Daily Papers

Understanding a student's problem-solving strategy can have a significant impact on effective math learning using Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) and Adaptive Instructional Systems (AISs). For instance, the ITS/AIS can better personalize itself to correct specific misconceptions that are indicated by incorrect strategies, specific problems can be designed to improve strategies and frustration can be minimized by adapting to a student's natural way of thinking rather than trying to fit a standard strategy for all. While it may be possible for human experts to identify strategies manually in classroom settings with sufficient student interaction, it is not possible to scale this up to big data. Therefore, we leverage advances in Machine Learning and AI methods to perform scalable strategy prediction that is also fair to students at all skill levels. Specifically, we develop an embedding called MVec where we learn a representation based on the mastery of students. We then cluster these embeddings with a non-parametric clustering method where we progressively learn clusters such that we group together instances that have approximately symmetrical strategies. The strategy prediction model is trained on instances sampled from these clusters. This ensures that we train the model over diverse strategies and also that strategies from a particular group do not bias the DNN model, thus allowing it to optimize its parameters over all groups. Using real world large-scale student interaction datasets from MATHia, we implement our approach using transformers and Node2Vec for learning the mastery embeddings and LSTMs for predicting strategies. We show that our approach can scale up to achieve high accuracy by training on a small sample of a large dataset and also has predictive equality, i.e., it can predict strategies equally well for learners at diverse skill levels.

Large Language Model (LLM)-based agents exhibit significant potential across various domains, operating as interactive systems that process environmental observations to generate executable actions for target tasks. The effectiveness of these agents is significantly influenced by their memory mechanism, which records historical experiences as sequences of action-observation pairs. We categorize memory into two types: cross-trial memory, accumulated across multiple attempts, and in-trial memory (working memory), accumulated within a single attempt. While considerable research has optimized performance through cross-trial memory, the enhancement of agent performance through improved working memory utilization remains underexplored. Instead, existing approaches often involve directly inputting entire historical action-observation pairs into LLMs, leading to redundancy in long-horizon tasks. Inspired by human problem-solving strategies, this paper introduces HiAgent, a framework that leverages subgoals as memory chunks to manage the working memory of LLM-based agents hierarchically. Specifically, HiAgent prompts LLMs to formulate subgoals before generating executable actions and enables LLMs to decide proactively to replace previous subgoals with summarized observations, retaining only the action-observation pairs relevant to the current subgoal. Experimental results across five long-horizon tasks demonstrate that HiAgent achieves a twofold increase in success rate and reduces the average number of steps required by 3.8. Additionally, our analysis shows that HiAgent consistently improves performance across various steps, highlighting its robustness and generalizability. Project Page: https://github.com/HiAgent2024/HiAgent .

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated promising capabilities in solving mathematical reasoning tasks, leveraging Chain-of-Thought (CoT) data as a vital component in guiding answer generation. Current paradigms typically generate CoT and answers directly for a given problem, diverging from human problem-solving strategies to some extent. Humans often solve problems by recalling analogous cases and leveraging their solutions to reason about the current task. Inspired by this cognitive process, we propose MetaLadder, a novel framework that explicitly prompts LLMs to recall and reflect on meta-problems, those structurally or semantically analogous problems, alongside their CoT solutions before addressing the target problem. Additionally, we introduce a problem-restating mechanism to enhance the model's comprehension of the target problem by regenerating the original question, which further improves reasoning accuracy. Therefore, the model can achieve reasoning transfer from analogical problems, mimicking human-like "learning from examples" and generalization abilities. Extensive experiments on mathematical benchmarks demonstrate that our MetaLadder significantly boosts LLMs' problem-solving accuracy, largely outperforming standard CoT-based methods (10.3\% accuracy gain) and other methods. Our code and data has been released at https://github.com/LHL3341/MetaLadder.

We introduce Ego-R1, a novel framework for reasoning over ultra-long (i.e., in days and weeks) egocentric videos, which leverages a structured Chain-of-Tool-Thought (CoTT) process, orchestrated by an Ego-R1 Agent trained via reinforcement learning (RL). Inspired by human problem-solving strategies, CoTT decomposes complex reasoning into modular steps, with the RL agent invoking specific tools, one per step, to iteratively and collaboratively answer sub-questions tackling such tasks as temporal retrieval and multi-modal understanding. We design a two-stage training paradigm involving supervised finetuning (SFT) of a pretrained language model using CoTT data and RL to enable our agent to dynamically propose step-by-step tools for long-range reasoning. To facilitate training, we construct a dataset called Ego-R1 Data, which consists of Ego-CoTT-25K for SFT and Ego-QA-4.4K for RL. Furthermore, our Ego-R1 agent is evaluated on a newly curated week-long video QA benchmark, Ego-R1 Bench, which contains human-verified QA pairs from hybrid sources. Extensive results demonstrate that the dynamic, tool-augmented chain-of-thought reasoning by our Ego-R1 Agent can effectively tackle the unique challenges of understanding ultra-long egocentric videos, significantly extending the time coverage from few hours to a week.

Graphs are widely used for modeling relational data in real-world scenarios, such as social networks and urban computing. Existing LLM-based graph analysis approaches either integrate graph neural networks (GNNs) for specific machine learning tasks, limiting their transferability, or rely solely on LLMs' internal reasoning ability, resulting in suboptimal performance. To address these limitations, we take advantage of recent advances in LLM-based agents, which have shown capabilities of utilizing external knowledge or tools for problem solving. By simulating human problem-solving strategies such as analogy and collaboration, we propose a multi-agent system based on LLMs named GraphTeam, for graph analysis. GraphTeam consists of five LLM-based agents from three modules, and the agents with different specialities can collaborate with each other to address complex problems. Specifically, (1) input-output normalization module: the question agent extracts and refines four key arguments from the original question, facilitating the problem understanding, and the answer agent organizes the results to meet the output requirement; (2) external knowledge retrieval module: we first build a knowledge base consisting of relevant documentation and experience information, and then the search agent retrieves the most relevant entries for each question. (3) problem-solving module: given the retrieved information from search agent, the coding agent uses established algorithms via programming to generate solutions, and in case the coding agent does not work, the reasoning agent will directly compute the results without programming. Extensive experiments on six graph analysis benchmarks demonstrate that GraphTeam achieves state-of-the-art performance with an average 25.85% improvement over the best baseline in terms of accuracy. The code and data are available at https://github.com/BUPT-GAMMA/GraphTeam.

We present a novel approach to personalized sleep health management using few-shot Chain-of-Thought (CoT) distillation, enabling small-scale language models (> 2B parameters) to rival the performance of large language models (LLMs) in specialized health domains. Our method simultaneously distills problem-solving strategies, long-tail expert knowledge, and personalized recommendation capabilities from larger models into more efficient, compact models. Unlike existing systems, our approach offers three key functionalities: generating personalized sleep health recommendations, supporting user-specific follow-up inquiries, and providing responses to domain-specific knowledge questions. We focus on sleep health due to its measurability via wearable devices and its impact on overall well-being. Our experimental setup, involving GPT-4o for data synthesis, Qwen-max for instruction set creation, and Qwen2.5 1.5B for model distillation, demonstrates significant improvements over baseline small-scale models in penalization, reasoning, and knowledge application. Experiments using 100 simulated sleep reports and 1,000 domain-specific questions shows our model achieves comparable performance to larger models while maintaining efficiency for real-world deployment. This research not only advances AI-driven health management but also provides a novel approach to leveraging LLM capabilities in resource-constrained environments, potentially enhancing the accessibility of personalized healthcare solutions.

Language models are rarely shown fruitful mistakes while training. They then struggle to look beyond the next token, suffering from a snowballing of errors and struggling to predict the consequence of their actions several steps ahead. In this paper, we show how language models can be taught to search by representing the process of search in language, as a flattened string -- a stream of search (SoS). We propose a unified language for search that captures an array of different symbolic search strategies. We demonstrate our approach using the simple yet difficult game of Countdown, where the goal is to combine input numbers with arithmetic operations to reach a target number. We pretrain a transformer-based language model from scratch on a dataset of streams of search generated by heuristic solvers. We find that SoS pretraining increases search accuracy by 25% over models trained to predict only the optimal search trajectory. We further finetune this model with two policy improvement methods: Advantage-Induced Policy Alignment (APA) and Self-Taught Reasoner (STaR). The finetuned SoS models solve 36% of previously unsolved problems, including problems that cannot be solved by any of the heuristic solvers. Our results indicate that language models can learn to solve problems via search, self-improve to flexibly use different search strategies, and potentially discover new ones.

In this paper, we introduce the novel concept of pedagogically aligned Large Language Models (LLMs) that signifies a transformative shift in the application of LLMs within educational contexts. Rather than providing direct responses to user queries, pedagogically-aligned LLMs function as scaffolding tools, breaking complex problems into manageable subproblems and guiding students towards the final answer through constructive feedback and hints. The objective is to equip learners with problem-solving strategies that deepen their understanding and internalization of the subject matter. Previous research in this field has primarily applied the supervised finetuning approach without framing the objective as an alignment problem, hence not employing reinforcement learning through human feedback (RLHF) methods. This study reinterprets the narrative by viewing the task through the lens of alignment and demonstrates how RLHF methods emerge naturally as a superior alternative for aligning LLM behaviour. Building on this perspective, we propose a novel approach for constructing a reward dataset specifically designed for the pedagogical alignment of LLMs. We apply three state-of-the-art RLHF algorithms and find that they outperform SFT significantly. Our qualitative analyses across model differences and hyperparameter sensitivity further validate the superiority of RLHF over SFT. Also, our study sheds light on the potential of online feedback for enhancing the performance of pedagogically-aligned LLMs, thus providing valuable insights for the advancement of these models in educational settings.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities in general natural language processing tasks but often fall short in complex reasoning tasks. Recent studies have explored human-like problem-solving strategies, such as self-correct, to push further the boundary of single-model reasoning ability. In this work, we let a single model "step outside the box" by engaging multiple models to correct each other. We introduce a multi-agent collaboration strategy that emulates the academic peer review process. Each agent independently constructs its own solution, provides reviews on the solutions of others, and assigns confidence levels to its reviews. Upon receiving peer reviews, agents revise their initial solutions. Extensive experiments on three different types of reasoning tasks show that our collaboration approach delivers superior accuracy across all ten datasets compared to existing methods. Further study underscores the effectiveness of integrating confidence in reviews, demonstrates the superiority of feedback exchange over mere solution sharing, and highlights the role of capability and diversity in fostering successful collaboration.

We present a design framework called Conversational Learning with Analytical Step-by-Step Strategies (CLASS) for developing high-performance Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS). The CLASS framework aims to empower ITS with with two critical capabilities: imparting tutor-like step-by-step guidance and enabling tutor-like conversations in natural language to effectively engage learners. To empower ITS with the aforementioned capabilities, the CLASS framework employs two carefully curated synthetic datasets. The first scaffolding dataset encompasses a variety of elements, including problems, their corresponding subproblems, hints, incorrect solutions, and tailored feedback. This dataset provides ITS with essential problem-solving strategies necessary for guiding students through each step of the conversation. The second conversational dataset contains simulated student-tutor conversations that involve the application of problem-solving strategies learned from the first dataset. In the second dataset, the tutoring system adheres to a pre-defined response template, which helps to maintain consistency and structure in ITS's responses during its interactions. This structured methodology facilitates seamless integration of user feedback and yields valuable insights into ITS's internal decision-making process, allowing for continuous refinement and improvement of the system. We also present a proof-of-concept ITS, referred to as SPOCK, trained using the CLASS framework with a focus on college level introductory biology content. A carefully constructed protocol was developed for SPOCK's preliminary evaluation, examining aspects such as the factual accuracy and relevance of its responses. Experts in the field of biology offered favorable remarks, particularly highlighting SPOCK's capability to break down questions into manageable subproblems and provide step-by-step guidance to students.

We introduce Kimina-Prover Preview, a large language model that pioneers a novel reasoning-driven exploration paradigm for formal theorem proving, as showcased in this preview release. Trained with a large-scale reinforcement learning pipeline from Qwen2.5-72B, Kimina-Prover demonstrates strong performance in Lean 4 proof generation by employing a structured reasoning pattern we term formal reasoning pattern. This approach allows the model to emulate human problem-solving strategies in Lean, iteratively generating and refining proof steps. Kimina-Prover sets a new state-of-the-art on the miniF2F benchmark, reaching 80.7% with pass@8192. Beyond improved benchmark performance, our work yields several key insights: (1) Kimina-Prover exhibits high sample efficiency, delivering strong results even with minimal sampling (pass@1) and scaling effectively with computational budget, stemming from its unique reasoning pattern and RL training; (2) we demonstrate clear performance scaling with model size, a trend previously unobserved for neural theorem provers in formal mathematics; (3) the learned reasoning style, distinct from traditional search algorithms, shows potential to bridge the gap between formal verification and informal mathematical intuition. We open source distilled versions with 1.5B and 7B parameters of Kimina-Prover

A common method to solve complex problems in software engineering, is to divide the problem into multiple sub-problems. Inspired by this, we propose a Modular Architecture for Software-engineering AI (MASAI) agents, where different LLM-powered sub-agents are instantiated with well-defined objectives and strategies tuned to achieve those objectives. Our modular architecture offers several advantages: (1) employing and tuning different problem-solving strategies across sub-agents, (2) enabling sub-agents to gather information from different sources scattered throughout a repository, and (3) avoiding unnecessarily long trajectories which inflate costs and add extraneous context. MASAI enabled us to achieve the highest performance (28.33% resolution rate) on the popular and highly challenging SWE-bench Lite dataset consisting of 300 GitHub issues from 11 Python repositories. We conduct a comprehensive evaluation of MASAI relative to other agentic methods and analyze the effects of our design decisions and their contribution to the success of MASAI.

