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(CNN) -- Shark attacks on humans were at the lowest levels in half a decade last year, and a Florida researcher says hard economic times may be to blame.
Fewer people in the water means less chance for sharks to attack, ichthyologist George Burgess says.
Sharks attacked 59 people in 2008, the lowest number of attacks since 57 in 2003, according to George Burgess, director of the International Shark Attack File, part of the Florida Museum of Natural History on the University of Florida campus in Gainesville.
There were 71 attacks in 2007.
"One can't help but think that the downturn in the economy played a part in it," Burgess said.
Fewer people, especially outside of the United States, have the resources to go to the beach, he said.
"To have a shark attack, you have to have humans and sharks in the water at the same time," Burgess said. "If you have a reduction in the number of people in the water, you're going to have a reduction in the opportunities for people and sharks to get together."
"We noticed similar declines during the recession that followed the events of 2001, despite the fact that human populations continued to rise," the ichthyologist said.
Sharks killed four people in 2008, Burgess said: one in California, one in Australia and two in Mexico.
Forty-one of the 59 attacks worldwide came in the United States, and 32 of those occurred in Florida.
Surfers accounted for 57 percent of shark attacks, swimmers and waders were the targets in 36 percent of the attacks, and divers the rest, he said.
Burgess said the U.S. tends to see more attacks because of a large number of surfers, who are a favorite target of sharks.
And neither the economy nor the attacks tend to keep American surfers from practicing their sport.
"All they have to do is drive to the beach with the board and get into the water, and the rest is free," he said.
And while an attack may make them a bit more wary, he said, "I've yet to find a surfer who says he or she won't go back into the water after a bite or a nip."
When the economy improves, shark attack numbers are likely to go up again, according to Burgess, predicting the number of attacks in the next decade will surpass those of the past 10 years.
"We're putting so many people in the water that humans are dictating the shark attack situation," he said.
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If tests show that you have cancer, you should talk with your doctor in order to make treatment decisions.
Working With a Team of Specialists
A team of specialists often treats people with cancer. The team will keep the primary doctor informed about the patient's progress. The team may include a medical oncologist who is a specialist in cancer treatment, a surgeon, a radiation oncologist who is a specialist in radiation therapy, and others.
Before starting treatment, you may want another doctor to review the diagnosis and treatment plan. Some insurance companies require a second opinion. Others may pay for a second opinion if you request it.
Clinical Trials for Prostate Cancer
Some prostate cancer patients take part in studies of new treatments. These studies -- called clinical trials -- are designed to find out whether a new treatment is safe and effective.
Often, clinical trials compare a new treatment with a standard one so that doctors can learn which is more effective. Men with prostate cancer who are interested in taking part in a clinical trial should talk with their doctor.
For information on cancer clinical trials and to find current trials, visit Clinical Trials Information for Patients and Caregivers or www.clinicaltrials.gov.
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Table of Contents
What is Borer?
Borer, also known as Borer Beetle, is a type of insect that belongs to the Anobiidae family. These are very small in size, cylindrical in shape and tend to be anywhere from 1 to 9 mm in length.
There are various types of Borer. Some of the main and most popular varieties of this insect are
- Drugstore Borer – These beetles live in drug products and medicines.
- Cigarette Borer – This particular variety owes its unique name to the fact that it can be found in tobacco products such as cigarettes.
- Deathwatch Borer – It makes a clicking or ticking sound from time to time. According to an old superstition, this sound forecasts death. This gives the beetle its interesting name.
- Furniture Borer – It bores into wood and old furniture and is hence named in such a unique manner.
Some other common types of Borers are
Shade Tree Borers
These pests live under shrubs and the bark of trees. Beetles and moths are some of the most common pests of this type. These insects generally attack trees that are damaged or dying. These also attack trees that are under stress in some way such as overwatering, transplanting, drought or any mechanical injury. These insects, especially the “clear-winged” types, can even damage seemingly healthy trees.
These insects take one to three years to mature completely. These develop beneath woody plant barks. When matured into adults, they bore a hole in the bark and emerge through it. Many moths and beetles are wood borers in their larval stage.
Squash Vine Borer
It is a type of borer that attacks squashes that grow in the wild as well as those that are cultivated. It is often mistaken for a wasp or a bee. These species have brilliant orange scales on their hind legs. The pests lay eggs at the foot of leaf stalks. The eggs develop and feed within the leaf stalks, ultimately killing the leaves.
This variety is found in most temperate regions of North American states, leaving the areas of the Pacific coast. It is difficult to control or kill this variety with the aid of insecticides.
European Corn Borer
It is also referred to as the European high-flyer. This pest is native to Europe and attacks grains such as maize. It is believed to appear in Europe in the early 1900s. European corn borer damages the ears and stalks of corns which make plants topple over after a point.
Bronze Birch Borer
It is a severe kind of pest that usually attacks gray, yellow or other types of birch trees. These are dark and slender in appearance and have a flat, expanded region behind the head. These can be controlled by chemical as well non-chemical agents. Pesticides, which are used to destroy these pests, are generally poisonous and should be used with caution. Using excess of these pesticides contaminate ponds, streams and forages.
This caterpillar is about an inch long and its body color varies from white to yellow and is marked by black or brown round spots. This pest usually attacks plants like sugarcane, sorghum, corn, rice, pampas and other tall grass varieties. The young ones of this bug hatch within 3-7 days and develop over 25 days before turn into pupa. Adult borers emerge from these pupas in approximately 25 days.
This insect is native to North America and causes extensive to fruit plants like peach, plum, apricot, nectarine and cherry. The larvae of this pest moves under the tree and is thus, very difficult to control.
Lemon Tree Borer
It is a type of longhorn beetle that mainly damages lemon trees. This winged insect also attacks other citrus plants, ornamental trees and blueberry plants and usually causes their death after a point of time. It is brown in color. The larvae phase of this bug is the longest of all borers and can be extended to a year. This is also the stage when it can cause the maximum damage to host plants.
For an adult Borer diet mainly comprises of leaves, pollen and tender bark.
When fully matured, these pests come out through holes in the barks and engage in mating. These lay eggs within the bark, generally inside the tiny cracks on the surface. These eggs are usually hatched within one or two weeks. The new borers that emerge from the eggs make holes over the bark surface and enter through them. The subsequent developments take place under the bark.
How To Get Rid Of Borer Bees?
It is hard to control these insects by use of insecticides. This is primarily because the pests keep themselves protected under tree barks. However control is possible if pesticides are sprayed while the insects are laying eggs or engaged in adult activities. Spraying pesticides on trunks during egg-laying is effective in killing these insects. Adult borers often feed on leaves and twigs of plants before laying eggs.
Insecticide spraying differs with the type of borer species. Application of these chemicals usually depends on time of egg-laying, emergence of adults and time of activities of insects. Insecticides, once applied, remain for around 1-2 months. If insects lay eggs over a longer time period, pesticides need to be applied again for Borer removal.
The pesticide Permethrin is considered to be most effective for Borer control. There are very few Permethrin filled insecticides that can be used to destroy Shade Tree Borers. Recently, a product known as Imidacloprid is being marketed for Borer pest control. This chemical can be safely used in soils for borer killing. It helps control Honeylocust borer, bronze birch borer and other Flatheaded insects that remain and feed just below the bark.
However, Imidacloprid has limited usage in Borer prevention. It fails to restrict Dioryctria spp., carpenterworms and clearwing borers that develop into moths.
Want to check how this insect looks like? Here are some Borer images that will give you a clear idea about this creature. Check out these Borer photos to know about the appearance of these pests.
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TUESDAY, March 5 (HealthDay News) -- The key to correctly diagnosing when a case of dizziness is just vertigo or a life-threatening stroke may be surprisingly simple: a pair of goggles that measures eye movement at the bedside in as little as one minute, a new study contends.
"This is the first study demonstrating that we can accurately discriminate strokes and non-strokes using this device," said Dr. David Newman-Toker, lead author of a paper on the technique that is published in the April issue of the journal Stroke.
Some 100,000 strokes are misdiagnosed as something else each year in the United States, resulting in 20,000 to 30,000 deaths or severe physical and speech impairments, the researchers said.
As with heart attacks, the key to treating stroke and potentially saving a person's life is speed. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the current gold standard for assessing stroke, can take up to six hours to complete and costs $1,200, said Newman-Toker, who is an associate professor of neurology and otolaryngology at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore.
Sometimes people don't even get as far as an MRI, and may be sent home with a first "mini stroke" that is followed by a devastating second stroke, he added.
The new study findings come with some significant caveats, however.
For one thing, the study was a small one, involving only 12 patients.
"It is impossible for a small study to prove 100 percent accuracy," said Dr. Daniel Labovitz, director of the Stern Stroke Center at Montefiore Medical Center in New York City, who was not involved with the study. About 4 percent of dizziness cases in the emergency room are caused by stroke.
The other caveat is that the device is not yet approved in the United States for diagnosing stroke. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration only recently gave it approval for use in assessing balance. It has been available in Europe for that purpose for about a year.
The device -- known as a video-oculography machine -- is a modification of a "head impulse test," which is used regularly for people with chronic dizziness and other inner ear-balance disorders.
"There are 500 otolaryngologists and 4 million dizzy patients in the U.S. alone," Newman-Toker said. "We [otolaryngologists] can't see everybody and [emergency room physicians] can't easily be trained to develop expertise in eye movement interpretation."
"Now we have a device that can do it for them," he added.
The test is simple to perform: Wearing a pair of goggles hooked up to a webcam and special software, the patient is asked to focus on one spot on the wall while the doctor moves the patient's head from side to side.
"Normally, the balance system in the ears keeps our eyes stable when our head is moving," Newman-Toker explained.
For people with vertigo, the test is "almost always abnormal," he said. But stroke patients, even though they have the same dizzy symptoms, don't have this impairment.
In this small, "proof-of-concept" study, the test was 100 percent accurate when compared with MRI, sorting out six people with strokes and six without, the researchers said.
Newman-Toker believes the test could one day be incorporated into a smartphone application.
Labovitz said the device could be a "game changer" if its value is confirmed in larger studies. "This is such an important area where we struggle all the time," he said.
GN Otometrics, which makes the device, loaned the devices for the study, but the research was funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health and other Swiss and U.S. health organizations.
The U.S. National Library of Medicine has more on stroke.
SOURCES: David Newman-Toker, M.D., Ph.D., associate professor of neurology and otolaryngology, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore; Daniel Labovitz, M.D., director, Stern Stroke Center, Montefiore Medical Center, New York City; April 2013, Stroke
All rights reserved
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- Development of the EXFOR information system that compiles information on exotic pests with potential risk for the three countries: http://foresthealth.fs.usda.gov/exfor/
- Full implementation in Mexico of the digital aerial sketch mapping system used in the US for surveying forest pests.
- Technical exchange for the implementation in Mexico of the US Forest Health Monitoring system.
- Aviation safety training for Mexican Aerial Surveyors and aerial spray operations by US experts and follow-up assistance.
- Implementation in Mexico of the U.S. risk mapping approach.
- Training of Mexican researchers by US experts on gathering data, analysis and quality assurance of Forest Health indicators incorporated to the National Forest and Soils inventory.
- Publication of books: Forest Diseases of Mexico (2007); Mistletoes of North America (2002); and Forest Insects of Mexico (1995).
- Technical exchange on quarantine pests of mutual concern: Asian gypsy moth, emerald ash borer, Asian longhorn beetle, sudden oak death, sirex woodwasp.
Recent Meetings and Themes
- 2014: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada – February 4-6, 2014
- Forest pathology: Challenges and perspectives for science and policy in North American forests
- Urban forestry and invasive species: best management practices
- Mountain pine beetle risk assessment: lessons learned and implications for response
- 2012: San Jose del Cabo, Mexico - October 15-19, 012
- 2010: Washington D.C., United States - 25-29 October 2010.
- Monitoring procedures for potential exotic pests in entry ports
- 2009: Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, October 5-9, 2009
- Managing our forest insects, diseases and invasive plants for a certainly uncertain future
- Maintain efforts toward continental pest risk mapping.
- Maintain technical exchange on quarantine pests of trilateral concern using the EXFOR information system as the platform.
- Continue to exchange best practices in pest monitoring and identification.
- Develop a list of high priority invasive plant species common to North America.
- Collaborate on developing new book “Bark Beetles of North America”.
- Maintain dialogue on challenges related to the loss of forest pathology research, monitoring and identification capacity.
- Share experiences and best practices in information/technology transfer with urban forest stakeholders.
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With a government in operation, Aguinaldo thought that it was necessary
to declare the independence of the Philippines. He believed that such a move
would inspire the people to fight more eagerly against the Spaniards
and at the same time, lead the foreign countries to recognize the
independence of the country. Mabini, who had by now been made Aguinaldo's
unofficial adviser, objected. He based his objection on the fact that it
was more important to reorganize the government in such a manner as to convince
the foreign powers of the competence and stability of the new government
than to proclaim Philippine independence at such an early period.
Aguinaldo, however, stood his ground and won.
On June 12, between four and five in the afternoon, Aguinaldo, in the presence of a huge crowd, proclaimed the independence of the Philippines at Cavite el Viejo (Kawit). For the first time, the Philippine National Flag, made in Hongkong by Mrs. Marcela Agoncillo, assisted by Lorenza Agoncillo and Delfina Herboza, was officially hoisted and the Philippine National March played in public. The Act of the Declaration of Independence was prepared by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, who also read it. A passage in the Declaration reminds one of another passage in the American Declaration of Independence. The Philippine Declaration was signed by ninety-eight persons, among them an American army officer who witnessed the proclamation. The proclamation of Philippine independence was, however, promulgated on August 1 when many towns has already been organized under the riles laid down by the Dictatorial Government.
History of the Filipino People. Teodoro A. Agoncillo
The most significant achievement of Aguinaldo's Dictatorial Government was the proclamation of Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite, on June 12, 1898. The day was declared a national holiday. Thousands of people from the provinces gathered in Kawit to witness the historic event. The ceremony was solemnly held at the balcony of General Emilio Aguinaldo's residence. The military and civil officials of the government were in attendance.
A dramatic feature of the ceremony was the formal unfurling of the
Filipino flag amidst the cheers of the
people. At the same time, the Philippine National
Anthem was played by the band. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista solemnly
read the "Act of the Declaration of Independence" which he himself wrote.
The declaration was signed by 98 persons. One of the signers was an American,
L.M. Johnson, Colonel of Artillery.
Aguinaldo continued his moves for consolidation. The next step was the proclamation of Philippine Independence on June 12, 1898. Appropriate celebrations marked the event in Kawit at which the Philippine flag was officially raised and the Philippine National Anthem first publicly played. The declaration was prepared by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista who patterned it after the American Declaration of Independence. Aguinaldo invited Dewey to the festivities, but the latter declined the invitation and did not even report the event to Washington. The declaration was signed by ninety-eight persons, including an American office, L.M. Johnson, Colonel of Artillery.
The Philippines: A Past Revisited. Renato Constantino
Top History LinksPhilippine Centennial
Heroes of the Revolution
Mga Pangulo ng Pilipinas
Philam War Documents
Philippine Revolution Documents
Filipino SpiritEvolution of the Filipino Flag
Pledge of Allegiance
1956: Lupang Hinirang (Filipino)
1934: Philippine Hymn (English)
1899: Filipinas (Spanish)
1898: Marcha Nacional(melody)
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Copyright © University of Cambridge. All rights reserved.
'First Connect Three' printed from http://nrich.maths.org/
Why do this problem?
is a great way for students to take responsibility for their own learning. They can avoid negative numbers if they are not confident or they can push themselves to calculate negative answers. In analysing the game more fully, rather than just playing it, the idea is that learners can develop a system for
finding all the possible ways of making each number on the grid, so they can justify which are the easiest to get.
This printable worksheet may be useful: First Connect Three.
You could introduce the game by playing against the class, or by splitting the class into two teams to play against each other, or with the class playing against the computer. Students can play against each other in pairs to get more of an idea of the game. You can print off this board if the students are not playing at a computer.
After a suitable length of time, ask the suggested questions in a whole-class discussion that focuses on emerging strategies, observations, explanations and justifications. Students can then go back to working in pairs to establish the numbers of ways of achieving the different totals.
At the end of the lesson a plenary discussion can offer a chance to present findings and you can draw attention to those methods which were particularly efficient. This would then lead to a discussion about how their findings might affect the way they play the game to win.
Are there some numbers that we should be aiming for? Why?
Which numbers on the grid are the easiest to get? Why?
Which numbers are most difficult to get? Why?
Further challenges could be provided by asking what would happen if:
- there was a differently shaped board
- numbers appeared more than once on the board and you could place more than one counter in a turn
- you could use dodecahedral dice or, for example, $1-12$ spinners
- you wanted to design a board for a game where you allowed multiplication and division
For students who are able to add and subtract both positive and negative numbers, the game Connect Three
and the problem Playing Connect Three
are suitable extensions.
If some pupils are struggling, you could adapt the board so that it only contains the numbers $1-12$.
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BOGOR, Indonesia — Natural forests and wildlands across 58 tropical research sites provide 28 percent of total household income — nearly as much as crops — according to a new study.
The study, titled “Environmental Income and Rural Livelihoods: A Global-Comparative Analysis,” is the product of the Poverty and Environment Network (PEN), a collaborative effort led by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). The largest quantitative global-comparative research project to date on forests and rural livelihoods, it analyzes data gathered from some 8,000 households in 24 developing countries
In addition to research on income generation and rural livelihoods, the global study tackles the themes of safety nets during shortfalls, gender and forest use, forest clearing and livelihoods, and tenure and forest income. The papers appear in a special issue of World Development.
The researchers define “environmental income” as extraction from non-cultivated sources including: natural forests, other non-forest wildlands such as grass-, bush- and wetlands, and fallows, as well as wild plants and animals harvested from croplands.
The study was also designed to explore questions about the relative and absolute importance of environmental income across different socio-economic groups. Whereas previous research has suggested that a household’s dependence decreases with higher incomes, the PEN study adds nuance to these findings.
“The poor obtain a higher share of income from forests, or what we term ‘forest reliance’. But the differences are smaller than we thought,” said Arild Angelsen, a CIFOR associate and an economics professor with the Norwegian University of Life Sciences who was the study’s principal author. “But the absolute income from forests is five times higher for better-off households (the top 20 percent in the communities) than for the poorest (bottom 40 percent).”
Environmental income varies considerably across the study sites. Two sites in Indonesia, for example, have forest income shares of about 5.5 percent, while a site in Bolivia generated 63 percent of household income from forest products, mainly in the form of the valuable Brazil nut.
“Perhaps surprisingly we did not find any pattern of declining forest or environmental reliance as we moved from the poorer to the richer sites,” Angelsen said. “But we also found hard land-use trade-offs at the landscape level: agricultural expansion takes place at the expense of forest cover in the area, which reduces forest income.”
The study found that 77 percent of environmental income comes from natural forests. Of this percentage, wood fuels dominate, accounting for about 35 percent of forest income. Food, including fish and bush meat, wild fruits, vegetables and mushrooms, make up 30 percent. Structural and fiber products, including both wood and non-wood products, account for the balance.
“There’s been a lot of talk recently about NTFPs (non-timber forest products),” Angelsen said. “Yes, they are important, but we were reminded there are also trees in the forests!”
Co-author Pam Jagger, an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and CIFOR associate, went further. “Yes, there are trees in the forest, but there are also a lot of trees outside the forest,” she said. “What’s really great about the study is that we’ve collected a lot of data on ‘other environmental income’ — all the non-agricultural products that come from what we call wildlands that are completely understudied.”
In Uganda, where she collected data, massive deforestation has forced people out of the forests and into wildlands. As a result, people are collecting a lot of traditional forest products like firewood, building poles, mushrooms and medicinal plants from non-forest areas. “In places that experience population growth and land-use change, forest income may not be the big story 20 years from now,” she said. “It will be more about other environmental income, which has had limited attention from policy makers and researchers.”
In another thread, the study found that environmental income is particularly important for male-headed households, younger households and larger households. Analysis suggests that older households have more assets and rely more heavily on crops and livestock. Older people may also be less physically able to access forest and wild resources. The study did not find any universal support for the claim that environmental income is more important to households that are female headed.
As the data are disaggregated geographically and by topic, the researchers expect their study will reveal much more detailed findings. In the meantime, Angelsen says the initial analysis is already significant.
Since rural households rely on foraging in forests and wildlands for a large share of household income, he said, they might be better off than what their often-modest income from agriculture, wages, and small businesses alone would suggest.
“If we ignore this ‘hidden harvest’, it might not help smallholders directly,” he said. “They do not become richer just because outsiders start counting environmental income. But if local people lose access to extractive resources through ill-conceived development projects, it could spell disaster for them.”
For more information about the issues in this article, please contact Arild Angelsen, email@example.com.
Financial support for the global study was provided by ESRC-DFID, DANIDA, USAID (BASIS-CRSP), IFS and CIFOR.
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Kids love bikes: here’s why
Cycling is a life-enhancer. It’s a balancing act, a mode of transport, a tool for exploratory play, and a form of exercise, all in the same eco-friendly package. Pumping those pedals is good for the heart, yet it’s not a chore. It’s fun. For kids, learning to ride a bike is a key rite of passage. A bike is independent transport for a child, no longer just a passenger. A bike is wings.
Cycling extends children’s geographical mind-maps. Trips that would be boring to walk, or too far, are simple, easy and fun to cycle.
Cycling is an intensely social activity for children. If given free rein, bikes can enable kids to travel reasonable distances away from home, solidifying friendships, getting them up close and personal with non-adult places. Cycling also has its risks, an attraction in its own right for many children. Bikes can be fast, much faster than running. As a parent you might be afraid of such unhindered speed, worrying about the consequences of impacts.
Children do hurt themselves on bikes. This is no reason to curtail cycling or treat it as a ‘weekend activity’, under adult supervision only. Most injuries are slight and every knock is a learning experience.
Kids want to speed downhill. Kids want to build ramps and jump off the end, imagining themselves to be rocket powered. Taking calculated risks – especially rocket powered ones – is all part of growing up.
According to independent research agency SHEU (which started life as the Schools Health Education Unit), cycling is the most popular sport-related activity for children in the UK, beating football into a cocked hat. 45 percent of boys aged 11 to 12 and 36 percent of girls cycle at least weekly outside school hours (SHEU 2004).
While only 1 percent of primary school children and 2 percent of secondary school children cycle to school (Department for Transport 2004), 30 percent want to do so, says survey after survey done by the route-building charity Sustrans. There’s huge demand from children to cycle. By and large they don’t want to get to school in ‘mum’s taxi’, they want to use shanks’ pony, or their bikes. Cycling to school is a physical journey but it’s also a friendly one. Kids like meeting their mates on the way to school. Being dropped off or picked up in a car, rules out this out-of-school, kid-centric part of the day.
Stranger danger, fear of traffic and “I’m driving there anyway, on the way to work” are the usual reasons for taking kids to school in the car. (Sheer distance can be another, crossing cities to get to ‘good’ schools is normal nowadays, although ‘proximity’ to schools is rising up the Government’s hierarchy of what makes education tick). Wanting to protect your child is an obvious imperative but giving them independence, letting them fly, allowing them to make their own mistakes, judge risks by themselves, including road risks, is better that shuttling them to and from school in a fun-free, reality-distorting, air-conditioned capsule.
Want your kids to do well at school? Let them cycle. Teachers report that children who bike to school are more alert, more receptive to learning. A report in Pediatric Exercise Science found that schools that offer intensive physical activity programmes see positive effects on academic performance, even when time for physical education is taken from academic learning. Benefits included increased concentration, reduced disruptive behaviours and improved mathematics and literacy scores. In 2002, the Department of Education in California showed a direct link between fitness levels and academic scores in English and Maths. Those in the fittest category had scores on average twice those of the least fit.
Cycling is a brilliant form of exercise; it’s green, clean, quiet and quick. Cycling reduces pollution, congestion, and, ironically, road danger. The more people who cycle, the safer it becomes for all cyclists. This is because drivers are forced to slow down when there’s a ‘critical mass’ of cyclists, and because more cyclists means their presence is more expected by drivers.
Sustrans long ago recognised the way to traffic calm whole areas was to concentrate on schools. Few people complain about safety measures, and cycle paths, being installed close to schools. But there are lots of schools. Join them all up with traffic calming (this can take many years) and, hey presto, living conditions become better for everybody, not just school children.
Bizarrely, a parliamentary report on traffic calming measures outside schools applauded such moves but suggested lower speed limits should only apply during term times, as though children only need ‘protected’ when going to and from school, rather than year round.
Higher levels of cycling can improve transport choice, civilise cities, and produce a healthier population. (With nicer legs).
One of the biggest and best studies about the health benefits of cycling was carried out by the Copenhagen Center for Prospective Population Studies. Over a number of years, researchers studied 13,375 women and 17,265 men aged 20-93. Many died during the study period and their ages were logged. Those who regularly cycled were found to live longer.
Report author Lars Bo Andersen, of the Institute for Exercise and Sport Sciences in Copenhagen, said:
“The major findings of this large-scale epidemiological study were that in both sexes and in all age groups…those who used the bicycle as transportation…experienced a lower mortality rate even after adjustment for leisure time physical activity…Those who did not cycle to work experienced a 39 percent higher mortality rate than those who did.”
According to Sharp – the UK’s National Forum for Coronary Heart Disease Prevention – regular cyclists typically enjoy a fitness level equivalent to being 10 years younger. (10 year olds may be confused by that).
Forty percent of the deaths in England from coronary heart disease, stroke and colon cancer, among over 16 year olds, can be attributed to a lack of regular physical exercise. This equates to 60,000 deaths a year.
And the rising levels of childhood obesity – a subject rarely off the TV news – can be countered by cycling. Biking burns blubber.
Only one in forty 11-year-olds meets the national target of an hour of physical exercise a day. A University of Bath study of 5,595 children found that 95 percent of boys, and 99.6 percent of girls, didn’t exercise for an hour or more per day.
The children were fitted with small exercise monitoring devices for a week. Children in the study averaged just 17 minutes of moderate exercise, and two minutes of vigorous exercise a day.
Steve Shaffelberg of the British Heart Foundation said:
“We are all becoming expert at engineering physical activity out of our daily lives. In the last 20 years school car journeys have more than doubled, with just 1 percent cycling. The killer combination of far too little physical activity together blended with a diet heavy with soft drinks and snacks is driving rising rates of obesity among British children, and threatening their health.”
We’re living in a society where, for the first time in history, parents are expected to outlive their children. That’s the obesity time bomb. And it’s crazy. Cycling isn’t a panacea, but it’s one part of the fix, especially for the school journey. Kids who cycle to school are more likely to cycle at the weekends and on into adulthood, adding years to their lives.
And cycling to school rather than being driven (sometimes pitifully short distances) makes it safer for other kids. It cuts down on the double parking and driver frustration now commonplace outside British schools.
Road transport is responsible for 22 percent of the UK’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Bikes are part of the solution, not part of the problem. They don’t emit deadly pollutants, they don’t slurp fossil fuels. You could even argue that our dependence on oil has caused – and will continue to cause – many wars, a source of friction that we exacerbate for our children by being overly dependent on our cars.
You need a family hatchback to fetch the weekly shopping? Fit a bike trailer or extend your bike with an cargo-carrying add-on. Bikes can carry enormous amounts of stuff. Kids’ bikes, too. Dutch children need to carry just as much schoolwork as British kids but they manage to do this because their bikes are practical, fitted with proper racks.
Many families have ditched their cars – or at least got rid of the second car – by equipping themselves with practical transportation bikes. This might be a step too far for you. Now, that is. With cities starting to restrict cars, the future could be one where pedal power comes to the fore. Get ahead of the trend.
One of the key criticisms of Sustrans from sustainability wonks is that building a National Cycle Network of 13,000+ miles sounds good in theory but, in reality, families don’t cycle from home to a cute traffic-free cyclepath, they drive there, bikes hung off the back of the car.
This is a reasonable criticism, although hardly the fault of Sustrans. Rome wasn’t built in a day. It’s going to take a long time to make inner-city bike routes into cyclepaths almost as pleasant to use as the Tissington Trail.
Anything that gets people on bikes has got to be a good thing. Once kids – and parents, and grandparents – are hooked, it’s far easier to introduce lifestyle changes such as cycling to work, cycling to school, cycling to the shops.
Edinburgh Bicycle, a chain of cooperatively owned bike shops in Scotland and northern England, has a wonderful tagline, used on promotional materials: “The Revolution Will Not Be Motorised.”
Solar powered cars might be more environmentally sustainable but will not reduce congestion.
Mechanical engineers might develop motor vehicles that are super fuel-efficient but these efficiency gains will not be sufficient to maintain current levels of car mobility. We can’t tarmac the rest of the UK. Enough is enough.
Cycling is part of the zeitgeist and today’s children – more eco-aware than we ever were – will grow up in a world where the theory of ‘Peak Oil‘ becomes mainstream. This theory posits that no major new discoveries of oil will be made and we’re now burning through what’s left.
Global oil reserves and alternative energy sources will not support continued growth in fuel demand. Oil discovery and production rates will not be able to cater for the increasing demands of motorised transportation. At some point, every vehicle with an infernal combustion engine will grind to a halt. The lemming-like intertwined future of gridlock and oil depletion mean cycling in cities is going to grow in size and importance.
Children are more aware than most adults that fuel consumption at current levels is causing irreversible climate change through increased carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. But even if the solar powered car scenario of above came about, the finite amount of room on our island and the fact that even the most eco of cars can still knock down and kill, will mean that our children’s future is one where car use will be reduced. Will HAVE to be reduced. ‘Smart’ cars will be fitted with GPS tracking devices and speed limiters. The ‘freedom’ to drive will be curtailed. Because it’s not free, there’s a cost to society.
City planners will be charged with creating living spaces where cars no longer have priority. Motor vehicle traffic on urban streets will be forcefully slowed down to speeds more compatible with walking and cycling.
You might start out as a ‘weekend warrior’, riding your bike around Rutland Water with your kids, paying the fat fee to leave your people carrier in the car park, but you’ll quickly come to appreciate that cycling offers many benefits to society, and you don’t have to drive everywhere to be ultra-mobile. As the Chinese proverb says, a journey of a thousand miles starts with one step.
Be warned, cycling is addictive. It’s planet-friendly, it’s efficient and it’s a whole heap of fun. By cycling as a family you’re ‘doing your bit’. Being a car passenger is passive. Kids don’t get much of a kick out of driving everywhere – they’re famously bored by it.
If your kids aren’t old enough to pedal by themselves, there are loads of options for bringing them along for the ride – from childseats to trailers.
A cycle-crazy teen might not want to be seen cycling with parents, but at least the sport can help maintain some common ground that would otherwise be lost a lot earlier. And when they do get to that rebellious stage, you’ll still be fit enough – just – to challenge them to a race.
Taking your kids on cycling holidays is adventuring they’ll love. Camp, too, and you’ll realise that carrying lots is possible yet you’re still able to get along at a fair old lick for mile after mile. Cycle touring with kids can start with tots in a trailer and extend right through to teens. Older children will enjoy disappearing ahead of their parents, scuttling backwards and forwards, increasing their mileage and the fun factor at the same time.
Whether it’s done fast or slow, cycling as a family encourages togetherness, bonding by bike. It’s quality time and you’re equipping your kids with a skill and a means of transport they’ll love for the rest of their lives.
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Find the x-coordinates of the three points of intersection of the curve y=x^3 with the line y=5x-2 , expressing non-integer values in the form a+- square roof of b, where a and b are integers.
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Well what have you tried so far? Two points intersect where their equations are equal...
I equated the two equation and got x^3 - 5x + 2= 0
I find the f(2) = 0 which is (x-2) is a factor of x^3 - 5x + 2
Correct, so now long divide to find the quadratic factor. Then you can set each of the factors equal to 0 to solve for x.
Am having problem doing the long division because of the x ^2 thats shows up am getting it negative when it has to be positive.
Thank you i did it.
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Definition of reassert
v. t. - To assert again or anew; to maintain after an omission to do so. 2
The word "reassert" uses 8 letters: A E E R R S S T.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after reassert (in bold), or to aeerrsst in any order:
e - arrestees k - streakers m - remasters streamers r - arresters rearrests s - asserters reasserts u - treasures v - traverses
All words formed from reassert by changing one letter
Browse words starting with reassert by next letter
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HOUSTON, TX (Jan. 23, 2012) – Holocaust Museum Houston has announced a new school competition for one area teacher to qualify for up to $300 in transportation reimbursement for students to visit the Museum.
Educators who enter the “Come Join… The Human Race” competition can earn their students a free guided tour of the Museum’s permanent exhibition “Bearing Witness: A Community Remembers” and the changing exhibit “The Impact of Racist Ideologies: Jim Crow and the Nuremberg Laws.”
Today, scientists believe all human beings are part of one race, the human race. At Holocaust Museum Houston, permanent and changing exhibitions explore history and the choices made by the human race during and since the Holocaust. The goal of the competition is to help students to remember and memorialize the Holocaust learn to stop hate to create a better society, one of upstanders rather than bystanders.
To qualify, teachers must e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org with their name, school name, phone number and e-mail address along with a 200-word essay on why their school would benefit from learning about the dangers of hatred, prejudice and apathy and the importance of respecting cultural diversity. Then, the essay must be posted to the Museum’s Facebook page with the heading “Stop Hate. Starting Here: The Human Race” no later than Feb. 15, 2012.
