის ნაწარმსაც ასახელებს. განსხვავებით რუსეთისა და შუა აზიისაგან, სადაც მინის წარმოება მხოლოდ დიდი ქალაქურ ხელოვნებად ითვლებოდა, შუა საუკუნეების საქართველოში მინის წარმოება მცირე ქალაქებშიცაა დადასტურებული, ასევე განცალკევებულ ადგილებში, მონასტრებთან. მინის წარმოებას ვარაუდობენ ივრის სიონში და ძველ ანაგაში. გამოთქმულია მოსაზრება, რომ ინკუსტირებულ მინის სამაჯურებს აწარმოებდნენ კახეთსა და შესაძლოა, თუშეთში. მინის წარმოების აშკარა ნაშთებია ივრისპირა „ქვაბებზე“. საწარმოები გვიანფეოდალურ ხანაში საქართველოში მონღლთა შემოსევების შედეგად ქვეყნის საერთო ეკონომიკურ-კულტურული დონის დაცემასთან ერთად დაეცა ხელოსნობის დარგებიც, მაშ შორის მინის წარმოებაც. განადგურდა მრავალი საწარმო, თუმცა მცირე რაოდენობით მინის წარმოება მაინც გრძელდებოდა. ამას ადასტურებს XIII საუკუნის II ნახევრისა და XIV საუკუნის დასაწყისის ნატბეურის მინის საწარმო. აღსანიშნავია ასევე ჟინვალში ე. წ. ზორგიანი კოშკის მასალები, რომლებიც ასევე XIII–XIV საუკუნეებით თარიღდება. გვიანფეოდალური ხანის ადგილობრივ წარმოებაში აღორძინება შეინიშნება XVI საუკუნიდან გვიანი ხანის, XVI-XVIII საუკუნეების მასალა საქართველოში ყველგან ერთნაირია, აღმოსავლურია, თუმცა ისინი ადგილობრივაა დამზადებული, რაც ნაწარმს ეროვნულ ელფერს ანიჭებს. სადღეისოდ გამოვლენილ წერილობით წყაროებში XVIII საუკუნის თბილისში არაა დასახელებული მინის წარმოება, თუმცა მისი არსებობა დადასტურებულია არქეოლოგიური მონაცემების საფუძველზე. XVIII საუკუნის 10–80–იან წლებში კი თბილისში ასახელებენ მინის ქარხანასაც. არქეოლოგიურად მინის წარმოება დადასტურებულია ყარაღაჯსა და გრემშიც. საინტერესოა ვახტანგ VI-ის ქიმიის წიგნში (XVIII საუკუნე) მოცემული ერთი პარაგრაფი „ფერად–ფერადი ჭიქების გაკეთება“, რომელშიც მინის მოდუღების რეცეპტებია მოცემული გადმოცემის თანახმად XVIII საუკუნეში ქსნის ერისთავებს მინის ქარხანა ჰქონდათ სოლელ ღვარებში. დმანისიდან ხუთი კმ-ის დაშორებით ყოფილა აგრეთვე მინის ქარხანა, რომელიც XIX საუკუნის შუა ხანებში განუახლებიათ. ტექნიკა და ტექნოლოგია მინის ნაწარმის მიღება სხვადასხვა მეთოდის გამოყენებითაა შესაძლებელი. საქართველოში აღმოჩენილი მინის ნაწარმი ძირითადად დამზადებულია ჩამოსხმით, თავისუფალი ბერვით, ორნამენტიან ან გლუვ ყალიბში ჩაბერვით. შემკობისათვის გამოყენებულია როგორც ცხელი, ასევე ცივად დამუშავების ხერხი. ადრეფეოდალური ხანის დასაწყისის სანელსაცხებლეებს შორის გვაქვს როგორც ყალიბში, ასევე თავისუფლად გამობერილები. ერთ ბურცობებიან სანელსაცხებლეზე ორივე მხარეზე კარგად შეინიშნება ვერტიკალური ნაკერი, რაც მოწმობს იმას, რომ იგი ორი ნაწილისაგან შემდგარ ორნამენტიან ყალიბშია დამზადებული. ყალიბში ჩაბერვიტაა ე. წ. ტალღურზედაპირიანი (სხვადასხვაგვარი ფაცეტები, ვერტიკალური ან ირიბული ხაზები) ჭურჭლები. ჭურჭლის ნაწილები ზოგჯერ სხვადასხვა მეთოდითაა დამზადებული, მაგალითად ერთ–ერთი თავისუფალი ბერვით მიღებული ადრეფეოდალური ნიმუშის ფეხი ნაკეთებია მთლიანი მინის ღეროსაგან, რომელიც გარედან ხელსაწყოების დახმარებითაა დამუხლული. ასეთ ფეხს გამლღვარი მინის წვეთის დახმარებით მერე მიალღვობდნენ ხოლმე ჭურჭლის ტანზე. ე. წ. „ცივი ხერხითაა“ შემკული ადრეფეოდალური ხანის სასმისთა ერთი ტიპი. ჭურჭლის ამგვარი ხერხით შემკობა ერთ–ერთი უძველესია. ჭურჭელი თავდაპირველად ისხმებოდა ყალიბში, რომელშიც საგანგებოდ დანიშნულ ადგილებს შემდეგ ხეხავდნენ და აპრიალებდნენ ჩარხის დახმარებით. თავისუფლად გამობერილი ჭურჭლის შესამკობად შესამკობად უმეტესად ცხლად დამუშავების წესია გამოყენებული: ხელმეორედ გაცხელებულ ჭურჭელზე ხდება თავისივე ან ფერადი მინის ძაფების, სადა ან დაკეჭნილი სარტყლების, სხვადასხვაგვარი ხორკლების დალღობა. ჭურჭელს ძაფებით ამკობდნენ როგორც გვიანანტიკურ ხანაში, ისე მთელი შუა საუკუნეების განმავლობაში. ხორკლები გვხვდება როგორც ადრე–, ისე შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში, თუმცა განსხვავებაა მათი მიღების ტექნიკაში; მაგალითად, IV საუკუნის სანელსაცხებლეებზე ხორკლები, ერთნაირი დაბალი ბურცობები მიღებულია ყალიბში ჩაბერვით; ადრეფეოდალურ ხანაშივე ხორკლების მიღების ამგვარი წესიც არსებობდა: ცხელი ზედაპირიდან ლითონის მაშებით ამოსწევდნენ ხოლმე მინის მასას. ამგვარი ხორკლები ამ ხანის დასაწყისში სხვადასხვა სიმაღლის ეკლებს წააგავს, მის დასასრულს კი მათ ერთმანეთზე მიდებული ფრჩხილისებრი მოყვანილობა აქვთ. შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში ხორკლები ხვეულ კოპებს წარმოადგენს, რაც ცხელ ზედაპირზე მინის ძაფების ხვეულად დალღობითაა გაკეთებული. ქიმიური შემადგენლობა საქართველოში აღმოჩენილი მინის ნაწარმის გამოკვლევისას, ქიმიურ-რაოდენობრივი და ნახევრად რაოდენობრივი — სპექტრული ანალიზის შედეგად გაირკვა, რომ ძირითადად ყველა მათგანი წარმოადგენს ნატრიუმ-კალციუმ-სილიკატური სისტემის მინას — Na2O — CaO — SiO2. ამ ძირითადი ელემენტების გარდა ისინი მეტ-ნაკლებად შეიცავს ასევე Al2O3, MgO, K2O სა სხვა. ამასთან, ზოგჯერ გვხვდება ისეთი ნიმუშებიც, რომლებშიც Al2O3 და MgO–ს ოდენობა დაახლოებით 6–დან 12%–მდე და 4–დან 6,6%–მდე მერყეობს. ისინი, ფაქტობრივად შესაძლოა მიეკუთვნოს Na2O — CaO — MgO — Al2O3 — SiO2 სისტემის მინას. ქართული მინის ქიმიური შემადგენლობა დაწვრილებით განხილული აქვთ ს. პაპუაშვილს, ა. გეგენავასა და მ. ჩხატარაშვილს. ვაჭრობა ქართული მინით ვაჭრობა, როგორც ჩანს ადრეფეოდალურ ხანაშივე ხდებოდა. ამის დამადასტურებელია ჩრდილოეთ კავკასიაში, ალანთა სამარხებსა და სამხრეთ რუსეთის ტერიტორიაზე აღმოჩენილი ადრეფეოდალური ხანის დასასრულის მინის ნაწარმი, რომელიც მიჩნეულია საქართველოდან გატანილად. შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში, XII-XIII საუკუნის სპარსულ თხზულება „სამყაროს საკვირველებანში“ დაცულია ცნობები თბილისის ბაზრობაზე მინის ადგილობრივი ნაწარმით ვაჭრობის შესახებ. ამ თხზულებაში ჩამოთვლილია თბილისური საბაზრო პროდუქცია, რომელიც სხვა ქვეყნებშიც გაჰქონდათ როგორც ქართველ, ისე უცხოელ ვაჭრებს. ანონიმურ ავტორს თბილისში დამზადებულ საექსპორტო საგნებს შორის ერთ–ერთ საუკეთესოდ მინის ნაწარმი მიაჩნია. ამ პერიოდს მიეკუთვნება ასევე დვინში აღმოჩენილი, საქართველოდან გატანილი მინის სასმისიც. XII-XIII საუკუნეებში საქართველოში ვაჭართა ორგანიზაციების არსებობის შესახებ უტყუარ ცნობებს შეიცავს ქართული წერილობითი წყაროები. როგორც აღნიშნავენ, XI-XII საუკუნეების თბილისში ეჭვს არ უნდა იწვევდეს ასევე ხელოსნური გაერთიანებების არსებობაც. მათ შორის მერი ჩხატარაშვილი მინის ხელოსნებსა და ვაჭრებსაც გულისხმობს. ნ. ბერძენიშვილი შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში საქართველოს სახელმწიფო წლიური შემოსავლის შემადგენელ ნაწილად მინის წარმოებასაც ასახელებს. შუაფეოდალურ ხანაში მინის საწარმოების განსაკუთრებული სიმრავლის გამო, საქართველოში იმპორტირებული მინა ბევრი არ გვხვდება, თუმცა მცირე რაოდენობით მაინც მოიპოვება, მეზობელი და შორეული ქვეყნებიდან. გვიანფეოდალური ხანიდან, ისევე როგორც ყველა სფერო, ვაჭრობაც შესუსტებულია. ვაჭრობის მეორედ გამოცოცხლება იწყება XVI საუკუნიდან. XVII საუკუნის საქართველოს ქალაქებიდან მხოლოდ თბილისი იყო უშუალოდ დაკავშირებული აღმოსავლეთ ამიერკავკასიის სავაჭრო გზასთან, ხოლო მისი საშუალებით მახლობელ და შუააზიის ქალაქებთან. ამ პერიოდში საქართველოში შემოტანილ ირანულ საქონელს შორის არის „შირაზული მინაც“. გვხვდება ისეთი ნიმუშებიც, რომლებიც მხოლოდ საქართველოშია აღმოჩენილი, რაც იმაზე მეტყველებს, რომ ისინი ადგილობრივი ნაწარმია და მხოლოდ ადგილობრივი ბაზრისთვისაა შექმნილი. იხილეთ აგრეთვე მინა ანტიკური ქართული მინა ლიტერატურა ზოგადი მ. ჩხატარაშვილი, მინის ჭურჭელი შუა საუკუნეების საქართველოში, გამომცემლობა „მეცნიერება“, თბილისი, 1978; ნ. უგრელიძე, ფეოდალურ საქართველოში მინის წარმოების ისტორიისათვის, თბილისი, 1954; ნ. უგრელიძე, მინა ძველ საქართველოში, თბილისი, 1961; ნ. უგრელიძე, ადრეულ შუა საუკუნეთა ქართლში მინის წარმოების ისტორიისათვის, თბილისი, 1967; მ. ხანანაშვილი, მინის წარმოება საქართველოში (ისტორიული მიმოხილვა), „მეცნიერება და ტექნიკა“, N 6, თბილისი, 1952; სხვა მ. ჩხატარაშვილი, თბილისის დედაციხეზე 1966–67 წლებში აღმოჩენილი მინის ჭურჭელი, თბილისი, 1968; მ. ჩხატარაშვილი, თბილისის დედაციხეზე აღმოჩენილი გვიანფეოდალური ხანის მინის ჭურჭელი, ფსაძ, 11, თბილისი, 1974; მ. ჩხატარაშვილი, შუა საუკუნეთა რუსთავში მინის წარმოების ისტორიისათვის, ფსაძ, I, თბილისი, 1969; ნ. უგრელიძე, ნატბეურისა და ორბეთის მინის საწარმოთა თხრის ანგარიშები, სას, თბილისი, 1961; ნ. უგრელიძე, ნატბეურის მინის საწარმო, მსკა, III, თბილისი, 1963; დ. მინდორაშვილი, მინის ნაწარმი უფლისციხიდან, ძეგლის მეგობარი, N 70, თბილისი, 1985; რ. დოლაბერიძე, საქართველოს მინის სამაჯურები, საქართველოს სახელმწიფო მუზეუმის მაცნე, XXVIII-B თბილისი, 1969. ს. პაპუაშვილი, ა. გეგენავა, მ. ჩხატარაშვილი, შუა საუკუნეთა მინის ჭურჭლის ქიმიური შემადგენლობის გამოკვლევა, საქართველოს არქეოლოგიის საკითხები, II, თბილისი, 1978. სქოლიო ქართული კულტურა ქართული მინა
29438	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98	ახალი სოფელი	ახალი სოფელი „ახალი სოფელი“ — ყოველკვირეული სასოფლო-საგლეხო გაზეთი. საქართველოს კომუნისტური პარტიის (ბ) ცენტრალური კომიტეტის ორგანო. გამოდიოდა 1925—1930 წლებში თბილისში. 1931 წლიდან შეეცვალა სახელი და ეწოდა კოლექტივიზაცია. იხილეთ აგრეთვე მიწის მუშა ლიტერატურა საქართველოს გაზეთები ქართულენოვანი გაზეთები
61222	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98	ლუი ბრაილი	ლუი ბრაილი (დ. 4 იანვარი, 1809, კუვრე — გ. 6 იანვარი, 1852, პარიზი) — ფრანგი ტიფლოპედაგოგი. 3 წლისა დაბრმავდა. 1829 წელს შეიმუშავა მთელ მსოფლიოში დღემდე ხმარებული ე.წ. ბრაილის შრიფტი, რელიეფურ-წერტილოვანი შრიფტი უსინათლოთათვის. ბრაილი ნიჭიერი მუსიკოსიც იყო, უსინათლოებს ასწავლიდა მუსიკას. პირველი წიგნი რომელიც დაიწერა ბრაილის შრიფტით, იყო „საფრანგეთის ისტორია“. ლიტერატურა რესურსები ინტერნეტში Valentin Haüy Association Louis Braille Online Museum - American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) ფრანგი პედაგოგები დაბადებული 4 იანვარი დაბადებული 1809 გარდაცვლილი 6 იანვარი გარდაცვლილი 1852 დამწერლობის შემქმნელები
1281200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coppa%20Italia	Coppa Italia	Coppa Italia is the annual domestic cup of Italian football. The knockout competition was organized by the DDS and the Football League until the 2009–10 season and by Lega Serie A ever since. Juventus is the competition's most successful club with fourteen wins, followed by Roma and Internazionale with nine. Juventus has contested the most finals with 21, followed by Roma with 17 finals. The holder can wear a cockade of Italy (Italian: coccarda), akin to the roundels that appear on military aircraft. The winner automatically qualifies for both the UEFA Europa League group stage and the Supercoppa Italiana the following year. History The beginning of the tournament was turbulent, due to the complexity of the participation of the teams in the tournament, since its inception in 1921, the Italian championship was divided into two groups. On the one hand the rich CCI Championship (Italian Football Confederation) and on the other the poor FIGC championship (Italian Football Federation). Losing all its most prestigious clubs, the FIGC tried to enhance its rump season with a new cup. The tournament's first edition held in 1922 was won by F.C. Vado. The following agreement between the contenders did not contemplate a cup that, outside a failed 1926–27 tournament which was cancelled during the round of 32, was not held until 1935–36. The events of World War II interrupted the tournament after the 1942–43 season, and it did not resume again until 1958. Since then, it has been played annually or seasonally. The eight seasons during the fascist period were contested copying the FA Cup format. There was a different trophy, and the winners were awarded the tricolour scudetto while the championship winners obtained a Savoyard scudetto instead. The present-day cup and cockade were introduced in 1958. Format The competition is a knockout tournament with pairings for each round made in advance; the draw for the whole competition is made before a ball is kicked. Each tie is played as a single leg, except a two-legged semi-final stage. If a match is drawn, extra time is played. In the event of a draw after 120 Minutes, a penalty shoot-out is contested. As well as being presented with the trophy, the winning team also qualifies for the UEFA Europa League (formerly the UEFA Cup). If the winners have already qualified for the UEFA Champions League via the Serie A, or are not entitled to play in UEFA competitions for any reason, the place goes to the next highest placed team in the league table. There are a total of seven rounds in the competition. The competition begins in August with the preliminary round and is contested only by the eight lowest-ranked clubs. Clubs playing in Serie B join in during the first round with the 12 lowest-ranked teams in Serie A based on the previous league season's positions (unless they are to compete in European competition that year) begin the competition in the first round before August is over. The remaining eight Serie A teams join the competition in the third round in January, at which point 16 teams remain. The round of 16, the quarter-finals and the first leg of the semi-finals are then played in quick succession after the fourth round and the second leg of the semi-finals is played a couple of months later – in April – before the final in May. The two-legged final was eliminated for the 2007–08 edition and a single-match final is now played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome. Winners by year Performance by club Trophies Notes The 1922 tournament was contested only by smaller clubs who remained associated with FIGC, following the formation of a breakaway league by the larger teams who participated the 1921–22 Prima Divisione. Although 76 tournaments have been contested, only 75 cups have been assigned. The 1926–27 edition was abandoned in the round of 32. Finals In bold are the winners of the finals. Notes From 1968 to 1971, FIGC introduced a final group instead of semi-finals and finals. For statistical equity, only champions and runners-up of those groups are counted as finalists. Performance by player Top appearances Top goalscorers Most titles Gianluigi Buffon and Roberto Mancini (6) Broadcasting This is a list of television broadcasters and streaming television providers which provide coverage of the Coppa Italia, as well as the Supercoppa Italiana and maybe exclude the Serie A matches (depending on broadcasting rights in selected regions). 2021–2024 Italy The Coppa Italia and the Supercoppa Italiana has been broadcast by Mediaset since the 2021–22 season. Previously, the tournament was aired by the national public broadcaster RAI up until the 2020–21 edition. International See also Supercoppa Italiana Coppa Italia Dilettanti See also Coppa Italia Dilettanti References External links (in English) Italy – List of Cup Finals (with links to full results) from RSSSF Coppa Italia Roll Of Honour Coppa Italia matches by season Current-season Coppa Italia schedule by SofaScore Recurring sporting events established in 1922 1 Italy 1922 establishments in Italy Professional sports leagues in Italy
289545	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%AF%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98	ბეჯი კაიდ ეს-სებსი	ბეჯი კაიდ ეს-სებსი (დ. 26 ნოემბერი 1926, სიდი-ბუ-საიდი, ტუნისი — გ. 25 ივლისი, 2019) — ტუნისელი სახელმწიფო და პოლიტიკური მოღვაწე, ადვოკატი, ტუნისის პრემიერ-მინისტრი 2011 წლის 27 თებერვლიდან 24 დეკემბრამდე. წარსულში ეკავა მნიშვნელოვანი პოლიტიკური და დიპლომატიური თანამდებობები. 2014 წელს აირჩიეს ტუნისის პრეზიდენტად. სქოლიო დაბადებული 26 ნოემბერი დაბადებული 1926 გარდაცვლილი 25 ივლისი გარდაცვლილი 2019 ტუნისის პრემიერ-მინისტრები ტუნისის საგარეო საქმეთა მინისტრები
311077	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tevfik%20Esen%C3%A7	Tevfik Esenç	Tevfik Esenç (1904 – 7 October 1992) was a Turkish citizen of Circassian origin, known for being the last speaker of the Ubykh language. He was fluent in Ubykh, Adyghe and Turkish. After his death in 1992, the Ubykh language went extinct despite the efforts and work of numerous linguists to revive it. Nevertheless, Esenç is single-handedly responsible for the world's current knowledge of Ubykh language and culture being as extensive and detailed as it is. Biography Esenç was raised by his Ubykh-speaking grandparents for a time in the village of Hacıosman (Ubykh: Lak°'ạ́ṡ°a; Adyghe: Hundjahabl) in Turkey, and he served a term as the muhtar (mayor) of that village, before receiving a post in the civil service of Istanbul. There, he was able to do a great deal of work with the French linguist Georges Dumézil and his associate Georges Charachidzé to help record his language, although not all the writings of Charachidzé (1930–2010) have been published. Others who met Esenç and produced work on Ubykh are: the Norwegian Hans Vogt (1911–92); the British George Hewitt, who made recordings with Esenç in Istanbul; the Abkhazian Viacheslav Chirikba, who has written on Ubykh settlements and Ubykh surnames; and the Turkish linguist A. Sumru Özsoy. Having an excellent memory and understanding quickly the goals of Dumézil and the other linguists who came to visit him, he was a primary source of not only the Ubykh language, but also of the mythology, culture history, and customs of the Ubykh people. He spoke Turkish and Ubykh, and also a dialect of Adyghe (West Circassian), allowing some comparative work to be done between these two members of the Northwest Caucasian family. A purist, his idiolect of Ubykh was considered by Dumézil as the closest thing to a standard "literary" Ubykh language that existed. He finished his work for Ubykh with the following speech to his long-time collaborator Georges Charachidzé: Esenç died in the night of 7 October 1992, at the age of 88; he was buried in the village cemetery of Hacıosman, his birthplace, alongside his wife Emine. He was survived by three sons and two daughters. In 1994, A. Sumru Özsoy organized an international conference, namely Conference on Northwest Caucasian Linguistics, at Boğaziçi University in memory of Dumézil and Esenç. References External links 55 audio recordings of Tevfik Esenç speaking Ubykh, with transcriptions (Pangloss collection, CNRS, Paris) Account of the burial of the last speaker of Ubykh, Tevfik Esenç from Lingoblog.dk Trailer of “I had a dream — In the footsteps of the Last Ubykh” – a 66' documentary (2019) on the life of Tevfik Esenç, produced by his granddaughter Burcu Esenç. 1904 births 1992 deaths People from Manyas Turkish people of Ubykh descent Last known speakers of a language Ubykh language Mayors of places in Turkey