Recent advancements in AI reasoning have driven substantial improvements across diverse tasks. A critical open question is whether these improvements also yields better knowledge transfer: the ability of models to communicate reasoning in ways humans can understand, apply, and learn from. To investigate this, we introduce Knowledge Integration and Transfer Evaluation (KITE), a conceptual and experimental framework for Human-AI knowledge transfer capabilities and conduct the first large-scale human study (N=118) explicitly designed to measure it. In our two-phase setup, humans first ideate with an AI on problem-solving strategies, then independently implement solutions, isolating model explanations' influence on human understanding. Our findings reveal that although model benchmark performance correlates with collaborative outcomes, this relationship is notably inconsistent, featuring significant outliers, indicating that knowledge transfer requires dedicated optimization. Our analysis identifies behavioral and strategic factors mediating successful knowledge transfer. We release our code, dataset, and evaluation framework to support future work on communicatively aligned models.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in complex reasoning tasks, but their inference remains computationally inefficient. We observe a common failure mode in many prevalent LLMs, overthinking, where models generate verbose and tangential reasoning traces even for simple queries. Recent works have tried to mitigate this by enforcing fixed token budgets, however, this can lead to underthinking, especially on harder problems. Through empirical analysis, we identify that this inefficiency often stems from unclear problem-solving strategies. To formalize this, we develop a theoretical model, BBAM (Bayesian Budget Allocation Model), which models reasoning as a sequence of sub-questions with varying uncertainty, and introduce the E^3 metric to capture the trade-off between correctness and computation efficiency. Building on theoretical results from BBAM, we propose Plan-and-Budget, a model-agnostic, test-time framework that decomposes complex queries into sub-questions and allocates token budgets based on estimated complexity using adaptive scheduling. Plan-and-Budget improves reasoning efficiency across a range of tasks and models, achieving up to +70% accuracy gains, -39% token reduction, and +187.5% improvement in E^3. Notably, it elevates a smaller model (DS-Qwen-32B) to match the efficiency of a larger model (DS-LLaMA-70B)-demonstrating Plan-and-Budget's ability to close performance gaps without retraining. Our code is available at anonymous.4open.science/r/P-and-B-6513/.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in reasoning tasks with the development of prompting methods. However, existing prompting approaches cannot reuse insights of solving similar problems and suffer from accumulated errors in multi-step reasoning, since they prompt LLMs to reason from scratch. To address these issues, we propose \textit{Thought Propagation (TP)}, which explores the analogous problems and leverages their solutions to enhance the complex reasoning ability of LLMs. These analogous problems are related to the input one, with reusable solutions and problem-solving strategies. Thus, it is promising to propagate insights of solving previous analogous problems to inspire new problem-solving. To achieve this, TP first prompts LLMs to propose and solve a set of analogous problems that are related to the input one. Then, TP reuses the results of analogous problems to directly yield a new solution or derive a knowledge-intensive plan for execution to amend the initial solution obtained from scratch. TP is compatible with existing prompting approaches, allowing plug-and-play generalization and enhancement in a wide range of tasks without much labor in task-specific prompt engineering. Experiments across three challenging tasks demonstrate TP enjoys a substantial improvement over the baselines by an average of 12\% absolute increase in finding the optimal solutions in Shortest-path Reasoning, 13\% improvement of human preference in Creative Writing, and 15\% enhancement in the task completion rate of LLM-Agent Planning.

Recent methods have demonstrated that Large Language Models (LLMs) can solve reasoning tasks better when they are encouraged to solve subtasks of the main task first. In this paper we devise a similar strategy that breaks down reasoning tasks into a problem decomposition phase and a problem solving phase and show that the strategy is able to outperform a single stage solution. Further, we hypothesize that the decomposition should be easier to distill into a smaller model compared to the problem solving because the latter requires large amounts of domain knowledge while the former only requires learning general problem solving strategies. We propose methods to distill these two capabilities and evaluate their impact on reasoning outcomes and inference cost. We find that we can distill the problem decomposition phase and at the same time achieve good generalization across tasks, datasets, and models. However, it is harder to distill the problem solving capability without losing performance and the resulting distilled model struggles with generalization. These results indicate that by using smaller, distilled problem decomposition models in combination with problem solving LLMs we can achieve reasoning with cost-efficient inference and local adaptation.

Existing benchmarks for large language models (LLMs) increasingly struggle to differentiate between top-performing models, underscoring the need for more challenging evaluation frameworks. We introduce MMLU-Pro+, an enhanced benchmark building upon MMLU-Pro to assess shortcut learning and higher-order reasoning in LLMs. By incorporating questions with multiple correct answers across diverse domains, MMLU-Pro+ tests LLMs' ability to engage in complex reasoning and resist simplistic problem-solving strategies. Our results show that MMLU-Pro+ maintains MMLU-Pro's difficulty while providing a more rigorous test of model discrimination, particularly in multi-correct answer scenarios. We introduce novel metrics like shortcut selection ratio and correct pair identification ratio, offering deeper insights into model behavior and anchoring bias. Evaluations of six state-of-the-art LLMs reveal significant performance gaps, highlighting variations in reasoning abilities and bias susceptibility. We release the dataset and evaluation codes at https://github.com/asgsaeid/mmlu-pro-plus.

Mathematical modeling involves representing real-world phenomena, systems, or problems using mathematical expressions and equations to analyze, understand, and predict their behavior. Given that this process typically requires experienced experts, there is an interest in exploring whether Large Language Models (LLMs) can undertake mathematical modeling to potentially decrease human labor. To evaluate of LLMs in mathematical modeling, we introduce a new benchmark, Mamo, that transcends traditional result-oriented assessments. Unlike conventional methods that primarily assess LLMs based on the accuracy of solutions to mathematical problems, our approach offers deeper insight into the modeling process itself. By focusing on the processes LLMs undertake rather than the correctness of their final solutions, Mamo pioneers a novel evaluation paradigm. This shift underscores the importance of understanding the inherent modeling capabilities of LLMs, paving the way for a more nuanced and comprehensive analysis of their problem-solving strategies. Our work marks a significant advancement in the field, suggesting a new direction for future research by emphasizing the evaluation of LLMs' modeling processes over the mere correctness of answers. This benchmark not only facilitates a better understanding of LLMs' mathematical modeling capabilities but also sets a new standard for evaluating their performance in complex problem-solving scenarios.

Modern large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT have shown remarkable performance on general language tasks but still struggle on complex reasoning tasks, which drives the research on cognitive behaviors of LLMs to explore human-like problem-solving strategies. Along this direction, one representative strategy is self-reflection, which asks an LLM to refine the solution with the feedback generated by itself iteratively. However, our study shows that such reflection-style methods suffer from the Degeneration-of-Thought (DoT) problem: once the LLM has established confidence in its solutions, it is unable to generate novel thoughts later through reflection even if its initial stance is incorrect. To address the DoT problem, we propose a Multi-Agent Debate (MAD) framework, in which multiple agents express their arguments in the state of "tit for tat" and a judge manages the debate process to obtain a final solution. Clearly, our MAD framework encourages divergent thinking in LLMs which would be helpful for tasks that require deep levels of contemplation. Experiment results on two challenging datasets, commonsense machine translation and counter-intuitive arithmetic reasoning, demonstrate the effectiveness of our MAD framework. Extensive analyses suggest that the adaptive break of debate and the modest level of "tit for tat" state are required for MAD to obtain good performance. Moreover, we find that LLMs might not be a fair judge if different LLMs are used for agents. Codes: https://github.com/Skytliang/Multi-Agents-Debate

Large language models (LLMs) have shown excellent mastering of human language, but still struggle in real-world applications that require mathematical problem-solving. While many strategies and datasets to enhance LLMs' mathematics are developed, it remains a challenge to simultaneously maintain and improve both language and mathematical capabilities in deployed LLM systems.In this work, we tailor the Self-Critique pipeline, which addresses the challenge in the feedback learning stage of LLM alignment. We first train a general Math-Critique model from the LLM itself to provide feedback signals. Then, we sequentially employ rejective fine-tuning and direct preference optimization over the LLM's own generations for data collection. Based on ChatGLM3-32B, we conduct a series of experiments on both academic and our newly created challenging dataset, MathUserEval. Results show that our pipeline significantly enhances the LLM's mathematical problem-solving while still improving its language ability, outperforming LLMs that could be two times larger. Related techniques have been deployed to ChatGLM\url{https://chatglm.cn}, an online serving LLM. Related evaluation dataset and scripts are released at https://github.com/THUDM/ChatGLM-Math.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown impressive progress in mathematical reasoning. While data augmentation is promising to enhance mathematical problem-solving ability, current approaches are predominantly limited to instance-level modifications-such as rephrasing or generating syntactic variations-which fail to capture and leverage the intrinsic relational structures inherent in mathematical knowledge. Inspired by human learning processes, where mathematical proficiency develops through systematic exposure to interconnected concepts, we introduce MathFusion, a novel framework that enhances mathematical reasoning through cross-problem instruction synthesis. MathFusion implements this through three fusion strategies: (1) sequential fusion, which chains related problems to model solution dependencies; (2) parallel fusion, which combines analogous problems to reinforce conceptual understanding; and (3) conditional fusion, which creates context-aware selective problems to enhance reasoning flexibility. By applying these strategies, we generate a new dataset, MathFusionQA, followed by fine-tuning models (DeepSeekMath-7B, Mistral-7B, Llama3-8B) on it. Experimental results demonstrate that MathFusion achieves substantial improvements in mathematical reasoning while maintaining high data efficiency, boosting performance by 18.0 points in accuracy across diverse benchmarks while requiring only 45K additional synthetic instructions, representing a substantial improvement over traditional single-instruction approaches. Our datasets, models, and code are publicly available at https://github.com/QizhiPei/mathfusion.

The optimal training configurations of large language models (LLMs) with respect to model sizes and compute budgets have been extensively studied. But how to optimally configure LLMs during inference has not been explored in sufficient depth. We study compute-optimal inference: designing models and inference strategies that optimally trade off additional inference-time compute for improved performance. As a first step towards understanding and designing compute-optimal inference methods, we assessed the effectiveness and computational efficiency of multiple inference strategies such as Greedy Search, Majority Voting, Best-of-N, Weighted Voting, and their variants on two different Tree Search algorithms, involving different model sizes and computational budgets. We found that a smaller language model with a novel tree search algorithm typically achieves a Pareto-optimal trade-off. These results highlight the potential benefits of deploying smaller models equipped with more sophisticated decoding algorithms in budget-constrained scenarios, e.g., on end-devices, to enhance problem-solving accuracy. For instance, we show that the Llemma-7B model can achieve competitive accuracy to a Llemma-34B model on MATH500 while using 2times less FLOPs. Our findings could potentially apply to any generation task with a well-defined measure of success.

As language agents tackle increasingly complex tasks, they struggle with effective error correction and experience reuse across domains. We introduce Agent KB, a hierarchical experience framework that enables complex agentic problem solving via a novel Reason-Retrieve-Refine pipeline. Agent KB addresses a core limitation: agents traditionally cannot learn from each other's experiences. By capturing both high-level strategies and detailed execution logs, Agent KB creates a shared knowledge base that enables cross-agent knowledge transfer. Evaluated on the GAIA benchmark, Agent KB improves success rates by up to 16.28 percentage points. On the most challenging tasks, Claude-3 improves from 38.46% to 57.69%, while GPT-4 improves from 53.49% to 73.26% on intermediate tasks. On SWE-bench code repair, Agent KB enables Claude-3 to improve from 41.33% to 53.33%. Our results suggest that Agent KB provides a modular, framework-agnostic infrastructure for enabling agents to learn from past experiences and generalize successful strategies to new tasks.

Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated notable progress on many mathematical benchmarks. However, most of these benchmarks only feature problems grounded in junior and senior high school subjects, contain only multiple-choice questions, and are confined to a limited scope of elementary arithmetic operations. To address these issues, this paper introduces an expansive benchmark suite SciBench that aims to systematically examine the reasoning capabilities required for complex scientific problem solving. SciBench contains two carefully curated datasets: an open set featuring a range of collegiate-level scientific problems drawn from mathematics, chemistry, and physics textbooks, and a closed set comprising problems from undergraduate-level exams in computer science and mathematics. Based on the two datasets, we conduct an in-depth benchmark study of two representative LLMs with various prompting strategies. The results reveal that current LLMs fall short of delivering satisfactory performance, with an overall score of merely 35.80%. Furthermore, through a detailed user study, we categorize the errors made by LLMs into ten problem-solving abilities. Our analysis indicates that no single prompting strategy significantly outperforms others and some strategies that demonstrate improvements in certain problem-solving skills result in declines in other skills. We envision that SciBench will catalyze further developments in the reasoning abilities of LLMs, thereby ultimately contributing to scientific research and discovery.

Although pre-trained language models~(PLMs) have recently advanced the research progress in mathematical reasoning, they are not specially designed as a capable multi-task solver, suffering from high cost for multi-task deployment (\eg a model copy for a task) and inferior performance on complex mathematical problems in practical applications. To address these issues, in this paper, we propose JiuZhang~2.0, a unified Chinese PLM specially for multi-task mathematical problem solving. Our idea is to maintain a moderate-sized model and employ the cross-task knowledge sharing to improve the model capacity in a multi-task setting. Specially, we construct a Mixture-of-Experts~(MoE) architecture for modeling mathematical text, so as to capture the common mathematical knowledge across tasks. For optimizing the MoE architecture, we design multi-task continual pre-training and multi-task fine-tuning strategies for multi-task adaptation. These training strategies can effectively decompose the knowledge from the task data and establish the cross-task sharing via expert networks. In order to further improve the general capacity of solving different complex tasks, we leverage large language models~(LLMs) as complementary models to iteratively refine the generated solution by our PLM, via in-context learning. Extensive experiments have demonstrated the effectiveness of our model.

Advancements in LLMs have significantly expanded their capabilities across various domains. However, mathematical reasoning remains a challenging area, prompting the development of math-specific LLMs. These models typically follow a two-stage training paradigm: pre-training with math-related corpora and post-training with problem datasets for SFT. Despite these efforts, the improvements in mathematical reasoning achieved through continued pre-training (CPT) are often less significant compared to those obtained via SFT. This study addresses this discrepancy by exploring alternative strategies during the pre-training phase, focusing on the use of problem-solving data over general mathematical corpora. We investigate three primary research questions: (1) Can problem-solving data enhance the model's mathematical reasoning capabilities more effectively than general mathematical corpora during CPT? (2) Are synthetic data from the same source equally effective, and which synthesis methods are most efficient? (3) How do the capabilities developed from the same problem-solving data differ between the CPT and SFT stages, and what factors contribute to these differences? Our findings indicate that problem-solving data significantly enhances the model's mathematical capabilities compared to general mathematical corpora. We also identify effective data synthesis methods, demonstrating that the tutorship amplification synthesis method achieves the best performance. Furthermore, while SFT facilitates instruction-following abilities, it underperforms compared to CPT with the same data, which can be partially attributed to its poor learning capacity for hard multi-step problem-solving data. These insights provide valuable guidance for optimizing the mathematical reasoning capabilities of LLMs, culminating in our development of a powerful mathematical base model called JiuZhang-8B.

Despite recent advancements in large language models (LLMs), their performance on complex reasoning problems requiring multi-step thinking and combining various skills is still limited. To address this, we propose a novel framework HDFlow for complex reasoning with LLMs that combines fast and slow thinking modes in an adaptive manner. Our approach consists of two key components: 1) a new approach for slow, deliberate reasoning called Dynamic Workflow, which automatically decomposes complex problems into more manageable sub-tasks and dynamically designs a workflow to assemble specialized LLM or symbolic reasoning tools to solve sub-tasks; 2) Hybrid Thinking, a general framework that dynamically combines fast and slow thinking based on problem complexity. Finally, we propose an easy-to-scale method for automatically synthesizing a large-scale dataset of 27K challenging reasoning problems for complex reasoning and a hybrid thinking tuning method that trains smaller LLMs on this dataset to internalize the fast/slow hybrid reasoning strategies. Experiments on four reasoning benchmark datasets demonstrate that our slow thinking with dynamic workflows significantly outperforms Chain-of-Thought, and hybrid thinking achieves the highest accuracy while providing an effective balance between computational efficiency and performance. Fine-tuning using our hybrid thinking approach also significantly boosts the complex reasoning capabilities of open-source language models. The results showcase the promise of slow thinking, dynamic workflows, and hybrid thinking in expanding the frontier of complex problem-solving with LLMsCode and data will be released at \url{https://github.com/wenlinyao/HDFlow.}.