School tours are designed to meet the needs of students in grades six through college and take about two hours. Specific tours also can be designated for younger students. The winning tour may be scheduled any weekday prior to Aug. 19, 2012 (subject to scheduling availability).
Holocaust Museum Houston is dedicated to educating people about the Holocaust, remembering the 6 million Jews and other innocent victims and honoring the survivors' legacy. Using the lessons of the Holocaust and other genocides, the Museum teaches the dangers of hatred, prejudice and apathy.
Holocaust Museum Houston is free and open to the public and is located in Houston’s Museum District at 5401 Caroline St., Houston, TX 77004. For more information about the Museum, call 713-942-8000 or visit www.hmh.org.
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Over the last decade, many children who tragically died from flu were previously healthy kids, without chronic medical conditions, a new study finds.
Between 2004 and 2012, a total of 830 U.S. children died from flu, the study found. Of these, more than 40 percent did not have a medical condition such as asthma or heart disease that would put them at high risk for flu complications.
What's more, previously healthy children were nearly twice as likely to die from the flu before they were admitted to the hospital, or within three days of symptom onset, compared with children who had high-risk medical conditions and got the flu. [6 Flu Vaccine Myths]
The study underscores the fact that all children, regardless of age or pre-existing medical conditions, can potentially develop severe complications from the flu, the researchers said.
"Healthy kids are at risk, too. I think that's something that a lot of people don't recognize," said study researcher Dr. Karen Wong, of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). "People can get very sick very quickly, even if they don't have an underlying medical condition."
The findings highlight the importance of flu vaccination for all children ages 6 months and older, the researchers said. Of the 511 children who died and who were eligible for vaccination, just 16 percent had received a flu shot.
The findings also suggest that children who develop severe illness from the flu, who are hospitalized or who are at high risk for complications (such as those less than 2 years old) should receive treatment with antiviral drugs as soon as possible, the researchers said.
The study analyzed information on child flu deaths reported to the CDC. During the study period, the deadliest flu season for children was 2009 to 2010; over that time, 282 children died. The mildest flu season was 2011 to 2012, in which 35 deaths occurred.
The majority of deaths, 57 percent, occurred among children with high-risk medical conditions. Of these, the most commonly reported condition was a neurological disorder, such as cerebral palsy, with 33 percent of these children having a neurological condition. This was followed by lung disorders (26 percent), asthma (16 percent) and genetic disorders (12 percent).
It is especially important that children with high-risk medical conditions receive flu shots before flu season begins, the researchers said.
It's not clear why previously healthy children were at greater risk for death soon after symptom onset. But healthy kids were also more likely to have a bacterial infection along with their flu infection, which may have contributed to the differences in outcomes between the two groups, the researchers said.
The study was published on Oct. 28 in the journal Pediatrics.
Related on LiveScience and MNN:
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THE OUTWATER FAMILY.-Franz Jacobsen was a native of Oudewaer, a small town on the River Yssel, between Leyden and Utrecht, Holland. This town is also the birthplace of Arminius, after whom the "Remonstrants"were called Arminians. A picture in the Stadt-huys, by Dirk Stoop, commemorates the brutal excesses committed there by the Spaniards in 1575. Jacobsen came to America prior to 1657 and located at Albany. One of his sons, Thys Franz Outwater, went from Albany to Tappan, N. Y., in 1686, where he married Geertie Lamberts Moll (widow of Jolin Jacobs Haring). His descendants spread over Rockland County and into New Jersey. One of them, Dr. Thomas Outwater, was a noted surgeon in the Revolutionary Army. Thomas Franz Outwater, another son of Franz Jacobsen, the emigrant, removed to New York, where he married Neetie Peterse. He subsequently removed to and settled in Bergen County, south of Hackensack, where he married (2) in 1730 Jannetie Durie, widow of Cornelius Epke Banta. His children were Jacob, Thomas, John, Peter, Elizabeth, Janneke, and Annatie, all of whom married and settled around Hackensack, where their descendants still reside.
Source: Genealogical History of Hudson and Bergen Counties, New Jersey, Editor, Cornelius Burnham Harvey, The New Jersey Genealogical Publishing Company, 1900, page 169.
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Bergenius, Mikaela A. J. and Begg, Gavin A. and Mapstone, Bruce D. (2006) The use of otolith morphology to indicate the stock structure of common coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fishery Bulletin, 104(4), pp. 498-511.
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We investigated the use of otolith morphology to indicate the stock structure of an exploited serranid coral reef fish, Plectropomus leopardus, on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia. Otoliths were measured by traditional one-and two-dimensional measures (otolith length, width, area, perimeter, circularity, and rectangularity), as well as by Fourier analysis to capture the finer details of otolith shape. Variables were compared among four regions of the GBR separated by hundreds of kilometers, as well as among three reefs within each region, hundreds of meters to tens of kilometers apart. The temporal stability in otolith structure was examined by comparing two cohorts of fully recruited four-year-old P. leopardus collected two years before and two years after a signif icant disturbance in the southern parts of the GBR caused by a large tropical cyclone in March 1997. Results indicated the presence of at least two stocks of P. leopardus, although the structure of each stock varied depending on the cohort considered. The results highlight the importance of incorporating data from several years in studies using otolith morphology to discriminate temporary and possibly misleading signals from those that indicate persistent spatial structure in stocks. We conclude that otolith morphology can be used as an initial step to direct further research on groups of P. leopardus that have lived at least a part of their life in different environments.
|Title:||The use of otolith morphology to indicate the stock structure of common coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia|
|Journal or Publication Title:||Fishery Bulletin|
|Page Range:||pp. 498-511|
|Issuing Agency:||United States National Marine Fisheries Service|
|Depositing User:||Patti M. Marraro|
|Date Deposited:||27 Jun 2012 16:54|
|Last Modified:||27 Jun 2012 16:54|
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When Mexico retired its first telecommunications satellites – Morelos 1 and 2 – they turned to their creators at Hughes Space and Communications Company to create replacements. The first replacement was Solidaridad 1, launched along with Meteosat 6 by Ariane rocket from Kourou, French Guiana on 20 November 1993.
Also known as Satmex 3, Solidaridad 1’s name was chosen to indicate its role of uniting metropolitan and rural Mexico with the world. The satellite covered Mexico, with some bands extending to the United States, Caribbean and South America, providing “voice telephony, data communications, television relay, facsimile transmission, business networks … educational TV broadcasts … [and] nationwide mobile services.”
Twelve thousand rural schools across the country received educational programming transmitted through Solidaridad 1, and some relied entirely on these broadcasts.
The satellite was a 1641 kilogram Hughes HS-601 model winged cube with a 21-meter Solar array wingspan providing 3300 watts of power. Antennas on two sides transmitted in the Ku band and C band and the Earthward side had a 26-element dipole array.
Solidaridad 1 was designed to have an operational lifespan of 14 years, but in 1999 suffered failure of its primary SCP (Satellite Control Processor). The secondary SCP was activated, but it too failed the following year.
On 27 August 2000, Satmex received alarms indicating that the backup SCP had failed. After making 65 attempts to re-establish contact, Hughes technicians recommended deactivation. Electrical energy had been drained as the stricken satellite’s Solar arrays had lost alignment with the Sun. Solidaridad 1 was switched off and declared a total loss. Fortunately, $250 million insurance could be applied to construction of a replacement.
This wasn’t the first failure of a HS-601 satellite – various other satellites had undergone failure of one or both SCPs through the growth of crystalline whiskers on tin-plated relays. Engineers switched from tin to nickel plating to solve the problem.
The loss of Solidaridad 1 wiped out a variety of communications services for over 100 clients, who needed to be relocated in the following days to other satellites in the Satmex fleet, as well as to other operators. Restoring educational television services to the 12,000 rural schools required manual reorientation of antennas toward new satellites, and classes missed during this period were rebroadcast.
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A new and distinctively Catholic voice on environmental issues has evolved over the last decade. It links traditional church teaching on creation, the common good, social justice and stewardship to major environmental challenges. This often overlooked development is found in initiatives in parishes, schools and other Catholic institutions across the country:
In the Northwest, the bishops issued a major pastoral reflection on the Columbia River that offers a moral vision of pursuing the common good in the midst of polarization and conflict [see America 11/24/03, p. 13];
In Florida, the dioceses are urging community-wide efforts to protect precious limited water supplies, especially the Everglades;
In many Catholic hospitals, a new sense of environmental responsibility is shaping policy and practice;
In the National Council of Catholic Women, local Catholic women’s groups are addressing environmental health hazards and threats to poor children, like lead and asthma;
In Washington, the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops is helping to shape the debate about how to balance a respect for private property and the demands of the common good.
This fall, the U.S. Catholic bishops’ environmental justice program marks its 10th anniversary. The program responds to the environmental challenge of Pope John Paul II, notably his 1990 message, The Ecological Crisis: A Common Responsibility. The bishops are seeking to create an authentically Catholic voice in the environmental debate, one that focuses on the human person’s place in nature and that puts the needs of the poor and vulnerable front and center.
This new voice has old roots. The life of St. Francis of Assisi, for example, demonstrated a love for creatures and the poor that can inspire us to find a way to care for both the earth and the wretched of the earth. It is not surprising that Pope John Paul II declared St. Francis the patron of ecology. Many, including nonbelievers, see St. Francis as a source of inspiration. Too few, however, have reflected his love for both the poor and nature, but this is a distinctive feature of the bishops’ pastoral letter Renewing the Earth (1991) and their statement Global Climate Change: A Plea for Dialogue, Prudence and the Common Good (2001). These documents offer moral principles, policy criteria and an ethic of responsibility and restraint as a foundation of a renewed environmental ethic in the Catholic community.
A Voice on Behalf of the Poor
Making the poor a priority is a defining element of the church’s contribution to the environmental debate. The poor are vulnerable to environmental hazards. Poor families often live on the margins of society: in urban areas where their housing is poor, or in rural areas, where the land is overused, in flood plains or subject to drought. They often live near toxic dumps, where housing is cheaper. Some hold jobs that people of higher incomes would not consider, jobs that expose poorer workers directly to environmental toxins. In debates about the environment, the poor and vulnerable workers are often out of sight and have no voice.
In serving the poor, the Catholic community has increasingly focused on environmental justice. The Catholic Campaign for Human Development is helping poorer communities struggle with environmental health problems - pesticides, for example, that poison farm workers. Catholic Charities USA is training housing counselors to help low-income mothers learn how to protect their children from household toxic materials. Catholic hospitals and health care facilities are finding ways to lessen the harmful effects of medical waste treatment and to address health threats resulting from environmental damage.
The Catholic environmental commitment extends beyond the local community and includes global issues. In their statement Global Climate Change, the bishops insist we need not understand everything about the science of climate change to know it poses serious consequences for humans and the planet itself. Prudence calls for action on behalf of future generations, but the search for the common good is often overwhelmed by powerful competing interests and polarizing claims and tactics. In these struggles, the voices of the poor are missing. But their special needs must not be lost sight of as the richer countries struggle over the potential costs of climate change to their societies.
The Voice of Local Leadership
Environmental justice is everyone’s responsibility, and stewardship for creation is every believer’s duty. The bishops’ program seeks to engage Catholics by helping them to integrate concern for the environment within the broader context of living their faith. The bishops are not urging an exclusive or narrow focus on the environment, but are seeking a way by which a community of faith can harness ethical values and everyday experience to live more in harmony with creation. This Catholic effort is assisted by the National Religious Partnership for the Environment, a remarkable interfaith collaboration of Protestant, Evangelical and Jewish leaders. The partnership helps each member community to pursue faithfully its own path and approach, while uniting to build a stronger voice for the larger religious community in environmental dialogue.
The integration of environmental concerns in the church’s public agenda is making a difference around the country. As noted above, the bishops of the Northwest published a major pastoral statement on the Columbia River. Likewise, the bishops of New England and New Mexico have also issued pastoral statements addressing their communities’ concerns with fisheries and water respectively. Efforts like these at the diocesan level help build local leadership, capacity and momentum.
The church often plays the role of convenor, pulling elements of diverse communities together to search for the common good. In Connecticut, for example, dioceses under the leadership of the Archdiocese of Hartford are building a coalition of civic, low-income and environmental groups to address urban sprawl and its impact on the community and land. In this instance, the church is playing a key role in helping the entire community face a critical concern. In the Mississippi delta, the Diocese of Houma-Thibodeaux has brought together farmers, watermen and oil producers to address questions of pollution and coastal erosion.
Dioceses in Iowa and the National Catholic Rural Life Conference are helping local communities to face the negative environmental impacts of large-scale hog farming. Some Iowans are Catholics who own or contract to operate large hog farms. Others suffer directly from the air and water pollution generated by large-scale hog farming. Some have lost their small farms to larger corporate hog farms. The church is again playing an important role by convening the stakeholders to consider larger questions and consequences.
Major national Catholic organizations have joined forces in the Catholic Coalition for Children and a Safe Environment, which includes Catholic hospitals, Catholic Charities agencies, schools, women’s groups and other institutions. They are addressing basic environmental health and safety issues, particularly as they affect children. This effort represents a major institutional commitment to deal with issues like asthma, lead, mercury and pesticide poisoning. And since the church owns collectively over 80,000 buildings, retrofitting or building new facilities that are more environmentally safe would be a major contribution by the Catholic community. Such retrofitting would substantially lower energy consumption and help maintain environmental health.
Ten years into this effort, three significant challenges remain. Catholic thought and spirituality must continue to explore more deeply the unique place of the human person in nature and the larger web of life. Extremes need to be resisted. Some espouse an almost divine status for nature, without any reference to the unique dignity of the human person or the need for development. Others embrace a strictly utilitarian view of nature. The church, on the other hand, recognizes that humans are part of nature. It neither divinizes nature nor embraces a materialistic view. No environmental ethic will be satisfactory without a clearer perspective on the place of humans within nature and a better understanding of the moral responsibilities of caring for creation.
Second, the Catholic tradition of the common good and solidarity needs to be developed as an alternative to polarizing political arguments and special interests. Rather than having one side win and the other lose, concern for the common good refocuses our perspective on the need to move beyond special interests or narrow political motives to assume a common responsibility for the future of our planet. Environmental stewardship is a fundamental exercise in solidarity. Our human responsibility begins with our appreciation of the basic goodness of other creatures. The earth is home to all creatures. Our charge is to live responsibly and use wisely the earth’s resources and preserve its beauty, diversity and fecundity.
Third, the neglected needs of the poor have to take priority. The rhetoric of environmental justice must become real in policies, resources and priorities. We must find a way to give expression to the voices, needs and hurts of the poor and vulnerable if we are to integrate the search for social justice and environmental wholeness.
Since 1993, the Catholic bishops across the United States have been building a network of concern for the environment. The environment is an issue with a long-term horizon. While there is still much to learn after these 10 years, it is also necessary for us to recommit ourselves for the longer journey to make environmental justice an integral part of the lives of the members of the Catholic community. This effort, if fruitful, will express itself in our prayer and thought, our work and investments. We must all take to heart the challenge of Pope John Paul II that today the ecological crisis has assumed such proportions as to be the responsibility of everyone.
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Grand Canyon Village:
The Historic District at the South Rim
The Historic District at the South Rim began to take shape as stage coaches loaded with passengers began arriving to view the Grand Canyon. The arrival of the Grand Canyon Railway in 1901 provided a comfortable and affordable alternative to the stage coach, and quickly became the preferred mode of travel to the South Rim. The stagecoach companies were not happy with this development, but the guests arrived rested and ready to explore the newly famous gorge. The Historic District evolved and grew as tourism increased, and remains the center of activity at the South Rim today. There are many buildings of historical significance that visitors will find interesting during their visit to the South Rim. The canyon views from this area are stunning and offer a different perspective from those at Mather Point. Download our Grand Canyon Visitor’s Guide and prepare yourself for the ultimate South Rim experience.
The first major structure to be built in the Village was El Tovar, designed by Charles Whittlesey and financed by the Santa Fe Railroad. The hotel opened in 1905, and was one of the fanciest hotels west of the Mississippi. The Fred Harvey Company was chosen to manage the new hotel, due to an existing relationship with the Santa Fe. The clean, comfortable hotel with fine dining and activities was an immediate hit, and its popularity was fueled by the Sante Fe’s marketing efforts to publicize the beauty of the Grand Canyon. The hotel features 78 guest rooms, a gift shop, newsstand, dining room, and lounge. The hotel is open to the public and is a great place to relax and step back into life in 1905. The hotel is open year-round.
The Hopi House was designed by renowned architect Mary E.J. Colter and opened in 1905, at the same time El Tovar opened. Mary Colter was one of the first American architects to appreciate the natural beauty of Native American design. Therefore she designed Hopi House to reflect that of a typical adobe pueblo used by the Hopi Indians of Old Oraibi. The Hopi House, a National Historic Landmark, has been offering authentic Native American arts and crafts to visitors for purchase since the Fred Harvey Company opened its doors in 1905, over 100 years ago.
A visit to Hopi House combines retail shopping with museum quality artifact viewing. Here you will find a large selection of native arts and crafts available for purchase, such as hand-crafted kachinas, Native American jewelry, hand-woven Navajo rugs and authentic Native American pottery. The second-floor gallery, which reopened to the public in 1995, offers a variety of museum-quality items. Hopi House is located next to the EL Tovar on the Canyon rim. It is open year-round. Hours vary seasonally.
Lookout Studio was designed in 1914 by Mary Colter as a gift shop and lookout point for the Fred Harvey Company. It is perched on the very edge of the rim, providing spectacular views. It blends exceptionally well with its natural setting. There are two small outdoor over-looks that are open in good weather.
Lookout Studio sells photography and books related to the Grand Canyon, rock and fossil specimens (none collected inside the park), traditional souvenirs, books and photographic prints. It is located a short walk west of historic Bright Angel Lodge. Open year-round. Hours vary seasonally.
As visitation increased at the South Rim, the Fred Harvey Company proposed a re-worked Bright Angel Lodge, to serve as a quality but lower cost option to El Tovar. Mary Colter designed the new facility, which offers a variety of accommodations. She even converted two existing buildings into guest accommodations: Buckey O’Neill’s cabin and the Red Horse Cabin. Buckey O’Neill was a local entrepreneur who built a cabin on the canyon rim in the late 1800s. Buckey was killed with Teddy Roosevelt’s Rough Riders in Cuba, and the National Park Service gave the cabin to the Fred Harvey Company to be used as a guest room. The cabin is the oldest continuously standing structure at the South Rim. The Red Horse Cabin was the Cameron Hotel, and was moved to its current location. It served as the Post Office but was abandoned. The Red Horse cabin is the oldest surviving structure at the South Rim. Both building are now guest suites and offer a glimpse into the past for those lucky enough to reserve them.
The Bright Angel Lodge became the hub of activity as soon as it opened, and remains the focal point of the South Rim today. The lodge features the Fred Harvey History Room, a free exhibit detailing the history of Fred Harvey Company and its famous Harvey Girls. The lodge also features a gift shop, two restaurants, and lounge and an ice cream fountain.
Once the home of the Kolb brothers, who were early photographers at Grand Canyon, the Kolb Studio features changing art exhibits displayed in the auditorium throughout the year.
Built by Brothers Ellsworth and Emery Kolb from 1904 to 1926, Kolb Studio is included in the National Register of Historic Places and operated by Grand Canyon Association. The bookstore and auditorium are open to the public. The studio is located in the Village Historic District, at the Bright Angel trailhead. Open year-round. Hours vary seasonally.
Two of Mary Colter’s most fascinating buildings are located away from the Village. These structures were designed as outposts and areas to provide visitors with different views of the canyon, and another opportunity to purchase a Grand Canyon memento.
This National Historic Landmark is yet another extraordinary example of Grand Canyon architecture designed by Mary E.J. Colter. Constructed in 1914 for the convenience and comfort of the traveler at Grand Canyon, Hermits Rest offers a far-reaching and interesting view of the canyon.
The main structure contains a snack bar and gift shop featuring traditional gifts, park souvenirs and Native American handicrafts. Hermits Rest is located at the western end of the Hermit Road, approximately nine miles west of Grand Canyon Village.
This area is accessed only by shuttle from March 1st through November 30th. You can access the West Rim Road and Hermits Rest by hiking, bicycling or in-park tour bus on a year round basis.
Modeled after ancient ancestral Puebloan watchtowers found in the Four Corners region, the Watchtower is a unique example of Mary Colter’s design style. Built in 1932, this seventy-foot tower is the highest point on the South Rim and offers stunning 360-degree views of the Painted Desert, the San Francisco Peaks, the Vermilion Cliffs, and beyond. You can climb the stairs all the way to enjoy these spectacular views. The walls of the tower feature murals by Hopi artist Frank Kabotie.
There are numerous other historic structures located in the Historic District
- The El Tovar Stables (1904) were built to house horses and mules used for transportation around the park in pre-automobile times, and continue to be used to house mules for the Bright Angel Trail to the Phantom Ranch. Individually listed on the NRHP.
- Verkamp’s Curio Store (1906), is now Verkamp’s Visitor Center, operated by the Grand Canyon Association for the National Park Service. Built by Ohioan John George Verkamp, who sold Native American crafts and souvenirs, the two-story shingled building has been described as “modified Mission” style, resembling an adobe building in form but not materials.
- The Grand Canyon Power House was built by the AT&SF to provide electricity to concessioner and park facilities. The power house is notable for its application of rustic design principles to an industrial structure and for its creative use of scale. It is an individually listed National Historic Landmark.
- The Grand Canyon Depot (1910) and Grand Canyon Railway (1905) were built by the AT&SF. The depot, designed by Francis W Wilson, is an individually listed National Historical Landmark, and the railway is on the National Register of Historic Places.
- The AT&SF Employee residences were built to house concessioner employees. Both the subdivision and the houses themselves are larger than the Park Service equivalent, with garages to the rear of the houses on alleys.
- Colter Hall- Designed by Mary Colter and located behind El Tovar, it was a dormitory for the Harvey Girls. It serves as a female dormitory today.
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Mormon ordinances/Marriage/Were the early apostles married
Were the early apostles married?
In the early Church, it was known that the Apostles were married. Ignatius, who sat at the feet of the Apostle John as he taught for many years, also taught they were married. He said: "For I pray that, being found worthy of God, I may be found at their feet in the kingdom, as at the feet of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob; as of Joseph, and Isaiah, and the rest of the prophets; as of Peter, and Paul, and the rest of the apostles, that were married men. For they entered into these marriages not for the sake of appetite, but out of regard for the propagation of mankind. Fathers, “bring up your children in the nurture and admonition of the Lord;” (Eph. 6:4 and teach them the holy Scriptures, and also trades, that they may not indulge in idleness." (1:81, chap. 4, Ignatius to the Philadelphians)
Clement of Alexandria wrote “Peter and Philip fathered children, and Philip gave his daughters in marriage. Furthermore, Paul did not hesitate to mention his ‘companion’ in one of his epistles...He says in his epistle, ‘Do I not have the right to take along a sister-wife, as do the other apostles?’ [1 Cor. 9:5] However the other apostles, in harmony with their particular ministry, devoted themselves to preaching without any distraction. Their spouses went with them, not as wives, but as sisters, in order to minister to housewives” (Clement of Alexandria 195 ad, Ante-Nicene Fathers 2:390-391 E)
He also wrote “The man of God eats, drinks, and marries, not as the primary things of life, but as things that are necessary. I even mention marriage...for having become perfect, he has the apostles for examples.” (Clement of Alexandria 195 ad, Ante-Nicene Fathers 2:543 E)
Papias, who travelled the countryside writing down what the Apostles had previously said, wrote "The residence of the Apostle Philip with his daughters in Hierapolis has been mentioned above." (ANF 1:154, Fragments of Papias)
Early Church leaders also spoke out against those who preached against marriage. In speaking about heretics, Irenaeus says that “They declare also, that marriage and generation are from Satan.” (Ante-Nicene Fathers 1:349, Irenaeus Against Heresies, chap. 24) “those who are called Encratites (self-controlled) preached against marriage, thus setting aside the original creation of God... he declared that marriage was nothing else than corruption and fornication.” (Ante-Nicene Fathers 1:353, Irenaeus Against Heresies, chap. 28)
“The apostles had permission to marry and lead wives about. They also had permission to ‘live by the means of the Gospel.’” (Ante-Nicene Fathers 4:55, Tertullian, 212 AD, W)
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It is always possible for daily behavior to be performed just as well or even better by someone else. However, the situation is a little different for extraordinary personalities like the prophets. Taking into consideration future generations, they display model behavior to their followers. Taking a prophet as a model does not mean imitating him. It means contemplating his behavior, understanding the wisdom in it, analyzing the event, and then implementing it. In fact, when we look carefully at the verse in the Quran that describes Muhammad (pbuh) as "the most beautiful example," we see that the example which should be taken is implementing his religious and moral behavior in our own lives.
Due to Prophet Muhammad's (pbuh) being a human being and in the words of the Quran, "one from among us," he has much admirable behavior that should be thought about and analyzed. However, that exalted personality has some behavior and expressions that have no equal in the history of mankind. In other words, humanity has not yet produced behavior similar to this. In this article I am going to try and give examples of this behavior. I want to take up this topic with up to ten examples that I have chosen from his life.
The Value He Gave Human Beings
1- We all know the value the Quran gives to man and his life. How vast and profound is the meaning of the universal revelation, "Killing one man unjustly is like killing all of mankind; giving life to one person is like giving life to all people." There is an example of Prophet Muhammad's to the effect that not only living people, but a dead person as well needs to be shown respect even if he is a member of another religion. One day the Prophet stood up as a funeral procession passed. A companion said that the funeral was for a non-Muslim and that the dead person was a Jew. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) informed those there that death should be contemplated, that regardless of who the dead person was he was still a human being and that it was necessary to show respect.
This is one of Prophet Muhammad's acts of behavior that has no equal in history. For there is no other example of a prophet of one religion standing up out of respect for the funeral of someone not of his religion just because that person was a human being.
2- Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) did not want anyone who came to this world, regardless of who he was, to die as a non-believer or idolater. He did not even want his fervent enemies who made his life miserable and insulted him in every way to abandon this world without faith. In fact, he commanded that the idolaters who died in the battle of Badr be buried in a way that would not damage their honor and he addressed the dead idolaters. Unexpectedly, to this effect he addressed the corpses of the idolaters that included his main enemy Abu Jahil, who had greatly persecuted him, in a way unequaled in history: "Didn't I tell you? If only you had listened to me. You died as idolaters and punishment became your due." As can be seen, he did not want anyone to die without faith or as an idolater even if it was his enemy. These words are an unequalled example in world history.
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The spectacular Quansoo Farm was given to Sheriff’s Meadow Foundation by Florence B. “Flipper” Harris. Mrs. Harris donated the land through a series of gifts over several decades, culminating in a final bequest. With her bequest of Quansoo Farm, Mrs. Harris also left to Sheriff’s Meadow an abutting, six-acre pond lot on the Tisbury Great Pond. This lot was given so that it could be sold, and the proceeds used to create an endowment. Sheriff’s Meadow sold this lot, and a trail easement over Quansoo Farm, to the Martha’s Vineyard Land Bank Commission. The Land Bank named the lot “Quansoo Preserve,” and Quansoo Farm and Quansoo Preserve are connected via the trail depicted on the accompanying map.
Quansoo Farm lies on the great outwash plain of Chilmark. The Farm’s 146 acres of meadow, field and forest stretch to the shores of Black Point Pond to the south and Tisbury Great Pond to the east. With the Atlantic surf audible, a near-constant wind sculpts the trees of Quansoo into shapes beautiful and grotesque. Many features make this landscape distinctive: the meadows of little bluestem, the wide-open hayfields, the antique Mayhew-Hancock-Mitchell House, the forests of oak and hickory and shadbush and sassafras.
In the Wampanoag language, “Quansoo” means “eel,” or “long fish.” Naming this area “Quansoo” likely occurred because of the fall migration of female eels from Black Point Pond to the sea. The name also indicates that this part of Chilmark has long been important to people. As the antique Mayhew-Hancock-Mitchell house attests, Quansoo remained important once European settlement had begun. Reputed to date back to the 17th century, the Mayhew-Hancock-Mitchell House is one of the oldest houses on Martha’s Vineyard. The house was likely built here because of the rich natural resources of this area. Quansoo offers access to a wealth of eels, clams, oysters, crabs, fish and waterfowl. Also, much of the soil of Quansoo Farm is considered prime soil for farming. Sheriff’s Meadow Foundation is restoring the historic house and continue the farming heritage of this land.
Quansoo Farm supports a variety of plants and animals. The rare northern harrier can be seen soaring over the meadows, practically hovering at times. Ospreys nest atop a pole set in the “picnic woods” to the south. Grasshopper and savannah sparrows nest on the ground in the hayfields. Grass-leaved ladies’ tresses dot the margins of the fields and rare Nantucket shadbush trees grow along dusty roadsides, amid hazelnut and sassafras. Great, spreading limbs of open-grown oaks evoke awe, and stout hickories stand ramrod straight between the oaks.
Visitors are welcome to enjoy Quansoo Farm on the perimeter loop trail created and maintained by the Martha’s Vineyard Land Bank Commission. While enjoying the trail, please note that there are two residences at Quansoo Farm, and please respect the privacy of Quansoo Farm residents. The trail is open for walking, bicycling, horseback-riding and cross-country skiing year-round from dawn to dusk. Due to the presence of ground-nesting birds, no dogs are allowed from April 1 to October 1, and from October 2 through March 31, dogs are allowed but must be leashed.
Download PDF Trail Guide Brochure
At the sign on South Road marking the boundary between Chilmark and West Tisbury, travel up-island 0.5 mile to the unmarked Quansoo Road. Take a left at Quansoo Road. Follow Quansoo Road 1.4 miles to the trailhead. Be careful to bear left at the Quenames Road fork (found 0.5 mile down the Quansoo Road) and at the Black Point Road fork (found 1.1 miles down the Quansoo Road). From October 1 through May 31, additional parking is available at Quansoo Preserve.
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Hyperion Theme of Literature and Writing
Books. You know what they are. They look like ice cream sandwiches (mmm... ice cream) with stories inside them (mmm... stories). Even if you're reading Hyperion on an e-reader, you've seen a book. But what about people 700 years from now? They're sure to still have stories, but will they know what a book is? Whether they have physical books or not, they'll definitely still have writers. Just as Father Lenar Hoyt is of the cruciform, Martin Silenus is of the Word, with all the pain and benefits that comes with. Reading about writing in a novel is always a strange experience, and it's hard to separate the character's opinions from the author's… especially when he's talking about how ridiculous the plot of his own book is.
Questions About Literature and Writing
- Why does Martin Silenus need the Shrike, and the resulting bloodshed, to be inspired to write?
- Can literature summon evil, like the Shrike? Does literature actually bring the world into being, the way a lot of Romantic poets thought?
- Will humanity ever lose its literacy?
- Are literary merit and popularity mutually exclusive?
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Scientific Name: Pantherophis alleghaniensis
Size: 40 -101 in. (102-257 cm) in length
Meadows, old fields, farmland, open wooded areas. May be found under logs, boards, and other debris.
Also commonly called Black Rat Snake. Large, heavy bodied species with weakly keeled scales. The head is distinct from the body. The upper body is black to dull brown with a trace of black blotches. In some individuals the pattern is distinct and often times may appear to be outlined in red or golden color. The coloration and pattern of Adult rat snakes can be variable. The belly is white or yellowish white with a dark checkerboard pattern. The belly color may sometimes fade from white to gray or brown towards the tail. The chin, throat and scales around the mouth are white. Young differ from adults in coloration and pattern. The upper body has a white to yellow background with a strong pattern of black gray or brown blotches. The blotches alternate with smaller blotches on the sides.
- The dorsal is black to dull brown with a trace of black blotches.
- The ventral white to yellow with a dark checkerboard pattern.
- The ventral may fade from white to grey or brown towards the tail.
- The labial scales, chin and throat are also white.
- Largest snakes in PA.
- Large, heavy bodies species.
- The head distinct from the body.
- Dorsal scales are weakly keeled.
- The dorsal background is white to yellow with a strong pattern of blotches.
- Blotches are grey, black or brown.
- Blotches alternate with smaller blotches on the sides.
- 23-27 scale rows at midbody
- 25 scale rows at anterior
- 17 or 19 scale rows near the vent
- 218-258 ventral scales
- 46-102 subcaudals | 2 rows of subcaudals
- 2 nasal scales
- 1 loreal scale
- 1 preocular scale
- 2 postocular scales
- 2+3-4 temporal scales
- 8 supralabial scales
- 11 infralabial scales
- Anal plate is divided or semi-divided
May be Confused With:
- Northern Racer
- Milk Snake
- Hulse, C. and McCoy C. J. and Ellen Censky ,1998. Amphibians and Reptiles of Pennsylvania and the Northeast. 286-290pp
- Ernst, Carl H. and Ernst, Evelyn M. ,2003. Snakes of the United States and Canada. 115-122pp.
- Jason Poston
- Billy Brown
- Dave Badger
- David McBride
- Christine Hollinger
- Sebastian Harris
Please contribute your observation of this and other herps to the Pennsylvania Amphibian and Reptile Survey. Your help is needed.
Submit Your Finding
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Intestinal parasitic infections are highly endemic among school-aged children in resource-limited settings. To lower their impact, preventive measures should be implemented that are sustainable with available resources. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of handwashing with soap and nail clipping on the prevention of intestinal parasite reinfections.
