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**Anarchism** is a political philosophy and movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or hierarchy, primarily targeting the state and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations. A historically left-wing movement, anarchism is usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement (libertarian socialism).
Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers\' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements.
Anarchists employ diverse approaches, which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and praxis. `{{Toc limit|3}}`{=mediawiki}
## Etymology, terminology, and definition {#etymology_terminology_and_definition}
The etymological origin of *anarchism* is from the Ancient Greek *anarkhia* (ἀναρχία), meaning \"without a ruler\", composed of the prefix *an-* (\"without\") and the word *arkhos* (\"leader\" or \"ruler\"). The suffix *-ism* denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. *Anarchism* appears in English from 1642 as *anarchisme* and *anarchy* from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as *anarchists*, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756--1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808--1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use *anarchist* or *anarchism* in describing themselves or their beliefs.
The first political philosopher to call himself an *anarchist* (*anarchiste*) was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809--1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, *libertarianism* has often been used as a synonym for anarchism; its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. Some usages of *libertarianism* refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed *libertarian anarchism*.
While the term *libertarian* has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cultural liberals, who are primarily concerned with civil liberties. Additionally, some anarchists use *libertarian socialist* to avoid anarchism\'s negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism. *Anarchism* is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement. Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism\'s socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberal and socialist but more so. Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles.
While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining *anarchism* is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.
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## History
### Pre-modern era {#pre_modern_era}
thumb\|upright=.7\|Zeno of Citium (c. 334), whose *Republic* inspired Peter Kropotkin The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had \"significant anticipations\" of anarchism.
Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law (*nomos*) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (*physis*). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.
In medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I. In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various religious sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies.
Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism in Europe, particularly in France. Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.
### Modern era {#modern_era}
During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enragés and the *\[\[sans-culottes\]\]* saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 19th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimising the state, Max Stirner\'s thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon\'s theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then-unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism.
Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen\'s Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin\'s faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon\'s followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress. Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx\'s terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one\'s needs.
During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, known as propaganda of the deed. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including the *Immigration Act of 1903*, also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.
By the turn of the 20th century, the terrorist movement had died down, giving way to anarchist communism and syndicalism, while anarchism had spread all over the world. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. Anarchists were involved in the Strandzha Commune and Krusevo Republic established in Macedonia in Ilinden--Preobrazhenie Uprising of 1903, and in the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The revolutionary wave of 1917--23 saw varying degrees of active participation by anarchists.
Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina. Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War, many workers and activists turned to Communist parties, which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and the Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International. However, anarchists met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too. With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party.
In the Spanish Civil War of 1936--39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as the May Days, as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of the Republican government, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists.
#### Post-WWII {#post_wwii}
By the end of World War II, the anarchist movement had been severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism--Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism. Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism. Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism\'s move from a Eurocentric demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, *ad hoc* leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism\'s historical association with chaos and violence.
While having revolutionary aspirations, many contemporary forms of anarchism are not confrontational. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization (following the theories of dual power), based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation, for instance in groups such as Food Not Bombs and in self-managed social centers.
Anarchism\'s publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a *de facto* autonomous region in northern Syria.
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## Schools of thought {#schools_of_thought}
Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and social ownership. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter.
Anarchism\'s emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism. Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum, though many reject state authority from conservative principles, such as anarcho-capitalists. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories.
As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of shared principles such as autonomy, mutual aid, anti-authoritarianism and decentralisation.
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist political movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism, which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Philosophical currents as diverse as Objectivism and Kantianism have provided arguments drawn on in favor of philosophical anarchism, including Wolff\'s defense of anarchism against formal methods for legitimating it. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists.
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## Schools of thought {#schools_of_thought}
### Classical
*Main article: Individualist anarchism, Mutualism (economic theory), Collectivist anarchism, Anarchist communism, Anarcho-syndicalism*
Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.
Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include \"abolishing the state\", reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In *What Is Property?* (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a \"third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property.\" Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.
Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, held by a federal network of voluntary associations, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need.\" Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers\' solidarity and workers\' self-management.
Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation.
### Post-classical and contemporary {#post_classical_and_contemporary}
Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.
Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established \"relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles\", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple *anarchisms*, rather than a singular *anarchism*, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.
Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely \"all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism.\" Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed.
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## Tactics
Anarchists\' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.
Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.
### Classical era {#classical_era}
During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and of targeting and cataloging by state institutions.
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil.
Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.
### Revolutionary and insurrectionary {#revolutionary_and_insurrectionary}
In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression using sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.
Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists, racists, and other bigots, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.
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## Tactics
### Evolutionary
Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the \"big-A Anarchism\" of the classical era, the newly coined term \"small-a anarchism\" signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience, which they will later theorize.
The concept of prefigurative politics is enacted by many contemporary anarchist groups, striving to embody the principles, organization and tactics of the changed social structure they hope to bring about. As part of this the decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5--20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.
As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users\' privacy from state surveillance.
Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.
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## Key issues {#key_issues}
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.
### The state {#the_state}
Objection to the state and its institutions is a *sine qua non* of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society.
Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning \"coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be.\" A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.
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## Key issues {#key_issues}
### Gender, sexuality, and free love {#gender_sexuality_and_free_love}
As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one\'s autonomy imposed by gender roles.
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Collection of anarcha-feminist protests, symbols, and flags Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age-of-consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women\'s sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (using a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.
During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, LGBT people, and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality. Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.
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## Key issues {#key_issues}
### Education
Anarchist education State education
------------ ------------------------------------ --------------------------------------
Concept Education as self-mastery Education as service
Management Community based State run
Methods Practice-based learning Vocational training
Aims Being a critical member of society Being a productive member of society
: Anarchist vs. statist perspectives on education\
The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (*Political Justice*) and Max Stirner (\"The False Principle of Our Education\") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer\'s approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process while giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world. Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay *Education and Culture*, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that \"for education to be effective it had to be free.\" In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.
Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child\'s right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.
Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children\'s creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.
While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists\' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.
### The arts {#the_arts}
The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.
Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book *Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas*, Chris Robé claims that \"anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism.\" Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as *Anarchy* wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.
Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In *Les chataigniers a Osny* by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.
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## Criticism
The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that \"\[p\]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government.\" Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.
Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy to protect the people\'s interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a \"night-watchman state\", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war. Anarcho-primitivists in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.
Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action while endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.
One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities\' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.
Karl Marx, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism as the movement of the \"petty bourgeois\", i.e. of formerly self-employed craftsmen and artisans who had been ruined by capitalistic industrialization or even war and then driven to factories; even so, they refused to subject themselves to factory discipline, party leadership, and State control, were prone to violence when frustrated, and advocated seizing factories only to break down mass production and return to craftsmanship. Friedrich Engels, who is considered Marxism\'s other principal founder, criticised anarchism\'s anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian. A Socialist Workers Party pamphlet by John Molyneux, *Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism* argues that \"anarchism cannot win\", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. Another Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to this Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining
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**Albedo** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˈ|b|iː|d|oʊ|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-albedo.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|al|BEE|doh}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{etymology|la|albedo|whiteness}}`{=mediawiki}) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). *Surface albedo* is defined as the ratio of radiosity *J*~e~ to the irradiance *E*~e~ (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth\'s surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun).
While directional-hemispherical reflectance factor is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages.
Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4--0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation).
Ice--albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Ice--albedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change. Albedo is an important concept in climate science.
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## Terrestrial albedo {#terrestrial_albedo}
+------------------+---------------------+
| Surface | Typical\ |
| | albedo |
+==================+=====================+
| Fresh asphalt | 0.04{{cite web |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Open ocean | 0.06 |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Worn asphalt | 0.12 |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Conifer forest,\ | 0.08,{{Cite journal |
| summer | |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Deciduous forest | 0.15 to 0.18 |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Bare soil | 0.17{{Cite book |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Green grass | 0.25 |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Desert sand | 0.40{{Cite book |
+------------------+---------------------+
| New concrete | 0.55 |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Ocean ice | 0.50 to 0.70 |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Fresh snow | 0.80 |
+------------------+---------------------+
| Aluminium | 0.85 |
+------------------+---------------------+
: Sample albedos
Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.
Earth\'s surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA\'s MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo.
Earth\'s average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about 15 C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 C. In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water -- a so-called ocean planet -- the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 C.
In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by \~0.5% over two decades (1998--2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.
### White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo {#white_sky_black_sky_and_blue_sky_albedo}
For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle *θ*~*i*~ can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms:
- the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, ${\bar \alpha(\theta_i)}$, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and
- the bi-hemispherical reflectance, $\bar{ \bar \alpha}$, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo.
with ${1-D}$ being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and ${D}$ being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo ${\alpha}$ (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as:
$$\alpha = (1 - D) \bar\alpha(\theta_i) + D \bar{\bar\alpha}.$$
This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.
### Changes to albedo due to human activities {#changes_to_albedo_due_to_human_activities}
Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. Human impacts to \"the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earth's radiative energy balance\" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites.
Urbanization generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01--0.02 lower than adjacent croplands), which contributes to global warming. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate the urban heat island effect. An estimate in 2022 found that on a global scale, \"an albedo increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing \~44 Gt of CO~2~ emissions.\"
Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth\'s surface, along with its daytime thermal emittance, has been proposed as a solar radiation management strategy to mitigate energy crises and global warming known as passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC). Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing the albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved.
The tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses in Almería, Spain form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized. A follow-up study found that \"CO2-eq. emissions associated to changes in surface albedo are a consequence of land transformation\" and can reduce surface temperature increases associated with climate change.
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## Examples of terrestrial albedo effects {#examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|The percentage of diffusely reflected sunlight relative to various surface conditions
### Illumination
Albedo is not directly dependent on the illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth\'s surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). However, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.
### Insolation effects {#insolation_effects}
The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.
Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.
### Climate and weather {#climate_and_weather}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.5\| Some effects of global warming can either enhance (positive feedbacks such as the ice-albedo feedback) or inhibit (negative feedbacks) warming. Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.
The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by \"self-reinforcing\" or \"positive\" feedbacks and reduced by \"balancing\" or \"negative\" feedbacks. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice--albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds.
### Albedo--temperature feedback {#albedotemperature_feedback}
When an area\'s albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow--temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow--temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.
### Snow
Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica, snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (referred to as the ice--albedo positive feedback).
In Switzerland, the citizens have been protecting their glaciers with large white tarpaulins to slow down the ice melt. These large white sheets are helping to reject the rays from the sun and defecting the heat. Although this method is very expensive, it has been shown to work, reducing snow and ice melt by 60%.
Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming.
Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.
The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.
### Small-scale effects {#small_scale_effects}
Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.
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## Examples of terrestrial albedo effects {#examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects}
### Solar photovoltaic effects {#solar_photovoltaic_effects}
Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90°) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts. Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of bifacial solar cells where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation. An analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) provided effective albedo values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.
### Trees
Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In other words: The climate change mitigation effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo).
In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover, albedo reduction may be significant enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts as strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.
Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary mitigation benefit.
In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.
Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.
Research in 2023, drawing from 176 flux stations globally, revealed a climate trade-off: increased carbon uptake from afforestation results in reduced albedo. Initially, this reduction may lead to moderate global warming over a span of approximately 20 years, but it is expected to transition into significant cooling thereafter.
### Water
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Reflectivity of smooth water at 20 C (refractive index=1.333) Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations.
At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.
Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.
Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh \'black\' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.
### Clouds
Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. \"On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth.\"
Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 C-change colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.
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## Examples of terrestrial albedo effects {#examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects}
### Aerosol effects {#aerosol_effects}
Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth\'s radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.
### Black carbon {#black_carbon}
Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m^−2^, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m^−2^. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.`{{Failed verification|date=January 2020}}`{=mediawiki}
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## Astronomical albedo {#astronomical_albedo}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The moon Titan is darker than Saturn even though they receive the same amount of sunlight. This is due to a difference in albedo (0.22 versus 0.499 in geometric albedo).In astronomy, the term **albedo** can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved.
### Optical or visual albedo {#optical_or_visual_albedo}
The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle (\"phase angle\"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.
Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.
The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.
Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.
Planet Geometric Bond
--------- ----------- ------------------------------------
Mercury 0.142 0.088 or 0.068
Venus 0.689 0.76 or 0.77
Earth 0.434 0.294
Mars 0.170 0.250
Jupiter 0.538 0.343±0.032 and also 0.503±0.012
Saturn 0.499 0.342
Uranus 0.488 0.300
Neptune 0.442 0.290
In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo. It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.
An important relationship between an object\'s astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by: $A =\left ( \frac{1329\times10^{-H/5}}{D} \right ) ^2,$ where $A$ is the astronomical albedo, $D$ is the diameter in kilometers, and $H$ is the absolute magnitude.
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## Astronomical albedo {#astronomical_albedo}
### Radar albedo {#radar_albedo}
In planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured. In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC). The echo power is measured in terms of radar cross-section, ${\sigma}_{OC}$, ${\sigma}_{SC}$, or ${\sigma}_{T}$ (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power.
Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering.
For most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo): $\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} = \frac{{\sigma}_\text{OC}}{\pi r^2}$
where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius, $r$. A smooth metallic sphere would have $\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} = 1$.
#### Radar albedos of Solar System objects {#radar_albedos_of_solar_system_objects}
Object $\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}$
---------------------- --------------------------
Moon 0.06
Mercury 0.05
Venus 0.10
Mars 0.06
Avg. S-type asteroid 0.14
Avg. C-type asteroid 0.13
Avg. M-type asteroid 0.26
Comet P/2005 JQ5 0.02
The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references.
#### Relationship to surface bulk density {#relationship_to_surface_bulk_density}
In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections ($\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} < 0.1$ or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships:
$$\rho = \begin{cases}
3.20 \text{ g cm}^{-3} \ln \left( \frac{1 + \sqrt{0.83 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}}}{1 - \sqrt{0.83 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}}} \right) & \text{for } \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} \le 0.07 \\
(6.944 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} + 1.083) \text{ g cm}^{-3} & \text{for } \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} > 0.07
\end{cases}$$.
## History
The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work *Photometria*
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| typedesc = ic
| language = [[Latin language]]
| phonemes = {{flex list|width=2em|[{{IPAlink|a}}]|[{{IPAlink|ɑ}}]|[{{IPAlink|ɒ}}]|[{{IPAlink|æ}}]|[{{IPAlink|ə}}]|[{{IPAlink|ɛ}}]|[{{IPAlink|oː}}]|[{{IPAlink|ɔ}}]|[{{IPAlink|e}}]|[{{IPAlink|ʕ}}]|[{{IPAlink|ʌ}}] [{{IPAlink|ɐ}}] |{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}}}
| unicode = U+0041, U+0061
| alphanumber = 1
| fam1 = <hiero>F1</hiero>
| fam2 = [[File:Proto-semiticA-01.svg|class=skin-invert-image|20px|Proto-Sinaitic 'alp]]
| fam3 = [[File:Protoalef.svg|class=skin-invert-image|20px|Proto-Caananite aleph]]
| fam4 = [[File:Phoenician_aleph.svg|class=skin-invert-image|20px|Phoenician aleph]]
| fam5 = [[Alpha|Α α]]
| fam6 = [[𐌀]][[File:Greek-uncial-1.jpg|class=skin-invert-image|20px|Greek classical uncial]]
| fam7 = [[File:Semitic-2.jpg|class=skin-invert-image|20px|Early Latin A]][[File:Latin-uncial-1.jpg|class=skin-invert-image|20px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 1]]
| usageperiod = {{circa|700 BCE}}{{snd}}present
| children = {{flex list|
* [[Æ]]
* [[Ä]]
* [[Â]]
* [[Ɑ]]
* [[Ʌ]]
* [[Ɐ]]
* [[ª]]
* [[Å]]
* [[₳]]
* [[@]]
* [[Ⓐ]]
* [[ⓐ]]
* [[⒜]]
* {{not a typo|[[🅰]]}}}}
| sisters = {{flex list|width=3em|
* [[𐌰]]
* [[А]]
* [[Ә]]
* [[Ӑ]]
* [[Aleph|<span>א</span> <span>ا</span> <span>ܐ</span>]]
* [[ࠀ]]
* [[𐎀]]
* [[ℵ]]
* [[አ]]
* [[ء]]
* [[Ա|Ա ա]]
* [[અ]]
* [[अ]]
* [[অ]]}}
| associates = [[List of Latin-script digraphs#A|a(x)]], [[Ae (digraph)|ae]], [[Eau (trigraph)|eau]], [[Au (digraph)|au]]
| direction = Left-to-right
| image = Latin_letter_A.svg
| imageclass = skin-invert-image
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Latin letter info|a}}`{=mediawiki}
**A**, or **a**, is the first letter and the first vowel letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, and others worldwide. Its name in English is *a* (pronounced `{{IPAc-en|'|eɪ|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-A.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AY}}`{=mediawiki}), plural *aes*.`{{refn|group=nb|''Aes'' is the plural of the name of the letter. The plural of the letter itself is rendered ''A''s, A's, ''a''s, or a's.}}`{=mediawiki}
It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version is often written in one of two forms: the double-storey \|a\| and single-storey \|ɑ\|. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type.
In English, *a* is the indefinite article, with the alternative form *an*.
## Name
In English, the name of the letter is the *long A* sound, pronounced `{{IPAc-en|'|eɪ}}`{=mediawiki}. Its name in most other languages matches the letter\'s pronunciation in open syllables. `{{wide image|Pronunciation of the name of the letter ⟨a⟩ in European languages.png|460px|Pronunciation of the name of the letter {{angbr|a}} in European languages. {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/aː/}} can differ phonetically between {{IPAblink|a}}, {{IPAblink|ä}}, {{IPAblink|æ}} and {{IPAblink|ɑ}} depending on the language.}}`{=mediawiki}
| 414 |
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## History
The earliest known ancestor of A is *aleph*---the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet---where it represented a glottal stop `{{IPA|[ʔ]}}`{=mediawiki}, as Phoenician only used consonantal letters. In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.
When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter representing a glottal stop---so they adapted the sign to represent the vowel `{{IPAslink|a}}`{=mediawiki}, calling the letter by the similar name *alpha*. In the earliest Greek inscriptions dating to the 8th century BC following the Greek Dark Ages, the letter rests upon its side. However, in the later Greek alphabet it generally resembles the modern capital form---though many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.
The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to the Italian Peninsula, and left the form of alpha unchanged. When the Romans adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write Latin, the resulting form used in the Latin script would come to be used to write many other languages, including English.
Egyptian Proto-Sinaitic Proto-Canaanite Phoenician Western Greek Etruscan Latin
---------- ---------------- ----------------- ------------ --------------- ---------- -------
### Typographic variants {#typographic_variants}
class=skin-invert-image\|thumb\|upright=0.55\|Different glyphs of the lowercase letter `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} thumb\|upright=0.55\|Allographs include a double-storey `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} and single-storey `{{angbr|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki}. `{{stack end}}`{=mediawiki} During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter A. First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other more permanent media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the perishable nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semi-cursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial (`{{cx|3rd century}}`{=mediawiki}), the uncial (`{{cx|4th–8th centuries}}`{=mediawiki}), and the late semi-uncial (`{{cx|6th–8th centuries}}`{=mediawiki}).
------------- ---------
Blackletter Uncial
Roman Italic
------------- ---------
At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semi-cursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the ninth century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.
15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the *Italic* and *Roman* forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form `{{angbr|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki}, also called *script a*, is often used in handwriting; it consists of a circle with a vertical stroke on its right. In the hands of medieval Irish and English writers, this form gradually developed from a 5th-century form resembling the Greek letter tau `{{angbr|τ}}`{=mediawiki}. The Roman form `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} is found in most printed material, and consists of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule form `{{angbr|A}}`{=mediawiki}. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Graphic designers refer to the *Italic* and *Roman* forms as *single-decker a* and *double decker a* respectively.
Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest set in Roman type. There are some other cases aside from italic type where *script a* `{{angbr|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki}, also called *Latin alpha*, is used in contrast with Latin `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki}, such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet.
| 700 |
A
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## Use in writing systems {#use_in_writing_systems}
Orthography Phonemes
------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(pinyin)
English , `{{IPAslink|ɑː}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|ɒ}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|ɔː}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA link|ɛ|/ɛː/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/eɪ/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|ə}}`{=mediawiki}
French , `{{IPAslink|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki}
German , `{{IPAslink|aː}}`{=mediawiki}
Portuguese , `{{IPAslink|ɐ}}`{=mediawiki}
Saanich
Spanish
Turkish
: Pronunciation of `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} by language
Phone Orthography
------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chuvash, Croatian, French, German, Indonesian, Italian, Malay, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, Stavangersk Norwegian, Swedish, Tagalog, Turkish, Utrecht Dutch
Dutch (doubled), German
Afrikaans, Bulgarian, Spanish
New Zealand English, Lithuanian, Limburgish (doubled), Luxembourgish
Catalan, Czech, French, Northern England English, Terengganu Malay, Polish
West Frisian (doubled)
Bashkir, Spanish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Kaingang, Limburgish, Norwegian, Russian, West Frisian
Afrikaans (doubled), Danish, German, Southern England English, Kurdish, Norwegian
Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Luxembourgish
Southern England English, Hungarian, Kedah Malay
Hungarian
Swedish
Maastrichtian Limburgish, Ulster Irish
Danish, English, Russian, Zeta--Raška Serbian
Australian English, Bulgarian, Central Catalan, Emilian, Galician, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Tagalog, Ukrainian
Mapudungun
New Zealand English, Perak Malay
Chemnitz German, Transylvanian Romanian
Chemnitz German
Southern England English
English, Eastern Catalan
Saanich
English
: Cross-linguistic variation of `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} pronunciation
### English
In modern English orthography, the letter `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} represents at least seven different vowel sounds, here represented using the vowels of Received Pronunciation, with effects of `{{angbr|r}}`{=mediawiki} ignored and mergers in General American mentioned where relevant:
- the near-open front unrounded vowel `{{IPA|/æ/}}`{=mediawiki} as in *pad*
- the open back unrounded vowel `{{IPA|/ɑː/}}`{=mediawiki} as in *father*---merged with `{{IPAslink|ɒ}}`{=mediawiki} as `{{IPAslink|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki} in General American---which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound
- the open back rounded vowel `{{IPA|/ɒ/}}`{=mediawiki} (merged with `{{IPA|/ɑː/}}`{=mediawiki} as `{{IPAslink|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki} in General American) in *was* and *what*
- the open-mid back rounded vowel `{{IPA|/ɔː/}}`{=mediawiki} in *water*
- the diphthong `{{IPA|/eɪ/}}`{=mediawiki} as in *ace* and *major*, usually when `{{vr|a}}`{=mediawiki} is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter---this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift
- a schwa `{{IPA|/ə/}}`{=mediawiki} in many unstressed syllables, as in *about*, *comma*, *solar*
The double `{{angbr|aa}}`{=mediawiki} sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as *Aaron* and *aardvark*. However, `{{vr|a}}`{=mediawiki} occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly `{{vr|ai}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{vr|au}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{vr|aw}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{vr|ay}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{vr|ea}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{vr|oa}}`{=mediawiki}.
is the third-most-commonly used letter in English after `{{angbr|e}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{angbr|t}}`{=mediawiki}, as well as in French; it is the second most common in Spanish, and the most common in Portuguese. `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} represents approximately 8.2% of letters as used in English texts; the figure is around 7.6% in French 11.5% in Spanish, and 14.6% in Portuguese.