We introduce KnowledgeMath, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate LLMs' capabilities in applying financial knowledge to solve complex math word problems. Compared to prior works, this study features three core advancements. First, KnowledgeMath includes 1,259 problems with a hybrid of textual and tabular content and require college-level knowledge in the finance domain for effective resolution. Second, we provide expert-annotated, detailed solution references in Python program format, ensuring a high-quality benchmark for LLM assessment. Finally, we evaluate a wide spectrum of 14 LLMs with different prompting strategies like Chain-of-Thoughts and Program-of-Thoughts. The current best-performing system (i.e., GPT-4 with Program-of-Thoughts) achieves only 45.4% accuracy, leaving substantial room for improvement. While knowledge-augmented LLMs can improve the performance (e.g., from 23.9% to 32.0% for GPT-3.5), it is still significantly lower the estimated human expert performance of 94%. We believe that KnowledgeMath can facilitate future research on domain-specific knowledge retrieval and augmentation into the math word problem-solving process. We will release the benchmark and code at https://github.com/yale-nlp/KnowledgeMath.

We introduce PHYSICS, a comprehensive benchmark for university-level physics problem solving. It contains 1297 expert-annotated problems covering six core areas: classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, atomic physics, and optics. Each problem requires advanced physics knowledge and mathematical reasoning. We develop a robust automated evaluation system for precise and reliable validation. Our evaluation of leading foundation models reveals substantial limitations. Even the most advanced model, o3-mini, achieves only 59.9% accuracy, highlighting significant challenges in solving high-level scientific problems. Through comprehensive error analysis, exploration of diverse prompting strategies, and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG)-based knowledge augmentation, we identify key areas for improvement, laying the foundation for future advancements.

Existing approaches to mathematical reasoning with large language models (LLMs) rely on Chain-of-Thought (CoT) for generalizability or Tool-Integrated Reasoning (TIR) for precise computation. While efforts have been made to combine these methods, they primarily rely on post-selection or predefined strategies, leaving an open question: whether LLMs can autonomously adapt their reasoning strategy based on their inherent capabilities. In this work, we propose TATA (Teaching LLMs According to Their Aptitude), an adaptive framework that enables LLMs to personalize their reasoning strategy spontaneously, aligning it with their intrinsic aptitude. TATA incorporates base-LLM-aware data selection during supervised fine-tuning (SFT) to tailor training data to the model's unique abilities. This approach equips LLMs to autonomously determine and apply the appropriate reasoning strategy at test time. We evaluate TATA through extensive experiments on six mathematical reasoning benchmarks, using both general-purpose and math-specialized LLMs. Empirical results demonstrate that TATA effectively combines the complementary strengths of CoT and TIR, achieving superior or comparable performance with improved inference efficiency compared to TIR alone. Further analysis underscores the critical role of aptitude-aware data selection in enabling LLMs to make effective and adaptive reasoning decisions and align reasoning strategies with model capabilities.

Accuracy remains a standard metric for evaluating AI systems, but it offers limited insight into how models arrive at their solutions. In this work, we introduce a benchmark based on brainteasers written in long narrative form to probe more deeply into the types of reasoning strategies that models use. Brainteasers are well-suited for this goal because they can be solved with multiple approaches, such as a few-step solution that uses a creative insight or a longer solution that uses more brute force. We investigate large language models (LLMs) across multiple layers of reasoning, focusing not only on correctness but also on the quality and creativity of their solutions. We investigate many aspects of the reasoning process: (1) semantic parsing of the brainteasers into precise mathematical competition style formats; (2) generating solutions from these mathematical forms; (3) self-correcting solutions based on gold solutions; (4) producing step-by-step sketches of solutions; and (5) making use of hints. We find that LLMs are in many cases able to find creative, insightful solutions to brainteasers, suggesting that they capture some of the capacities needed to solve novel problems in creative ways. Nonetheless, there also remain situations where they rely on brute force despite the availability of more efficient, creative solutions, highlighting a potential direction for improvement in the reasoning abilities of LLMs.

Most existing chain-of-thought (CoT) prompting methods suffer from the issues of generalizability and consistency, as they often rely on instance-specific solutions that may not be applicable to other cases and lack task-level consistency in their reasoning steps. To address these limitations, we propose a comprehensive framework, StrategyLLM, harnessing the capabilities of LLMs to construct generalizable and consistent few-shot prompts for various tasks automatically. To this end, StrategyLLM employs four LLM-based agents: strategy generator, executor, optimizer, and evaluator, working together to generate, evaluate, and select promising strategies for a given task. The experimental results demonstrate that StrategyLLM outperforms the competitive baseline CoT-SC that requires human-annotated solutions on 13 datasets across 4 challenging tasks without human involvement, including math reasoning (34.21% rightarrow 38.79%), commonsense reasoning (70.3% rightarrow 72.5%), algorithmic reasoning (51.7% rightarrow 62.0%), and symbolic reasoning (30.0% rightarrow 79.2%).

Large Language Models (LLMs) are highly proficient in language-based tasks. Their language capabilities have positioned them at the forefront of the future AGI (Artificial General Intelligence) race. However, on closer inspection, Valmeekam et al. (2024); Zecevic et al. (2023); Wu et al. (2024) highlight a significant gap between their language proficiency and reasoning abilities. Reasoning in LLMs and Vision Language Models (VLMs) aims to bridge this gap by enabling these models to think and re-evaluate their actions and responses. Reasoning is an essential capability for complex problem-solving and a necessary step toward establishing trust in Artificial Intelligence (AI). This will make AI suitable for deployment in sensitive domains, such as healthcare, banking, law, defense, security etc. In recent times, with the advent of powerful reasoning models like OpenAI O1 and DeepSeek R1, reasoning endowment has become a critical research topic in LLMs. In this paper, we provide a detailed overview and comparison of existing reasoning techniques and present a systematic survey of reasoning-imbued language models. We also study current challenges and present our findings.

With the rise of artificial intelligence (AI), applying large language models (LLMs) to Operations Research (OR) problem-solving has attracted increasing attention. Most existing approaches attempt to improve OR problem-solving through prompt engineering or fine-tuning strategies for LLMs. However, these methods are fundamentally constrained by the limited capabilities of non-reasoning LLMs. To overcome these limitations, we propose OR-LLM-Agent, an AI agent built on reasoning LLMs for automated OR problem solving. The agent decomposes the task into three sequential stages: mathematical modeling, code generation, and debugging. Each task is handled by a dedicated sub-agent, which enables more targeted reasoning. We also construct BWOR, a high-quality dataset for evaluating LLM performance on OR tasks. Our analysis shows that existing benchmarks such as NL4OPT, MAMO, and IndustryOR suffer from certain issues, making them less suitable for reliably evaluating LLM performance. In contrast, BWOR provides a more consistent and discriminative assessment of model capabilities. Experimental results demonstrate that OR-LLM-Agent outperforms advanced methods, including GPT-o3, Gemini 2.5 Pro, and ORLM, by at least 7% in accuracy. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of task decomposition for OR problem solving.

Modern large reasoning models demonstrate impressive problem-solving capabilities by employing sophisticated reasoning strategies. However, they often struggle to balance efficiency and effectiveness, frequently generating unnecessarily lengthy reasoning chains for simple problems. In this work, we propose AdaCtrl, a novel framework to support both difficulty-aware adaptive reasoning budget allocation and explicit user control over reasoning depth. AdaCtrl dynamically adjusts its reasoning length based on self-assessed problem difficulty, while also allowing users to manually control the budget to prioritize either efficiency or effectiveness. This is achieved through a two-stage training pipeline: an initial cold-start fine-tuning phase to instill the ability to self-aware difficulty and adjust reasoning budget, followed by a difficulty-aware reinforcement learning (RL) stage that refines the model's adaptive reasoning strategies and calibrates its difficulty assessments based on its evolving capabilities during online training. To enable intuitive user interaction, we design explicit length-triggered tags that function as a natural interface for budget control. Empirical results show that AdaCtrl adapts reasoning length based on estimated difficulty, compared to the standard training baseline that also incorporates fine-tuning and RL, it yields performance improvements and simultaneously reduces response length by 10.06% and 12.14% on the more challenging AIME2024 and AIME2025 datasets, which require elaborate reasoning, and by 62.05% and 91.04% on the MATH500 and GSM8K datasets, where more concise responses are sufficient. Furthermore, AdaCtrl enables precise user control over the reasoning budget, allowing for tailored responses to meet specific needs.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated the ability to tackle increasingly complex tasks through advanced reasoning, long-form content generation, and tool use. Solving these tasks often involves long inference-time computations. In human problem solving, a common strategy to expedite work is collaboration: by dividing the problem into sub-tasks, exploring different strategies concurrently, etc. Recent research has shown that LLMs can also operate in parallel by implementing explicit cooperation frameworks, such as voting mechanisms or the explicit creation of independent sub-tasks that can be executed in parallel. However, each of these frameworks may not be suitable for all types of tasks, which can hinder their applicability. In this work, we propose a different design approach: we run LLM "workers" in parallel , allowing them to synchronize via a concurrently-updated attention cache and prompt these workers to decide how best to collaborate. Our approach allows the instances to come up with their own collaboration strategy for the problem at hand, all the while "seeing" each other's partial progress in the concurrent cache. We implement this approach via Hogwild! Inference: a parallel LLM inference engine where multiple instances of the same LLM run in parallel with the same attention cache, with "instant" access to each other's generated tokens. Hogwild! inference takes advantage of Rotary Position Embeddings (RoPE) to avoid recomputation while improving parallel hardware utilization. We find that modern reasoning-capable LLMs can perform inference with shared Key-Value cache out of the box, without additional fine-tuning.

Prompting Large Language Models (LLMs), or providing context on the expected model of operation, is an effective way to steer the outputs of such models to satisfy human desiderata after they have been trained. But in rapidly evolving domains, there is often need to fine-tune LLMs to improve either the kind of knowledge in their memory or their abilities to perform open ended reasoning in new domains. When human's learn new concepts, we often do so by linking the new material that we are studying to concepts we have already learned before. To that end, we ask, "can prompting help us teach LLMs how to learn". In this work, we study a novel generalization of instruction tuning, called contextual fine-tuning, to fine-tune LLMs. Our method leverages instructional prompts designed to mimic human cognitive strategies in learning and problem-solving to guide the learning process during training, aiming to improve the model's interpretation and understanding of domain-specific knowledge. We empirically demonstrate that this simple yet effective modification improves the ability of LLMs to be fine-tuned rapidly on new datasets both within the medical and financial domains.

Automated fact-checking is an important task because determining the accurate status of a proposed claim within the vast amount of information available online is a critical challenge. This challenge requires robust evaluation to prevent the spread of false information. Modern large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated high capability in performing a diverse range of Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks. By utilizing proper prompting strategies, their versatility due to their understanding of large context sizes and zero-shot learning ability enables them to simulate human problem-solving intuition and move towards being an alternative to humans for solving problems. In this work, we introduce a straightforward framework based on Zero-Shot Learning and Key Points (ZSL-KeP) for automated fact-checking, which despite its simplicity, performed well on the AVeriTeC shared task dataset by robustly improving the baseline and achieving 10th place.

Vision language models (VLMs) have demonstrated impressive performance across a wide range of downstream tasks. However, their proficiency in spatial reasoning remains limited, despite its crucial role in tasks involving navigation and interaction with physical environments. Specifically, most of these tasks rely on the core spatial reasoning capabilities in two-dimensional (2D) environments, and our evaluation reveals that state-of-the-art VLMs frequently generate implausible and incorrect responses to composite spatial reasoning problems, including simple pathfinding tasks that humans can solve effortlessly at a glance. To address this, we explore an effective approach to enhance 2D spatial reasoning within VLMs by training the model solely on basic spatial capabilities. We begin by disentangling the key components of 2D spatial reasoning: direction comprehension, distance estimation, and localization. Our central hypothesis is that mastering these basic spatial capabilities can significantly enhance a model's performance on composite spatial tasks requiring advanced spatial understanding and combinatorial problem-solving, with generalized improvements in visual-spatial tasks. To investigate this hypothesis, we introduce Sparkle, a framework that fine-tunes VLMs on these three basic spatial capabilities by synthetic data generation and targeted supervision to form an instruction dataset for each capability. Our experiments demonstrate that VLMs fine-tuned with Sparkle achieve significant performance gains, not only in the basic tasks themselves but also in generalizing to composite and out-of-distribution spatial reasoning tasks. These findings underscore the effectiveness of mastering basic spatial capabilities in enhancing composite spatial problem-solving, offering insights into systematic strategies for improving VLMs' spatial reasoning capabilities.

The remarkable performance of models like the OpenAI o1 can be attributed to their ability to emulate human-like long-time thinking during inference. These models employ extended chain-of-thought (CoT) processes, exploring multiple strategies to enhance problem-solving capabilities. However, a critical question remains: How to intelligently and efficiently scale computational resources during testing. This paper presents the first comprehensive study on the prevalent issue of overthinking in these models, where excessive computational resources are allocated for simple problems with minimal benefit. We introduce novel efficiency metrics from both outcome and process perspectives to evaluate the rational use of computational resources by o1-like models. Using a self-training paradigm, we propose strategies to mitigate overthinking, streamlining reasoning processes without compromising accuracy. Experimental results show that our approach successfully reduces computational overhead while preserving model performance across a range of testsets with varying difficulty levels, such as GSM8K, MATH500, GPQA, and AIME.

In this paper, we present an investigative study on how Mental Sets influence the reasoning capabilities of LLMs. LLMs have excelled in diverse natural language processing (NLP) tasks, driven by advancements in parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) and emergent capabilities like in-context learning (ICL). For complex reasoning tasks, selecting the right model for PEFT or ICL is critical, often relying on scores on benchmarks such as MMLU, MATH, and GSM8K. However, current evaluation methods, based on metrics like F1 Score or reasoning chain assessments by larger models, overlook a key dimension: adaptability to unfamiliar situations and overcoming entrenched thinking patterns. In cognitive psychology, Mental Set refers to the tendency to persist with previously successful strategies, even when they become inefficient - a challenge for problem solving and reasoning. We compare the performance of LLM models like Llama-3.1-8B-Instruct, Llama-3.1-70B-Instruct and GPT-4o in the presence of mental sets. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to integrate cognitive psychology concepts into the evaluation of LLMs for complex reasoning tasks, providing deeper insights into their adaptability and problem-solving efficacy.