553854	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/M864	M864	M864 — ამერიკული წარმოების 155 მმ-იანი კასეტური საარტილერიო ჭურვი. სროლის დიაპაზონის გასაზრდელად, ჭურვის დიზაინში ფუძეზე დამონტაჟებულია გაზოგენერატორი. M864 ჭურვი გამოიყენება ორმაგი დანიშნულების ჯავშანტექნიკისა და ქვეითსაწინააღმდეგო რაზმის გასანადგურებლად, მაშინ როდესაც მოცემულობა აღემატება M483A1 ჭურვის შესაძლებლობებს, ან როდესაც ეს უკანასკნელი არ არის ხელმისაწვდომი. ჭურვი M864 წარმოადგენს ცალკე დატვირთვის ტიპის. ამფეთქებელი, მეტალის ჭურვი და კაფსულა იტვირთება ცალ-ცალკე. ჭურვი შედგება 72 ორმაგი დანიშნულების (48 ცალი M42 — ქვეითსაწინააღმდეგო და 24 ცალი M46 — ტანკსაწინააღმდეგო) მცირე ნაღმისგან. ფუძის სანთურის კვანძი, რომელიც შეიცავს 2,6 გირვანქა HTPB-P საწვავს, აწყობილია ჭურვის ძირზე. საარტილერიო დანადგარიდან ჭურვის გასროლისას ეს საწვავი აალდება მამოძრავებელი მუხტით. სროლის დიაპაზონი შეადგენს 29 კილომეტრს. ფუძის გაზოგენერატორის ტექნოლოგია შემუშავდა ჭურვზე ფუძის ნაწილში წარმოქმნილი ტურბულენტობის შესამცირებლად, რითაც გაზრდილია სროლის დიაპაზონი. ტურბულენტობა მცირდება გაზის გენერატორით, რომელიც მდებარეობს ჭურვის ბაზაზე. მას შემდეგ, რაც აალდება, გაზის გენერატორი ცხელ გაზს აფრქვევს ჭურვის უკანა ნაკადში, რითაც მიიღწევა ჰაერის ნაკადის ტურბულენტობის შემცირება. ტურბულენტობის შემცირება ამცირებს ბაზის წინააღმდეგობას, რაც ჩვეულებრივ შეადგენს მთლიანი წევის 50 პროცენტს. M864 ჭურვი ბალისტიკურად არ ემთხვევა არცერთ ჭურვს, რომელიც ამჟამად ინვენტარშია, მაგრამ ტრაექტორიების მსგავსების გამო, M864-ის სროლის მონაცემები შეიძლება განისაზღვროს M549A1 სროლის მონაცემებით. მახასიათებლები სიგრძე ამფეთქი: 899 მმ წონა ამფეთქის გარეშე: 46,3 კგ მარგი დატვირთვა: 72 მცირე ბომბი; 48 ცალი M42, 24 ცალი M46 სროლის სიშორე: 28,4 კმ — 39 მმ კალიბრის ქვემეხიდან გასროლის შემთხვევაში. ისტორია 1987 წელს დაიწყო M864 ჭურვების წარმოება. M864 წარმოადგენს „Chamberlain Manufacturing Corporation“-სა და „Talley Defense Systems“-ს კომპანიების ერთობლივ პროექტს. „Chamberlain Manufacturing Corporation“ დაკავებულია ლითონის კომპონენტების, ხოლო „Talley Defense Systems“ — გაზის გენერატორების წარმოებით. თავდაპირველად გაზის გენერატორების წარმოება დაბალი ტემპით განხორციელდა მესაში (არიზონა). 1991 წლიდან წარმოება გადაეცა არმიის საბრძოლო ქარხანას ჯოლიეტში (ილინოისი). ჯოლიეტის ქარხანას შეუძლია თვეში 15000 გაზის გენერატორის წარმოება. თუმცა, კასეტური საბრძოლო ჭურვის ყველა წარმოება შეერთებულ შტატებში 2002 წლისთვის შეჩერდა. იმ დროისთვის, როდესაც წარმოება შეჩერდა, „Talley Defense Systems“-ს თითქმის მილიონი გაზის გენერატორი ჰქონდა მიწოდებული. სპარსეთის ყურის მეორე ომის მსველეობისას, დაახლოებით 30 000 ჭურვი გაიგზავნა „უდაბნოს ფარისა“ და „უდაბნოს ქარიშხალის“ ოპერაციებში გამოსაყენებლად, მაგრამ ისინი საბრძოლო მოქმედებებში არ იქნენ გამოყენებული, აშშ-ს არმიის ბატარეის კომპიუტერულ სისტემაში (BCS, ცეცხლის კონტროლის კომპიუტერი) შესაბამისი პროგრამული უზრუნველყოფის არარსებობის გამო. რესურსები ინტერნეტში M864 Base Burn DPICM US Projectile, 155mm HE, M864 სქოლიო კასეტური ჭურვები
79239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography	Topography	Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief, but also natural, artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. In the United States, topography often means specifically relief, even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on. Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms; this is also known as geomorphometry. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (DEM). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints, and relief shading. Etymology The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome, as the detailed description of a place. The word comes from the Greek (topos, "place") and (-graphia, "writing"). In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, what is now largely called 'local history'. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense. Detailed military surveys in Britain (beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called Ordnance Surveys, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were called the Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the "Topographical Bureau of the Army", formed during the War of 1812, which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard. In the 20th century, the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in a broader sense is used, particularly in medical fields such as neurology. Objectives An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude. Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. A topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information about terrain and surface features is essential for the planning and construction of any major civil engineering, public works, or reclamation projects. Techniques There are a variety of approaches to studying topography. Which method(s) to use depends on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. Field survey Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them using leveling instruments such as theodolites, dumpy levels and clinometers. GPS and other global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are also used. Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, the great Italian astronomer. Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or GIS-based. In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys (or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only recording of relief, but identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover. Remote sensing Remote sensing is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. Passive sensor methodologies Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly they have become more and more a part of geovisualization, whether maps or GIS systems. False-color and non-visible spectra imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land-use information more clearly. Images can be in visible colours and in other spectrum. Photogrammetry Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the co-ordinates of the points in 3D of an object are determined by the measurements made in two photographic images (or more) taken starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight. In this technique, the common points are identified on each image. A line of sight (or ray) can be built from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of its rays (triangulation) which determines the relative three-dimensional position of the point. Known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values. More sophisticated algorithms can exploit other information on the scene known a priori (for example, symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three-dimensional co-ordinates starting from one only position of the camera). Active sensor methodologies Satellite RADAR mapping is one of the major techniques of generating Digital Elevation Models (see below). Similar techniques are applied in bathymetric surveys using sonar to determine the terrain of the ocean floor. In recent years, LIDAR (LIght Detection And Ranging), a remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers. Forms of topographic data Terrain is commonly modelled either using vector (triangulated irregular network or TIN) or gridded (Raster image) mathematical models. In the most applications in environmental sciences, land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models. In civil engineering and entertainment businesses, the most representations of land surface employ some variant of TIN models. In geostatistics, land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals – the smooth (spatially correlated) and the rough (noise) signal. In practice, surveyors first sample heights in an area, then use these to produce a Digital Land Surface Model in the form of a TIN. The DLSM can then be used to visualize terrain, drape remote sensing images, quantify ecological properties of a surface or extract land surface objects. The contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a DLSM. A DLSM implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area, i.e. that the map represents a complete surface. Digital Land Surface Models should not be confused with Digital Surface Models, which can be surfaces of the canopy, buildings and similar objects. For example, in the case of surface models produces using the lidar technology, one can have several surfaces – starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth. The difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures (height of trees etc.). Raw survey data Topographic survey information is historically based upon the notes of surveyors. They may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources (for example, boundary delineation may be derived from local cadastral mapping). While of historical interest, these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve. Remote sensing data As with field notes, remote sensing data (aerial and satellite photography, for example), is raw and uninterpreted. It may contain holes (due to cloud cover for example) or inconsistencies (due to the timing of specific image captures). Most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of remotely sensed data in its compilation process. Topographic mapping In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States, USGS topographic maps show relief using contour lines. The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps." These maps show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest. While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps." Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form the basis for much derived topographic work. Digital Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps. Topographic mapping should not be confused with geologic mapping. The latter is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features. Digital elevation modeling The digital elevation model (DEM) is a raster-based digital dataset of the topography (hypsometry and/or bathymetry) of all or part of the Earth (or a telluric planet). The pixels of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines the area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new satellite or other remotely sensed radar or sonar data. Topological modeling A geographic information system (GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else). reconstitute a sight in synthesized images of the ground, determine a trajectory of overflight of the ground, calculate surfaces or volumes, trace topographic profiles, Topography in other fields Topography has been applied to different science fields. In neuroscience, the neuroimaging discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for brain mapping. In ophthalmology, corneal topography is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea. In tissue engineering, atomic force microscopy is used to map nanotopography. In human anatomy, topography is superficial human anatomy. In mathematics the concept of topography is used to indicate the patterns or general organization of features on a map or as a term referring to the pattern in which variables (or their values) are distributed in a space. Topographers Topographers are experts in topography. See also Cartography Digital elevation model Fall line (topography) Geomorphology Global Relief Model Hypsography Marine topography Topographic map Orography References Cartography Geography
2882698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larrabetzu	Larrabetzu	Larrabetzu is a town and municipality located in the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of Basque Country, northern Spain. References External links Larrabetzu in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa - Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa) Municipalities in Biscay
71726	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%20%28%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%29	ჰიაცინტი (მითოლოგია)	ჰიაცინტი (მითოლოგია) ჰიაცინტი — ბერძნულ მითოლოგიაში სპარტელი მეფის, ამიკლეს და დიომედის ვაჟი. (მეორე ვერსიით პიერის და კლიოსი) მომღერალი, არაჩვეულებრივი სილამაზის მქონე ყმაწვილი, აპოლონისა და ზეფირის საყვარელი. ერთხელ, როდესაც აპოლონი და ჰიაცინტი დისკოს ტყორცნაში ეჯიბრებოდნენ ერთმანეთს, ეჭვიანმა ზეფირმა აპოლონის ნატყორცნი დისკო ჰიაცინტისკენ შეაბრუნა და თავი გაუპო. იმ ადგილას სადაც ჰიაცინტის სისხლის წვეთები დაეცა, ამოვიდა ყვავილი ჰიაცინტი. წყაროები რესურსები ინტერნეტში ჰიაცინტის შესახებ არსებული კლასიკური წყაროების კრებული ბერძნული მითოლოგია
141007	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A9%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%29	ვენერას დაბადება (ბოტიჩელი)	ვენერას დაბადება (ბოტიჩელი) „ვენერას დაბადება“ — იტალიელი ფერმწერის, სანდრო ბოტიჩელის ნამუშევარი. ტილო რენესანსის ეპაქაში იყო დაწერილი და დღეს ფლორენციაში ინახება. მასზე ასახულია ვენერას (ბერძ. აფროდიტე) დაბადება. ჰესიოდეს თანახმად ის ზღვის ქაფიდან იშვა კუნძულ კვიპროსზე. თვით ქალღმერთი დგას ნიჟარაში, რაც მის ღვთიურ წარმომავლობაზე მეტყველებს. მარცხენა ფლანგზე ჩვენ ვხედავთ ზეფიროსს (დასავლეთის ქარს), რომელიც თავის მეუღლესთან ქლორიდასთან ერთად ნიჟარას უბერავს. მარჯვენა ფლანგზე ვენერას ერთ-ერთი გრაცია ხვდება. რესურსები ვენერას დაბადება ოქროს კვეთა. ვენერას დაბადება. სანდრო ბოტიჩელი აფროდიტე 1486
460444	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98	თეოდორე დორანიტი	თეოდორე დორანიტი, ასევე პილელისი (გ. 1352, ივლისი) — ბიზანტიელი არისტოკრატი და სამხედრო მოღვაწე ტრაპიზონის იმპერიაში. დორანიტების საგვარელოს გამოჩენილი წევრი. ფართოდ იყო ჩართული ტრაპიზონის სამოქალაქო ომებში. თეოდორე იყო ძმა პროტოვესტიარი კონსტანტინე დორანიტის. 1349/50 წელს ის ფლობდა მეგას სტრატოპედარხის თანამდებობას და მის ვაჟსა და სიძესთან ერთად დატყვევებული იქნა ალექსი III-ის (მმართ. 1349–1390) მიერ. გათავისუფლებისთანავე, 1351 წლის იანვარში ის პროტოვესტიარის თანამდებობაზე დანიშნეს თუმცა ამბოხებისთვის მალევე ისევ დაატყვევეს. 1352 წლის ივლისში ის იმპერატორმა სიკვდილით დასაჯა. ლიტერატურა მიქაელ პანარეტოსი „ტრაპიზონის ქრონიკა“ XIV საუკუნე სქოლიო ტრაპიზონის იმპერიის ადამიანები გარდაცვლილი 1352
524595	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%29	ფონფრია (ტერუელი)	ფონფრია (ტერუელი) ფონფრია — მუნიციპალიტეტი ესპანეთში, შედის არაგონის ავტონომიური გაერთიანების ტერუელის პროვინციის ხილოკის კომარკის შემადგენლობაში. ფართობი — 20,583531 კმ². მოსახლეობა — 26 კაცი (2020 წ.). იხილეთ აგრეთვე ტერუელის მუნიციპალიტეტები რესურსები ინტერნეტში ფონფრიის მუნიციპალიტეტის ოფიციალური საიტი Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa - ფონფრია სქოლიო ტერუელის მუნიციპალიტეტები
429832	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%20%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90	აზერბაიჯანის მუზეუმთა სია	აზერბაიჯანის მუზეუმთა სია ამ სტატიაში მოცემულია აზერბაიჯანში მოქმედი მუზეუმების სია იხილეთ აგრეთვე მუზეუმების სია რესურსები ინტერნეტში The Museum Center of the Ministry of Culture of the Azerbaijan Republic AZERBAIJAN CARPET MUSEUM Azәrbaycan Musiqi Mәdәniyyәti Dövlәt Muzeyi Azerbaijan Independence Museum აზიმ აზიმზადეს სახლ-მუზეუმი აზერბაიჯანი აზერბაიჯანის მუზეუმები მუზეუმები ქვეყნების მიხედვით
226936	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98	იბარის კანტონი	იბარის კანტონი იბარა — კანტონი ეკვადორში, იმბაბურის პროვინციაში. ადმინისტრაციული ცენტრია ქალაქი იბარა. 2001 წლის აღწერის მონაცემებით მოსახლეობა 153 256 ადამიანს შეადგენდა. სქოლიო იმბაბურის პროვინციის კანტონები
36418481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciritd%C3%BCz%C3%BC%2C%20%C5%9Eav%C5%9Fat	Ciritdüzü, Şavşat	Ciritdüzü, Şavşat Ciritdüzü is a village in the Şavşat District, Artvin Province, Turkey. Its population is 226 (2021). References Villages in Şavşat District
222708	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisitor%20alabaster	Inquisitor alabaster	Inquisitor alabaster — მოლუსკების ტიპის მუცელფეხიანთა კლასის ერთ-ერთი წარმომადგენელი. მიეკუთვნება Turridae-ს ოჯახს. სქოლიო მუცელფეხიანები
22865006	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jemal%20Gokieli	Jemal Gokieli	Jemal Gokieli (July 4, 1920 – April 14, 1991) was a Georgian conductor. Biography Jemal (Djemal) Gokieli was born on 4 July 1920 in Kutaisi, Western Georgia into the family of a prominent Georgian composer . In his childhood he used to play on organ in the Catholic church of Kutaisi. In the 1940s he studied conducting at Tbilisi and Moscow Conservatories where his tutors were Odysseas Dimitriadi, Grigori Stoliarov and Aleksandr Gauk. From 1944 until 1948 he worked as a conductor at Tbilisi State Opera and Ballet Theatre. From 1948 until his death on 14 April 1991 he was a conductor of the Georgian State Symphony Orchestra. During his career he held more than 1100 concerts as in his native Tbilisi and other Georgian towns but also in many different places of the Soviet Union, like Moscow, Saint Petersburg and other Russian cities, as well as in all former Soviet Republics. He had concert tours in Poland, Yugoslavia and Romania. His concert activities outside the USSR were limited due to Soviet regime regulations. Gokieli had conducted a number of different symphony orchestras and had performed with a such outstanding musicians as Sviatoslav Richter, Heinrich Neuhaus, David Oistrakh, Maria Yudina, Tatiana Nikolayeva, Gidon Kremer, Vladimir Spivakov, Elisso Virsaladze, Marina Iashvili, Liana Isakadze and others. References Conductors (music) from Georgia (country) 1920 births 1991 deaths Burials at Didube Pantheon People from Kutaisi Soviet conductors (music)