### Other languages {#other_languages}
In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as `{{IPAslink|a}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|ä}}`{=mediawiki}, or `{{IPAslink|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki}. An exception is Saanich, in which `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki}---and the glyph `{{angbr|[[Á]]}}`{=mediawiki}---stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel `{{IPA|/e/}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Other systems {#other_systems}
- In the International Phonetic Alphabet, `{{angbr IPA|a}}`{=mediawiki} is used for the open front unrounded vowel, `{{angbr IPA|ä}}`{=mediawiki} is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and `{{angbr IPA|ɑ}}`{=mediawiki} is used for the open back unrounded vowel.
- In X-SAMPA, `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} is used for the open front unrounded vowel and `{{angbr|A}}`{=mediawiki} is used for the open back unrounded vowel.
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## Other uses {#other_uses}
- When using base-16 notation, A or a is the conventional numeral corresponding to the number 10.
- In algebra, the letter *a* along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a variable, with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics. In 1637, René Descartes \"invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c\", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra.
- In geometry, capital Latin letters are used to denote objects including line segments, lines, and rays A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.
- A is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A−, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students\' schoolwork; \"A grade\" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, A1 at Lloyd\'s for shipping, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.
- A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.
## Related characters {#related_characters}
### Latin alphabet {#latin_alphabet}
- `{{angbr|Æ æ}}`{=mediawiki}: a ligature of `{{angbr|AE}}`{=mediawiki} originally used in Latin
- with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ
- Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A---the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems:
- : Latin alpha, represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA
- : Latin small alpha with a retroflex hook
- : Turned A, represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA
- : Turned V, represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel in IPA
- : Turned alpha or script A, represents an open back rounded vowel in the IPA
- : Modifier letter small turned alpha
- : Small capital A, an obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels)
- : Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA), sometimes encoded with Unicode subscripts and superscripts
- : Subscript small a is used in Indo-European studies
- : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system
- : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic
### Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations {#derived_signs_symbols_and_abbreviations}
- : ordinal indicator
- : Ångström sign
- : turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification (\"for all\")
- : At sign
- : Argentine austral
- : anarchy symbol
### Ancestor and sibling letters {#ancestor_and_sibling_letters}
- : Phoenician aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive:
- : Greek letter alpha, from which the following letters derive:
- : Cyrillic letter A
- : Coptic letter alpha
- : Old Italic A, the ancestor of modern Latin A
- : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A
- : Gothic letter aza
- : Armenian letter ayb
## Other representations {#other_representations}
### Computing
The Latin letters `{{angbr|A}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} have Unicode encodings `{{unichar|0041|Latin capital letter A}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{unichar|0061|Latin small letter a}}`{=mediawiki}. These are the same code points as those used in ASCII and ISO 8859. There are also precomposed character encodings for `{{angbr|A}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{angbr|a}}`{=mediawiki} with diacritics, for most of those listed above; the remainder are produced using combining diacritics.
Variant forms of the letter have unique code points for specialist use: the alphanumeric symbols set in mathematics and science, Latin alpha in linguistics, and halfwidth and fullwidth forms for legacy CJK font compatibility. The Cyrillic and Greek homoglyphs of the Latin `{{angbr|A}}`{=mediawiki} have separate encodings `{{unichar|0410|Cyrillic capital letter A|nlink=A (Cyrillic)}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{unichar|0391|Greek capital letter alpha|nlink=Alpha}}`{=mediawiki}
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Error at (line 330, column 46):
unexpected ';'
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" ; text-align:right; font-size:80%;"
^
``
| 20 |
Alabama
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In Greek mythology, **Achilles** (`{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|ɪ|l|iː|z|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Achilles.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ə|KIL|eez}}`{=mediawiki}) or **Achilleus** (*Achilleús*) was a hero of the Trojan War who was known as being the greatest of all the Greek warriors. The central character in Homer\'s *Iliad*, he was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia and famous Argonaut. Achilles was raised in Phthia along with his childhood companion Patroclus and received his education by the centaur Chiron. In the *Iliad*, he is presented as the commander of the mythical tribe of the Myrmidons.
Achilles\' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the *Iliad*, other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with Statius\' unfinished epic *Achilleid*, written in the first century CE) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel. According to that myth, when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels, leaving it untouched by the waters and thus his only vulnerable body part.
Alluding to these legends, the term *Achilles\' heel* has come to mean a point of weakness which can lead to downfall, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is named after him following the same legend.
## Etymology
Linear B tablets attest to the personal name *Achilleus* in the forms *a-ki-re-u* and *a-ki-re-we*, the latter being the dative of the former. The name grew more popular, becoming common soon after the seventh century BCE and was also turned into the female form *Ἀχιλλεία* (*Achilleía*), attested in Attica in the fourth century BCE (IG II² 1617) and, in the form *Achillia*, on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an \"Amazon\".
Achilles\' name can be analyzed as a combination of *ἄχος* (*`{{transliteration|grc|áchos}}`{=mediawiki}*), \'distress, pain, sorrow, grief\' and *λαός* (`{{transliteration|grc|laós}}`{=mediawiki}), \'people, soldiers, nation\', resulting in a proto-form *\*Akhí-lāu̯os*, \'he who has the people distressed\' or \'he whose people have distress\'. The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the *Iliad* (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles\' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of *κλέος* `{{transliteration|grc|kléos}}`{=mediawiki} (\'glory\', usually in war). Furthermore, `{{transliteration|grc|laós}}`{=mediawiki} has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean \'a corps of soldiers\', a muster. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.
Some researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles\' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about his being an old water divinity `{{see below|{{section link||Worship and heroic cult}}, below}}`{=mediawiki}. Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of *-λλ-* and *-λ-* in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l^y^/ in the original language.
### Other names {#other_names}
Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following:
- **Pyrisous**, \"saved from the fire\", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis
- **Aeacides**, from his grandfather Aeacus
- **Aemonius**, from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly
- **Aspetos**, \"inimitable\" or \"vast\", his name at Epirus
- **Larissaeus**, from Larissa (also called Cremaste), a town of Achaia Phthiotis in Thessaly
- **Ligyron**, his original name
- **Nereius**, from his mother Thetis, one of the Nereids
- **Pelides**, from his father, Peleus
- **Phthius**, from his birthplace, Phthia
- **Podarkes**, \"swift-footed\", from the wings of Arke (*label=none*) being attached to his feet (`{{wikt-lang|grc|πόδες}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{translit|grc|podes}}`{=mediawiki})Ptolemy Hephaestion, *New History*, Book 6 (summary from Photius, *Myriobiblon* 190, trans. Pearse):
\"It is said \... that he \[Akhilleus (Achilles)\] was called Podarkes (Podarces, Swift-Footed) by the Poet \[i.e. Homer\], because, it is said, Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arke (Arce) and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arke. And Arke was the daughter of Thaumas and her sister was Iris; both had wings, but, during the struggle of the gods against the Titanes (Titans), Arke flew out of the camp of the gods and joined the Titanes. After the victory Zeus removed her wings before throwing her into Tartaros and, when he came to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, he brought these wings as a gift for Thetis.\"
| 831 |
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## Birth and early years {#birth_and_early_years}
thumb\|left\|upright=1.2\|*Thetis Dipping the Infant Achilles into the River Styx* by Peter Paul Rubens (c. 1625; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam)
Achilles was the son of Thetis---a Nereid and daughter of the Old Man of the Sea---and Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for Thetis\'s hand in marriage until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.
There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the *Argonautica* (4.760) Zeus\' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis\' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera\'s marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.
According to the *Achilleid*, written by Statius in the first century CE, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx; however, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel `{{Crossreference|(see [[Achilles' heel]], [[Achilles tendon]])}}`{=mediawiki}. It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.
None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the *Iliad*, Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaios, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He was ambidextrous, and cast a spear from each hand; one grazed Achilles\' elbow, \"drawing a spurt of blood\". In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which describe the hero\'s death (i.e. the *Cypria*, the *Little Iliad* by Lesches of Pyrrha, the *Aethiopis* and *Iliupersis* by Arctinus of Miletus), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso.
Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron, who lived on Mount Pelion and was known as the most righteous of the Centaurs, to be reared. In some accounts, Achilles\' original name was \"Ligyron\" and he was later named *Achilles* by his tutor Chiron. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his childhood companion Patroclus. Homer further writes that Achilles taught Patroclus what he himself had been taught by Chiron, including the medical arts. Thetis foretold that her son\'s fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War.
According to Photius, the sixth book of the *New History* by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles\' burnt foot.
### Physical description {#physical_description}
In Homer\'s *Iliad*, Achilles is portrayed as tall and striking, with strength and looks that were unmatched among the Greek warriors. Homer describes him as having long hair or a mane (*χαίτη*). Along with some other characters, his hair is described with the word *xanthḗ* (*ξανθή*), which meant \'yellow\' and was used for light hair, including blond, brown, tawny (light brown) and auburn. A later Latin account, probably from the fifth century CE, falsely attributed to Dares Phrygius described Achilles as having \"\... a large chest, a fine mouth, and powerfully formed arms and legs. His head was covered with long wavy chestnut-colored hair (*capillo myrteo*, color of myrtus bark or myrrh). Though mild in manner, he was very fierce in battle. His face showed the joy of a man richly endowed.\"
### Hidden on Skyros {#hidden_on_skyros}
Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man dressed as a princess or at least a girl at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros.
There, Achilles, properly disguised, lived among Lycomedes\' daughters, perhaps under the name \"Pyrrha\" (the red-haired girl), Cercysera or Aissa (\"swift\"). With Lycomedes\' daughter Deidamia, with whom he had begun a relationship, Achilles there fathered two sons, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father\'s possible alias) and Oneiros. According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles\' aid. Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a pedlar selling women\'s clothes and jewellery and placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes\' women. While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.
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## In the Trojan War {#in_the_trojan_war}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|A marble representation of Achilles at the court of King Lycomedes, c. 240 CE
According to the *Iliad*, Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon.
### Telephus
When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that \"he that wounded shall heal\". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.
According to other reports in Euripides\' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles\' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.
### Troilus
According to the *Cypria* (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles\' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighbouring cities (such as Pedasus and Lyrnessus, where the Greeks capture the queen Briseis) and killed Tenes, a son of Apollo, as well as Priam\'s son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios; however, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer\'s *Troilus and Criseyde* and in William Shakespeare\'s *Troilus and Cressida* is a medieval invention.
In Dares Phrygius\' *Account of the Destruction of Troy*, the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam\'s and Hecuba\'s five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a \"horse fighter\" or \"chariot fighter\" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus\' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth---who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers\' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles\' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible; however, the motif is older and found already in Plautus\' *Bacchides*.
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## In the Trojan War {#in_the_trojan_war}
### In the *Iliad* {#in_the_iliad}
Homer\'s *Iliad* is the most famous narrative of Achilles\' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles\' wrath (*μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως*, *mênis Achilléōs*) is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the *Iliad* read:
+----------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλῆος\ | Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus\' son Achilles,\ |
| οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί\' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε\' ἔθηκε, \[\...\] | the accursed rage that brought great suffering to the Achaeans, \[\...\] |
+----------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles\' death. It begins with Achilles\' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles\' slave Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon\'s theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour.
As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix. They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he is planning to do.
The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles\' armour, although Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.
After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion\'s death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem.
Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles\' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey.
thumb\|upright=1.7\|*The Triumph of Achilles*, fresco by Franz von Matsch in the Achilleion, Greece
Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector\'s favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that, \"my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw -- such agonies you have caused me.\" Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion.
At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion\'s dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended).
With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector\'s father Priam goes to Achilles\' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector\'s body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe\'s offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector\'s funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.
### Penthesilea and Memnon {#penthesilea_and_memnon}
Later works, including the *Aethiopis* (seventh century BCE) and a work named *Posthomerica*, composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. Initially taken aback, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.
Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor\'s son Antilochus becomes Achilles\' closest companion. Achilles already loved Antilochus, so Menelaus thought Antilochus would be the best person to inform Achilles of Patroclus\' death. Later, Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus as he sacrifices himself to save his father. According to Philostratus\' *Imagines*, Achilles laments his death on the battlefield, promising Antilochus a glorious funeral and vengeance. Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.
Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the *Iliad*{{\'}}s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles\' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic *Aethiopis*, which was composed after the *Iliad*, possibly in the seventh century BCE. The *Aethiopis* is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.
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## In the Trojan War {#in_the_trojan_war}
### Achilles and Patroclus {#achilles_and_patroclus}
The exact nature of Achilles\' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the *Iliad*, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations. Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the *Iliad* that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In fifth-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of *paiderasteia*, which is the relationship between an older male and a younger one, usually a teenager. In Plato\'s *Symposium*, the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. In Xenophon\'s *Symposium*, Socrates says that Achilles and Patroclus were not lovers but had a platonic relationship. Kenneth Dover argues that ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.
### Death
The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. Starting with the oldest account, In book 22 of the *Iliad*, Hector predicts with his last dying breath that Paris and Apollo will slay him at the Scaean Gates leading to Troy (with an arrow to the heel according to Statius). In book 23, the sad spirit of dead Patroclus visits Achilles just as he drifts off into slumber, requesting that his bones be placed with those of Achilles in his golden vase, a gift of his mother.
In book 11 of the *Odyssey*, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as \"blessed in life, blessed in death\", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son\'s exploits in the Trojan war, and Odysseus tells him of Neoptolemus\' actions.
Book 24 of *Odyssey* gives dead King Agamemnon\'s ghostly account of Achilles\' death: the bleached bones from Achilles\' funeral pyre had been mixed with those of Patroclus and put into his mother\'s golden vase. Also, the bones of Antilochus, who had become closer to Achilles than any other following Patroclus\' death, were separately enclosed. The customary funeral games of a hero were performed, and a massive tomb or mound was built on the Hellespont for approaching seagoers to celebrate.
Achilles was represented in the *Aethiopis* as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube. Another version of Achilles\' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena\'s hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world\'s greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades---as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius\' *Argonautica* (third century BCE).
### Fate of Achilles\' armour {#fate_of_achilles_armour}
Achilles\' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Ajax the Great. They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men\'s presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (*Odyssey* 11.543--566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus.
The armour they fought for was made by Hephaestus and thus much stronger and more beautiful than any armour a mortal could craft. Thetis had the gear made for Achilles because his first set was worn by Patroclus when he went to battle and taken by Hector when he killed Patroclus. The Shield of Achilles was also made by the fire god. His legendary spear was given to him by his mentor Chiron before he participated in the Trojan War. It was called the Pelian Spear, which allegedly no other man could wield.
A relic claimed to be Achilles\' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BCE by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the *Iliad* with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the second century CE.
### Achilles, Ajax and a game of *petteia* {#achilles_ajax_and_a_game_of_petteia}
Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (*petteia*). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.
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## Worship and heroic cult {#worship_and_heroic_cult}
The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in the Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. Achilles\' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles\' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.
The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the Polyxena sarcophagus (500 BCE), which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad:
The spread and intensity of the hero\'s veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today\'s Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (*Зміїний*, *Zmiinyi*, near Kiliia, Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BCE onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an *Achilles Pontárchēs* (Ποντάρχης, roughly \'lord of the sea\', or \'lord of the Pontus Euxinus\'), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon.
Pliny the Elder (23--79 CE) in his *Natural History* mentions a \"port of the Achæi\" and an \"island of Achilles\", famous for the tomb of that \"man\" (*portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara*), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula \"which stretches forth in the shape of a sword\" obliquely, called *Dromos Achilleos* (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, *Achilléōs drómos*, \'the Race-course of Achilles\') and considered the place of the hero\'s exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny\'s account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today *Tendra* (or *Kosa Tendra* and *Kosa Djarilgatch*), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (around 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states (to the \"Race-course\" he gives a length of 80 miles, whereas the spit measures around 70 km today).
In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as *Achillea* and introduces two further names for it: *Leuce* or *Macaron* (from Greek *\[νῆσος\] μακαρῶν*, \'island of the blest\'). The \"present day\" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of *Achillea* or *Leuce* with today\'s Snake Island. Pliny\'s contemporary Pomponius Mela (c. 43 CE) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named *Achillea*, situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Nikolay Kritsky in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth-century BCE black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: \"Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke.\" In another inscription from the fifth or fourth centuries BCE, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island\'s cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.
The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on *Leuce* seems to go back to an account from the lost epic *Aethiopis* according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical *Λεύκη Νῆσος* (*Leúkē Nêsos*, \'White Island\'). Already in the fifth century BCE, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a \"bright island\" (*φαεννά νᾶσος*, *phaenná nâsos*) of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, *makárôn nêsoi*) or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of \"Achilles lord of Scythia\" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles\' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death.
The *Periplus of the Euxine Sea* (c. 130 CE) gives the following details:
The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who probably lived during the first century CE, wrote that the island was called *Leuce* \"because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour.\" Similarly, others relate the island\'s name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is \"covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles\' temple and his statue.\" Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters (*aquae*) on the island.
Strabo mentioned that the cape of the Racecourse of Achilles was sacred to Achilles and although it was treeless, was called Alsos (ἄλσος). *Alsos* in Greek means \'grove\'.
A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town *Achílleion* (*Ἀχίλλειον*), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BCE, close to the hero\'s presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an *Achílleion* in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an *Achílleios* (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia. Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older *Achileii*), although his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.
The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In 216, the Roman emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles\' tumulus.
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## Reception during antiquity {#reception_during_antiquity}
### In Greek tragedy {#in_greek_tragedy}
The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title *Achilleis* by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the *Achilleis* and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the *Achilleis* trilogy, *The Myrmidons*, focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato\'s *Symposium*, Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to avenge him.
The tragedian Sophocles also wrote *The Lovers of Achilles*, a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.
Towards the end of the fifth century BCE, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in *Hecuba*, *Electra*, and *Iphigenia in Aulis*.
Other contemporary tragedians, such as Astydamas, wrote works on Achilles that are completely lost today.
### In Greek philosophy {#in_greek_philosophy}
#### Zeno
The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between \"swift-footed\" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.
#### Plato
In *Hippias Minor*, a Socratic dialogue attributed to Plato, an arrogant man named Hippias argues with Socrates. The two get into a discussion about lying. They decide that a person who is intentionally false must be \"better\" than a person who is unintentionally false, on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying. Socrates uses various analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point. The two also reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus, who concocted a number of lies throughout the *Odyssey* and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit. The two argue over whether it is better to lie on purpose or by accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally.
### In Roman and medieval literature {#in_roman_and_medieval_literature}
The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles\' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure\'s *\[\[Roman de Troie\]\]* and Guido delle Colonne\'s *Historia destructionis Troiae*, which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the seventeenth century.
Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars.
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## In modern literature and arts {#in_modern_literature_and_arts}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Achilles and Agamemnon by Gottlieb Schick (1801)
### Literature
- Achilles appears in Dante\'s *Inferno* (composed 1308--1320). He is seen in Hell\'s second circle, that of lust.
- Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare\'s *Troilus and Cressida* (1602). Despicably, he has his Myrmidons murder the unarmed Hector, and then gets them to announce that Achilles himself has slain Hector, as if it had been in a fair fight (Act 5.9.5-14).
- The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy *La Mort d\'Achille* (1673).
- Achilles is the subject of the poem *Achilleis* (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
- In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named *Achilles*.
- In 1921, Edward Shanks published *The Island of Youth and Other Poems*, concerned among others with Achilles.
- The 1983 novel *Kassandra* by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles.
- H.D.\'s 1961 long poem *Helen in Egypt* features Achilles prominently as a figure whose irrational hatred of Helen traumatizes her, the bulk of the poem\'s plot being about her recovery.
- Achilles is killed by a poisoned Centaur arrow shot by Cassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley\'s novel *The Firebrand* (1987).
- Achilles is one of various \'narrators\' in Colleen McCullough\'s novel *The Song of Troy* (1998).
- *The Death of Achilles* (*Смерть Ахиллеса*, 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the *Iliad*.
- The character Achilles in *Ender\'s Shadow* (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake\'s cunning mind and ruthless attitude.
- Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons\'s novels *Ilium* (2003) and *Olympos* (2005).
- Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell\'s *Troy* series of books (2005--2007).
- Achilles is the main character in David Malouf\'s novel *Ransom* (2009).
- The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan\'s *The Last Olympian* (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.
- Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins\' 2009 novel *The Rage of Achilles*.
- Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller\'s debut novel, *The Song of Achilles* (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the *Iliad*.
- Achilles appears in the light novel series *Fate/Apocrypha* (2012--2014) as the Rider of Red.
- Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker\'s 2018 novel *The Silence of the Girls*, much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis.
### Visual arts {#visual_arts}
- *Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes* is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others.
- Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: *Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx*, *Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron*, *Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes*, *The wrath of Achilles*, *The death of Hector*, *Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus*, *The death of Achilles* (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and *Briseis restored to Achilles* (Detroit Institute of Arts; all c. 1630--1635)
- Pieter van Lint, \"Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes\", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem
- *Dying Achilles* is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (c. 1683; Victoria and Albert Museum, London).
- *The Rage of Achilles* is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana Ai Nani, Vicenza).
- Eugène Delacroix painted a version of *The Education of Achilles* for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833--1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament.
- created a statue group *Achilles and Penthesilea* (1895; Vienna).
- *Achilleus* (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt.
### Music
Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres.
- Operas titled *Deidamia* were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739).
- *Achille et Polyxène* (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse.
- *Achille et Déidamie* (Paris 1735) is an opera composed by André Campra.
- *Achilles* (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as *Achilles in petticoats* in 1773.
- *Achille in Sciro* is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as *Il Trionfo della gloria*.
- *Achille* (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra.
- *Achille à Scyros* (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini.
- *Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja* (\"Achilles, or Troy Destroyed\", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch.
- *Achilles auf Skyros* (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz.
- *Achilles\' Wrath* is a concert piece by Sean O\'Loughlin.
- *Temporary Like Achilles* is a song on the 1966 double-album *Blonde on Blonde* by Bob Dylan
- *Achilles Last Stand* is a song on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album *Presence*.
- *Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts* is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album *The Triumph of Steel*.
- *Achilles Come Down* is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths album *Go Farther in Lightness*.
### Film and television {#film_and_television}
Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series:
- The 1924 film *Helena* by Carlo Aldini
- The 1954 film *Ulysses* by Piero Lulli
- The 1956 film *Helen of Troy* by Stanley Baker
- The 1961 film *The Trojan Horse* by Arturo Dominici
- The 1962 film *The Fury of Achilles* by Gordon Mitchell
- The 1997 television miniseries *The Odyssey* by Richard Trewett
- The 2003 television miniseries *Helen of Troy* by Joe Montana
- The 2004 film *Troy* by Brad Pitt
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## In modern literature and arts {#in_modern_literature_and_arts}
### Architecture
- In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the Achilleion, after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles.