Large-language models (LLMs) have demonstrated powerful problem-solving capabilities, in particular when organized in multi-agent systems. However, the advent of such systems also raises several questions on the ability of a complex network of agents to effectively self-organize and collaborate. While measuring performance on standard reasoning benchmarks indicates how well multi-agent systems can solve reasoning tasks, it is unclear whether these systems are able to leverage their topology effectively. Here, we propose AgentsNet, a new benchmark for multi-agent reasoning. By drawing inspiration from classical problems in distributed systems and graph theory, AgentsNet measures the ability of multi-agent systems to collaboratively form strategies for problem-solving, self-organization, and effective communication given a network topology. We evaluate a variety of baseline methods on AgentsNet including homogeneous networks of agents which first have to agree on basic protocols for organization and communication. We find that some frontier LLMs are already demonstrating strong performance for small networks but begin to fall off once the size of the network scales. While existing multi-agent benchmarks cover at most 2-5 agents, AgentsNet is practically unlimited in size and can scale with new generations of LLMs. As such, we also probe frontier models in a setup with up to 100 agents.

Despite their impressive performance on complex tasks, current language models (LMs) typically operate in a vacuum: Each input query is processed separately, without retaining insights from previous attempts. Here, we present Dynamic Cheatsheet (DC), a lightweight framework that endows a black-box LM with a persistent, evolving memory. Rather than repeatedly re-discovering or re-committing the same solutions and mistakes, DC enables models to store and reuse accumulated strategies, code snippets, and general problem-solving insights at inference time. This test-time learning enhances performance substantially across a range of tasks without needing explicit ground-truth labels or human feedback. Leveraging DC, Claude 3.5 Sonnet's accuracy more than doubled on AIME math exams once it began retaining algebraic insights across questions. Similarly, GPT-4o's success rate on Game of 24 increased from 10% to 99% after the model discovered and reused a Python-based solution. In tasks prone to arithmetic mistakes, such as balancing equations, DC enabled GPT-4o and Claude to reach near-perfect accuracy by recalling previously validated code, whereas their baselines stagnated around 50%. Beyond arithmetic challenges, DC yields notable accuracy gains on knowledge-demanding tasks. Claude achieved a 9% improvement in GPQA-Diamond and an 8% boost on MMLU-Pro problems. Crucially, DC's memory is self-curated, focusing on concise, transferable snippets rather than entire transcript. Unlike finetuning or static retrieval methods, DC adapts LMs' problem-solving skills on the fly, without modifying their underlying parameters. Overall, our findings present DC as a promising approach for augmenting LMs with persistent memory, bridging the divide between isolated inference events and the cumulative, experience-driven learning characteristic of human cognition.

Recent large-scale language models (LLMs) with long Chain-of-Thought reasoning-such as DeepSeek-R1-have achieved impressive results on Olympiad-level mathematics benchmarks. However, they often rely on a narrow set of strategies and struggle with problems that require a novel way of thinking. To systematically investigate these limitations, we introduce OMEGA-Out-of-distribution Math Problems Evaluation with 3 Generalization Axes-a controlled yet diverse benchmark designed to evaluate three axes of out-of-distribution generalization, inspired by Boden's typology of creativity: (1) Exploratory-applying known problem solving skills to more complex instances within the same problem domain; (2) Compositional-combining distinct reasoning skills, previously learned in isolation, to solve novel problems that require integrating these skills in new and coherent ways; and (3) Transformative-adopting novel, often unconventional strategies by moving beyond familiar approaches to solve problems more effectively. OMEGA consists of programmatically generated training-test pairs derived from templated problem generators across geometry, number theory, algebra, combinatorics, logic, and puzzles, with solutions verified using symbolic, numerical, or graphical methods. We evaluate frontier (or top-tier) LLMs and observe sharp performance degradation as problem complexity increases. Moreover, we fine-tune the Qwen-series models across all generalization settings and observe notable improvements in exploratory generalization, while compositional generalization remains limited and transformative reasoning shows little to no improvement. By isolating and quantifying these fine-grained failures, OMEGA lays the groundwork for advancing LLMs toward genuine mathematical creativity beyond mechanical proficiency.

Currently OpenAI o1 has sparked a surge of interest in the study of large reasoning models (LRM). Building on this momentum, Marco-o1 not only focuses on disciplines with standard answers, such as mathematics, physics, and coding -- which are well-suited for reinforcement learning (RL) -- but also places greater emphasis on open-ended resolutions. We aim to address the question: "Can the o1 model effectively generalize to broader domains where clear standards are absent and rewards are challenging to quantify?" Marco-o1 is powered by Chain-of-Thought (CoT) fine-tuning, Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS), reflection mechanisms, and innovative reasoning strategies -- optimized for complex real-world problem-solving tasks.

Solving the inverse problem is the key step in evaluating the capacity of a physical model to describe real phenomena. In medical image computing, it aligns with the classical theme of image-based model personalization. Traditionally, a solution to the problem is obtained by performing either sampling or variational inference based methods. Both approaches aim to identify a set of free physical model parameters that results in a simulation best matching an empirical observation. When applied to brain tumor modeling, one of the instances of image-based model personalization in medical image computing, the overarching drawback of the methods is the time complexity for finding such a set. In a clinical setting with limited time between imaging and diagnosis or even intervention, this time complexity may prove critical. As the history of quantitative science is the history of compression, we align in this paper with the historical tendency and propose a method compressing complex traditional strategies for solving an inverse problem into a simple database query task. We evaluated different ways of performing the database query task assessing the trade-off between accuracy and execution time. On the exemplary task of brain tumor growth modeling, we prove that the proposed method achieves one order speed-up compared to existing approaches for solving the inverse problem. The resulting compute time offers critical means for relying on more complex and, hence, realistic models, for integrating image preprocessing and inverse modeling even deeper, or for implementing the current model into a clinical workflow.

The Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP) remains a fundamental challenge in combinatorial optimization, inspiring diverse algorithmic strategies. This paper revisits the "heatmap + Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS)" paradigm that has recently gained traction for learning-based TSP solutions. Within this framework, heatmaps encode the likelihood of edges forming part of the optimal tour, and MCTS refines this probabilistic guidance to discover optimal solutions. Contemporary approaches have predominantly emphasized the refinement of heatmap generation through sophisticated learning models, inadvertently sidelining the critical role of MCTS. Our extensive empirical analysis reveals two pivotal insights: 1) The configuration of MCTS strategies profoundly influences the solution quality, demanding meticulous tuning to leverage their full potential; 2) Our findings demonstrate that a rudimentary and parameter-free heatmap, derived from the intrinsic k-nearest nature of TSP, can rival or even surpass the performance of complicated heatmaps, with strong generalizability across various scales. Empirical evaluations across various TSP scales underscore the efficacy of our approach, achieving competitive results. These observations challenge the prevailing focus on heatmap sophistication, advocating a reevaluation of the paradigm to harness both components synergistically. Our code is available at: https://github.com/LOGO-CUHKSZ/rethink_mcts_tsp.

Despite their success in many natural language tasks, solving math problems remains a significant challenge for large language models (LLMs). A large gap exists between LLMs' pass-at-one and pass-at-N performance in solving math problems, suggesting LLMs might be close to finding correct solutions, motivating our exploration of fine-tuning methods to unlock LLMs' performance. Using the challenging MATH dataset, we investigate three fine-tuning strategies: (1) solution fine-tuning, where we fine-tune to generate a detailed solution for a given math problem; (2) solution-cluster re-ranking, where the LLM is fine-tuned as a solution verifier/evaluator to choose among generated candidate solution clusters; (3) multi-task sequential fine-tuning, which integrates both solution generation and evaluation tasks together efficiently to enhance the LLM performance. With these methods, we present a thorough empirical study on a series of PaLM 2 models and find: (1) The quality and style of the step-by-step solutions used for fine-tuning can make a significant impact on the model performance; (2) While solution re-ranking and majority voting are both effective for improving the model performance when used separately, they can also be used together for an even greater performance boost; (3) Multi-task fine-tuning that sequentially separates the solution generation and evaluation tasks can offer improved performance compared with the solution fine-tuning baseline. Guided by these insights, we design a fine-tuning recipe that yields approximately 58.8% accuracy on the MATH dataset with fine-tuned PaLM 2-L models, an 11.2% accuracy improvement over the few-shot performance of pre-trained PaLM 2-L model with majority voting.

Reinforcement learning (RL) problems can be challenging without well-shaped rewards. Prior work on provably efficient RL methods generally proposes to address this issue with dedicated exploration strategies. However, another way to tackle this challenge is to reformulate it as a multi-task RL problem, where the task space contains not only the challenging task of interest but also easier tasks that implicitly function as a curriculum. Such a reformulation opens up the possibility of running existing multi-task RL methods as a more efficient alternative to solving a single challenging task from scratch. In this work, we provide a theoretical framework that reformulates a single-task RL problem as a multi-task RL problem defined by a curriculum. Under mild regularity conditions on the curriculum, we show that sequentially solving each task in the multi-task RL problem is more computationally efficient than solving the original single-task problem, without any explicit exploration bonuses or other exploration strategies. We also show that our theoretical insights can be translated into an effective practical learning algorithm that can accelerate curriculum learning on simulated robotic tasks.

In recent years, vision-language models have made significant strides, excelling in tasks like optical character recognition and geometric problem-solving. However, several critical issues remain: 1) Proprietary models often lack transparency about their architectures, while open-source models need more detailed ablations of their training strategies. 2) Pre-training data in open-source works is under-explored, with datasets added empirically, making the process cumbersome. 3) Fine-tuning often focuses on adding datasets, leading to diminishing returns. To address these issues, we propose the following contributions: 1) We trained a robust baseline model using the latest advancements in vision-language models, introducing effective improvements and conducting comprehensive ablation and validation for each technique. 2) Inspired by recent work on large language models, we filtered pre-training data using perplexity, selecting the lowest perplexity data for training. This approach allowed us to train on a curated 1M dataset, achieving competitive performance. 3) During visual instruction tuning, we used model soup on different datasets when adding more datasets yielded marginal improvements. These innovations resulted in a 9B parameter model that performs competitively with state-of-the-art models. Our strategies are efficient and lightweight, making them easily adoptable by the community.

Recent advancements in prompt engineering strategies, such as Chain-of-Thought (CoT) and Self-Discover, have demonstrated significant potential in improving the reasoning abilities of Large Language Models (LLMs). However, these state-of-the-art (SOTA) prompting strategies rely on single or fixed set of static seed reasoning modules like "think step by step" or "break down this problem" intended to simulate human approach to problem-solving. This constraint limits the flexibility of models in tackling diverse problems effectively. In this paper, we introduce Auto-Evolve, a novel framework that enables LLMs to self-create dynamic reasoning modules and downstream action plan, resulting in significant improvements over current SOTA methods. We evaluate Auto-Evolve on the challenging BigBench-Hard (BBH) dataset with Claude 2.0, Claude 3 Sonnet, Mistral Large, and GPT 4, where it consistently outperforms the SOTA prompt strategies. Auto-Evolve outperforms CoT by up to 10.4% and on an average by 7% across these four models. Our framework introduces two innovations: a) Auto-Evolve dynamically generates reasoning modules for each task while aligning with human reasoning paradigm, thus eliminating the need for predefined templates. b) We introduce an iterative refinement component, that incrementally refines instruction guidance for LLMs and helps boost performance by average 2.8% compared to doing it in a single step.

Problem-solving has been a fundamental driver of human progress in numerous domains. With advancements in artificial intelligence, Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as powerful tools capable of tackling complex problems across diverse domains. Unlike traditional computational systems, LLMs combine raw computational power with an approximation of human reasoning, allowing them to generate solutions, make inferences, and even leverage external computational tools. However, applying LLMs to real-world problem-solving presents significant challenges, including multi-step reasoning, domain knowledge integration, and result verification. This survey explores the capabilities and limitations of LLMs in complex problem-solving, examining techniques including Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning, knowledge augmentation, and various LLM-based and tool-based verification techniques. Additionally, we highlight domain-specific challenges in various domains, such as software engineering, mathematical reasoning and proving, data analysis and modeling, and scientific research. The paper further discusses the fundamental limitations of the current LLM solutions and the future directions of LLM-based complex problems solving from the perspective of multi-step reasoning, domain knowledge integration and result verification.

The quest for human imitative AI has been an enduring topic in AI research since its inception. The technical evolution and emerging capabilities of the latest cohort of large language models (LLMs) have reinvigorated the subject beyond academia to the cultural zeitgeist. While recent NLP evaluation benchmark tasks test some aspects of human-imitative behaviour (e.g., BIG-bench's 'human-like behavior' tasks), few, if not none, examine creative problem solving abilities. Creative problem solving in humans is a well-studied topic in cognitive neuroscience with standardized tests that predominantly use the ability to associate (heterogeneous) connections among clue words as a metric for creativity. Exposure to misleading stimuli - distractors dubbed red herrings - impede human performance in such tasks via the fixation effect and Einstellung paradigm. In cognitive neuroscience studies, such fixations are experimentally induced by pre-exposing participants to orthographically similar incorrect words to subsequent word-fragments or clues. The popular British quiz show Only Connect's Connecting Wall segment essentially mimics Mednick's Remote Associates Test (RAT) formulation with built-in, deliberate red herrings, which makes it an ideal proxy dataset to explore and study fixation effect and Einstellung paradigm from cognitive neuroscience in LLMs. In addition to presenting the novel Only Connect Wall (OCW) dataset, we also report results from our evaluation of selected pre-trained language models and LLMs (including OpenAI's GPT series) on creative problem solving tasks like grouping clue words by heterogeneous connections, and identifying correct open knowledge domain connections in respective groups. The code and link to the dataset are available at https://github.com/TaatiTeam/OCW.

Geometry problem solving is a key area of mathematical reasoning, which is widely involved in many important fields such as education, mathematical ability assessment of artificial intelligence, and multimodal ability assessment. In recent years, the rapid development of deep learning technology, especially the rise of multimodal large language models, has triggered a widespread research boom. This paper provides a survey of the applications of deep learning in geometry problem solving, including (i) a comprehensive summary of the relevant tasks in geometry problem solving; (ii) a thorough review of related deep learning methods; (iii) a detailed analysis of evaluation metrics and methods; and (iv) a critical discussion of the current challenges and future directions that can be explored. Our goal is to provide a comprehensive and practical reference of deep learning for geometry problem solving to promote further developments in this field. We create a continuously updated list of papers on GitHub: https://github.com/majianz/dl4gps.

Geometry problem solving (GPS) represents a critical frontier in artificial intelligence, with profound applications in education, computer-aided design, and computational graphics. Despite its significance, automating GPS remains challenging due to the dual demands of spatial understanding and rigorous logical reasoning. Recent advances in large models have enabled notable breakthroughs, particularly for SAT-level problems, yet the field remains fragmented across methodologies, benchmarks, and evaluation frameworks. This survey systematically synthesizes GPS advancements through three core dimensions: (1) benchmark construction, (2) textual and diagrammatic parsing, and (3) reasoning paradigms. We further propose a unified analytical paradigm, assess current limitations, and identify emerging opportunities to guide future research toward human-level geometric reasoning, including automated benchmark generation and interpretable neuro-symbolic integration.