Methods and Findings
In this trial, 367 parasite-negative school-aged children (aged 6–15 y) were randomly assigned to receive both, one or the other, or neither of the interventions in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Assignment sequence was concealed. After 6 mo of follow-up, stool samples were examined using direct, concentration, and Kato-Katz methods. Hemoglobin levels were determined using a HemoCue spectrometer. The primary study outcomes were prevalence of intestinal parasite reinfection and infection intensity. The secondary outcome was anemia prevalence. Analysis was by intention to treat. Main effects were adjusted for sex, age, drinking water source, latrine use, pre-treatment parasites, handwashing with soap and nail clipping at baseline, and the other factor in the additive model. Fourteen percent (95% CI: 9% to 19%) of the children in the handwashing with soap intervention group were reinfected versus 29% (95% CI: 22% to 36%) in the groups with no handwashing with soap (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 0.32, 95% CI: 0.17 to 0.62). Similarly, 17% (95% CI: 12% to 22%) of the children in the nail clipping intervention group were reinfected versus 26% (95% CI: 20% to 32%) in the groups with no nail clipping (AOR 0.51, 95% CI: 0.27 to 0.95). Likewise, following the intervention, 13% (95% CI: 8% to 18%) of the children in the handwashing group were anemic versus 23% (95% CI: 17% to 29%) in the groups with no handwashing with soap (AOR 0.39, 95% CI: 0.20 to 0.78). The prevalence of anemia did not differ significantly between children in the nail clipping group and those in the groups with no nail clipping (AOR 0.53, 95% CI: 0.27 to 1.04). The intensive follow-up and monitoring during this study made it such that the assessment of the observed intervention benefits was under rather ideal circumstances, and hence the study could possibly overestimate the effects when compared to usual conditions.
Handwashing with soap at key times and weekly nail clipping significantly decreased intestinal parasite reinfection rates. Furthermore, the handwashing intervention significantly reduced anemia prevalence in children. The next essential step should be implementing pragmatic studies and developing more effective approaches to promote and implement handwashing with soap and nail clipping at larger scales.
Intestinal parasitic infections are common human infections, particularly in resource-limited countries, where personal hygiene and access to clean water and sanitation (disposal of human feces and urine) is often poor. Worldwide, more than a billion people are infected with soil-transmitted helminths—roundworms, tapeworms, and other parasitic worms that live in the human intestine (gut). And millions of people are infected with protozoan (single-celled) intestinal parasites that cause diseases such as amebiasis and giardiasis. Both helminths and protozoan parasites are mainly spread by the fecal-oral route. Infected individuals excrete helminth eggs and protozoan parasites in their feces, and in regions where people regularly defecate in the open, the soil and water supplies become contaminated with parasites. People then ingest the parasites by eating raw, unwashed vegetables, by not washing their hands after handling contaminated soil, or by drinking contaminated water. Mild infections with helminths rarely have symptoms, but severe infections can cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, and malnutrition. Protozoan parasites also cause diarrhea. Importantly, among children, who are particularly susceptible to parasitic infections, intestinal parasite infections may slow growth, affect school performance, and cause anemia.
Why Was This Study Done?
Intestinal worm and protozoan infections can be treated with anthelmintic drugs and antibiotics, respectively. However, reinfection is often rapid, and, particularly in resource-limited countries, additional preventative measures are needed that do not rely on drugs (parasites can become drug-resistant) and that are sustainable with available resources. Given that intestinal parasitic infections usually spread through the fecal-oral route, the promotion of handwashing with soap and regular fingernail clipping might be one way to reduce intestinal parasite infection rates in low-income settings. Handwashing prevents other types of infection, and both unwashed hands and dirty, untrimmed nails are associated with high rates of parasite infection. Here, the researchers investigate whether handwashing with soap and nail clipping reduce intestinal reinfection rates by undertaking a factorial cluster randomized controlled trial (a study that compares outcomes in groups of people chosen at random to receive different combinations of two or more interventions) among school-aged children in northern Ethiopia.
What Did the Researchers Do and Find?
The researchers assigned 367 parasite-negative school-aged children to receive a handwashing intervention, a nail clipping intervention, both interventions, or neither intervention for six months. For the handwashing intervention, fieldworkers visited each intervention household weekly, provided soap, encouraged all the household members to wash their hands with water and soap at key times, such as before meals and after defecation, and checked on the household’s use of soap. For the nail clipping intervention, the fieldworkers clipped the nails of children in the intervention households every week. After six months, parasite reinfection (primary outcome) and anemia (secondary outcome) in the participants were assessed by examining stool samples for parasites and by measuring hemoglobin levels, respectively. After adjustment for factors likely to affect reinfection such as latrine use and drinking water source, 14% of the children in the handwashing with soap groups (handwashing alone and handwashing plus nail clipping) were reinfected with parasites compared to 29% of the children in the no handwashing groups (nail clipping only or neither intervention). Similarly, 17% of the children in the nail clipping groups were reinfected compared to 26% in the no nail clipping groups. Finally, handwashing (but not nail clipping) significantly reduced the rate of anemia among the children.
What Do These Findings Mean?
These findings show that handwashing with soap at key times decreased intestinal parasite reinfection rates by 68% and that weekly nail clipping reduced reinfection rates by 49% among school-aged Ethiopian children. Thus, these findings support the promotion of proper handwashing and weekly nail clipping as a public health measure to reduce parasite reinfection rates in resource-limited regions. However, although both interventions were “efficacious” under trial conditions that included intensive monitoring and follow-up, handwashing and nail clipping may not be “effective” interventions. That is, they may not work as well under real-life conditions. Moreover, because long-established personal hygiene and sanitation practices may be hard to change, large-scale implementation of these interventions might be expensive. The researchers call, therefore, for pragmatic studies to be undertaken to investigate the performance of these interventions under real-life conditions and for the development of effective approaches for widespread promotion of handwashing with soap and nail clipping.
This list of resources contains links that can be accessed when viewing the PDF on a device or via the online version of the article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001837.
- The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provides basic information about protozoan parasites and helminths; its Alphabetical Index of Parasitic Diseases provides more information about roundworms, tapeworms, giardiasis, amebiasis, and other intestinal parasites/parasitic infections; it also provides information about handwashing and about handwashing as a family activity
- The World Health Organization provides detailed information about intestinal worms, including a description of its current control strategy
- PARA-SITE is a multimedia resource provided by the Australian Society of Parasitology that provides detailed information about the biology of intestinal and other parasites
- KidsHealth, a site provided by the US-based non-profit Nemours Foundation, provides information for parents, kids, and teenagers about several intestinal parasites and about the importance of handwashing for parents, kids, and teenagers (in English and Spanish)
Citation: Mahmud MA, Spigt M, Bezabih AM, Pavon IL, Dinant G-J, Velasco RB (2015) Efficacy of Handwashing with Soap and Nail Clipping on Intestinal Parasitic Infections in School-Aged Children: A Factorial Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial. PLoS Med 12(6): e1001837. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001837
Academic Editor: Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, The Hospital for Sick Children, PAKISTAN
Received: August 18, 2014; Accepted: April 29, 2015; Published: June 9, 2015
Copyright: © 2015 Mahmud et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: The study was funded by Mekelle University, Ethiopia (http://www.mu.edu.et) and Alcala University, Madrid, Spain (http://www.uah.es/). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors declared that no competing interests exist.
Abbreviations:: AOR, adjusted odds ratio; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; OR, odds ratio; OR, odds ratio
Intestinal parasitic infections are highly prevalent in the resource-limited regions of the world . School-aged children are particularly susceptible to parasitic infections [1,2]. Both protozoan and helminthic infections correlate with unrecognized morbidities including growth deficits, malnutrition, and poor school performance . Furthermore, intestinal parasitic infections are reported to be substantially linked with anemia in children. Intestinal parasitic infections can decrease food and nutrient intake, cause intestinal blood losses, and induce red blood cell destruction by the spleen [4,5].
The current strategy to control intestinal worm infections is periodic treatment of people at risk . However, providing anthelminthic drugs systematically is difficult and may increase potential drug resistance . Furthermore, drug therapy alone only temporarily solves the problem, considering that reinfection occurs frequently in areas where intestinal parasitic infections are highly endemic .
To lower the dependency on a “drug only” approach and to enhance sustainability, complementary measures should be implemented [8–10] that are sustainable with available resources. Human hands are important vectors that carry disease-causing pathogens . Therefore, handwashing is one of the most important interventions proven to effectively reduce the incidence of infectious diseases . Handwashing, especially with soap, has been shown, for example, to be an effective preventive measure for diarrheal [13,14], and respiratory [14,15] diseases.
However, very little information on the impact of handwashing on intestinal parasitic infections and anemia is available, and existing evidence about whether handwashing is effective is inconclusive . In addition to unclean hands, dirty and untrimmed nails have been associated with high parasite infection prevalence in observational studies [17,18]. However, there is no evidence for a potential beneficial effect of nail clipping on parasitic infections.
Since the fecal-oral route is the main dissemination pathway for parasitic infections, it is reasonable to suggest that promotion of handwashing with soap and fingernail clipping may reduce both the prevalence and intensity of intestinal parasite reinfections. These interventions can be done in low-income settings. We undertook a factorial randomized controlled trial to assess the effect of handwashing with soap and nail clipping on the prevalence of intestinal parasite reinfection, infection intensity, and prevalence of anemia among randomly assigned school-aged children within households in rural areas of northern Ethiopia.
Ethical clearance was obtained from the institutional ethical review board of the College of Health Sciences, Mekelle University, Ethiopia. All participants and/or their guardians gave written informed consent/assent for participation. Information sheets were read to participants in the local language (Tigrigna), with explanations about the proposed home-based activities. Children who were diagnosed positive for intestinal parasitic infections at follow-up were treated with standard medication .
A 2 × 2 factorial clustered randomized trial was carried out in a rural area of northern Ethiopia to evaluate the impact of handwashing with soap and nail clipping on intestinal parasite reinfection rate (primary outcome), infection intensity (primary outcome; as measured by the arithmetic mean number of eggs per gram of stool), and anemia prevalence (secondary outcome) among randomly assigned school-aged children within households, after 6 mo of follow-up.
Setting and Study Population
A scattered rural community within the northern Ethiopian Demographic and Health Surveillance site was selected based on the high prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections among school children . A total of 216 households with at least one school-aged child (aged 6–15 y) were randomly selected using the Demographic and Health Surveillance household census as a sampling frame. In households with more than one school-aged child, two children were recruited randomly and were given the same intervention, resulting in a total number of 367 children.
Eligible children were aged 6–15 y, screened negative for intestinal parasitic infections either at baseline or after pre-trial anti-parasitic treatment, were planning to continue to reside in the same house for the study period, and had an informed consent signed by a parent or guardian. The exclusion criteria were being positive for intestinal parasites after pre-trial treatment or having a severe physical or mental disability.
Eligible children within the households were randomly assigned to receive both, one or the other, or neither of the interventions (Fig 1). One of the investigators who did not participate in recruiting the study participants randomly allocated the intervention groups using computer-generated random numbers in pre-prepared sealed, numbered envelopes. To facilitate blinding, the study was explained as an assessment of intestinal parasitosis among school-aged children, while the principal purpose of the trial was concealed. The assignment sequence was concealed from the researchers recruiting the study participants until interventions were assigned. Laboratory personnel were blinded to group assignments and to the assessment outcomes. Participating children (and their families) were aware of the intervention they received, but were blinded for the study hypothesis and the intervention(s) given to the other groups.
Following acquisition of signed informed consent, a series of parasitological screening steps—and when necessary parasite treatment steps—was carried out. Parasite-negative children were randomly assigned to handwashing with soap, nail clipping, or both interventions, or to continue with existing habits and practices (Fig 1). Children in each group were followed up for 6 mo (from June 1 to November 30, 2012).
Handwashing with soap.
A total of eight fieldworkers were recruited to implement the intervention. Fieldworkers encouraged all individuals in the intervention household (who were old enough to understand) to wash their hands with water and soap before meals, after defecation, after playing on the ground, before preparing food, after cleaning an infant who had defecated, before feeding infants, and whenever their hands got unclean. Initially, fieldworkers provided 2–4 bars (120 g each) of plain soap per household, depending on size. Soap was regularly replaced throughout the study period. The provided soap was used exclusively for handwashing, and not for other purposes, as per the directives of the study.
Fieldworkers encouraged participants to wet their hands, lather them with soap, rub hands together for 45 s, and rinse the lather off with running water. Hands were dried with clean cloths prepared by the households. Children were instructed to hum a song to keep the time needed to rub their hands. Fieldworkers visited intervention households every week, for an average of 10–15 min each, to correct handwashing techniques and promote regular handwashing with soap at key times. Compliance was ascertained weekly by observing the size of the soap and the cleanliness of both hands, and by asking participants to demonstrate the handwashing procedure.
Fieldworkers clipped the fingernails of children assigned to the nail clipping intervention on a weekly basis. New nail clippers, provided by the study, were kept by the fieldworkers and tagged with code numbers for each child in the intervention group for hygienic reasons. Nail clippers were replaced when necessary.
Fieldworkers provided the control households with a regular monthly supply of sugar in an effort to preserve willingness to participate, but they gave no products that would be expected to affect handwashing and nail clipping behavior. They neither encouraged nor discouraged handwashing or nail clipping in control households, and visited both control and intervention households with equal frequency. Control households were frequently checked during the weekly visits for the presence of soap for handwashing and nail clippers to check for unintentional exposure of those in the control group to aspects of the experimental conditions (handwashing and nail clipping).
The trial was stopped after 6 mo of follow-up. The primary outcome measures of our study were reduction in the prevalence and intensity of intestinal parasite reinfection for any parasitic infections identified among the children in the intervention groups. The planned primary outcome measure parasite reinfection rate was wrongly indicated as a secondary outcome in the initial registration of the trial (ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01619254). The trial registration was corrected according the study protocol (S1 Protocol) on January 31, 2015. The secondary outcome measure was reduction in anemia prevalence.
Sociodemographic Data Collection
Two separate structured questionnaires (child and household) were administered by the investigators in a local language during recruitment, which took place in April and May 2012, to provide information on demographics and personal hygiene and sanitation behaviors. Information on personal hygiene and sanitation behaviors at baseline was self-reported. The reported age of children was cross‐checked using baptism certificates, school records, local calendars, and information from parents.
Following the intervention, a thumb-sized fresh stool specimen was collected from all study participants. Children were brought to the school where our lab was established, and were provided with a clean, labelled plastic screw-top container (for sample collection), a plastic sheet (to catch the stool in the toilet), and an applicator stick (to transfer the sample). Stool specimens were analyzed by well-trained, blinded laboratory personnel, using direct saline wet mount, the formalin–ethyl acetate concentration technique , and the Kato-Katz technique (thick smear, 41.7 mg) . Duplicate slides were prepared for each stool specimen and for each of the techniques used. For the Kato-Katz preparations, an average of the two samples was taken whenever there was a difference between the counts. Specimens were immediately processed, and the Kato-Katz and wet mount preparations were analyzed within 30 min to detect hookworm eggs and protozoan trophozoites (Entamoeba histolytica/E. dispar and Giardia lamblia, respectively). The remaining stool specimens were kept in 10% formalin and were examined using the concentration method within 2 h after collection. Kato-Katz preparations were reexamined after 72 h for the detection of helminth ova. A child was classified as reinfected if an infection was detected by any of the methods used.
The number of eggs for each helminth parasite detected was counted and multiplied by 24 to obtain the number of eggs per gram of feces (Vestegraard Frandsen group, Denmark). Ten percent subsamples of stool smears were reexamined for quality control purposes.
At baseline and at the end of the 6-mo follow-up, hemoglobin concentration was determined in finger prick blood using a HemoCue analyzer on site (HemoCue Hb 201z) . Two microcuvette preparations were analyzed from a single blood specimen. The final measure was the mean of these two measurements. Technicians collecting and analyzing blood samples were trained for 1 d on machine operation before the actual data collection. The machines were checked on a daily basis using reference microcuvettes, as indicated by the manufacturer. Hemoglobin readings were adjusted for altitude, and anemia was defined for respective age and sex groups based on the World Health Organization cutoff values .
The primary hypothesis of the study was that handwashing with soap and nail clipping would significantly reduce the prevalence of intestinal parasite reinfection. Participants were analyzed according to the group to which they were randomized (intention to treat). We calculated a required sample size of 216 households using the formula for comparison of proportion of successes ; the households were evenly allocated into the intervention and control arms. The required sample size was calculated based on the following assumption: a prevalence of 72% , a minimum detectable difference of 20%, a power of 80%, a significance level of 0.05, and a 20% dropout rate. Sample size calculation was performed with an assumption of no interaction between the two factors (handwashing with soap and nail clipping). Separate sample size calculations were carried out based on target effect sizes for each of the interventions, and the larger sample size was taken as the trial sample size to enable the trial to be powered to detect the main effects of each intervention.
Statistical analysis was done using Stata 13.1. Our analysis focused on the main effects of the interventions (i.e., handwashing with soap versus not and nail clipping versus not), as is customary for studies with factorial designs, but the effects were also analyzed for the four intervention groups separately. Following the main effect analysis, effect modification was investigated by adding an interaction term to the regression models. Based on the nature of the study design (S1 Checklist), multilevel logistic regression models were used, taking into account the clustering of children in households, to investigate the efficacy of the interventions in reducing intestinal parasite reinfection rates and anemia prevalence, as represented by odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The main effect analysis included both factors (handwashing with soap and nail clipping) in the same additive model. The main effects were adjusted for child sex, age, drinking water source, latrine use, handwashing with soap and nail hygiene at baseline, pre-treatment parasites, and the other factor in the additive model. For the secondary outcome, the effect was adjusted for sex, age, water source, latrine use, anemia at baseline, handwashing at baseline, nail hygiene at baseline, and the other factor in the additive model. Our analyses were adjusted for variables that were considered important potential confounders that were partly predefined and partly considered at peer review. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) based on the multilevel logistic regression models were computed as described by Rodriguez and Elo . McNemar’s test was used to investigate associations between pre- and post-intervention parasite prevalence. The threshold for statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
From the 369 school-aged children selected for the study, two were excluded before randomization and another two children were lost to follow-up because of a change in residential area (Fig 1). About 41% (n = 152) of the study participants were boys, and mean age was 10 y (standard deviation 2.6 y). At baseline, children in the four intervention groups were similar in terms of age and sex distribution, their personal hygiene and sanitation practices, and intestinal parasitic infection prevalence (Table 1).
Pre-treatment prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections was high (73%) among the children, and both protozoans (E. histolytica/dispar and G. lamblia) and worms—for which the most important mode of transmission is fecal-oral—were observed (Table 1).
Households had a mean of 5.9 members (standard deviation 2.0). During the study, households assigned to the handwashing intervention received an average of 1.5 bars (120 g each) of soap per week; thus, about 4.3 g of soap was used per person per day in the intervention group. Throughout the course of the follow-up, no soap for handwashing and no nail clippers were observed in the control households. Almost all households (99%) in the handwashing group complied with the protocol, with only one household with two participating children that did not use the soap. All children assigned to the nail clipping intervention were available for the weekly nail clipping.
Table 2 provides the descriptive and multilevel logistic regression analysis results for the primary outcome intestinal parasite reinfection rate. The interaction between the interventions was investigated as a secondary analysis and was found to be not significant (p = 0.069). After 6 mo of follow-up, 14% (95% CI: 9% to 19%) of the children who received the handwashing with soap intervention were reinfected versus 29% (95% CI: 22% to 36%) of the children not receiving the handwashing with soap intervention (adjusted OR [AOR] 0.32, 95% CI: 0.17 to 0.62). Similarly, 17% (95% CI: 12% to 22%) of the children in the nail clipping group were reinfected versus 26% (95% CI: 20% to 32%) of the children not receiving the nail clipping intervention (AOR 0.51, 95% CI: 0.27 to 0.95). When looking at the four groups individually, reinfection occurred in 14% (13/91) of the children who received handwashing with soap only (AOR 0.19, 95% CI: 0.08 to 0.47), 14% (13/94) of the children who received both interventions (AOR 0.19, 95% CI: 0.08 to 0.48), 21% (20/95) of the children who received nail clipping only (AOR 0.32, 95% CI 0.14 to 0.73), and 38% (33/87) of the children who received no intervention. Relatively few children were infected with worms at baseline and follow-up. Therefore, we could not analyze our second primary outcome, infection intensity (differences in egg counts between the groups).
Descriptive and multilevel logistic regression analysis results for the secondary outcome are provided in Table 3. The interaction between the interventions was found to be not significant (p = 0.814). At the end of the trial, 13% (95% CI: 8% to 18%) of the children receiving the handwashing intervention were anemic versus 23% (95% CI: 17% to 29%) of the children not receiving the handwashing intervention (AOR 0.39, 95% CI: 0.20 to 0.78). Similarly, 14% (95% CI: 10% to 18%) children receiving the nail clipping intervention were anemic versus 21% (95% CI: 17% to 25%) of the children not receiving the nail clipping intervention; however, the observed difference was not statistically significant (AOR 0.53, 95% CI: 0.27 to 1.04). When looking at the four groups individually, anemia was observed in 14% (13/91) of the children who received handwashing with soap only (AOR 0.37, 95% CI: 0.15 to 0.91), 12% (11/94) of the children who received both interventions (AOR 0.21, 95% CI: 0.08 to 0.58), 17% (16/95) of the children who received nail clipping only (AOR 0.49, 95% CI: 0.21 to 1.19), and 29% (25/87) of the children who received no intervention.
The purpose of this trial was to evaluate the impact of two simple public health interventions (handwashing with soap and fingernail clipping) on the risk of intestinal parasite reinfection and anemia among school-aged children.
Our interventions of handwashing with soap and weekly nail clipping for children with no intestinal parasites at baseline demonstrated a significant reduction in intestinal parasite reinfection rates at 6 mo. Children who received handwashing with soap at critical times were 68% less likely to be reinfected by intestinal parasites than children left to continue with existing habits and practices. Similarly, children whose nails were cut on a weekly basis were 49% less likely to be reinfected by intestinal parasites than children not receiving the nail clipping intervention. The unadjusted difference in intestinal parasite reinfection rate was not statistically significant for the nail clipping versus no nail clipping groups. Regarding anemia, children who received handwashing with soap were 61% less likely to be anemic than children who did not receive this intervention. However, anemia rates were not significantly reduced in the children who received the nail clipping intervention compared to those who did not.
Several observational studies have indicated the impact of handwashing on the prevention of intestinal parasitic infections [26–29]. A case-control study conducted in Viet Nam demonstrated a significantly reduced risk of E. histolytica infection among individuals who frequently washed their hands with soap . A longitudinal cohort study by Monse and colleagues demonstrated decreased rates of reinfection with soil-transmitted helminthes among school children who washed their hands with soap. Most of the studies did not take into account whether soap was effectively used. They used self-reported handwashing behavior as their exposure measure, a major methodological weakness that was addressed in the present study. Furthermore, to our knowledge, no randomized control trials have been conducted to address the causal impact of handwashing with soap and nail clipping on intestinal parasitic infections.
Significant reduction in anemia prevalence among children was reported from an interventional study that integrated handwashing and dietary modification interventions . The confounding effects of deworming and dietary modification among the intervention group make identification of the specific component responsible for the reported improvements difficult. Furthermore, none of these the studies was designed to allow causal inference.
In addition to the immediate benefits for the improvement of the health of children under consideration, proper handwashing with soap and weekly trimming of fingernails can reduce the output of infective stages in feces that results in the contamination of the environment, and hence can reduce infection transmission in the community [3,31]. To be sure about this hypothesis, however, pragmatic trials involving a larger community than those who received the intervention in the present study are needed. Interventions involving handwashing are also documented to have a lasting pedagogical effect by decreasing infectious illness and hence decreasing school absenteeism .
Strengths and Weaknesses
Our study demonstrated causal relationships between hand hygiene and infection and anemia among school-aged children. Although our data showed that handwashing and nail clipping were efficacious, our trial included intense follow-up and monitoring that involved a high human resource investment. Changing the long-established habitual and culturally embedded practices of personal hygiene and sanitation among the children and the households might require methods that would make large-scale implementations of such interventions more expensive. Furthermore, as in any other efficacy study, intervention benefits were assessed under specific conditions, which might limit the generalizability of the results both to clusters and individual participants and overestimate the intervention effects when implemented under usual circumstances.
Since labor is relatively cheap in Ethiopia and other low-income countries, national house-to-house education campaigns might be organized to promote handwashing with soap at key times and weekly nail clipping. Furthermore, handwashing and nail clipping interventions can also be integrated into the existing community health programs (the Health Extension Program, Demographic and Health Surveillance sites, and the Health Development Army network) in the country that reach inaccessible, impoverished populations through house-to-house visits as their outreach activities. Soap was freely provided in this study, and provision of free soap to all impoverished households might not be feasible for large-scale implementations. The next essential step, obviously, should be implementing pragmatic studies that investigate the performance of the interventions under circumstances that more closely approach real and usual conditions, and developing more effective approaches to promote and implement handwashing with soap and nail clipping at a larger scale.
Our data showed that regular handwashing with soap and nail clipping are efficacious in preventing intestinal parasitic reinfections and thereby deliver health benefits to school-aged children at risk. Proper handwashing and weekly nail clipping may be considered for widespread implementation as a public health measure across societies of resource-limited regions to reduce infection transmission.
S1 Data. Raw data file.
S1 Checklist. CONSORT Extension for Cluster Trials Checklist.
S1 Protocol. Factorial randomized controlled trial protocol.
S1 Table. Pre- and post-intervention prevalence of E. histolytica among school-aged children.
S2 Table. Pre- and post-intervention prevalence of G. lamblia among school-aged children.
S3 Table. Pre- and post-intervention prevalence of hookworm among school-aged children.
S4 Table. Pre- and post-intervention prevalence of En. vermicularis among school-aged children.
S5 Table. Pre- and post-intervention prevalence of H. nana among school-aged children.
S6 Table. Pre- and post-intervention prevalence of A. lumbricoides among school-aged children.
The study was carried out with the support of Alcala University, Spain, and Mekelle University, Ethiopia. We thank all the children and their parents and/or guardians for their collaboration. We are grateful for the fieldworkers who implemented the interventions. We acknowledge the cooperation of the Tigray Regional Health Bureau. We also express our sincere gratitude to the laboratory staff involved in the fieldwork.
Conceived and designed the experiments: MAM MS AMB ILP G-JD RBV. Performed the experiments: MAM MS AMB. Analyzed the data: G-JD RBV ILP. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: MAM MS AMB ILP G-JD RBV. Wrote the first draft of the manuscript: MAM MS. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: MAM MS AMB ILP G-JD RBV. Enrolled patients: MAM. Random allocation of interventions: AMB. Agree with manuscript results and conclusions: MAM MS AMB ILP G-JD RBV. All authors have read, and confirm that they meet, ICMJE criteria for authorship.
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- 26. Gungorena B, Latipov R, Regallet G, Musabaev E. Effect of hygiene promotion on the risk of reinfection rate of intestinal parasites in children in rural Uzbekistan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2007;101:564–569. pmid:17418321 doi: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.02.011
- 27. Gelaw A, Anagaw B, Nigussie B Silesh B, Yirga A, Alem M, et al. Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections and risk factors among schoolchildren at the University of Gondar Community School, Northwest Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2013;13:304. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-304. pmid:23560704
- 28. Duc PP, Nguyen-Viet H, Hattendorf J, Zinsstag J, Cam PD, Odermatt P. Risk factors for Entamoeba histolytica infection in an agricultural community in Hanam Province, Vietnam. Parasit Vectors 2011;4:102. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-102. pmid:21663665
- 29. Monse B, Benzian H, Naliponguit E, Belizario V, Schratz A, Helderman WVP. The Fit for School health outcome study—a longitudinal survey to assess health impacts of an integrated school health programme in the Philippines. BMC Public Health 2013;13:256. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-256. pmid:23517517
- 30. Sanou D, Turgeon-O’Brien H, Desrosiers T. Nutrition intervention and adequate hygiene practices to improve iron status of vulnerable preschool Burkinabe children. Nutrition 2010;26:68–74. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2009.05.017. pmid:19628372
- 31. Anderson RM, Truscott JE, Pullan RL, Brooker SJ, Hollingsworth TD. How effective is school-based deworming for the community-wide control of soil-transmitted helminths? PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013;7:e2027. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002027. pmid:23469293
- 32. Nandrup-Bus I. Comparative studies of hand disinfection and hand-washing procedures as tested by pupils in intervention programs. Am J Infect Control 2011;39:450–455. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2010.10.023. pmid:21802616
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NASA Ames Robots Explore Lava Flow in Simulated Lunar Mission
MOFFETT FIELD, Calif. – NASA robots soon will begin exploring the dusty, rocky terrain of a barren desert on Earth much like the moon. Scientists and engineers will study the images and information the robots gather to help plan where humans should venture next.
To simulate robots scouting on the lunar surface before a human space crew arrives, the "K10 Red" and "K10 Black" robots developed at NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif., will perform site surveys of the Black Point Lava Flow in Arizona June 14 - June 26, 2009. Scientists and mission operators will remotely control the K10s from the NASA Lunar Science Institute (NLSI) at NASA Ames and collect scientific data using the K10's cameras and 3-D laser scanners. After the robots have completed their exploration, the mission team will use the images and 3-D terrain models taken by the K10s to plan a simulated astronaut mission in August.
Media interested in interviewing the science and mission operations teams as they work at the NLSI should contact Rachel Prucey at firstname.lastname@example.org
or 650-604-0643 by Wednesday, June 24, 2009 to schedule interviews.
"This field test is important for understanding how robots can help future astronauts be more productive on the moon," said Terry Fong, principal investigator of the robotic recon experiment and director of the Intelligent Robotics Group at NASA Ames. "We're using the K10 robots to study how scouting can improve planning for human missions and improve lunar science."
As part of the two-week experiment, the K10 robots will navigate an area of Arizona scientists have chosen as a simulation of the Rupes Recta or "Straight Wall" fault seen on the moon. Black Point Lava Flow's wide variety of surface features, size (nearly 10 miles wide) and relative remoteness make it ideal for simulated lunar missions, according to project team scientists.
Engineers and scientists will use the field experiments to determine the kinds of instruments, data communication and navigation capabilities necessary to make a successful robotic reconnaissance. Scientists know that robots can make discoveries useful to scientists on Earth, as exemplified by the Mars Exploration Rovers. Engineers predict that during the first three years of human missions to the moon, humans will spend less than 10 percent of the time on the surface, while robots could be used more than 90 percent of the time.
Team members believe robotic scouting missions can reduce the amount of uncertainty a human crew encounters when conducting extravehicular activities. Providing mission planners a lunar "road map" can improve the quality and amount of science data collected on future missions to the moon. Scientists say this will help determine what lunar features might be of greatest scientific interest, as well as help identify resources and potential hazards.
The June field test is part of the 2009 Desert Research and Technology Studies (Desert RATS) project, which will send additional robots, human-operated rovers and lunar planners from NASA centers across the country to the Black Point Lava Flow in August and September. During that experiment, Desert RATS will perform a simulated 14-day human mission to the moon.
NASA's Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va.; Johnson Space Center, Houston; Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.; Ames Research Center; Glenn Research Center, Cleveland; and Kennedy Space Center in Florida are participating in the Desert RATS.
The K10 robots are part of the Human Robotic Systems project under NASA’s Exploration Technology Development Program (ETDP), which develops advanced technologies and capabilities for lunar exploration. The ETDP is based at NASA’s Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va.
For more information about NASA's plans lunar surface analogs, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/home/analogs.html
For more information about the robotic experiment at Black Point Lava Flow, visit: http://lunarscience.nasa.gov/roboticrecon
- end -
text-only version of this release
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NASA Image Policies
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Game objects are often composed of other objects. For example, in a racing
game, a drag racer could be seen as a single object composed of other individual objects, such as a body, four tires, and an engine. Other times, you might see an object as a collection of related objects. In a zookeeper simulation, you might see the zoo as a collection of an arbitrary number of animals. You can mimic these kinds of relationships among objects in OOP using aggregation—the combining of objects so that one is part of another. For example, you could write a Drag_Racer class that has an engine data member that’s an Engine object. Or, you could write a Zoo class that has an animals data member that is a collection of Animal objects.
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Love and Humanity: Mary Shelley's Frankenstein
“Thy clothes, thy pearls, and jewels, and thy golden crown, I do not like; but if thou wilt love me, and let me be thy companion and playfellow…I will go down and fetch up thy golden ball.”
(The Frog to the Princess, “The Frog Prince,” Grimms’ Fairy Tales)
Despite his nature and appearance, Shelley’s Frankenstein seeks companionship and love. The catalyst for his transformation into a monster is the denial of his request for a mate. He is created to be as human as possible, and indeed, he possesses the innocence, emotions, and need for love of a child. When denied love, Frankenstein’s monster is denied his humanity.
© 2004, CHIN. All Rights Reserved.
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Treating co-occurring EDs and OCD
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is one of the most frequently diagnosed psychiatric disorders in people with eating disorders. It is known to make eating disorders more severe and harder to treat, leading to a longer time until remission is achieved. Recently, more and more researchers are beginning to recognize the significance of the overlap between EDs and OCD, and are trying to develop specific treatments targeted at this population.
A 2004 study by Walter Kaye and colleagues in the American Journal of Psychiatry measured how frequently anxiety disorders (OCD is a type of anxiety disorder) occurred in people with anorexia and bulimia. They found that two-thirds of the ED sufferers had been diagnosed with an anxiety disorder at some point in their life. In general, the onset of the anxiety disorder pre-dated the ED by several years. Of the people with an anxiety disorder, 41% had OCD and 20% had social phobia (social anxiety). The problem, then, is very significant.