4453772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guarinos	Guarinos	Guarinos is a municipality in northern Goiás state, Brazil. The population was 2,411 (2007) in a total area of . Highway Connections Connections are made from Goiânia by GO-080 / Nerópolis / São Francisco de Goiás / BR-153 / Jaraguá / Rianápolis / Rialma / GO-336 / Itapaci / GO-154 / Pilar de Goiás / GO-439. (unpaved) Neighboring municipalities are Pilar de Goiás, Itapaci, Crixás, Nova América, and Santa Terezinha de Goiás Demographics Population growth rate: -2.51% from 1996/2007 Urban population: 1174 Rural population: 1237. The economy The main economic activities were cattle raising, agriculture and services. There were 23 retail units in August 2007. There were only 35 automobiles in 2007, the lowest number in the state. In 2006 there were 363 farms with a total area of , of which only 350 hectares were cropland. The main agricultural activities were cattle raising (26,100 head in 2007), and cultivation of rice, beans, manioc, corn, and bananas. Health and education The literacy rate was 83.3% in 2000, while there were 5 schools with 594 students in 2006. There were no hospitals and only one doctor. The infant mortality rate was 33.15 in 1,000 live births while the score on the MHDI (Municipal Human Development Index was 0.694 The state ranking was 214 (out of 242 municipalities in 2000) and the national ranking was 3,096 (out of 5,507 municipalities in 2000). Data are from 2000. See also List of municipalities in Goiás References Frigoletto Municipalities in Goiás
155903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rue%20de%20Rivoli	Rue de Rivoli	Rue de Rivoli (English: "Rivoli Street") is a street in central Paris, France. It is a commercial street whose shops include leading fashionable brands. It bears the name of Napoleon's early victory against the Austrian army, at the Battle of Rivoli, fought on 14–15 January 1797. Developed by Napoleon through the heart of the city, it includes on one side the north wing of the Louvre Palace and the Tuileries Gardens. History The Rue de Rivoli is an example of a transitional compromise between an environment of prestigious monuments and aristocratic squares, and the results of modern town-planning by municipal authorities. The new street that Napoleon developed through the heart of Paris includes on one side the north wing of the Louvre Palace, (which Napoleon extended) and the Tuileries Gardens. Upon completion, it was the first time that a wide, well designed and aesthetically pleasing street bound the north wing of the Louvre Palace. Napoleon's original section of the street opened up eastward from the Place de la Concorde. Builders on the north side of the Place Louis XV, (as it then was named) between the Rue de Mondovi and Rue Saint-Florentin, had been constrained by letters patent in 1757 and 1758 to follow a single façade plan. The result was a pleasing uniformity, and Napoleon's planners extended a similar program, which resulted in the arcades and facades that extend for almost a mile along the street. The restored Bourbon King Charles X continued the Rue de Rivoli eastwards from the Louvre, as did King Louis-Philippe. Finally, Emperor Napoleon III extended it into the 17th-century quarter of Le Marais (see: Right Bank). Beneath the Rue de Rivoli runs one of the main brick-vaulted, oval-sectioned sewers of Paris' much-imitated system, with its sidewalks for the sewer workers. In 1852, opposite the wing of the Louvre, Baron Haussmann enlarged the Place du Palais-Royal that is centred on the baroque Palais Royal, built for Cardinal Richelieu in 1624 and willed to the royal family, with its garden surrounded by fashionable commercial arcades. At the rear of the garden is the older branch of the Bibliothèque Nationale, in the Rue Richelieu. North of the Rue de Rivoli, at the point where the Grands Boulevards crossed an enormous new square, the new opera house was built. The Opera Garnier is a monument to the construction of the Second Empire. Just behind the opera house can be found the largest department stores, such as the Galeries Lafayette and Printemps. East along the Rue de Rivoli, at the Place des Pyramides, is the gilded statue of Joan of Arc, situated close to where she was wounded at the Saint-Honoré Gate in her unsuccessful attack on English-held Paris, on September 8, 1429. A little further along, towards the Place de la Concorde, the Rue de Castiglione leads to the Place Vendôme, with its Vendôme Column surmounted by the effigy of Napoleon Bonaparte. He began the building of the street in 1802; it was completed in 1865. A plaque at no. 144 commemorates the assassination there of the Huguenot leader Admiral Gaspard II de Coligny, in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572. In April 2020 the Mayor of Paris announced that cars would be banned throughout summer 2020, suggesting the ban could be made permanent. This is part of the ongoing measures to reduce car use within Paris. See also Rue des Archives, an adjoining street to the north References External links WebMuseum Paris History: Rue de Rivoli 1848 establishments in France Shopping districts and streets in France Streets in the 1st arrondissement of Paris Streets in the 4th arrondissement of Paris Le Marais
5384314	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serrasalmidae	Serrasalmidae	Serrasalmidae The Serrasalmidae (serrasalmids) are a family of characiform fishes, recently elevated to family status. It includes more than 90 species. The name means "serrated salmon family", which refers to the serrated keel running along the belly of these fish. Fish classified as Serrasalmidae are also known by these common names: pacu, piranha, and silver dollar. These common names generally designate differing dental characteristics and feeding habits. Description Serrasalmids are medium- to large-sized characiform fishes that reach about long, generally characterized by a deep, laterally compressed body with a series of midventral abdominal spines or scutes, and a long dorsal fin (over 16 rays). Most species also possess an anteriorly directed spine just before the dorsal fin extending from a supraneural bone; exceptions include members of the genera Colossoma, Piaractus, and Mylossoma. Most serrasalmids have about 60 chromosomes, ranging from 54 to 62. Metynnis has 62 chromosomes, as does Catoprion, Pristobrycon striolatus, and Pygopristis. Distribution Serrasalmids inhabit all major and some minor Atlantic river systems in South America east of the Andes, but have been introduced to other areas. Species range from about 10°N latitude south to about 35°S latitude. Ecology The diets of the various serrasalmid fishes include seeds, fruits, leaves, and various invertebrate and vertebrate prey, as well as fish flesh, scales, and fins. To emphasize the diversity of diets, authors commonly highlight the fruit- and leaf-eating pacus and the highly carnivorous piranhas. Most in the family other than piranhas are primarily herbivorous. In contrast, piranhas have been long believed to be strict carnivores. Many species change diets depending on age and resource availability. The primarily carnivorous piranha group comprises the genera Catoprion, Pristobrycon, Pygocentrus, Pygopristis and Serrasalmus, but based on phylogeny also the mainly herbivorous (although with omnivorous tendencies) Metynnis. The remaining primarily herbivorous species can be divided into two groups based on ecology and, to some extent, phylogeny: Colossoma, Mylossoma and Piaractus are mainly found in relatively slow-moving waters, and feed extensively on fruits, nuts and seeds, playing an important role as seed dispersers. Mylesinus, Myleus, Ossubtus, Tometes and Utiaritichthys are found in fast-flowing sections of rivers, and mainly feed on aquatic plants, especially Podostemaceae. Myloplus mostly feed on plant material and some of its species are phylogenetically related with the previous group, but this genus includes species of both slow and fast-flowing waters. Taxonomy The Serrasalmidae were recently classified as a subfamily of the Characidae. Their relationship to other characiforms has yet to be determined. The taxonomy and systematics of piranhas and their relatives are complicated and much remains unsettled. Consequently, both species identification and phylogenetic placement of many taxa are problematic. However, the ongoing classification of these fish is difficult and often contentious, with ichthyologists basing ranks according to characteristics that may overlap irregularly (see Cladistics). Ultimately, classifications can be rather arbitrary. Despite this, the Serrasalmidae are relatively well understood, and agreement is wide on the genera and species included. Fossil record The fossil record, particularly for piranhas, is relatively sparse. Most known fossils are from the Miocene, although a few unidentified forms are considered Paleocene and two reportedly date to as early as the Late Cretaceous. Fossils of a living species of Colossoma from the Miocene have been described, suggesting a very conservative history for a specialized herbivorous fish. All serrasalmine genera had originated by the middle Miocene, with the possible exception of three of the four piranha genera (Pygocentrus, Pristobrycon, and Serrasalmus). Relationship to humans Many serrasalmids are in demand as aquarium ornamentals, and several pacus, such as Piaractus and Colossoma, are economically important to commercial fisheries and aquaculture. Piranhas are generally less valued, although they are commonly consumed by subsistence fishers and frequently sold for food in local markets. A few piranha species occasionally appear in the aquarium trade, and, in recent decades, dried specimens have been marketed as tourist souvenirs. Piranhas occasionally bite and sometimes injure bathers and swimmers, but serious attacks are rare and the threat to humans has been exaggerated. However, piranhas are a considerable nuisance to commercial and sport fishers because they steal bait, mutilate catch, damage nets and other gear, and may bite when handled. References Fish of South America Extant Miocene first appearances Ray-finned fish families ka:პირანიასებრნი
356615	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%90-%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3	ოშია-ტაუ	ოშია-ტაუ — სოფელი რუსეთში, ბაშკირეთში, იანაულის რაიონში. მიეკუთვნება ნოვოარტაულის სოფსაბჭოს. რაიონულ ცენტრ იანაულიდან განლაგებულია 24 კილომეტრში, სოფსაბჭოს ცენტრ ნოვი-არტაულიდან 7 კილომეტრში, ხოლო უახლოეს რკინიგზის სადგურ იანაულიდან 24 კილომეტრში. 2010 წლის მოსახლეობის აღწერის მიხედვით, სოფელში ცხოვრობდა 19 ადამიანი. მოსახლეობის უმრავლესობას ბაშკირები შეადგენენ. სქოლიო იანაულის რაიონის სოფლები
158351	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%20%281994%29	ბოლივიის მიწისძვრა (1994)	ბოლივიის მიწისძვრა (1994) 1994 წლის 9 ივნისს, ბოლივიაში მოხდა მძლავრი მიწისძვრა. ეპიცენტრი მდებარეობდა ამაზონის ჯუნგლებში მდებარე მეჩხერად დასახლებულ რეგიონში, ლა-პასიდან 200 მილში. ფილების გადაადგილება 647 კმ–ის სიღრმეში დაფიქსირდა და მიწისძვრის სიმძლავრემ 8.2 ბალი შეადგინა, შესაბამისად, ის მსოფლიოში მომხდარ ერთ–ერთ უძლიერეს მიწისძვრას წარმოადგენს. ეს მიწისძვრა ასევე უდიდესია იმით, რომ ერთადერთია, რომელიც დედამიწის სიღრმეში, 300 კმ–ზე ღრმად მოხდა. მცირე ბიძგები დაფიქსირდა ბრაზილიაში, სან-პაულუსა და კანადაში, ტორონტოში. რესურსები ინტერნეტში მიწისძვრა ბოლივიაში მიწისძვრა ბოლივიაში ბოლივიის გეოგრაფია მიწისძვრები ბოლივიაში
1660807	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20M	House of M	House of M "House of M" is a 2005 comic book storyline published by Marvel Comics, consisting of an eight-issue comic book limited series with a number of crossover tie-in books written by Brian Michael Bendis and illustrated by Olivier Coipel. Its first issue appeared in June 2005 as a follow-up to the events of the Planet X and Avengers Disassembled storylines. Magneto, the Scarlet Witch, and her twin brother, Quicksilver, play major roles in the series. Like the Age of Apocalypse (1995–1996) storyline, House of M replaced the Earth-616 as the main reality for a brief time until Scarlet Witch reverted it to normal. The events of the storyline were later indicated to have occurred on Earth-58163. Publication history The first issue was released in June 2005, with the series concluding in November 2005. The first two issues were ranked first and second in sales in the June 2005 period, with the first issue selling over 233,000 copies. The final issue, House of M #8, ranked third in sales for the November 2005 period with sales of 135,462. In addition to the main eight-issue limited series, House of M was preceded by a story in Excalibur #13–14, and had several tie-ins to ongoing series, including Uncanny X-Men, New X-Men: Academy X, The Incredible Hulk and Wolverine, and several miniseries: Fantastic Four: House of M, Iron-Man: House of M, Mutopia X: House of M, and Spider-Man: House of M. Bendis, the lead writer for the House of M event, stated that the series would "shake the world and break the Internet wide open." Before the event, Bendis also mentioned in several interviews that the event would have a lasting effect on the Marvel Universe, but remained tight-lipped as to what. The crossover was followed by a one-shot called House of M: Decimation – The Day After, a series called Son of M that depicts Quicksilver dealing with his loss of powers, and Generation M, which devoted each issue to a different mutant dealing with the loss of their powers. Characters who appeared include Chamber, Jubilee, and Blob. Characters who lost their powers included Dani Moonstar, Magneto, and Tag. The storyline also led to the reboot of Excalibur into New Excalibur, a shift in the creative teams of several comics, and the debut of several spin-off series, including X-Men: Deadly Genesis, X-Men: The 198, Sentinel Squad ONE, Ms. Marvel, and a new X-Factor series. The epilogue to the House of M and Decimation story-lines, served to answer the mystery of the strange "energy-cloud" hovering in orbit around the Earth after House of M #8, was revealed in the pages of New Avengers #16–20 World In this world, Magneto was attacked by Sentinels in Manhattan in 1979 (taking advantage of Marvel's sliding timescale policy, no heroes were active in the 1970s). At the end of the attack, Magneto revealed an alleged international anti-mutant conspiracy involving Richard M. Nixon. As a result, Magneto was granted sovereignty of the island of Genosha as the leader of the world's mutants. Another result was that the protection of mutant life was judged to be the first worry of all laws (as a result, stem cell research on mutant embryos is illegal, but stem cell research on altered human embryos is permitted). Because of this, the world is a racist society, with mutants controlling governments, businesses, and culture, and humans (or "sapiens") are looked down on as inferior (essentially a reversal of the status quo in the mainstream Marvel Universe, where mutants are looked down on and despised instead). Some exceptions apply to "sapiens" who live with privileges like Carol Danvers (Ms. Marvel in Earth-616 continuity, but Captain Marvel in the World of M) and Peter Parker (Spider-Man). Danvers is widely known to be a "sapiens," while Spider-Man is believed by the House of M world at large to be a mutant. Given that the House of M reality was created by the Scarlet Witch and Charles Xavier, combining their powers to give the assembled New Avengers and X-Men their hearts' desires, it appears that Magneto's heart desire was threefold. Primarily, he wanted the entire world to acknowledge that his paranoid fantasies about baseline humans wanting to exterminate mutants were true (hence the Sentinel attack over New York in 1979, which concluded with the release of evidence that the world's human leaders were involved in a genocidal anti-mutant conspiracy). Secondly, he wanted to be acknowledged as a heroic figure and the rightful leader of all mutant-kind (hence the disappearance of Charles Xavier and the timing of Magneto's rise to dominance before other superheroes had appeared on the scene to challenge him). And thirdly, a massive speeding-up of the natural evolution of Homo sapiens into Homo superior; until, by the modern era, they accounted for almost 50% of the global population, providing him with a power base sufficient to take over the governments