We advocate for a strong integration of Computational Creativity (CC) with research in large language and vision models (LLVMs) to address a key limitation of these models, i.e., creative problem solving. We present preliminary experiments showing how CC principles can be applied to address this limitation. Our goal is to foster discussions on creative problem solving in LLVMs and CC at prestigious ML venues. Our code is available at: https://github.com/lnairGT/creative-problem-solving-LLMs

Geometry problem solving has attracted much attention in the NLP community recently. The task is challenging as it requires abstract problem understanding and symbolic reasoning with axiomatic knowledge. However, current datasets are either small in scale or not publicly available. Thus, we construct a new large-scale benchmark, Geometry3K, consisting of 3,002 geometry problems with dense annotation in formal language. We further propose a novel geometry solving approach with formal language and symbolic reasoning, called Interpretable Geometry Problem Solver (Inter-GPS). Inter-GPS first parses the problem text and diagram into formal language automatically via rule-based text parsing and neural object detecting, respectively. Unlike implicit learning in existing methods, Inter-GPS incorporates theorem knowledge as conditional rules and performs symbolic reasoning step by step. Also, a theorem predictor is designed to infer the theorem application sequence fed to the symbolic solver for the more efficient and reasonable searching path. Extensive experiments on the Geometry3K and GEOS datasets demonstrate that Inter-GPS achieves significant improvements over existing methods. The project with code and data is available at https://lupantech.github.io/inter-gps.

Many intellectual endeavors require mathematical problem solving, but this skill remains beyond the capabilities of computers. To measure this ability in machine learning models, we introduce MATH, a new dataset of 12,500 challenging competition mathematics problems. Each problem in MATH has a full step-by-step solution which can be used to teach models to generate answer derivations and explanations. To facilitate future research and increase accuracy on MATH, we also contribute a large auxiliary pretraining dataset which helps teach models the fundamentals of mathematics. Even though we are able to increase accuracy on MATH, our results show that accuracy remains relatively low, even with enormous Transformer models. Moreover, we find that simply increasing budgets and model parameter counts will be impractical for achieving strong mathematical reasoning if scaling trends continue. While scaling Transformers is automatically solving most other text-based tasks, scaling is not currently solving MATH. To have more traction on mathematical problem solving we will likely need new algorithmic advancements from the broader research community.

Recently, the release of INSTRUCTEVAL has provided valuable insights into the performance of large language models (LLMs) that utilize encoder-decoder or decoder-only architecture. Interestingly, despite being introduced four years ago, T5-based LLMs, such as FLAN-T5, continue to outperform the latest decoder-based LLMs, such as LLAMA and VICUNA, on tasks that require general problem-solving skills. This performance discrepancy can be attributed to three key factors: (1) Pre-training data, (2) Backbone architecture, and (3) Instruction dataset. In this technical report, our main focus is on investigating the impact of the third factor by leveraging VICUNA, a large language model based on LLAMA, which has undergone fine-tuning on ChatGPT conversations. To achieve this objective, we fine-tuned VICUNA using a customized instruction dataset collection called FLANMINI. This collection includes a subset of the large-scale instruction dataset known as FLAN, as well as various code-related datasets and conversational datasets derived from ChatGPT/GPT-4. This dataset comprises a large number of tasks that demand problem-solving skills. Our experimental findings strongly indicate that the enhanced problem-solving abilities of our model, FLACUNA, are obtained through fine-tuning VICUNA on the FLAN dataset, leading to significant improvements across numerous benchmark datasets in INSTRUCTEVAL. FLACUNA is publicly available at https://huggingface.co/declare-lab/flacuna-13b-v1.0.

Mathematical geometric problem solving (GPS) often requires effective integration of multimodal information and verifiable logical coherence. Despite the fast development of large language models in general problem solving, it remains unresolved regarding with both methodology and benchmarks, especially given the fact that exiting synthetic GPS benchmarks are often not self-verified and contain noise and self-contradicted information due to the illusion of LLMs. In this paper, we propose a scalable data engine called TrustGeoGen for problem generation, with formal verification to provide a principled benchmark, which we believe lays the foundation for the further development of methods for GPS. The engine synthesizes geometric data through four key innovations: 1) multimodal-aligned generation of diagrams, textual descriptions, and stepwise solutions; 2) formal verification ensuring rule-compliant reasoning paths; 3) a bootstrapping mechanism enabling complexity escalation via recursive state generation and 4) our devised GeoExplore series algorithms simultaneously produce multi-solution variants and self-reflective backtracking traces. By formal logical verification, TrustGeoGen produces GeoTrust-200K dataset with guaranteed modality integrity, along with GeoTrust-test testset. Experiments reveal the state-of-the-art models achieve only 49.17\% accuracy on GeoTrust-test, demonstrating its evaluation stringency. Crucially, models trained on GeoTrust achieve OOD generalization on GeoQA, significantly reducing logical inconsistencies relative to pseudo-label annotated by OpenAI-o1. Our code is available at https://github.com/Alpha-Innovator/TrustGeoGen

Despite their proficiency in general tasks, Multi-modal Large Language Models (MLLMs) struggle with automatic Geometry Problem Solving (GPS), which demands understanding diagrams, interpreting symbols, and performing complex reasoning. This limitation arises from their pre-training on natural images and texts, along with the lack of automated verification in the problem-solving process. Besides, current geometric specialists are limited by their task-specific designs, making them less effective for broader geometric problems. To this end, we present GeoX, a multi-modal large model focusing on geometric understanding and reasoning tasks. Given the significant differences between geometric diagram-symbol and natural image-text, we introduce unimodal pre-training to develop a diagram encoder and symbol decoder, enhancing the understanding of geometric images and corpora. Furthermore, we introduce geometry-language alignment, an effective pre-training paradigm that bridges the modality gap between unimodal geometric experts. We propose a Generator-And-Sampler Transformer (GS-Former) to generate discriminative queries and eliminate uninformative representations from unevenly distributed geometric signals. Finally, GeoX benefits from visual instruction tuning, empowering it to take geometric images and questions as input and generate verifiable solutions. Experiments show that GeoX outperforms both generalists and geometric specialists on publicly recognized benchmarks, such as GeoQA, UniGeo, Geometry3K, and PGPS9k.

In this study, we investigated the effects of self-reflection in large language models (LLMs) on problem-solving performance. We instructed nine popular LLMs to answer a series of multiple-choice questions to provide a performance baseline. For each incorrectly answered question, we instructed eight types of self-reflecting LLM agents to reflect on their mistakes and provide themselves with guidance to improve problem-solving. Then, using this guidance, each self-reflecting agent attempted to re-answer the same questions. Our results indicate that LLM agents are able to significantly improve their problem-solving performance through self-reflection (p < 0.001). In addition, we compared the various types of self-reflection to determine their individual contribution to performance. All code and data are available on GitHub at https://github.com/matthewrenze/self-reflection

The art of mathematical reasoning stands as a fundamental pillar of intellectual progress and is a central catalyst in cultivating human ingenuity. Researchers have recently published a plethora of works centered around the task of solving Math Word Problems (MWP) - a crucial stride towards general AI. These existing models are susceptible to dependency on shallow heuristics and spurious correlations to derive the solution expressions. In order to ameliorate this issue, in this paper, we propose a framework for MWP solvers based on the generation of linguistic variants of the problem text. The approach involves solving each of the variant problems and electing the predicted expression with the majority of the votes. We use DeBERTa (Decoding-enhanced BERT with disentangled attention) as the encoder to leverage its rich textual representations and enhanced mask decoder to construct the solution expressions. Furthermore, we introduce a challenging dataset, Psmall{ARAMAWPS}, consisting of paraphrased, adversarial, and inverse variants of selectively sampled MWPs from the benchmark Msmall{AWPS} dataset. We extensively experiment on this dataset along with other benchmark datasets using some baseline MWP solver models. We show that training on linguistic variants of problem statements and voting on candidate predictions improve the mathematical reasoning and robustness of the model. We make our code and data publicly available.

Plane geometry problem solving (PGPS) has recently gained significant attention as a benchmark to assess the multi-modal reasoning capabilities of large vision-language models. Despite the growing interest in PGPS, the research community still lacks a comprehensive overview that systematically synthesizes recent work in PGPS. To fill this gap, we present a survey of existing PGPS studies. We first categorize PGPS methods into an encoder-decoder framework and summarize the corresponding output formats used by their encoders and decoders. Subsequently, we classify and analyze these encoders and decoders according to their architectural designs. Finally, we outline major challenges and promising directions for future research. In particular, we discuss the hallucination issues arising during the encoding phase within encoder-decoder architectures, as well as the problem of data leakage in current PGPS benchmarks.

The development of reasoning capabilities represents a critical frontier in large language models (LLMs) research, where reinforcement learning (RL) and process reward models (PRMs) have emerged as predominant methodological frameworks. Contrary to conventional wisdom, empirical evidence from DeepSeek-R1 demonstrates that pure RL training focused on mathematical problem-solving can progressively enhance reasoning abilities without PRM integration, challenging the perceived necessity of process supervision. In this study, we conduct a systematic investigation of the relationship between RL training and PRM capabilities. Our findings demonstrate that problem-solving proficiency and process supervision capabilities represent complementary dimensions of reasoning that co-evolve synergistically during pure RL training. In particular, current PRMs underperform simple baselines like majority voting when applied to state-of-the-art models such as DeepSeek-R1 and QwQ-32B. To address this limitation, we propose Self-PRM, an introspective framework in which models autonomously evaluate and rerank their generated solutions through self-reward mechanisms. Although Self-PRM consistently improves the accuracy of the benchmark (particularly with larger sample sizes), analysis exposes persistent challenges: The approach exhibits low precision (<10\%) on difficult problems, frequently misclassifying flawed solutions as valid. These analyses underscore the need for continued RL scaling to improve reward alignment and introspective accuracy. Overall, our findings suggest that PRM may not be essential for enhancing complex reasoning, as pure RL not only improves problem-solving skills but also inherently fosters robust PRM capabilities. We hope these findings provide actionable insights for building more reliable and self-aware complex reasoning models.

Recent advances in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in general domains and demonstrated promise in multimodal mathematical reasoning. However, applying MLLMs to geometry problem solving (GPS) remains challenging due to lack of accurate step-by-step solution data and severe hallucinations during reasoning. In this paper, we propose GeoGen, a pipeline that can automatically generates step-wise reasoning paths for geometry diagrams. By leveraging the precise symbolic reasoning, GeoGen produces large-scale, high-quality question-answer pairs. To further enhance the logical reasoning ability of MLLMs, we train GeoLogic, a Large Language Model (LLM) using synthetic data generated by GeoGen. Serving as a bridge between natural language and symbolic systems, GeoLogic enables symbolic tools to help verifying MLLM outputs, making the reasoning process more rigorous and alleviating hallucinations. Experimental results show that our approach consistently improves the performance of MLLMs, achieving remarkable results on benchmarks for geometric reasoning tasks. This improvement stems from our integration of the strengths of LLMs and symbolic systems, which enables a more reliable and interpretable approach for the GPS task. Codes are available at https://github.com/ycpNotFound/GeoGen.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated strong capabilities in text-based tasks but struggle with the complex reasoning required for physics problems, particularly in advanced arithmetic and conceptual understanding. While some research has explored ways to enhance LLMs in physics education using techniques such as prompt engineering and Retrieval Augmentation Generation (RAG), not enough effort has been made in addressing their limitations in physics reasoning. This paper presents a novel approach to improving LLM performance on physics questions using Reinforcement Learning with Human and Artificial Intelligence Feedback (RLHAIF). We evaluate several reinforcement learning methods, including Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO), Direct Preference Optimization (DPO), and Remax optimization. These methods are chosen to investigate RL policy performance with different settings on the PhyQA dataset, which includes challenging physics problems from high school textbooks. Our RLHAIF model, tested on leading LLMs like LLaMA2 and Mistral, achieved superior results, notably with the MISTRAL-PPO model, demonstrating marked improvements in reasoning and accuracy. It achieved high scores, with a 58.67 METEOR score and a 0.74 Reasoning score, making it a strong example for future physics reasoning research in this area.

Code generation by Llama 3.1 models, such as Meta's Llama 3.1 405B, represents a significant advancement in the field of artificial intelligence, particularly in natural language processing and programming automation. This paper explores the capabilities and applications of Llama-driven code generation, highlighting its ability to translate natural language prompts into executable code across multiple programming languages. Key features include contextual awareness, multi-language support, and enhanced debugging and optimization functionalities. By examining these aspects, we illustrate how Llama can serve as a versatile tool for developers of all skill levels, improving productivity and efficiency in software development. The potential implications for education, industry, and the future of coding practices are also discussed, underscoring the transformative impact of AI in programming. Experimentation shows that while Llama 3.1 405B performs well with simple algorithmic and data structure based problems, it still struggles with problems on Quantum Computing, Bioinformatics, and Artificial Intelligence.

The evaluation of the problem-solving capability under incomplete information scenarios of Large Language Models (LLMs) is increasingly important, encompassing capabilities such as questioning, knowledge search, error detection, and path planning. Current research mainly focus on LLMs' problem-solving capability such as ``Twenty Questions''. However, these kinds of games do not require recognizing misleading cues which are necessary in the incomplete information scenario. Moreover, the existing game such as ``Who is undercover'' are highly subjective, making it challenging for evaluation. Therefore, in this paper, we introduce a novel game named BrainKing based on the ``Who is undercover'' and ``Twenty Questions'' for evaluating LLM capabilities under incomplete information scenarios. It requires LLMs to identify target entities with limited yes-or-no questions and potential misleading answers. By setting up easy, medium, and hard difficulty modes, we comprehensively assess the performance of LLMs across various aspects. Our results reveal the capabilities and limitations of LLMs in BrainKing, providing significant insights of LLM problem-solving levels.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have transformed natural language processing, yet improving their problem-solving capabilities, particularly for complex, reasoning-intensive tasks, remains a persistent challenge. This paper introduces the REAP (Reflection, Explicit Problem Deconstruction, and Advanced Prompting) method, an innovative approach within the dynamic context generation framework. REAP guides LLMs through reflection on the query, deconstructing it into manageable components, and generating relevant context to enhance the solution process. We evaluated REAP using a dataset designed to expose LLM limitations, comparing zero-shot prompting with REAP-enhanced prompts across six state-of-the-art models: OpenAI's o1-preview, o1-mini, GPT-4o, GPT-4o-mini, Google's Gemini 1.5 Pro, and Claude 3.5 Sonnet. The results demonstrate notable performance gains, with o1-mini improving by 40.97%, GPT-4o by 66.26%, and GPT-4o-mini by 112.93%. Despite the already strong baseline performance of OpenAI's o1-preview, modest gains were observed. Beyond performance improvements, REAP offers a cost-effective solution; for example, GPT-4o-mini, which is approximately 100 times cheaper than o1-preview, delivered competitive results. REAP also improves the clarity of model outputs, making it easier for humans to understand the reasoning behind the results and simplifying the process of identifying and addressing any issues. These findings demonstrate REAP's potential to greatly improve the capabilities of LLMs, providing both better performance and increased cost-efficiency across a wide range of applications.