- The Wellington Monument is a statue representing Achilles erected in 1822 as a memorial to Arthur Wellesley, the first duke of Wellington, and his victories in the Peninsular War and the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars.
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## Namesakes
- The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744---both as `{{HMS|Achilles}}`{=mediawiki} and with the French spelling `{{HMS|Achille}}`{=mediawiki}. A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War.
- was a `{{sclass|Leander|cruiser|1||1931}}`{=mediawiki} which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside `{{HMS|Ajax|22|6}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{HMS|Exeter|68|6}}`{=mediawiki}. In addition to earning the battle honour \'River Plate\', HMNZS *Achilles* also served at Guadalcanal 1942--1943 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948, but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand.
- A species of lizard, *Anolis achilles*, which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.
## Gallery
<File:Achilles> departure Eretria Painter CdM Paris 851.jpg\|Achilles and the Nereid Cymothoe, Attic red-figure kantharos from Volci (Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris) <File:Akhilleus> embassy Staatliche Antikensammlungen 8770.jpg\|The embassy to Achilles, Attic red-figure hydria, c. 480 BCE (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Berlin) <File:AmbrosianIliadPict47Achilles.jpg%7CAchilles> sacrificing to Zeus for Patroclus\' safe return, from the *Ambrosian Iliad*, a fifth-century illuminated manuscript <File:Bell-krater> Akhilleus Penthesileia MAN.jpg\|Achilles and Penthesilea fighting, Lucanian red-figure bell-krater, late fifth century BCE <File:Akhilleus> Penthesileia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2688.jpg\|Achilles killing Penthesilea, tondo of an Attic red-figure kylix, c. 465 BCE, from Vulci <File:Mourning> of Akhilleus Louvre E643.jpg\|Thetis and the Nereids mourning Achilles, Corinthian black-figure hydria, c. 555 BCE (Louvre, Paris) <File:Aias> Achilles game Musei Capitolini MC6.jpg\|Achilles and Ajax playing the board game *petteia*, black-figure oinochoe, c. 530 BCE (Capitoline Museums, Rome) <File:Achilles-01.jpg%7CHead> of Achilles depicted on a fourth-century BCE coin from Kremaste, Phthia. Reverse: Thetis, wearing and holding the shield of Achilles with his AX monogram <File:Getty> Villa - Collection (3151231788)
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USS *President Lincoln*}} `{{Good article}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Pp|small=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Pp-move}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use American English|date=November 2024}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2024}}`{=mediawiki} **Abraham Lincoln** (February 12, 1809 -- April 15, 1865) was the 16th president of the United States, serving from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He led the United States through the American Civil War, defeating the Confederate States of America and playing a major role in the abolition of slavery.
Lincoln was born into poverty in Kentucky and raised on the frontier. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, Illinois state legislator, and U.S. representative. Angered by the Kansas--Nebraska Act of 1854, which opened the territories to slavery, he became a leader of the new Republican Party. He reached a national audience in the 1858 Senate campaign debates against Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election, which the South viewed as a further threat to states\' rights and slavery, and Southern states began seceding to form the Confederate States of America. A month after Lincoln assumed the presidency, Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, starting the Civil War.
Lincoln, a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions in managing conflicting political opinion during the war effort. Lincoln closely supervised the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals, and implemented a naval blockade of Southern ports. He suspended the writ of *habeas corpus* in April 1861, an action that Chief Justice Roger Taney found unconstitutional in *Ex parte Merryman*, and he averted war with Britain by defusing the *Trent* Affair. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the slaves in the states \"in rebellion\" to be free. On November 19, 1863, he delivered the Gettysburg Address, which became one of the most famous speeches in American history. He promoted the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which, in 1865, abolished slavery, except as punishment for a crime. Re-elected in 1864, he sought to heal the war-torn nation through Reconstruction.
On April 14, 1865, five days after the Confederate surrender at Appomattox, he was attending a play at Ford\'s Theatre in Washington, D.C., when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln is remembered as a martyr and a national hero for his wartime leadership and for his efforts to preserve the Union and abolish slavery. He is often ranked in both popular and scholarly polls as the greatest president in American history.`{{TOC limit|5}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Abraham Lincoln series}}`{=mediawiki}
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## Family and childhood {#family_and_childhood}
### Early life {#early_life}
Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. The second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, he was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from England to Massachusetts in 1638, and of the Harrison family of Virginia. His paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Kentucky. The captain was killed in a Native American raid in 1786. Thomas, Abraham\'s father, then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and Tennessee before the family settled in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s. Lincoln\'s mother Nancy is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky. They had three children: Sarah, Abraham, and Thomas; Thomas died as an infant.
Thomas Lincoln bought multiple farms in Kentucky but could not get clear property titles to any, losing hundreds of acres in legal disputes. In 1816, the family moved to Indiana, where land titles were more reliable. They settled on a forested plot in Little Pigeon Creek Community, Indiana. In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. At various times he owned farms, livestock, and town lots, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptist Church, a pious evangelical group whose members largely condemned slavery. Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas obtained clear title to 80 acre in Little Pigeon Creek Community in 1827.
On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died from milk sickness, leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Nancy\'s 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks. Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died in childbirth, devastating Lincoln. On December 2, 1819, Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother and called her \"Mama\".
### Education and move to Illinois {#education_and_move_to_illinois}
Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling was from itinerant teachers. It included two short stints in Kentucky, where he learned to read, but probably not to write. After moving to Indiana at age seven, he attended school only sporadically, for a total of less than 12 months by age 15. Nonetheless, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning.
When Lincoln was a teenager his father relied heavily on him for farmwork and for supplementary income, hiring the boy out to area farmers and pocketing the money, as was allowed by law at the time. Lincoln and some friends took goods by flatboat to New Orleans, Louisiana, where he first witnessed slave markets.
In March 1830, fearing another milk-sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois and settled in Macon County. Abraham became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part due to his father\'s lack of interest in education; he would later refuse to attend his father\'s deathbed or funeral in 1851.
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## Family and childhood {#family_and_childhood}
### Marriage and children {#marriage_and_children}
Some historians, such as Michael Burlingame, identify Lincoln\'s first romantic interest as Ann Rutledge, a young woman also from Kentucky whom he met when he moved to New Salem, Illinois. Lewis Gannett, however, disputes that the evidence supports a romantic relationship between the two. David Herbert Donald states that \"How that friendship \[between Lincoln and Rutledge\] developed into a romance cannot be reconstructed from the record\". Rutledge died on August 25, 1835, of typhoid fever. Lincoln took her death very hard, sinking into a serious depression and contemplating suicide.
In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her, but they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she declined to marry him. In 1839, Lincoln met Mary Todd in Springfield, Illinois, and the following year they became engaged. She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd, a wealthy lawyer and businessman in Lexington, Kentucky. Lincoln initially broke off the engagement in early 1841, but the two were reconciled and married on November 4, 1842. In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near his law office.
The marriage was turbulent; Mary was verbally abusive and at times physically violent towards her husband. They had four sons. The eldest, Robert Todd Lincoln, was born in 1843, and was the only child to live to maturity. Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie), born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis. Lincoln\'s third son, \"Willie\" Lincoln, was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the White House on February 20, 1862. The youngest, Thomas \"Tad\" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of edema at age 18 on July 16, 1871. Lincoln loved children, and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. The deaths of Eddie and Willie had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from \"melancholy\", a condition now thought to be clinical depression.
### Early vocations and militia service {#early_vocations_and_militia_service}
In 1831, Thomas moved the family to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, after which Abraham struck out on his own. He made his home in New Salem, Illinois, for six years. During 1831 and 1832, Lincoln worked at a general store in New Salem. He gained a reputation for strength and courage after winning a wrestling match with the leader of a group of ruffians known as the Clary\'s Grove boys. In 1832, he declared his candidacy for the Illinois House of Representatives, though he interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War. He was elected the captain of his militia company but did not see combat. In his political campaigning, Lincoln advocated for navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. He drew crowds as a raconteur, but he lacked name recognition, powerful friends, and money, and he lost the election.
When Lincoln returned home from the war, he planned to become a blacksmith but instead purchased a New Salem general store in partnership with William Berry. Because a license was required to sell customers alcoholic beverages, Berry obtained bartending licenses for Lincoln and himself, and in 1833 the Lincoln--Berry General Store became a tavern as well. But according to Burlingame, Berry was \"an undisciplined, hard-drinking fellow\", and Lincoln \"was too soft-hearted to deny anyone credit\"; although the economy was booming, the business struggled and went into debt, prompting Lincoln to sell his share.
Lincoln served as New Salem\'s postmaster and later as county surveyor, but he continued his voracious reading and decided to become a lawyer. Rather than studying in the office of an established attorney, as was customary, Lincoln read law on his own, borrowing legal texts, including Blackstone\'s *Commentaries* and Chitty\'s *Pleadings*, from attorney John Todd Stuart. He later said of his legal education that he \"studied with nobody.\"
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## Early political offices and prairie lawyer {#early_political_offices_and_prairie_lawyer}
### Illinois state legislature (1834--1842) {#illinois_state_legislature_18341842}
In Lincoln\'s second state house campaign in 1834, this time as a Whig and supporter of Whig leader Henry Clay, he finished second among thirteen candidates running for four places. Lincoln echoed Clay\'s support for the American Colonization Society, which advocated abolition in conjunction with settling freed slaves in Liberia. The Whigs also favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements such as railroads, and urbanization.
Lincoln served four terms in the Illinois House of Representatives for Sangamon County. In this role, he championed construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal. Lincoln also voted to expand suffrage beyond White landowners to all White men. Lincoln was admitted to the Illinois bar on September 9, 1836. He moved to Springfield and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd\'s cousin. He partnered for several years with Stephen T. Logan and, in 1844, began his practice with William Herndon.
On January 27, 1838, Lincoln delivered a significant speech at the Lyceum in Springfield, after the murder of the anti-slavery newspaper editor Elijah Parish Lovejoy. In this ostensibly non-partisan speech Lincoln indirectly attacked Stephen Douglas and the Democratic Party, who the Whigs argued were supporting \"mobocracy\"; he also attacked anti-abolitionism and racial bigotry. He was criticized in the press for a planned duel with James Shields, whom he had ridiculed in letters published under the name \"Aunt Rebecca\"; though the duel ultimately did not take place, Burlingame noted that \"the affair embarrassed Lincoln terribly\".
### U.S. House of Representatives (1847--1849) {#u.s._house_of_representatives_18471849}
In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for Illinois\'s 7th district seat in the U.S. House of Representatives; John J. Hardin was the winning candidate, though Lincoln convinced the party convention to limit Hardin to one term. Lincoln not only gained the nomination in 1846, but also won the election. The only Whig in the Illinois delegation, he was assigned to the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department. Lincoln teamed with Joshua R. Giddings on a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, but dropped the bill when it failed to attract support from most other Whigs.
Lincoln spoke against the Mexican--American War (1846--1848), for which he said President James K. Polk \"had some strong motive \... to involve the two countries in a war, and trusting to escape scrutiny, by fixing the public gaze upon the exceeding brightness of military glory---that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood\". He supported the Wilmot Proviso, a failed 1846 proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had begun the war by \"invading the territory of the State of Texas \... and shedding the blood of our citizens on our own soil\". In his 1847 \"spot resolutions\", Lincoln rhetorically demanded that Polk tell Congress the exact \"spot\" where this occurred, but the Polk administration did not respond. His approach and rhetoric cost Lincoln political support in his district, and newspapers derisively nicknamed him \"spotty Lincoln\".
Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House. Realizing Henry Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed commissioner of the United States General Land Office. The administration offered to appoint him secretary of the Oregon Territory instead. This would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.
### Prairie lawyer {#prairie_lawyer}
In his Springfield practice, according to Donald, Lincoln handled \"virtually every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer\". He dealt with many transportation cases in the midst of the nation\'s western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the new railroad bridges. In 1849 he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of riverboats in shallow water and Lincoln initially favored riverboat legal interests, but he represented whoever hired him. He represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in *Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company*, a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. His patent was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 411 cases. From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad, who Lincoln successfully sued to recover his legal fees.
Lincoln represented William \"Duff\" Armstrong in his 1858 trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln\'s use of a fact established by judicial notice to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After a witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a *Farmers\' Almanac* showing the Moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted. In an 1859 murder case, he defended \"Peachy\" Quinn Harrison, the grandson of Peter Cartwright, Lincoln\'s political opponent. Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, according to Cartwright, said as he lay dying that he had \"brought it upon myself\" and that he forgave Harrison. Lincoln angrily protested the judge\'s initial decision to exclude Cartwright\'s claim as hearsay. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a dying declaration and so was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected, the judge, a Democrat, admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison\'s acquittal.
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## Republican politics (1854--1860) {#republican_politics_18541860}
### Emergence as Republican leader {#emergence_as_republican_leader}
The Compromise of 1850 failed to alleviate tensions over slavery between the slave-holding South and the free North. As the slavery debate in the Nebraska and Kansas territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed popular sovereignty as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the spread of slavery, but Douglas\'s Kansas--Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854. Lincoln\'s Peoria Speech of October 1854, in which he declared his opposition to slavery, was one of over 170 speeches he delivered in the next six years on the topic of excluding slavery from the territories. Lincoln\'s attacks on the Kansas--Nebraska Act marked his return to political life.
Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas--Nebraska Act and other ineffective efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, \"I think I am a whig; but others say there are no whigs, and that I am an abolitionist\.... I now do no more than oppose the *extension* of slavery.\" The new Republican Party was formed as a northern party dedicated to anti-slavery, drawing from the anti-slavery wing of the Whig Party and combining Free Soil, Liberty, and anti-slavery Democratic Party members, Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties, fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party\'s growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement. In 1854, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature, but before the term began he declined to take his seat so that he would be eligible to run in the upcoming U.S. Senate election. At that time, senators were elected by state legislatures. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, Lincoln was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull, an anti-slavery Democrat who had received few votes in the earlier ballots. Lincoln\'s decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull\'s anti-slavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson.
#### 1856 campaign
Violent political confrontations in Kansas continued, and opposition to the Kansas--Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the Bloomington Convention, where the Illinois Republican Party was established. The convention platform endorsed Congress\'s right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention, calling for the preservation of the Union. At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln received support to run as vice president, but ultimately the party put forward a ticket of John C. Frémont and William Dayton, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated James Buchanan and the Know Nothings nominated Millard Fillmore. Buchanan prevailed, while Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois.
#### *Dred Scott v. Sandford* {#dred_scott_v._sandford}
Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a territory that was free as a result of the Missouri Compromise. After Scott was returned to the slave state, he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in *Dred Scott v. Sandford* (1857). Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney wrote in his opinion that Black people were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution, and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional for infringing upon slave owners\' property rights. While many Democrats hoped that *Dred Scott* would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power. He argued that the decision was at variance with the Declaration of Independence, which stated that \"all men are created equal \... with certain unalienable rights\", among them \"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness\".
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## Republican politics (1854--1860) {#republican_politics_18541860}
### Lincoln--Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech {#lincolndouglas_debates_and_cooper_union_speech}
Further information: Lincoln--Douglas debates, Cooper Union speech
In 1858, Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln\'s 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition. Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his House Divided Speech:
> \"A house divided against itself cannot stand.\" I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half *slave* and half *free*. I do not expect the Union to be *dissolved*---I do not expect the house to *fall*---but I *do* expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.
The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion. When informed of Lincoln\'s nomination, Douglas stated, \"\[Lincoln\] is the strong man of the party \... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won.\"
The Senate campaign featured seven debates between Lincoln and Douglas; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew thousands. Lincoln warned that the Slave Power was threatening the values of republicanism, and he accused Douglas of distorting Jefferson\'s premise that all men are created equal. In his Freeport Doctrine, Douglas argued that, despite the *Dred Scott* decision, which he claimed to support, local settlers, under popular sovereignty, should be free to choose whether to allow slavery in their territory. He accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. However, Lincoln\'s articulation of the issues had given him a national political presence. In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast and was unsure whether to seek the office. In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the presidential nomination if offered and, in the following months, William O. Stoddard\'s *Central Illinois Gazette*, the *Chicago Press & Tribune*, and other local papers endorsed his candidacy.
On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a speech at the Cooper Union. In this address Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery; he insisted that morality required opposition to slavery and rejected any \"groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong\". Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly. But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership, which brought him into contention for the presidency. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, \"No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience\". Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as \"a superb political move for an unannounced presidential aspirant.\" In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, \"The taste *is* in my mouth a little\".
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## Republican politics (1854--1860) {#republican_politics_18541860}
### 1860 presidential election {#presidential_election}
On May 9--10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Exploiting his embellished frontier legend of clearing land and splitting fence rails, Lincoln\'s supporters adopted the label of \"The Rail Candidate\". On May 18 at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for vice president to balance the ticket.
Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, delegates from the Southern slave states elected incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South. A nationwide militaristic Republican youth organization, the Wide Awakes, \"turned it into one of the most excited elections in American history\" and \"triggered massive popular enthusiasm\", according to the political historian Jon Grinspan. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for him.
As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. Republican speakers emphasized Lincoln\'s childhood poverty to demonstrate the power of \"free labor\", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts. Though he did not give public appearances, many sought to visit and write to Lincoln. In the runup to the election, he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired John George Nicolay as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency.
On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the first Republican president. His victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8 percent of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon, and winning the electoral vote decisively.
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## Presidency (1861--1865) {#presidency_18611865}
### First term {#first_term}
#### Secession and inauguration {#secession_and_inauguration}
The South was outraged by Lincoln\'s election, and secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina adopted an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America, selecting Jefferson Davis as its provisional president. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. On February 11, 1861, Lincoln gave a particularly emotional farewell address upon leaving Springfield for Washington.
Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed Crittenden Compromise as contrary to the party\'s platform of free-soil in the territories. Lincoln said, \"I will suffer death before I consent \... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right\". Lincoln supported the Corwin Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. The amendment passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the required three-fourths of the states when Southern states began to secede. On March 4, 1861, in his first inaugural address, Lincoln said that, because he held \"such a provision to now be implied constitutional law, I have no objection to its being made express, and irrevocable\".
thumb\|upright=0.7\|alt=cartoon of Lincoln in a kilt and fancy hat doing a jig\|Lincoln was mocked by opposition papers falsely claiming that he snuck into Washington in disguise after the 1860 election.
Due to secessionist plots, Lincoln and his train received careful attention to security. The president-elect evaded suspected assassins in Baltimore. He traveled in disguise, wearing a soft felt hat instead of his customary stovepipe hat and draping an overcoat over his shoulders while hunching to conceal his height. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in Washington, D.C., which was placed under military guard. Many in the opposition press criticized his secretive journey; opposition newspapers mocked Lincoln with caricatures showing him sneaking into the capital. Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states:
The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: \"We are not enemies, but friends\.... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone \... will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched \... by the better angels of our nature\". According to Donald, the failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 to attract the attendance of seven of the Confederate states signaled that legislative compromise was not a practical expectation.
#### Personnel
In selecting his cabinet, Lincoln chose the men he found the most competent, even when they had been his opponents for the presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, \"We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services.\" Goodwin described the group in her biography of Lincoln as a \"team of rivals\". Lincoln named his main political opponent, William H. Seward, as Secretary of State.
Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne, a prominent corporate lawyer from Ohio, replaced John McLean after the latter\'s death in April 1861. Like McLean, Swayne opposed slavery. Samuel Freeman Miller, who replaced Peter V. Daniel, was an avowed abolitionist and received widespread support from Iowa politicians. David Davis was Lincoln\'s campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, after the death of Roger B. Taney, Lincoln appointed his secretary of the treasury, Salmon P. Chase, to replace Taney as chief justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist who would support Reconstruction legislation and that his appointment would unite the Republican Party.
#### Commander-in-Chief {#commander_in_chief}
In early April 1861, Major Robert Anderson, commander of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, advised that he was nearly out of food. After considerable debate, Lincoln decided to send provisions; according to Michael Burlingame, he \"could not be sure that his decision would precipitate a war, though he had good reason to believe that it might\". On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter. Donald concludes:
> His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Fort Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he had also vowed not to surrender the forts\.... The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the Confederates to fire the first shot.
The April 12 and 13 attack on Fort Sumter rallied the people of the North to support military action against the South to defend the nation. On April 15, Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to recapture forts, protect Washington, and preserve the Union. This call forced states to choose whether to secede or to support the Union. North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded. As the Northern states sent regiments south, on April 19 Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links attacked Union troops who were changing trains. Local leaders\' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of *habeas corpus*, allowing arrests without formal charges.
John Merryman, a Maryland officer arrested for hindering U.S. troop movements, successfully petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Taney to issue a writ of *habeas corpus*. In a written opinion titled *Ex parte Merryman*, Taney, not ruling on behalf of the Supreme Court, held that the Constitution authorized only Congress and not the president to suspend habeas corpus. But Lincoln engaged in nonacquiescence and persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas. Under various suspensions, 15,000 civilians were detained without trial; several, including the anti-war Democrat Clement L. Vallandigham, were tried in military courts for \"treasonable\" actions, an approach that was highly criticized.
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## Presidency (1861--1865) {#presidency_18611865}
### First term {#first_term}
#### Early Union military strategy {#early_union_military_strategy}
Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the Union military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as commander-in-chief by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a naval blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended *habeas corpus*, and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict.
It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions in both political parties. Copperheads (anti-war Democrats) criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery; the Radical Republicans (who demanded harsh treatment against secession) criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act, which authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery.
Lincoln\'s war strategy had two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory. Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet. Occasionally, Lincoln\'s wife, Mary, prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard. Early in the war, Lincoln selected civilian generals from varied political and ethnic backgrounds \"to secure their and their constituents\' support for the war effort and ensure that the war became a national struggle\". In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton. Stanton worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than did any other senior official. According to Stanton\'s biographers Benjamin Thomas and Harold Hyman, \"Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together\".
For his edification Lincoln relied on a book by Henry Halleck, *Elements of Military Art and Science*. Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River. Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy\'s army, rather than merely capturing territory. In directing the Union\'s war strategy, Lincoln valued the advice of Winfield Scott, even after his retirement as Commanding General of the United States Army. In 1861 Scott proposed the Anaconda Plan, which relied on port blockades and advancing down the Mississippi to subdue the South. In June 1862, Lincoln made an unannounced visit to West Point, where he spent five hours consulting with Scott regarding the handling of the war.
Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy. He relied on his combative Secretary of State William Seward while working closely with Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner. In 1861 the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the *RMS Trent*, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys. Although the North celebrated the seizure, Britain protested vehemently, and the Trent Affair threatened war between the Americans and the British. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats.