The gold standard in treating OCD is a form of cognitive-behavioral therapy known as exposure and response prevention (ERP). You can read more about ERP here. The idea is relatively straightforward: You create a hierarchy of the things you’re afraid of that would normally provoke a compulsion. For someone who is afraid of germs, something lower on the list would be touching an unused surgical mask. Higher up might be touching a doorknob at a doctor’s office or being coughed on by someone with a cold. Together with a therapist, you would begin to expose yourself to these anxiety-provoking situations and then not engage in any compulsions (like hand-washing) to relieve the anxiety. The point of this is to learn to tolerate the anxiety and that you’re not going to die if you happen to inhale a few germs.
Some researchers are beginning to use components of ERP to treat food fears in EDs, especially anorexia nervosa. In a 2011 study in the International Journal of Eating Disorders, researchers at Columbia University first outline a behavioral model for AN that is driven by anxiety and obsessionality (see figure below; the caption is copied from the paper).
Anxiety about eating more and gaining weight consistently interferes with weight gain in AN and with interrupting the binge/purge cycle in BN. The idea is that recovery cannot and will not occur unless these fears are addressed. In a 2012 review article in the European Eating Disorders Review, psychologists hypothesize that one of the reasons family-based treatment is successful for many adolescents is that it forces these exposures. Since the patients can’t (theoretically) choose what to eat, they can’t choose to avoid “scary” foods. Parents are also coached on how to help stop other food-related rituals
A study published earlier this week addressed the issue of treating OCD and EDs, this time in a residential setting. Published in Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, the researchers treated 56 individuals with AN, BN, or EDNOS in an eating disorder program specific for individuals with co-occurring OCD. Of these patients, 41% were diagnosed with AN, 25% with BN, and 34% with EDNOS. Rates and levels of depression and OCD did not appear to vary by diagnosis. After treatment, the researchers found a significant improvement on scores for OCD, depression, and eating disorders, as assessed by a variety of surveys and self-reports. Patients with AN also significantly increased their body weight.
Which is all well and good, but the problem is that this study (nor any others that I’m aware of) compared the treatment group to anything. Other studies have shown that treating an ED generally improves levels of depression and OCD. Was the improvement seen in this study due to regular eating and the prevention of binge eating and purging? What effect did being in a structured environment have? Would these results have been different if the patients weren’t treated for OCD? What about if their OCD was treated and not their ED? I realize that actually conducting a research study in that last scenario would be unethical, especially in a group that qualifies for residential treatment, but it’s something that should at least be considered in the discussion.
Another question the researchers didn’t factor in was the use of psychotropic medication. Eighty-nine percent of patients were on some type of psychiatric medication; the authors said they didn’t control for this in their analysis since only 7% started on medication during their treatment. But they didn’t mention how many patients’ medication was adjusted, increasing or decreasing dose, or changing types and brands of medication. These things can have a significant effect on OCD and depression symptoms (although a recent study indicated that no psychotropic medications appear to be effective for AN)
As well, one of the researchers is the medical director of the treatment center where the research was carried out. This makes me a little skeptical of the results as a matter of course.
The researchers concluded that “Simultaneous treatment of OCD and eating disorders using a multimodal approach that emphasizes ERP techniques for both OCD and eating disorders can be an effective treatment strategy for these complex cases.” But how effective? Is it better? How much better? How long did the results last for? There was no follow-up on any of these patients. Improving in a program is great, but the rubber doesn’t really hit the road until after discharge.
This study is a start, but it’s a small start. Co-occurring EDs and OCD can be very difficult to treat, but many people do go on to develop healthy and productive lives. We desperately need more resarch into the subject, but we need to start making comparisons to help develop the best, most effective treatment possible.
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Lesson Plan: Influences I
Inspiration: Here is a quote from Kington's oral history interview of 2001 (Smithsonian Archives):
"I kept playing around with these little funny silver birds. An African American sculptor, a big, huge man, saw them. I was hiding the birds in the studio from my classmates. It was like, I knew my peers would criticize me for misusing silver. But this guy saw them, and he really liked them. He turned me on to Ashanti gold weights. And, of course, they deal with parables and narratives. These wonderful little bronze figures-human and animal forms, small compositions.
I became interested in miniatures and thinking about objects made by nomadic peoples. Detroit was the first time I'd ever been east of the Mississippi. And so I was thinking of nomadic people and realizing I was nomadic. My family was really dispersed. I grew up within this tight-knit neighborhood and family: my cousins were leaving and going to Colorado and California and a lot of different places. And my mind fixed on the nomadic cultures. You know, Eskimos make little carvings, and the Ashanti gold weights. The scale allows for easy mobility. Miniature sculpture.
Goal: Students will demonstrate their understanding of artistic influences by creating a clay figurine in the style of Brent Kingdom after studying Akan gold weights that influenced him in his making of miniature toys.
Pre-test and Post-test questions to answer and keep in mind as you create:
- What is artistic influence of one artist on another?
- What is artistic influence of a culture upon an artist's work?
- What is the difference between being influenced and copying?
- What elements of an art work, besides materials, can be influenced by another? (e.g., themes, colors, shapes, mood, lines, method of construction, etc,)
- What do you learn by creating an art work in the style of someone else (or in the style of another culture)?
- Indiana University's web page on Akan proverbs (http://www.fa.indiana.edu/~conner/akan/proverb.html)
- Marshall University's web page on Akan art (http://www.marshall.edu/akanart/abramo.html)
- Muhlenburg University's web page on goldweights (http://www.muhlenberg.edu/cultural/gallery/african/goldwts.html)
Look at these web sites to understand the characteristics, uses, and themes of the goldweights in Ashanti or Akan culture. Be ready to choose a proverb in your own culture about which to create a miniature sculpture.
Activity: Students will view the video clip of Brent Kington that shows his miniature cast toys. They will point out the size, shape, subject matter and material of the toys. The students look at the Web pages on goldweights and proverbs. Discuss proverbs in our culture as themes; students can brainstorm a list written on the blackboard or a chart. Illustrate an example of the activity with a given proverb and your mini-sculpture (or see our example Illustrated here). Assign students to each create in clay a miniature sculpture based on the proverb of their choice. Time-manage each section of the activity so all workers stay on task.
Materials: Air-drying clay, clay tools such as palette knives, small sponges, picks, improvised instruments to shape, incise, texturize the clay.
Extension: Brent Kington has said he was also influenced by sculptor Joan Miró. Do a Google© image search on this artist and click on some of the thumbnails to get a feel for his aesthetic. Then look through the Image Gallery of this web site and find some of Kington's sculptures that may show this influence. What characteristics of Miró's sculptures are reflected in Kington's?
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Q: In a recent appearance on WNYC, you discussed the phrase “no room to swing a cat” and said its origin was not known. I believe it refers to the difficulty of swinging a cat-o’-nine-tails on the crowded deck of a Royal Navy warship in olden days.
A: Several other radio listeners, and many Internet references, suggest (or even insist) that the expression refers to the use of the cat-o’-nine-tails on British naval ships. But I haven’t found any authoritative sources that back this up.
In fact, the Oxford English Dictionary’s earliest citation for “swing a cat” comes 30 years before the earliest citation for “cat-o’-nine-tails” and 123 years before the use of the word “cat” as a short form of “cat-o’-nine-tails.” All this suggests that “swing a cat” was in use well before the word “cat” was used to mean a whip.
A likelier and perhaps more gruesome explanation lies in the use of cats in target practice during the 16th century. E. Cobham Brewer’s 1898 Dictionary of Phrase and Fable says sometimes “two cats were swung by their tails over a rope.” At other times, according to the dictionary, a cat in a bag or a sack or a leather bottle “was swung to the bough of a tree.”
Shakespeare refers to the practice in Much Ado About Nothing: “If I do, hang me in a bottle like a Cat, and shoot at me; and he that hits me, let him be clapped on the shoulder, and called Adam.”
One final note. When Mark Twain used the phrase “swing a cat” in the 19th century in Innocents Abroad, he was obviously referring to a cat of the feline variety: “Notwithstanding all this furniture, there was still room to turn around in, but not to swing a cat in, at least with entire security to the cat.”
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In the event of an emergecny or an evacuation, you and your family should always take an emergency kit with you. Emergency kits should be stored in containers that are easy to move, such as plastic bins or carry-on bags.
An emergency preparedness kit should have sufficient supplies for at least three days following an emergency. Kits should be checked periodically to ensure proper condition of the supplies. Check expiration dates every 6 months.
Recommended Emergency Preparedness Kit Items
- Water: One Gallon per person per day
- Food: At least 3 days worth of non-perishable food
- Emergency Radio
- Flashlight with extra batteries
- Whistle: To signal for help
- Garbage bags and plastic ties
- Duct Tape
- Manual can opener
- Important family documents: Insurance policies, ID, etc.
- Emergency Reference Material: First aid booklet, HSEM Preparedness Pamphlet
- Sleeping bags or warm blankets
- Extra clothing
- Fire Extinguisher
- Matches: In a waterproof container
- Paper and pencil
- Books, games or other activities
- First Aid Kit (See below)
Recommend First Aid Kit Items
- Sterile gloves
- Sterile dressings/gauze
- Cleansing agent: antibiotic towellettes, alcohol swabs, etc.
- Antibiotic ointment
- Burn ointment
- Adhesive bandages
- Pain reliever: aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, etc.
- Antacid, laxative, and anti-diarrhea medication
- Prescribed medicine and medical supplies: Insulin, heart medicine, blood glucose monitors, etc.
In Your Car
The next disaster may strike while you are in your car! Get in the habit of keeping your automobile gas tank filled. If there are interruptions in the supply of gasoline, it is less likely that you will be affected. Be ready by planning ahead and keeping emergency supplies in your car trunk. The following list provides ideas for more items to include. Consider additional supplies that may be necessary to meet your needs and those who often ride with you.
- Battery-powered radio: In case your car radio fails
- Flashlight, with extra batteries
- First aid kit and manual
- Blanket and extra clothes
- Booster cables: In case your battery fails
- Snack foods and bottled drinking water
- Fluorescent orange cloth to hang on your antenna and safety flares: These will indicate you need help
For more information how to build a proper Emergency Preparedness Kit, please see the HSEM Preparedness Pamphlet.
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Amy Scholten, MPH
When Alex was in dental hygiene school, she suddenly developed allergy symptoms—sneezing, runny nose, itchy eyes, and
on her hands. She couldn’t think of any new exposures that would cause her symptoms, except for the school environment. After visiting her doctor, she was surprised to learn that the latex gloves she had been wearing in school were causing her symptoms. Alex was diagnosed with a latex allergy, a relatively new and increasing problem.
Natural rubber latex is manufactured from a milky fluid in the tropical rubber tree,
. Many products we use at home, work, and school contain latex, including:
According to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology, latex allergy occurs when the body’s immune system reacts to proteins found in the natural rubber latex. People with latex allergy are most apt to react to products made of thin, stretchy latex, such as that found in disposable gloves, condoms, and balloons, which are high in these proteins. Products made of hard rubber (eg, tires) don’t seem to cause as many allergic reactions. Items made using synthetic latex (eg, latex paint) do not trigger allergy.
Powdered latex gloves may exacerbate allergic reactions because the proteins in latex fasten to the powder. When powdered gloves are removed, latex protein/powder particles get into the air, where they can be inhaled and come into contact with body membranes.
Three types of reactions can occur in people using latex products: irritant contact dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis, and latex allergy.
Irritant contact dermatitis
is the development of dry, itchy, irritated areas on the skin, usually the hands. The irritation is caused by using gloves, and possibly by contact with other products and chemicals. Irritant contact dermatitis is not a true allergy.
Allergic contact dermatitis
(also known as delayed hypersensitivity or chemical sensitivity dermatitis) is a rash similar to poison ivy, which results from exposure to chemicals added to latex during harvesting, processing, or manufacturing. The rash usually begins 24-48 hours after contact.
(also known as immediate hypersensitivity) is a more serious reaction to latex than irritant contact dermatitis or allergic contact dermatitis.
Mild allergic reactions can include the following symptoms:
More severe allergic reactions involve respiratory symptoms such as:
Shock can occur but is rare. A severe, life-threatening allergic reaction, which includes difficulty breathing, dangerously low blood pressure, and shock, is termed “
.” Although rare, a life-threatening reaction can be the first sign of latex allergy. For example, 30% of children with latex allergy have severe, life-threatening reactions as their first sign of latex allergy.
According to the American Academy of Family Physicians, anyone can develop an allergy to latex. Those with the highest risk include:
If you think you have a latex allergy, see your doctor. A diagnosis can usually be made based on your medical history, a physical examination, and blood tests. Skin testing and glove-use tests should be done only at medical centers where staff are prepared to handle severe reactions.
There is no cure for latex allergy. However, if you have a reaction to latex, your symptoms may be treated with antihistamines, steroids, epinephrine shots, intravenous fluids, respiratory support, or other measures, depending on the severity of the reaction.
The following tips can help reduce your risk of an allergic reaction to latex:
American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
American Academy of Family Physicians website. Available at:
American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology website. Available at:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health website. Available at:
Spina Bifida Association of America website. Available at:
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Two years ago scientists feared northern caribou were the new cod – once-teeming stocks of wildlife that had sustained entire cultures but were at the edge of collapse.
Now, as scientists from around the world gather in Yellowknife to compare notes, biologists are beginning to see signs that the worst is past for an animal so central to the Canadian imagination it's on one side of the quarter.
“Our situation overall is looking a lot brighter than it did two years ago,” said Jan Adamczewski, a biologist with the government of the Northwest Territories. “Those of us concerned with management of these caribou herds are breathing just a little bit easier.”
About 230 scientists from around the circumpolar world are meeting this week at a conference held once every four years on Arctic ungulates. They'll talk about muskox and reindeer, too, but the recent changes in caribou are sure to be a large part of the agenda.
In 2009, nine of Canada's 11 northern herds were considered to be in decline. Biologists estimated the Bathurst population on the central barrens had fallen to 32,000 from more than 120,000 in 2006. That was a 75 per cent implosion, a loss of nearly 90,000 animals in only three years.
But since then both the Cape Bathurst and Bluenose East herds have stabilized. The Bluenose East herd is back up over 100,000 animals. Yukon's Porcupine herd is approaching 1980s levels.
And preliminary surveys in 2010 and 2011 of the Bathurst herd hint the free fall may have bottomed out.
“It kind of looks like maybe we've turned the corner there,” said Mr. Adamczewski. “There's a very slight indication that the herd may be starting to increase.”
Factors such as climate change, which upsets the delicate timing of northern ecosystems, and industrial development, which takes out sections of their range, have been blamed for some of the decline. But the two biggest factors were poor calf survival and hunting.
Good weather for the last couple of years has decreased calf mortality. And Mr. Adamczewski points out that all the recovering herds enjoy one factor in common – hunting restrictions.
“I think we're fairly clear that in the later stages of the decline, the harvest did start to accelerate the decline.”
In a recently published paper, Mr. Adamczewski and three co-authors estimated the annual aboriginal harvest from the Bathurst herd alone was between 4,000 and 7,000 animals, mostly cows. Best estimates suggest that about 20 per cent of the cows were being killed every year, making it the most heavily hunted herd in the N.W.T.
“They were getting hammered,” Mr. Adamczewski said.
But when hunting restrictions came in, the Dene could no longer take as many animals as they wanted. It was a huge problem because caribou is on the supper table several times a week in the North and hunting is a central part of what it means to be Dene.
Resistance to the region's first-ever hunting controls was strong. Several aboriginal groups took the territorial government to court. Outfitters brought their own legal action after losing their caribou tags.
But in the end, most of the caribou management boards – composed of government and aboriginal representatives – brought in restrictions.
“We know those were very tough decisions,” Mr. Adamczewski said. “But there was a sense that they needed to be made.”
Biologists don't blame hunting alone for the decline of the herds. Caribou populations have always fluctuated rapidly – with or without human intervention. Climate change is altering the habitat to which caribou have adapted.
And industrial development is nibbling away at their once-unimpeded range. Research to be presented at the conference suggests caribou avoid an area within a 14-kilometre radius of a mine or energy development.
But Mr. Adamczewski said an uncontrolled harvest, with hunters using modern high-powered rifles, snowmobiles and GPS systems, has become one of the biggest factors in the way of a recovery.
“When you look at how quickly things changed once harvest was either closed or severely restricted, the proof is right there.”
The Canadian PressReport Typo/Error
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Freedom's Wings: Corey's Diary, Kentucky to Ohio, 1857 Booktalk
- Grades: 1–2, 3–5, 6–8
Follow Corey and his mother as they travel on the Underground Railroad, fleeing the master who has vowed to separate their family forever.
A preacher came round not too long ago, and after the preaching, he came to our cabin and talked about going north on the Underground Railroad. I hid under the table and listened very hard.
But everything changed the day I overheard Massa Hart say he was gonna sell Daddy to one of his cousins in the Deep South. Daddy’s a blacksmith, and the Massa said he’d get lots of money for him. That night, Daddy and Charles ran away. Mama and I worried and worried. We didn’t know what had happened to them till Mr. Renfield came to buy horses. It turned out that the horses were only an excuse. The real reason he was here was to take me and Mama north to Daddy. Mama didn’t want to go, because she’s gonna have a new baby.
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New Zealand is the last refuge of a huge range of bird species, we are famous for our claim to be clean and green, and some of us have recognised the huge economic benefit, let alone the ecological dividend, from achieving a Predator-Free New Zealand.
OPINION: But the vision is flawed. Almost half of Kiwi households have a cat (or two), making New Zealanders the world's most prolific cat owners, with a feline population of 1.4 million (not including feral and stray cats). This epidemic is wiping out our native birds. While the cat population is extremely healthy, our bird population is not.
About 40 per cent of New Zealand's native land-birds are already extinct, and of all the bird species remaining 37 per cent are endangered.
Cats are a major player in the destruction of native birds, skinks and invertebrates (such as weta). In our cities cats wipe out native birds faster than they can breed. Cats are opportunistic - how much and what they kill depends on the location and the amount of available prey. Yes, cats kill rodents, particularly in areas where native critters have been wiped out. That was one reason we first took them as pets long ago, but this is no excuse in the modern era: nowadays we have rat traps.
Most cats kill. The average cat brings home 13 pieces of prey per year, but this number is literally based on what the cat dragged in. A University of Georgia study put ''kittycams'' on cats and tracked their carnage. The cats brought home only 21 per cent of what they killed. Half of the time they left their prey to rot and about 30 per cent of the time they ate it all on the spot. That means the average cat may be killing more than 60 prey items per year.
In short, if you have not seen your cat killing native animals then either you have not seen them, or there are not enough left for them to catch, they have helped kill off the supply.
Before you say it, even well-fed cats kill. In one study, six cats were presented with a live small rat while eating their preferred food. All six cats stopped eating the food, killed the rat, and then resumed eating the food. Belled collars do not totally stop cats killing either, native birds in particular do not associate a ringing bell with danger. And if you manage to find your cat with a still live bird and it escapes, do not kid yourself: its chances of survival are negligible.
New Zealand should be teeming with birds, we should be deafened by their calls every morning. Go to any sanctuary where predators are eliminated and watch the native bird and plant life flourish.
Urban ecological island projects such as Zealandia in Wellington are little more than a very expensive cat food factory. It would have been miles cheaper for the Wellington Council to control domestic cats.
What do we need to do? Naturally I am not suggesting you go out and knock your favourite furry friend on the head right now. But if we are serious about conservation then we must acknowledge that we are harbouring a natural born killer. At the very least responsible people should consider not replacing it when it dies and meanwhile either keep it indoors or invest in a cat-proof enclosure in the backyard.
Councils need to step up and require that cats are controlled as stringently as dogs; all of them should be registered, chipped and neutered and the owners made responsible for ensuring they do not wander. Parts of Australia have already gone further with curfews and even cat-free zones in sensitive wildlife areas. Councils should have a policy of putting down all trapped cats that are not chipped or registered, just as we do with dogs, and citizens should be encouraged to help by using live-catch traps for cats that wander onto their properties. If some have a right to own cats then others should have a right to protect the wildlife on their property.
Last year I was at a Southland school and a child asked a fantastic question. If the Kiwi died out, what would we call ourselves? The only thing I could think of was ''Pretty bloody useless''.
Gareth Morgan is an economist who has launched a campaign to reduce the cat population. For more, go to catstogo.org.nz.
- The Dominion Post
Do you think schools should be allowed to seize and search students' smartphones in cases of bullying?Related story: Law will allow seizure of phones
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A big reason wheelchair users put off getting routine health care and checkups is because they can’t get onto the examining table.
Without accessible examination tables and weighing scales, wheelchair users may be examined in their chairs, or may not receive important diagnostic tests needed for basic preventive health care, such as palpation of internal organs and breasts, pap smears, mammograms, rectal exams and more.
This means they’re receiving substandard medical care — something expressly illegal under Titles II and III of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
For example, Marilyn McMahon, 51, of Grand Prairie, Texas, stopped going to her gynecologist several years ago when her ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) made it too difficult to transfer from her wheelchair onto the high, narrow examining table. “So we just kind of put it off,” she explains.
But ALS didn’t stop her body’s natural hormonal changes as she neared her 50s. Heavy premenopausal bleeding caused a lot of distress and caregiving difficulties before she finally heard from her MDA clinic doctor about a nearby gynecologist with an accessible examining table.
"If I’d gone to a gynecologist yearly, this is something that could have been discussed and maybe not come to this extreme," she says. "I definitely think it [the lack of an accessible examining table] affected my health care."
Under the ADA, doctors are required to give patients with disabilities the same access to medical care they provide patients without disabilities.
Doctors can’t refuse to treat a person simply because of the disability, or refer them to another doctor for treatment they routinely provide to others, or require patients to bring their own assistants to help with transfers. Medical staff can’t blithely say, "Oh, we don’t do that here," when asked for help transferring to the table.
But the ADA doesn’t specifically require accessible examining tables and weighing scales, calling instead for "readily achievable accommodations." This definition varies depending on the resources and size of the facility, with large hospitals required to do more than small practices.
The ideal solutions are roll-on scales and powered examining tables that can be raised and lowered. However, other reasonable accommodations might include a less expensive nonpowered wheelchair-height exam table; safe staff-assisted transfers; mechanical lifts; and making arrangements to weigh or examine you at an alternative location, such as a hospital.
Try it, you’ll like it
The problem isn’t that doctors don’t like accessible tables and scales. It’s that they aren’t aware of the need, says Jon Wells, director of marketing for the medical division of Midmark Corp. in Versailles, Ohio, an accessible exam table manufacturer.
Doctors still are two doors down when patients have to be helped onto the scale and exam table by nurses and aides. These staffers (who suffer significant injury rates in transfers) see a great need for the equipment.
Wells has seen a slight increase in sales of his company’s Barrier-Free exam tables in recent years, but certainly not a surge. With more than 500,000 standard box tables currently in use, “we’re just scratching the surface.”
Accessible exam tables lower to 17 to 20 inches above the floor, for easier wheelchair transfers. Other desirable features include foot/leg supports that can be adjusted for contractures, wider tabletops and a higher weight capacity than box tables, which usually come with a drawer step and sit 32½ inches high.
Although they’re about three times as expensive as box tables, height-adjustable tables are a “practice enhancer,” says C. Glenn Saunders, McMahon’s gynecologist in Arlington, who bought a used accessible table on the Internet that looks like a chair but lies flat like a table.
Saunders, who bought the table to better serve his elderly patients, likes the fact that once a patient is seated, “she doesn’t have to do anything else.” When the chair reclines, the calf and foot supports automatically come up, “so the patient doesn’t have to scoot down to the end of the table and put her feet in stirrups.”
Ask and ye shall receive
It appears that one of the keys to greater accessibility may be to just ask for it — something patients often feel uncomfortable doing. But take heart: A recent small survey of doctors showed that about a third of them made accommodations just because they were asked by their patients.
In another example of the power of the few, several people with disabilities filed a class action suit against Kaiser Permanente in California, resulting in a settlement agreement in 2001 ensuring accessible tables and scales throughout Kaiser’s California health care system.
When you’re ready to ask, here are some talking points:
Accessible equipment creates safer conditions for the office staff, reducing injuries, sick time and workers’ compensation claims. Height-adjustable tables also are easier on doctors’ backs. And the ease in transferring and positioning “kind of speeds things up as well,” notes Saunders.
Most doctors will ask themselves, “Do I have enough patients who would benefit from this to justify the expense?” says Saunders. Point out that many people other than wheelchair users would be helped, such as those who are elderly, obese, pregnant, mobility-impaired or simply short.
For qualifying small practices, half the cost of the new equipment can be regained through a federal tax credit under Section 44 of Title 26 in the IRS Code, the “Disabled Access Tax Credit.”
If a physician is unresponsive to requests and doesn’t provide acceptable alternatives for getting onto the table or scales, he or she may be in violation of the ADA. The Department of Justice (DOJ) takes these complaints seriously, an agency spokesperson told Quest, and has required violators to buy equipment, train their staffs and, in some cases, pay fines.
For free information about individual health care rights and options under the ADA, including free mediation, call the Disability Business and Technical Assistance Center (DBTAC) at (800) 949-4232 or the ADA Hotline at (800) 514-0301. On the Internet, visit adata.org.
For fact sheets about accessible tables and scales, equipment manufacturers and tax breaks for health care providers, visit the Center for Disability Issues & Health Professions at the Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, Calif. (CDIHP), at www.westernu.edu or call (909) 623-6116.
To read DOJ settlement agreements with medical practices that violated the ADA, go to www.ada.gov, click on “Enforcement,” then “Settlements.” Check out settlements involving the Exodus Women’s Center, Dr. Robila Ashfaq, Valley Radiologists and Washington Hospital Center.
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C.) CREATION LESSONS ON GOD
Our understanding of God, the world and man largely comes through the Genesis creation account. We are not saying there are no other teachings, but when we think of the overall picture Genesis 1:1 - 2:3 is invaluable to our clear understanding. We will look at six lessons we learn about God: God's Name, God's Word, God's Thoughts, God's Power, God's Goodness, God's Wisdom.
Although nothing is directly said of God, we gain an immense understanding through what He did and said. The word 'God' is used 34 times alone in Genesis 1:1-2:3.
Some suggest this plural Hebrew word 'Elohim' is used to indicate the Trinity (plurality in unity). Others suggest it is a plural of majesty. The shortened form 'el' is often seen on the end of names such as Joel. No one seriously suggests that one should translate Elohim as gods because every time it takes a singular verb form.
Only starting in 2:4 is God's name, 'LORD' (Yahweh) used when it speaks of personal relationship and fellowship.
God is separate from nature. God is not creation. He abides in creation as much as His purpose and design and provision is given to it. God existed before the universe. The universe was something He created. The creation did, however, come from God's Word. God spoke, and it came into being.
The phrase 'Then God said, Let ...' occurs eight times; the phrase 'God said' occurs ten times. We see a whole series of commands from God creating matter, time, order and changes.
God also spoke to man in verses 28-29. Psalm 19 takes the same pattern dividing what God spoke with His works with the words He spoke to man. He warns us of the consequences of disobedience. Everything else He said came about as He directed. Man should also follow the direction of God's Words.
Five times we see the phrase 'God called.' God was defining things for us. He was aiding us in our understanding of things. Once He calls something in its descriptive way, man is obligated to use this understanding to think and define those objects.
God's thoughts become our thoughts. Man is called to shape his thoughts after God's.
We need to note, though, that in 2:19 and 2:23, God actually gave man the authority and privilege to 'call' the animals their own names. In 2:23 man actually names 'woman.' This granting of man such authority should caution us to the power and influence of words.
Nothing awes us so much as God's ability to do what He says. This is real authority and power. Two words stand out in this Genesis 1:1-2:3 passage: created (barah) and made ('asah). Create gives us the sense of 'out of nothing' while 'made' speaks more of form and shaping. This however is not so evident when we look at the actual word usage. We only can conclude that the more 'creative' demanding works such as sea monsters and man was the word 'create' used.
When we understand our mighty God, it humbles us that this same powerful God would deal so graciously and kindly with His creatures. Usually power stands for impatient. In this case, however, God's power enables Him to be utterly patient and kind. If God is so gracious and kind, we ought to be the same way.
Seven times the phrase, 'God saw that it was good' is used to describe what God thought of His work. (Genesis 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25, 31). If what a person produces characterizes his inner self, then we can truly say that God is good. God is good because He does good things. He sees His work as that which is absolutely wonderful. Non-Christians confirm this by saying that the only problem with this world is man (by man is meant fallen and sinful man).
Creation is not mother-nature; it is God's goodness made manifest. This is why understanding the creation of the world is so important. If people can see God's goodness in what they see around them, then they might tend to seek Him. From Romans we find that this world lies under a curse. So even all the goodness that we find in the earth is still held back from revealing its fully glory.
One thing for sure, the Lord does not look lightly on asceticism. This is a rejection of God's good gifts. This does not mean that we should not fast. Fasting is not based on the evil nature of God's creation but on prioritizing ones focus on His will. This is quite different than those who look at nature or sex with a negative glance as if anyone who is married or enjoys foods cannot be spiritual. Surely Jesus did not think that way. He fully enjoyed all that God made.
Lastly we must note that God was perfectly satisfied at the whole of creation. Everyone always has another project around the yard to make it better. God however used the seventh day to rest. This thought of taking a day off because everything is done to its completion is beyond our comprehension. God knew everything was complete. Nothing was lacking. The world and His redemptive plan was set in motion.
The pattern for us, then, is never to rush about completing singular projects while missing the beautiful completeness of what has been done. Never rush about life so that we do not pause. Never operate as a cog in a machine for we were designed to reflect, enjoy and worship. We must dare not move through a series of seven days without resting for one for then we violate God's pattern and insist on the priority of the things we do over God's.
Genesis Introduction: Introduction to Genesis | Outline and Genealogies | Genesis' Chronologies (5 & 11) | Unified Themes of Genesis
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USA PATRIOT Act [ U niting and S trengthening A merica by P roviding A ppropriate T ools R equired to I ntercept and O bstruct T errorists], 2001, U.S. federal law intended to give federal authorities increased abilities to combat international and domestic terrorism. Quickly enacted with little opposition in the aftermath of the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, the USA PATRIOT Act primarily enlarged the powers of federal law-enforcement and intelligence-gathering agencies when dealing with terror crimes, but sections of the extensive bill also apply to criminal acts generally. The number of terror-related offenses was also increased, and reporting requirements, crimes, and penalties associated with money laundering were expanded.
Civil libertarians, librarians, and others have protested changes made by the act that have the potential to lead to law-enforcement abuses, including reduced judicial oversight of wiretaps, expanded law-enforcement access to records held by third-party businesses and organizations, and an ambiguously broadened definition of providing material support to terrorists. Such concerns have been partly prompted by the fact that the USA PATRIOT Act was designed in part to reduce restrictions enacted in response to abuses of government power associated with Watergate, anti–Vietnam War protesters, civil-rights groups, and the like.
These worries contributed to the vocal opposition in 2003 to the Bush administration's draft Domestic Security Enhancement Act, an expansion of the USA PATRIOT Act that ultimately was not submitted to Congress. Similarly, the renewal of those sections of the act slated to expire at the end of 2005 became contentious enough that opponents in the Senate were able to stall legislation to make them permanent, but after some modifications were made to the act in 2006, the act was renewed and most sections became permanent. Aspects of the law have been challenged in the courts, with varying results.
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Captive-bred tigers in a Chinese pen, via the EIA report (PDF).
Tigers are some of the biggest victims of the wildlife trade, with the rare cats' bones coveted for traditional medicine and their coats prized as rugs. In Vietnam, tiger parts are so valuable that they make better bribes than cash. And in China, tiger parts are in such high demand that they are being farmed like chickens.
According to a new report from the Environmental Investigation Agency, China's tiger farms are huge, with thousands of captive tigers being bred for slaughter. That's possible because China has essentially legalized the tiger trade, which is troubling considering that China is a signatory of the CITES treaty, which bans international trade of tiger parts (along with parts of other animals, like rhinos and elephants) and calls for domestic trade prohibitions.
But far more troubling is the EIA's conclusion that China's tiger farms are actually stimulating demand for wild tigers. The report states that there are somewhere between 5,000 and 6,000 captive tigers in China, a population that boomed from just a few dozen in the 80s thanks to favorable legal policies as well as funding from China's State Forestry Administration. (As the Times noted in 2010, China's largest tiger farm is run by the SFA.) Meanwhile, China's wild tiger population has plummeted to just a few dozen individuals, down from a high of around 4,000 in the late 1940s.
Why the swing? One thing undercover EIA investigators found was that tiger skins from legal, captive-bred sources were between 50 and 300 percent more expensive than skins poached in the wild. The EIA argues that captive breeding is stimulating demand for tiger parts, whatever the provenance.
The argument has merit: If tiger pelts in China are a legal luxury good, more people are going to be interested in showing one off in their living room than if it were illegal. But since they're quite expensive, people will be drawn to a cheaper alternative, which means poaching wild tigers, in China and elsewhere. That's not to say that banning the trade is immediately going to stop poaching; that would be unrealistic. Yet by allowing a legal trade, you also support an illicit one.
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Child Abuse & Neglect
Child abuse and neglect include acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that result in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. The five primary forms of maltreatment are physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, emotional maltreatment and exposure to domestic violence.
For a document that outlines definitions of frequently used terms in child abuse and neglect research, see the page with the glossary of social work and child maltreatment related terms.