Diffusion models have recently achieved success in solving Bayesian inverse problems with learned data priors. Current methods build on top of the diffusion sampling process, where each denoising step makes small modifications to samples from the previous step. However, this process struggles to correct errors from earlier sampling steps, leading to worse performance in complicated nonlinear inverse problems, such as phase retrieval. To address this challenge, we propose a new method called Decoupled Annealing Posterior Sampling (DAPS) that relies on a novel noise annealing process. Specifically, we decouple consecutive steps in a diffusion sampling trajectory, allowing them to vary considerably from one another while ensuring their time-marginals anneal to the true posterior as we reduce noise levels. This approach enables the exploration of a larger solution space, improving the success rate for accurate reconstructions. We demonstrate that DAPS significantly improves sample quality and stability across multiple image restoration tasks, particularly in complicated nonlinear inverse problems. For example, we achieve a PSNR of 30.72dB on the FFHQ 256 dataset for phase retrieval, which is an improvement of 9.12dB compared to existing methods.

Large language models (LLMs) have significantly advanced natural language understanding and demonstrated strong problem-solving abilities. Despite these successes, most LLMs still struggle with solving mathematical problems due to the intricate reasoning required. This paper investigates the mathematical problem-solving capabilities of LLMs using the newly developed "MathOdyssey" dataset. The dataset includes diverse mathematical problems at high school and university levels, created by experts from notable institutions to rigorously test LLMs in advanced problem-solving scenarios and cover a wider range of subject areas. By providing the MathOdyssey dataset as a resource to the AI community, we aim to contribute to the understanding and improvement of AI capabilities in complex mathematical problem-solving. We conduct benchmarking on open-source models, such as Llama-3 and DBRX-Instruct, and closed-source models from the GPT series and Gemini models. Our results indicate that while LLMs perform well on routine and moderately difficult tasks, they face significant challenges with Olympiad-level problems and complex university-level questions. Our analysis shows a narrowing performance gap between open-source and closed-source models, yet substantial challenges remain, particularly with the most demanding problems. This study highlights the ongoing need for research to enhance the mathematical reasoning of LLMs. The dataset, results, and code are publicly available.

Solving math word problems requires deductive reasoning over the quantities in the text. Various recent research efforts mostly relied on sequence-to-sequence or sequence-to-tree models to generate mathematical expressions without explicitly performing relational reasoning between quantities in the given context. While empirically effective, such approaches typically do not provide explanations for the generated expressions. In this work, we view the task as a complex relation extraction problem, proposing a novel approach that presents explainable deductive reasoning steps to iteratively construct target expressions, where each step involves a primitive operation over two quantities defining their relation. Through extensive experiments on four benchmark datasets, we show that the proposed model significantly outperforms existing strong baselines. We further demonstrate that the deductive procedure not only presents more explainable steps but also enables us to make more accurate predictions on questions that require more complex reasoning.

Solving mathematical problems requires advanced reasoning abilities and presents notable challenges for large language models. Previous works usually synthesize data from proprietary models to augment existing datasets, followed by instruction tuning to achieve top-tier results. However, our analysis of these datasets reveals severe biases towards easy queries, with frequent failures to generate any correct response for the most challenging queries. Hypothesizing that difficult queries are crucial to learn complex reasoning, we propose Difficulty-Aware Rejection Tuning (DART), a method that allocates difficult queries more trials during the synthesis phase, enabling more extensive training on difficult samples. Utilizing DART, we have created new datasets for mathematical problem-solving that focus more on difficult queries and are substantially smaller than previous ones. Remarkably, our synthesis process solely relies on a 7B-sized open-weight model, without reliance on the commonly used proprietary GPT-4. We fine-tune various base models on our datasets ranging from 7B to 70B in size, resulting in a series of strong models called DART-MATH. In comprehensive in-domain and out-of-domain evaluation on 6 mathematical benchmarks, DART-MATH outperforms vanilla rejection tuning significantly, being superior or comparable to previous arts, despite using much smaller datasets and no proprietary models. Furthermore, our results position our synthetic datasets as the most effective and cost-efficient publicly available resources for advancing mathematical problem-solving.

Recently, deep learning models have made great progress in MWP solving on answer accuracy. However, they are uninterpretable since they mainly rely on shallow heuristics to achieve high performance without understanding and reasoning the grounded math logic. To address this issue and make a step towards interpretable MWP solving, we first construct a high-quality MWP dataset named InterMWP which consists of 11,495 MWPs and annotates interpretable logical formulas based on algebraic knowledge as the grounded linguistic logic of each solution equation. Different from existing MWP datasets, our InterMWP benchmark asks for a solver to not only output the solution expressions but also predict the corresponding logical formulas. We further propose a novel approach with logical prompt and interpretation generation, called LogicSolver. For each MWP, our LogicSolver first retrieves some highly-correlated algebraic knowledge and then passes them to the backbone model as prompts to improve the semantic representations of MWPs. With these improved semantic representations, our LogicSolver generates corresponding solution expressions and interpretable knowledge formulas in accord with the generated solution expressions, simultaneously. Experimental results show that our LogicSolver has stronger logical formula-based interpretability than baselines while achieving higher answer accuracy with the help of logical prompts, simultaneously. The source code and dataset is available at https://github.com/yangzhch6/InterMWP.

Fine-tuning language models~(LMs) on human-generated data remains a prevalent practice. However, the performance of such models is often limited by the quantity and diversity of high-quality human data. In this paper, we explore whether we can go beyond human data on tasks where we have access to scalar feedback, for example, on math problems where one can verify correctness. To do so, we investigate a simple self-training method based on expectation-maximization, which we call ReST^{EM}, where we (1) generate samples from the model and filter them using binary feedback, (2) fine-tune the model on these samples, and (3) repeat this process a few times. Testing on advanced MATH reasoning and APPS coding benchmarks using PaLM-2 models, we find that ReST^{EM} scales favorably with model size and significantly surpasses fine-tuning only on human data. Overall, our findings suggest self-training with feedback can substantially reduce dependence on human-generated data.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have made significant strides in code generation and problem solving. Current approaches employ external tool-based iterative debuggers that use compiler or other tool-based runtime feedback to refine coarse programs generated by various methods. However, the effectiveness of these approaches heavily relies on the quality of the initial code generation, which remains an open challenge. In this paper, we introduce CodeSim, a novel multi-agent code generation framework that comprehensively addresses the stages of program synthesis-planning, coding, and debugging-through a human-like perception approach. As human verifies their understanding of any algorithms through visual simulation, CodeSim uniquely features a method of plan verification and internal debugging through the step-by-step simulation of input/output. Extensive experiments across seven challenging competitive problem-solving and program synthesis benchmarks demonstrate CodeSim's remarkable code generation capabilities. Our framework achieves new state-of-the-art (pass@1) results-(HumanEval 95.1%, MBPP 90.7%, APPS 22%, and CodeContests 29.1%). Furthermore, our method shows potential for even greater enhancement when cascaded with external debuggers. To facilitate further research and development in this area, we have open-sourced our framework in this link (https://kagnlp.github.io/codesim.github.io/).

As a seemingly self-explanatory task, problem-solving has been a significant component of science and engineering. However, a general yet concrete formulation of problem-solving itself is missing. With the recent development of AI-based problem-solving agents, the demand for process-level verifiability is rapidly increasing yet underexplored. To fill these gaps, we present a principled formulation of problem-solving as a deterministic Markov decision process; a novel framework, FPS (Formal Problem-Solving), which utilizes existing FTP (formal theorem proving) environments to perform process-verified problem-solving; and D-FPS (Deductive FPS), decoupling solving and answer verification for better human-alignment. The expressiveness, soundness and completeness of the frameworks are proven. We construct three benchmarks on problem-solving: FormalMath500, a formalization of a subset of the MATH500 benchmark; MiniF2F-Solving and PutnamBench-Solving, adaptations of FTP benchmarks MiniF2F and PutnamBench. For faithful, interpretable, and human-aligned evaluation, we propose RPE (Restricted Propositional Equivalence), a symbolic approach to determine the correctness of answers by formal verification. We evaluate four prevalent FTP models and two prompting methods as baselines, solving at most 23.77% of FormalMath500, 27.47% of MiniF2F-Solving, and 0.31% of PutnamBench-Solving.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across multiple tasks through in-context learning. For complex reasoning tasks that require step-by-step thinking, Chain-of-Thought (CoT) prompting has given impressive results, especially when combined with self-consistency. Nonetheless, some tasks remain particularly difficult for LLMs to solve. Tree of Thoughts (ToT) and Graph of Thoughts (GoT) emerged as alternatives, dividing the complex problem into paths of subproblems. In this paper, we propose Tree of Problems (ToP), a simpler version of ToT, which we hypothesise can work better for complex tasks that can be divided into identical subtasks. Our empirical results show that our approach outperforms ToT and GoT, and in addition performs better than CoT on complex reasoning tasks. All code for this paper is publicly available here: https://github.com/ArmelRandy/tree-of-problems.

Many students struggle with math word problems (MWPs), often finding it difficult to identify key information and select the appropriate mathematical operations.Schema-based instruction (SBI) is an evidence-based strategy that helps students categorize problems based on their structure, improving problem-solving accuracy. Building on this, we propose a Schema-Based Instruction Retrieval-Augmented Generation (SBI-RAG) framework that incorporates a large language model (LLM).Our approach emphasizes step-by-step reasoning by leveraging schemas to guide solution generation. We evaluate its performance on the GSM8K dataset, comparing it with GPT-4 and GPT-3.5 Turbo, and introduce a "reasoning score" metric to assess solution quality. Our findings suggest that SBI-RAG enhances reasoning clarity and problem-solving accuracy, potentially providing educational benefits for students

Code synthesis, which requires a deep understanding of complex natural language problem descriptions, generation of code instructions for complex algorithms and data structures, and the successful execution of comprehensive unit tests, presents a significant challenge. While large language models (LLMs) demonstrate impressive proficiency in natural language processing, their performance in code generation tasks remains limited. In this paper, we introduce a new approach to code generation tasks leveraging multi-agent prompting that uniquely replicates the full cycle of program synthesis as observed in human developers. Our framework, MapCoder, consists of four LLM agents specifically designed to emulate the stages of this cycle: recalling relevant examples, planning, code generation, and debugging. After conducting thorough experiments, with multiple LLM ablations and analyses across eight challenging competitive problem-solving and program synthesis benchmarks, MapCoder showcases remarkable code generation capabilities, achieving new state-of-the-art results (pass@1) on HumanEval (93.9%), MBPP (83.1%), APPS (22.0%), CodeContests (28.5%), and xCodeEval (45.3%). Moreover, our method consistently delivers superior performance across various programming languages and varying problem difficulties. We open-source our framework at https://github.com/Md-Ashraful-Pramanik/MapCoder.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have attained human-level accuracy on medical question-answer (QA) benchmarks. However, their limitations in navigating open-ended clinical scenarios have recently been shown, raising concerns about the robustness and generalizability of LLM reasoning across diverse, real-world medical tasks. To probe potential LLM failure modes in clinical problem-solving, we present the medical abstraction and reasoning corpus (M-ARC). M-ARC assesses clinical reasoning through scenarios designed to exploit the Einstellung effect -- the fixation of thought arising from prior experience, targeting LLM inductive biases toward inflexible pattern matching from their training data rather than engaging in flexible reasoning. We find that LLMs, including current state-of-the-art o1 and Gemini models, perform poorly compared to physicians on M-ARC, often demonstrating lack of commonsense medical reasoning and a propensity to hallucinate. In addition, uncertainty estimation analyses indicate that LLMs exhibit overconfidence in their answers, despite their limited accuracy. The failure modes revealed by M-ARC in LLM medical reasoning underscore the need to exercise caution when deploying these models in clinical settings.

Chain-of-Thought (CoT) plays a crucial role in reasoning for math problem solving. We conduct a comprehensive examination of methods for designing CoT, comparing conventional natural language CoT with various program CoTs, including the self-describing program, the comment-describing program, and the non-describing program. Furthermore, we investigate the impact of programming language on program CoTs, comparing Python and Wolfram Language. Through extensive experiments on GSM8K, MATHQA, and SVAMP, we find that program CoTs often have superior effectiveness in math problem solving. Notably, the best performing combination with 30B parameters beats GPT-3.5-turbo by a significant margin. The results show that self-describing program offers greater diversity and thus can generally achieve higher performance. We also find that Python is a better choice of language than Wolfram for program CoTs. The experimental results provide a valuable guideline for future CoT designs that take into account both programming language and coding style for further advancements. Our datasets and code are publicly available.

We introduce a large-scale dataset of math word problems and an interpretable neural math problem solver that learns to map problems to operation programs. Due to annotation challenges, current datasets in this domain have been either relatively small in scale or did not offer precise operational annotations over diverse problem types. We introduce a new representation language to model precise operation programs corresponding to each math problem that aim to improve both the performance and the interpretability of the learned models. Using this representation language, our new dataset, MathQA, significantly enhances the AQuA dataset with fully-specified operational programs. We additionally introduce a neural sequence-to-program model enhanced with automatic problem categorization. Our experiments show improvements over competitive baselines in our MathQA as well as the AQuA dataset. The results are still significantly lower than human performance indicating that the dataset poses new challenges for future research. Our dataset is available at: https://math-qa.github.io/math-QA/

The reasoning performance of Large Language Models (LLMs) on a wide range of problems critically relies on chain-of-thought prompting, which involves providing a few chain of thought demonstrations as exemplars in prompts. Recent work, e.g., Tree of Thoughts, has pointed out the importance of exploration and self-evaluation in reasoning step selection for complex problem solving. In this paper, we present Boosting of Thoughts (BoT), an automated prompting framework for problem solving with LLMs by iteratively exploring and self-evaluating many trees of thoughts in order to acquire an ensemble of trial-and-error reasoning experiences, which will serve as a new form of prompting to solve the complex problem. Starting from a simple prompt without requiring examples, BoT iteratively explores and evaluates a large collection of reasoning steps, and more importantly, uses error analysis obtained from the LLM on them to explicitly revise prompting, which in turn enhances reasoning step generation, until a final answer is attained. Our experiments with GPT-4 and Llama2 across extensive complex mathematical problems demonstrate that BoT consistently achieves higher or comparable problem-solving rates than other advanced prompting approaches.

Employing Large Language Models (LLMs) to address mathematical problems is an intriguing research endeavor, considering the abundance of math problems expressed in natural language across numerous science and engineering fields. While several prior works have investigated solving elementary mathematics using LLMs, this work explores the frontier of using GPT-4 for solving more complex and challenging math problems. We evaluate various ways of using GPT-4. Some of them are adapted from existing work, and one is \MathChat, a conversational problem-solving framework newly proposed in this work. We perform the evaluation on difficult high school competition problems from the MATH dataset, which shows the advantage of the proposed conversational approach.