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## Presidency (1861--1865) {#presidency_18611865}
### First term {#first_term}
#### McClellan
*Main article: George B. McClellan*
After the Union rout at Bull Run and Winfield Scott\'s retirement, Lincoln appointed George B. McClellan general-in-chief. Early in the war, McClellan created defenses for Washington that were almost impregnable: 48 forts and batteries, with 480 guns manned by 7,200 artillerists. He spent months planning his Virginia Peninsula Campaign. McClellan\'s slow progress and excessive precautions frustrated Lincoln. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln\'s cautiousness in having reserved troops for the capital. In 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief because of the latter\'s continued inaction. He elevated Henry Halleck to the post and appointed John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia. But in the summer of 1862 Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run, forcing him to retreat to Washington. Soon after, the Army of Virginia was disbanded.
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan\'s failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington, which included both the Army of the Potomac and the remains of the Army of Virginia. Two days later, Robert E. Lee\'s forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam. That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history. A crisis of command occurred for Lincoln when McClellan then resisted the president\'s demand that he pursue Lee\'s withdrawing army, while Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans and McClellan with Ambrose Burnside, Rosencrans and Burnside both being politically neutral. Against presidential advice, Burnside launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Facing low morale and discontent among the troops, Lincoln replaced Burnside with Joseph Hooker. Hooker endured heavy casualties at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May, then resigned in June and was replaced by George Meade. Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and defeated him in the Gettysburg campaign but then failed to effectively block Lee\'s orderly retreat to Virginia, despite Lincoln\'s demands. At the same time, Ulysses S. Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River.
#### Emancipation Proclamation {#emancipation_proclamation}
<File:Emancipation> proclamation.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.25\|*First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln*, an 1864 portrait by Francis Bicknell Carpenter*(clickable image---use cursor to identify)*\|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.
poly 269 892 254 775 193 738 130 723 44 613 19 480 49 453 75 434 58 376 113 344 133 362 143 423 212 531 307 657 357 675 409 876 Edwin Stanton poly 169 282 172 244 244 201 244 148 265 117 292 125 305 166 304 204 321 235 355 296 374 348 338 395 341 469 Salmon Chase poly 569 893 535 708 427 613 357 562 377 456 393 404 468 351 451 317 473 259 520 256 544 283 530 339 526 374 559 401 594 431 639 494 715 542 692 551 693 579 672 546 623 552 596 617 698 629 680 852 Abraham Lincoln poly 692 514 740 441 788 407 772 350 800 303 831 297 861 329 867 381 868 409 913 430 913 471 847 532 816 533 709 533 Gideon Welles poly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 1083 706 William Seward poly 905 418 941 328 987 295 995 284 982 244 990 206 1036 207 1046 247 1047 284 1066 312 1071 314 1049 327 1044 354 1033 383 1033 407 921 453 Caleb Smith poly 1081 308 1102 255 1095 220 1093 181 1109 161 1145 160 1169 191 1153 227 1153 246 1199 268 1230 310 1239 377 1237 443 1220 486 1125 451 1118 412 1136 378 1124 342 Montgomery Blair poly 1224 479 1298 416 1304 379 1295 329 1325 310 1360 324 1370 359 1371 385 1371 397 1413 425 1422 497 1440 563 1348 555 1232 517 Edward Bates poly 625 555 595 620 699 625 730 550 Emancipation Proclamation poly 120 80 120 300 3 300 3 80 Portrait of Simon Cameron poly 752 196 961 189 948 8 735 10 Portrait of Andrew Jackson
Before Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, two Union generals issued their own emancipation orders, but Lincoln overrode both: he found that the decision to emancipate was not within the generals\' power, and that it might induce loyal border states to secede. However, in June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery in all federal territories, which Lincoln signed. In July, the Confiscation Act of 1862 was enacted, allowing the targeted seizure of slaves for those disloyal to the United States. On July 22, 1862, Lincoln reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. Senator Willard Saulsbury Sr. criticized the proclamation, stating that it \"would light their author to dishonor through all future generations\". By contrast, Horace Greeley, editor of the *New-York Tribune*, in his public letter, \"The Prayer of Twenty Millions\", implored Lincoln to embrace emancipation. In a public letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln replied to Greeley that while he personally wished all men could be free, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union:
Buttressed by news of the recent Union victory at Antietam, on September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. On January 1, 1863, he issued the final version, freeing the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, exempting areas under such control. Lincoln commented on signing the Proclamation: \"I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper.\" On New Year\'s Eve in 1862, Black people -- enslaved and free -- gathered across the United States to hold Watch Night ceremonies for \"Freedom\'s Eve\", looking toward the promised fulfillment of the Proclamation. With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south enabled thousands to escape bondage.
As Lincoln had hoped, the Proclamation removed the threat that countries that opposed slavery, especially Britain and France, would support the Confederacy. The Proclamation was immediately denounced by Copperheads, who advocated restoring the union by allowing slavery. It was also seen as a betrayal of his promise to Southern Unionists not to tamper with slavery; Emerson Etheridge, then Clerk of the House of Representatives, joined an unsuccessful plot to give the Democrats and Southern Unionists control of the House. As a result of the Proclamation, enlisting freedmen became official policy. In a letter to Tennessee military governor Andrew Johnson, Lincoln wrote, \"The bare sight of fifty thousand armed, and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once\".
#### Gettysburg Address (1863) {#gettysburg_address_1863}
Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. In 272 words, taking only three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the deaths of the \"brave men \... who struggled here\" would not be in vain, but that the nation \"shall have a new birth of freedom---and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth\". The Address became the most quoted speech in American history.
Following Admiral David Farragut\'s capture of New Orleans in 1862, and after victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, Lincoln proclaimed a national Thanksgiving holiday, to be celebrated on the 26th, the final Thursday of November 1863.
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## Presidency (1861--1865) {#presidency_18611865}
### First term {#first_term}
#### Promoting Grant {#promoting_grant}
Grant\'s victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln said, \"I can\'t spare this man. He fights.\" Meade\'s failure to capture Lee\'s army after Gettysburg and Grant\'s success at Chattanooga persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to commander of all Union armies.
Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North. Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure---plantations, railroads, and bridges---to weaken the South\'s morale and fighting ability. He emphasized the defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction for its own sake. Grant\'s bloody Overland Campaign, a thrust involving nearly a dozen military engagements necessary for the Union to win the war, turned into a strategic success for the Union despite a number of setbacks. By engaging Lee\'s forces and not permitting them to escape, Grant forced Lee into an untenable position. But the campaign was the bloodiest in American history: approximately 55,000 casualties on the Union side (of which 7,600 were killed), 33,600 (4,300 killed) on the Confederate. Lee\'s losses, although lower in absolute numbers, were proportionately higher (over 50%) than Grant\'s (about 45%). In early April, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital. Amid the turmoil of military actions, on June 30, 1864, Lincoln signed into law the Yosemite Grant, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park. According to Rolf Diamant and Ethan Carr, \"the Yosemite Grant was a direct consequence of the war \... an embodiment of the ongoing process of remaking government \... an intentional assertion of a steadfast belief in the eventual Union victory.\"
#### Fiscal and monetary policy {#fiscal_and_monetary_policy}
After the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln and Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase faced the challenge of funding a wartime economy. Congress quickly approved Lincoln\'s request to assemble a 500,000-man army, but it initially resisted raising taxes. After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run, Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1861, which imposed the first U.S. federal income tax. The act created a flat tax of three percent on incomes above \$800 (\$`{{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|800|1861|r=-2}}}}`{=mediawiki} in current dollars). This taxation reflected the increasing amount of wealth held in stocks and bonds rather than property, which the federal government had taxed in the past. As the average urban worker made approximately \$600 per year, the income tax burden fell primarily on the rich. Lincoln also signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs, the first having become law in the final months of Buchanan\'s tenure. These tariffs raised import duties considerably and were designed both to increase revenue and to protect domestic manufacturing against foreign competition. During the war, the tariff also helped manufacturers offset the burden of new taxes. Throughout the war, Congress debated whether to raise additional revenue primarily by increasing tariff rates, which most strongly affected rural areas in the West, or by increasing income taxes, which most strongly affected wealthier individuals in the Northeast.
The revenue measures of 1861 proved inadequate for funding the war, forcing Congress to take further action. In February 1862, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act, which authorized the minting of \$150 million in \"greenbacks\"---the first banknotes issued by the U.S. government since the end of the American Revolution. Greenbacks were not backed by gold or silver, but rather by the government\'s promise to honor their value. By the end of the war, \$450 million worth of greenbacks were in circulation. Congress also passed the Revenue Act of 1862, which established an excise tax affecting nearly every commodity, as well as the first national inheritance tax. The Revenue Act of 1862 also added a progressive tax structure to the federal income tax. To collect these taxes, Congress created the Office of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States\' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.
Despite the new revenue measures, funding the war remained challenging. The government continued to issue greenbacks and borrow large amounts of money, and the U.S. national debt incrementally grew from \$65 million in 1860 to \$2 billion in 1866. The Revenue Act of 1864 represented a compromise between those who favored a more progressive tax structure and those who favored a flat tax. It established a five-percent tax on incomes above \$600 and a ten-percent tax on incomes above \$10,000, and it raised taxes on businesses. In early 1865, Congress levied a tax of ten percent on incomes above \$5000. By the end of the war, the income tax constituted about one-fifth of the federal government\'s revenue, though it was intended as a temporary wartime measure.
Lincoln also took action against rampant fraud during the war, signing into law the False Claims Act of 1863. This statute imposed civil and criminal penalties for false claims and made it possible for private citizens to file false claims (qui tam) lawsuits on behalf of the U.S. government and share in the recovery. Hoping to stabilize the currency, Chase convinced Congress to pass the National Banking Act in February 1863, as well as a second banking act in 1864. Those acts established the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency to oversee \"national banks\" subject to federal, rather than state, regulation. In return for investing a third of their capital in federal bonds, national banks were authorized to issue federal banknotes. After Congress imposed a tax on private banknotes in March 1865, federal banknotes became the dominant form of paper currency.
#### Foreign policy {#foreign_policy}
At the start of the war, Russia was the lone great power to support the Union, while the other European powers had varying degrees of sympathy for the Confederacy. According to the historian Dean Mahin, Lincoln had \"limited familiarity with diplomatic practices\" but had a \"substantial influence on U.S. diplomacy\" as the Union attempted to avoid war with Britain and France. Lincoln appointed diplomats to try to persuade European nations not to recognize the Confederacy. Lincoln\'s policy succeeded: all foreign nations were officially neutral throughout the Civil War, with none recognizing the Confederacy. European leaders saw the division of the United States as having the potential to eliminate, or at least greatly weaken, a growing rival. They looked for ways to exploit the inability of the U.S. to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. Spain invaded the Dominican Republic in 1861, while France established a puppet regime in Mexico. However, many in Europe also hoped for a quick end to the war, both for humanitarian reasons and because of the economic disruption it caused.
Lincoln\'s foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. The European aristocracy (the dominant class in every major country) was \"absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed\", according to Don H. Doyle. Union diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to ending slavery, and instead they argued that secession was unconstitutional. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. However, the Confederacy\'s hope that cotton exports would compel European interference did not come to fruition, as Britain found alternative sources and experienced economic growth in industries that did not rely on cotton. Though the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation did not immediately end the possibility of European intervention, it rallied European public opinion to the Union by adding abolition as a Union war goal. Any chance of a European intervention in the war ended with the Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, as European leaders came to believe that the Confederate cause was doomed.
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## Presidency (1861--1865) {#presidency_18611865}
### First term {#first_term}
#### Native Americans {#native_americans}
Lincoln appointed William P. Dole as commissioner of Indian Affairs and made \"extensive use of Indian Service positions to reward political supporters\". Like his predecessors, Lincoln\'s policies largely focused on assimilation of Native Americans, but he had limited direct involvement in Native American affairs. His administration faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraph lines from Native American attacks.
On August 17, 1862, the Dakota War broke out in Minnesota. Hundreds of settlers were killed and 30,000 were displaced from their homes. Some feared incorrectly that it might represent a Confederate conspiracy to start a war on the Northwestern frontier. Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war be sent to put down the uprising. When the Confederacy protested, Lincoln revoked the policy and none arrived in Minnesota. Lincoln sent Pope as commander of the new Department of the Northwest. Serving under Pope was Minnesota Congressman Henry Hastings Sibley, who commanded the U.S. force tasked with fighting the war and that eventually defeated Little Crow\'s forces at the Battle of Wood Lake. A war crimes trial led by Sibley sentenced 303 Dakota warriors to death. Lincoln pardoned all but 39, and, with one getting a reprieve, the remaining 38 were executed in the largest mass execution in U.S. history. Less than four months later, Lincoln issued the Lieber Code, which governed wartime conduct of the Union Army, defining command responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Congressman Alexander Ramsey told Lincoln in 1864 that he would have gotten more re-election support in Minnesota had he executed all 303 warriors. Lincoln responded, \"I could not afford to hang men for votes.\" Lincoln called for reform of federal Indian policy but prioritized the war and Reconstruction. Changes were made in response to the Sand Creek Massacre of November 1864, but not until after Lincoln\'s death.
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## Presidency (1861--1865) {#presidency_18611865}
### Second term {#second_term}
#### Re-election {#re_election}
Lincoln ran for re-election in 1864; the Republican Party selected Andrew Johnson, a War Democrat, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new National Union Party. Grant\'s bloody stalemates and Confederate forces triumphing at the Battle of Mansfield, the Battle of Cold Harbor, the Battle of Brices Cross Roads, the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain and the Battle of the Crater damaged Lincoln\'s re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat; Lincoln rejected pressure for a peace settlement. Lincoln prepared a confidential memorandum pledging that, if he should lose the election, he would \"co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward\".
Victories at Atlanta in September and in the Shenandoah Valley in October turned public opinion, and Lincoln was re-elected. As Grant continued to weaken Lee\'s forces, efforts to discuss peace began. At one point, Confederate Vice President Stephens led a meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal.
On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. Historian Mark Noll places the speech \"among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;\" it is inscribed in the Lincoln Memorial. Lincoln closed his speech with these words: `{{Blockquote|With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/linc/learn/historyculture/lincoln-second-inaugural.htm|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|title=Lincoln's second inaugural address|accessdate=April 27, 2025}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
A month later, on April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, signaling the end of the war. It triggered a series of subsequent surrenders across the South, in North Carolina, Alabama, and the Trans-Mississippi Theater, and finally at sea with the surrender of the CSS *Shenandoah* in November 1865.
#### Reconstruction
Reconstruction preceded the war\'s end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, \"Let \'em up easy.\" Lincoln\'s main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on blame but on rebuilding. Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner and Benjamin Wade, who otherwise remained Lincoln\'s allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they signed an oath of allegiance.
As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were being restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln appointed Johnson and Frederick Steele, respectively, as military governors. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, but only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the plan to ensure his and the Republicans\' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient and passed their own plan, the 1864 Wade--Davis Bill, but Lincoln pocket-vetoed it. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.
upright=1.4\|alt=Cartoon of Lincoln and Johnson attempting to stitch up the broken Union\|thumb\|An 1865 political cartoon, *The \'Rail Splitter\' At Work Repairing the Union*, depicting Vice President Andrew Johnson, a former tailor, and Lincoln. After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery nationwide with a constitutional amendment. By December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress. The Senate passed it on April 8, 1864, but the first vote in the House of Representatives fell short of the required two-thirds majority. Passage became part of Lincoln\'s re-election platform, and after his re-election, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865. After ratification by three-fourths of the states in December 1865, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, abolishing \"slavery \[and\] involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime\".
Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner\'s Freedmen\'s Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability for the freedmen to purchase title. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military administration, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists. Eric Foner argues:
Foner adds that, had Lincoln lived into the Reconstruction era, \"It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death.\"
#### Assassination
John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts within the Confederate secret service. After attending Lincoln\'s last public address, on April 11, 1865, in which Lincoln stated his preference that the franchise be conferred on some Black men, specifically \"on the very intelligent, and on those who serve our cause as soldiers\", Booth plotted to assassinate the President. When Booth learned of the Lincolns\' intent to attend a play with Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at Ford\'s Theatre. Lincoln and his wife attended the play *Our American Cousin* on the evening of April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending.
At 10:15 pm, Booth entered Lincoln\'s theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln\'s head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln\'s guest, Major Henry Rathbone, momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped. After being attended by Doctor Charles Leale and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to Petersen House. He remained in a coma for nine hours and died at 7:22 am on April 15. Lincoln\'s body was wrapped in a flag and placed in a coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers. Johnson was sworn in as president later that same day. Two weeks later, Booth was located, shot, and killed at a farm in Virginia by Sergeant Boston Corbett.
#### Funeral and burial {#funeral_and_burial}
From April 19 to 20, Lincoln lay in state, first in the White House and then in the Capitol rotunda. The caskets containing Lincoln\'s body and the body of his third son Willie then traveled for two weeks on a funeral train following a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at several cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands. Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief. Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death. Poet Walt Whitman composed \"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom\'d\" to eulogize Lincoln. Lincoln\'s body was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield and now lies within the Lincoln Tomb.
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## Philosophy and views {#philosophy_and_views}
Lincoln redefined the political philosophy of republicanism in the United States. Because the Declaration of Independence says that all men have an unalienable right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, he called it the \"sheet anchor\" of republicanism, at a time when the Constitution, which \"tolerated slavery\", was the focus of most political discourse. John Patrick Diggins notes, \"Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself\" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech.
As a Whig activist Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to Jacksonian democrats. Nevertheless, Lincoln admired Andrew Jackson\'s steeliness and patriotism, and adopted the Jacksonian \"belief in the common man\". According to historian Sean Wilentz, \"just as the Republican Party of the 1850s absorbed certain elements of Jacksonianism, so Lincoln, whose Whiggery had always been more egalitarian than that of other Whigs, found himself absorbing some of them as well.\"
William C. Harris found that Lincoln\'s \"reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism.\" In Lincoln\'s first inaugural address, he denounced secession as anarchy and argued that \"a majority held in restraint by constitutional checks, and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people.\"
### Religious skepticism and providence {#religious_skepticism_and_providence}
As a young man Lincoln was a religious skeptic. However, he was deeply familiar with the Bible; throughout his public career, he often quoted Scripture. His three most famous speeches---the House Divided Speech, the Gettysburg Address, and his second inaugural address---all contain such quotes. In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power.
After the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended First Presbyterian Church in Springfield, Illinois, with his wife beginning in 1852. While president, Lincoln often attended services at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C. The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace. Lincoln\'s frequent use of religious imagery and language toward the end of his life may have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants.
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## Health and appearance {#health_and_appearance}
According to Michael Burlingame, Lincoln was described as \"awkward\" and \"gawky\" as a youth. In adolescence he was tall and strong; he participated in jumping, throwing, wrestling, and footraces, and \"shone when he could use his exceptional strength to advantage.\" His stepmother remarked that he cared little about clothing. Burlingame notes that Lincoln\'s clothes \"were typically rough and suited to the frontier\", with a gap between his shoes, socks, and pants that often exposed six or more inches of his shin.
Lincoln was a slender six feet four inches, with a falsetto voice. While he is usually portrayed bearded, he did not grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell; he was the first of five presidents to do so. William H. Herndon described Lincoln\'s face as \"long, narrow, sallow, and cadaverous\", his cheeks as \"leathery and saffron-colored\". Lincoln described himself as having a \"dark complexion, with coarse black hair\". Lincoln\'s detractors also remarked on his appearance. For example, during the Civil War, the Charleston *Mercury* described him as having \"the dirtiest complexion\" and asked \"Faugh! After him what white man would be President?\"
Among the illnesses that Lincoln is either documented or speculated to have suffered from are depression, smallpox, and malaria. He took blue mass pills, which contained mercury, to treat melancholy or hypochondriasis. It is unknown to what extent this may have resulted in mercury poisoning. Several claims have been made that Lincoln\'s health was declining before the assassination, as photographs of Lincoln appear to show weight loss and muscle wasting. It has also been proposed that he could have had a rare genetic disorder such as Marfan syndrome or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B.
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## Legacy
### Historical reputation {#historical_reputation}
In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents since 1948, the top three presidents are generally Lincoln, George Washington, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt, although the order varies. Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln, John F. Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan were the top-ranked presidents in eight public opinion surveys by Gallup. A 2004 study found that scholars in history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.
Lincoln\'s assassination made him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln to be a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was \"a classical liberal\" in the 19th-century sense. In the New Deal era, liberals honored Lincoln as an advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the welfare state, and Lincoln became a favorite of liberal intellectuals across the world. Sociologist Barry Schwartz argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, Lincoln provided the nation with \"a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life.\" Schwartz states that Lincoln\'s American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the Progressive Era (1900--1920s), when he emerged as one of America\'s most venerated heroes, even among White Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II Lincoln\'s symbolic power has lost relevance, and this \"fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness.\" He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept.
By the 1970s, Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives---apart from neo-Confederates such as Mel Bradford, who denounced his treatment of the White South---for his intense nationalism, his support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of slavery, his acting on Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.
Frederick Douglass stated that in \"his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color\", and Lincoln has long been known as the Great Emancipator. By the late 1960s, however, some Black intellectuals denied that Lincoln deserved that title. Lerone Bennett Jr. won wide attention when he called Lincoln a White supremacist in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and argued that Lincoln opposed social equality and proposed that freed slaves voluntarily move to another country. Defenders of Lincoln retorted that he was a \"moral visionary\" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.
David Herbert Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was endowed with the personality trait of negative capability, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were \"capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason\". Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light. Lincoln has also been admired by political figures outside the U.S., including German political theorist Karl Marx, Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, leader of the Italian Risorgimento.
### Memorials and commemorations {#memorials_and_commemorations}
Lincoln\'s portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the \$5 bill. He appears on postage stamps across the world. He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the capital of Nebraska. The United States Navy `{{sclass|Nimitz|aircraft carrier|2}}`{=mediawiki} `{{USS|Abraham Lincoln|CVN-72}}`{=mediawiki} is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name. The Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., is one of the most visited National Park Service sites in the country. Memorials in Springfield, Illinois, include the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Lincoln\'s home, and his tomb. A carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on Mount Rushmore, which receives about 3 million visitors a year. A statue of Lincoln completed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens stands in Lincoln Park, Chicago, with recastings given as diplomatic gifts standing in Parliament Square, London, and Parque Lincoln, Mexico City. Several states commemorate \"Presidents\' Day\" as \"Washington--Lincoln Day\".
Lincoln has also been extensively portrayed in film. Early works attempted to mythologize him, emphasizing his mercifulness, as in *The Birth of a Nation* (1915). Works from the Great Depression era emphasized his early struggles and folksiness, as in *Young Mr. Lincoln* (1939). After a significant decrease in film portrayals between 1941 and 1999, Daniel Day-Lewis won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal in *Lincoln*, a 2012 biographical film directed by Steven Spielberg.
<File:Head> of Abraham Lincoln at Mount Rushmore.jpg\|alt=Refer to caption\|Lincoln\'s image carved into the stone of Mount Rushmore <File:Lincoln> 1866 Issue-15c.jpg\|alt=Refer to caption\|The Lincoln memorial postage stamp of 1866 was issued by the U.S. Post Office exactly one year after Lincoln\'s assassination. <File:Aerial> view of Lincoln Memorial - west side.jpg\|alt=An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.\|Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. <File:United> States penny, obverse, 2002
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**Aristotle** (*Aristotélēs*; 384--322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, and the arts. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science.