You can get more information on the signs of child maltreatment from the Family Violence Initiative, operated by the Department of Justice of Canada. You can also contact Kid’s Help Phone at 1-800-668-6868 for further information.
If you suspect a child is being abused or neglected, or are looking for information about services for children or families experiencing difficulties you can contact your local child welfare authority. Click here to find the local child authority agency in your province or territory. Please visit our FAQs section to learn more about child abuse and neglect.
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Generally speaking, the idea of "progress" in art is an untenable one. Styles change, new ideas come along, different art is created, but the old art retains its value. Anyone interested in early music, or classical music in general, already believes this to some degree, and may even believe that later art is decadent. Here we take the view that the music of each era has its own strengths, and that each era is fundamentally as good as any other. That is the polite thing to do, even if individuals will always have their own stylistic preferences.
Similar comments apply to interpretations of music. Different decades have different fashions for musical interpretation, and for the most part, preferences are a matter of taste. The EM FAQ must prioritize HIP interpretations of e.g. 18th century music, but the truth is that such preferences are largely matters of taste, and other interpretations can have arguably equal merit. Leading interpretations in whatever style are all based on a deep appreciation for the music. When it comes to earlier music, Medieval & Renaissance music, this sort of "objective equality" between interpretations of similar stature is not entirely true.
Interpretive choices made by performers from decade to decade retain a large component of fashion, but there are also a couple of objective reasons that interpretations of Medieval & Renaissance music have improved, at least in some sense: 1) Our understanding of what the old musical notation means has improved. Real misunderstandings have been rectified regarding the marks on the paper; ideas on choosing accidentals in polyphony and rhythms in unmeasured music have developed; the basic theory, tunings, and ensemble constitutions have been uncovered. In some cases it has been a matter of taking early theorists seriously (e.g. Pythagorean tuning), instead of believing the music must have sounded more like later music. 2) Performers have had more opportunity to hear the music as performed by others, to internalize it and gain a personal feeling for it. No matter what one's interpretive stance on Beethoven might be, any performer has had ample opportunity to hear Beethoven's music performed, for it to seem real, for an interpretation to concentrate fully on expression rather than on feeling one's way in the dark.
Having never been able to hear the music before, working with nothing but strange marks on a page, the work of the pioneering performers of early music is that much more impressive. The value of their work is not really diminished by the fact that more discoveries have been made since they embarked on their landmark performances. One thing these performances will always have is the excitement of bringing something back to life, and so they have a uniqueness that the performances of today will cease having as soon as there are performances of tomorrow. The pioneering performers did things in their interpretations that are now considered incorrect, that they themselves would not or do not do now, and so performances of early music have improved in that sense. It is also true that simply knowing does not guarantee a good interpretation, as there remain issues of communication and passion and talent. One can even say that the latter issues override correctness, and they can, but it is also difficult to embrace a passionate interpretation in which e.g. every A should be Ab.
How long can interpretations continue to improve in this sense? In much of this repertory, we now (apparently) have a full understanding of basic technical facts of note & rhythm. In some cases, this understanding has been secured only in the past few years (e.g. accidentals & relative tempi in Franco-Flemish polyphony) and not yet fully transmitted. In a diminishing number of cases (e.g. Ars Subtilior notation), that understanding is not yet secure. Once we understand the music on this level, as we do Beethoven's, the possibilities for any "objective" improvement diminish. There will remain other issues of sonority and ensemble, but consensus on some of these aspects is also being reached. At some point, discoveries and debates will become increasingly trivial, and largely indistinguishable from fashion. At some point, performers of this music will have heard it as children as much as they might have heard Beethoven's, and will be able to feel it just as deeply. At that point, changes in early music performance will essentially be dictated by fashion alone, or rather the personal visions of individuals equipped with a full technical understanding of the music.
The above should not be taken to suggest that we will ever know everything, but rather only that we will exhaust our available information on the subject. In some ways, this is when the true fun begins, because some of the unanswerable questions surrounding early music allow for a great deal of performer creativity. Some of the earlier performances of Medieval & Renaissance music, however, whatever their merits, adopt choices which are simply false, even on something as basic as the relative notes themselves. One can consider this a matter of taste anyway, but it is a treacherous matter best undertaken with a full knowledge of the subject. The departures in earlier performance are generally not deliberate, even if deliberate departures from HIP can be compelling in their own way. In many repertories, performances remain a major part of an ongoing process of discovery.
Finally, it should be noted that recommending a recording of a particular piece of music which is fully up to date on scholarly issues, is performed with feeling & talent, and is available for purchase, is frequently impossible. What the novice listener receives may well involve a compromise on one or more fronts.
To Early Music FAQTodd M. McComb
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Together with the site at Koeln, the DLR site at Oberpfaffenhofen is one of Germany's largest research centres. Located near the A96 motorway between Munich and Lindau, the site is home to eight scientific institues and currently employs approximately 1700 people. The research centre's main fields of activity include paricipating in space missions, climate research, research and development in the field of Earth observation, developing navigation systems and advanced robotics development.
Earth observation satellites fly at distances of up to several hundred kilometres from Earth and can provide detailed information that assists relief workers on the ground.
On 22 June 2016 at 05:55 CEST, the BIROS (Bi-Spectral Infrared Optical System) microsatellite was successfully launched into space from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in India on board a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
The surgeon sits at a console, while robotic arms perform his commands with high precision on the patient – making exact incisions, putting in screws or stitching severed veins in a tiny space. During the operation, the doctor can feel through the controls exactly what the instrument tips on the robot are doing, just as if he were holding them in his own hands.
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| 0.946042 | 250 | 3.109375 | 3 |
The village of Rockingham is situated in the English Midlands, on the border of Northamptonshire and Leicestershire, in the picturesque Welland Valley. The parish of Rockingham contains 890 acres, and the population in 1801 was 213; in 1831, 296; and in 1841, 291. As we enter the 21st century, the number of inhabitants is around 110.
Considering the fact that the village has undergone little physical change over the past century, this amply emphasizes the drift from the countryside during this period.
Even though there has been a settlement at Rockingham in ancient, Roman and Saxon, times, the first real village probably housed labourers employed by the Crown to build and maintain the Norman Castle. This collection of huts was situated below the entrance towers.
As the Castle grew in importance, so did the village - being designated a Borough in the 12th century and a "Towne" by Royal Charter of Elizabeth I. Much of the Tudor village was destroyed during the Civil war and the village was later reconstructed out of stone on the hill below the Castle. This is essentially the village as it stands today, the earliest house being dated 1670.
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| 0.97699 | 247 | 3.171875 | 3 |
- Resource Centers
Dr. Hamby is regional director of pharmacy at CHRISTUS Hospital Southeast Texas, Beaumont, Tex.
Experts have estimated that somewhere between one third and one half of antimicrobial use in the United States is inappropriate1? a factor that has a negative impact on the cost and quality of health care. Pharmacists, physicians, and patients all share the blame, with some thinking that the medication would help and others thinking that at least it would not hurt. Science has indicated, however, that widespread, unnecessary use of antibiotics could indeed complicate care.
With this situation have come efforts to correct inappropriate use. Guidelines from organizations including the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America provide recommendations that range from the simple, such as frequent hand washing, to the complex, such as compiling localized data on microbial resistance.
Health care institutions have taken these recommendations seriously, often implementing policies or processes that address these concerns. The appropriate use of antibiotics or antiinfectives should be not just a policy but an expectation. Every hospital in the country has a responsibility.
This responsibility can be a challenge to manage, requiring the resources to collect and analyze data from multiple sources, interpret the analysis into meaningful information, and implement an intelligent policy. These sources include not only patientrelated data, such as laboratory results and medication allergies, but also evidence- based data, such as pharmacologic profiles.
Software systems that integrate this information can help users in all disciplines to more easily manage the data relevant to responsible antibiotic management and to positively impact care. At CHRISTUS Hospital Southeast Texas, this has been most evident in the pharmaceutical department, where both clinical and staff pharmacists have used electronic data and decision making to improve care through increased interventions.
Early this year, the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) published guidelines, created in collaboration with 6 additional associations, to assist institutions in developing programs to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. According to the document, the primary goal of any such program should be to maximize clinical outcomes while minimizing the unintended consequences of antimicrobial use, such as toxicity, the selection of pathogenic organisms, and the emergence of resistance.1
Their suggestions include the formation of a multidisciplinary antimicrobial stewardship team with recommended personnel, disciplines, powers, and support. This team may approach stewardship using 1 or 2 suggested strategies: prospective audit with intervention and feedback and/or formulary restriction and preauthorization.
Evidence exists that prospective audit with intervention and feedback by appropriate personnel can decrease the inappropriate use of antimicrobials.1 It also shows that formulary restriction and preauthorization can cause an immediate and significant reduction in antimicrobial use and cost during a nosocomial event, but long-term benefits are not as clear.1
Either or both of these methods should be supported with additional efforts that include the following:
Before the installation of STELLARA Clinical Intervention and Patient Monitoring software from bioM?rieux Inc (Durham, NC), pharmacists at CHRISTUS reviewing medication orders had to go through multiple records, pulling patient laboratory histories and results as well as medication profiles. The time-consuming process could mean untimely delivery of the appropriate therapies. Drug?drug interactions and adverse events could occur, or the drug assigned might not completely match the patient?s infections.
STELLARA alerts users to these conditions, using decision-recommendation technology powered by TheraDoc Expert System Platform. The integration of online evidence-based literature references allows clinicians to incorporate the strongest evidence into their daily practices.
The software tool offers flexibility in reporting, allowing users to customize reports and set parameters for workflow management, intervention opportunities, and priorities. CHRISTUS pharmacists have flags to indicate possible interventions, including changes in therapy, agent, or dose.
Prior to the system?s installation, CHRISTUS pharmacists would write their own professional reports to personally deliver to clinicians. Pharmacists were reluctant to have this interaction. This information interaction exchange activity, however, will be an important part of pharmacy in the future, especially in institutions.
To bring pharmacists to a level where they would be comfortable intervening regularly, I wanted to standardize and automate the process?which a computerized program would allow. If a system can pull the information from a number of different sources into 1 place, it can save time.
STELLARA was implemented in a staged rollout, first with clinical pharmacists, who handle departmental responsibilities, and then with staff pharmacists, who work with individualized patient reports. These reports, delivered daily, include recommendations regarding changes in response to new patient medications and/or physiology as well as antibiotic-susceptibility reporting.
Each staff pharmacist is responsible for a given patient population that he or she addresses throughout the day. No longer do clinical pharmacists travel through the hospital all day.
Armed with the clinically relevant data and discussion tips, the staff pharmacists have increased confidence and increased abilities. The process has worked.
The hospital has gone from no staff pharmacist interventions to 40 to 60 a month. In fact, interventions have become so prevalent that I intend to rewrite job descriptions to include intervention activity. The role of a pharmacist is changing from a technical function to expertise in information management and in the interface with other disciplines.
The hospital pharmacists were wary of the new system at first, suspecting that it would involve more work. The hospital did want more documentation but developed innovative ways to create it. Previously, the facility had zero documentations from staff pharmacists, but the new system has enabled a number of ways to document interventions. Pharmacists can perform these simple tasks themselves or send orders to the clinical pharmacy department for assistants to log them in.
Prior to the system installation, there were challenges not only with creating documentation, but also with associating value with pharmacist interventions.
Two years ago, the department used reports to the pharmacy and therapeutics committee to determine that the total value of interventions performed on a monthly basis had a modest value of about $20,000. In recent months, that value has risen to $80,000. A direct comparison of data from February and March of 2006 and 2007 illustrates the savings further: total intervention values in February and March 2006 were $17,800 and $9,401 respectively; in 2007, the numbers were $66,360 and $80,119, respectively (Figure).
The department also has greatly decreased its expenditures?consistent with average reports with similar installations. Comprehensive programs have consistently demonstrated a decrease in antimicrobial use, by 22% to 36%, with annual savings of $200,000 to $900,000 in both larger academic hospitals and smaller community hospitals.1
By annualizing numbers, the value of a staff pharmacist can be well-documented. Empowered pharmacists will have an even easier time performing interventions, allowing the antimicrobial stewardship program to improve patient care and be financially self-supporting. The advice pharmacists dispense then becomes as valuable as the medication.
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Contributions to Macroeconomics, v1, n1.
The worldwide growth slowdown after 1975 was a major negative fiscal shock; lower growth lowers the present value of tax revenues and primary surpluses and thus makes a given level of debt more burdensome. Most countries failed to adjust to the negative fiscal consequences of the growth implosion and so public debt to GDP ratios exploded. The growth slowdown therefore played an important role in the debt crisis of the middle income countries in the 1980s, the crisis of the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) in the 1980s and 1990s, and the increased public debt burden of industrial countries in the 1980s and 1990s. Econometric tests and fiscal solvency accounting confirm the important role of growth in debt crises. In addition, the HIPCs' debt problems were worse because they grew more slowly after 1975 than other low income countries due to worse policies.
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Asthma Care Training (ACT) for Kids
A program of the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, implemented in Providence 'Alaska' Medical Center, Anchorage, Alaska.
Asthma Care Training for Kids: Program Components
The ACT for Kids program was validated in 1984 and updated in both 1994 and 1997 to adhere to the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP) Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. Upon validation of ACT for Kids, the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA) acquired the distribution rights for the program. The copyright for ACT is held by its creators in the Department of Medicine and Pediatrics and the Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology at the University of California at Los Angeles School of Medicine. AAFA worked closely with the creators to develop a package of materials that would be made available to others who may be interested in implementing the program in their clinical setting. The package contains:
A program curriculum that includes:
- the intervention protocol;
- a master copy of the activity books (described in detail in the following section);
- three instructor manuals-one each for the child’s instructor, parent’s instructor, and physician or pharmacist.
- three body maps (described in detail in the following section);
- a relaxation tape;
- two sets of alphabet aggravators’ panels (described in detail in the following section), one set of 24 cards for the child’s instructor without words on front, and one set of 24 for parent’s instructor with words on front;
- two sets of environmental panels, each set containing 10 cards showing everyday situations in which one could be exposed to asthma triggers;
- two pieces of plastic tubing to use during the breathing exercises;
- two prescription pads.
- ten sets of fact/fallacy flash cards;
- 39 sheets of dots;
- 30 traffic signs;
- 60 sheets of symptom stickers;
- 10 driver’s licenses;
- 10 child activity books and 10 parent activity books. Both child and parent activity books include:
An asthma symptoms body map-An 11-inch drawing of a body that represents the child’s body. The map is accompanied by colorful stickers depicting different symptoms that occur either before or during the early stages of an asthma attack (such as coughing, sneezing, ear pain, sore throat, shakiness, and chest pain). Children place the stickers on the map to indicate what they are feeling. During their session, the parents place the stickers on the map to indicate their perceptions of what the child is feeling. Children and parents compare the maps when they reconvene to see whether parents are aware of the range of symptoms their children experience.
Drawing of a cross section of airways-The purpose of this exercise is to teach children about the medical nature of their disease. This is accomplished by using three different drawings of an airway that display the mucus membranes and surrounding smooth muscle to demonstrate the different physiological changes that occur during an asthma attack. In one of the drawings, the airway is open. In the second drawing, the airway is starting to close, and in the third drawing, the muscles in the airway are fully constricted and the mucus membranes are open and full. Participants color-code the three drawings-green for go, yellow for caution, and red for stop.
Peak flow meter do’s and don’ts-Instructions on how to get the best results when using peak flow meters.
Asthma aggravators-Twenty-six examples of common environmental asthma triggers listed in alphabetical order (e.g., A: aerosols, air conditioner; B: bedding, books, bubble baths).
Peak flow meter daily chart-A blank calendar for recording day and night peak flow readings.
Peak flow aggravator detective sheet-A sheet for recording peak flow readings. If the number is in the yellow or red zone, the sheet asks the child to be a detective and to try to identify the triggers and/or early warning signs.
Family decision-making styles-Worksheet that allows the child to analyze his or her family’s decision-making style and its effect on the child’s asthma management.
Educational lessons emphasize the role of the child as an active participant in preventing and controlling symptoms. The child is encouraged to recognize initial symptoms and know the appropriate actions to take for the management plan to be effective. Parents are encouraged in their nurturing skills and advised on creating a home environment where children can practice decision making in caring for themselves.
Although the research intervention used five 1-hour sessions to present the information, AAFA, in collaboration with UCLA, updated the lessons in 1997 to adhere to the Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. The fourth and fifth lessons were integrated into the revised first and second lessons to form a total of three sessions. The following is a description of each of the lessons.
Lesson 1: Warning Signals-What Is Asthma, and How Does It Affects My Body
Parents and children identify asthma symptoms and discuss the similarities and differences in the children’s asthma symptoms and their progression. Children also discuss ways to communicate their symptoms to parents, physicians, and teachers. In addition to personal body maps created by children, parents and children also construct a group body map that allows them to compare symptoms identified by child and parent and to identify the severity of symptoms by a color code.
Lesson 2: Roadblocks-Why I Have Asthma and What Sets It Off
Children and parents learn to identify environmental triggers. They also discuss the similarities and differences in the children’s triggers. In addition, parents and children identify ways to avoid personal triggers. The asthma aggravators alphabet cards and the environmental walk around panels are used.
Lesson 3: Tune Ups-What to Do and When to Do It
Children and parents learn breathing and relaxation exercises and discuss the appropriate use of medications. Children also discuss ways to remember to take preventive measures. The last hour of this session is spent in one-on-one consultation with the physician to review medication.
- Page last reviewed: April 24, 2009
- Page last updated: April 27, 2009
- Content source:
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Oregon Department of Education
Office of Research and Data Analysis
- Assistant Superintendent
This page is under construction…
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), often referred to as "the Nation's Report Card," is the only nationally representative and continuing assessment of what America's students know and can do in various subjects.
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Skepticism in Western philosophy, is the attitude of doubting knowledge claims set forth in various areas. Skeptics have challenged the adequacy or reliability of these claims by asking what principles they are based upon or what they actually establish. They have questioned whether some such claims really are, as alleged, indubitable or necessarily true, and they have challenged the purported rational grounds of accepted assumptions. In everyday life, practically everyone is skeptical about some knowledge claims; but philosophical skeptics have doubted the possibility of any knowledge beyond that of the contents of directly felt experience. The original Greek meaning of skeptikos was “an inquirer,” someone who was unsatisfied and still looking for truth.
From ancient times onward skeptics have developed arguments to undermine the contentions of dogmatic philosophers, scientists, and theologians. The skeptical arguments and their employment against various forms of dogmatism have played an important role in shaping both the problems and the solutions offered in the course of Western philosophy. As ancient philosophy and science developed, doubts arose about various basic, widely accepted beliefs about the world. In ancient times, skeptics challenged the claims of Plato and Aristotle and their followers, as well as those of the Stoics; and during the Renaissance similar challenges were raised against the claims of Scholasticism and Calvinism. In the 17th century, skeptics attacked Cartesianism (the system established by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes) along with other theories that attempted to justify the scientific revolution initiated by Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. Later, a skeptical offensive was leveled against the Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant and then against the philosophical idealist Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and his followers. Each challenge led to new attempts to resolve the skeptical difficulties. Skepticism, especially since the Enlightenment, has come to mean disbelief — primarily religious disbelief — and the skeptic has often been likened to the village atheist.
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County is situated in the southeastern portion of the State, one hundred miles south
of St. Louis, on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Rail way — bounded
north by St. Francois County, east by Perry and Bollinger, south by Bollinger
and Wayne and west by Iron County, and contains 295,550 acres.
whom: 5,688 were white and 189 colored
3,015 male and 2,384 female
5,471 native (3,869 born in Missouri), and 378 foreigners
1876, 8,518, of whom 8,264 were white and 264 colored.
the census of 1876:
hogs were enumerated.
population of the county at the present time is from 10,000 to 12,000 people.
The manufacturing interests are embraced in a few
smelting furnaces, ten flour and grist mills, four saw mills, two planing
mills, the Co -Operative Manufacturing Company, a plow factory, and a pottery;
besides a great many artisans and skilled workmen in every branch of Industry.
valuation of the county, per census of 1870, was $8,210,000. Whilst some of the
people are in debt, there are quite a number of solid men who are above the
waves, and have large amounts invested .In United Statesbonds. The county
debt Is only $8,000.
people have acted wisely in not voting appropriations to corporations. The
merchants are all doing business on their own capital. Nothing of the mushroom
style of doing business is attached to them. So the immigrant who seeks a home,
need not fear to invest his means in Madison
county is penetrated by the St. Louis,
Iron Mountain & Southern Railway, which passes through the northeastern
portion of the county for a distance of twenty-three miles. The company have a
depot, round house and machine shops at Fredericktown.
great deal of yellow pine plank, stave-bolts and railroad ties have been shipped
from Marquand, Cornwall
educational interest of this county are in a prosperous condition. There are
forty-five sub-districts, and 2,875
children over six and under twenty years of age, who attend school four months
there are a great many being educated at universities outside the county.
the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern
Railway, is fourteen miles southeast of Fredericktown; has three stores, one
merchant mill, one hotel and one church (Presbyterian); also, one Missionary
Baptist Church elope to its limits; population, 150.
station on the same railroad, seven miles southeast of Fredericktown, contains
one store and woodyard, and used to be a shipping point for iron.
miles north of Fredericktown and two and a half miles .from the railroad
station bearing its name, is a beautiful place to live. It has one drug store,
a tin shop, a restaurant, saddler shop, two meat market, a hotel, two shoe
shops, a number of private boarding houses, one smithy, two churches (Catholic
and Presbyterian), two school houses, and a large general store. There are also
two stores one mile south of Mine La Motte. The company is punctual in paying
its employees. There is also a machine shop and a watchmaker shop
there. The population is about 500, and the people are very industrious.
Fredericktown, the county seat, and one of the most
thrifty towns in Missouri, is one hundred and
five miles from St. Louis and ninety-one miles
and was settled in 1821.
six churches: one Christian, one Catholic, two Methodist (one colored), and
two Baptist (one colored), and about 8,000 inhabitants.
The greater portion of the old settlers, some of
whom are still living, were Catholics. There is one large public school building,
well supplied with modern desks and apparatus, costing $8,000.
There is one weekly newspaper, established eight
years, Democratic in politics.
To describe all the elegant buildings in
Fredericktown would be unnecessary. Suffice it to say, that no inland town with
the same number of inhabitants, can boast of more durable and elegant buildings
and suburban cottages; besides, the town is well watered, wells, cisterns and
living springs abound, and Saline Creek runs through the center of the town,
affording water in great abundance for all purposes.
There, perhaps, is not a more healthful place in Southern Missouri. It is destined, so the inhabitants
think, to be one of those summer resorts for health-seekers and gentlemen of
leisure, who know how to enjoy life.
and Religious Denominations
first Catholic Church in this county was established in Fredericktown, by
Father Celeni, in 1827. Its members
number about 400.
Christian Church was organized in Madison
County in 1812.
are three congregations in this county: one in Fredericktown; Antioch Church„
situated one and three-quarter miles east of Fredericktown, has a membership
of 300, and Green Chapel, situated on the St. Francois River, twenty miles
south of Fredericktown, has a membership of fifty.
are nine Missionary Baptist Churches, with a membership of 580, and seven
ordained ministers. There are several old Baptist churches in the county.
Methodist Church (South) numbers 260 members; the old Episcopal Church (North) fifty. Besides, there is an organization of
is one Lutheran Church in this county, with about 260
various orders of Masonry, Odd Fellowship, Knights of Honor, A.O U. W., Good Templars, etc., are strongly represented.
climate is mild and healthful; the nights are cool and invigorating. Some of
the landscape scenery is grand beyond description.
people are of the mediocrity; no aristocracy. Every man is rated according to
his real merit; and a more kind, whole-souled, generous people, as a body, can
nowhere be found. They hail from all the States in the Union, from France, Germany,
England, Ireland, Scotland, and other countries.
Taken together with the first settlers, they form a homogeneous society,
destined, at no distant period, to develop the vast and varied resources, and
cause this country to bloom as the rose.
Book of Missouri
Missouri Immigration Scoiety of St. Louis, Missouri
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The alarmingly thick cloud of smog often found floating over China's capital city is nothing new at this point. But as the situation continues to worsen, Chinese scientists are warning that the city's toxic air pollution has become so dire that it now resembles a nuclear winter.
This has been a particularly bad week for China's pollution levels, with six of the country's northern provinces covered in a cloud smog that isn't expected to lift until at least Thursday. Beijing is certainly faring the worst, though, with its concentration of PM2.5 particles (the particles that cause all those health risks in the first place) hitting a solid 505 micrograms per cubic meter—or about 20 times higher than the World Health Organisation's maximum safe level.
It's not just people at risk, though. The smog is even affecting China's plants, preventing them from successfully photosynthesizing, which in turn threatens the population's food supply. With visibility down to less than 50 meters in parts, He Dongxian, an associate professor at China Agricultural University's College of Water Resources and Engineering, notes that these kinds of conditions are "similar to a nuclear winter."
And as The Week points out, this unsettling warning has come just after Shanghai Academy of Scoial Science's report that Beijing's extreme air pollution makes the city nearly "uninhabitable for human beings." With prospects like this, all those desolate science fiction future scenarios may be a lot less fiction than we'd like to hope. [The Week]
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| 0.955904 | 307 | 2.734375 | 3 |
|Name: _________________________||Period: ___________________|
This test consists of 5 multiple choice questions, 5 short answer questions, and 10 short essay questions.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What writer did Ray Wax take as his model during the Depression?
(a) Upton Sinclair.
(b) John Steinbeck.
(c) Horatio Alger.
(d) F. Scott Fitzgerald.
2. What event discussed earlier in the book does Harry Norgard think was destructive to society?
(a) The Cradle Will Rock premiere.
(b) The Bank Holiday.
(c) The Chicago teachers' strike.
(d) The Detroit sit-in.
3. What shocking information did General Smedley Butler report to Congress in the 1930's?
(a) Hoover was absent for most meetings regarding the Depression.
(b) A group of right wing military men attempted a coup.
(c) There were Communists in the Roosevelt administration.
(d) Roosevelt knew about Pearl Harbor ahead of time.
4. Who was the head of the red-baiting committee that investigated New Deal administrators in the 1930's?
(a) Stanley Fish.
(b) Joseph McCarthy.
(c) C. Wright Patman.
(d) Martin Dies.
5. What issue does Stanley Kell surprisingly support?
(a) Leaving Vietnam.
(b) George McGovern's campaign.
(d) Legalizing marijuana.
Short Answer Questions
1. What did the prison where Scoop Lankford was held in the 1930's try to feed the inmates at the worst times?
2. What does Wilbur Kane still dislike about Roosevelt?
3. As described in The Farmer Is the Man, how did a mob respond to a judge who was foreclosing on homes in Iowa?
4. What was different about a teachers' strike in the 1930's?
5. What is the name of the sketch programs Neil Schaffner performed in troupes across the country?
Short Essay Questions
1. What strange and dangerous episode regarding congressional testimony does C. Wright Patman make?
2. How were the prisons affected by the Depression?
3. In the Depression-era Midwest, how did corn prices lead to corn being burned and pigs being slaughtered?
4. How did Wilbur Kane experience the Joe Louis fight against Max Schmeling?
5. What role did Elsa Ponselle play in the forming of the Teacher's Union?
6. What humiliation did Ward James face seeking relief in the 1930's?
7. How did Jack Kirkland become famous during the Depression?
8. According to James Farley, how did Roosevelt alienate members of his own administration?
9. How did Neil Schaffner's theatre troupe have to change their business model after the Crash 1929?
10. According to Elizabeth Wood, how did public housing develop the stigma it has today?
This section contains 973 words
(approx. 4 pages at 300 words per page)
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<urn:uuid:ac05177b-2d9e-43ec-a6e4-38ce2a666517>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/hard-times-an-oral-history-of-the-g/test4.html
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en
| 0.94171 | 640 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Joule Uses Waste CO2 to Produce Renewable Gasoline, Jet Fuel
The company says this is an industry first in renewable fuel production. Joule says this technology will allow it to expand its Sunflow product line — which uses solar energy to convert industrial waste CO2 into fuels — and help address global demand for hydrocarbon fuel replacements.
Additionally, the processes uses waste CO2 as a feedstock, allowing industrial emitters to produce fuels rather than discard emissions or employ costly measures for capture and sequestration.
To date, renewable hydrocarbon-based fuel substitutes have required the complex, multi-step conversion of algal or other agricultural biomass feedstocks into fuel pre-cursors, and subsequent chemical upgrading. In contrast, Joule has engineered photosynthetic biocatalysts that convert waste CO2 into hydrocarbons through a patented, continuous process.
The company says it has been scaling its process for making ethanol (Sunflow-E) while also developing long-chain hydrocarbons for diesel (Sunflow-D). With its latest breakthrough, Joule says it becomes the first company able to directly produce medium-chain hydrocarbons, which are substantial components of gasoline (Sunflow-G) and jet fuel (Sunflow-J).
Joule’s hydrocarbon fuels are also sulfur-free. For the diesel and gasoline markets, this gives refiners the ability to meet sulfur content requirements without raising production costs or fuel prices.
In late March, the EPA proposed rules to further reduce the sulfur content of gasoline by more than 60 percent beginning in 2017. The American Fuel and Petrochemical Manufacturers estimates this will require capital cost of $10 billion and additional annual operating cost of $2.4 billion for refiners.
Joule says its Sunflow-G can save refiners’ money, cutting sulfur content by comprising a substantial portion of the final product.
Joule is now commercializing its first product, Sunflow-E, for global availability in early 2015. The company says construction of its first commercial plants is planned to begin in 2014 in multiple locations worldwide.
Energy Manager News
- Energy-as-a-Service: Charting a Path Through Complexity
- Demand Energy, EnerSys Complete Storage Project
- Lunera Intros Pathway and Entryway LED
- FPL to Buy and Phase Out Coal-Powered Plant, Saving Customers $129M
- Environmental, Health and Safety Software Moves Forward
- Johnson Controls: Interest, Investment in Energy Efficiency Up
- First-Ever Statewide Endorsement of Retail Supplier, by Delaware, Goes to Direct Energy
- Oberlin, Ohio, Ratepayers to Receive $2.2M in Rebates for Sale of RECs
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<urn:uuid:5da38b8e-fc20-4612-b0ca-3cd7839fad8e>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.environmentalleader.com/2013/04/16/joule-uses-waste-co2-to-produce-renewable-gasoline-jet-fuel/
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en
| 0.907635 | 569 | 2.640625 | 3 |
The position of the Sun in the sky shifts north-south summer to winter, giving us our seasons. It also shifts east-west, crossing the meridian more than 15 minutes early in the fall and late in the winter (making uncorrected sundials poor timekeepers). A graph or photo of the Sun's position in the sky at a particular time throughout the year is known as an analemma. One often appears on globes. Its figure-8 shape comes from a combination of two factors:
- the tilt of the Earth's axis with respect to the plane in which it orbits the Sun and
- the elliptical shape of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.
The above picture is a wide-angle, multiple-exposure, time-lapse composite photograph of the Sun's analemma. The dots in the sky are photos of the Sun taken through a special solar filter at 8:02 a.m. EST roughly every two weeks from December 20, 2005 to December 8, 2006. The three streaks are trails of the Sun rising from dawn until 7:58 a.m. EST on three different days. The Sun trails were created by combining hundreds of individual digital photos taken every 20 seconds. The last Sun trail was taken on June 18, 2007. The foreground was taken in October 2006. The exposures were also combined into a video of the analemma.
All photos used to compose the above image were taken using a digital camera on a mount permanently attached to a large rock. The digital photos were taken as part of a year-long project to take an analemma photo using a single piece of film, as was first done by Dennis DiCicco in 1978-79. I originally intended to use the digital camera merely as a tool for judging the film exposure needed with varying sky conditions. I quickly realized, however, that lots of things can go wrong with a single piece of film over the course of a year, so I took the digital photos as a back-up to the film-based image. The film-based image is shown below.
The images of the Sun, the Sun trail, and the background on the above film-based image were all exposed on a single frame of film over the course of a year. The exposures of the Sun were made at 8:00 a.m. EST and, when clouds allowed, the matching digital photos were taken two minutes later. Sometimes clouds forced me to make the film and digital exposures on different days. You can see how many clouds I was working around in the video made from the digital images. The landscape image was exposed on film on October 8, 2006. The Sun trail was taken as one long exposure on film through a pair of stacked filters. I had hoped to expose three Sun trails on film, but weather prevented it. The flexibility afforded by digital imaging allowed me to add all three Sun trails to the final digital image, to expand the field of view to include the house on the left, and to make the associated analemma movie.
Another view of the analemma, using an unfiltered digital frame taken October 27, 2006 for the background. An image similar to this one was used as the cover photo for the analemma video as presented on Nasa's APOD site and also appeared on the "Know More" page of the Washington Post.
Digital photos were taken with a Canon S80 with exposures ranging from 1/60th to 1/250th seconds at f8 and ASA 100 through Baader AstroSolar solar filter material, ©2006 (second photo) & ©2007 (the rest of the photos). The film-based photo was taken with a 24mm Nikkor lens and a Nikon F3 on Fuji Reala 100 color negative film using similar exposures. The film-based Sun trail was taken as a single multi-hour exposure through two layers of AstroSolar, ©2006.