In most current research, large language models (LLMs) are able to perform reasoning tasks by generating chains of thought through the guidance of specific prompts. However, there still exists a significant discrepancy between their capability in solving complex reasoning problems and that of humans. At present, most approaches focus on chains of thought (COT) and tool use, without considering the adoption and application of human cognitive frameworks. It is well-known that when confronting complex reasoning challenges, humans typically employ various cognitive abilities, and necessitate interaction with all aspects of tools, knowledge, and the external environment information to accomplish intricate tasks. This paper introduces a novel intelligent framework, referred to as OlaGPT. OlaGPT carefully studied a cognitive architecture framework, and propose to simulate certain aspects of human cognition. The framework involves approximating different cognitive modules, including attention, memory, reasoning, learning, and corresponding scheduling and decision-making mechanisms. Inspired by the active learning mechanism of human beings, it proposes a learning unit to record previous mistakes and expert opinions, and dynamically refer to them to strengthen their ability to solve similar problems. The paper also outlines common effective reasoning frameworks for human problem-solving and designs Chain-of-Thought (COT) templates accordingly. A comprehensive decision-making mechanism is also proposed to maximize model accuracy. The efficacy of OlaGPT has been stringently evaluated on multiple reasoning datasets, and the experimental outcomes reveal that OlaGPT surpasses state-of-the-art benchmarks, demonstrating its superior performance. Our implementation of OlaGPT is available on GitHub: https://github.com/oladata-team/OlaGPT.

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable potential in various complex tasks requiring multi-step reasoning methods like tree search to explore diverse reasoning paths. However, existing methods often suffer from computational inefficiency and redundancy. First, they overlook the diversity of task difficulties, leading to unnecessarily extensive searches even for easy tasks. Second, they neglect the semantics of reasoning paths, resulting in redundant exploration of semantically identical paths. To address these limitations, we propose Semantic Exploration with Adaptive Gating (SEAG), a computationally efficient method. SEAG employs an adaptive gating mechanism that dynamically decides whether to conduct a tree search, based on the confidence level of answers from a preceding simple reasoning method. Furthermore, its tree-based exploration consolidates semantically identical reasoning steps, reducing redundant explorations while maintaining or even improving accuracy. Our extensive experiments demonstrate that SEAG significantly improves accuracy by 4.3% on average while requiring only 31% of computational costs compared to existing tree search-based methods on complex reasoning benchmarks including GSM8K and ARC with diverse language models such as Llama2, Llama3, and Mistral.

Multi-Agent Large Language Models (LLMs) are gaining significant attention for their ability to harness collective intelligence in complex problem-solving, decision-making, and planning tasks. This aligns with the concept of the wisdom of crowds, where diverse agents contribute collectively to generating effective solutions, making it particularly suitable for educational settings. Senior design projects, also known as capstone or final year projects, are pivotal in engineering education as they integrate theoretical knowledge with practical application, fostering critical thinking, teamwork, and real-world problem-solving skills. In this paper, we explore the use of Multi-Agent LLMs in supporting these senior design projects undertaken by engineering students, which often involve multidisciplinary considerations and conflicting objectives, such as optimizing technical performance while addressing ethical, social, and environmental concerns. We propose a framework where distinct LLM agents represent different expert perspectives, such as problem formulation agents, system complexity agents, societal and ethical agents, or project managers, thus facilitating a holistic problem-solving approach. This implementation leverages standard multi-agent system (MAS) concepts such as coordination, cooperation, and negotiation, incorporating prompt engineering to develop diverse personas for each agent. These agents engage in rich, collaborative dialogues to simulate human engineering teams, guided by principles from swarm AI to efficiently balance individual contributions towards a unified solution. We adapt these techniques to create a collaboration structure for LLM agents, encouraging interdisciplinary reasoning and negotiation similar to real-world senior design projects. To assess the efficacy of this framework, we collected six proposals of engineering and computer science of...

This paper presents GPSM4K, a comprehensive geometry multimodal dataset tailored to augment the problem-solving capabilities of Large Vision Language Models (LVLMs). GPSM4K encompasses 2157 multimodal question-answer pairs manually extracted from mathematics textbooks spanning grades 7-12 and is further augmented to 5340 problems, consisting of both numerical and theorem-proving questions. In contrast to PGPS9k, Geometry3K, and Geo170K which feature only objective-type questions, GPSM4K offers detailed step-by-step solutions in a consistent format, facilitating a comprehensive evaluation of problem-solving approaches. This dataset serves as an excellent benchmark for assessing the geometric reasoning capabilities of LVLMs. Evaluation of our test set shows that there is scope for improvement needed in open-source language models in geometry problem-solving. Finetuning on our training set increases the geometry problem-solving capabilities of models. Further, We also evaluate the effectiveness of techniques such as image captioning and Retrieval Augmentation generation (RAG) on model performance. We leveraged LLM to automate the task of final answer evaluation by providing ground truth and predicted solutions. This research will help to assess and improve the geometric reasoning capabilities of LVLMs.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have revolutionized Natural Language Processing but exhibit limitations, particularly in autonomously addressing novel challenges such as reasoning and problem-solving. Traditional techniques like chain-of-thought prompting necessitate explicit human guidance. This paper introduces a novel multi-agent communication framework, inspired by the CAMEL model, to enhance LLMs' autonomous problem-solving capabilities. The framework employs multiple LLM agents, each with a distinct persona, engaged in role-playing communication, offering a nuanced and adaptable approach to diverse problem scenarios. Extensive experimentation demonstrates the framework's superior performance and adaptability, providing valuable insights into the collaborative potential of multiple agents in overcoming the limitations of individual models.

The increasing adoption of artificial intelligence in telecommunications has raised interest in the capability of Large Language Models (LLMs) to address domain-specific, mathematically intensive tasks. Although recent advancements have improved the performance of LLMs in general mathematical reasoning, their effectiveness within specialized domains, such as signal processing, network optimization, and performance analysis, remains largely unexplored. To address this gap, we introduce TeleMath, the first benchmark dataset specifically designed to evaluate LLM performance in solving mathematical problems with numerical solutions in the telecommunications domain. Comprising 500 question-answer (QnA) pairs, TeleMath covers a wide spectrum of topics in the telecommunications field. This paper outlines the proposed QnAs generation pipeline, starting from a selected seed of problems crafted by Subject Matter Experts. The evaluation of a wide range of open-source LLMs reveals that best performance on TeleMath is achieved by recent models explicitly designed for mathematical or logical reasoning. In contrast, general-purpose models, even those with a large number of parameters, often struggle with these challenges. We have released the dataset and the evaluation code to ease result reproducibility and support future research.

Large language models have made significant progress in various language tasks, yet they still struggle with complex mathematics. In this paper, we propose ToRA a series of Tool-integrated Reasoning Agents designed to solve challenging mathematical problems by seamlessly integrating natural language reasoning with the utilization of external tools (e.g., computation libraries and symbolic solvers), thereby amalgamating the analytical prowess of language and the computational efficiency of tools. To train ToRA, we curate interactive tool-use trajectories on mathematical datasets, apply imitation learning on the annotations, and propose output space shaping to further refine models' reasoning behavior. As a result, ToRA models significantly outperform open-source models on 10 mathematical reasoning datasets across all scales with 13%-19% absolute improvements on average. Notably, ToRA-7B reaches 44.6% on the competition-level dataset MATH, surpassing the best open-source model WizardMath-70B by 22% absolute. ToRA-34B is also the first open-source model that achieves an accuracy exceeding 50% on MATH, which significantly outperforms GPT-4's CoT result, and is competitive with GPT-4 solving problems with programs. Additionally, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of the benefits and remaining challenges of tool interaction for mathematical reasoning, providing valuable insights for future research.

Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have predominantly focused on maximizing accuracy and reasoning capabilities, often overlooking crucial computational efficiency considerations. While this approach has yielded impressive accuracy improvements, it has led to methods that may be impractical for real-world deployment due to computational overhead and latency constraints. This paper investigates the potential synergy between reasoning enhancement and computational efficiency by analyzing the integration of two contrasting approaches: Quiet-STaR (Self-Taught Reasoner) and REBASE (REward BAlanced SEarch). Through comprehensive empirical analysis using the Mistral-7B model on the GSM8K dataset, we demonstrate that while each method excels in its primary objective-Quiet-STaR achieving superior accuracy (32.03%) despite high computational cost (554.66s runtime, 12.73T FLOPs), and REBASE providing exceptional efficiency (8.47s runtime, 2.35T FLOPs) while maintaining baseline-comparable accuracy (10.94%)-their integration reveals fundamental challenges in reconciling reasoning depth with computational efficiency. The combined approach unexpectedly results in degraded performance (9.38% accuracy, 143.66s runtime), highlighting critical insights about the complex interplay between reasoning enhancement and efficiency optimization in LLMs. Our findings illuminate the need for novel architectures and algorithms specifically designed to bridge the gap between these competing objectives, while providing concrete directions for future research in compute-efficient reasoning methods.

In this paper, we introduce Concise Chain-of-Thought (CCoT) prompting. We compared standard CoT and CCoT prompts to see how conciseness impacts response length and correct-answer accuracy. We evaluated this using GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 with a multiple-choice question-and-answer (MCQA) benchmark. CCoT reduced average response length by 48.70% for both GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 while having a negligible impact on problem-solving performance. However, on math problems, GPT-3.5 with CCoT incurs a performance penalty of 27.69%. Overall, CCoT leads to an average per-token cost reduction of 22.67%. These results have practical implications for AI systems engineers using LLMs to solve real-world problems with CoT prompt-engineering techniques. In addition, these results provide more general insight for AI researchers studying the emergent behavior of step-by-step reasoning in LLMs.

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated transformative potential across various domains, yet they face significant challenges in knowledge integration and complex problem reasoning, often leading to hallucinations and unreliable outputs. Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) has emerged as a promising solution to enhance LLMs accuracy by incorporating external knowledge. However, traditional RAG systems struggle with processing complex relational information and multi-step reasoning, limiting their effectiveness in advanced problem-solving tasks. To address these limitations, we propose CogGRAG, a cognition inspired graph-based RAG framework, designed to improve LLMs performance in Knowledge Graph Question Answering (KGQA). Inspired by the human cognitive process of decomposing complex problems and performing self-verification, our framework introduces a three-stage methodology: decomposition, retrieval, and reasoning with self-verification. By integrating these components, CogGRAG enhances the accuracy of LLMs in complex problem solving. We conduct systematic experiments with three LLM backbones on four benchmark datasets, where CogGRAG outperforms the baselines.

LLMs exhibit advanced reasoning capabilities, offering the potential to transform natural language questions into mathematical models. However, existing open-source datasets in operations research domain lack detailed annotations of the modeling process, such as variable definitions, focusing solely on objective values, which hinders reinforcement learning applications. To address this, we release the StructuredOR dataset, annotated with comprehensive labels that capture the complete mathematical modeling process. We further propose BPP-Search, a algorithm that integrates reinforcement learning into a tree-of-thought structure using Beam search, a Process reward model, and a pairwise Preference algorithm. This approach enables efficient exploration of tree structures, avoiding exhaustive search while improving accuracy. Extensive experiments on StructuredOR, NL4OPT, and MAMO-ComplexLP datasets show that BPP-Search significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods. In tree-based reasoning, BPP-Search excels in accuracy and efficiency, enabling faster retrieval of correct solutions.

To enhance large language models (LLMs) for chemistry problem solving, several LLM-based agents augmented with tools have been proposed, such as ChemCrow and Coscientist. However, their evaluations are narrow in scope, leaving a large gap in understanding the benefits of tools across diverse chemistry tasks. To bridge this gap, we develop ChemAgent, an enhanced chemistry agent over ChemCrow, and conduct a comprehensive evaluation of its performance on both specialized chemistry tasks and general chemistry questions. Surprisingly, ChemAgent does not consistently outperform its base LLMs without tools. Our error analysis with a chemistry expert suggests that: For specialized chemistry tasks, such as synthesis prediction, we should augment agents with specialized tools; however, for general chemistry questions like those in exams, agents' ability to reason correctly with chemistry knowledge matters more, and tool augmentation does not always help.

Metacognitive knowledge refers to humans' intuitive knowledge of their own thinking and reasoning processes. Today's best LLMs clearly possess some reasoning processes. The paper gives evidence that they also have metacognitive knowledge, including ability to name skills and procedures to apply given a task. We explore this primarily in context of math reasoning, developing a prompt-guided interaction procedure to get a powerful LLM to assign sensible skill labels to math questions, followed by having it perform semantic clustering to obtain coarser families of skill labels. These coarse skill labels look interpretable to humans. To validate that these skill labels are meaningful and relevant to the LLM's reasoning processes we perform the following experiments. (a) We ask GPT-4 to assign skill labels to training questions in math datasets GSM8K and MATH. (b) When using an LLM to solve the test questions, we present it with the full list of skill labels and ask it to identify the skill needed. Then it is presented with randomly selected exemplar solved questions associated with that skill label. This improves accuracy on GSM8k and MATH for several strong LLMs, including code-assisted models. The methodology presented is domain-agnostic, even though this article applies it to math problems.

This is the first paper in a series of work we have accomplished over the past three years. In this paper, we have constructed a consistent formal plane geometry system. This will serve as a crucial bridge between IMO-level plane geometry challenges and readable AI automated reasoning. Within this formal framework, we have been able to seamlessly integrate modern AI models with our formal system. AI is now capable of providing deductive reasoning solutions to IMO-level plane geometry problems, just like handling other natural languages, and these proofs are readable, traceable, and verifiable. We propose the geometry formalization theory (GFT) to guide the development of the geometry formal system. Based on the GFT, we have established the FormalGeo, which consists of 88 geometric predicates and 196 theorems. It can represent, validate, and solve IMO-level geometry problems. we also have crafted the FGPS (formal geometry problem solver) in Python. It serves as both an interactive assistant for verifying problem-solving processes and an automated problem solver. We've annotated the formalgeo7k and formalgeo-imo datasets. The former contains 6,981 (expand to 133,818 through data augmentation) geometry problems, while the latter includes 18 (expand to 2,627 and continuously increasing) IMO-level challenging geometry problems. All annotated problems include detailed formal language descriptions and solutions. Implementation of the formal system and experiments validate the correctness and utility of the GFT. The backward depth-first search method only yields a 2.42% problem-solving failure rate, and we can incorporate deep learning techniques to achieve lower one. The source code of FGPS and datasets are available at https://github.com/BitSecret/FGPS.

While large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated impressive performance in question-answering tasks, their performance is limited when the questions require knowledge that is not included in the model's training data and can only be acquired through direct observation or interaction with the real world. Existing methods decompose reasoning tasks through the use of modules invoked sequentially, limiting their ability to answer deep reasoning tasks. We introduce a method, Recursion based extensible LLM (REBEL), which handles open-world, deep reasoning tasks by employing automated reasoning techniques like dynamic planning and forward-chaining strategies. REBEL allows LLMs to reason via recursive problem decomposition and utilization of external tools. The tools that REBEL uses are specified only by natural language description. We further demonstrate REBEL capabilities on a set of problems that require a deeply nested use of external tools in a compositional and conversational setting.

This paper investigates the issue of an adequate loss function in the optimization of machine learning models used in the forecasting of financial time series for the purpose of algorithmic investment strategies (AIS) construction. We propose the Mean Absolute Directional Loss (MADL) function, solving important problems of classical forecast error functions in extracting information from forecasts to create efficient buy/sell signals in algorithmic investment strategies. Finally, based on the data from two different asset classes (cryptocurrencies: Bitcoin and commodities: Crude Oil), we show that the new loss function enables us to select better hyperparameters for the LSTM model and obtain more efficient investment strategies, with regard to risk-adjusted return metrics on the out-of-sample data.