Little is known about Aristotle\'s life. He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At around eighteen years old, he joined Plato\'s Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum, which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls.
Though Aristotle wrote many treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle\'s views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and was not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church.
Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as \"The First Teacher\", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply \"The Philosopher\", while the poet Dante called him \"the master of those who know\". He has been referred to as the first scientist. His works contain the earliest known systematic study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and Jean Buridan. His influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, although always influential, has gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.
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## Life
In general, the details of Aristotle\'s life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. He was the son of Nicomachus, the personal physician of King Amyntas of Macedon, and Phaestis, a woman with origins from Chalcis, Euboea. Nicomachus was said to have belonged to the medical guild of Asclepiadae and was likely responsible for Aristotle\'s early interest in biology and medicine. Ancient tradition held that Aristotle\'s family descended from the legendary physician Asclepius and his son Machaon. Both of Aristotle\'s parents died when he was still at a young age and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle\'s childhood has survived, he probably spent some time in the Macedonian capital, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.
thumb\|upright=1.2\|School of Aristotle in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato\'s Academy. He became distinguished as a researcher and lecturer, earning for himself the nickname \"mind of the school\" by his tutor Plato. In Athens, he probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Mysteries, \"to experience is to learn\" (*παθεĩν μαθεĩν*). Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC after Plato\'s death. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the academy\'s direction after control passed to Plato\'s nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens could have also influenced his decision. Aristotle left with Xenocrates to Assos in Asia Minor, where he was invited by his former fellow student Hermias of Atarneus; he stayed there for a few years and left around the time of Hermias\' death. While at Assos, Aristotle and his colleague Theophrastus did extensive research in botany and marine biology, which they later continued at the near-by island of Lesbos. During this time, Aristotle married Pythias, Hermias\'s adoptive daughter and niece, and had a daughter whom they also named Pythias.
thumb\|left\|upright=0.8\|\"Aristotle tutoring Alexander\" (1895) by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
In 343/42 BC, Aristotle was invited to Pella by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his thirteen-year-old son Alexander; a choice perhaps influenced by the relationship of Aristotle\'s family with the Macedonian dynasty. Aristotle taught Alexander at the private school of Mieza, in the gardens of the Nymphs, the royal estate near Pella. Alexander\'s education probably included a number of subjects, such as ethics and politics, as well as standard literary texts, like Euripides and Homer. It is likely that during Aristotle\'s time in the Macedonian court, other prominent nobles, like Ptolemy and Cassander, would have occasionally attended his lectures. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his own attitude towards Persia was strongly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be \"a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians\". Alexander\'s education under the guardianship of Aristotle likely lasted for only a few years, as at around the age of sixteen he returned to Pella and was appointed regent of Macedon by his father Philip. During this time, Aristotle gifted Alexander an annotated copy of the *Iliad*, which is said to have become one of Alexander\'s most prized possessions. Scholars speculate that two of Aristotle\'s now lost works, *On kingship* and *On behalf of the Colonies*, were composed by the philosopher for the young prince. Aristotle returned to Athens for the second and final time a year after Philip II\'s assassination in 336 BC.
As a metic, Aristotle could not own property in Athens and thus rented a building known as the Lyceum (named after the sacred grove of Apollo *Lykeios*), in which he established his own school. The building included a gymnasium and a colonnade (`{{Transliteration|grc|peripatos}}`{=mediawiki}), from which the school acquired the name *Peripatetic*. Aristotle conducted courses and research at the school for the next twelve years. He often lectured small groups of distinguished students and, along with some of them, such as Theophrastus, Eudemus, and Aristoxenus, Aristotle built a large library which included manuscripts, maps, and museum objects. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira. They had a son whom Aristotle named after his father, Nicomachus. This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his philosophical works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include *Physics*, *Metaphysics*, *Nicomachean Ethics*, *Politics*, *On the Soul* and *Poetics*. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to \"logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre.\"
While Alexander deeply admired Aristotle, near the end of his life, the two men became estranged having diverging opinions over issues, like the optimal administration of city-states, the treatment of conquered populations, such as the Persians, and philosophical questions, like the definition of braveness. A widespread speculation in antiquity suggested that Aristotle played a role in Alexander\'s death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander\'s death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother\'s family estate in Chalcis, Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated \"I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy\" -- a reference to Athens\'s trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Chalcis, Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. Aristotle left his works to Theophrastus, his successor as the head of the Lyceum, who in turn passed them down to Neleus of Scepsis in Asia Minor. There, the papers remained hidden for protection until they were purchased by the collector Apellicon. In the meantime, many copies of Aristotle\'s major works had already begun to circulate and be used in the Lyceum of Athens, Alexandria, and later in Rome.
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## Theoretical philosophy {#theoretical_philosophy}
### Logic
With the *Prior Analytics*, Aristotle is credited with the earliest systematic study of logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the *Critique of Pure Reason* that with Aristotle, logic reached its completion.
#### *Organon*
Most of Aristotle\'s work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the *Organon* around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:
1. *Categories*
2. *On Interpretation*
3. *Prior Analytics*
4. *Posterior Analytics*
5. *Topics*
6. *On Sophistical Refutations*
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle\'s writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the *Categories,* the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in *On Interpretation*, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms and demonstration (in the *Analytics*) and dialectics (in the *Topics* and *Sophistical Refutations*). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory *stricto sensu*: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The *Rhetoric* is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the *Topics*.
#### Syllogism
+--------------------------+--------+--------------+
| In words | In\ | In equations |
| | terms | |
+==========================+========+==============+
| All men are mortal.\ | M a P\ | |
| \ | \ | |
| All Greeks are men.\ | S a M\ | |
| \ | \ | |
| ∴ All Greeks are mortal. | S a P | |
+--------------------------+--------+--------------+
: One of Aristotle\'s types of syllogism
What is today called *Aristotelian logic* with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled \"analytics\". The term \"logic\" he reserved to mean *dialectics*.
#### Demonstration
Aristotle\'s *Posterior Analytics* contains his account of demonstration, or demonstrative knowledge, what would today be considered the study of epistemology rather than logic, but which for Aristotle is deeply connected with his account of syllogism. For Aristotle, knowledge is that which is necessarily the case, along with the study of causes.
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## Theoretical philosophy {#theoretical_philosophy}
### Metaphysics
The word \"metaphysics\" comes from the title of a collection of works by Aristotle bearing that title. However, Aristotle himself did not use that term himself, which is due to a later compiler, but instead called it \"first philosophy\" or theology. He distinguished this as \"the study of being qua being\" which, as opposed to other studies of being, such as mathematics and natural science, studies that which is eternal, unchanging, and immaterial. He wrote in his *Metaphysics* (1026a16):
#### Substance
Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (*ousia*) and essence (*to ti ên einai*, \"the what it was to be\") in his *Metaphysics* (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the *potential* house, while the form of the substance is the *actual* house, namely \'covering for bodies and chattels\' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.
##### Moderate realism {#moderate_realism}
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle\'s philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle\'s ontology has the universal (`{{Transliteration|grc|katholou}}`{=mediawiki}) exist in a lesser sense than particulars (`{{Transliteration|grc|kath' hekaston}}`{=mediawiki}), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a realer, separately existing form which particular things merely imitate. For Aristotle, universals still exist, but are only encountered when \"instantiated\" in a particular substance.
In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals are multiply located. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.
##### Potentiality and actuality {#potentiality_and_actuality}
Concerning the nature of change (*kinesis*) and its causes, as he outlines in his *Physics* and *On Generation and Corruption (*319b--320a), he distinguishes coming-to-be (*genesis*, also translated as \'generation\') from:
1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
2. locomotion, which is change in space; and
3. alteration, which is change in quality.
Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of the thing that has undergone the change has itself changed. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (*dynamis*) and actuality (*entelecheia*) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (*dynamei*) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially, beings can either \'act\' (*poiein*) or \'be acted upon\' (*paschein*), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate -- being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise -- acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (*telos*) is the principle of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end, actuality, accordingly, is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, \"what is it that makes a man one\"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.
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## Natural philosophy {#natural_philosophy}
Aristotle\'s \"natural philosophy\" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle\'s terminology, \"natural philosophy\" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle\'s work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as \"science\". However, his use of the term *science* carries a different meaning than that covered by the term \"scientific method\". For Aristotle, \"all science (*dianoia*) is either practical, poetical or theoretical\" (*Metaphysics* 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.
### Physics
*Main article: Aristotelian physics*
#### Five elements {#five_elements}
In his *On Generation and Corruption*, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, earth, water, air, and fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle\'s scheme added the heavenly aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.
+------------+-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------+
| Element | /`{{font color|blue|Cold}}`{=mediawiki} | /`{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki} | Motion | Modern state\ |
| | | | | of matter |
+============+=========================================+=========================================+==============+===============+
| **Earth** | | | Down | Solid |
+------------+-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------+
| **Water** | | | Down | Liquid |
+------------+-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------+
| **Air** | | | Up | Gas |
+------------+-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------+
| **Fire** | | | Up | Plasma |
+------------+-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------+
| **Aether** | (divine\ | None | Circular\ | Vacuum |
| | substance) | | (in heavens) | |
+------------+-----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+---------------+
: Aristotle\'s elements
#### Motion
Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: \"violent\" or \"unnatural motion\", such as that of a thrown stone, in the *Physics* (254b10), and \"natural motion\", such as of a falling object, in *On the Heavens* (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation
:
: $F=mv$,
incorrect in modern physics.
Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.
In the *Physics* (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:;
:
: $v=c\frac{W}{\rho}$
Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the \"extreme view\" that Aristotle\'s concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.
Archimedes corrected Aristotle\'s theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes\' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition.
Aristotle\'s writings on motion remained influential until the early modern period. John Philoponus (in late antiquity) and Galileo (in the early modern period) are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle\'s claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle\'s physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth\'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.
Newton\'s \"forced\" motion corresponds to Aristotle\'s \"violent\" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle\'s assumption that the agent\'s effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower\'s hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.
#### Four causes {#four_causes}
Aristotle distinguished between four different \"causes\"(*αἰτία*, *aitia*) or explanations for why an object exists or changes:
- The material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a wooden table is the wood it is made of.
- The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter, the design of the table independent of the specific material it is made of.
- The efficient cause is \"the primary source\", the modern definition of \"cause\" as either the agent or agency of particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it *causes* the second to fall. In the case of an animal, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.
- The final cause (*telos*) is its purpose, the reason why it exists or is done, or function that something is supposed to serve. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.
#### Optics
Aristotle was aware of Pythagorean optics. He used optics in his *Meteorology*, treating it as a science. He viewed optics as stating the laws of sight, thus combining what is now treated as physics and biology. The process of seeing involved the movement of a visible form from the thing seen through the air (or other medium) to the eye, where the form comes to rest. Aristotle does not analyse the nature of this movement; he does not anticipate geometrical optics.
#### Chance and spontaneity {#chance_and_spontaneity}
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, \"from what is spontaneous\". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names \"luck\", that only applies to people\'s moral choices.
### Astronomy
In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus\'s claim that the Milky Way was made up of \"those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun\'s rays,\" pointing out partly correctly that if \"the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then\... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them.\" He also wrote descriptions of comets, including the Great Comet of 371 BC.
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## Natural philosophy {#natural_philosophy}
### Geology and natural sciences {#geology_and_natural_sciences}
Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person\'s lifetime. The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including \"lakes that had dried up\" and \"deserts that had become watered by rivers\", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and \"the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption.\"\'
*Meteorologica* lends its name to the modern study of meteorology, but its modern usage diverges from the content of Aristotle\'s ancient treatise on meteors. The ancient Greeks did use the term for a range of atmospheric phenomena, but also for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Aristotle proposed that the cause of earthquakes was a gas or vapor (*anathymiaseis*) that was trapped inside the earth and trying to escape, following other Greek authors Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Democritus.
Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle. For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early -- and correctly -- that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff (\"I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.\")
### Biology
#### Empirical research {#empirical_research}
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in *History of Animals*, *Generation of Animals*, *Movement of Animals*, and *Parts of Animals* are from his own observations, statements by knowledgeable people such as beekeepers and fishermen, and accounts by travellers. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.
Aristotle reports on sea-life from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.
He notes that an animal\'s structure is well matched to function so the heron has a long neck, long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted such differences, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle\'s writings can seem to imply evolution, but Aristotle saw mutations or hybridizations as rare accidents, distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles\'s theory of a \"survival of the fittest\" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. In modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.
#### Scientific style {#scientific_style}
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He made observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In *Generation of Animals*, he opens a fertilized hen\'s egg to see the embryo\'s heart beating inside.
Instead, he systematically gathered data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. This sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle\'s biology is scientific.
From his data, Aristotle inferred rules relating the life-history features of live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. He correctly predicted that brood size decreases with body mass; that lifespan increases with gestation period and with body mass, and that fecundity decreases with lifespan.
#### Classification of living things {#classification_of_living_things}
Aristotle distinguished about 500 animal species, arranging them in a nonreligious graded scale of perfection, with man at the top. The highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. He grouped what a zoologist would call vertebrates as \"animals with blood\", and invertebrates as \"animals without blood\". Those with blood were divided into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea and hard-shelled molluscs. He recognised that animals did not exactly fit onto a scale, and noted exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta. To a biologist, the explanation is convergent evolution. Philosophers of science have concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy, but zoologists think otherwise.
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Group | Examples\ | Blood | Legs | Souls\ | Qualities\ |
| | (given by Aristotle) | | | (Rational,\ | (`{{font color|red|Hot}}`{=mediawiki}--`{{font color|blue|Cold}}`{=mediawiki},\ |
| | | | | Sensitive,\ | `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki}--`{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki}) |
| | | | | Vegetative) | |
+=================================+============================+============+===========+=============+================================================================================================+
| Man | Man | with blood | 2 legs | R, S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Live-bearing tetrapods | Cat, hare | with blood | 4 legs | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Cetaceans | Dolphin, whale | with blood | none | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Birds | Bee-eater, nightjar | with blood | 2 legs | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki}, except `{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki} eggs |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Egg-laying tetrapods | Chameleon, crocodile | with blood | 4 legs | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} except scales, eggs |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Snakes | Water snake, Ottoman viper | with blood | none | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} except scales, eggs |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Egg-laying fishes | Sea bass, parrotfish | with blood | none | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki}, including eggs |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| (Among the egg-laying fishes):\ | Shark, skate | with blood | none | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki}, but placenta like tetrapods |
| placental selachians | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Crustaceans | Shrimp, crab | without | many legs | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} except shell |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Cephalopods | Squid, octopus | without | tentacles | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Hard-shelled animals | Cockle, trumpet snail | without | none | S, V | , `{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki} (mineral shell) |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Larva-bearing insects | Ant, cicada | without | 6 legs | S, V | , `{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Spontaneously generating | Sponges, worms | without | none | S, V | , `{{font color|green|Wet}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki}, from earth |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Plants | Fig | without | none | V | , `{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Minerals | Iron | without | none | none | , `{{font color|brown|Dry}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------+----------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Aristotle\'s *Scala naturae* (highest to lowest)
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## Natural philosophy {#natural_philosophy}
### Psychology
#### Soul
Aristotle\'s psychology, in his treatise *On the Soul* (`{{Transliteration|grc|peri psychēs}}`{=mediawiki}), posits three kinds of soul (`{{Transliteration|grc|psyches}}`{=mediawiki}): the vegetative, sensitive, and rational. Humans have all three. The vegetative soul is concerned with growth and nourishment. The sensitive soul experiences sensations and movement. The uniquely human, rational soul receives forms of things and compares them using the `{{Transliteration|grc|[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]}}`{=mediawiki} (intellect) and `{{Transliteration|grc|logos}}`{=mediawiki} (reason).
For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement. In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart. Aristotle distinguished sensation and thought, unlike previous philosophers except for Alcmaeon.
In *On the Soul*, Aristotle criticizes Plato\'s theory of the soul and develops his own in response. Firstly he criticises Plato\'s *Timaeus* which holds the soul takes up space and can come into physical contact with bodies. 20th-century scholarship held that Aristotle had here misinterpreted Plato. Aristotle also argued that Plato\'s view of reincarnation entails that a soul and its body can be mis-matched; in principle, Aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to Plato\'s theory.
#### Memory
According to Aristotle in *On the Soul*, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal \"appearance\" and a past occurrence. A memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. An impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive them all at once. These changes are the same as those involved in sensation, `{{Avoid wrap|'[[common sense]]'}}`{=mediawiki}, and thinking.
Aristotle uses the term \'memory\' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that develops from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.
Because Aristotle believes people perceive all kinds of sense perceptions as impressions, people continually weave together new impressions of experiences. To search for impressions, people search memory itself. Within memory, if an experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when a retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of \"images\" is needed, one memory stimulates the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.
Aristotle believed the chain of thought that achieves recollection of impressions was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. Association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to be recalled.
#### Dreams
Aristotle describes sleep in *On Sleep and Wakefulness*. It is a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, and is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function. Since a person cannot sense during sleep, they cannot have desire. However, the senses work during sleep, albeit differently.
Dreams do not involve sensing a stimulus. Sensation is involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and it is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake, a person constantly encounters new stimuli and so the impressions of previous stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed, free of distractions. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left, dreams do not resemble waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind, like a person who is overtaken by strong feelings. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads them to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd. In *De Anima* iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images to the faculty of imagination, *phantasia*.
One component of Aristotle\'s theory disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned that instances in which dreams resemble future events are simply coincidences. Any sensory experience perceived while a person is asleep, such as actually hearing a door close, does not qualify as part of a dream. Images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.
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## Practical philosophy {#practical_philosophy}
Aristotle\'s practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.
Too little Virtuous mean Too much
----------------- ----------------- ----------------
Humbleness High-mindedness Vainglory
Lack of purpose Right ambition Over-ambition
Spiritlessness Good temper Irascibility
Rudeness Civility Obsequiousness
Cowardice Courage Rashness
Insensibility Self-control Intemperance
Sarcasm Sincerity Boastfulness
Boorishness Wit Buffoonery
Callousness Just resentment Spitefulness
Pettiness Generosity Vulgarity
Meanness Liberality Wastefulness
: Virtues and their accompanying vices
### Ethics
Aristotle was a virtue ethicist who considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, most notably including the *Nicomachean Ethics*.
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (*ergon*) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the *psuchē* (*soul*) in accordance with reason (*logos*). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, *eudaimonia*, generally translated as \"happiness\" or sometimes \"well-being\". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (*ēthikē* *aretē*), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated, not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things, becoming the *phronimos* or virtuous man. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (`{{Transliteration|grc|[[phronesis]]}}`{=mediawiki}) and their intellect (`{{Transliteration|grc|[[nous]]}}`{=mediawiki}) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.
### Politics
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled *Politics*. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family, which in turn is prior to the individual, \"for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part\". He famously stated that \"man is by nature a political animal\" and argued that humanity\'s defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts, none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle\'s conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle\'s understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (*polis*) which functions as a political \"community\" or \"partnership\" (*koinōnia*) . The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability , but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: \"The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together .\" This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of \"fear of violent death\" or its \"inconveniences\".
In *Protrepticus*, the character \'Aristotle\' states:
As Plato\'s disciple Aristotle was rather critical concerning democracy and, following the outline of certain ideas from Plato\'s *Statesman*, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: `{{blockquote| It is ... constitutional to take ... from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy. |Aristotle. ''Politics'', Book 4, 1294b.10–18|source=}}`{=mediawiki}
### Economics
Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In *Politics*, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins\'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In *Politics*, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.
Aristotle\'s discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them \"commensurable\". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, \"if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it\".
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## Practical philosophy {#practical_philosophy}
### Rhetoric
Aristotle\'s *Rhetoric* proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: *ethos* (an appeal to the speaker\'s character), *pathos* (an appeal to the audience\'s emotion), and *logos* (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to decide on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: *enthymeme* (proof by syllogism) and *paradeigma* (proof by example).
### Poetics
Aristotle writes in his *Poetics* that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of *mimesis* (\"imitation\"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term *mimesis* both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist\'s intention and contends that the audience\'s realisation of the *mimesis* is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that *mimesis* is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry \"follows the pattern of nature\". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls \"highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes.\" For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation -- through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
While it is believed that Aristotle\'s *Poetics* originally comprised two books -- one on comedy and one on tragedy -- only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes *Poetics* with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.
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## Legacy
thumb\|upright=0.8\|Preface to Argyropoulos\'s 15th century Latin translation of Aristotle\'s *Physics*
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, \"it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did\". Aristotle has been regarded as the first scientist.
Aristotle was the founder of term logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and benefited future scientists and philosophers through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing \"every branch of intellectual enterprise\" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric, and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today \"will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones \... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind.\" Jonathan Barnes wrote that \"an account of Aristotle\'s intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought\".
Aristotle has been called the father of logic, biology, political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, criticism, individualism, teleology, and meteorology.
The scholar Taneli Kukkonen writes that \"in the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition.\" What follows is an overview of the transmission and influence of his texts and ideas into the modern era.
### Ancient
#### Hellenistic period {#hellenistic_period}
The immediate influence of Aristotle\'s work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle\'s students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus.
Aristotle\'s pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the *History of Plants*, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from *carpos*, fruit, and pericarp, from *pericarpion*, seed chamber. Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.
Under the Ptolemies, the first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.
#### Early Roman empire {#early_roman_empire}
In antiquity, Aristotle\'s writings were divisible into two groups; the \"exoteric\" works, intended for the public, and the \"esoteric\" treatises, for use within the Lyceum school. However, all of the works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are the technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle\'s school, which were compiled in the 1st century BC by Andronicus of Rhodes out of a series of smaller, separate works into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.
The primary way that ancient philosophers in the Roman empire engaged with Aristotle\'s technical work was via philosophical commentary; interpretation and explication of the text of Aristotle along with their own synthesis and views on the topics discussed by Aristotle. The peripatetic commentary tradition began with Boethus of Sidon in the 1st century BC and reached its peak at the end of the 2nd century AD with Alexander of Aphrodisias, who was appointed to the official Imperial chair of Aristotelian philosophy established by Marcus Aurelius, many of whose commentaries still survive.
#### Late antiquity {#late_antiquity}
In the 3rd century, Neoplatonism emerged as the dominant philosophical school. The Neoplatonists saw all subsequent philosophical systems after Plato, including Aristotle\'s, as developments on Plato\'s philosophy, and sought to explain how Plato and Aristotle were in agreement, even on subjects where they appeared to disagree, and included Aristotle\'s logical and physical works in their school curriculum as introductory works that needed to be mastered before the study of Plato himself. This study program began with the *Categories*, which the Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry of Tyre wrote an introduction to, called *Isagoge*, which went on to influence subsequent philosophy in late antiquity and the medieval period. Later Neoplatonists in Athens and Alexandria including Syrianus, Ammonius Hermiae, Olympiodorus the Younger and Simplicius of Cilicia wrote further commentaries on Aristotle from a Platonist perspective which are still extant, with Simplicius compiling many of the lost works of his predecessors into massive commentaries that survey the entire Neoplatonic tradition.