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<urn:uuid:f4ca5025-dba3-43ec-b38a-17fa1608df67>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.guidescope.net/solarsys/analemma.htm
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.973405 | 799 | 3.765625 | 4 |
November 11, 2013
Global Warming Standstill Attributed To Montreal Protocol
Lee Rannals for redOrbit.com - Your Universe Online
Researchers writing in the journal Nature Geoscience say CFC gases have had an impact on the rise in global temperatures. Scientists believe CFC gases are responsible for a massive hole in the ozone layer, but the latest study links the ban of these gases to a slowdown in temperature increases since the mid 1990s.The standstill of global temperature rises since 1998 has been used as a key argument by some to show the impacts of global warming have been exaggerated. However, this new study brings this debate back to life, offering up evidence the standstill may simply be because international climate talks resulted in the Montreal Protocol.
Researchers from the National Autonomous University of Mexico and Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam carried out a statistical analysis on the connection between rising temperature and rates of increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere between 1880 and 2010. The team analyzed radiative forcing and temperature time series with state-of-the-art statistical methods to figure out what to attribute the slowdown in warming to. They found changes in the warming rate can be attributed to human actions that affected greenhouse gas concentrations.
According to the findings, long-term trends in total radiative forcing and temperatures have been determined by atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, modulated by other radiative factors. The study identified a pronounced increase in the growth rate of both temperatures and radiative forcing around 1960, which marks the onset of sustained global warming.
The team says the standstill in global temperature rises coincides with the introduction of the Montreal Protocol, which was originally signed by 46 countries in 1987. This international treaty was designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.
"Our statistical analysis suggests that the reduction in the emissions of ozone-depleting substances under the Montreal Protocol, as well as a reduction in methane emissions, contributed to the lower rate of warming since the 1990s," the authors wrote in the journal.
The researchers also said they identified a contribution from the two world wars and the Great Depression to the documented cooling in the mid-twentieth century. They said cooling experienced during this period was due to lower carbon dioxide emissions.
“We conclude that reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are effective in slowing the rate of warming in the short term,” the researchers wrote.
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<urn:uuid:94a18e55-39f2-4f40-a5f2-d871cc59e839>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112999685/global-warming-plateau-credited-to-montreal-protocol-111113/
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en
| 0.9387 | 498 | 3.59375 | 4 |
FUSE allows to write file systems
which are processes running in userspace.
A fuse process is launched with a mountpoint
as argument: it is the root path where the FS
will be available. Let's say its /mountpoint here
When launched, the process will fork
fusermount program via libfuse
fusermount is owned by root with setuid bit
The first thing fusermount does is ensure FUSE
driver is in the kernel: lets say its not
FUSE driver is inserted
FUSE filesystem is declared in the VFS
A misc block device is registered
a file appears in /sys to notify there's a new
/proc/misc now contains the minor number for this device.
The major's is misc's (10)
Since a new block device appeared in /sys, udev creates
/dev/fuse (mknod based on misc's major and fuse minor)
/dev/fuse is available. fusermount can now:
Open /dev/fuse and send its fd to the
file system process for it
to comunicate with FUSE driver
mount -t fuse /dev/fuse /mountpoint
After this mount, VFS associates /mountpoint with
The filesystem in user space can now be used.
Let's say we launch an ls command on a file managed by
This will issue a stat syscall to the VFS.
Which will in turn call the stat implementation
This implementation will call request_send(),
which will add the request to the list
of request structure.
the FS in userspace process, via libfuse,
The FUSE in kernel driver callback fuse_dev_read()
The callback returns commands from the list
of request to libfuse
libfuse calls the the FS in userspace
implementation of stat
The FS returns its result
Then libfuse writes the result to /dev/fuse
This calls fuse_dev_write() which receives
the responses and places them in req->out
request_send() unblocks as there is a response.
it sends its result to the stat implementation
ls process receives the stats generated
by fuse process.
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<urn:uuid:0c770108-4d4e-40fb-a7df-130aaaa60a83>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://yazgoo.github.io/fuse/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.881896 | 469 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Football has the power to change lives, generate intense emotions and promote health, friendship and respect. These values are prevalent in the outstanding work undertaken by UEFA's social responsibility partner, Special Olympics.
Founded in 1968, Special Olympics provides opportunities in a wide variety of sports to more than 4.2 million athletes with intellectual disabilities in over 170 countries.
The Special Olympics-UEFA partnership began in 1998, and the main objective is to involve more players with intellectual disabilities in football. Special Olympics is an international body that brings life-changing experiences by encouraging and empowering people with intellectual disabilities through sport – giving them the chance to develop physical fitness, demonstrate courage, and participate in a sharing of gifts, skills and friendship.
UEFA nurtures partnerships with a carefully selected number of organisations, in particular through its Football for all Abilities portfolio, which fosters the use of football as a tool for broadening the inclusion of players of all abilities, as well as marginalised or excluded groups.
Special Olympics' excellent work across the globe affords people with intellectual disabilities the opportunity to discover their sporting talents and derive a real sense of personal achievement and growth in doing so.
Dr Stan Shepherd is medical director for Special Olympics Great Britain. "A wide range of conditions can cause intellectual disability," he says. "There are many congenital genetic-based syndromes. One of the most common is Down's syndrome, another is Fragile X syndrome. Then there are other conditions that are the result of, for example, a problem during delivery at birth."
Special Olympics sport offers people with intellectual disabilities a positive purpose and feeling of belonging – and football plays a special role. "The benefits are massive," Dr Shepherd explains. "With football, the first thing to remember is that someone with intellectual disability has precisely the same emotions as everyone else. So when they play football, they experience exactly the same excitement, the same challenges, the same joy as anyone else who plays football.
"Having an intellectual disability can make your life very lonely and isolated – but because football is a team game, this automatically gives our athletes the whole experience of being part of a team. So they share the experience of training together, playing together, winning and losing together. In addition, any sporting activity is going to increase your self-confidence and your self-reliance – it's going to motivate you to get fit, to exercise, to train, to eat a healthy diet and to live a healthy life. Sport brings inclusion and not exclusion ... It brings togetherness, and not isolation."
Dr Shepherd praises the thousands of volunteers who devote their time to coaching and assisting Special Olympics athletes worldwide, and says their dedication and encouragement is crucial. "We must pay tribute to the phenomenal commitment of the Special Olympics coaches. They all do it in their own time and for no money. Through your coach, anybody who plays a sport is going to get stretched, is going to do things they didn't think they could do or didn't believe they could do.
"Think what this means as a boost to the athletes' self-confidence and self-worth. Away from Special Olympics, they are in a world where people are telling you you can't do things. Here, they are in a world which is saying not only can you do things – you can even believe you can exceed your own expectations. That's one of the powers of Special Olympics."
UEFA's backing of Special Olympics lends a special seal of approval to the organisation's sterling work. "As an athlete with intellectual disability playing football, the fact that UEFA supports you means a huge amount," Dr Shepherd reflects. "It means that UEFA, the governing body of the most popular sport in the world, takes you seriously. It's massively important."
There are very sound medical reasons for Special Olympics athletes playing sports and getting fit. "People with intellectual disability suffer more long-term conditions than the rest of the population," says Dr Shepherd. "Diabetes, raised blood pressure, risk of heart attacks and strokes, etc. They get these long-term conditions at a younger age, and they can often have a worse outcome than the rest of the population.
"Physical fitness and living a healthy lifestyle are a major defence against diabetes, so football – the motivation, physical fitness, healthy diet and lifestyle – is actually improving health and life expectancy."
Joy, pride and achievement are at the heart of the Special Olympics athletes' experience. Dr Shepherd was recently involved in the Special Olympics Great Britain National Summer Games, which engaged some 1,700 athletes from England, Scotland and Wales, all with intellectual disabilities. He presents two examples of the sheer pleasure generated by the games. "The mother of an athlete said to us: 'You have treated us like royalty.' This can be put in contrast with the exclusion that people with intellectual disabilities may be confronted with. Then, an ambulance driver who had attended hundreds of events told us: 'After all the events I've been to, I have never seen so many smiling faces.'"
Special Olympics can feel justifiable pride in the magnificent work it is doing to furnish sportsmen and women with moments of joy that they will never forget.
©UEFA.com 1998-2015. All rights reserved.
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<urn:uuid:db517878-c069-43cc-8792-7a0c84c6e36b>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.uefa.org/social-responsibility/news/newsid=2062627.html
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|
en
| 0.961012 | 1,064 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Jorge Srabstein, MD, medical director of the Clinic for Health Problems Related to Bullying at Children's National, discusses the physical and psychological health effects of bullying on children in a Huffington Post article.
Read the article
Want the latest Children’s National news and stories as they happen? Sign up to get our News & Events releases by email.
Children's National psychologist Eleanor Mackey, PhD, discusses a developing trend in teens and social media.
As the largest provider of pediatric care in the Washington, DC, area and as one of the nation’s leading children’s hospitals, we treat the effects and consequences of bullying every day.
In a USA Today article, Children's National's Joseph Wright, MD, MPH, discusses cyberbullying and stresses the importance of keeping communication completely open with kids.
Bullying is a serious problem for kids and can lead to extreme outcomes, like suicide. Social media’s popularity has taken cyberbullying to new dangerous levels, according to Dr. Joseph Wright.
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<urn:uuid:f8847659-0d80-4f1d-88b1-dd41ca3ec3e0>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://ccolvin@childrensnational.org/news-and-events/childrens-newsroom/2013/childrens-jorge-srabstein-md-discusses-bullyings-effects-on-health?sc_lang=en
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.922611 | 213 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Jacques had participated 1779 with Governor Bernardo de Galvez in defense of Louisiana during the American Revolution [see post "Monday's Military-Our Own Revolutionary War Heroes", July 4, 2011 for more information]. He was appointed Second Lieutenant on April 5, 1785 with the 5th Right Louisiana Militia. He married my 5th great-grandmother Aimee Marie Victoire Felicite Durel (1768-1843) on October 1, 1787. Together they had ten children, including my 4th great-grandfather Jacques Omer Fortier (1792-1823). In addition to serving with the volunteer militia, Jacques owned Pasture Plantation, a sugar cane plantation, below Belle Grove in "Cannes Brules", in what is now Kenner, Louisiana.
By 1803-05, Jacques had risen to the rank of Colonel in the Louisiana Militia. He would play a significant role in the largest slave uprising in American history, until recently largely unknown. This year, on January 9-11, 2011, marked the 200th Anniversary of the 1811 German Coast Slave Uprising. Along with local exhibits, guest lectures and a wide variety of special events commemorating the event, American Uprising: The Untold Story of America's Largest Slave Revolt was released. Written by Daniel Rasmussen, it tells the story of three days in New Orleans' history, what led up to it and what the consequences were for the men who fought for their freedom.
There are now websites dedicated to the event (www.1811SlaveRevolt.com and www.theslaverebellion.org) and blogs discussing it. National Public Radio tells the story - go to www.npr.org/2011/01/16/132839717/american-rising-when-slaves-took-on-new-orleans to listen to it - as does Wikipedia - www.en.wikipedia.org/1811_German_Coast_Uprising. My story is taken from the Genealogy Trails History Group website, www.genealogytrails.com/lou/orleans/slave_revolt.html.
1811 German Coast Slave Uprising
[Note: The German Coast was a region of Louisiana settlement located above New Orleans on the Mississippi River, from east to west, in what is now St. Charles, St. John the Baptist, and St. James Parishes. The name comes from the large number of Germans who first settled the area in 1721. Eventually French settlers moved into the area, joining their culture and families and, along with other settlers, helped to create Cajun culture.]
"It began January 8, 1811, on a plantation owned by Manuel Andry in St. Charles Parish, thirty-six miles south of New Orleans (near the present-day town of Norco). Charles Deslondes, a refugee from St. Domingue who worked as a slave driver on the plantation, organized the other slaves on the plantation. With the support of runaway slaves, or "maroons," who lived in the nearby swamps, Deslondes' band wounded Andry and killed his son.
|from The Times-Picayune, January 3, 2011|
[CLICK IMAGE TO ENLARGE]
Seizing weapons on the plantation, they set off on the road along the river headed for New Orleans, gathering recruits from other plantations as they went. Accounts differ, but they numbered between 150 and 500 strong. Alarmed planters fled with their families down-river to New Orleans ahead of them, sounding the alarm. During the night of January 9 and the morning of January 10, a detachment of United States regular troops and two companies of militia attacked the slaves at Jacques Fortier's plantation in St. Charles Parish, stopping the advance on New Orleans. Sixty-six slaves were killed. Seventy-five were held for questioning. [Note: Charles Deslondes was not taken in. One observer noted: 'Charles had his Hands chopped off then shot in one thigh & then the other, until they were both broken - then shot in the Body and before he had expired was put into a bundle of straw and roasted!']
After a week of investigation, Judge Pierre Bauchet Saint Martin of St. Charles Parish empanelled a tribunal of plantation owners, some of whom had suffered property damage in the revolt. [Two of the tribunal members were Adelard Fortier (1775-UNK), younger brother of Jacques and my 6x great uncle, and Edmond Fortier (1784-1849), son of Jacques' brother Michel II (1750-1819), and my first cousin 5x removed.]
Of the seventy-five slaves who were held, twenty-five were tried at Noel Destrehan's plantation. On January 15, 1811, after one day of investigation, the tribunal condemned eighteen of the slaves. They were taken to the plantations of their respective masters, where they were shot and their heads cut off and mounted on poles as an example to the remaining slaves.[In response, this letter was sent:]
March 6, 1811- Col. J. Fortier, in his private name, and in that of all the inhabitants of the upper coast, begs leave to address to General Hampton, and the offers and troops under his command, as well as to the detachment of the corps of marine, the sincerest expressions of thankfulness, for the zeal and promptitude with which they have been protected. The respect for the persons and property and strict discipline of the troops, deserved the greatest encomium. The body of volunteers are also requested to make a merited share of praise for their courage and patience, in suffering privations and unavoidable fatigues on such occasions; and although the invaluable service which they have rendered to the county can be feebly expressed, it will ever be engraved in the hearts of all the inhabitants, and peculiarly in that of col. J. Fortiers."
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<urn:uuid:2bfd9310-ada6-4d2b-ae96-765b24b60736>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://climbingthebranches.blogspot.com/2011/09/mondays-military-jacques-fortier-1811.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.968335 | 1,250 | 2.703125 | 3 |
1000 litres of a mixture of H2, N2 and CO2 at 150oC was found to have the following ratio for the partial pressures of the gases: PH2 : PN2 : PCO2 is 1:4:3. If the total pressure is 2 atm absolute, calculate
A dryer with a capacity of 800 kg/day operates on a material which is 90% H2O and 10% solid. The product which contains 20% H2O is dried in another dryer until the water content is 2%. Calculate the % of the original water which is removed in each dryer and the weight of product from each dryer.
In order to obtain barium in a form that may be put into solution, the natural barytes, containing only pure barium sulfate and infusible matter, is fused with an excess of pure, anhydrous soda ash. Upon analysis of the fusion mass it is found to contain 11.3% barium sulfate, 27.7% sodium sulfate and 20.35% sodium carbonate. The remainder is barium carbonate and infusible matter. Calculate
- Mole fraction of each of these gases.
- Weight percent of each of these gases.
- Average molecular weight and
- Weight of CO2 in kg.
Air at a temperature of 20oC and 750 mm Hg has a relative humidity of 80%. Calculate
- The % conversion of barium sulfate to barium carbonate
- The composition of original barytes and
- The % excess of sodium carbonate used above the theoretical amount required for reaction with all the barium sulfate.
Vapor pressure of water at 20oC = 17.5 mm Hg
- the molal humidity of the air
- the molal humidity of this air if its temperature is reduced to 10oC and pressure increased to 2000 mm Hg condensing out some of the water, and
- weight of water condensed from 1000 litres of the original wet air in cooling and compressing to the conditions of part (ii).
Vapor pressure of water at 10oC = 9.2 mm Hg.
A fuel oil containing 88.2% Carbon and 11.8% Hydrogen (by weight) is burnt with 20% excess air. 95% of the carbon is burnt to carbon dioxide and the rest to carbon monoxide. All the hydrogen is converted to water. Determine the Orsat analysis of the flue gas.
A furnace uses a natural gas which consists of entirely hydrocarbons. The flue gas analysis is CO2 : 9.5%, O2 : 1.4%, CO : 1.9% and the rest to N2. Calculate
The gases from a sulfur have the following analysis: SO2 : 9.86%, O2 : 8.54%, N2 : 81.6%. After passage of the gases through a catalytic converter, the analysis (SO3 free basis) is SO2 : 0.6%, O2 : 4.5%, N2 : 94.9%. What % of the SO2 entering the converter has been oxidized to SO3?
The analysis of gas entering the converter in Contact H2SO4 plant is SO2 : 4%, O2 : 13% and N2 : 83% (on volume basis). The gas leaving the converter contains 0.45% SO2 on SO3 free basis (by volume). Calculate the % of SO2 entering the converter getting converted to SO3.
17.2 grams of N2O4 gas, when heated to 100oC at 720 mm Hg undergoes 90% dissociation according to the equation N2O4 à
2NO2. Calculate the volume occupied at 100oC and 720 mm Hg assuming ideal gas law.
A gaseous mixture contains 1 kg of helium, 5 kg of ammonia and 10 kg of nitrogen at 344.1 K and 2 atm absolute pressure. Calculate:
- atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the fuel
- percentage excess air used
- composition of the fuel gas in the form CxHy.
A solvent recovery system delivers gas saturated with benzene vapor which analyses on a benzene-free basis 15% CO2, 4% O2 and 81% N2. This gas is at 21.1oC and 750 mm Hg pressure. It is compressed to 5 atmosphere and cooled to the same temperature after compression. How many kg of benzene are condensed by this process per 1000 m3 of the original mixture if the vapor pressure of at 21.1oC is 75 mm Hg?
A distillation column separates an ethyl alcohol feed into high purity alcohol and waste water. The feed has a composition of 20 mole percent of ethyl alcohol. The distillate contains 85 mole percent ethyl alcohol and the bottoms have a 3 mole percent alcohol concentration. If the feed is charged to the column at the rate of 45 kmol/hr, calculate
- the composition in mole percent
- the partial pressure of each component
- the molal density of the mixture, and
- the average molecular weight.
In a causticization process, NaOH is produced by adding a solution containing 10% by weight of sodium carbonate in the stoichiometric proportions to an inlet slurry containing 25% by weight of calcium hydroxide. If the inlet slurry is charged at the rate of 100 kg/hr, what would be the composition of the final slurry if the reaction goes to 99% completion? What is the amount of sodium hydroxide produced?
Formaldehyde is manufactured by the catalytic oxidation of methanol using an excess of air according to the reaction I. A secondary oxidation II also occurs if the conditions are not properly controlled.
- the quantity of distillate and bottoms
- what percentage of alcohol in the feed is recovered in the distillate?
CH3OH + 0.5O2 à
HCHO + H2O -- I
HCHO + 0.5O2 à
HCOOH -- II
In a test run the product gases have the following composition by volume: CH3OH = 8.6% ; HCHO = 3.1% ; HCOOH = 0.6% ; H2O = 3.7% ; O2 = 16.0% ; N2 = 68%. Calculate the following:
Natural gas containing CH4 = 83% and C2H6 = 17% was burnt with an excess of dry air. The Orsat analysis of the flue gas was CO2 = 6.76% ; CO = 2.77% ; O2 = 5.63% ; N2 = 84.84%. Calculate the following:
- Percentage conversion of methanol to formaldehyde
- Percentage of methanol lost due to reaction II.
- Molar ratio of air to methanol used.
Carbon dioxide is produced by recovering CO2 from flue gas. The flue gas is passed up through an absorber in contact with an aqueous solution of Na2CO3. The flue gas contains 20 percent (by volume) of CO2. The effluent gas from the absorber contains 9 percent CO2 (by volume). How many kg moles of flue gas are required to produce 1000 kg of CO2 if 90 percent of the CO2 absorbed is recovered as product?
8000 kg of an aqueous solution containing 25 percent (by weight) of anhydrous sodium sulfate are fed to a crystallizer. The solution is cooled and 15% of the initial water is lost by evaporation. Na2SO4.10H2O crystallizes out. If the mother liquor (solution after crystallization) contains 18.3% (by weight) of anhydrous Na2SO4, calculate the weight of mother liquor and crystals obtained.
Air at 1 atmosphere (absolute) and 40oC containing 0.053 kmol water/ kmol of dry air is to be conditioned to 30oC containing 0.018 kmol of water/ kmol of dry air by cooling part of the air to 25oC containing 0.012 kmol of water/ kmol of dry air and mixing it with the uncooled air. The resulting mixture is reheated to 30oC. For 1000 m3/min of wet air at 30oC and containing 0.018 kmol of water/ kmol of dry air, calculate:
- percentage excess air supplied
- percentage completion of oxidation of carbon
- amount of fuel gas produced per 100 m3 of fuel at 500oC and 1 atmosphere pressure.
In a process to manufacture HCl, common salt and sulfuric acid are heated together. The HCl gas produced is cooled and absorbed in water to produce 31.5% HCl (by weight). Some HCl is lost during absorption. To produce 1 ton of 31.5% HCl, 550 kg of common salt and 480 kg of 98% H2SO4 were taken. The reaction goes to completion. Calculate:
- volume of entering wet air, and
- percentage of entering air which is bypassed.
A liquid containing 47.5% acetic acid and 52.5% water is to be separated by solvent extraction using isopropanol. The solvent used is 1.3 kg per kg of feed. The final extract is found to contain 82% acid on solvent free basis. The residue has 14% acid on solvent free basis. Find the percentage extraction of acid from the feed.
When heated to 100oC and 720 mm Hg pressure, 17.2 gm of N2O4 gas occupy a volume of 11.45 litres. Assuming that ideal gas law applies calculate the % dissociation of N2O4 to NO2.
Paper is passing continuously through a tunnel drier. The entering paper contains 10 % water (dry basis i.e., 10 kg water/100 kg dry paper) and the leaving paper contains 2% water (dry basis). How many kg of water is evaporated per hour if 1000 kg/hr of paper enters the drier?
Chlorobenzene is nitrated using mixed acid. A charge consisted of 100 kg of chlorobenzene, 106.5 kg of 65.5% nitric acid, and 93.6% sulfuric acid. After 2 hours of operation it was found that 2% of the feed chlorobenzene remained unreacted and the product distribution was 66% p-nitrochlorobenzene and 34% o-nitrochlorobenzene. Calculate
- Which reactant is in excess?
- What is the amount of HCl lost?
- Calculate the composition and quantity of residue left behind when 50% of water is distilled off.
In a vessel at 200 kN/m2 and 310 K, % relative humidity of water vapor in air is 25. The partial pressure of water vapor when air is saturated with vapor at 310 K is 6.3 kN/m2. Calculate:
- the analysis of charge
- percentage conversion of chlorobenzene
- the composition of the products.
Carbon tetra chloride is to be removed from a polymer solution by
bubbling dry air through it at 297 K. The resulting mixture has % relative humidity of 70. It is required to remove 90% of carbon tetra chloride present by cooling to 283 K, and compressing to a suitable pressure. What this pressure should be?
- humidity of air
- Percentage humidity.
Data: Vapor pressure of CCl4 at 297 K = 12.2 kN/m2 and at 283 K = 6 kN/m2
280 kg of nitrogen and 64.5 kg of hydrogen are brought together and allowed to react at 515oC and 300 atm pressure and from the experimental measurements it is found that there are 38 kmol of gases present at equilibrium.
Methanol is produced by the reaction of carbon monoxide with hydrogen.
- How many kmol of N2 and H2 and ammonia are present at equilibrium?
- Which is the limiting and which is the excess reactant?
- How much excess hydrogen is there?
- What is the amount of theoretically required hydrogen?
- What is the percentage conversion of hydrogen to ammonia?
CO + 2H2 à
CH3OH. -- I
The side reaction is
CO + 3H2 à
CH4 + H2O -- II
At a pressure of 70.3 kgf/cm2 (absolute) and a temperature of 301.5oC, the conversion per pass is 12.5%, and of this amount 87.5% is assumed to react via equation I and 12.5% via equation II. The stream leaving the reactor passes through a condenser and a separator. Carbon monoxide and hydrogen, leaving this unit are recycled. The leaves as a gas and the liquid mixture of methanol and water passes to a distillation column for the concentration of methanol. Fresh feed gas contains 32 mole % CO and 68 mole % H2 at 65.5oC and 70.3 kgf/cm2 (absolute). Recycle stream is also at 70.3 kgf/cm2 (absolute) and 301.5oC. Calculate:
What will be the composition of the gases obtained by burning pure FeS2 with 60% excess air? Assume that the reaction proceeds in the following manner:
- Analysis, mole % and weight % of hot gaseous stream leaving the reactor.
- Methanol content, weight % of liquid (Methanol + water) stream, leaving the condenser and separator.
- Recycle ratio expressed as kg of CO and H2 recycled per kg of fresh feed gas.
4FeS2 + 11O2 à
2Fe2O3 + 8SO2.
Calculate the total pressure and the composition of vapors in contact with a solution at 100oC containing 35% benzene, 40% toluene and 25% xylene by weight.
Data: Vapor pressures at 100oC
Benzene: 1340 mm Hg
Toluene: 560 mm Hg
Xylene: 210 mm Hg
Two engineers are calculating the average molecular weight of a gaseous mixture containing oxygen and other gases. One of them using the correct molecular weight of 32 determines the average molecular weight correctly as 39.2. The other using an incorrect value of 16 determines the average molecular weight as 32.8. This is the only error in the calculations. What is the amount of oxygen in the mixture expressed in mole % and weight %?
Pure carbon dioxide may be prepared by treating limestone with dilute sulfuric acid. The limestone contains CaCO3 and MgCO3 with a small quantity of inert matter. The acid used is 12% H2SO4. During the process the mass was warmed and CO2 and water vapor were removed. The residue from the process has the following composition:
Calculate the following:
Antimony (Sb) is produced by heating powdered Sb2S3 and Fe and removing molten Sb from the reaction vessel. If 1.8 kg of Sb2S3 and 1.3 kg of Fe are heated to give 0.9 kg of Sb, calculate
- The analysis of limestone used; and
- The percentage of excess acid used.
Natural gas containing 80% CH4, 15% C2H6 and 5% C3H8 is burnt with 50% excess air. Assuming that 90% of the hydrocarbons are converted to CO2 and the rest to CO, determine
- Limiting and excess reactants
- Percentage excess reactant
- Degree of completion
- Percentage conversion.
The gaseous reaction A à
2B + C takes place isothermally in a constant pressure reactor. Starting with a mixture of 75% A and 25% inerts (by volume), in a specified time the volume doubles. Calculate the conversion achieved.
In the Deacon process for manufacturing chlorine, hydrochloric acid gas is oxidized with air. The reaction taking place is
- Fuel gas analysis
- Orsat analysis
4HCl + O2 à
2Cl2 + 2H2O
If the air is used in excess of 30% of that theoretically required, and if the oxidation is 80% complete, calculate the composition by volume of dry gases leaving the reaction chamber.
In a particular crystallization process, 2500 kg of Na2SO4.12H2O crystals are obtained. The mother liquor leaving the process contains 20% Na2SO4 anhydrous by weight. If the feed solution contains 35% Na2SO4 and 25% of the original H2O is lost by evaporation, determine:
Nitrogen from a cylinder is bubbled through acetone at 1.1 bar and 323 K at the rate of 2 x 10-4 m3/min. The nitrogen, saturated with acetone vapor leaves at 1.013 bar, 308 K at the rate of 3.83 x 10-4 m3/min. What is the vapor pressure of acetone at 308 K?
Limestone mixed with coke is being burnt in a kiln. An average analysis of the limestone is CaCO3 : 84.5%, MgCO3 : 11.5% and the rest inerts. The coke contains 76% carbon, 21% ash and 3% moisture. The calcination of CaCO3 is only 95% complete and that of MgCO3 is 90%. The carbon in the coke is completely burnt to CO2. The kiln is fed with 1 kg of coke per 5 kg of limestone. Calculate weight percent CaO in the product leaving the kiln.
Pure propane (C3H8) is burnt in an excess of air to give the following analysis of combustion products in volume percent:
- weight of original solution and mother liquor
- percentage recovery
CO2 = 5.0, CO = 3.5, H2O = 11.4, O2 = 7.0 and N2 = 73.1
A mixture of NH3 and air at 720 mm Hg and 40o contains 6.3% NH3 by volume. The gas is passed at the rate of 100 m3/hr through an absorption tower in which only NH3 is removed. The gases leave the tower at
715 mm Hg and 30oC containing 0.09% NH3 by volume. Using ideal gas law, calculate
Calculate the percentage of excess air used.
The analysis of 15000 litre of gas mixture at standard conditios is as follows:
- Rate of flow of gas leaving the absorber.
- Weight of NH3 absorbed in kg/hr
CO2 = 9.5% ; SO2 = 0.5% ; O2 = 12.0% ; N2 = 78.0%.
How much heat must be added to this gas to change its temperature from 25oC to 700oC?
Data: Specific heat values in kcal/(kmol.oK)
Gas CO2 SO2 O2 N2
Cp at 25oC 8.884 9.54 7.017 6.961
Cp at 700oC 11.303 11.66 7.706 7.298
10 kmol of zinc are to be heated from 0oC to 1000oC. It melts at 419oC and boils at 907oC. Determine the heat required for the process.
Cpm of solid Zn = 0.105 kcal/kg oC
Cpm of molten Zn = 0.109 kcal/kg oC
Cpm of vapor Zn = 4.97 kcal/kmol
vap = 26900 kcal/kmol
Use Trouton's rule to estimate the latent heat of melting.
An evaporator is fed with10000 kg/hr of a solution containing 1% solute by weight. It is to be concentrated to 1.5% solute by weight. The feed is at a temperature of 37oC. The water is evaporated by heating with steam available at a pressure of 1.34 atm absolute, corresponding to a temperature of 108.3oC. The operating pressure in the vapor space is 1 atm absolute. Boiling point elevation and other effects can be neglected. The condensate leaves at the condensing temperature. All the physical properties of the solution may be taken to be same as that of water. What is the quantity of steam required per hour? What is the quantity of steam required per hour?
Calculate the theoretical flame temperatre of a gaseous fuel containing 20% CO, and 80% N2 when burnt with 100% excess air, both air and gas initially being at 25oC. Heat of combustion of
carbon monoxide = 67636 kcal/kmol.
Enthalpy of feed = 38.1 kcal/kg
Enthalpy of solution inside the evaporator (at 100oC) = 644 kcal/kg
Enthalpy of vapor at 100oC = 644 kcal/kg
Latent heat of vaporization of steam = 540 kcal/kg
Data: Specific heats of products of combustion in kcal/(kmol.oK)
100 kg/hr of an organic ester of formula
being hydrogenated to C19H38O2 by a
continuous process. The
company purchases its hydrogen in cylinders of 10 m3 capacity
initially at 70 bar and
303 K. If the company buys 50 days demand of H2 at a time, how
many cylinders it should
order? For H2, Tc = 33 K, Pc = 12.8 bar.
Vanderwaals constants are
given by a = (27R2Tc2/64Pc)
and b = (RTc/8Pc)
where R = 0.08 lit.atm/gmol.oK. Use Vanderwaals equation for
solving the problem.
A wet organic pigment 35% by weight of CCl4 is to be
dried to 5%. The drier is to operate adiabatically
with fresh plus recycle air entering the drier with 0.43 kg of
CCl4/kg of dry air. The air leaves the drier with 0.945
kg of CCl4/kg of dry air. The capacity of the drier is 200 kg
of bone dry solid/hr. Calculate the
ratio of the recycled air to fresh air.
In a textile mill 20% by weight solution of caustic soda required
for mercerization is prepared in the following way:
First caustic soda is dissolved in correct quantity of water to produce
50% by weight of solution, cooled to remove all heat of dissolution
and then diluted to 20% concentration with required quantity of water in
the dilution tank. Evaluate the
weight ratio of water added to dissolution tank and water flowing through
the bypass line to dilution tank.
The reaction A
Carbon dioxide: Cp = 6.339 + 10.14 x 10-3T
Oxygen: Cp = 6.117 + 3.167 x 10-3T
Nitrogen: Cp = 6.457 + 1.389 x 10-3T
where T = temperature in Kelvin
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Wildlife trade is perhaps the most immediate threat to animals in many parts of the world. Around the globe, wildlife is being bought and sold on an increasingly massive scale as pets, meat, and food, as medicine, furs, feathers, skins, and trophies.
We aim to reduce poaching pressure on wildlife populations. To do this, we are employing a few main strategies:
Document the crisis.
Take action to stop the killing.
Stop the trafficking.
Stop the demand.
Influence both national and intergovernmental policy.
WCS has good relationships with key governments and agencies and a growing influence on wildlife trafficking in the global policy arena. We also have country programs in nearly 60 nations, which are active at key sources sites, working on the ground to stop poaching.
WCS has developed or helped develop intelligence networks in several countries to inform and facilitate effective anti-poaching efforts. In 2014, our Wildlife Crimes Unit aided in a major arrest in Indonesia, which yielded the largest cache of manta gill plates in the country’s history—227 lbs. worth.
On Our Strategies
The primary focus of WCS's trafficking work is on terrestrial animals that are traded globally, typically of high commercial value, protected under national or international laws or treaties, and where WCS brings specific expertise; this includes elephants, tigers, tortoises, freshwater turtles, parrots, and pangolins.
Document the Crisis
WCS conducts scientifically-sound population surveys for many species (like elephants and tigers), monitoring illegal killing, and conducting market surveys of species in trade. Our reports have been critical in policy advocacy. In 2013, a scientific study and report on the perilous status of Asian and African forest elephants and a WCS-led analysis of the shocking forest elephant decline in Central Africa was released. It was highly influential at the meeting of CITES member states, or the Conference of Parties, that year.