Automated Theorem Proving (ATP) in formal languages is a foundational challenge for AI. While Large Language Models (LLMs) have driven remarkable progress, a significant gap remains between their powerful informal reasoning capabilities and their weak formal proving performance. Recent studies show that the informal accuracy exceeds 80% while formal success remains below 8% on benchmarks like PutnamBench. We argue this gap persists because current state-of-the-art provers, by tightly coupling reasoning and proving, are trained with paradigms that inadvertently punish deep reasoning in favor of shallow, tactic-based strategies. To bridge this fundamental gap, we propose a novel framework that decouples high-level reasoning from low-level proof generation. Our approach utilizes two distinct, specialized models: a powerful, general-purpose Reasoner to generate diverse, strategic subgoal lemmas, and an efficient Prover to rigorously verify them. This modular design liberates the model's full reasoning potential and bypasses the pitfalls of end-to-end training. We evaluate our method on a challenging set of post-2000 IMO problems, a problem set on which no prior open-source prover has reported success. Our decoupled framework successfully solves 5 of these problems, demonstrating a significant step towards automated reasoning on exceptionally difficult mathematical challenges. To foster future research, we release our full dataset of generated and verified lemmas for a wide range of IMO problems, available at https://tencent-imo.github.io/ .

General-purpose Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in intelligence, performing comparably to human experts on complex reasoning tasks such as coding and mathematical reasoning. However, generating formal proofs in specialized languages like Lean 4 remains a significant challenge for these models, limiting their application in complex theorem proving and automated verification. Current approaches typically require specializing models through fine-tuning on dedicated formal corpora, incurring high costs for data collection and training. In this work, we introduce Delta Prover, an agent-based framework that orchestrates the interaction between a general-purpose LLM and the Lean 4 proof environment. Delta Prover leverages the reflection and reasoning capabilities of general-purpose LLMs to interactively construct formal proofs in Lean 4, circumventing the need for model specialization. At its core, the agent integrates two novel, interdependent components: an algorithmic framework for reflective decomposition and iterative proof repair, and a custom Domain-Specific Language (DSL) built upon Lean 4 for streamlined subproblem management. Delta Prover achieves a state-of-the-art 95.9\% success rate on the miniF2F-test benchmark, surpassing all existing approaches, including those requiring model specialization. Furthermore, Delta Prover exhibits a significantly stronger test-time scaling law compared to standard Best-of-N proof strategies. Crucially, our findings demonstrate that general-purpose LLMs, when guided by an effective agentic structure, possess substantial untapped theorem-proving capabilities. This presents a computationally efficient alternative to specialized models for robust automated reasoning in formal environments.

The Rubiks Cube, with its vast state space and sparse reward structure, presents a significant challenge for reinforcement learning (RL) due to the difficulty of reaching rewarded states. Previous research addressed this by propagating cost-to-go estimates from the solved state and incorporating search techniques. These approaches differ from human strategies that start from fully scrambled cubes, which can be tricky for solving a general sparse-reward problem. In this paper, we introduce a novel RL algorithm using policy gradient methods to solve the Rubiks Cube without relying on near solved-state sampling. Our approach employs a neural network to predict cost patterns between states, allowing the agent to learn directly from scrambled states. Our method was tested on the 2x2x2 Rubiks Cube, where the cube was scrambled 50,000 times, and the model successfully solved it in over 99.4% of cases. Notably, this result was achieved using only the policy network without relying on tree search as in previous methods, demonstrating its effectiveness and potential for broader applications in sparse-reward problems.

Recent large language models (LLMs) have shown indications of mathematical reasoning ability. However it has not been clear how they would fare on more challenging competition-level problems. And while self-generated verbalizations of intermediate reasoning steps (i.e., chain-of-thought prompting) have been shown to be helpful, whether LLMs can make use of helpful side information such as problem-specific hints has not been investigated before. In this paper, we propose a challenging benchmark dataset for enabling such analyses. The Concept and Hint-Annotated Math Problems (CHAMP) consists of high school math competition problems, annotated with concepts, or general math facts, and hints, or problem-specific tricks. These annotations allow us to explore the effects of additional information, such as relevant hints, misleading concepts, or related problems. This benchmark is difficult, with the best model only scoring 58.1% in standard settings. With concepts and hints, performance sometimes improves, indicating that some models can make use of such side information. We further annotate model-generated solutions for their correctness. Using this corpus, we find that models often arrive at the correct final answer through wrong reasoning steps. In addition, we test whether models are able to verify these solutions, and find that most models struggle. The dataset and code are available on the project website.

Chain-of-thought prompting has demonstrated remarkable performance on various natural language reasoning tasks. However, it tends to perform poorly on tasks which requires solving problems harder than the exemplars shown in the prompts. To overcome this challenge of easy-to-hard generalization, we propose a novel prompting strategy, least-to-most prompting. The key idea in this strategy is to break down a complex problem into a series of simpler subproblems and then solve them in sequence. Solving each subproblem is facilitated by the answers to previously solved subproblems. Our experimental results on tasks related to symbolic manipulation, compositional generalization, and math reasoning reveal that least-to-most prompting is capable of generalizing to more difficult problems than those seen in the prompts. A notable finding is that when the GPT-3 code-davinci-002 model is used with least-to-most prompting, it can solve the compositional generalization benchmark SCAN in any split (including length split) with an accuracy of at least 99% using just 14 exemplars, compared to only 16% accuracy with chain-of-thought prompting. This is particularly noteworthy because neural-symbolic models in the literature that specialize in solving SCAN are trained on the entire training set containing over 15,000 examples. We have included prompts for all the tasks in the Appendix.

Restart strategies are an important factor in the performance of conflict-driven Davis Putnam style SAT solvers. Selecting a good restart strategy for a problem instance can enhance the performance of a solver. Inspired by recent success applying machine learning techniques to predict the runtime of SAT solvers, we present a method which uses machine learning to boost solver performance through a smart selection of the restart strategy. Based on easy to compute features, we train both a satisfiability classifier and runtime models. We use these models to choose between restart strategies. We present experimental results comparing this technique with the most commonly used restart strategies. Our results demonstrate that machine learning is effective in improving solver performance.

Large language models (LLMs) can transform education, but their optimization for direct question-answering often undermines effective pedagogy which requires strategically withholding answers. To mitigate this, we propose an online reinforcement learning (RL)-based alignment framework that can quickly adapt LLMs into effective tutors using simulated student-tutor interactions by emphasizing pedagogical quality and guided problem-solving over simply giving away answers. We use our method to train a 7B parameter tutor model without human annotations which reaches similar performance to larger proprietary models like LearnLM. We introduce a controllable reward weighting to balance pedagogical support and student solving accuracy, allowing us to trace the Pareto frontier between these two objectives. Our models better preserve reasoning capabilities than single-turn SFT baselines and can optionally enhance interpretability through thinking tags that expose the model's instructional planning.

Language models are increasingly being deployed for general problem solving across a wide range of tasks, but are still confined to token-level, left-to-right decision-making processes during inference. This means they can fall short in tasks that require exploration, strategic lookahead, or where initial decisions play a pivotal role. To surmount these challenges, we introduce a new framework for language model inference, Tree of Thoughts (ToT), which generalizes over the popular Chain of Thought approach to prompting language models, and enables exploration over coherent units of text (thoughts) that serve as intermediate steps toward problem solving. ToT allows LMs to perform deliberate decision making by considering multiple different reasoning paths and self-evaluating choices to decide the next course of action, as well as looking ahead or backtracking when necessary to make global choices. Our experiments show that ToT significantly enhances language models' problem-solving abilities on three novel tasks requiring non-trivial planning or search: Game of 24, Creative Writing, and Mini Crosswords. For instance, in Game of 24, while GPT-4 with chain-of-thought prompting only solved 4% of tasks, our method achieved a success rate of 74%. Code repo with all prompts: https://github.com/ysymyth/tree-of-thought-llm.

Large language models (LLMs) are known to struggle with complicated reasoning tasks such as math word problems (MWPs). In this paper, we present how analogy from similarly structured questions can improve LLMs' problem-solving capabilities for MWPs. Specifically, we rely on the retrieval of problems with similar computational graphs to the given question to serve as exemplars in the prompt, providing the correct reasoning path for the generation model to refer to. Empirical results across six math word problem datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method, which achieves a significant improvement of up to 6.7 percent on average in absolute value, compared to baseline methods. These results highlight our method's potential in addressing the reasoning challenges in current LLMs.

Thinking aloud is an effective meta-cognitive strategy human reasoners apply to solve difficult problems. We suggest to improve the reasoning ability of pre-trained neural language models in a similar way, namely by expanding a task's context with problem elaborations that are dynamically generated by the language model itself. Our main result is that dynamic problem elaboration significantly improves the zero-shot performance of GPT-2 in a deductive reasoning and natural language inference task: While the model uses a syntactic heuristic for predicting an answer, it is capable (to some degree) of generating reasoned additional context which facilitates the successful application of its heuristic. We explore different ways of generating elaborations, including fewshot learning, and find that their relative performance varies with the specific problem characteristics (such as problem difficulty). Moreover, the effectiveness of an elaboration can be explained in terms of the degree to which the elaboration semantically coheres with the corresponding problem. In particular, elaborations that are most faithful to the original problem description may boost accuracy by up to 24%.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have exhibited exceptional performance across a broad range of tasks and domains. However, they still encounter difficulties in solving mathematical problems due to the rigorous and logical nature of mathematics. Previous studies have employed techniques such as supervised fine-tuning (SFT), prompt engineering, and search-based methods to improve the mathematical problem-solving abilities of LLMs. Despite these efforts, their performance remains suboptimal and demands substantial computational resources. To address this issue, we propose a novel approach, BEATS, to enhance mathematical problem-solving abilities. Our method leverages newly designed prompts that guide the model to iteratively rewrite, advance by one step, and generate answers based on previous steps. Additionally, we introduce a new back-verification technique that uses LLMs to validate the correctness of the generated answers. Furthermore, we employ a pruning tree search to optimize search time while achieving strong performance. Notably, our method improves Qwen2-7b-Instruct's score from 36.94 to 61.52, outperforming GPT4's 42.5 on the MATH benchmark.

Chain of Thought prompting strategy has enhanced the performance of Large Language Models (LLMs) across various NLP tasks. However, it still has shortcomings when dealing with complex reasoning tasks, following~cot_wei, including understanding errors, calculation errors and process errors (e.g. missing-step and hallucinations). Subsequently, Our in-depth analysis of various error types has found that deeply understanding the whole problem is critical in addressing complicated reasoning tasks. In this paper, we proposed a novel prompt strategy called Deeply Understanding the Problems (DUP) prompting, inspired by how humans solve complex reasoning problems, designed to enhance the comprehensive understanding of problems by LLMs. It consists of three stages: 1) extract the core question; 2) find out problem-solving information based on the core question; 3) generate and extract answers by LLMs. We evaluate the performance of DUP prompting on ten diverse reasoning datasets. Experimental results suggest that DUP prompting significantly outperforms Zero-Shot CoT ~kojima2022large across all datasets. Notably, DUP achieves state-of-the-art on SVAMP (90.4\% to 94.2\%) and GSM8K (94.6\% to 97.1\%).

The Chain-of-Thought (CoT) paradigm has emerged as a critical approach for enhancing the reasoning capabilities of large language models (LLMs). However, despite their widespread adoption and success, CoT methods often exhibit instability due to their inability to consistently ensure the quality of generated reasoning paths, leading to sub-optimal reasoning performance. To address this challenge, we propose the Strategic Chain-of-Thought (SCoT), a novel methodology designed to refine LLM performance by integrating strategic knowledge prior to generating intermediate reasoning steps. SCoT employs a two-stage approach within a single prompt: first eliciting an effective problem-solving strategy, which is then used to guide the generation of high-quality CoT paths and final answers. Our experiments across eight challenging reasoning datasets demonstrate significant improvements, including a 21.05\% increase on the GSM8K dataset and 24.13\% on the Tracking\_Objects dataset, respectively, using the Llama3-8b model. Additionally, we extend the SCoT framework to develop a few-shot method with automatically matched demonstrations, yielding even stronger results. These findings underscore the efficacy of SCoT, highlighting its potential to substantially enhance LLM performance in complex reasoning tasks.

While reasoning models (e.g., DeepSeek R1) trained with reinforcement learning (RL), excel in textual reasoning, they struggle in scenarios requiring structured problem-solving, such as geometric reasoning, concise computation, or complex equation solving-areas where computational tools like code interpreters (CI) demonstrate distinct advantages. To bridge this gap, we propose ReTool, which enhances long-form reasoning with tool-integrated learning, including two key features: (1) dynamic interleaving of real-time code execution within natural language reasoning processes, and (2) an automated RL paradigm that allows policy rollouts with multi-turn real-time code execution and teaches the model in learning when and how to invoke tools based on outcome feedback. ReTool employs a systematic training framework, beginning with synthetic cold-start data generation to produce code-augmented long-form reasoning traces for fine-tuning base models. Subsequent RL training leverages task outcomes as rewards to iteratively refine the model's tool use strategy, enabling autonomous discovery of optimal tool invocation patterns without human priors. Experiments on the challenging MATH Olympiad benchmark AIME demonstrate ReTool's superiority: Our 32B model achieves 67% accuracy with 400 training steps, outperforming text-based RL baseline (40% accuracy, 1080 steps) in efficiency and performance. Remarkably, ReTool-32B attains 72.5% accuracy in extended settings, surpassing OpenAI's o1-preview by 27.9%. Further analysis reveals emergent behaviors such as code self-correction, signaling an ''aha moment'' in which the model autonomously masters adaptive tool use. These findings highlight the promise of outcome-driven tool integration for advancing complex mathematical reasoning and offer new insights into hybrid neuro-symbolic systems.

Reasoning and strategic behavior in social interactions is a hallmark of intelligence. This form of reasoning is significantly more sophisticated than isolated planning or reasoning tasks in static settings (e.g., math problem solving). In this paper, we present Strategic Planning, Interaction, and Negotiation (SPIN-Bench), a new multi-domain evaluation designed to measure the intelligence of strategic planning and social reasoning. While many existing benchmarks focus on narrow planning or single-agent reasoning, SPIN-Bench combines classical PDDL tasks, competitive board games, cooperative card games, and multi-agent negotiation scenarios in one unified framework. The framework includes both a benchmark as well as an arena to simulate and evaluate the variety of social settings to test reasoning and strategic behavior of AI agents. We formulate the benchmark SPIN-Bench by systematically varying action spaces, state complexity, and the number of interacting agents to simulate a variety of social settings where success depends on not only methodical and step-wise decision making, but also conceptual inference of other (adversarial or cooperative) participants. Our experiments reveal that while contemporary LLMs handle basic fact retrieval and short-range planning reasonably well, they encounter significant performance bottlenecks in tasks requiring deep multi-hop reasoning over large state spaces and socially adept coordination under uncertainty. We envision SPIN-Bench as a catalyst for future research on robust multi-agent planning, social reasoning, and human--AI teaming.