With the rise of Christianity and closure of the pagan schools by the order of Justinian in 529, the study of Aristotle and other philosophers in the remainder of the Byzantine period was primarily from a Christian perspective. The first Byzantine Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, who was a student of Ammonius, and Elias and David, students of Olympiodorus, along with Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century, who brought the study of Plato and Aristotle from Alexandria to Constantinople. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle\'s views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle\'s teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.
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## Legacy
### Medieval
#### Medieval Byzantine empire {#medieval_byzantine_empire}
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena. Byzantine philosophers also filled in the gaps in the commentaries that had survived down to their time; Alexander of Aphrodisias\' commentary on the Metaphysics, of which only the first five books survived, was completed by Michael of Ephesus, who also wrote a commentary on the Sophistical Refutations, the only work of the Organon not to have a commentary, and Michael of Ephesus and Eustratius compiled a number of fragmentary commentaries on the *Nicomachean Ethics* which they supplemented with their own interpretations. Michael of Ephesus also wrote commentaries on the works of Aristotle\'s animal biology and the *Politics*, completing the series of commentaries on Aristotle\'s extant works.
#### Medieval Islamic world {#medieval_islamic_world}
thumb\|upright=0.8\|Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right) in the *Kitāb naʿt al-ḥayawān*, c. 1220.
Aristotle\'s works also underwent a revival in the Abbasid Caliphate. Translated into Arabic, Aristotle\'s logic, ethics, and natural philosophy inspired early Islamic scholars. Aristotle is considered the most influential figure in the history of Arabic philosophy and was revered in early Islamic theology. Most surviving works of Aristotle, as well as some of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists, and scholars. Through commentaries and critical engagements, figures like Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Averroes breathed new life into Aristotle\'s ideas. They harmonized his logic with Islamic theology, employed his scientific methodology to explore the natural world, and reinterpreted his ethics within the framework of Islamic morality. Islamic thinkers embraced Aristotle\'s rigorous methods while challenging his conclusions where they diverged from their religious beliefs, which later influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars described Aristotle as the \"First Teacher\". The title was later used by Western philosophers (as in Dante\'s poem) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.
#### Medieval Judaism {#medieval_judaism}
Moses Maimonides (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism) adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his *Guide for the Perplexed* on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the \"chief of the philosophers\". Also, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are \"sufficient by themselves and \[superior\] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle\'s is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher\".
#### Medieval Western Europe {#medieval_western_europe}
Further information: Aristotelianism, Syllogism#Medieval
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. CE 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the *Organon* made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke.
After the scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his *Summa Theologica*, working from Moerbeke\'s translations and calling Aristotle \"The Philosopher\", the demand for Aristotle\'s writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.
According to scholar Roger Theodore Lafferty, Dante built up the philosophy of the *Comedy* on a foundation of Aristotle, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of Albert Magnus. Dante acknowledges Aristotle\'s influence explicitly in the poem, when Virgil justifies the Inferno\'s structure by citing the *Nicomachean Ethics*. Dante refers to him as \"he / Who is acknowledged Master of those who know\".
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## Legacy
### Modern era {#modern_era}
#### Early Modern science {#early_modern_science}
In the early modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body\'s heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle\'s physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.
#### 18th and 19th-century science {#th_and_19th_century_science}
The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle\'s logic, but decided \"to go under, over, and beyond\" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book *The Laws of Thought*. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.
Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that \"Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle\". Also, in later editions of the book \"On the Origin of Species\', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles.
#### Present science {#present_science}
The philosopher Bertrand Russell claims that \"almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine\". Russell calls Aristotle\'s ethics \"repulsive\", and labelled his logic \"as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy\". Russell states that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis writes that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by \"proceed\[ing\] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character\" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in \"pure seventeenth century\" tones that Aristotle had assembled \"a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility\".
Zoologists have frequently mocked Aristotle for errors and unverified secondhand reports. However, modern observation has confirmed several of his more surprising claims. Aristotle\'s work remains largely unknown to modern scientists, though zoologists sometimes mention him as the father of biology or in particular of marine biology. Practising zoologists are unlikely to adhere to Aristotle\'s chain of being, but its influence is still perceptible in the use of the terms \"lower\" and \"upper\" to designate taxa such as groups of plants. The evolutionary biologist Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle\'s biology, while Niko Tinbergen\'s four questions, based on Aristotle\'s four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny. The concept of homology began with Aristotle; the evolutionary developmental biologist Lewis I. Held commented that he would be interested in the concept of deep homology. In systematics too, recent studies suggest that Aristotle made important contributions in taxonomy and biological nomenclature.
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## Depictions in art {#depictions_in_art}
### Paintings
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael\'s fresco *The School of Athens*, in the Vatican\'s Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt\'s *Aristotle with a Bust of Homer*, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, \"this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time.\"
Philosophenmosaik köln Aristoteles.jpg\|*Aristotle*, mosaic from a Roman villa in Cologne Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg\| *Nuremberg Chronicle* anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar\'s clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg\| *Aristotle* by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476 Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg\| *Phyllis and Aristotle* by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530 Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg\| *Aristotle* by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG\| *Aristotle and Campaspe*, Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg\| *Aristotle* by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637 Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg\| *Aristotle with a Bust of Homer* by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653 Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg\| *Aristotle* by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, 1813 (Venice) Aristotele by Francesco Hayez in gallerie Accademia Venice.jpg\| *Aristotle* by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811 Alexander and Aristotle.jpg\| By `{{interlanguage link|Charles Laplante|fr}}`{=mediawiki} \"That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander\". 1866
### Sculptures
Aristoteles Louvre.jpg\|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall\'Orto.jpg\|Roman copy of 117--138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG\|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437--1439 Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone\'s Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG\|Stone statue in niche, Gladstone\'s Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899 Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg\|Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915
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## Eponyms
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book *Meteorology*, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region, which he called *Antarctica*. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle\'s name. (6123) Aristoteles, an asteroid in the main asteroid belt is also bearing the classical form of his name
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***An American in Paris*** is a jazz-influenced symphonic poem (or tone poem) for orchestra by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital during the **\[\[Années folles\]\]**.
Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Walter Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write his Concerto in F following the earlier success of *Rhapsody in Blue* (1924). He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work\'s premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer Deems Taylor.
On January 1, 2025, *An American in Paris* entered the public domain.
## Background
Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by Maurice Ravel\'s unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, \"Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?\"
Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel\'s friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a \$10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel.
Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel\'s birthday by Éva Gauthier. Ravel\'s tour reignited Gershwin\'s desire to return to Paris, which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Ravel\'s high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after he played for her, she told him she could not teach him. Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all her accomplished master students: \"What could I give you that you haven\'t already got?\" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his *Rhapsody in Blue*. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald and artist Pablo Picasso.
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## Composition
{{-}} Gershwin based *An American in Paris* on a melodic fragment called \"Very Parisienne\", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it \"a rhapsodic ballet\"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works.
Gershwin explained in *Musical America*, \"My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere.\"
The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose A--B--A format. Gershwin\'s first A episode introduces the two main \"walking\" themes in the \"Allegretto grazioso\" and develops a third theme in the \"Subito con brio\". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. It also includes a melody fragment of the song \"La Sorella\" by Charles Borel-Clerc (1879--1959) (published in 1905).
The B section\'s \"Andante ma con ritmo deciso\" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness.
The \"Allegro\" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. \"Moderato con grazia\" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the \"walking\" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final \"Grandioso\".
## Response
Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch\'s interpretation at the world premiere of *An American in Paris*. He stated that Damrosch\'s sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with \"a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses.\"
Critics believed that *An American in Paris* was better crafted than Gershwin\'s Concerto in F. *Evening Post* did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers César Franck, Richard Wagner, or Guillaume Lekeu on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics:
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## Instrumentation
*An American in Paris* was originally scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B-flat, bass clarinet in B-flat, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, snare drum, bass drum, triangle, wood block, ratchet, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A, B, C, and D with circles around them (but tuned as follows: A=Ab, B=Bb, C=D, and D=low A), alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone (all doubling soprano and alto saxophones), and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the incorrect notes of A, B, C, and D, it had been Gershwin\'s intention to use the notes A`{{Music|flat}}`{=mediawiki}~4~, B`{{Music|flat}}`{=mediawiki}~4~, D~5~, and A~3~. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C, and D with circles, he was referring to the four horns, and not the notes that they played. The correct tuning of the horns in sequence = D horn = low Ab, A horn = Ab an octave higher, B horn = Bb just above the Ab, and C horn = high D above the Bb.
A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments: alto, tenor and baritone; the soprano and alto saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments. This became the standard performing edition until 2000, when Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of *An American in Paris*, working directly from Gershwin\'s original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin\'s soprano saxophone parts removed in Campbell-Watson\'s revision. Gibbons\' restored orchestration of *An American in Paris* was performed at London\'s Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000, by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian.
William Daly arranged the score for piano solo; this was published by New World Music in 1929.
## Preservation status {#preservation_status}
On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score would be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan, were working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin\'s true intent. It was unknown whether the critical score would include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score would document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin\'s composition process.
The score to *An American in Paris* was scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project was expected to take 30 to 40 years to complete, but *An American in Paris* was planned to be an early volume in the series.
Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music were re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.
On September 9, 2017, The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague, director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This performance was of the original 1928 orchestration.
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## Recordings
*An American in Paris* has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to \"supervise\" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D, and a lower A.
The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937, Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which *An American in Paris,* also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set.
Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music.
In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer.
The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin\'s original score, before numerous edits were made resulting in the score as we hear it today.
The blues section of *An American in Paris* has been recorded separately by a number of artists; Ralph Flanagan & His Orchestra released it as a single in 1951 which reached No. 15 on the *Billboard* chart. Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album *One Night Stand,* recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522).
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## Use in film {#use_in_film}
In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film *An American in Paris*, featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron and directed by Vincente Minnelli. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film featured many tunes of Gershwin and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the symphonic poem *An American in Paris* (arranged for the film by Johnny Green), which at the time was the most expensive musical number ever filmed, costing \$500,000 `{{USDCY|500000|1951}}`{=mediawiki}
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The **Academy Award for Best Production Design** recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category\'s original name was **Best Art Direction**, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Directors\' branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designers\' branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorators. It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.
The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.
## Superlatives
+------------------------+-----------------+----------------+--------------------------------------+
| Category | Name | Superlative | Notes |
+========================+=================+================+======================================+
| Most Awards | Cedric Gibbons | 11 awards | Awards resulted from 39 nominations. |
+------------------------+-----------------+----------------+--------------------------------------+
| Most Nominations | | 39 nominations | Nominations resulted in 11 awards. |
+------------------------+-----------------+----------------+--------------------------------------+
| Most Nominations\ | Roland Anderson | 15 nominations | Nominations resulted in no awards. |
| (without ever winning) | | | |
+------------------------+-----------------+----------------+--------------------------------------+
| | | | |
+------------------------+-----------------+----------------+--------------------------------------+
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 1920s
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) |
+=======================================================+==================================+===================================+
| 1927/28\ | ***The Dove*** | **William Cameron Menzies** |
| `{{small|[[1st Academy Awards|(1st)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | ***Tempest*** | |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *7th Heaven* | Harry Oliver |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans* | Rochus Gliese |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 1928/29\ | | |
| `{{small|[[2nd Academy Awards|(2nd)]]}}`{=mediawiki}\ | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | ***The Bridge of San Luis Rey*** | **Cedric Gibbons** |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Alibi* | William Cameron Menzies |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *The Awakening* | |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Dynamite* | Mitchell Leisen |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *The Patriot* | Hans Dreier |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Street Angel* | Harry Oliver |
+-------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
### 1930s {#s_1}
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) |
+========================================================+============================================+==================================================+
| 1929/30\ | ***King of Jazz*** | **Herman Rosse** |
| `{{small|[[3rd Academy Awards|(3rd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Bulldog Drummond* | William Cameron Menzies |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Love Parade* | Hans Dreier |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Sally* | Jack Okey |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Vagabond King* | Hans Dreier |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1930/31\ | | |
| `{{small|[[4th Academy Awards|(4th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Cimarron*** | **Max Rée** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Just Imagine* | Stephen Goosson and Ralph Hammeras |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Morocco* | Hans Dreier |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Svengali* | Anton Grot |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Whoopee!* | Richard Day |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1931/32\ | | |
| `{{small|[[5th Academy Awards|(5th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Transatlantic*** | **Gordon Wiles** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Arrowsmith* | Richard Day |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *À Nous la Liberté* | Lazare Meerson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1932/33\ | | |
| `{{small|[[6th Academy Awards|(6th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Cavalcade*** | **William S. Darling** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *A Farewell to Arms* | Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *When Ladies Meet* | Cedric Gibbons |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1934\ | | |
| `{{small|[[7th Academy Awards|(7th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Merry Widow*** | **Cedric Gibbons and Fredric Hope** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Affairs of Cellini* | Richard Day |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Gay Divorcee* | Van Nest Polglase and Carroll Clark |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1935\ | | |
| `{{small|[[8th Academy Awards|(8th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Dark Angel*** | **Richard Day** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Lives of a Bengal Lancer* | Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Top Hat* | Carroll Clark and Van Nest Polglase |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1936\ | | |
| `{{small|[[9th Academy Awards|(9th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Dodsworth*** | **Richard Day** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Anthony Adverse* | Anton Grot |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Great Ziegfeld* | Cedric Gibbons, Eddie Imazu and Edwin B. Willis |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Lloyd\'s of London* | William S. Darling |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Magnificent Brute* | Albert S. D\'Agostino and Jack Otterson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Romeo and Juliet* | Cedric Gibbons, Fredric Hope and Edwin B. Willis |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Winterset* | Perry Ferguson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1937\ | | |
| `{{small|[[10th Academy Awards|(10th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Lost Horizon*** | **Stephen Goosson** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Conquest* | Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *A Damsel in Distress* | Carroll Clark |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Dead End* | Richard Day |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Every Day\'s a Holiday* | Wiard Ihnen |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Life of Emile Zola* | Anton Grot |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Manhattan Merry-Go-Round* | John Victor Mackay |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Prisoner of Zenda* | Lyle R. Wheeler |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Souls at Sea* | Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Walter Wanger\'s Vogues of 1938* | Alexander Toluboff |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Wee Willie Winkie* | William S. Darling and David S. Hall |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *You\'re a Sweetheart* | Jack Otterson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1938\ | | |
| `{{small|[[11th Academy Awards|(11th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Adventures of Robin Hood*** | **Carl Jules Weyl** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Adventures of Tom Sawyer* | Lyle R. Wheeler |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Alexander\'s Ragtime Band* | Bernard Herzbrun and Boris Leven |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Algiers* | Alexander Toluboff |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Carefree* | Van Nest Polglase |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Goldwyn Follies* | Richard Day |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Holiday* | Stephen Goosson and Lionel Banks |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *If I Were King* | Hans Dreier and John B. Goodman |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Mad About Music* | Jack Otterson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Marie Antoinette* | Cedric Gibbons |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Merrily We Live* | Charles D. Hall |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1939\ | | |
| `{{small|[[12th Academy Awards|(12th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Gone with the Wind*** | **Lyle R. Wheeler** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Beau Geste* | Hans Dreier and Robert Odell |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Captain Fury* | Charles D. Hall |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *First Love* | Jack Otterson and Martin Obzina |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Love Affair* | Van Nest Polglase and Alfred Herman |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Man of Conquest* | John Victor Mackay |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Mr. Smith Goes to Washington* | Lionel Banks |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex* | Anton Grot |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Rains Came* | William S. Darling and George Dudley |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Stagecoach* | Alexander Toluboff |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Wizard of Oz* | Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | *Wuthering Heights* | James Basevi |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| 1,185 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 0 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 1940s {#s_2}
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) | Interior decorator(s) |
+=========================================================+=================================+============================================+==============================================+
| 1940\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[13th Academy Awards|(13th)]]}}`{=mediawiki}\ | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Pride and Prejudice*** | **Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse** | **---** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Arise, My Love* | Hans Dreier and Robert Usher | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Arizona* | Lionel Banks and Robert Peterson | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Boys from Syracuse* | Jack Otterson | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Dark Command* | John Victor Mackay | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Foreign Correspondent* | Alexander Golitzen | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Lillian Russell* | Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *My Favorite Wife* | Van Nest Polglase and Mark-Lee Kirk | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *My Son, My Son!* | John DuCasse Schulze | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Our Town* | Lewis J. Rachmil | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Rebecca* | Lyle R. Wheeler | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Sea Hawk* | Anton Grot | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Westerner* | James Basevi | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Thief of Bagdad*** | **Vincent Korda** | **---** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Bitter Sweet* | Cedric Gibbons and John S. Detlie | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Down Argentine Way* | Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *North West Mounted Police* | Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1941\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[14th Academy Awards|(14th)]]}}`{=mediawiki}\ | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***How Green Was My Valley*** | **Richard Day and Nathan Juran** | **Thomas Little** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Citizen Kane* | Perry Ferguson and Van Nest Polglase | A. Roland Fields and Darrell Silvera |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Flame of New Orleans* | Martin Obzina and Jack Otterson | Russell A. Gausman |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Hold Back the Dawn* | Hans Dreier and Robert Usher | Samuel M. Comer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Ladies in Retirement* | Lionel Banks | George Montgomery |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Little Foxes* | Stephen Goosson | Howard Bristol |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Sergeant York* | John Hughes | Fred M. MacLean |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Son of Monte Cristo* | John DuCasse Schulze | Edward G. Boyle |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Sundown* | Alexander Golitzen | Richard Irvine |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *That Hamilton Woman* | Vincent Korda | Julia Heron |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *When Ladies Meet* | Cedric Gibbons and Randall Duell | Edwin B. Willis |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Blossoms in the Dust*** | **Cedric Gibbons and Urie McCleary** | **Edwin B. Willis** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Blood and Sand* | Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright | Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Louisiana Purchase* | Raoul Pene Du Bois | Stephen Seymour |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1942\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[15th Academy Awards|(15th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***This Above All*** | **Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright** | **Thomas Little** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *George Washington Slept Here* | Max Parker and Mark-Lee Kirk | Casey Roberts |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Magnificent Ambersons* | Albert S. D\'Agostino | A. Roland Fields and Darrell Silvera |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Pride of the Yankees* | Perry Ferguson | Howard Bristol |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Random Harvest* | Cedric Gibbons and Randall Duell | Edwin B. Willis and Jack Moore |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Shanghai Gesture* | Boris Leven | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Silver Queen* | Ralph Berger | Emile Kuri |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Spoilers* | John B. Goodman and Jack Otterson | Russell A. Gausman and Edward Ray Robinson |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Take a Letter, Darling* | Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Talk of the Town* | Lionel Banks and Rudolph Sternad | Fay Babcock |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***My Gal Sal*** | **Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright** | **Thomas Little** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Arabian Nights* | Alexander Golitzen and Jack Otterson | Russell A. Gausman and Ira S. Webb |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Captains of the Clouds* | Ted Smith | Casey Roberts |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Jungle Book* | Vincent Korda | Julia Heron |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Reap the Wild Wind* | Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson | George Sawley |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1943\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[16th Academy Awards|(16th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Song of Bernadette*** | **James Basevi and William S. Darling** | **Thomas Little** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Five Graves to Cairo* | Hans Dreier and Ernst Fegté | Bertram C. Granger |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Flight for Freedom* | Albert S. D\'Agostino and Carroll Clark | Darrell Silvera and Harley Miller |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Madame Curie* | Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse | Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Mission to Moscow* | Carl Jules Weyl | George James Hopkins |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The North Star* | Perry Ferguson | Howard Bristol |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Phantom of the Opera*** | **Alexander Golitzen and John B. Goodman** | **Russell A. Gausman and Ira S. Webb** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *For Whom the Bell Tolls* | Hans Dreier and Haldane Douglas | Bertram C. Granger |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Gang\'s All Here* | James Basevi and Joseph C. Wright | Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *This Is the Army* | John Hughes | George James Hopkins |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Thousands Cheer* | Cedric Gibbons and Daniel Cathcart | Edwin B. Willis and Jacques Mersereau |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1944\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[17th Academy Awards|(17th)]]}}`{=mediawiki}\ | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Gaslight*** | **Cedric Gibbons and William Ferrari** | **Paul Huldschinsky and Edwin B. Willis** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Address Unknown* | Lionel Banks and Walter Holscher | Joseph Kish |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Adventures of Mark Twain* | John Hughes | Fred M. MacLean |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Casanova Brown* | Perry Ferguson | Julia Heron |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Laura* | Lyle R. Wheeler and Leland Fuller | Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *No Time for Love* | Hans Dreier and Robert Usher | Samuel M. Comer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Since You Went Away* | Mark-Lee Kirk | Victor A. Gangelin |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Step Lively* | Albert S. D\'Agostino and Carroll Clark | Darrell Silvera and Claude E. Carpenter |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Wilson*** | **Wiard Ihnen** | **Thomas Little** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Climax* | John B. Goodman and Alexander Golitzen | Russell A. Gausman and Ira S. Webb |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Cover Girl* | Lionel Banks and Cary Odell | Fay Babcock |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Desert Song* | Charles Novi | Jack McConaghy |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Kismet* | Cedric Gibbons and Daniel B. Cathcart | Edwin B. Willis and Richard Pefferle |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Lady in the Dark* | Hans Dreier and Raoul Pene Du Bois | Ray Moyer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Princess and the Pirate* | Ernst Fegté | Howard Bristol |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1945\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[18th Academy Awards|(18th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Blood on the Sun*** | **Wiard Ihnen** | **A. Roland Fields** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Experiment Perilous* | Albert S. D\'Agostino and Jack Okey | Darrell Silvera and Claude E. Carpenter |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Keys of the Kingdom* | James Basevi and William S. Darling | Thomas Little and Frank E. Hughes |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Love Letters* | Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Picture of Dorian Gray* | Cedric Gibbons and Hans Peters | Edwin B. Willis and John Bonar and Hugh Hunt |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Frenchman\'s Creek*** | **Hans Dreier and Ernst Fegté** | **Samuel M. Comer** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Leave Her to Heaven* | Lyle R. Wheeler and Maurice Ransford | Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *National Velvet* | Cedric Gibbons and Urie McCleary | Edwin B. Willis and Mildred Griffiths |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *San Antonio* | Ted Smith | Jack McConaghy |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *A Thousand and One Nights* | Stephen Goosson and Rudolph Sternad | Frank Tuttle |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1946\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[19th Academy Awards|(19th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Anna and the King of Siam*** | **William S. Darling and Lyle R. Wheeler** | **Thomas Little and Frank E. Hughes** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Kitty* | Hans Dreier and Walter H. Tyler | Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Razor\'s Edge* | Richard Day and Nathan H. Juran | Thomas Little and Paul S. Fox |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Yearling*** | **Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse** | **Edwin B. Willis** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Caesar and Cleopatra* | John Bryan | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Henry V* | Paul Sheriff and Carmen Dillon | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1947\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[20th Academy Awards|(20th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Great Expectations*** | **Wilfred Shingleton** | **John Bryan** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *The Foxes of Harrow* | Lyle R. Wheeler and Maurice Ransford | Thomas Little and Paul S. Fox |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Black Narcissus*** | **Alfred Junge** | **---** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Life with Father* | Robert M. Haas | George James Hopkins |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1948\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[21st Academy Awards|(21st)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Hamlet*** | **Roger K. Furse** | **Carmen Dillon** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Johnny Belinda* | Robert M. Haas | William O. Wallace |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Red Shoes*** | **Hein Heckroth** | **Arthur Lawson** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Joan of Arc* | Richard Day | Edwin Casey Roberts and Joseph Kish |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1949\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[22nd Academy Awards|(22nd)]]}}`{=mediawiki}\ | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Heiress*** | **Harry Horner and John Meehan** | **Emile Kuri** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Come to the Stable* | Lyle R. Wheeler and Joseph C. Wright | Thomas Little and Paul S. Fox |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Madame Bovary* | Cedric Gibbons and Jack Martin Smith | Edwin B. Willis and Richard A. Pefferle |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | ***Little Women*** | **Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse** | **Edwin B. Willis and Jack D. Moore** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Adventures of Don Juan* | Edward Carrere | Lyle Reifsnider |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| | *Saraband* | Jim Morahan and William Kellner | Michael Relph |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| 1,888 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 1 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 1950s {#s_3}