Stop the Killing
WCS manages protected areas, leads anti-poaching initiatives, builds local capacity, and monitors law enforcement efforts through the use of SMART, a combination of computer software and training materials designed to help local authorities in protected areas. This has long been one of WCS's core strengths and will remain so, and we are actively engaged in this work in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. We've had measurable success in reducing poaching.
Stop the Trafficking
WCS focuses on major wildlife trafficking routes, setting our actions in a transnational context. The traffic routes that we focus on involving Asia and Africa are:
SE Asian pangolin trafficking (Indonesia, Malaysia, Viet Nam, China)
Asian Tiger trafficking: Trans-Himalayan (India, Nepal, China)
SE Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, China)
Trans-continental African rhino horn trafficking (South Africa, Mozambique, Viet Nam, Thailand, Malaysia, China).
Stop the Demand
WCS works to ensure that governments and intergovernmental organizations prioritize a demand-reduction focus that is evidence-based, measurable, strategic, and culturally appropriate for the relevant consumers (rather than only generic awareness). In China, we work to reduce the demand for ivory, in particular through Chinese social media platforms, with a focus on affecting behavioral change.
Influence Both National and Intergovernmental Policy
WCS has significant experience with and influence in key international policy forums of relevance to wildlife crime. Our staff hold influential positions in IUCN, have deep knowledge and years of experience with CITES and the UN, and sit on the U.S. Government's Advisory Council on Wildlife Trafficking. We use this experience and influence to help ensure a supportive policy environment for our efforts to combat the illegal killing and trafficking in wildlife.
Join more than one million wildlife lovers working to save the Earth's most
treasured and threatened species. (Oh, and get a free sticker.)
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Fewer than 3,200 wild tigers are left on this earth – a fact we
can no longer afford to ignore. Help us raise $50,000 for Big
Cats by June 30th.
Donate today and your gift will be matched,
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Six miles into Glacier National Park's backcountry, a skiff plies the water of Quartz Lake. A team of fishermen traces out nets in a careful pattern along the near-shore lake bottom. Working at night under peaks newly covered with snow, the fishermen set and pull their gear, some 2,000 feet worth of gillnetting, by hand.
This is no clandestine commercial fishing venture. The fishermen are, in fact, scientists, and their nightly exertions are a National Park Service fisheries management tool in motion--an ecological line in the sand.
Guided by Montana State University scientists and their surveys of Glacier's native and nonnative fish species and their habitats, gillnetting at Quartz Lake has become the cornerstone in a fight to save one native char--the bull trout--by knocking down an invasive char--the lake trout. MSU has been playing a very similar role in Yellowstone National Park's 17-year battle to suppress lake trout in Yellowstone Lake, where a once-thriving cutthroat trout population collapsed, largely because of predation from lake trout.
With gillnet panels sized to snare smaller juvenile and larger spawning-age fish, the goal of lake trout suppression is to pull in as many of the invaders as possible.
Catch enough lake trout and their population will crash, says Christopher Guy, a professor of fish ecology in the Department of Ecology at MSU. As the assistant leader of the Montana Cooperative Fishery Research Unit, a joint effort by MSU, the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks and the U.S. Geological Survey, Guy's mission is to educate graduate students in fisheries science.
Hoping to answer questions about Glacier's fisheries, Guy has sent students into the park's wild westward drainages. These Flathead River tributaries are some of the last strongholds for the large-growing char known as the bull trout, found in both the Flathead and Hudson Bay drainages of the park.
Of particular interest was Quartz Lake, which biologists counted among the most ecologically intact watersheds in the Northern Rockies. That changed when lake trout were discovered in the drainage in 2005.
Now the war on Glacier National Park's lake trout has become a fight to preserve a handful of the most promising sites for bull trout.
There are 12 bull trout lakes that feed into the Flathead River system. MSU-led surveys determined that nine have been invaded by lake trout. At Quartz Lake, park officials decided to make their stand.
In 2007, a park-wide action plan was drawn up and in 2009 a decision was made to initiate an experimental lake trout suppression project on Quartz Lake. The project is unique because it is located in the park's backcountry, six miles from the nearest trailhead. Following a National Environmental Policy Act-required review of the plans, officials helicoptered a motorized skiff and materials into the lake and built a stone-reinforced fish barrier on Quartz Creek to keep out migrating lake trout.
In some of Glacier's marquee lakes, lake trout are well established and have local bull trout populations on the verge of blinking out. Officials decided some of them--McDonald, Bowman and Kintla--would be left to fate for the time being.
"If we were to sit back and do nothing about lake trout, it's likely that bull trout would become functionally extinct in these lakes," says Clint Muhlfeld, an MSU-trained research ecologist with the USGS Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center in Bozeman and the University of Montana's Flathead Lake Biological Station. With help from Guy, Muhlfeld has been coordinating the gillnetting program at Quartz Lake.
Guy has dubbed the struggle: "The char wars."
A battle below the surface
Bull trout, once ubiquitous in the Columbia River system, are currently listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act.
This species of char, native to the Pacific Northwest and Canada and close relative of the Dolly Varden trout is fond of cold, clear water. For spawning, bull trout typically require clean, stream-washed gravels, which Glacier's remote, snow-fed valleys offer to near perfection.
Also classified as char, lake trout thrive in the cold, still water of deep lakes. They stand out among the freshwater salmonids (both trout and char belong to the family salmonidae) because they feed voraciously on a mixture of invertebrates and smaller fish, much the same diet as bull trout.
Unfortunately for the native bull trout around Glacier, lake trout seem to play the part of top predator better, a role that may include predation on young bull trout.
Likewise in Yellowstone Lake, lake trout don't just out-compete the cutthroat--they eat cutthroat. Yellowstone National Park fisheries supervisor Todd Koel estimates that larger lake trout can devour between 40 and 50 cutthroat in a year.
"That kind of predation put the Yellowstone cutthroat into decline," Koel says.
In the late 1800s, lake trout came to the high-elevation lakes of the northern Rockies with a helping hand from the U.S. government, which hoped to bolster Western fisheries at a time when the region was still being settled.
The U.S. Commission on Fish and Fisheries began planting various cold-water species in lakes out West. In Yellowstone National Park, lake trout were introduced into Lewis and Shoshone lakes, in the headwaters of the Snake River drainage.
Federal fisheries managers also planted them in Flathead Lake.
Over the passing of a century or so, fish from Flathead Lake have migrated into many of the lakes upstream.
"We've discovered that lake trout are very opportunistic," Muhlfeld says. "They have a remarkable ability to move around and colonize new water if there aren't significant barriers in their way."
Char from afar in Yellowstone Lake
With a dozen miles of forest and the Continental Divide separating Lewis and Shoshone from Yellowstone Lake, exploratory urges cannot explain the arrival of lake trout in Yellowstone Lake in 1994.
MSU fish ecology professor Thomas McMahon, along with co-authors Andrew Munro and James Ruzycki, put to rest the notion that Yellowstone Lake always had an isolated ancestral lake trout population.
McMahon set out to see if chemical markers in fish otoliths, sometimes called ear stones, could be correlated to the mineral composition in a fish's water of origin. Since each body of water has its own chemical signature, they looked for a shift in the chemical markers laid down during otolith growth. Because otoliths show growth rings, much like a tree, the timing of a shift could be charted by age of the lake trout, which is one of the longest-living salmonids.
"We figured we'd take the oldest, largest fish in the system, and if they'd been introduced (to Yellowstone Lake), the chemical signal would show a difference that would correspond to that change," McMahon says. "And sure enough, in comparison to the younger ones, which had (a) flat line (graph), the older fish had this sharp rise in that signal."
The earlier signal was a match to Lewis Lake. The growth rings pointed to a transplanting in the late 1980s, likely around 1988. The culprit could have been birds of prey or some other wild animals that might have offered accidental lifts to lake trout or their fertilized eggs.
"In the end we pretty much know it was an animal--human beings--that planted the fish," says Robert Gresswell, MSU research professor and USGS research biologist with the Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center.
This kind of illegal transplanting is often called bucket biology. Park biologists called it potential disaster.
Action at Yellowstone Lake
Park officials quickly began assessing their options for protecting the Yellowstone Lake system cutthroat, a prized sport fish pursued by park visitors and an important food source for park wildlife.
Because Yellowstone cutthroat spawn in some 60 tributaries, they are also an important seasonal prey for grizzlies, river otters, bald eagles, osprey and other species. Lake trout, on the other hand, spawn on the lake bottom and are not readily available as a prey species.
In the decades since 1994, that population has dwindled alarmingly. The park's namesake lake, once the continent's most productive inland cutthroat fishery, now had spawning streams with few or no fish returning in the spring. Clear Creek, which as recently as the 1980s had supported as many as 50,000 spawning cutthroat, was down to 500 by the middle of the last decade. Predators turned elsewhere for food.
By 1995, park officials released "The Yellowstone Lake Crisis: Confronting a Lake Trout Invasion," an action plan on lake trout suppression that listed gillnetting and trapnetting as the most attractive options to suppress the population.
The strategy is written into the fishing history of the upper Midwest, where over harvesting and other factors devastated lake trout stocks. Once an important commercial fishery in the northern Great Lakes, lake trout are today reduced to a remnant population in only the largest of the lakes, Lake Superior.
Over the next 15 years, the Park Service spent millions of dollars working to catch lake trout. Biologists put radio telemetry tags on sterilized males, known as Judas fish, to map out the lake's primary spawning grounds. There, gillnets target spawners. A finer mesh net catches the juveniles.
But some fundamental questions loomed: Was the program working? Or were they simply removing some fish from a healthy, ever-growing population?
Research coming out of MSU helped answer the question.
A 2010 population study of lake trout in Yellowstone Lake led by John Syslo, an MSU doctoral student working with Guy, suggested that park efforts had not likely pushed lake trout toward the brink.
Over the past two summers, that research has guided the Park Service's ramped-up suppression effort at Yellowstone Lake. Park vessels were joined by the Hickey Brothers Fisheries Co., a commercial fishing contractor from Door County, Wis.
When fishing operations wrapped up last fall, the Park Service announced that more than 300,000 lake trout had been removed in 2012--a record catch. It also marked the first time the fishing effort had met the benchmark--a figure measured in the thousands of feet of gillnet deployed each day--suggested by Syslo and Guy's work.
"We are feeling good about the effort," Koel says. "The idea is to keep the number of catchable-size lake trout declining by more than half each year, which should effectively collapse the lake trout population."
Gresswell, who has led extensive efforts to use acoustic telemetry to track lake trout movements, points out the Park Service is seeing fewer fish hauled in per net.
"It's too early to tell if it's signaling the beginning of a downward spiral for lake trout, but that statistic is a big deal," Gresswell says. Biologists are also looking for a rebound in the numbers of Yellowstone cutthroat trout. Gresswell and Koel both say there is reason to be optimistic.
Park Service monitoring of cutthroat catches has shown two straight years of very strong production for small fish. Surveys of spawning streams have also shown cutthroat returning to streams that had recently been nearly devoid of spawning fish.
With more than a half million fish netted or trapped in the past two seasons--nearly as many as the previous 16 years combined--Park Service and MSU scientists say they hope the balance within the ecosystem is beginning to tip against the invader.
When they will pass that tipping point is an open question. According to Guy, population modeling will continue to help to define the fishing effort needed to reach that point.
"But it takes time and a lot of data to refine the models," Guy says. "This is ecology and the data are often messy."
"That's where the work coming out of MSU has been so important," Koel says. "It's giving us a better (target) to drive that lake trout population to its knees."
Targeting the Flathead system
Several hundred miles northwest of Yellowstone, in the upper Flathead drainage, state and federal biologists working on the lake trout problem also look to MSU science.
In the ancestral bull trout waters of Swan Lake, to Glacier's south, biologists with the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks have declared another front in the war on lake trout.
In addition to helping with the gillnetting program there, MSU scientists are looking at other means of controlling the lake's invasive char. Donning scuba gear, Guy's MSU postdoctoral student Peter Brown and research assistant Nate Laulainen spent the fall diving in the lake's frigid water.
They were testing methods for delivering a lethal dose of electricity to the lake trout eggs that are deposited into lake bed gravel each spawning season. Similar electrofishing methods are being studied in Yellowstone. Despite challenges, Brown says he plans to return to Swan Lake in 2013.
For now, gillnetting remains biologists' most lethal weapon for suppressing lake trout.
As an October storm lashes Quartz Lake, Guy, Muhlfeld and Glacier National Park fisheries biologist Chris Downs take stock of their efforts.
Because the gillnetting program is relatively new at Quartz Lake and a lake trout population estimate is ongoing--it will be MSU student Carter Fredenberg's master's thesis--the biologists are cautiously optimistic about the falling catch rates they saw during the 2012 season.
"We certainly aren't going to say we've suppressed the population, but it is a good sign," Guy says.
But lake trout are only half of the equation.
Downs says they need to see stable or increasing numbers in their annual count of bull trout redds, or spawning beds, in upper Quartz Creek.
"That's one indication the lake trout suppression program is being effective," Downs says. "It's amazing to think of the effort and creativity that has gone into the Quartz Lake project thus far, from building a fish passage (lake trout) barrier in the backcountry using hand-tools, to flying a boat in here for gillnetting, to dedicated field crews spending long backcountry hitches netting at night in extreme weather."
Downs and Muhlfeld motor off into the gale heading across the lake to bushwhack along upper Quartz Creek in search of bull trout redds. What they find--big freshly hollowed out depressions in the streambed where bull trout deposit their eggs--is encouraging.
"The migratory bull trout population in Quartz appears to be holding steady," Muhlfeld says. "And we are working with Chris Guy and his MSU students on population models to measure our impact on Glacier's invasive lake trout. We turned to the best."
The battle to suppress invasive lake trout will be a "long haul," Guy says. The key for gillnetting programs, whether in Yellowstone, Swan or Quartz lakes, will be keeping suppression efforts up to a level that removes more fish than the ecosystems produce through spawning.
Because the struggle between native and invasive char happens underwater, out of sight of the public, Guy says it can be tricky to raise awareness about the ecological problems that result when lake trout take over.
"Hopefully MSU will be able to continue to provide the science to help the agencies working on this problem," Guy says. "Then, if it goes well, we can look back at this and say we left future generations a few special places where the ecological heritage is still relatively intact."
Mountains and Minds reporter Sepp Jannotta crosses Montana day and night to explore trout research at Montana State University.
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A paper published today in Biology of Reproduction's Papers-in-Press describes the effects of brief prenatal exposure to plant estrogens on the mouse oviduct, modeling the effects of soy-based baby formula on human infants. The results suggest that exposure to estrogenic chemicals in the womb or during childhood has the potential to affect a woman's fertility as an adult, possibly providing the mechanistic basis for some cases of unexplained female infertility.
Earlier research suggested that neonatal exposure to plant estrogens or other environmental estrogens (synthetic substances that function similarly to the estrogen naturally produced in the body) may have long-term effects on adult female reproductive health. Wendy N. Jefferson, a researcher in the lab of Carmen J. Williams at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of the National Institutes of Health, previously demonstrated that neonatal exposure to the plant estrogen genistein results in complete infertility in female adult mice. Causes of infertility included failure to ovulate, reduced ability of the oviduct to support embryo development before implantation, and failure of the uterus to support effective implantation of blastocyst-stage embryos.
The team now reports that neonatal exposure to genistein changes the level of immune response in the mouse oviduct, known as mucosal immune response. Some of the immune response genes were altered beginning from the time of genistein treatment, while others were altered much later, when the mouse was in early pregnancy. Together, those changes led to harmfully altered immune responses and to compromised oviduct support for preimplantation embryo development, both of which would likely contribute to infertility.
These findings raise the possibility that exposure to low levels of environmental or plant estrogens during sensitive developmental windows can alter the balance of the mucosal immune response in the uterus and oviduct.
In the mouse, the window of development during which these changes can occur is found only in the neonatal period; in humans, development of the reproductive tract continues through the onset of puberty. Therefore, estrogenic chemical exposure to the female fetus, infant, child, and adolescent all have potential impacts on mucosal immunity in the reproductive tract and, therefore, on adult fertility. The authors present the view that limiting such exposures, including minimizing use of soy-based baby formula, is a step toward maintaining female reproductive health.
Biology of Reproduction, published by the Society for the Study of Reproduction, is a top-rated peer-reviewed research journal in the field of reproductive biology.
Jefferson WN, Padilla-Banks E, Phelps JY, Cantor AM, Williams CJ. Neonatal phytoestrogen exposure alters oviduct mucosal immune response to pregnancy and affects preimplantation embryo development in the mouse. Biol Reprod 2012; (in press). Published online ahead of print 2 May 2012; DOI 10.1095/biolreprod.112.099846.
See also: Jefferson WN, Padilla-Banks E, Phelps JY, Gerrish KE, Williams CJ. Permanent oviduct posteriorization following neonatal exposure to the phytoestrogen genistein. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119:1575-1582.
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Learning to Grasp Novel Objects
We consider the problem of grasping novel objects, specifically ones that are being seen for the first time through vision. Supervised learning techniques have been utilized to train a robot to grasp both previously seen and novel objects. Here we present learning algorithms that given the image of an object, predict the gripper configuration for grasping. The configuration can be represented as a single point,
or as an oriented rectangle,
These videos show the robotic arm picking up previously unknown objects using only vision completely autonomously:
- Learning to grasp using grasping rectangles:mp4
- 1 minute video (3-x speed; Jan 31, 2006): mp4, avi, wmv.
- Unload a dishwasher (2-x speed; Nov 30, 2006): wmv.
- Fetching a stapler in response to a verbal command (integrated with navigation, object recognition and speech, with Morgan Quigley; May 2, 2007): mov
- Deep Learning for Detecting Robotic Grasps, Ian Lenz, Honglak Lee, Ashutosh Saxena. To appear in Robotics: Science and Systems (RSS), 2013. [PDF coming soon, arXiv]
- Learning Hardware Agnostic Grasps for a Universal Jamming Gripper, Yun Jiang, John Amend, Hod Lipson, Ashutosh Saxena. In International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), 2012. [PDF, video]
- Efficient Grasping from RGBD images: Learning using a new Rectangle Representation, Yun Jiang, Moseson Stephen, Ashutosh Saxena. In International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), 2011. [PDF]
- Learning grasp strategies with partial shape information, Ashutosh Saxena, Lawson Wong, and Andrew Y. Ng. In AAAI, 2008. [PDF]
- Learning to Open New Doors, Ellen Klingbeil, Ashutosh Saxena, Andrew Y. Ng. In RSS Workshop on Robot Manipulation, 2008. [PDF, More]
- Robotic Grasping of Novel Objects using Vision, Ashutosh Saxena, Justin Driemeyer, and Andrew Y. Ng. International Journal of Robotics Research (IJRR), vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 157-173, Feb 2008. [PDF]
- A Vision-based System for Grasping Novel Objects in Cluttered Environments, Ashutosh Saxena, Lawson Wong, Morgan Quigley, and Andrew Y. Ng. In International Symposium of Robotics Research (ISRR), 2007. [PDF]
- Robotic Grasping of Novel Objects, Ashutosh Saxena, Justin Driemeyer, Justin Kearns, and Andrew Y. Ng. Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 19), 2006. [PDF, More]
- Learning to grasp novel objects using vision, Ashutosh Saxena, Justin Driemeyer, Justin Kearns, Chioma Osondu, and Andrew Y. Ng. International Symposium on Experimental Robotics (ISER), 2006. [PDF] Shorter version appeared as:
- Learning to grasp novel objects using vision, Ashutosh Saxena, Justin Driemeyer, Justin Kearns and Andrew Y. Ng. Presented in RSS workshop on Robotic Manipulation, 2006.
|Ashutosh Saxena||asaxena at cs.cornell.edu|
|Ian Lenz||ianlenz at cs.cornell.edu|
|Yun Jiang||yunjiang at cs.cornell.edu|
|Katie Lee Meusling|
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EPA Announces Plans to Cut Diesel Fuel Pollutants
By Shane Robinson
On May 17, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Administrator Carol Browner announced the agency’s plans for major changes in the regulation of heavy-duty trucks, buses, and the diesel fuel that powers them. While controversial, this potential change in policy could be a significant step in helping cities solve air quality problems related to ozone (smog) and other pollutants.
The proposed regulations are aimed at reducing emissions of smog-causing nitrogen oxides (NOx) and harmful particulate matter (PM), or soot, by 90 percent. According to EPA, by 2007 when the regulations would begin to go into effect, up to 38% of the NOx pollution and 21% of PM pollution in major cities will come directly from the heavy-duty vehicles being targeted by this proposal. "Soot and smog pollution," said Browner, "are scientifically associated with 15,000 deaths annually, and a million cases of respiratory problems each year."
While the new regulations would not address farm, construction, or other off-road vehicles, there is opposition from some industry sectors. National petroleum and trucking industry groups have come out against the proposal, arguing that there could be inflationary economic impacts. The EPA, however, argues that diesel fuel prices will increase by only 3-4 cents per gallon and that the economic impact will be minimal.
Most diesel trucks and buses do not use pollution control devices such as catalytic converters that have been used on cars for over 25 years. EPA estimates that older technologies like these, in combination with newer, advanced technologies that will be required on new heavy-duty vehicles, will add only between $1,500 and $2,000 to the current average price of $150,000 per vehicle.
Five public hearings have been scheduled on this issue: June 19th in New York City, June 20th in Chicago, June 22nd in Atlanta, June 27th in Los Angeles, and June 29th in Denver.
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Mark's Passion Narrative: Class Insights and Questions
The Anointing at Bethany (14:1-9):
Jesus's response to the woman's anointing seems to promote his own sense of self-importance over other people: "the poor you will always have with you". He seems to regard the poor as unimportant, which seems in contrast to other statements made by him elsewhere.
The passage marks a transition between the period of Jesus's career and the story of his death. Jesus allows the woman to anoint him with expensive oils and openly declare that he is important and praiseworthy. It also foretells his death. By this anointment Mark sets up a narrative whereby his death is a sacrifice, not just the execution of a common criminal. To do that Mark has to elevate Jesus above everyone else.
Finally, the passage is another indication that Jesus has foreknowledge of his own death. It may also foreshadow his resurrection -- he has been anointed (an act performed on a living person).
Prediction of Betrayal (14:10-12)
Jesus appears to know exactly what will happen to him, yet chooses not to act on that knowledge. Why appoint Judas in the first place if he knew he was going to betray him? Apparently because all these things are supposed to happen.
When Jesus declares that someone dipping bread with him will betray him, it shows that in the act of fellowship, someone is breaking that trust. The disciples lack of reaction to this enormous breach of trust is rather curious.
The Institution of the Eucharist (14:22-25):
The institution of the Lord's Supper indicates that Jesus had foreknowledge of his death.
Having a material connection with Jesus after his death will connect future generations to Jesus.
Jesus Prays in Gethsemane (14:32-42): Jesus reveals his unwillingness to go through with the events that he knows are about to happen. It's very powerful to show this authoritative person show a moment of weakness. His decision to follow through anyway perhaps is Mark's way of telling his audience to trust in God's plans no matter what. It forces the reader to envision him or herself in Jesus's place, bridging the gap between the divine being with foreknowledge and the human being terrified of death.
It's interesting that Mark changes his narrative style here. Up to now he never described Jesus's thoughts and actions when alone, as though he was one of the crowd following him. But from here on he becomes the omniscient narrator who can follow Jesus alone into the garden and hear his words.
Since the disciples were asleep, the prayer might really be for the audience of readers, so that they can be confident that God's will is being done even if it's hard.
Jesus seems to want the disciples' company in this scene, and be very disappointed when they are asleep; before, he was always somewhat aloof from them. The disciples are certainly not shown in a flattering light, which fits Mark's overall theme.
It is interesting that this scene is the last time he interacts with the disciples while alive. Jesus seems to have lost his connection with these disciples.
This passage shows several different sides of Jesus which is why it is so powerful. Jesus seems genuinely worried and anxious, which humanizes him. Yet his prayer to His Father also divinizes him, calling God "Father". For the first time it seems that he is not sure of his connection with God's plan.
Judas's Betrayal (14:42-46): A kiss is normally a sign of love and devotion, so a kiss of betrayal is especially awful. It may show also how you don't know who your real friends are; they may seem true, but betray you. Possibly also, Jesus knows who will betray him but does nothing to stop it because he knows these events must all take place. Is Judas, in a way, part of the divine plan?
If Jesus was as well-known as Mark says he was, why do the priests need someone to identify him?
The disciples' betrayal (14:50): It's hard to figure out why the disciples would have left him, considering that they presumably believed he had great powers. He was so charismatic that they dropped everything to follow him. They had repeatedly been told of his impending death. You wonder why Jesus picked this particular bunch.
The Man with the Linen Cloth (14:51-53): This character seems to appear out of nowhere. Could he be a leftover from an earlier version of Mark, as Morton Smith proposed? Maybe not all the homoerotic stuff but a longer version explaining what he was doing there.
Jesus before the high priests (14:53-59): Jesus claims his identity as Messiah openly for the first time.
Jesus is accused of saying he would destroy the Temple. The implication is that a supernatural Temple (not made with hands), which is Jesus himself, would destroy the physical temple made with hands. Although this is presented as "False testimony" Mark includes it because in a way he believes it is true. He includes the same saying when Jesus is on the cross, and concludes Jesus's death with the rending of the Temple veil.
Peter's Denial (14:66-72): Peter's realization of his own weakness is one of the most powerful pieces in the Passion story. It also shows Jesus's supernatural powers, since he knew Peter would do this. Perhaps Peter's realization is how powerful Jesus is, and that is another reason that he breaks down. It also shows how close to Jesus Peter really was, which makes his denial all that much more astonishing.
It's really amazing that in this story, Jesus knows everything Peter will do, and chooses to do nothing. Perhaps this scene is necessary for the disciples' own education (and the reader's). No one really understands who Jesus is until after he dies.
I think Jesus is compassionate towards Peter because he knows that Peter really loves him, which is shown when he breaks down. Mark shows that a personal and emotional relationship is what Jesus is after, not one for personal gain, power, or even shared philosophy.
Chapters 15 and 16
Jesus before Pilate (15: 1-5): Why does Pilate ask Jesus if he is the King of the Jews? He certainly couldn't look like a king at that point.
Is King of the Jews different from Messiah? Why do the priests use the term messiah, and Pilate, King of the Jews?
By refusing to answer Pilate, is Jesus choosing a death sentence? Or does his lack of affirmation allow Pontius Pilate (and the reader) to conceptualize Jesus as he wishes?
Could Barabbas be a revolutionary and thus a hero to the crowd? That might explain why they choose him over Jesus. It shows the crowd's clinging to the traditional warrior idea of a messiah and not getting the type of messiah Jesus is.
Since the crowd is Jewish, it also shows that Jews did not really understand or appreciate who Jesus was.
Pilate is really off the hook here. He is shown as unwilling to execute Jesus. Pilate, a Gentile Roman, only executes Jesus because he wants to please the Jewish crowd.
Jesus's Death (15:33-39):
Jesus is taken to "the place of the skull" and mocked by soldiers. Ironically, he is a symbol of life and worthy of being worshipped. They annoint him with myrrh, showing he really is "the annointed one" -- the Messiah. This continues Mark's theme of how Jesus was misunderstood in his own day although the signs were clear.
Everyone abandoned him at the end -- followers, Jews, Romans. Maybe the Passion story is as much about the failure of Jesus's followers as it is about him.
Why does Jesus despair at the end? If he was the Son of God he would know everything was working just the way it was supposed to.
Jesus's despair shows him at his most human and least godlike. Why show him in this moment of weakness and not strength?
In the preceding chapters Jesus seemed all-knowing and unconcerned with the physical world. This despairing passage seems to indicate just the opposite.
Is Jesus being presented as a symbol of sacrifice, and Mark wants to show how hard sacrifice is.
Why was the temple curtain torn in two? Is this symbolic? Does it allude to the coming destruction of the Temple?
Perhaps the ripping of the curtain symbolized the tearing down of barriers between Jews and Gentiles.
The blackened sky motif is very powerful for showing the importance of this terrible event. But if the whole sky was darkened, why don't the onlookers react? Could it be a poetic reference to the Exodus story, where God covers the land of Egypt in darkness for 3 days? This darkness occurs just before the death of the first-born; perhaps Mark is alluding to Jesus as God's son.
The darkened sky may also indicate the shadow Jesus casts over the entire world. Nothing will ever be the same again.
The centurion, a Gentile, is the first person (maybe the first Christian) to recognize Jesus's true nature outside the little circle of disciples. In a way, the centurion is more faithful than Jesus's own disciples, who had deserted him. Connecting this point to the human, despairing cry, shows that Mark thought of Jesus as both human and divine.
At his death, beliefs about Jesus would have to change. If his disciples thought he was divine, he could not die. If they thought he would bring in the end of days, that didn't happen.
The final reference to Elijah, an apocalyptic figure, shows that the disciples and the crowd were still thinking in apocalyptic terms.
Mark's gospel has the lowest Christology in indicating that Jesus did not become divine until after his death as a fully human being.
The Empty Tomb (16:1-8): Why are women at the tomb of Jesus? What happened to the disciples?
If Joseph could claim Jesus's body and bury it in his own tomb, what was the danger for the disciples?
The women are the messengers to the disbelieving apostles. Were women important in Mark's religious community?
Because the story doesn't have a resurrection Jesus the whole set of chapters focuses on the human rather than the divine Jesus: who he was, what he said and did.
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The wolves of Isle Royale National Park in Lake Superior could be in trouble.
For 53 years, researchers from Michigan Tech have been studying the island’s wolf and moose populations.
This year... they found there are fewer wolves – just 16. And only a couple of females that can still have babies. Rolf Peterson has been studying the wolves for more than four decades.
He says it's not clear why some of the wolves are dying.
"In late 2009, six of the ten females we had in the population died. That was just an unusual, presumably a fluke. Only one of the females was radio collared and she died in a very unusual way, she died giving birth."
He says the outlook for the existence of wolves on Isle Royale is uncertain.
"It could be just a little hurdle they have to jump through. It also could mean the beginning of the end if those one or two females should die without giving birth to a female. And if neither of the two pups we thought we saw this year are female, then that's it. The population would go extinct because there are no females."
At this point, he doesn't think people should intervene. But he says there could come a point where the National Park Service might introduce new female wolves from the mainland. Peterson says the males on the island would readily accept new females if the existing females die.
The wolves keep the island's moose in check. The research team has found that the moose population is currently around 500 animals. If the wolves go extinct, Peterson says the moose would be in trouble too.
"They'd increase to the point where they'd starve to death catastrophically."
Peterson has spent most of every year for four decades living among the wolves and moose on the island with his wife Candy. But he says there's still plenty to be discovered.
"Almost everything that happens there surprises me. We're almost unable to predict the short term future. I guess the resiliency of wolves in general does usually surprise me. I wouldn't be the least bit surprised if they pulled out of this one. But exactly how they're going to do it is what's fascinating."
You can learn more about the research team and the wildlife here.
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Israel's Shavit (Comet) launch vehicle first flew on 19 September 1988, placing the Ofeq 1 engineering technology satellites into LEO. The third flight of Shavit was postponed in early 1994 until 1995, in part, due to budgetary constraints. Shavit is a small, 3-stage, solid propellant booster based on the 2-stage Jericho 2 ballistic missile and developed under the general management of Israeli Aircraft Industries and in particular its MBT System and Space Technology subsidiary. Israel Military Industries produces the first and second stage motors, while Rafael is responsible for the third stage motor. The demonstrated payload capacity is 160 kg into an elliptical orbit of 207 km by 1,587 km with a highly retrograde inclination of 143.2 degrees. Shavit was proposed to launch an American commercial recoverable spacecraft (COMET) which would have required a payload of 800 kg or more inserted into a low altitude orbit (References 99-101).
The upper stage of the Shavit is designated AUS-51 (Advanced Upper Stage) and since September, 1 992, has been offered commercially under a cooperative venture by the Israeli firm Rafael, which developed and manufactures the AUS-51, and the American Atlantic Research Corporation. A much more capable upper stage is under development by Israeli Aircraft Industries for much larger launch vehicles with a GEO objective. Called the Cryogenic Transfer Module (CTM), the stage burns liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen to produce a thrust of approximately one metric ton. CTM is designed to lift a 2.1 metric ton satellite from a 200 km, 28 degree parking orbit to GEO and was scheduled to be ready for flight by the end of 1992 but was still awaiting a mission as 1994 came to a close (References 102 and 103).
In 1993-1994 Israel proposed the development of an improved Shavit launcher called Next, which would be available to the international commercial market. The standard 3-stage Next launch vehicle would differ little from Shavit and could deliver up to 400 kg payloads to polar orbits from launch sites outside Israel. A 4-stage variant of Next is envisioned with extended first and second stages and a new liquid propellant fourth stage equipped with a GPS receiver for greater orbital insertion accuracy (References 104-106).
Shavit boosters are launched from an undisclosed site near the Palmachim Air Force Base on the coast of Israel south of Tel Aviv. The facility is also sometimes referred to as Yavne. To prevent overflight of foreign territory, Shavits have been launched on a northwest trajectory over the Mediterranean Sea, passing over the Straits of Gibraltar at the west end of the Mediterranean. This procedure significantly reduces the payload capacity of the launch vehicle and severely limits potential operational orbits.