of the world and use them to oppress baseline humans. It is unclear whether the Scarlet Witch altered the entire Marvel Universe, or merely the structure and history of Earth, a fact further complicated by the events of Secret Invasion. The Skrull Hank Pym stated there was no way the Skrull army could win against such a vast number of mutants, at least possibly implying that the Skrull army was left intact by Wanda's reality warp. Also, Xavier's supposed death in this reality, which conflicts with his reported off-planet actions, further confuses the issue. There is a Kree ambassador called Genis-Vell that appears within this illusory reality, and the Kree are shown to be peacefully collaborating with Earth, indicating that such was the Scarlet Witch's power that she was indeed capable of rewriting all of reality, the entire universe. The universe where House of M takes place is designated as Earth-58163. Synopsis Genesis Wanda Maximoff, also known as the Scarlet Witch, is living on the devastated island of Genosha under the care of Professor Charles Xavier and her father (at the time) Magneto. Professor X informs Magneto that his telepathic powers will no longer be enough to hold back Wanda's reality-warping abilities and that a permanent solution must be found. Magneto blames himself for twisting his children through the strength of his own dreams and ambitions. Meanwhile, Xavier arranges a meeting of the Avengers, the X-Men and several lone heroes to Avengers Tower to decide the fate of Wanda Maximoff. Emma Frost concludes that killing Wanda is the only way to end her destructive magic. Captain America argues that the group should seek alternate methods of dealing with Wanda, including suppression of her powers and her insanity. The X-Men argue that if word gets out that a mutant with the ability to change reality went insane, it would "send human-mutant relations back to the stone age." As the conversation progresses, it is revealed that Professor X asked Doctor Strange to help Wanda, but unfortunately neither was strong enough to combat her magic. Wolverine speaks up, saying that there is no other way—Wanda must be killed. The rest of the group decides that they must talk to Wanda in person before making their decision. Back in Genosha, a distraught Quicksilver rushes to Magneto and reveals that he was just in New York City where he heard that the X-Men and Avengers are planning on killing Wanda. Magneto does not know what to do and, clearly upset, asks: "What would you have me do?" Quicksilver falls to the floor, sobbing, and Magneto glances over at his sleeping daughter. Xavier takes the two groups to Genosha, only to discover that Wanda is missing. Suddenly, the members of the group start to disappear one by one. Spider-Man is soon the only one left and becomes engulfed by a white light. New world When the light departs, the world has changed: Spider-Man is a celebrity married to Gwen Stacy; Cyclops and Emma Frost are married; Doctor Strange is a psychologist; Carol Danvers is Captain Marvel, America's most beloved superhero; Gambit is a criminal; and Steve Rogers is an aged veteran. As the vignettes of their lives are followed, it becomes readily apparent that none of them remembers the change. Wolverine recalls all of his lost memories and knows this new world is a lie. He finds the world has changed into one where Homo superior is the dominant species instead of Homo sapiens. Mutants rule humans—and Magneto and his "House of M" rule mutants. Wolverine seeks help from his fellow X-Men and Avengers. Unable to find Professor X, Wolverine goes looking for Spider-Man and Tony Stark. He is confronted by his "teammates" in the Red Guard, elite mutant soldiers of S.H.I.E.L.D. Wolverine escapes and finds the Human Resistance Movement led by Luke Cage. Cage has gathered other non-mutant crime-fighters to protect humans from the House of M's abuses of power. Wolverine is shocked to see one of the members is Clint Barton (Hawkeye), a hero who had died in the real world. Wolverine explains why he knows this world was created by the Scarlet Witch. He theorizes Magneto used her to create a world where everyone's deepest wish was granted. Magneto got the mutant supremacy he always wanted. Spider-Man got a life of happiness and contentment. Wolverine is an Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. but remembers the world from before 'House of M'. Cage reveals that a little girl named Layla Miller told him almost exactly the same thing days ago. The heroes begin visiting the Avengers and X-Men in their new lives as Layla awakens their true memories. Wake-up call Wolverine and the Human Resistance awaken many heroes to the truth, including Cyclops, Spider-Man, Shadowcat, Doctor Strange, Iron Man, She-Hulk, Daredevil, Rogue, Mystique, Nightcrawler, Toad, and Spider-Woman. Hawkeye becomes distraught over learning of his death and briefly leaves the group. The rest travel to Genosha for a final confrontation with Magneto. Back in Genosha, Magneto receives representatives from around the world to commemorate the mutant triumph over humanity. The heroes attack Magneto and his family directly, while Cloak, Emma Frost, Doctor Strange, and Layla search for Xavier. They find a gravestone with Xavier's name, but Cloak discovers nobody buried beneath it. Battle Against House of M The battle between the House of M and the heroes continues with great ferocity. While the chaos ensues, the Scarlet Witch disappears from the battlefield only to be discovered by Doctor Strange in a tower with her children. The two begin to talk as Doctor Strange attempts to discover the origin of the madness that is happening. Wanda reveals the answer to him in a flashback from when Quicksilver confronted Magneto about the fate of Wanda. It turns out that Quicksilver himself was the one responsible for the creation of the alternate world, suggesting to Wanda to make everyone happy in an almost-perfect world. After this revelation, Emma Frost tells Doctor Strange to ask about the fate of Charles Xavier. Before she can answer, Wanda is struck in the back by an arrow. The attacker is Hawkeye, who begins to break down emotionally to Wanda about his death in the real timeline. After a heated exchange, Hawkeye is killed for the second time as one of the Scarlet Witch's antagonized sons uses his mutant powers to "erase" the Avenger. Meanwhile, in the memorial garden, Magneto confronts Emma Frost and Layla Miller, who reveal the truth to Magneto about all that has happened. He then unleashes his wrath on everyone, especially his son Quicksilver. He kills Quicksilver by pummeling him to a bloody pulp with large pieces of steel. Suddenly, the Scarlet Witch appears and returns her brother to life. She begins to lash out, saying "We're freaks, Mutants... You chose this over us and you ruined us... Daddy!" She then utters "No more mutants." Everything turns to white once again. No More Mutants In a blinding flash, the world seemingly returns to normal. The Avengers come together to try to make sense of what happened that night, only to be confronted by a distraught Doctor Strange, who states that the "House of M" timeline really took place, and its effects are slowly being felt on a wider scale. They later get an alert from the ruins of Avengers Mansion. Investigating, they find Hawkeye's uniform pinned to a wall with his arrows, suggesting Hawkeye is alive. At the Xavier Institute for Higher Learning, most of the students lose their mutant abilities. Emma Frost scans the whole world with Cerebro for mutant activity. She learns the number of mutants in the world has dropped from millions to a few hundred. Spider-Man is distraught and angry with the fact that he still has memories of being married to Gwen Stacy and having a child together. Meanwhile, Wolverine awakens remembering everything about his past. The X-Men fly to Genosha looking for Magneto and his children. They find Magneto is also powerless and does not know where Wanda or Quicksilver have gone. The heroes can only guess what has caused the majority of the mutant population to lose their powers. Xavier is still missing, and Cerebro and Doctor Strange are unable to detect the Scarlet Witch. Hank Pym warns that all these powers could not simply vanish, but are contained somewhere and that because every action has an equal and opposite reaction, the question remains as to what the reaction to these events will be. A colossal red ribbon of energy begins to orbit Earth. "Decimation" The "House of M" storyline resulted in the reduction of the mutant population from millions to hundreds. Only two current members of the X-Men (Polaris and Professor X) suffered this fate, as well as the former X-Man Chamber. Several minor allies and enemies were depowered, including Callisto and the Blob, the longest-running character to be affected. Although their main adversary, Magneto, also lost his abilities, as have two members of the Avengers, Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch. Magneto and Xavier have since been repowered, whilst Polaris and Quicksilver (and others) have either gained new powers (sometimes almost exactly like their old powers) or regained lost powers by other means, within a span of well under two years. Other reasonably popular mutants have also been repowered by technology, such as Wind Dancer and Jubilee. Other consequences include: The temporary disappearance of Charles Xavier (he returned in X-Men: Deadly Genesis without his powers), Scarlet Witch, and Quicksilver. Quicksilver's disappearance is explained in the Son of M limited series. Wolverine's total recall of his past, which caused a serious change in his status. Multiple governments and agencies for which he has worked or which have manipulated him consider him to be one of the most dangerous threats to them. Though not explicitly expressed in the House of M series, as of New Avengers #26, Clint Barton has been revived in the Marvel Universe. The Collective, a new villain that destroyed the Canadian superhero team Alpha Flight, was created as a result of the decimation event. The Collective was apparently formed from all of the mutant energies displaced by Wanda's actions. The Shadow King was able to return to this reality with Shadow-X when Wanda shifted reality. Onslaught was reborn. Jim Jaspers was brought back to life and fused with The Fury. The disappearance of Meggan and return of Captain Britain to the United Kingdom as a result of preventing the destruction of all realities from the strain of the House of M rewriting the Earth-616 reality; later Meggan was reportedly taken prisoner by a demon named Plokta. Finally, she managed to free herself, reuniting with Captain Britain. Due to the vast depowering of mutants, America won the super powers war without lifting a finger. The Skrulls gained a massive advantage in their infiltration and sabotage. With so many millions of mutants killed, lost, or powerless, one of the three primary threats Veranke stated was neutralized. With all the mutant energy released, Vulcan, the third Summers brother, was revived from a long slumber. Illyana Rasputin was reborn as Darkchylde. Worlds Tour The Exiles begin their Worlds Tour in Exiles #69 to chase down Proteus who has been reborn in this new world. It was their first stop of six. "Secret Invasion" In a May 5, 2008, interview, Brian Michael Bendis indicated that the events of "House of M" play into the "Secret Invasion" storyline. The activities of the Skrulls during House of M were covered in New Avengers #45, in which it was revealed that the Skrull agents were able to retain their memories after Wanda alters reality, her powers seemingly unable to detect their true natures and desires, and had attempted to instigate the destruction of the mutants over the alteration. The Skrull queen, still disguised as Jessica Drew, considered the resulting "Decimation" to be a boon to the Skrull's plans as they could now divert the part of their forces intended to deal with Earth's mutant population to other areas. Later miniseries House of M: Avengers The five-issue limited series House of M: Avengers debuted in November 2007, written by Christos Gage and drawn by Mike Perkins. The series spans from 1979 to the present day and acts as a prequel to the original House of M miniseries, showing the formation of Luke Cage's Human Resistance Movement. Civil War: House of M The 2008 miniseries Civil War: House of M depicts how Magneto took over the world and made mutants the dominant race, as well as confirming that Xavier is indeed dead in this reality. It also features House of M versions of Bolivar Trask, Bucky Barnes, Burner, Dragoness, Gateway, Graydon Creed, Lifter, Mimic, Nuke, Randall Darby, Slither, the Soviet Super-Soldiers (Crimson Dynamo, Darkstar, Red Guardian, Titanium Man, Ursa Major, Vanguard), Vashti Cleito-Son, and Warlord Krang. House of M: Masters of Evil Set right after Civil War: House of M, this miniseries depicts how the Hood assembles a gang of the deadliest "sapiens" super-criminals: Madame Masque, Absorbing Man, Batroc the Leaper, Blizzard II, Chemistro III, Cobra, Constrictor, Crossbones, Nitro, Sandman, Titania, Wizard, and the Wrecking Crew (Bulldozer, Piledriver, Thunderball, and Wrecker). "Spider-Verse" In the run-up to the 2014 "Spider-Verse" storyline, the Superior Spider-Man (Doctor Octopus's mind in Spider-Man's body) found himself temporarily trapped in the year 2099 with his attempts to return home via a dimensional portal resulting in him witnessing various alternate worlds where other Spider-Men had been killed by a dimension-hopping adversary including a dead Spider-Man in what appeared to be the world of the House of M. Secret Wars (2015) The "House of M" timeline appeared in the 2015 storyline "Secret Wars". Its location on Battleworld is called the Monarchy of M. Comic tie-ins The "House of M" storyline ties into the following comics: Black Panther #7 Cable & Deadpool #17 Captain America #10 Excalibur (2004 – 2005 series) #13–14 Exiles #69–71 Giant Size: Ms. Marvel #1 House of M #1–8 House of M: Avengers #1–5 House of M: Fantastic Four #1–3 House of M: Iron Man #1–3 House of M: Masters of Evil #1–4 House of M: Spider-Man #1–5 House of M: Civil War #1–5 House of M: Sketchbook Incredible Hulk #83–86 Mutopia X #1–4 (of 5) New Thunderbolts #11 New X-Men: Academy X #16–19 The Pulse #10 "Punyville" (a short piece from Hulk: Broken Worlds #1) Uncanny X-Men #462–465 Wolverine #33–35 Collected editions Trade paperbacks The trade paperbacks collect many of the issues involved with the House of M storyline. Arranged in order, the spines of the books form the House of M logo. Each storyline/paperback contains a mostly standalone side story and can be read individually without any continuity problems. Only the House of M miniseries itself deals with the main storyline. Hardcovers Spin-offs Other versions An issue of What If? using the "House of M" as a springboard asks, "What If Scarlet Witch Ended the House of M event by saying No More Powers?" In this story, all of the heroes of the world lose their powers with mixed results. Characters like Thing, Ms. Marvel and She-Hulk revert to human form, Doctor Strange tells Wong that he cannot connect with magic, Wolverine's adamantium skeleton becomes too heavy for him to bear, Spider-Man is relieved at the loss of his "responsibility", etc. Iron Man believes there is still work to be done and most of the X-Men try to resume normal lives. Iron Man speaks to the Illuminati members about this problem. Red Skull obtains a Cosmic Cube and uses it to take over New York, with the intent to do the same to the planet. Iron Man outfits Wolverine, War Machine, and Carol Danvers with special armored suits. The X-Men appear, using remaining Shi'ar technology in an attempt to stop Red Skull. As a result of this opposition, the Cosmic Cube is destroyed, and the Red Skull is defeated. Many years later, an older Tony Stark is shown visiting Peter Parker, his daughter May and May's young daughter Anna. Stark speculates that if things get bad enough again, superhuman abilities may yet emerge. As he says this, Anna is shown leaping from a monkey bar after a butterfly with uncanny grace and agility. Two issues of What If? in the 2009 series revolve around the Spider-Man: House of M miniseries. The first one asks what would have happened had Emma Frost not wiped Gwen's mind and she had accompanied the heroes to Genosha. The second one asks what would have happened if the Scarlet Witch had allowed Gwen and her son with Peter to exist after returning reality back to normal. In other media The Marvel Cinematic Universe miniseries WandaVision is inspired by the House of M storyline, in which Wanda Maximoff creates an alternate reality after Vision's death, though she only affects one town, Westview instead of the whole world. Her children also appear in the series as well as Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness. See also Marvel Comics multiverse References External links House of M at Marvel.com Interview with Bendis on House of M at Comic Book Resources Tom Brevoort on House of M at Newsarama Tom Brevoort on the House of M tie-ins at Newsarama Bendis talks about House of M Postmortem, Part 1 and Part 2 at Newsarama Comics by Brian Michael Bendis Comics set in New York City Marvel Comics dimensions Scarlet Witch X-Men storylines 2005 comics endings