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+=========================================================+======================================+===============================================================================================================================================================+===================================================================+
| 1950\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[23rd Academy Awards|(23rd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Sunset Boulevard*** | **Hans Dreier and John Meehan** | **Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *All About Eve* | George W. Davis and Lyle R. Wheeler | Thomas Little and Walter M. Scott |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Red Danube* | Cedric Gibbons and Hans Peters | Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Samson and Delilah*** | **Hans Dreier and Walter H. Tyler** | **Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Annie Get Your Gun* | Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse | Edwin B. Willis and Richard A. Pefferle |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Destination Moon* | Ernst Fegté | George Sawley |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1951\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[24th Academy Awards|(24th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***A Streetcar Named Desire*** | **Richard Day** | **George James Hopkins** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Fourteen Hours* | Leland Fuller and Lyle R. Wheeler | Thomas Little and Fred J. Rode |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The House on Telegraph Hill* | John DeCuir and Lyle R. Wheeler | Paul S. Fox and Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *La Ronde* | D\'Eaubonne | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Too Young to Kiss* | Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse | Edwin B. Willis and Jack D. Moore |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***An American in Paris*** | **E. Preston Ames and Cedric Gibbons** | **Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *David and Bathsheba* | George Davis and Lyle R. Wheeler | Paul S. Fox and Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *On the Riviera* | Leland Fuller, Lyle R. Wheeler and Joseph C. Wright (musical settings) | Thomas Little and Walter M. Scott |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Quo Vadis* | Edward Carfagno, Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning | Hugh Hunt |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Tales of Hoffmann* | Hein Heckroth | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1952\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[25th Academy Awards|(25th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Bad and the Beautiful*** | **Edward Carfagno and Cedric Gibbons** | **F. Keogh Gleason and Edwin B. Willis** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Carrie* | Roland Anderson and Hal Pereira | Emile Kuri |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *My Cousin Rachel* | John DeCuir and Lyle R. Wheeler | Walter M. Scott |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Rashomon* | So Matsuyama | H. Motsumoto |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Viva Zapata!* | Leland Fuller and Lyle R. Wheeler | Claude E. Carpenter and Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Moulin Rouge*** | **Paul Sheriff** | **Marcel Vertès** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Hans Christian Andersen* | Clavé and Richard Day | Howard Bristol |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Merry Widow* | Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse | Arthur Krams and Edwin B. Willis |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Quiet Man* | Frank Hotaling | John McCarthy Jr. and Charles S. Thompson |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Snows of Kilimanjaro* | John DeCuir and Lyle R. Wheeler | Paul S. Fox and Thomas Little |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1953\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[26th Academy Awards|(26th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Julius Caesar*** | **Edward Carfagno and Cedric Gibbons** | **Hugh Hunt and Edwin B. Willis** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Martin Luther* | Paul Markwitz and Fritz Maurischat | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The President\'s Lady* | Leland Fuller and Lyle R. Wheeler | Paul S. Fox |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Roman Holiday* | Hal Pereira and Walter H. Tyler | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Titanic* | Maurice Ransford and Lyle R. Wheeler | Stuart Reiss |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Robe*** | **George Davis and Lyle R. Wheeler** | **Paul S. Fox and Walter M. Scott** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Knights of the Round Table* | Alfred Junge and Hans Peters | John Jarvis |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Lili* | Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse | Arthur Krams and Edwin B. Willis |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Story of Three Loves* | E. Preston Ames, Edward Carfagno, Cedric Gibbons and Gabriel Scognamillo | F. Keogh Gleason, Arthur Krams, Jack D. Moore and Edwin B. Willis |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Young Bess* | Cedric Gibbons and Urie McCleary | Jack D. Moore and Edwin B. Willis |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1954\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[27th Academy Awards|(27th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***On the Waterfront*** | **Richard Day** | **---** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Country Girl* | Roland Anderson and Hal Pereira | Samuel M. Comer and Grace Gregory |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Executive Suite* | Cedric Gibbons and Edward Carfagno | Edwin B. Willis and Emile Kuri |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Le Plaisir* | Max Ophüls | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Sabrina* | Hal Pereira and Walter H. Tyler | Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***20,000 Leagues Under the Sea*** | **John Meehan** | **Emile Kuri** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Brigadoon* | Cedric Gibbons and E. Preston Ames | Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Desiree* | Lyle R. Wheeler and Leland Fuller | Walter M. Scott and Paul S. Fox |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Red Garters* | Hal Pereira and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *A Star Is Born* | Malcolm Bert and Gene Allen | Irene Sharaff and George James Hopkins |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1955\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[28th Academy Awards|(28th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Rose Tattoo*** | **Hal Pereira and Tambi Larsen** | **Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Blackboard Jungle* | Cedric Gibbons and Randall Duell | Edwin B. Willis and Henry Grace |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *I\'ll Cry Tomorrow* | Cedric Gibbons and Malcolm Brown | Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Man with the Golden Arm* | Joseph C. Wright | Darrell Silvera |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Marty* | Edward S. Haworth and Walter M. Simonds | Robert Priestley |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Picnic*** | **William Flannery and Jo Mielziner** | **Robert Priestley** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Daddy Long Legs* | Lyle R. Wheeler and John DeCuir | Walter M. Scott and Paul S. Fox |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Guys and Dolls* | Oliver Smith and Joseph C. Wright | Howard Bristol |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing* | Lyle R. Wheeler and George Davis | Walter M. Scott and Jack Stubbs |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *To Catch a Thief* | Hal Pereira and Joseph McMillan Johnson | Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1956\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[29th Academy Awards|(29th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Somebody Up There Likes Me*** | **Cedric Gibbons and Malcolm Brown** | **Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Seven Samurai* | So Matsuyama | --- |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Proud and Profane* | Hal Pereira and A. Earl Hedrick | Samuel M. Comer and Frank R. McKelvy |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Solid Gold Cadillac* | Ross Bellah | William Kiernan and Louis Diage |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Teenage Rebel* | Lyle R. Wheeler and Jack Martin Smith | Walter M. Scott and Stuart A. Reiss |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The King and I*** | **Lyle R. Wheeler and John DeCuir** | **Walter M. Scott and Paul S. Fox** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Around the World in 80 Days* | James W. Sullivan and Ken Adam | Ross J. Dowd |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Giant* | Boris Leven | Ralph S. Hurst |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Lust for Life* | Cedric Gibbons and Hans Peters and E. Preston Ames | Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Ten Commandments* | Walter H. Tyler and Albert Nozaki | Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1957\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[30th Academy Awards|(30th)]]}}`{=mediawiki}\ | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Sayonara*** | **Ted Haworth** | **Robert Priestley** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Funny Face* | Hal Pereira and George Davis | Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Les Girls* | William A. Horning and Gene Allen | Edwin B. Willis and Richard Pefferle |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Pal Joey* | Walter Holscher | William Kiernan and Louis Diage |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Raintree County* | William A. Horning and Urie McCleary | Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1958\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[31st Academy Awards|(31st)]]}}`{=mediawiki}\ | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Gigi*** | **William A. Horning `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}}`{=mediawiki} and E. Preston Ames** | **Henry Grace and F. Keogh Gleason** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Auntie Mame* | Malcolm Bert | George James Hopkins |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Bell, Book and Candle* | Cary Odell | Louis Diage |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *A Certain Smile* | Lyle R. Wheeler and John DeCuir | Walter M. Scott and Paul S. Fox |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Vertigo* | Hal Pereira and Henry Bumstead | Samuel M. Comer and Frank McKelvy |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1959\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[32nd Academy Awards|(32nd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Diary of Anne Frank*** | **Lyle R. Wheeler and George Davis** | **Walter M. Scott and Stuart A. Reiss** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Career* | Hal Pereira and Walter H. Tyler | Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Last Angry Man* | Carl Anderson | William Kiernan |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Some Like It Hot* | Ted Haworth | Edward G. Boyle |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Suddenly, Last Summer* | Oliver Messel and William Kellner | Scott Slimon |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Ben-Hur*** | **William A. Horning `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}}`{=mediawiki} and Edward Carfagno** | **Hugh Hunt** |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Big Fisherman* | John DeCuir | Julia Heron |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Journey to the Center of the Earth* | Lyle R. Wheeler, Franz Bachelin and Herman A. Blumenthal | Walter M. Scott and Joseph Kish |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *North by Northwest* | William A. Horning `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}`{=mediawiki}, Robert F. Boyle and Merrill Pye | Henry Grace and Frank McKelvy |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Pillow Talk* | Richard H. Riedel `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}`{=mediawiki} | Russell A. Gausman and Ruby R. Levitt |
+---------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1,863 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 2 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 1960s {#s_4}
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+========================================================+=============================================+==========================================================================================================================================================+===============================================================+
| 1960\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[33rd Academy Awards|(33rd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Apartment*** | **Alexandre Trauner** | **Edward G. Boyle** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Facts of Life* | Joseph McMillan Johnson and Kenneth A. Reid | Ross Dowd |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Psycho* | Joseph Hurley and Robert Clatworthy | George Milo |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Sons and Lovers* | Tom Morahan | Lionel Couch |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Visit to a Small Planet* | Hal Pereira and Walter Tyler | Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Spartacus*** | **Alexander Golitzen and Eric Orbom** | **Russell A. Gausman and Julia Heron** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Cimarron* | George Davis and Addison Hehr | Henry Grace, Hugh Hunt and Otto Siegel |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *It Started in Naples* | Hal Pereira and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer and Arrigo Breschi |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Pepe* | Ted Haworth | William Kiernan |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Sunrise at Campobello* | Edward Carrere | George James Hopkins |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1961\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[34th Academy Awards|(34th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Hustler*** | **Harry Horner** | **Gene Callahan** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Absent-Minded Professor* | Carroll Clark | Emile Kuri and Hal Gausman |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Children\'s Hour* | Fernando Carrere | Edward G. Boyle |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Judgment at Nuremberg* | Rudolph Sternad | George Milo |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *La Dolce Vita* | Piero Gherardi | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***West Side Story*** | **Boris Leven** | **Victor A. Gangelin** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Breakfast at Tiffany\'s* | Hal Pereira and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *El Cid* | Veniero Colasanti and John Moore | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Flower Drum Song* | Alexander Golitzen and Joseph C. Wright | Howard Bristol |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Summer and Smoke* | Hal Pereira and Walter Tyler | Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1962\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[35th Academy Awards|(35th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***To Kill a Mockingbird*** | **Alexander Golitzen and Henry Bumstead** | **Oliver Emert** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Days of Wine and Roses* | Joseph C. Wright | George James Hopkins |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Longest Day* | Ted Haworth, Léon Barsacq and Vincent Korda | Gabriel Béchir |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Period of Adjustment* | George Davis and Edward Carfagno | Henry Grace and Richard Pefferle |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Pigeon That Took Rome* | Hal Pereira and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer and Frank R. McKelvy |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Lawrence of Arabia*** | **John Box and John Stoll** | **Dario Simoni** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Music Man* | Paul Groesse | George James Hopkins |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Mutiny on the Bounty* | George Davis and Joseph McMillan Johnson | Henry Grace and Hugh Hunt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *That Touch of Mink* | Alexander Golitzen and Robert Clatworthy | George Milo |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm* | George Davis and Edward Carfagno | Henry Grace and Richard Pefferle |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1963\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[36th Academy Awards|(36th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***America America*** | **Gene Callahan** | **---** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *8½* | Piero Gherardi | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Hud* | Hal Pereira and Tambi Larsen | Samuel M. Comer and Robert R. Benton |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Love with the Proper Stranger* | Hal Pereira and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer and Grace Gregory |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Twilight of Honor* | George Davis and Paul Groesse | Henry Grace and Hugh Hunt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Cleopatra*** | **John DeCuir, Jack Martin Smith, Hilyard M. Brown, Herman A. Blumenthal, Elven Webb, Maurice Pelling and Boris Juraga** | **Walter M. Scott, Paul S. Fox and Ray Moyer** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Cardinal* | Lyle R. Wheeler | Gene Callahan |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Come Blow Your Horn* | Hal Pereira and Roland Anderson | Samuel M. Comer and James W. Payne |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *How the West Was Won* | George Davis, William Ferrari `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}`{=mediawiki} and Addison Hehr | Henry Grace, Don Greenwood Jr. and Jack Mills |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Tom Jones* | Ralph W. Brinton, Jocelyn Herbert, and Ted Marshall | Josie MacAvin |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1964\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[37th Academy Awards|(37th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Zorba the Greek*** | **Vassilis Photopoulos** | **---** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Americanization of Emily* | George Davis, Hans Peters and Elliot Scott | Henry Grace and Robert R. Benton |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Hush\...Hush, Sweet Charlotte* | William Glasgow | Raphaël Bretton |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Night of the Iguana* | Stephen B. Grimes | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Seven Days in May* | Cary Odell | Edward G. Boyle |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***My Fair Lady*** | **Gene Allen and Cecil Beaton** | **George James Hopkins** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Becket* | John Bryan and Maurice Carter | Patrick McLoughlin and Robert Cartwright |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Mary Poppins* | Carroll Clark and William H. Tuntke | Emile Kuri and Hal Gausman |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Unsinkable Molly Brown* | George Davis and E. Preston Ames | Henry Grace and Hugh Hunt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *What a Way to Go!* | Jack Martin Smith and Ted Haworth | Walter M. Scott and Stuart A. Reiss |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1965\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[38th Academy Awards|(38th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Ship of Fools*** | **Robert Clatworthy** | **Joseph Kish** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *King Rat* | Robert Emmet Smith | Frank Tuttle |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *A Patch of Blue* | George Davis and Urie McCleary | Henry Grace and Charles S. Thompson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Slender Thread* | Hal Pereira and Jack Poplin | Robert R. Benton and Joseph Kish |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Spy Who Came In from the Cold* | Hal Pereira and Tambi Larsen | Ted Marshall and Josie MacAvin |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Doctor Zhivago*** | **John Box and Terence Marsh** | **Dario Simoni** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Agony and the Ecstasy* | John DeCuir and Jack Martin Smith | Dario Simoni |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Greatest Story Ever Told* | Richard Day, William Creber and David S. Hall `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}`{=mediawiki} | Ray Moyer and Fred M. MacLean and Norman Rockett |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Inside Daisy Clover* | Robert Clatworthy | George James Hopkins |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Sound of Music* | Boris Leven | Walter M. Scott and Ruby Levitt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1966\ | **Black-and-White** | | |
| `{{small|[[39th Academy Awards|(39th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Who\'s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?*** | **Richard Sylbert** | **George James Hopkins** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Fortune Cookie* | Robert Luthardt | Edward G. Boyle |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Gospel According to St. Matthew* | Luigi Scaccianoce | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Is Paris Burning?* | Willy Holt | Marc Frédérix and Pierre Guffroy |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Mister Buddwing* | George Davis and Paul Groesse | Henry Grace and Hugh Hunt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | **Color** | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Fantastic Voyage*** | **Jack Martin Smith and Dale Hennesy** | **Walter M. Scott and Stuart A. Reiss** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Gambit* | Alexander Golitzen and George C. Webb | John McCarthy Jr. and John P. Austin |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Juliet of the Spirits* | Piero Gherardi | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Oscar* | Hal Pereira and Arthur Lonergan | Robert R. Benton and James W. Payne |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Sand Pebbles* | Boris Leven | Walter M. Scott, John Sturtevant and William Kiernan |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1967\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[40th Academy Awards|(40th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Camelot*** | **John Truscott and Edward Carrere** | **John W. Brown** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Doctor Dolittle* | Mario Chiari, Jack Martin Smith and Ed Graves | Walter M. Scott and Stuart A. Reiss |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Guess Who\'s Coming to Dinner* | Robert Clatworthy | Frank Tuttle |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Taming of the Shrew* | Renzo Mongiardino, John DeCuir, Elven Webb and Giuseppe Mariani | Dario Simoni and Luigi Gervasi |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Thoroughly Modern Millie* | Alexander Golitzen and George C. Webb | Howard Bristol |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1968\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[41st Academy Awards|(41st)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Oliver!*** | **John Box and Terence Marsh** | **Vernon Dixon and Ken Muggleston** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Shoes of the Fisherman* | George Davis and Edward Carfagno | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Star!* | Boris Leven | Walter M. Scott and Howard Bristol |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *2001: A Space Odyssey* | Anthony Masters, Harry Lange and Ernest Archer | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *War and Peace* | Mikhail Bogdanov and Gennady Myasnikov | Georgi Koshelev and Vladimir Uvarov |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1969\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[42nd Academy Awards|(42nd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Hello, Dolly!*** | **John DeCuir, Jack Martin Smith and Herman A. Blumenthal** | **Walter M. Scott, George James Hopkins and Raphaël Bretton** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Anne of the Thousand Days* | Maurice Carter and Lionel Couch | Patrick McLoughlin |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Gaily, Gaily* | Robert F. Boyle and George B. Chan | Edward G. Boyle and Carl Biddiscombe |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Sweet Charity* | Alexander Golitzen and George C. Webb | Jack D. Moore |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *They Shoot Horses, Don\'t They?* | Harry Horner | Frank R. McKelvy |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1,752 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 3 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 1970s {#s_5}
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+========================================================+======================================+====================================================================+===========================================================================================================================+
| 1970\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[43rd Academy Awards|(43rd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Patton*** | **Urie McCleary and Gil Parrondo** | **Antonio Mateos and Pierre-Louis Thévenet** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Airport* | Alexander Golitzen and E. Preston Ames | Jack D. Moore and Mickey S. Michaels |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Molly Maguires* | Tambi Larsen | Darrell Silvera |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Scrooge* | Terence Marsh and Robert Cartwright | Pamela Cornell |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Tora! Tora! Tora!* | Jack Martin Smith, Yoshirō Muraki, Richard Day and Taizô Kawashima | Walter M. Scott, Norman Rockett and Carl Biddiscombe |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1971\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[44th Academy Awards|(44th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Nicholas and Alexandra*** | **John Box, Ernest Archer, Jack Maxsted and Gil Parrondo** | **Vernon Dixon** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Andromeda Strain* | Boris Leven and William H. Tuntke | Ruby Levitt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Bedknobs and Broomsticks* | John B. Mansbridge and Peter Ellenshaw | Emile Kuri and Hal Gausman |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Fiddler on the Roof* | Robert F. Boyle and Michael Stringer | Peter Lamont |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Mary, Queen of Scots* | Terence Marsh and Robert Cartwright | Peter Howitt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1972\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[45th Academy Awards|(45th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Cabaret*** | **Rolf Zehetbauer and Hans Jürgen Kiebach** | **Herbert Strabel** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Lady Sings the Blues* | Carl Anderson | Reg Allen |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Poseidon Adventure* | William Creber | Raphaël Bretton |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Travels with My Aunt* | John Box, Gil Parrondo and Robert W. Laing | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Young Winston* | Donald M. Ashton and Geoffrey Drake | John Graysmark, William Hutchinson and Peter James |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1973\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[46th Academy Awards|(46th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Sting*** | **Henry Bumstead** | **James W. Payne** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Brother Sun, Sister Moon* | Lorenzo Mongiardino and Gianni Quaranta | Carmelo Patrono |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Exorcist* | Bill Malley | Jerry Wunderlich |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Tom Sawyer* | Philip M. Jefferies | Robert De Vestel |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Way We Were* | Stephen B. Grimes | William Kiernan `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}`{=mediawiki} |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1974\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[47th Academy Awards|(47th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Godfather Part II*** | **Dean Tavoularis and Angelo P. Graham** | **George R. Nelson** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Chinatown* | Richard Sylbert and W. Stewart Campbell | Ruby Levitt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Earthquake* | Alexander Golitzen and E. Preston Ames | Frank R. McKelvy |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Island at the Top of the World* | Peter Ellenshaw, John B. Mansbridge, Walter Tyler and Al Roelofs | Hal Gausman |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Towering Inferno* | William Creber and Ward Preston | Raphaël Bretton |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1975\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[48th Academy Awards|(48th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Barry Lyndon*** | **Ken Adam and Roy Walker** | **Vernon Dixon** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Hindenburg* | Edward Carfagno | Frank R. McKelvy |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Man Who Would Be King* | Alexandre Trauner and Tony Inglis | Peter James |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Shampoo* | Richard Sylbert and W. Stewart Campbell | George Gaines |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Sunshine Boys* | Albert Brenner | Marvin March |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1976\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[49th Academy Awards|(49th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***All the President\'s Men*** | **George Jenkins** | **George Gaines** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Incredible Sarah* | Elliot Scott | Norman Reynolds |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Last Tycoon* | Gene Callahan and Jack T. Collis | Jerry Wunderlich |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Logan\'s Run* | Dale Hennesy | Robert De Vestel |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Shootist* | Robert F. Boyle | Arthur Jeph Parker |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1977\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[50th Academy Awards|(50th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Star Wars*** | **John Barry, Norman Reynolds and Leslie Dilley** | **Roger Christian** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Airport \'77* | George C. Webb | Mickey S. Michaels |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Close Encounters of the Third Kind* | Joe Alves and Dan Lomino | Phil Abramson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Spy Who Loved Me* | Ken Adam and Peter Lamont | Hugh Scaife |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Turning Point* | Albert Brenner | Marvin March |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1978\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[51st Academy Awards|(51st)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Heaven Can Wait*** | **Paul Sylbert and Edwin O\'Donovan** | **George Gaines** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Brink\'s Job* | Dean Tavoularis and Angelo P. Graham | George R. Nelson and Bruce Kay |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *California Suite* | Albert Brenner | Marvin March |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Interiors* | Mel Bourne | Daniel Robert |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Wiz* | Tony Walton and Philip Rosenberg | Edward Stewart and Robert Drumheller |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1979\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[52nd Academy Awards|(52nd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***All That Jazz*** | **Philip Rosenberg and Tony Walton** | **Edward Stewart and Gary J. Brink** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Alien* | Michael Seymour, Leslie Dilley and Roger Christian | Ian Whittaker |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Apocalypse Now* | Dean Tavoularis and Angelo P. Graham | George R. Nelson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The China Syndrome* | George Jenkins | Arthur Jeph Parker |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Star Trek: The Motion Picture* | Harold Michelson, Joe Jennings, Leon Harris and John Vallone | Linda DeScenna |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1,002 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 4 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 1980s {#s_6}