217982	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20183	NGC 183	NGC 183 — გალაქტიკა ანდრომედას თანავარსკვლავედში. აღმოჩენის თარიღია 1883 წლის 6 ოქტომბერი. ეს ობიექტი შედის ახალ საერთო კატალოგში. იხილეთ აგრეთვე მესიეს ობიექტების სია ახალი საერთო კატალოგი რესურსები ინტერნეტში ინფორმაცია ინგლისურად და ფრანგულად ორიგინალი ახალი საერთო კატალოგიდან გალაქტიკები ანდრომედას თანავარსკვლავედი
1203794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honky%20Ch%C3%A2teau	Honky Château	Honky Château is the fifth studio album by English musician Elton John. It was released in 1972, and was titled after the 18th century French chateau where it was recorded, Château d'Hérouville. The album reached number one in the US, the first of John's seven consecutive US number one albums. Two singles were released worldwide from Honky Château, "Rocket Man" and "Honky Cat". A third single, "Hercules", was prepared for release, but this never materialised. This was the final Elton John album on the Uni label in the US and Canada before MCA consolidated all of its various labels under the MCA brand. This and John's earlier Uni albums were later reissued on MCA Records. In 2003, the album was ranked number 357 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. It was revised to number 359 in 2012, and raised to number 251 in a 2020 list. It was certified gold in July 1972 and platinum in October 1995 by the RIAA. Music Honky Château was the first in Elton John's streak of chart-topping albums in the US, which culminated with 1975's Rock of the Westies. It was also the first studio album to feature John's road band of Dee Murray on bass and Nigel Olsson on drums, along with new member Davey Johnstone on electric and acoustic guitars and other fretted instruments, as the core group of musicians. Previously, the record label insisted that John use them for only one track each on Tumbleweed Connection and Madman Across the Water; the rest of the songs on those two albums were performed by session players. Johnstone had played acoustic guitar, mandolin and sitar on Madman Across the Water, but on Honky Chateau, he would be invited to join permanently as a full-band member and he extended his contributions to electric guitar, banjo, slide guitar and backing vocals. The opening track "Honky Cat" is a New Orleans funk track reminiscent of Dr. John and Allen Toussaint, and features a four-piece horn section arranged by producer Gus Dudgeon. Also of note is the on-record debut of the backing vocal combination of Johnstone, Murray and Olsson, who first added what would soon become their "trademark" sound to "Rocket Man". The trio's unique approach to arranging their backing vocal tracks would be a fixture on John's singles and albums for the next several years. In 1995, Dudgeon remastered the album, adding only an uptempo, piano-based, rock and roll version of "Slave", that was originally sidelined in favour of the slower, guitar-based version on the original LP. This alternate version was originally due to be released as the B-Side to the ultimately unreleased "Hercules" single. It did not get an official release until it appeared on the compilation Rare Masters in 1992. In February 2023, John announced the album would be reissued in a 50th Anniversary edition on LP (two versions: double LP set and single LP on gold vinyl) and 2-CDs. The double LP and 2-CD configurations include outtakes from the original session tapes. The 2CD format additionally contains eight live recordings from the Royal Festival Hall show in 1972. It was released on 24 March 2023. Reception Critical appraisal Critically, Honky Château is regarded as one of John's finest records. Jon Landau of Rolling Stone approved the original LP as "a rich, warm, satisfying album that stands head and shoulders above the morass of current releases". In the Los Angeles Times, Robert Hilburn hailed the music as innovative and Taupin's lyrics as humorous, ironic and satirical. Retrospective reviews of Honky Château have also been mostly positive. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote of the album that it "plays as the most focused and accomplished set of songs Elton John and Bernie Taupin ever wrote," and characterized it as being an eclectic collection of "ballads, rockers, blues, country-rock, and soul songs.". Chris Roberts also praised the album in a review for BBC, saying that the album "stands up as one of [John's] most eclectic, durable collections". Chart success Honky Château became the first of a string of albums by Elton John to hit No. 1 in the Billboard Charts in the US. In Canada, the album peaked at No. 3 on the RPM 100 Top Albums Chart, reaching this position on 29 July 1972, dropping two places to No. 5, then returning to No. 3 for a further twelve consecutive weeks before falling to No. 9 on 4 November of the same year. Track listing The album, including the bonus track, was also released in 2004 as a "Hybrid SACD" remixed in 5.1. Personnel Track numbers refer to CD and digital releases of the album. Elton John – vocals, acoustic piano (1–6, 8–10), Fender Rhodes (1), Hammond organ (2, 4), harmonium (6) David Hentschel – ARP synthesizer (5, 10) (credited as "David Henschel" on sleeve) Davey Johnstone – banjo (1, 7); electric, acoustic and slide guitars (2–10); backing vocals (3, 5, 6, 8, 10), steel guitar (7), mandolin (9) Dee Murray – bass guitar, backing vocals (3, 5, 6, 8, 10) Nigel Olsson – drums (1–8, 10), tambourine (2, 4), backing vocals (3, 5, 6, 8, 10), congas (7) Ray Cooper – congas (8) Jean-Louis Chautemps – saxophone (1) Alain Hatot – saxophone (1) Jacques Bolognesi – trombone (1) Ivan Jullien – trumpet (1) Jean-Luc Ponty – electric violin (2, 8) "Legs" Larry Smith – tap dance (3) Gus Dudgeon – brass arrangements (1), additional backing vocals (10), whistle (10) Madeline Bell – backing vocals (6) Tony Hazzard – backing vocals (6), additional backing vocals (10) Liza Strike – backing vocals (6) Larry Steel – backing vocals (6) Production Producer – Gus Dudgeon Engineer – Ken Scott Remastering – Tony Cousins Cover photo – Ed Caraeff Liner notes – John Tobler SACD Authoring – Gus Skinas Digital transfers – Ricky Graham Surround mix – Greg Penny Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References External links Elton John albums 1972 albums Albums produced by Gus Dudgeon DJM Records albums Uni Records albums Albums recorded at Trident Studios Albums recorded in a home studio
448245	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%20%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90	ალექსანდრე ნეველის ეკლესია	ალექსანდრე ნეველის ეკლესია შეიძლება აღნიშნავდეს: დონის ნახიჩევანის ალექსანდრე ნეველის ეკლესია — ეკლესია დონის ნახიჩევანში დონის როსტოვის ალექსანდრე ნეველის ეკლესია — ეკლესია დონის როსტოვში თბილისის ალექსანდრე ნეველის ეკლესია — ეკლესია თბილისში ნოვოჩერკასკის ალექსანდრე ნეველის ტაძარი — მართლმადიდებლური ტაძარი ნოვოჩერკასკში
196945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back%20in%20Black	Back in Black	Back in Black is the seventh studio album by Australian rock band AC/DC, released by Albert Productions and Atlantic Records on 25 July 1980. It was the band's first album to feature Brian Johnson as lead singer, following the death of Bon Scott, their previous vocalist. After the commercial breakthrough of their 1979 album Highway to Hell, AC/DC was planning to record a follow-up, but in February 1980, Scott died from alcohol poisoning after a drinking binge. Instead of disbanding, the remaining members of the group decided to continue on and recruited Johnson, who had previously been vocalist for Geordie. The album was composed by Johnson and brothers Angus and Malcolm Young, and recorded over seven weeks in the Bahamas from April to May 1980 with producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange, who had also produced Highway to Hell. Following its completion, the group mixed Back in Black at Electric Lady Studios in New York City. The album's all-black cover was designed as a "sign of mourning" for Scott. Back in Black was an unprecedented commercial and critical success. It has sold an estimated 50 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums in music history. AC/DC supported the album with a yearlong world tour that cemented them among the most popular music acts of the early 1980s. The album received positive critical reception at the time of its initial release, and has since been included on numerous lists of "greatest" albums. On 9 December 2019, the album was certified 25× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), making it the fourth best-selling album in the United States, and the best-selling album that never reached the top spot on the American charts. Background Formed in 1973, AC/DC first broke into international markets in 1977 with their fourth album, Let There Be Rock, and by 1979 they were poised for greater success with their sixth studio album, Highway to Hell. Producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange helped to make the band's sound more catchy and accessible, and Highway to Hell became their first gold album in the United States, selling over 500,000 copies, while also peaking at number 17 on that country's pop charts and number eight in the United Kingdom. As the new decade approached, the group set off for the UK and France for the final leg of the Highway to Hell Tour, planning to begin recording their next album shortly after playing those dates. On 19 February 1980, vocalist Bon Scott went on a drinking binge in a London pub that caused him to lose consciousness, so a friend let him rest in the back of his Renault 5 overnight. The next morning, Scott was found unresponsive and rushed to King's College Hospital, where medical personnel pronounced him dead on arrival. The coroner ruled that pulmonary aspiration of vomit was the cause of Scott's death, but the official cause was listed on the death certificate as "acute alcoholic poisoning" and classified as "death by misadventure". Scott was cremated, and his ashes were interred by his family at Fremantle Cemetery in Fremantle, Western Australia. The loss devastated the band, who considered breaking up, but friends and family persuaded them to carry on. After Scott's funeral on 1 March, the band immediately began auditions for a replacement frontman. At the advice of Lange, they brought in Geordie-singer Brian Johnson, who impressed the group. The band begrudgingly worked through the rest of the list of applicants in the following days, and then brought Johnson back for a second rehearsal. On 29 March, to Johnson's surprise, Malcolm Young called the singer to offer him the job. Recording and production As AC/DC commenced writing new material for the followup to Highway to Hell, vocalist Bon Scott, who began his career as a drummer with The Spektors, played the drums on demo recordings of "Let Me Put My Love into You" and "Have a Drink on Me". In a 2021 interview with Paste, Angus Young claimed this was the full extent of Scott's contributions to Back in Black (though, at this point, he said the demos on which Scott played drums were of "Hells Bells" and "Have a Drink on Me"), but, in a 1991 interview with Kerrang!, Angus had said, in response to a question about Scott having any lyrical input on the album: "Bon wrote a little of the stuff." It has also been said that none of Scott's writings were used for the album's lyrics because the group felt it might make it seem as though they were trying to profit from his passing. Jesse Fink's 2017 book Bon: The Last Highway examines the issue of Scott's possible involvement in writing lyrics for the album. Three weeks of rehearsals for Back in Black were scheduled at London's E-Zee Hire Studios, but the rehearsals were cut to one week when an opening came up at Compass Point Studios in Nassau, in the Bahamas. Although the band had wanted to record their next effort in the UK, there were no studios available, and the Bahamas presented a nice tax advantage, so Back in Black was recorded at Compass Point from mid-April to May 1980 with producer "Mutt" Lange. Johnson recalled that "It was hardly any kind of studio, we were in these little concrete cells, comfy mind, you had a bed and a chair. And this big old black lady ran the whole place. Oh, she was fearsome, she ruled that place with a rod of iron. We had to lock the doors at night because she'd warned us about these Haitians who'd come down at night and rob the place. So she bought us all these six-foot fishing spears to keep at the fucking door! It was a bit of a stretch from Newcastle, I can tell you." Around the time of the band's arrival in the Bahamas, the area was hit by several tropical storms, which wreaked havoc on the electricity at Compass Point. Johnson referenced the bad weather on the opening lines of "Hells Bells": "I'm rolling thunder, pourin' rain. I'm comin' on like a hurricane. My lightning's flashing across the sky. You're only young but you're gonna die." In addition, some of the group's equipment was initially held up by customs, while other gear was slowly freighted over from the UK. Having never recorded with the group, Johnson felt pressure during the process, and he also reported having trouble adjusting to the environment. Lange focused particular attention on Johnson's vocals, demanding perfection out of each take. The general attitude during recording was optimistic, though engineer Tony Platt was dismayed to find the rooms at Compass Point were not sonically complementary to the group's sound, which was designed to be very dry and compact. A humorous anecdote from the sessions involved a take being interrupted by a crab shuffling across the studio's wooden floor. Angus Young's particular guitar sound on the album was achieved, in part, through the use of the Schaffer–Vega diversity system, a wireless guitar device designed by Ken Schaffer that provided a signal boost and was reissued as a separate guitar effect in 2014. Near the end of the recording process, the band asked manager Ian Jeffery to find a bell to include on the album. Jeffery located a foundry to produce the bell, but, with seven weeks having already gone by, he suggested Platt instead record the bells of a nearby church. Platt did so, but these recordings did not suffice, due to the sound of a flurry of birds flying away that accompanied each peal of the bells. The foundry brought forward production on the bell, which turned out perfectly tuned, and it was recorded with Ronnie Lane's Mobile Studio. Following the completion of recording, Back in Black was mixed at Electric Lady Studios in New York City. According to Angus Young, the album's all-black cover was a "sign of mourning" for Scott. Atlantic Records disliked the cover, but accepted it, on the condition that the band put a grey outline around the AC/DC logo. Release and promotion Back in Black was first released in the United States on 25 July 1980. Its release in the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe followed on 31 July, and it was released in Australia on 11 August. The album was an immediate commercial success, debuting at number one on the British albums chart and reaching number four on the American chart, which Rolling Stone called "an exceptional showing for a heavy-metal album". It topped the British chart for two weeks, and remained in the top 10 of the American chart for more than five months. In Australia, the album reached number two on the ARIA Charts. After Back in Black was released, AC/DC's previous records Highway to Hell, If You Want Blood You've Got It, and Let There Be Rock all re-entered the British charts, which made them the first band since The Beatles to have four albums in the British Top 100 simultaneously. Back in Blacks American success prompted Atlantic, the band's US record company, to release their 1976 album Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap for the first time in the US, and in May 1981 Dirty Deeds reached number three on the US chart, surpassing Back in Blacks peak position. To promote the album, music videos were filmed for "You Shook Me All Night Long", "Hells Bells", the title track, "Rock and Roll Ain't Noise Pollution", "Let Me Put My Love into You", and "What Do You Do for Money Honey", though only the first four of those songs were released as singles. "You Shook Me All Night Long" became AC/DC's first Top 40 hit in the US, peaking at number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100. On 13 December 2007, the album was certified 22× multi-platinum by the RIAA, denoting 22 million American sales. This placed it sixth on the list of the best-selling albums in the US. Worldwide, it has sold 50 million copies, leading Mark Beaumont of NME to call it "the biggest selling hard rock album ever made"; rock historian Brock Helander had previously called it "ostensibly the best-selling [...] heavy-metal album in history". Critical reception Reviewing the album for Rolling Stone in 1980, David Fricke regarded it as "not only the best of AC/DC's six American albums", but also "the apex of heavy-metal art: the first LP since Led Zeppelin II that captures all the blood, sweat and arrogance of the genre." Red Starr of Smash Hits was more critical, saying he found the songs indistinguishable from one another and marred by hypermasculine fantasies, rock music stock phrases, garish guitar, and dull rhythms, on "yet another triumph for lowest common denominator headbanging—the new thoroughly predictable, thoroughly dreadful AC/DC album", and gave Back in Black a score of 3 out of 10. In a retrospective review, Rolling Stone critic Christian Hoard praised the album as the band's greatest work, possibly "the leanest and meanest record of all time—balls-out arena rock that punks could love." Barry Walters from Rolling Stone said Back in Black "still sounds thoroughly timeless, the essence of unrepentantly simple but savagely crafted hard rock" and called the album "a celebration of thrashing, animal sex", though he observed "mean-spirited sexism" on songs such as "What Do You Do for Money Honey" and "Given the Dog a Bone". Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic, writing in Christgau's Record Guide: The '80s (1990) that he found the band somewhat too "primitive" and their sexual imagery "unimaginative", and that, on the album, "Angus Young does come up with killer riffs, though not as consistently as a refined person like myself might hope, and lead singer Brian Johnson sings like there's a cattle prod at his scrotum, just the thing for fans who can't decide whether their newfound testosterone is agony or ecstasy." Writing in 2011, Kitty Empire of The Observer admitted the album is "a preposterous, drongoid record [...] built on casual sexism, eye-rolling double entendres, a highly questionable attitude to sexual consent ('Don't you struggle/ Don't you fight/ Don't you worry/ Cos it's your turn tonight') a penchant for firearms, and a crass celebration of the unthinking macho hedonism that killed the band's original singer", but, nonetheless, concurred with Fricke's original view of the album as a heavy metal masterpiece and named it her favourite album ever, "the obsessive soundtrack of my adolescence, the racy middle-brow thriller that spoke to me both as a tomboy who wanted to be one of the guys, and the increasingly female ingenue who needed to work out the world of men. Plus teenagers love death." The album is featured on many "best of" lists. Rolling Stone ranked it number 26 on their 1989 list of the "100 Best Albums of the Eighties", and number 73 on their 2003 list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" (it was number 77 on the 2012 revised list and number 84 on the 2020 list), while the title track was ranked number 190 on their list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". VH1 ranked Back in Black number 82 on their 2001 list of the "Top 100 Albums", and the title track was ranked number 2 on their list of the "100 Greatest Hard Rock Songs". Q ranked the album number 9 on their 2006 list of the "40 Best Albums of the '80s", Time included it in their 2010 "All-TIME 100 Albums" list, and Rolling Stone Australia ranked it number one on their December 2021 list of the "200 Greatest Australian Albums of All Time". In 2005, the album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die, and it was listed at number 2 in the 2010 book 100 Best Australian Albums. Legacy and influence Back in Black is an influential hard rock and heavy metal album. According to Tim Jonze of The Guardian, it has been hailed by some as "a high watermark" for heavy metal music. NME regarded it as an important release in 1980s metal and heavy rock, naming it one of the 20 best metal albums of its decade, while The Daily Telegraph ranked it as one of the 20 greatest heavy metal albums of all time. Paul Brannigan of Metal Hammer cited it as one of the ten albums that helped reestablish the genre's global popularity in 1980, which he called "the greatest year for heavy metal". According to rock journalist Joe S. Harrington, Back in Black was released at a time when heavy metal stood at a turning point between a decline and a revival, as most bands in the genre were playing slower tempos and longer guitar solos, while AC/DC and Van Halen adopted punk rock's "high-energy implications" and "constricted their songs into more pop-oriented blasts". Harrington credited producer Lange for drawing AC/DC further away from the blues-oriented rock of their previous albums, and toward a more dynamic attack that concentrated and harmonized each element of the band: "the guitars were compacted into a singular statement of rhythmic efficiency, the rhythm section provided the thunderhorse overdrive, and vocalist Johnson belowed and brayed like the most unhinged practitioner of bluesy top-man dynamics since vintage Robert Plant." The resulting music, along with contemporaneous records by Motörhead and Ozzy Osbourne, helped revitalize and reintroduce metal to a younger generation of listeners, "eventually resulting in the punk-metal crossover personified by Metallica and others." In 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die (2008), Tom Moon said Back in Blacks "lean mean arena rock" and the production's "delicate balance of power and finesse [...] defined the commercial side of heavy music for years after its release." Lange's production for the album has had an enduring impact in the music industry. Harrington wrote that "to this day, producers still use it as the de facto paint-by-numbers guidebook for how a hard-rock record should sound", and, in the years after its release, studios in Nashville would use it to check the acoustics of a room, while Motörhead would use it to tune their sound system. American death metal group Six Feet Under recorded a cover of the entire album under the title Graveyard Classics 2. Track listing According to the official AC/DC website and most worldwide releases, track four is "Given the Dog a Bone". On some albums, particular Australian releases, and also in the iTunes Store, it is sometimes shown as either "Giving the Dog a Bone" or "Givin the Dog a Bone". PersonnelAC/DCBrian Johnson – lead vocals Angus Young – lead guitar Malcolm Young – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Cliff Williams – bass guitar, backing vocals Phil Rudd – drumsProduction' Robert John "Mutt" Lange – production Tony Platt – assistant engineering Benji Armbrister – assistant engineering Jack Newber – assistant engineering Brad Samuelsohn – mixing Bob Ludwig – mastering (original LP) Barry Diament – mastering (original CD releases) Ted Jensen – remastering (EMI/Atco reissue) George Marino – remastering (Epic reissue) Bob Defrin – art direction Robert Ellis – photography Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications See also List of best-selling albums List of best-selling albums in Australia List of best-selling albums in France List of best-selling albums in the United States List of diamond-certified albums in Canada List of number-one albums in Australia during the 1980s List of Top 25 albums for 1980 in Australia List of Canadian number-one albums of 1981 List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 1980s References Bibliography . External links 1980 albums AC/DC albums Albert Productions albums Albums produced by Robert John "Mutt" Lange Albums recorded at Electric Lady Studios Atlantic Records albums Albums in memory of deceased persons
218121	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20516	NGC 516	NGC 516 — გალაქტიკა თევზების თანავარსკვლავედში. აღმოჩენის თარიღია 1862 წლის 25 სექტემბერი. ეს ობიექტი შედის ახალ საერთო კატალოგში. იხილეთ აგრეთვე მესიეს ობიექტების სია ახალი საერთო კატალოგი რესურსები ინტერნეტში ინფორმაცია ინგლისურად და ფრანგულად ორიგინალი ახალი საერთო კატალოგიდან გალაქტიკები თევზების თანავარსკვლავედი
1688540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childebert%20III	Childebert III	Childebert III (or IV), called the Just (c. 678/679 – 23 April 711), was the son of Theuderic III and Chrothildis (or Doda) and sole king of the Franks (694–711). He was seemingly but a puppet of the mayor of the palace, Pepin of Heristal, though his placita show him making judicial decisions of his own will, even against the Arnulfing clan. His nickname has no comprehensible justification except possibly as a result of these judgements, but the Liber Historiae Francorum calls him a "famous man" and "the glorious lord of good memory, Childebert, the just king." He had a son named Dagobert, who succeeded him, as Dagobert III but his wife was not Edonne, the invention of later fantasists. It is possible, though not likely, that Chlothar IV was also his son. He spent almost his entire life in a royal villa on the Oise. In 708, during his reign of sixteen years, the bishop of Avranches, Saint Aubert, founded the monastery of Mont-Saint-Michel supposedly at the urging of the Archangel Michael. Upon his death on 23 April 711, southern Gaul began to grow independent: Burgundy under Bishop Savaric of Auxerre, Aquitaine under Duke Odo the Great, and Provence under Antenor. He died at St Etienne, Loire, France. He was buried in the church of St Stephen at Choisy-au-Bac, near Compiègne. Notes External links From Merovingians to Carolingians: Dynastic Change in Frankia. Merovingian kings 7th-century births 711 deaths 7th-century Frankish kings 8th-century Frankish kings
550161	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94	გვანცელაძე	გვანცელაძე საკუთარი სახელი გვანცელაძე შეიძლება აღნიშნავდეს ერთ-ერთ შემდეგ პიროვნებათაგანს: დავით გვანცელაძე — სპორტსმენი (ბერძნულ-რომაული ჭიდაობა) ვაჟა გვანცელაძე — თერაპევტი, სპორტსმენი (კალათბურთელი) ვლადიმერ გვანცელაძე — საბჭოთა კავშირის გმირი თეიმურაზ გვანცელაძე — ენათმეცნიერი იოსებ გვანცელაძე — მხატვარი, პოეტი ქართული გვარები
444832	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%20%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98	შანდორ კოჩიში	შანდორ კოჩიში შანდორ პეტერ კოჩიში (დ. 21 სექტემბერი 1929, ბუდაპეშტი, უნგრეთი — გ. 22 ივლისი 1979, ბარსელონა, ესპანეთი) — უნგრელი ფეხბურთელი, თავდამსხმელი. იცავდა „ფერენცვაროშის“, „ჰონვედის“, „იანგ ფელოუზის“, „ბარსელონასა“ და უნგრეთის ეროვნული ნაკრების ღირსებას. 1952 წლის ოლიმპიური ჩემპიონი და 1954 წლის მსოფლიოს ვიცე-ჩემპიონი უნგრეთის ეროვნული ნაკრების შემადგენლობაში. ითვლება უნგრეთის ყველა დროის ერთ-ერთ უდიდეს ფეხბურთელად. მიღწევები საკლუბო ფერენცვაროში უნგრეთის საფეხბურთო ჩემპიონატი ჩემპიონი: 1948–49 ვიცე-ჩემპიონი: 1949–50 ბრინჯაოს პრიზიორი: 1947–48 ჰონვედი უნგრეთის საფეხბურთო ჩემპიონატი ჩემპიონი: 1950, 1952, 1954, 1955 ვიცე-ჩემპიონი: 1951, 1953 უნგრეთის საფეხბურთო თასი ფინალისტი: 1955 ბარსელონა ესპანეთის პრიმერა დივიზიონი ჩემპიონი: 1958–59, 1959–60 ვიცე-ჩემპიონი: 1961–62, 1963–64 ბრინჯაოს პრიზიორი: 1965–66 ესპანეთის საფეხბურთო თასი თასის მფლობელი: 1959, 1963 ბაზრობათა თასი თასის მფლობელი: 1960 ევროპის ჩემპიონთა თასი ფინალისტი: 1961 სანაკრებო უნგრეთი ზაფხულის ოლიმპიური თამაშების საფეხბურთო ტურნირი ჩემპიონი: 1952 მსოფლიო ჩემპიონატი ვიცე-ჩემპიონი: 1954 ინდივიდუალური უნგრეთის წლის საუკეთესო ფეხბურთელი: 1954 უნგრეთის ჩემპიონატის საუკეთესო ბომბარდირი: 1951, 1952, 1954 მსოფლიო ჩემპიონატის საუკეთესო ბომბარდირი: 1954 (11 გოლი) ყველა დროის 100 საუკეთესო ფეხბურთელი World Soccer-ის ვერსიით: 1999 XX საუკუნის 100 საუკეთესო ფეხბურთელი Placar-ის ვერსიით: 1999 რესურსები ინტერნეტში შანდორ კოჩიში — Association of Football Statisticians შანდორ კოჩიში — FootballDatabase.eu შანდორ კოჩიში — MagicalMagyars.com შანდორ კოჩიში — National-football-teams.com შანდორ კოჩიში — Official website of FC Barcelona შანდორ კოჩიში — Planet World Cup შანდორ კოჩიში — Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation შანდორ კოჩიში — WorldFootball.net სქოლიო დაბადებული 1929 დაბადებული 21 სექტემბერი გარდაცვლილი 1979 გარდაცვლილი 22 ივლისი უნგრელი ფეხბურთელები ესპანეთის პრიმერა დივიზიონის ფეხბურთელები ბარსელონის ფეხბურთელები 1952 წლის ზაფხულის ოლიმპიური თამაშების მედალოსნები
61174	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98	ამინდი	ამინდი — ატმოსფეროს ფიზიკური მდგომარეობა მიწის ზედაპირთან კონკრეტულ ადგილას მოცემულ მომენტში ან გარკვეულ ინტერვალში (დღე-ღამე, დეკადა, თვე და სხვ.). ამინდი ხასიათდება მეტეოროლოგიური სიდიდეების მნიშვნელობათა ერთობლიობით: ატმოსფერული წნევა, ნალექები, ტემპერატურა, ჰაერის ტენიანობა, ქარის ძალა და მიმართულება; ღრუბლიანობის ხასიათი და მზის სიკაშკაშე, ნისლი, ჭექა-ქუხილი და სხვა ატმოსფერული მოვლენები. ამინდის მრავალწლოვანი რეჟიმი აყალიბებს კლიმატს (ჰავას). ამინდზე საუბრისას ჩვეულებრივ განიხილავენ მიწისპირა ფენას, „საცხოვრებელ ფენას“, თუმცა ატმოსფერული პროცესები სხვადასხვა სიმაღლეზე ერთმანეთთანაა დაკავშირებული, ამიტომ ამინდის შეცვლის მიზეზთა გაგებისათვის აუცილებელია ატმოსფეროს ყველა სიზრქის შესწავლა. განსაზღვრულ ტერიტორიაზე ამინდის განაწილება გამოისახება სინოპტიკური რუკების მეშვეობით, რომლებზეც გავლებულია იზობარები, პირობითი ნიშნებით აღნიშნულია ციკლონებისა და ანტიციკლონების, ატმოსფერული ფრონტების, ნალექების ზონების, ნისლებისა და სხვათა მდებარეობა. ადამიანის საქმიანობის მრავალი სფეროს განვითარებასთან ერთად ჩნდება ამინდის შესახებ ახალი ინფორმაციის მიღების მოთხოვნილება. ავიაციის გაჩენამ მასში მოიცვა ატმოსფეროს მახასიათებლები მიწისპირა ფენიდან ქვედა სტრატოსფერომდე და მთელ მარშრუტზე აფრენიდან დაჯდომამდე. საავიაციო მეტეოროლოგიაში დიდ ყურადღებას უთმობენ ამინდის ისეთ დამატებით მახასიათებლებს, როგორიცაა ხილვადობის სიშორე ატმოსფეროში, ტურბულენტობა და ატმოსფერული ელექტრობა, ქარის ძვრა, ჭავლური დინებების არსებობა და მათი თავისებურებები და სხვ. აგრომეტეოროლოგიისათვის მნიშვნელოვანია მონაცემები ნალექების, ჰაერის მაღალი ტემპერატურის ხანგრძლივობის (კვირა, დეკადა, თვე), მისი ფარდობითი ტენიანობის დაბალი მაჩვენებლების შესახებ, მცენარეთა ვეგეტაციის დროს ნიადაგსა და ჰაერში უარყოფითი ტემპერატურის გამოჩენის ალბათობა. გაჩნდა ცნება „ეფექტური ტემპერატურა“. სოფლის მეურნეობაში ის განისაზღვრება როგორც სხვაობა ფაქტობრივ ტემპერატურასა და ბიოლოგიური მინიმუმის მნიშვნელობას შორის; მედიცინაში — ტემპერატურა, რომელიც ახასიათებს ადამიანის ორგანიზმის მიერ სითბოს ან სიცივის სუბიექტურ აღქმას, მასში გაითვალისწინება ქარის სიჩქარე, ჰაერის ტენიანობა, ინსოლაცია; მშენებლობაში — ჰაერის ტემპერატურა ნაგებობის შიგნით შემომზღუდავი კონსტრუქციების (კედელი, ფანჯარა და სხვ.) სითბოგამტარობის, გარე ტემპერატურისა და ქარის სიჩქარის მიხედვით. ამინდის ცვლილება დედამიწის ნებისმიერ წერტილში ამინდი წლის, თვის, დღე-ღამის, საათისა და წუთის განმავლობაში განიცდის ცვლილებებს. ამ ცვლილებათა ნაწილს პერიოდული ხასიათი აქვს, კერძოდ კი მათ, რომლებიც დამოკიდებულია უშუალოდ მზის რადიაციის მოქმედებაზე და დაკავშირებულია დედამიწის ბრუნვასთან თავისი ღერძის (დღე-ღამური ცვლილებები) ან მზის გარშემო (წლიური ცვლილებები). ამინდის დღე-ღამური მიმდინარეობა ყველაზე მეტად გამოხატულია მიწის ზედაპირთა, რადგან ჰაერის ტემპერატურის ცვლილება დამოკიდებულია მიწის ზედაპირის ტემპერატურის ცვლილებაზე, ხოლო თავის მხრივ, მათზეა დამოკიდებული ტენიანობა, ღრუბლიანობა, ნალექები, ქარი. თავისუფალ ატმოსფეროში სიმაღლის ზრდასთან ერთად ტემპერატურისა და ჰაერის ტენიანობის დღე-ღამური ცვალებადობების ამპლიტუდები და ქარის სიჩქარე კლებულობს. ამინდის წლიური მიმდინარეობა, რომელიც წელიწადის დროების ცვლაში გამოიხატება, მთელ ატმოსფეროში ვრცელდება. შენიშვნები სქოლიო კლიმატოლოგია
156293	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%20%28%E1%83%AD%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AF%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%29	ზენი (ჭუბურხინჯის თემი)	ზენი (ჭუბურხინჯის თემი) ზენი — სოფელი აფხაზეთის ავტონომიურ რესპუბლიკაში, გალის მუნიციპალიტეტში (ჭუბურხინჯის თემი), სამურზაყანოს დაბლობზე, მდინარე ენგურის მარჯვენა ნაპირას. ზღვის დონიდან 100 მ, გალიდან 10 კმ. 2008 წლიდან ოკუპირებულია რუსეთის ფედერაციის მიერ ლიტერატურა სქოლიო ჭუბურხინჯის თემის სოფლები
292810	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A-%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98	ალ-მუსთაქფი	ალ-მუსთაქფი აბდალაჰ იბნ ალ-მუქთაფი (; უკეთ ცნობილი, როგორც ალ-მუსთაქფი ბილაჰი დ. 905 — გ. სექტემბერი/ოქტომბერი 949 — აბასიანთა სახალიფოს ხალიფა 944-946 წლებში. ტახტზე აიყვანა თურქმა მხედართმთავარმა ტუზუნმა, რომელმაც გადააყენა და დააბრმავა წინა ხალიფა ალ-მუთაქი. ალ-მუსთაქფი დაამხეს აჯანყებულებმა, რომლებმაც ტახტზე აიყვანეს წინა ხალიფას ვაჟი ალ-მუტი. ლიტერატურა William Muir: The Caliphate, its rise, decline and fall სქოლიო აბასიანთა ხალიფები დაბადებული 905 გარდაცვლილი 949
281609	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%20%28%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%29	ტასკო (ბოიაკა)	ტასკო (ბოიაკა) ტასკო — ქალაქი და მუნიციპალიტეტი კოლუმბიაში, ბოიაკის დეპარტამენტში. მდებარეობს ზღვის დონიდან 2.571 მეტრზე. 2005 წლის მონაცემებით, მოსახლეობა 6 707 ადამიანს შეადგენდა, სიმჭიდროვე 40.16 ადამიანი კმ²-ზე. ფართობი 167 კმ²-ია. იხილეთ აგრეთვე კოლუმბიის ქალაქების სია რესურსები ინტერნეტში კოლუმბიის მოსახლეობის 2005 წლის აღწერის მონაცემები — კოლუმბიის სტატისტიკის ეროვნული დეპარტამენტი statoids.com-ის მონაცემები ბოიაკის დეპარტამენტის მუნიციპალიტეტები და ქალაქები
18837101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qulb%C9%99nd%C9%99	Qulbəndə	Qulbəndə (also, Gülbəndə and Gyul’benda) is a village and municipality in the Agdash Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 1,315. The municipality consists of the villages of Qulbəndə, Orta Qəsil, Bəylik, and Aşağı Qəsil. References Populated places in Agdash District