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+========================================================+======================================+========================================================================================================================+=========================================================+
| 1980\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[53rd Academy Awards|(53rd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Tess*** | **Pierre Guffroy and Jack Stephens** | **---** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Coal Miner\'s Daughter* | John W. Corso | John M. Dwyer |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Elephant Man* | Stuart Craig and Robert Cartwright | Hugh Scaife |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Empire Strikes Back* | Norman Reynolds, Leslie Dilley, Harry Lange and Alan Tomkins | Michael D. Ford |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Kagemusha* | Yoshirō Muraki | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1981\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[54th Academy Awards|(54th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Raiders of the Lost Ark*** | **Norman Reynolds and Leslie Dilley** | **Michael D. Ford** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The French Lieutenant\'s Woman* | Assheton Gorton | Ann Mollo |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Heaven\'s Gate* | Tambi Larsen | James L. Berkey |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Ragtime* | John Graysmark, Patrizia von Brandenstein and Tony Reading | George DeTitta Sr., George DeTitta Jr. and Peter Howitt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Reds* | Richard Sylbert | Michael Seirton |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1982\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[55th Academy Awards|(55th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Gandhi*** | **Stuart Craig and Robert W. Laing** | **Michael Seirton** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Annie* | Dale Hennesy `{{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}`{=mediawiki} | Marvin March |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Blade Runner* | Lawrence G. Paull and David L. Snyder | Linda DeScenna |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *La Traviata* | Franco Zeffirelli and Gianni Quaranta | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Victor/Victoria* | Rodger Maus, Tim Hutchinson and William Craig Smith | Harry Cordwell |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1983\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[56th Academy Awards|(56th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Fanny and Alexander*** | **Anna Asp** | **---** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Return of the Jedi* | Norman Reynolds, Fred Hole and James L. Schoppe | Michael D. Ford |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Right Stuff* | Geoffrey Kirkland, Richard Lawrence, W. Stewart Campbell and Peter R. Romero | Jim Poynter and George R. Nelson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Terms of Endearment* | Polly Platt and Harold Michelson | Tom Pedigo and Anthony Mondell |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Yentl* | Roy Walker and Leslie Tomkins | Tessa Davies |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1984\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[57th Academy Awards|(57th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Amadeus*** | **Patrizia von Brandenstein and Karel Černý** | **---** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *2010* | Albert Brenner | Rick Simpson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Cotton Club* | Richard Sylbert | George Gaines |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Natural* | Mel Bourne and Angelo P. Graham | Bruce Weintraub |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *A Passage to India* | John Box | Hugh Scaife |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1985\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[58th Academy Awards|(58th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Out of Africa*** | **Stephen B. Grimes** | **Josie MacAvin** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Brazil* | Norman Garwood | Maggie Gray |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Color Purple* | J. Michael Riva and Bo Welch | Linda DeScenna |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Ran* | Yoshirō Muraki and Shinobu Muraki | --- |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Witness* | Stan Jolley | John H. Anderson |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1986\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[59th Academy Awards|(59th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***A Room with a View*** | **Gianni Quaranta and Brian Ackland-Snow** | **Brian Savegar and Elio Altramura** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Aliens* | Peter Lamont | Crispian Sallis |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Color of Money* | Boris Leven | Karen O\'Hara |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Hannah and Her Sisters* | Stuart Wurtzel | Carol Joffe |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Mission* | Stuart Craig | Jack Stephens |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1987\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[60th Academy Awards|(60th)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***The Last Emperor*** | **Ferdinando Scarfiotti** | **Bruno Cesari and Osvaldo Desideri** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Empire of the Sun* | Norman Reynolds | Harry Cordwell |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Hope and Glory* | Anthony Pratt | Joanne Woollard |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Radio Days* | Santo Loquasto | Carol Joffe, Leslie Bloom and George DeTitta Jr. |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Untouchables* | Patrizia von Brandenstein and William A. Elliott | Hal Gausman |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1988\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[61st Academy Awards|(61st)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Dangerous Liaisons*** | **Stuart Craig** | **Gérard James** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Beaches* | Albert Brenner | Garrett Lewis |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Rain Man* | Ida Random | Linda DeScenna |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Tucker: The Man and His Dream* | Dean Tavoularis | Armin Ganz |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Who Framed Roger Rabbit* | Elliot Scott | Peter Howitt |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1989\ | | | |
| `{{small|[[62nd Academy Awards|(62nd)]]}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | ***Batman*** | **Anton Furst** | **Peter Young** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Abyss* | Leslie Dilley | Anne Kuljian |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *The Adventures of Baron Munchausen* | Dante Ferretti | Francesca Lo Schiavo |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Driving Miss Daisy* | Bruno Rubeo | Crispian Sallis |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| | *Glory* | Norman Garwood | Garrett Lewis |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 916 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 5 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 1990s {#s_7}
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+===================================+==================================+===========================+========================+
| 1990\ | ***Dick Tracy*** | **Richard Sylbert** | **Rick Simpson** |
| (63rd) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Cyrano de Bergerac* | Ezio Frigerio | Jacques Rouxel |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Dances With Wolves* | Jeffrey Beecroft | Lisa Dean |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Godfather Part III* | Dean Tavoularis | Gary Fettis |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Hamlet* | Dante Ferretti | Francesca Lo Schiavo |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1991\ | | | |
| (64th) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***Bugsy*** | **Dennis Gassner** | **Nancy Haigh** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Barton Fink* | Dennis Gassner | Nancy Haigh |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Fisher King* | Mel Bourne | Cindy Carr |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Hook* | Norman Garwood | Garrett Lewis |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Prince of Tides* | Paul Sylbert | Caryl Heller |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1992\ | | | |
| (65th) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***Howards End*** | **Luciana Arrighi** | **Ian Whittaker** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Bram Stoker\'s Dracula* | Thomas E. Sanders | Garrett Lewis |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Chaplin* | Stuart Craig | Chris A. Butler |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Toys* | Ferdinando Scarfiotti | Linda DeScenna |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Unforgiven* | Henry Bumstead | Janice Blackie-Goodine |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1993\ | | | |
| (66th) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***Schindler\'s List*** | **Allan Starski** | **Ewa Braun** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Addams Family Values* | Ken Adam | Marvin March |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Age of Innocence* | Dante Ferretti | Robert J. Franco |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Orlando* | Ben Van Os and Jan Roelfs | --- |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Remains of the Day* | Luciana Arrighi | Ian Whittaker |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1994\ | | | |
| (67th) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***The Madness of King George*** | **Ken Adam** | **Carolyn Scott** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Bullets Over Broadway* | Santo Loquasto | Susan Bode |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Forrest Gump* | Rick Carter | Nancy Haigh |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Interview with the Vampire* | Dante Ferretti | Francesca Lo Schiavo |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Legends of the Fall* | Lilly Kilvert | Dorree Cooper |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1995\ | | | |
| (68th) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***Restoration*** | **Eugenio Zanetti** | **---** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Apollo 13* | Michael Corenblith | Merideth Boswell |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Babe* | Roger Ford | Kerrie Brown |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *A Little Princess* | Bo Welch | Cheryl Carasik |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Richard III* | Tony Burrough | --- |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1996\ | | | |
| (69th) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***The English Patient*** | **Stuart Craig** | **Stephenie McMillan** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Birdcage* | Bo Welch | Cheryl Carasik |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Evita* | Brian Morris | Philippe Turlure |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Hamlet* | Tim Harvey | --- |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Romeo + Juliet* | Catherine Martin | Brigitte Broch |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1997\ | | | |
| (70th) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***Titanic*** | **Peter Lamont** | **Michael D. Ford** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Gattaca* | Jan Roelfs | Nancy Nye |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Kundun* | Dante Ferretti | Francesca Lo Schiavo |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *L.A. Confidential* | Jeannine Oppewall | Jay Hart |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Men in Black* | Bo Welch | Cheryl Carasik |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1998\ | | | |
| (71st) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***Shakespeare in Love*** | **Martin Childs** | **Jill Quertier** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Elizabeth* | John Myhre | Peter Howitt |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Pleasantville* | Jeannine Oppewall | Jay Hart |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Saving Private Ryan* | Tom Sanders | Lisa Dean Kavanaugh |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *What Dreams May Come* | Eugenio Zanetti | Cindy Carr |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 1999\ | | | |
| (72nd) | | | |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | ***Sleepy Hollow*** | **Rick Heinrichs** | **Peter Young** |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Anna and the King* | Luciana Arrighi | Ian Whittaker |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Cider House Rules* | David Gropman | Beth Rubino |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *The Talented Mr. Ripley* | Roy Walker | Bruno Cesari |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| | *Topsy-Turvy* | Eve Stewart | John Bush |
+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------------+
| 772 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 6 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 2000s {#s_8}
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Art director(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+===================================+======================================================+======================================+====================================+
| 2000\ | ***Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon*** | **Timmy Yip** | **---** |
| (73rd)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Gladiator* | Arthur Max | Crispian Sallis |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *How the Grinch Stole Christmas* | Michael Corenblith | Merideth Boswell |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Quills* | Martin Childs | Jill Quertier |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Vatel* | Jean Rabasse | Françoise Benoît-Fresco |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2001\ | | | |
| (74th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Moulin Rouge!*** | **Catherine Martin** | **Brigitte Broch** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Amélie* | Aline Bonetto | Marie-Laure Valla |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Gosford Park* | Stephen Altman | Anna Pinnock |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Harry Potter and the Sorcerer\'s Stone* | Stuart Craig | Stephenie McMillan |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring* | Grant Major | Dan Hennah |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2002\ | | | |
| (75th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Chicago*** | **John Myhre** | **Gordon Sim** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Frida* | Felipe Fernández del Paso | Hania Robledo |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Gangs of New York* | Dante Ferretti | Francesca Lo Schiavo |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers* | Grant Major | Dan Hennah and Alan Lee |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Road to Perdition* | Dennis Gassner | Nancy Haigh |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2003\ | | | |
| (76th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King*** | **Grant Major** | **Dan Hennah and Alan Lee** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Girl with a Pearl Earring* | Ben Van Os | Cecile Heideman |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Last Samurai* | Lilly Kilvert | Gretchen Rau |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World* | William Sandell | Robert Gould |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Seabiscuit* | Jeannine Oppewall | Leslie Pope |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2004\ | | | |
| (77th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***The Aviator*** | **Dante Ferretti** | **Francesca Lo Schiavo** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Finding Neverland* | Gemma Jackson | Trisha Edwards |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Lemony Snicket\'s A Series of Unfortunate Events* | Rick Heinrichs | Cheryl Carasik |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Phantom of the Opera* | Anthony Pratt | Celia Bobak |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *A Very Long Engagement* | Aline Bonetto | --- |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2005\ | | | |
| (78th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Memoirs of a Geisha*** | **John Myhre** | **Gretchen Rau** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Good Night, and Good Luck* | Jim Bissell | Jan Pascale |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire* | Stuart Craig | Stephenie McMillan |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *King Kong* | Grant Major | Dan Hennah and Simon Bright |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Pride & Prejudice* | Sarah Greenwood | Katie Spencer |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2006\ | | | |
| (79th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Pan\'s Labyrinth*** | **Eugenio Caballero** | **Pilar Revuelta** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Dreamgirls* | John Myhre | Nancy Haigh |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Good Shepherd* | Jeannine Claudia Oppewall | Gretchen Rau and Leslie E. Rollins |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man\'s Chest* | Rick Heinrichs | Cheryl Carasik |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Prestige* | Nathan Crowley | Julie Ochipinti |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2007\ | | | |
| (80th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street*** | **Dante Ferretti** | **Francesca Lo Schiavo** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *American Gangster* | Arthur Max | Beth A. Rubino |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Atonement* | Sarah Greenwood | Katie Spencer |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Golden Compass* | Dennis Gassner | Anna Pinnock |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *There Will Be Blood* | Jack Fisk | Jim Erickson |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2008\ | | | |
| (81st)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***The Curious Case of Benjamin Button*** | **Donald Graham Burt** | **Victor J. Zolfo** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Changeling* | James J. Murakami | Gary Fettis |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Dark Knight* | Nathan Crowley | Peter Lando |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Duchess* | Michael Carlin | Rebecca Alleway |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Revolutionary Road* | Kristi Zea | Debra Schutt |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2009\ | | | |
| (82nd)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Avatar*** | **Rick Carter and Robert Stromberg** | **Kim Sinclair** |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus* | Dave Warren and Anastasia Masaro | Caroline Smith |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Nine* | John Myhre | Gordon Sim |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Sherlock Holmes* | Sarah Greenwood | Katie Spencer |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Young Victoria* | Patrice Vermette | Maggie Gray |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 851 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 7 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 2010s {#s_9}
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Production designer(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+===================================+==================================================+=============================+====================================+
| 2010\ | ***Alice in Wonderland*** | **Robert Stromberg** | **Karen O\'Hara** |
| (83rd)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1* | Stuart Craig | Stephenie McMillan |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Inception* | Guy Hendrix Dyas | Larry Dias and Doug Mowat |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The King\'s Speech* | Eve Stewart | Judy Farr |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *True Grit* | Jess Gonchor | Nancy Haigh |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2011\ | | | |
| (84th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Hugo*** | **Dante Ferretti** | **Francesca Lo Schiavo** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Artist* | Laurence Bennett | Robert Gould |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2* | Stuart Craig | Stephenie McMillan |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Midnight in Paris* | Anne Seibel | Hélène Dubreuil |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *War Horse* | Rick Carter | Lee Sandales |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2012\ | | | |
| (85th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Lincoln*** | **Rick Carter** | **Jim Erickson** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Anna Karenina* | Sarah Greenwood | Katie Spencer |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey* | Dan Hennah | Ra Vincent and Simon Bright |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Les Misérables* | Eve Stewart | Anna Lynch-Robinson |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Life of Pi* | David Gropman | Anna Pinnock |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2013\ | | | |
| (86th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***The Great Gatsby*** | **Catherine Martin** | **Beverley Dunn** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *American Hustle* | Judy Becker | Heather Loeffler |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Gravity* | Andy Nicholson | Rosie Goodwin and Joanne Woollard |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Her* | K. K. Barrett | Gene Serdena |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *12 Years a Slave* | Adam Stockhausen | Alice Baker |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2014\ | | | |
| (87th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***The Grand Budapest Hotel*** | **Adam Stockhausen** | **Anna Pinnock** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Imitation Game* | Maria Djurkovic | Tatiana Macdonald |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Interstellar* | Nathan Crowley | Gary Fettis |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Into the Woods* | Dennis Gassner | Anna Pinnock |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Mr. Turner* | Suzie Davies | Charlotte Watts |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2015\ | | | |
| (88th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Mad Max: Fury Road*** | **Colin Gibson** | **Lisa Thompson** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Bridge of Spies* | Adam Stockhausen | Rena DeAngelo and Bernhard Henrich |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Danish Girl* | Eve Stewart | Michael Standish |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Martian* | Arthur Max | Celia Bobak |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Revenant* | Jack Fisk | Hamish Purdy |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2016\ | | | |
| (89th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***La La Land*** | **David Wasco** | **Sandy Reynolds-Wasco** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Arrival* | Patrice Vermette | Paul Hotte |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them* | Stuart Craig | Anna Pinnock |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Hail, Caesar!* | Jess Gonchor | Nancy Haigh |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Passengers* | Guy Hendrix Dyas | Gene Serdena |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2017\ | | | |
| (90th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***The Shape of Water*** | **Paul Denham Austerberry** | **Shane Vieau and Jeff Melvin** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Beauty and the Beast* | Sarah Greenwood | Katie Spencer |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Blade Runner 2049* | Dennis Gassner | Alessandra Querzola |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Darkest Hour* | Sarah Greenwood | Katie Spencer |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Dunkirk* | Nathan Crowley | Gary Fettis |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2018\ | | | |
| (91st)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Black Panther*** | **Hannah Beachler** | **Jay Hart** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Favourite* | Fiona Crombie | Alice Felton |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *First Man* | Nathan Crowley | Kathy Lucas |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Mary Poppins Returns* | John Myhre | Gordon Sim |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Roma* | Eugenio Caballero | Bárbara Enrı́quez |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 2019\ | | | |
| (92nd)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | ***Once Upon a Time in Hollywood*** | **Barbara Ling** | **Nancy Haigh** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *The Irishman* | Bob Shaw | Regina Graves |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Jojo Rabbit* | Ra Vincent | Nora Sopková |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *1917* | Dennis Gassner | Lee Sandales |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| | *Parasite* | Lee Ha-jun | Cho Won-woo |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| 801 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 8 |
316 |
## Winners and nominees {#winners_and_nominees}
### 2020s {#s_10}
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Year | Film | Production designer(s) | Set decorator(s) |
+===================================+======================================+===================================+===================================+
| 2020\ | ***Mank*** | **Donald Graham Burt** | **Jan Pascale** |
| (93rd)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *The Father* | Peter Francis | Cathy Featherstone |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Ma Rainey\'s Black Bottom* | Mark Ricker | Karen O\'Hara and Diana Stoughton |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *News of the World* | David Crank | Elizabeth Keenan |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Tenet* | Nathan Crowley | Kathy Lucas |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 2021\ | | | |
| (94th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | ***Dune*** | **Patrice Vermette** | **Zsuzsanna Sipos** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Nightmare Alley* | Tamara Deverell | Shane Vieau |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *The Power of the Dog* | Grant Major | Amber Richards |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *The Tragedy of Macbeth* | Stefan Dechant | Nancy Haigh |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *West Side Story* | Adam Stockhausen | Rena DeAngelo |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 2022\ | | | |
| (95th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | ***All Quiet on the Western Front*** | **Christian M. Goldbeck** | **Ernestine Hipper** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Avatar: The Way of Water* | Dylan Cole and Ben Procter | Vanessa Cole |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Babylon* | Florencia Martin | Anthony Carlino |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Elvis* | Catherine Martin and Karen Murphy | Bev Dunn |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *The Fabelmans* | Rick Carter | Karen O\'Hara |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 2023\ | | | |
| (96th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | ***Poor Things*** | **James Price and Shona Heath** | **Zsuzsa Mihalek** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Barbie* | Sarah Greenwood | Katie Spencer |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Killers of the Flower Moon* | Jack Fisk | Adam Willis |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Napoleon* | Arthur Max | Elli Griff |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Oppenheimer* | Ruth De Jong | Claire Kaufman |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 2024\ | | | |
| (97th)\ | | | |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | ***Wicked*** | **Nathan Crowley** | **Lee Sandales** |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *The Brutalist* | Judy Becker | Patricia Cuccia |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Conclave* | Suzie Davies | Cynthia Sleiter |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Dune: Part Two* | Patrice Vermette | Shane Vieau |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | *Nosferatu* | Craig Lathrop | Beatrice Brentnerová |
+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 405 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 9 |
316 |
## Shortlisted finalists {#shortlisted_finalists}
Finalists for Best Production Design were selected by branch members, who voted for ten finalists which were screened to determine the five nominees.
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| Year | Finalists | Ref |
+===================================+========================================================================================================================================================================+=====+
| 1967 | *Barefoot in the Park*, *Bonnie and Clyde*, *The Flim-Flam Man*, *The Happiest Millionaire*, *In Like Flint* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1968 | *Funny Girl*, *The Killing of Sister George*, *Never a Dull Moment*, *The Odd Couple*, *Planet of the Apes* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1969 | *The April Fools*, *Marooned*, *The Secret of Santa Vittoria*, *Topaz*, *What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice?* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1970 | *Cromwell*, *Darling Lili*, *Fellini Satyricon*, *The Great White Hope*, *M\*A\*S\*H* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1971 | *Carnal Knowledge*, *A Clockwork Orange*, *The French Connection*, *The Mephisto Waltz*, *Who Is Harry Kellerman and Why Is He Saying Those Terrible Things About Me?* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1972 | *Butterflies Are Free*, *The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean*, *Slaughterhouse-Five*, *Snowball Express*, *The War Between Men and Women* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1973 | *40 Carats*, *Jesus Christ Superstar*, *Lost Horizon*, *Papillon*, *The World\'s Greatest Athlete* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1974 | *The Dion Brothers*, *The Front Page*, *The Great Gatsby*, *Mame*, *Young Frankenstein* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1975 | *At Long Last Love*, *Escape to Witch Mountain*, *Jaws*, *Sheila Levine Is Dead and Living in New York*, *Tommy* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1976 | *Freaky Friday*, *From Noon till Three*, *Harry and Walter Go to New York*, *King Kong*, *A Star Is Born* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1977 | *Looking for Mr. Goodbar*, *New York, New York*, *1900*, *Pete\'s Dragon*, *Sorcerer* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1978 | *The Boys from Brazil*, *Foul Play*, *Gray Lady Down*, *Grease*, *House Calls* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 1979 | *The Black Hole*, *Manhattan*, *Moonraker*, *10*, *Winter Kills* | |
+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----+
| 313 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 10 |
316 |
## Individuals with multiple wins {#individuals_with_multiple_wins}
11 wins
- Cedric Gibbons
8 wins
- Edwin B. Willis
7 wins
- Richard Day
6 wins
- Thomas Little
- Walter M. Scott
5 wins
- Lyle R. Wheeler
4 wins
- John Box
- Samuel M. Comer
- F. Keogh Gleason
- George James Hopkins
3 wins
- Edward Carfagno
- Stuart Craig
- William S. Darling
- John DeCuir
- Vernon Dixon
- Hans Dreier
- Dante Ferretti
- Paul S. Fox
- Alexander Golitzen
- Paul Groesse
- John Meehan
- Ray Moyer
- Francesca Lo Schiavo
- Jack Martin Smith
2 wins
- Ken Adam
- E. Preston Ames
- Herman A. Blumenthal
- Henry Bumstead
- Donald Graham Burt
- Gene Callahan
- Rick Carter
- George Davis
- Leslie Dilley
- Michael D. Ford
- George Gaines
- Russell A. Gausman
- Nancy Haigh
- Harry Horner
- William A. Horning
- Hugh Hunt
- Wiard Ihnen
- Emile Kuri
- Terence Marsh
- Catherine Martin
- William Cameron Menzies
- Urie McCleary
- John Myhre
- Gil Parrondo
- Robert Priestley
- Stuart A. Reiss
- Norman Reynolds
- Dario Simoni
- Robert Stromberg
- Richard Sylbert
- Joseph C
| 205 |
Academy Award for Best Production Design
| 11 |
324 |
*Pandoc failed*: ```
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``
| 14 |
Academy Awards
| 0 |
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