534821	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98	ილონგოსი	ილონგოსი (ოფიციალურად ილონგოსის მუნიციპალიტეტი;) ― მეორე კლასის მუნიციპალიტეტი ლეიტეს პროვინციაში, ფილიპინებში. 2020 წლის აღწერით, მუნიციპალიტეტის მოსახლეობა 64 514 ადამიანს შეადგენს. მოიცავს 51 ბარანგაის. კლიმატი რესურსები ინტერნეტში Local Governance Performance Management System All about Hilongos სქოლიო ლეიტეს პროვინციის მუნიციპალიტეტები
16048596	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Atilius%20Regulus%20%28consul%20257%20BC%29	Gaius Atilius Regulus (consul 257 BC)	Gaius Atilius Regulus (consul 257 BC) Gaius Atilius Regulus (257–250 BC) was a Roman Republican consul who twice held the consulship in the middle of the 3rd century (257, 250) BC. He seems not to be closely related to M. Atilius M.f L.n. Regulus, for the grandfather of Regulus Serranus was named Marcus. Most likely the grandfathers were brothers and the successive consuls of 257 and 256 were second cousins. Career Gaius Atilius M.f. M.n Regulus Serranus was consul for the first time in 257 BC, with the patrician Gnaeus Cornelius Blasio, and prosecuted the First Punic War against the Carthaginians. He defeated the Carthaginian fleet off the Liparaean islands, though not without considerable loss. He then obtained possession of the islands of Lipara and Melite, which he laid waste with fire and sword. On his return to Rome, he received the honour of a naval triumph. Atilius was consul a second time in 250, with his patrician colleague being Lucius Manlius Vulso. Legend says he was plowing in the field when the delegation from Rome informed him that he had been re-elected consul (Aen. 6.844). In this year, the Romans gained a brilliant victory at Panormus, under the proconsul Lucius Caecilius Metellus. Thinking that the time had now come to bring the war to a conclusion, they sent both consuls to Sicily with an army of four legions and two hundred ships. Regulus and his colleague undertook the siege of Lilybaeum, the most important Carthaginian possession in Sicily; but they were foiled in their attempts to carry the place by storm and, after losing a great number of men, were obliged to turn the siege into a blockade. References Sources William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, "G. Atilius M. f. M. n. Regulus Serranus" William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, "Serranus" 3rd-century BC deaths 3rd-century BC Roman consuls Regulus, Gaius consul 497 AUC Roman commanders of the First Punic War Ancient Roman generals Year of birth unknown Year of death uncertain
46189593	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksey%20Prokhorov	Aleksey Prokhorov	Aleksey Prokhorov Aleksey Nikolayevich Prokhorov (19 January 1922 27 May 2002) was an Il-2 pilot in the Soviet Air Forces during the Second World War who was twice awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Early life Prokhorov was born on 19 January 1922 to a Russian family in the village of Rozhdestvenskoe, in the Novokhopyorsky Uyezd of Voronezh Governorate. A decade after moving to the city of Borisoglebsk in 1930 he graduated from the local aeroclub and his tenth grade of school before being drafted into the Red Army in August 1940. Upon graduating from the Balashov Military Aviation School of Pilots in December 1942 he was posted to the 15th Separate Training Aviation Regiment, where he trained to fly the Il-2 until February 1943. World War II Soon arriving at the warfront in March 1943 as a pilot in the 15th Guards Assault Aviation Regiment he rose up through the ranks and became close friends with Vladimir Aleksenko, another future twice Hero of the Soviet Union. By the time he was nominated for his first gold star on 11 November 1944 he had reached to position of deputy squadron commander and totaled 180 sorties. Later on during the battle for East Prussia he sometimes flew 3-4 sorties in a day, and during the entire operation not a single squadron member under his command was killed in action. On victory day he was nominated for a second gold star; during the war he flew in the battles for Leningrad, Königsberg, Novgorod, Tallinn, Vyborg, and Zemland among other strategically important areas as part of the Leningrad and 3rd Belorussian fronts, tallying a total of 238 sorties on the Il-2 in combat. Postwar Initially remaining a squadron commander in his wartime regiment until October 1945. After graduating from the Air Force Academy of Monino in 1950 he became the deputy commander of the 232nd Assault Aviation Regiment, and in December 1953 he transferred to the position of regimental commander of the 947th Assault Aviation Regiment, which turned into a bomber regiment in 1956. He then became of commander of the 947th Fighter-Bomber Aviation Regiment, in May 1957, but in December 1958 he left the post of regimental commander. From 1959 to 1960 he worked at the 4th Research Center for Combat Use of the Air Force, where he researched fighter aircraft, and the next year he became chief of staff for the 455th Research Aviation Regiment, where he remained until becoming a lecturer at the Frunze Military Academy in 1967. In 1975 he moved on to become deputy head of the Irkutsk Higher Military Aviation Engineering School, and the next year he was promoted to the rank general-major; however, he left Siberia and returned to teaching at the Frunze Military Academy in 1979, where be remained until 1987. From then until retiring in February 1988 he headed the flight safety department of the air force. He died in Moscow on 27 May 2002 and was buried in the Troyekurovskoye Cemetery. Awards and honors Twice Hero of the Soviet Union (19 April 1945 and 29 June 1945) Order of Lenin (19 April 1945) Three Order of the Red Banner (27 January 1944, 17 June 1944, and 29 November 1944)) Order of Alexander Nevsky (29 March 1945) Order of the Patriotic War 1st class (12 September 1944 and 11 March 1985) Order of the Red Star (23 July 1943 and 30 December 1956) Order "For Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR" 3rd class (30 April 1975) campaign and jubilee medals References Bibliography 1922 births 2002 deaths People from Povorinsky District People from Novokhopyorsky Uyezd Soviet major generals Soviet World War II pilots Heroes of the Soviet Union Recipients of the Order of Alexander Nevsky Recipients of the Order of Lenin Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner Burials in Troyekurovskoye Cemetery
223410	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxiclionella	Toxiclionella	Toxiclionella — მოლუსკების ტიპის მუცელფეხიანთა კლასის ერთ-ერთი წარმომადგენელი. მიეკუთვნება Turridae-ს ოჯახს. სქოლიო მუცელფეხიანები
1119962	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irupi	Irupi	Irupi is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Espírito Santo. Its population was 13,526 (2020) and its area is 185 km². References Municipalities in Espírito Santo
549306	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98	ნიკოლეიშვილი	ნიკოლეიშვილი საკუთარი სახელი ნიკოლეიშვილი შეიძლება აღნიშნავდეს ერთ-ერთ შემდეგ პიროვნებას: ავთანდილ ნიკოლეიშვილი — ფილოლოგი ლევან ნიკოლეიშვილი — სამხედრო პირი ქართული გვარები
5327436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera%20%28disambiguation%29	Opera (disambiguation)	Opera (disambiguation) Opera is a Western performance art which combines music and drama. Opera may also refer to: In arts and entertainment Art forms Chinese opera, an art form combining music and drama rooted in traditional Chinese culture Opéra comique, a French opera genre List of opera genres, opera's many different forms In music Opera (band), an Italian pop-rock band active between 1975 and 1985 Albums Opera (Andrea Bocelli album) Opera (Tosca album), 1997 Ópera, 1991 album by Todmobile Songs "Opera" (Çetin Alp song), 1983 "Opera" (Super Junior song), 2012 "The Opera", a song from the musical Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 Opera companies and venues Opera Comique, London theatre (1870–1902), known for Gilbert and Sullivan operas Opéra-Comique, Paris opera company and opera house Opera house, a theatre building used for opera performances Opéra, a commonly used name for the Paris Opera Magazines Opera (British magazine), a British publication covering opera Opera (Japanese magazine), a Japanese manga magazine Other uses in arts and entertainment Opera (1987 film), a horror film by Dario Argento Opera (2020 film), a South Korean/American animated short film "Opera" (The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!), a 1989 live-action episode of the TV series "The Opera" (Seinfeld), a 1992 episode of the TV series Businesses Opera (fabrica ecclesiae), non profit foundations for the maintenance of churches and religious buildings in Italy Opera, a Japanese adult video studio founded by Kaoru Toyoda Places Opera (Budapest Metro), a station of the Millennium Underground line of the Budapest Metro Opéra (Paris Métro), a station of the Paris rapid transit system Opera, Lombardy, a municipality in the province of Milan, Italy In science and technology Opera (web browser) and Opera Software, the Norwegian software company behind it OPERA experiment, a particle-physics experiment aiming to detect neutrino oscillations OPERA, a property-management system for hotels, developed and marketed by MICROS Systems, Inc. Other uses OPERA, one of the five words in the first-century Latin word square, the Sator Square MSC Opera, a cruise ship Opera cake, a type of French cake Operation Opera, a 1981 Israeli air strike Opera publica, construction or engineering projects carried out in ancient Rome See also Horse opera, melodramatic, formulaic Western movie or TV series Opus (disambiguation) Rock opera, a rock album or performance in which the songs form a cohesive story Soap opera (disambiguation) Space Opera (disambiguation)
148642	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%B0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94	ლჰოძე	ლჰოძე — რვაათასიანი მწვერვალი ჰიმალაის მთებში, ჩინეთსა და ნეპალში. სიმაღლის მიხედვით დედამიწის მე-4 მწვერვალი. სიმაღლე 8516 მ. ადმინისტრაციულად მოქცეულია ჩინეთის — ტიბეტის ავტონომიური რეგიონისა და ნეპალის — ქუმბუს რეგიონის საზღვარზე. წარმოადგენს ევერესტის მასივის ნაწილს. უკანასკნელთან დაკავშირებულია სამხრეთი უნაგირათი. აგებულია კრისტალური ქანებით. მთავარ მწვერვალთან ერთად ლჰოძე წარმოდგენილია შედარებით მცირე მწვერვალებით: შუა ლჰოძეთი (8414 მ) და ლჰოძე-შარით (8383 მ). ტიბეტურად ლჰოძე ნიშნავს „სამხრეთის მწვერვალს“. იხილეთ აგრეთვე რვაათასიანი მწვერვალები რესურსები ინტერნეტში რვაათასიანი მწვერვალი ლჰოძე რვაათასიანი მწვერვალი ლჰოძე ჩინეთის მთები ნეპალის მთები
538589	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%20%28%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%29	ნოვოპავლივკა (ბერისლავის რაიონი)	ნოვოპავლივკა (ბერისლავის რაიონი) ნოვოპავლივკა — სოფელი უკრაინაში. მდებარეობს ხერსონის ოლქის ბერისლავის რაიონში. 2013 წელს სოფლის მოსახლეობა 773 კაცს შეადგენდა. რესურსები ინტერნეტში სოფლის ამინდი ბერისლავის რაიონის სოფლები
516255	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%20%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%20%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98	ანდრეი რუბლიოვის მუზეუმი	ანდრეი რუბლიოვის მუზეუმი ანდრეი რუბლიოვის სახელობის ძველრუსული კულტურისა და ხელოვნების ცენტრალური მუზეუმი — დაარსებულია პეტრე ბარანოვსკის, იგორ გრაბარის, ნიკოლოზ ვორონინის და პავლე მაქსიმოვის მიერ. 1947 წელს, მოსკოვის 800 წლისთავთან დაკავშირებით, მათ თხოვნით მიმართეს მთავრობას, რომ ანდრონიკოვის მონასტრის ტერიტორია დაეთმოთ მუზეუმისთვის. მუზეუმის კოლექცია მოიცავს XII-XX საუკუნეების 13000-ზე მეტ ექსპონატს: ხატს, ფრესკას, ხის სკულპტურას, ძველ ხელნაწერ და ბეჭდურ წიგნებს, სპილენძის და კერამიკის ნაკეთობებს, ასევე არქეოლოგიურ მონაპოვრებსაც. 1949 წლამდე საბჭოთა ხელისუფლების რელიგიური პოლიტიკის გამო, მუზეუმი დირექტორის გარეშე იყო. სსრკ კულტურის სამინისტროს ძეგლთა დაცვის განყოფილების უფროსის, შალვა რატიას ინიციატივით, პირველ დირექტორად მოიწვიეს ქართველი სწავლული, დავით არსენიშვილი 1951 წელს სსრკ მინისტრთა საბჭომ განიხილა მუზეუმის საკითხი, რომელიც რუსეთის სსრ მინისტრთა საბჭოს თავ-რემ, ბორის ჩერნოუსოვმა წამოაყენა. კომისიის თავმჯდომარემ, მიხეილ სუსლოვმა დავით არსენიშვილს მხარი დაუჭირა და მონასტრის შენობა მუზეუმს დაუტოვა. 1985 წელს, მუზეუმის თანამშრომლების ინიციატივით, შენობის წინ სკვერში დაიდგა ანდრეი რუბლიოვის ძეგლი (არქიტექტორი ოლეგ კომოვი). 1991 წელს კი მუზეუმი რუსეთის კულტურული მემკვიდრეობის ძეგლების სიაში შეიტანეს. 1998 წლის რესტავრაციის შემდეგ მნიშვნელოვნად გაიზარდა ექსპოზიციები. პირველი დირექტორის დავით არსენიშვილის ხსოვნის პატივსაცემად მუზეუმის კედელზე გაკეთდა ზურაბ წერეთლის ნამუშევარი ბარელიეფი წარწერით. 2013 წლიდან კი ყოველწლიურად იმართება სამეცნიერო კონფერენცია „რუსეთი-საქართველო. კულტურების დიალოგი“. მასში მონაწილეობას იღებენ როგორც რუსი მეცნიერები, ასევე სტუმრები საქართველოდან, რომელთა შორის ქართული მართლმადიდებლური ეკლესიის წარმომადგენლებიც არიან. ექსპოზიცია მუზეუმის კოლექციის ფორმირება დაიწყო 1954 წლიდან მუზეუმის თანამშრომლების პირველ სამეცნიერო ექსპედიციებთან ერთად. პირველი 5 ნამუშევარი ვლადიმირის მხარეთმცოდნეობის მუზეუმიდან შეირჩა იმ ექსპონატებიდან, რომლებიც, ადგილობრივი ხელისუფლების აზრით, განადგურებას ექვემდებარებოდა. მეორე ფასეული ძღვენი 1955 წელს მიიღეს სუზდალის მამათა მონასტრიდან. 1960 წელს, მუზეუმის გახსნის მომენტში, კოლექცია 317 ხელოვნების ძეგლს მოიცავდა. იხილეთ ასევე ანდრონიკოვის მონასტერი რესურსები ინტერნეტში В гости к Андрею Рублёву в музей Спасо-Андроников монастырь სქოლიო მოსკოვის მუზეუმები რუსეთის მუზეუმები რუსეთის კულტურული მემკვიდრეობის ძეგლები მოსკოვში მოსკოვის კულტურული მემკვიდრეობის ფედერალური ობიექტები
481648	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasioglossum%20dathei	Lasioglossum dathei	Lasioglossum dathei — მწერი ჰალიქტიდების ოჯახისა. შედის მსოფლიოში ყველაზე მრავალრიცხოვან — Lasioglossum-ის გვარში. აღწერილია 2008 წელს. იხილეთ აგრეთვე Lasioglossum-ის სახეობების სია სქოლიო dathei
18872302	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaqublu%2C%20Oghuz	Yaqublu, Oghuz	Yaqublu, Oghuz Yaqublu (also, Ashaga Yakublu and Yagublu) is a village and municipality in the Oghuz Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 603. References Populated places in Oghuz District
549025	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1-%E1%83%98-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98	სან-ანდრეს-ი-საუსესი	სან-ანდრეს-ი-საუსესი — მუნიციპალიტეტი ესპანეთში, შედის კანარის კუნძულების ავტონომიური გაერთიანების სანტა-კრუს-დე-ტენერიფეს პროვინციის შემადგენლობაში. მდებარეობს კუნძულ პალმაზე. ფართობი — 42,75 კმ². მოსახლეობა — 4170 კაცი (2022 წ.). იხილეთ აგრეთვე სანტა-კრუს-დე-ტენერიფეს მუნიციპალიტეტები რესურსები ინტერნეტში სან-ანდრეს-ი-საუსესის მუნიციპალიტეტის ოფიციალური საიტი სქოლიო სანტა-კრუს-დე-ტენერიფეს მუნიციპალიტეტები
8660	https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%20II	სულეიმან II	სულეიმან II (დ. 15 აპრილი, 1642, სტამბოლი — გ. 22 ივნისი, 1691, ედირნე) — ოსმალეთის იმპერიის სულთანი 1687–1691 წლებში, იბრაჰიმ I-ისა და სალიჰა დილაშუბ სულთნის ვაჟი, სულთან მეჰმედ IV-ის უმცროსი ძმა. ტახტზე ასვლამდე სულეიმან II დაიბადა 1642 წელს, თოფქაფის სასახლეში, სტამბოლში. ის იყო სულთან იბრაჰიმის მეორე ვაჟი. 1648 წელს იბრაჰიმი ტახტიდან ჩამოაგდეს და შეცვალეს მისი 6 წლის ვაჟით, მეჰმედით. ამის შემდეგ სულეიმანი და მისი დანარჩენი ძმები თითქმის 40 წლის განმავლობაში, 1648-1687 წლებში, მეჰმედ III-ის მიერ შემოღებული ტრადიციის მიხედვით, გამოკეტილნი იყვნენ თოფქაფის სასახლის კაფესში, სპეციალურ გისოსებში. მიუხედავად ამისა, სულეიმანი მეჰმედ IV-ის მემკვიდრედ განიხილებოდა, რადგან 1617 წლიდან მოყოლებული ოსმალეთის სასულთნო ტახტის მემკვიდრედ დინასტიის ყველაზე უფროსი შეჰზადე ითვლებოდა. მისი ტახტზე აყვანა რამოდენიმეჯერ სცადეს იანიჩრებმა, მაგრამ 1687 წლამდე მიზანს ვერ მიაღწიეს. მმართველობა ჰაბსბურგთა ავსტრიის წინააღმდეგ დაწყებული დიდი თურქული ომის წარუმატებლობის გამო, 1687 წლის ნოემბერში, სულთან მეჰმედ IV იანიჩრებმა ტახტიდან ჩამოაგდეს და სულთნობა სწორედ სულეიმანს უბოძეს. სულეიმან II სახელმწიფო საქმეებით ნაკლებად იყო დაკავებული, მან გაატარა რამდენიმე უმნიშვნელო რეფორმა, რომლებსაც არანაირი კარგი შედეგი არ მოუტანიათ დასუსტებული ოსმალეთის იმპერიისათვის. სულეიმანი იყო ძალიან მორწმუნე ადამიანი და დროის უმეტესობას ლოცვაში ატარებდა, ხოლო სახელმწიფო საქმეებს განაგებდნენ მისი ვეზირები, რომელთა შორისაც ყველაზე ცნობილია ქოფრიულიუ ფაზილ მუსტაფა-ფაშა (1689-1691 წწ.). მისი მმართველობის პერიოდში ოსმალეთის იმპერია იბრძოდა რუსეთის სამეფოს, ჰაბსბურგთა ავსტრიისა და პოლონეთის წინააღმდეგ. 1688 წელს ოსმალები დაუპირისპირდნენ ავსტრია-პოლონეთის გაერთიანებულ არმიას მდინარე დუნაის პირას. ბრძოლამდე 2 თვით ადრე სულეიმანმა დახმარების წერილი გაუგზავნა დიდ მოგოლთა იმპერატორს, აურანგზებს, მაგრამ უარი მიიღო. თურქები სასტიკი მარცხი განიცადეს და დაკარგეს ბელგრადი. 1690 წელს ფაზილ მუსტაფა-ფაშას სარდლობით მათ შეძლეს ბელგრადის დაბრუნება, მაგრამ მცირე ხნით. სულთანი გარდაიცვალა 1691 წელს გულის წყალმანკით, თავის საყვარელ ედირნეს სასახლეში. დაკრძალეს სულეიმანიეს მეჩეთში. მის შემდეგ ოსმალეთის სულთანი გახდა მისი უმცროსი ძმა, აჰმედ II. იხილეთ აგრეთვე ოსმალეთის სულთნების სია ლიტერატურა Ali Kemal Meram, Padişah Anaları: Resimli Belgesel Tarih Romanı, Öz Yayınları, 1977 ოსმალეთის სულთნები ოსმანების დინასტია დაბადებული 15 აპრილი დაბადებული 1642 გარდაცვლილი 22 ივნისი გარდაცვლილი 1691
15860133	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia	Unification of Saudi Arabia	Unification of Saudi Arabia {{Infobox military conflict \| conflict = Unification of Saudi Arabia \| partof = the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I (1914–1918)Aftermath of World War I \| image = \| caption = Present Saudi state (Saudi Arabia) \| date = November 1901 – 14 June 1934 \| place = Arabian Peninsula (including South Arabia), Mandatory Iraq, Transjordan and Kuwait \| casus = The unification of most of the Arabian Peninsula into a single nation. \| result = Saudi takeover of central and northern parts of Arabia: End of the Emirate of Jabal Shammar and Kingdom of Hejaz. End of the Ottoman empire and its presence in the Arabian Peninsula. Proclamation and establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. Annexation of Asir, Najran and Jizan after the Saudi-Yemeni War in 1934. \| combatant1 = House of Saud Saudi Army Ikhwan Supported by:<ref name=leatherdale95>Leatherdale, Clive. and Saudi Arabia, 1925-1939: the Imperial Oasis. p.115.</ref> Italy \| combatant2 = (1916–1925) Hejazi Army Hejaz Air Force Supported by: \| combatant3 = Ottoman Empire (until 1919) Emirate of Jabal ShammarSupported by: \| combatant4 = \| commander1 = Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Muhammad bin Abdul Rahman Sultan bin Bajad Faisal al-Duwaish Eqab bin Mohaya Khaled bin Luai \| commander2 = Hussein bin Ali Ali bin Hussein \| commander3 = \| commander4 = Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din Ahmad bin Yahya \| strength1 = 76,500 in 1925 150,000 in 1928 400,000 in 1932 \| strength2 = 38,000 \| strength3 = 23,000 \| strength4 = 37,000 \| casualties1 = Unknown \| casualties2 = Unknown \| casualties3 = \| casualties4 = \| notes = 18,000+ killed in total }} The Unification of Saudi Arabia was a military and political campaign in which the various tribes, sheikhdoms, city-states, emirates, and kingdoms of most of the central Arabian Peninsula were conquered by the House of Saud, or Al Saud. Unification started in 1902 and continued until 1932, when the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was proclaimed under the leadership of Abdulaziz, known in the West as Ibn Saud, creating what is sometimes referred to as the Third Saudi State, to differentiate it from the Emirate of Diriyah, the First Saudi State and the Emirate of Nejd, the Second Saudi State, also House of Saud states. The Al-Saud had been in exile in the British-protected Emirate of Kuwait since 1893, after their second episode of removal from power and dissolution of their polity, this time by the Al Rashid Emirate of Ha'il. In 1902, Abdulaziz Al Saud recaptured Riyadh, the Al Saud dynasty's former capital. He went on to subdue the rest of Nejd, al-Hasa, Jebel Shammar, Asir, and Hejaz (the location of the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina) between 1913 and 1926. The resultant polity was named the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz from 1927 until it was further consolidated with al-Hasa into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. It has often been claimed that this process caused some 400,000 to 800,000 casualties. However, recent research suggests that though bloody, the number of deaths and injuries was significantly lower. Background Following the Diriyah agreement between Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud, the Al Saud clan founded the First Saudi State, a state based on a strict interpretation of Islam. The ideology born of this period was later dubbed Wahhabism. Originating in the Nejd region of central Arabia, the First Saudi State conquered most of the Arabian Peninsula, culminating in the capture of the Muslim holy city of Mecca in 1802. The loss of Mecca was a significant blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, which had exercised sovereignty over the holy city since 1517, and the Ottomans were finally moved to action against the Al Saud. The task of destroying the Saudis was given to the powerful viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, who sent troops to the Hejaz region and recaptured Mecca. His son, Ibrahim Pasha, meanwhile led Ottoman forces into the heart of Nejd, capturing town after town in the Nejd Expedition. On reaching the Saudi capital at Diriyah, Ibrahim placed it under siege for several months until it surrendered in the winter of 1818. He then sent many members of the clans of Al Saud and Ibn Abdul Wahhab to Egypt and the Ottoman capital of Constantinople and ordered the systematic destruction of Diriyah. The last Saudi imam (leader), Abdullah bin Saud, was later executed in Istanbul. The Al Saud survived in exile and went on to found the Second Saudi State, which is generally considered to have lasted from Turki ibn Abdallah's capture of Riyadh (which he designated as the new capital) in 1824 until the Battle of Mulayda in 1891. The Second Saudi period was marked by instability, which the Al Rashid clan of Jebel Shammar were able to exploit. The Saudi leader, Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal, sought refuge in Ottoman Iraq in 1893. History Saudi take over of Riyadh In 1901, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud–later to be known as Ibn Saud– asked the Emir of Kuwait for men and supplies for an attack on Riyadh. Already involved in several wars with the Rashidis, the Emir agreed to the request, giving Ibn Saud horses and arms. Although the exact number of men waxed and waned during the subsequent journey, he is believed to have left with around 40 men. In January 1902, Ibn Saud and his men reached Riyadh. With only a small force, he felt that the only way to take the city was to capture Masmak fort and kill Ibn Ajlan, Chief of Riyadh, and having achieved these goals they successfully took the city within the night. With the capture of his family's ancestral home, Ibn Saud proved he possessed the qualities necessary to be a sheikh or emir: leadership, courage, and luck. This marked the beginning of the third Saudi state. Ibn Saud's dominions became known as the Emirate of Riyadh which lasted until 1921. Saudi–Rashidi War The Saudi–Rashidi War, also referred as the "First Saudi–Rashidi War" or the "Battles for Qasim", was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Sultanate of Nejd versus the Emirate of Ha'il (Jabal Shammar), under the Rashidis. The warfare period of sporadic battles ended with Saudi takeover of the Al-Qassim Region, after decisive victory in Qasim on 13 April 1906, though other engagements followed into 1907. Al-Hasa and Qatif In 1913, Ibn Saud, with support from the Ikhwan, conquered al-Hasa from an Ottoman garrison which had controlled the area from 1871. He then integrated al-Hasa and Qatif into the Emirate. The people in these areas were Shia, whereas the Saudis were Sunni Wahhabi puritans, resulting in harsh treatment for Shi'a Muslims in Saudi Arabia, as opposed to the relatively tolerant treatment by Sunni Ottomans. Kuwait–Najd War The Kuwait-Najd War occurred because Ibn Saud wanted to annex Kuwait. Ibn Saud insisted that Kuwait's territory belonged to him. The sharpened conflict between Kuwait and Najd led to the death of hundreds of Kuwaitis. The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–1920. Following Kuwait–Najd War, Ibn Saud imposed a tight trade blockade against Kuwait for 14 years from 1923 until 1937. The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible. At the Uqair conference in 1922, the boundaries of Kuwait and Najd were set. Kuwait had no representative at the Uqair conference. Ibn Saud persuaded Sir Percy Cox to give him two-thirds of Kuwait's territory due to his de facto control of it. More than half of Kuwait was lost due to Uqair. After the Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudi raiding. During World War I In December, the British government (started early 1915) attempted to cultivate favor with Ibn Saud via its secret agent, Captain William Shakespear, and this resulted in the Treaty of Darin. After Shakespear's death at the Battle of Jarrab, the British began supporting Ibn Saud's rival Sharif Hussein bin Ali, leader of the Hejaz. Lord Kitchener also appealed to Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca for assistance in the conflict and Hussein wanted political recognition in return. An exchange of letters with Henry McMahon assured him that his assistance would be rewarded between Egypt and Persia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. Contrary to its negotiations with Ali, the British entered into the Treaty of Darin, which made the lands of the House of Saud a British protectorate. Ibn Saud pledged to again make war against Ibn Rashid, who was an ally of the Ottomans. Ibn Saud was also given a sum of £20,000 upon signing the treaty as well as a monthly stipend of £5000 in exchange for waging war against Ibn Rashid. First Nejd–Hejaz War The First Saudi-Hashemite War or the Al-Khurma dispute took place in 1918–1919 between Abdulaziz Al Saud of the Emirate of Nejd and the Hashemites of the Kingdom of Hejaz. The war came within the scope of the historic conflict between the Hashemites of Hejaz and the Saudis of Riyadh (Nejd) over supremacy in Arabia. It resulted in the defeat of the Hashemite forces and capture of al-Khurma by the Saudis and his allied Ikhwan, but British intervention prevented the immediate collapse of the Hashemite kingdom, establishing a sensitive cease-fire, which would last until 1924. Conquest of Ha'il Conquest of Ha'il, also referred as the Second Saudi–Rashidi War, was engaged by the Saudi forces with its ally Ikhwan tribesmen upon the Emirate of Ha'il (Jabal Shammar), under the last Rashidi rulers. On 2 November 1921, Jebel Shammar was completely conquered by Saudi forces and subsequently incorporated into the Sultanate of Nejd. Ikhwan raids Raids on Transjordan Ikhwan raids on Transjordan were a series of plunders by the Ikhwan, irregular Arab tribesmen of Najd, on Transjordan between 1922 and 1924. Though the raids were not orchestrated by Ibn Saud, the ruler of Nejd, nothing was done by him to stop the raiding parties of his ally Ikhwanis. This however changed after the conquest of Hejaz, when the increasingly critical and negative stance of Ibn Saud on Ikhwan raids developed into an open feud and essentially a bloody conflict since 1927. In the early 1920s, the repeated Wahhabi incursions of Ikhwan from Najd into southern parts of his territory were the most serious threat to emir Abdullah's position in Transjordan. The emir was powerless to repel those raids by himself, thus the British maintained a military base, with a small air force, at Marka, close to Amman. 1921 raid on Mandatory Iraq In 1921, an Ikhwan party raided southern Iraq which was under the British mandate, pillaging Shia villages, resulting in the massacre of 700 Shias. Second Nejd–Hejaz War The Saudi conquest of Hejaz was a campaign, engaged by Saudi Sultan Abdulaziz Al Saud to take over the Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz in 1924–1925. The campaign successfully ended in December 1925, with the fall of Jeddah. Subsequently, in 1926, Abdulaziz was proclaimed king of Hejaz, and raised Nejd to a kingdom as well in 1927. For the next five-plus years, the Saudi domains were referred to as the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz, though they were administered as separate units. Ikhwan rebellion As Saudi expansion slowed in the 1920s, some among the Ikhwan pushed for continued expansion, particularly to the British-controlled territories such as Transjordan to the north - where the Ikhwan raided in 1922 and 1924. By this time, the few parts of central Arabia that hadn't been overrun by the Saudi-Ikhwan forces had treaties with Britain, and Abdulaziz was sober enough to realize the folly of a potential conflict with the British. However, the Ikhwan had been taught that all non-Wahhabis were infidels. Faisal al-Dawish of the Mutair tribe and Sultan bin Bajad of the Otaiba tribe, the leaders of the Ikhwan, were among those who accused Abdulaziz of going "soft", with the former reportedly telling the latter that the Saudis were "as much use as camel bags without handles". A rebellion erupted, climaxing in a battle at Sabillah, which some have labeled a massacre but pro-Saudi sources consider to have been a fair fight. Additional battles erupted through 1929 in Jabal Shammar and in the vicinity of the Awazim tribe. The rebellion was put down in 1930, with the surrender of last opposition elements. Though the survivors were jailed, their descendants remained opposed to Saudi rule, and one such descendant, Juhayman al-Otaibi, would gain infamy in 1979 when he led the Grand Mosque Seizure. Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia From 1927 to 1932, Ibn Saud administered the two main portions of his realm, Nejd and the Hejaz, as separate units. On 23 September 1932, Ibn Saud proclaimed the union of his dominions into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud's eldest son Saud became crown prince in 1933. Aftermath Annexation of Asir The region of Asir, in what is today southern Saudi Arabia, had been under Turkish rule from 1871 until the outbreak of the First World War, at which point its emir, Hasan ibn Ali Al Aid, "became virtually independent" and attempted to rule from Abha. However, a struggle ensued between his forces and those of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi, who eventually set up the short-lived Idrisid Emirate under Saudi tutelage. The emirate was subsumed by the Saudi state following a 1930 treaty which provided for the territory to come under Ibn Saud's direct control upon its emir's death. The Emirate was eventually incorporated into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1934. Saudi–Yemeni War With the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, a Zaidi state was forged in Yemen under Imam Muhammad bin Yahya Hamid ad-Din and his descendants. The Yemenis claimed parts of Asir and came to blows with the Saudis in 1933. Writing in the American journal Foreign Affairs in 1934, historian Hans Kohn noted, "Some European observers have wished to explain the armed conflict as a conflict between British and Italian policy in Arabia." Despite British ties to Saudi Arabia and Italian ties to Yemen, he concluded that "the rivalry between the two rulers is in no way caused or fostered by the rivalry of the two European states." However, in 1998, Alexei Vassiliev wrote, "The imam was instigated both by the Italians, who promoted assistance in order to increase their influence in Yemen, and by the British, who wished to detract Imam Yahya's attention from their protectorates in Aden." The Saudis struck back, reaching the Yemeni port of Al Hudaydah before signing a "treaty of Muslim friendship and Arab brotherhood" in Ta'if, which was published simultaneously in Mecca, Sanaa, Damascus, and Cairo to highlight its pan-Arabism. Remarking on the implications of the treaty, which stated "that [the two parties'] nations are one and agree to consider each other's interests their own", Kohn wrote, "The foreign policy of both kingdoms will be brought into line and harmonized so that both countries will act as one country in foreign affairs. Practically, it will mean a protectorate over the Yemen by Ibn Saud, the stronger and much more progressive partner." Relations indeed remained close until civil war erupted in Yemen in the 1960s, at which time the country became a staging ground for battle between conservative values and those of the Egyptian revolutionary Gamal Abdel Nasser. Ikhwan movement The exact circumstances under which the Ikhwan (brothers, brethren) arose remain unclear. However, it is known that they consisted of Bedouin who were imbued with Wahhabi zeal at settlements known as hijras. They played an important role in the Saudi rise to power, though the extent of that role is sometimes disputed. See also Geography of Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia – United Arab Emirates border dispute Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone Saudi–Iraqi neutral zone Sykes–Picot Agreement Footnotes [A]. Unification of Saudi Arabia (combined casualties figure estimation 7,989–8,989+) of: Battle of Riyadh (1902) – 37 killed. Battle of Dilam (1903) – 410 killed. Saudi–Rashidi War (1903–1907) – 2,300+ killed. Annexation of Al-Hasa and Qatif (1913) - unknown. Battle of Jarrab (1915) Battle of Kanzan (1915) First Nejd-Hijaz War (1918-1919) – 1,392 killed. 1921 Ikhwan raid on Mandatory Iraq - 700 killed Kuwait–Nejd Border War (1921) – 200+ killed. Conquest of Ha'il (1921) - unknown Ikhwan raids on Transjordan (1922–1924) – 500–1,500 killed. Saudi conquest of Hejaz (1924–1925) – 450+ killed. Ikhwan Revolt (1927–1930) – 2,000 killed. Notes References Sources External links Hous of Saud, a 2005 documentary by PBS' Frontline. Website includes interviews and an excerpt containing the chapter on the Ikhwan''. 20th-century conflicts 20th century in Saudi Arabia History of Saudi Arabia Ibn Saud Saudi Arabia Pan-Arabism Wars involving Saudi Arabia Wars involving the Ottoman Empire

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