99. J. Simpson et al, "The Israeli Satellite Launch", Space Policy, May 1989, pp. 117-128.
100. C. Covault, "Israeli Rocket Proposed to NASA For U.S. Commercial Booster Project", Aviation Week & Space Technology, 1 October 1990, pp.100-101.
101. S. Fisher, " Israel Joins Up", Space, January-February 1991, pp. 12-14.
102. "Atlantic Research Corporation and Rafael in Israel Announce Cooperative Effort on AUS-51r, news release by ARC and Rafael, Virginia, 2 September 1992.
103. "JAI Space Activity Accelerates", Israel Space Research and Technology Information Bulletin, Vol. 7, No. 1,
104. C. Covault, "IAF Highlights New Israeli Booster", Aviation Week and Space Technology, 17 October 1994, p. 25.
105. P.B. de Selding, "ISA Petitions for Boost in Budget", Space News, 17-23 October 1994, p. 8.
106. T. Pirard, "Israel Invests in Space Technology", Spaceflight, April 1994, p. 121.
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Humanity’s future, to say nothing of its prosperity, will depend on how the world tackles two central energy challenges: securing reliable supplies of affordable energy and switching to efficient low-carbon energy.
The Reference Scenario — in which no new policies are introduced — in the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) World Energy Outlook 2008 sees annual global primary energy demand growing 1.6 percent on average up to 2030, from 11,730 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) to just over 17,010 Mtoe — an increase of 45 percent in just over 20 years.
China and India account for just over half of this increase, with Middle Eastern countries contributing a further 11 percent to demand. Non-OECD countries account for 87 percent of the increase, so their share of world primary energy demand will rise from 51 percent to 62 percent.
Most oil production increases are expected to come from just a few countries — mainly in the Middle East, but also Canada with its vast oil-sands reserves, the Caspian region and Brazil. Gas production in the Middle East will triple, and more than double in Africa, where there are large low-cost reserves.
The trend by which consuming countries grow steadily more reliant on energy from a small number of producing countries threatens to exacerbate energy-security worries. This year’s supply stand-off between Russia and Ukraine made these worries crystal clear in Europe, where gas imports are set to rise to 86 percent of demand by 2030 from 57 percent in 2006.
Of course, increasing import dependence does not necessarily mean less energy security, any more than self-sufficiency guarantees uninterrupted supply. Yet greater short-term insecurity seems inevitable as geographical diversity of supply is reduced and reliance on vulnerable supply routes grows.
Longer-term energy-security risks are also set to grow. As a small group of countries increasingly accounts for the world’s remaining oil reserves, their market dominance may threaten the pace of investment. The greater the demand for oil and gas from these regions, the more likely these regions are to seek higher prices and to maintain them by deferring investment and limiting production.
Unfettered growth in energy demand will clearly have serious consequences for the climate as well. Under the Reference Scenario, which represents “business as usual,” the IEA points to continuing growth in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse-gas emissions; carbon dioxide emissions are projected to rise 45 percent by 2030, with other greenhouse gases contributing to an eventual average temperature increase of up to 6ºC.
Three-quarters of the extra carbon dioxide will come from China, India and the Middle East, and as much as 97 percent from non-OECD countries as a whole — though non-OECD per capita emissions will still be far lower on average than in the OECD. Bucking the global trend, only the EU and Japan will see lower emissions in 2030 than today.
The energy sector has a relatively slow rate of capital replacement because of the long lifetimes of much of its infrastructure. More efficient technologies normally take many years to spread through the energy sector. As a result, both public and private sectors must accept the need for additional investments, as well as the potential costs of early capital retirement, in order to accelerate this process and deliver deep cuts in emissions.
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Dec. 15, 1998
Minstrels and Maids
Poem: "Minstrels and Maids," by William Morris (1834-1896).
EDNA O'BRIEN, author of The Country Girls and House of Splendid Isolation, whose books have sometimes been banned in Ireland for their sexual explicitness, was born in Tuamgraney, Ireland, on this day in 1930.
It's the birthday of writer BETTY SMITH, author of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1896.
Playwright MAXWELL ANDERSON, author of "What Price Glory?" was born today in Atlantic, Pennsylvania, 1888.
Architect and furniture designer KAARE KLINT, who almost single-handedly created the look of modern Scandinavian furniture design, was born on this day in Copenhagen, 1888.
Charles E. Duryea, who with his brother Frank invented the first car built and driven in America, was born in Canton, Illinois, in 1861.
French civil engineer GUSTAVE EIFFEL, who designed the Eiffel Tower and the framework for the Statue of Liberty, was born on this day in Dijon, France, 1832.
Jane Austen's novel EMMA was published on this day in 1815.
The BILL OF RIGHTS, the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, became effective today in 1791.
Be well, do good work, and keep in touch.®
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| 0.97761 | 317 | 3.078125 | 3 |
In the post dated 24th January 2008, we had discussed some multiple choice questions (on circular motion and rotation) of common interest to AP Physics B as well as AP Physics C aspirants.
As promised in that post, I give below some typical questions in this section, for the benefit of those preparing for the AP Physics C examination:
(1) A wheel starts from rest and rotates through 1000 radians in 10 s under the action of a constant torque. If the moment of inertia of the wheel is 4 kg m2, the torque acting on the wheel is
(a) 10 Nm
(b) 20 Nm
(c) 40 Nm
(d) 80 Nm
(e) 100 Nm
The angular displacement (θ) at the instant t is given by
θ = θ0 + ω0t + (½) αt2 where θ0 is the initial displacement (at t =0), ω0 is the initial angular velocity and α is the angular acceleration.
Substituting the known values in the above equation, we have
1000 = 0 + 0 + (½) α × 102, so that α = 20 radian per second2.
Torque, τ = I α = 4×20 = 80 Nm
(2) A small solid cylinder rolls up along a curved surface (fig.) with an initial velocity v. It will ascend up to a height ‘h’ equal to
Since the cylinder is rolling, it has translational and rotational kinetic energies. The total kinetic energy is K = (½) Mv2 + (½) Iω2 where M is the mass, I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity of the cylinder. At the highest point, the kinetic energy will be zero since the entire energy will be converted into gravitational potential energy Mgh where h is the height. So. we have
(½) Mv2 + (½) Iω2 = Mgh
The moment of inertia of the cylinder about its own axis is I = (½) MR2 where R is the radius of the cylinder. The angular velocity ω = v/R. Substituting these in the above equation,
(½) Mv2 + (½)×(½) MR2 ×v2/R2 = Mgh
Or, (¾)Mv2 = Mgh, from which h = 3v2/4g
Now, suppose we change the above question as follows:
A small cylinder rolling with a velocity v along a horizontal surface encounters a smooth inclined surface. The height ‘h’ up to which the cylinder will ascend is
You should remember that a body can roll along a surface only if the surface is rough (so that there is frictional force). On a smooth surface the body can slide; but it cannot have a linear displacement by rolling. [You might have seen how a car tyre rotates in mud without producing any movement of the car].
In the present problem, the body will roll up to the foot of the inclined smooth surface. It will continue to spin with the angular speed it has acquired, and will slide up to a certain height, maintaining its spin motion throughout the smooth surface. Its translational kinetic energy alone is responsible for its upward motion along the smooth incline so that the height up to which it will rise is given by
(½) Mv2 = Mgh
Therefore, h = v2/2g.
(3) Two inclined planes have same height but different lengths (and therefore different angles). If a solid sphere is allowed to roll down from the top of these inclined planes
(a) the time of descent will be same, but the speed at the bottom of the plane will be greater for the longer plane
(b) the time of descent will be same, but the speed at the bottom of the plane will be smaller for the longer plane
(c) the time of descent and the speed at the bottom will be same in both cases
(d) time of descent will be different, but the speed at the bottom will be same in both cases
(e) speeds and the times of descent will be different
A body rolling down an inclined plane has greater acceleration if the angle (θ) of the plane is greater.
[The expression for the acceleration is a = gsinθ / [1 + (k2/R2)], as given in he post dated 20th January 2008, but you can solve this problem even without remembering this equation]
The length of the steeper inclined plane is smaller since the planes have the same height. Because of the larger value of θ and the smaller distance to be traveled, the time taken in the case of the shorter plane is smaller.
The velocity of the sphere at the bottom of the plane is determined by the height of the plane since the kinetic energy at the bottom is equal to the gravitational potential energy at the top, as we have seen in the previous question.
[In the case of a sphere, the equation will be (½) Mv2 + (½)×(2/5)) MR2 ×v2/R2 = Mgh, since the moment of inertia is (2/5)) MR2].
Since the height is the same, the speed at the bottom will be the same. Therefore, the correct option is (d).
(4) A metre stick AB hinged (without friction) at the end A as shown in the figure is kept horizontal by means of a string tied to the end B, the other end of the string being tied to a hook. The string is carefully cut (or burnt), and the scale executes angular oscillations about an axis passing through the end A. What is the speed of the end B when the metre stick assumes vertical position immediately after the string is burnt? (Acceleration due to gravity = 10 ms–2)
(a) 2.5 ms–1
(b) 4.2 ms–1
(c) 5.4 ms–1
(d) 6.8 ms–1
The centre of gravity of the metre stick is at its middle. When the string is burnt, the height of the centre of gravity is reduced by 0.5 m, thereby reducing the gravitational potential energy of the metre stick by Mgh = M×10×0.5 = 5M joule, where M is the mass of the metre stick.
The decrease in the potential energy is equal to the increase in kinetic energy. Therefore in the vertical position of the metre stick, its kinetic energy
(½)Iω2 = 5M
Since the moment of inertia of a uniform bar of length L about a normal axis through ite mid point is ML2/12, its moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its end is ML2/3. [You will get this by applying the parallel axis theorem (see the post dated 2oth January 2008)]
Therefore, we have (½)(ML2/3)ω2 = 5M
Since ω = v/L and L = 1 metre, the above equation becomes
v2/6 = 5, from which v = √30 = 5.4 ms–1 (approximately).
You will find some useful posts in this section at http://www.physicsplus.in
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6. Conclusion: are X-ray security scanners safe?
Health risks are close to zero for individuals, but the risk cannot be ignored for populations.
The radiation doses to screened passengers are very low compared with other sources such as cosmic radiation received during a flight, even after taking into account the likely number of scans received by frequent flyers.
Doses from X-ray scanners pose no short-term risks such as tissue damage. The long-term effects such as cancer risks, cannot be entirely excluded but if they exist, they are orders of magnitude below the cancer risk due to other factors.
The annual dose limit for the general public is 1mSv. The radiation dose from a single backscatter scanner is tiny and even if someone was scanned 3 times a day, every working day, he would receive an annual dose well below the set limit. The dose from transmission scanners is at least 10 times higher than that from backscatter scanners but is still safe, even for vulnerable individuals. However, if transmission scanners are used routinely, frequently exposed individuals such as air crews, couriers or frequent flyers could receive doses higher than the limit set for the general public. Scanners using non-ionising radiation such as mm wave or THz scanners are not powerful enough to cause short-term tissue damage, and other health effects have not been proven. There is no scientific evidence to predict long-term effects. More...
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Bible Societies — associations created for the sole purpose of translating and circulating the Holy Scripture — date back to 331 A.D. when emperor Constantine requested fifty copies of the Old and New Testaments be used in the major churches of Constantinople. Historical leaders, including ones commissioned by Charlemagne in 797 and tsar Alexander I in the seventeenth century, also established noteworthy Bible Societies.
By the nineteenth century Bible Societies were non-denominational Christian networks, printing bibles according to religious affiliation, such as Protestant, Catholic, or Orthodox. The Bible Society most relevant to Carlyle's criticisms was the British and Foreign Bible Society, which was founded in 1804. The society originated from a conglomeration of Christians who recognized the need for a Welch translations of scripture. The association aimed for "a wider circulation of the Holy scriptures, without note or comment" (1911 Encyclopædia Britannica). The bible society movement branched out, reaching every Christian affiliation across the globe (each creating their own printed text according to their beliefs). The societies' advance, however, were accompanied by many controversies, including issue with circulation laws, editing rights, and varying definitions of words in the Bible. For centuries these controversies led to various printed versions, so much so that the bible was printed in 530 languages by 1906; a vast increase from the 50 printed by 1804.
Carlyle's "Signs of the Times" uses the Bible Society movement as a metaphor for addressing spiritual malaise in the modern world. His metaphor suggests that Bible societies produce beings much like machines. Instead of focusing on recognizing one's spirit, societies mechanically focus on converting heathens into Christians despite the lack of genuine spiritual foundation.
G. Browne, History of the Bible Society. London, 1859.
T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of holy Scripture. London, vol. i. 1903, vol. ii. 1908.
Cumming, Mark. The Carlyle Encyclopedia. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ P, 2004.
"Bible Societies." 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. (2008, December 7). In Wikisource, The Free Library. Retrieved 12:30, March 29, 2009
Last modified 15 March 2009
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The Rhino Rescue Project is using a pink dye to render useless the tusks of rhinos and make them less appealing to poachers.
Who knew pink had such power against heartless poachers? The activists behind the Rhino Rescue Project did, and they put that thought into action by using a pink dye to render useless the tusks of rhinos at the Sabi Sand South African game reserve.
At present, fewer than 2% of more than 100 rhinos that have been injected with the mixture since 2011 have been poached. Because of its success, the method is now being implemented at other wildlife refugees.
The photo above has been digitally altered to convey the success of the program, but in real life, the dye is actually invisible to the naked eye because it’s injected inside the horn.
The reason why this method is so effective is because the dye is completely harmless to rhinos. But if humans handle it, they are likely to become sick, as well as destroy its potential medicinal use. This is because a chemicals used for killing parasites at the game reserves is added to the pink dye; it irritates humans without bothering the giant land animal.
The dye also shows up on airport scanners – even if the horn has been ground into a powder. This makes it very easy for poachers to be recognized on the spot.
The photo below is from the Rhino Rescue Project’s Facebook page. It shows an actual rhino after the process was completed. Bandages cover injection holes while the horn recovers.
Dissimilar from elephant teeth or tusks, rhino horns are not ivory. They’re keratin, pretty much the same as human fingernails. The tubular structure of a rhino’s horn allows the dye to be injected under high pressure, where it will spread and stay inside for a full growing cycle – which is about three or four years. After that time period, it will be treated again.
What are your thoughts? Share in the comments section below and raise awareness about poaching by sharing this article.
- As the Rhino Rescue Project does its work on behalf of wildlife parks and game reserves seeking to protect their rhinos from poachers, its overall intent is not to ‘end’ poaching, but to sow doubt in the minds of poachers and horn buyers, thus reducing the amount of rhinos hunted illegally.
- Not all organizations are in support of the Rhino Rescue Project’s methods, such as The South African National Park Service. Government organizations such as this doubt the horn-poisoning method and its effectiveness.
- Such concerns may be valid, as a source presently living in South Africa reports that poachers presently grind up horns into a powder and mix it with viagra to bypass airport security. If this is true, however, it would still be unsafe for humans to handle as ectoparasiticides would be present from the pink dye mixture injected into it.
- In summary, though this method is very controversial and certain reserves have since stopped injecting rhino horns with the pink dye, this article is relevant to the global community as it promotes an idea – even if it is not foolproof – of how we, collectively, may put an end to poaching and prevent rhinos from becoming extinct.
This article (Conservationists Have Been Dying Rhino Horns Pink To Ward Off Poachers… And It’s Working! ) is free and open source. You have permission to republish this article under a Creative Commons license with attribution to the author and TrueActivist.com.
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UNITS(1) BSD Reference Manual UNITS(1)
units - conversion program
units [-f filename] [-q] [-v] from-unit to-unit
The units program converts quantities expressed in various scales to their equivalents in other scales. The units program can only handle mul- tiplicative scale changes. It cannot convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, for example. It also does not handle logarithmic units such as bels. It works interactively by prompting the user for input: You have: meters You want: feet * 3.2808399 / 0.3048 You have: cm^3 You want: gallons * 0.00026417205 / 3785.4118 The units program can handle numbers as well: You have: 60 miles/hr You want: km/hr * 96.56064 / 0.010356187 You have: 5 austriaschilling You want: 100 italylira * 7.0357114 / 0.14213204 In other words, 60 miles per hour is about 96.6 km/hr, and 5 Austrian Schillings will get you seven 100-Lira coins. The options are as follows: -f filename Specifies the name of the units data file to load. -q Suppresses prompting of the user for units and the display of statistics about the number of units loaded. -v Prints the version number. from-unit to-unit Allows a single unit conversion to be done directly from the com- mand line. No prompting will occur. The units program will print out only the result of this single conversion. Powers of units can be specified using the '^' character as shown in the example, or by simple concatenation: 'cm3' is equivalent to 'cm^3'. Mul- tiplication of units can be specified by using spaces, a dash or an as- terisk. Division of units is indicated by the slash ('/'). Note that mul- tiplication has a higher precedence than division, so 'm/s/s' is the same as 'm/s^2' or 'm/s s'. If the user enters incompatible unit types, the units program will print a message indicating that the units are not con- formable and it will display the reduced form for each unit: You have: ergs/hour You want: fathoms kg^2 / day conformability error 2.7777778e-11 kg m^2 / sec^3 2.1166667e-05 kg^2 m / sec The conversion information is read from a units data file. The default file includes definitions for most familiar units, abbreviations and metric prefixes. Some constants of nature included are: pi ratio of circumference to diameter c speed of light e charge on an electron g acceleration of gravity force same as g mole Avogadro's number water pressure per unit height of water (at 4 C) mercury pressure per unit height of mercury ao Bohr radius AU astronomical unit 'Pound' is a unit of mass. Compound names are run together so 'poundforce' is a unit of force. British units that differ from their US counterparts are prefixed with 'br', and currency is prefixed with its country name: 'belgiumfranc', 'britainpound'. When searching for a unit, if the specified string does not appear exactly as a unit name, then the units program will try to remove a trailing 's' or a trailing 'es' and check again for a match. All of these definitions can be read in the standard units file, or you can supply your own file. A unit is specified on a single line by giving its name and an equivalence. One should be careful to define new units in terms of old ones so that a reduction leads to the primitive units which are marked with '!' characters. The units program will not detect infin- ite loops that could be caused by careless unit definitions. Prefixes are defined in the same way as standard units, but with a trail- ing dash at the end of the prefix name. Prefixes are applied after the longest matching unit name is found; for example, "nmile" is taken to be a nautical mile rather than a nanomile.
/usr/share/misc/units.lib the standard units library
Adrian Mariano (firstname.lastname@example.org or email@example.com)
The effect of including a '/' in a prefix is surprising. Exponents of units entered by the user can be only one digit. You can work around this by multiplying several terms. The user must use '|' to indicate division of numbers and '/' to indicate division of symbols. This distinction should not be necessary. Prefixes specified without a unit are treated as dimensionless quanti- ties. This can lead to confusion when some prefixes are also defined as units (e.g., m). For example, Tera- / Giga- is 1000, but one Tesla (T) is 10,000 Gauss (G). Some non-SI units have multiple definitions (e.g, barrel, calorie) and others have changed over time (e.g., cubit). In particular, monetary values fluctuate. The program contains various arbitrary limits on the length of the units converted and on the length of the data file. The program should use a hash table to store units so that it doesn't take so long to load the units list and check for duplication. MirOS BSD #10-current July 14, 1993 2
Generated on 2016-04-09 18:24:16 by $MirOS: src/scripts/roff2htm,v 1.83 2016/03/26 23:38:28 tg Exp $
These manual pages and other documentation are copyrighted by their respective writers;
their source is available at our CVSweb,
AnonCVS, and other mirrors. The rest is Copyright © 2002–2016 The MirOS Project, Germany.
This product includes material provided by mirabilos.
This manual page’s HTML representation is supposed to be valid XHTML/1.1; if not, please send a bug report – diffs preferred.
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The unique combination of geography, climate and soil conditions found in Idaho’s vineyards consistently produce grapes with outstanding varietal character. The high elevation (ranging up to 2,900 feet above sea level), extra long hours of daylight during grape ripening, cool nights, ungrafted vines, volcanic ash soils and naturally low vineyard yields all contribute to producing grapes with concentrated fruit flavors and naturally high acidity.
The Snake River is the unifying element that binds Idaho’s wine country, providing the climate-tempering influence of a great river that seems to be so important to premium wine regions the world over. The Snake winds its way through Idaho for over 600 miles; from Idaho’s eastern border with Wyoming, it sweeps across southern Idaho until it defines Idaho’s western borders with Oregon and Washington states. The Snake helps temper the hillside vineyards by drawing off warm air in the summer, and provides frost protection by reducing cold air pockets in the spring and fall.
Idaho is considered to be one of the newer wine growing areas in the United States, so it will come as a surprise to some to learn that a thriving wine industry was located in Lewiston, Idaho, between 1872 and statewide prohibition in 1916. French and German immigrants imported European grape varieties to plant in the fertile areas near Lewiston, especially along the Clearwater River. Although most of Idaho’s vineyards now follow the Snake River Valley in Southern Idaho, the future will undoubtedly bring growth along both the Snake and the historically proven land along the Clearwater.
Courtesy of the Idaho Grape Growers and Wine Producers Commission, Boise, Idaho.
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This page is a historical archive and is no longer maintained.
For current information, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/media/
For Immediate Release: April 9, 2009
Contact: Division of News & Electronic Media, Office of Communication
CDC Reports Progress in Foodborne Illness Prevention has Reached a Plateau
Annual Report Indicates Salmonella Continues to Show Least Improvement
The incidence of the most common foodborne illnesses has changed very little over the past three years, according to a 10-state report released Thursday by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The findings are from 2008 data reported by the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet), a collaborative project of CDC, U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and 10 state sites.
FoodNet monitors foodborne disease and conducts related epidemiologic studies to help health officials better understand the epidemiology of these infections in the United States. Each year, the current data is compared to the previous three years and the period from 1996 to 1998, the first three years of surveillance. The FoodNet population is similar to the U.S. population and therefore provides reliable information on the incidence and trends of foodborne illness in the United States.
Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, Listeria, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, and Yersinia did not change significantly when compared to the previous three years (2005-2007), the latest data showed. Although there have been significant declines in the incidence of some foodborne infections since surveillance began in 1996, these declines all occurred before 2004. The incidence of Salmonella infections has remained between 14 and 16 cases per 100,000 persons since the first years of surveillance.
"This year's report confirms a very important concern, especially with two high-profile Salmonella outbreaks in the last year," said Robert Tauxe, M.D., M.P.H, deputy director of CDC's Division of Foodborne, Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases. "We recognize that we have reached a plateau in the prevention of foodborne disease and there must be new efforts to develop and evaluate food safety practices from the farm to the table. The foodborne division at CDC is planning to increase the capacity of several health departments so that outbreaks can be better detected and investigated."
The USDA's Salmonella Initiative Program, which began in 2006, has already significantly reduced the presence of Salmonellain raw meat and poultry products, according to David Goldman, M.D., M.P.H., assistant administrator of USDA's Food Safety Inspection Service. "We have worked hard to reduce contamination in FSIS-regulated products and have seen marked success in Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes. We are concerned about the lack of progress in reducing the incidence of foodborne illness and believe this report points to the need for better information about sources of infection."
The FDA is using new tools to help predict potential threats to foods and the best options for prevention to meet the many challenges of an increasingly complex food-supply chain, according to David Acheson, M.D., associate commissioner for foods. "The FDA is embarking on an aggressive and proactive approach in protecting and enforcing the safety of the U.S. food supply. The Agency is committed to make the necessary changes to keep unsafe products out of the marketplace before they reach consumers."
Consumers can reduce their risk for foodborne illness by following safe food-handling and preparation recommendations and by avoiding consumption of unpasteurized milk, raw or undercooked oysters, or other raw or undercooked foods of animal origin such as eggs, ground beef, and poultry. Risk also can be decreased by choosing pasteurized eggs, high pressure-treated oysters, and irradiated produce. Everyone should wash hands before and after contact with raw meat, raw foods derived from animal products, and animals and their environments. More detailed information on food safety practices is available at www.foodsafety.gov and www.fightbac.org.
The full report, "Preliminary FoodNet Data on the Incidence of Infection with Pathogens Transmitted Commonly Through Food -- 10 States, United States, 2008" appears in this week's Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (April 10, 2008) and is available online at www.cdc.gov/mmwr. To learn more about FoodNet, please visit www.cdc.gov/foodnet/. To learn more about foodborne infections, visit www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/foodborneinfections_g.htm.
In 1996, the FoodNet surveillance system began collecting valuable information to quantify, monitor, and track the incidence of and trends in laboratory-confirmed cases of foodborne illnesses caused by Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) O157, Listeria, Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia and Vibrio. FoodNet is a collaborative effort among CDC, the FDA, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and state surveillance sites. Since its inception, FoodNet has grown to include 10 states and 46 million people, about 15 percent of the American population. The states are Connecticut, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, New Mexico, Oregon and Tennessee and selected counties in California, Colorado and New York.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Get email updates
To receive email updates about this site, enter your email address:
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History of the Laws of Rugby Football
The work to draw up the first rules of Rugby football started on 25 August 1845 and ended on 28th August. The work was done by three senior pupils at Rugby School after they received instructions to codify the game of Football.
The three pupils were William Delafield Arnold, the seventeen year old son of the former headmaster, W.W. Shirley, who was just sixteen and Frederick Hutchins.
They submitted 37 Rules to the Sixth Levee; they were immediately passed and a Rule Book was printed. The rules were updated regularly over the coming years, in 1846-7 for example a large committee met to review and revise the rules but only a few minor changes were made.
In 1862 an attempt was made to "codify the customs" See 1862 Rules.
On 26th January, 1871, The Rugby Football Union was founded in the Pall Mall Restaurant in Regent Street, London, to standardize the rules that also removed some of the more violent aspects of the Rugby School game.
Along with the founding of the Rugby Football Union a committee was formed, and three ex-Rugby School pupils (Rutter, Holmes and L.J. Maton), all lawyers, were invited to help formulate a set of rules, being lawyers they formulated 'laws' not 'rules'.
E C Holmes
L J Maton
Most of the work was done by Maton as he broke his leg playing rugby and was laid up so he attempted the first draft. He did this in Holmes' law chambers. This task was completed and the laws were accepted by the full committee on 22 June 1871, and brought into force by a Special General Meeting 2 days later. The laws outlawed the practice of hacking and tripping.
Six Scottish clubs i.e. Glasgow Academicals, Edinburgh University in 1871 and Edinburgh Academicals, Royal High School and Edinburgh Wanderers in 1872, recognized that this new code was more comprehensive and up to date than their own 'Green book' and adopted it, as well as becoming members of the RFU.
Laws used for the first International
Reference: The Glasgow Herald March 25, 1871 which reported that the match would use the Rugby School rules with two minor alterations (both which were customary in the London area):
1. The ball, on going into touch, is to be thrown into the ground again from the spot where it crossed the line, and not where it first pitched into touch.
2. For a try at goal, the ball is brought out in a straight line from where it was touched down. (This would eliminate the alternative choice of punting it out after a touch down).
In the London area there was a generally-observed rule that a player could gather up a ball whether rolling or bounding. Scottish clubs only allowed it in the latter case and this was agreed for the first international.
In 1884 England played Scotland at Blackheath, in the second half, Kindersley of England was awarded a try by Irish Referee A Scriven. This was hotly disputed by Scotland since C.W. Berry (Scotland) had knocked the ball back immediately before Kindersley picked it up and this was illegal in the eyes of the Scots, but not the English. An important point to note was that the advantage law was not introduced until 1896 and so if this was illegal, then play had to stop. It was agreed to continue the game and refer this to the Rugby Union Committee afterwards. However, the SRU and the RFU could not agree and the match the following year was not scheduled as a result. Read further article by Peter Shortell
When the Irish Union met for their AGM in 1885 they recommended that the 4 home unions meet and discus forming a body to settle any such international disputes. The unions then met in Dublin in 1886 and at that meeting Scotland offered to drop their dispute to the 1884 result if England joined such an international body which composed and equal number of representatives from each union. The international board was then inaugurated in Manchester in 1886 but the RFU were not represented and would not accept the constitutional terms the IB was established under.
When the RFU amended their laws, the other unions did not accept this and referred the decision to the IB. The RFU then offered to allow representatives of the other unions to their committee meetings but this was ignored.
In December 1887 the IB made a statement that IB rules must apply to all international matches and that no games with England would be arranged until they joined the IB. Therefore no games were played in 1888 and 1889.
The dispute then went to arbitration and Lord Kingsburgh, the Lord Justice Clerk and Major Marindin, president of the Football Association met in April 1890 and made a judgment which recognised the claim of Scotland, Ireland and Wales to share in the making of laws and thereby formalized the Rugby International Board. Henceforth all international games were played under the IB rules. Due to the size of the English union it was awarded 6 members on the board whereas the other unions got 2 a piece. A simple majority vote would be used to settle any future disputes but a three-forths majority would be required to modify the laws.
On Feb 8th, 1892 the Rugby International Board met. Discussions included a plan for a systematic revision of the laws, an agreement to fix the qualification criteria for playing internationally for a country, an agreement to for secretaries of the various unions to meet to avoid schedulling conflicts.
Members present were:
R.S.Warren (Ireland) in the chair, E. McAllister (secretary) (Ireland), J.A> Smith and R.G.Raine (Scotland), A.J.Gould and W.D.Phillips (Wales), and Rowland-Hill, J McLaren, M Newsome, J.R.S. Whalley, J Budd and W.Cail (England).
In 1910 the RFU volunteered to reduce its IB votes from 6 to 4.
Until 1930 each union had its own set of laws for its home matches. In 1930 England proposed and Ireland seconded that "all matches should be played under the laws of the International board.
Advert placed in The Sunday Post 20th January 1935
In 1947 New Zealand, Australia and South Africa were admitted with 2 votes each, then given to all member unions. France were admitted in 1978 and in 1991 Argentina, Canada, Italy and Japan were admitted.
So as of 2006 the IRB consists of the eight foundations Unions each with two seats - Scotland, Ireland, Wales, England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and France. Argentina, Canada, Italy and Japan each have one seat on the Council as does FIRA-AER.
The system of using yellow and red cards by the referee was invented by a Association Football referee Ken Ashton.
Aston thought of the yellow and red cards while sitting at a traffic light after attending the 1966 World Cup quarter-final between England and Argentina. Newspapers had reported that both Jack and Bobby Charlton had been booked, but there was no public indication of this from the referee. The Argentinian captain Antonio Rattin had to be led off the field after being sent off as he apparently didn't understand what was happening. Aston pondered how to make the position clearer. "As I drove down Kensington High Street, the traffic light turned red. I thought, 'Yellow, take it easy; red, stop, you're off'."
The idea was subsequently adopted by Association football at national and international level. Red and yellow cards were introduced to the game at the World Cup finals in Mexico in 1970.
In 1976, colored cards made their first appearance at League matches. However, there was still resistance from some quarters. Players complained that referees were showing the cards too often. The cards were removed between 1981 and 1987. The game became more messy so the referees and the administrators had to get together to define some ground rules for the use of the yellow and red cards. The cards returned to the field in 1988 but it wasn't until 1992 that the cards were actually incorporated into the Laws of the Game and made mandatory at all levels. Ken Ashton died aged 86 on October 23, 2001.
Yellow cards are also in use in other sports, such as volleyball, women's lacrosse, field hockey, rugby union, rugby league in many countries, and handball.
In both rugby codes, a player shown a yellow card is suspended from the game for 10 minutes (colloquially termed being sent to the 'sin bin', although neither Rugby nor Ice Hockey where the concept came from, call it a 'sin bin'). The bin lasts ten minutes within a single eighty minute game. It is playing time, it stops when the clock is stopped for injury, and does not expire at the end of the first half.
Piet Robbertse, a Test and Currie Cup Final referee and later the chairman of South African referees recounts a time when Bertie Strasheim, a top referee in the Sixties who refereed Tests and the 1968 Currie Cup Final, was once refereeing a game where he ordered a prop to sit on the touch-line till he called him back, which he did after three minutes or so. Strasheim did this as there was no middle measure between letting the nuisance stay on the field and sending him off.
Robbertse says this provoked a lot of discussion and Dr Craven tested the idea in his law laboratory at Stellenbosch where there is the highly competitive internal league.
Then South Africa proposed the concept of a 'cooler' to the International Rugby Board in 1972 but the idea was rejected. They proposed it again in 1975 and again it was rejected. But in 1979 South Africa was given dispensation to use and report on the introduction of 'the cooler'. It was allowed in domestic competition in South Africa but did not apply to matches involving teams from abroad. (Two years later rugby league in New South Wales adopted the use of the sin bin.)
The 'cooler' was not intended for repeated infringement or what has come to be called professional/cynical infringement. It was intended to do what the name suggests - cool down a player who was getting heated under the collar. It was originally set to five minutes' duration.
Eventually the sin bin or temporary suspension was introduced into the game. It was used under dispensation in the Southern Hemisphere and then on 29 January 2000 it was included in the experimental law variations that followed the 1999 Rugby World Cup (set to 10 minutes). The sin bin was then used in the Six Nations that year for the first time.
A red card is a sending off as it is in Association football.
It has been possible to send a play off since 1888 when it was written down that a player should be sent off for foul play, however, the showing of a red card is a relatively recent addition. There has also been instructions to deal with deliberate infringement i.e. 1911: Referees must deal very sharply with all cases of this nature, as this has been a growing practice through players deciding to take the risk of a penalty to gain or save a try by unfair play. This practice is so contrary to the spirit of the game, that the Board have decided to deal with it upon the same footing as rough or foul play or misconduct.
The new law stated:
10.6 YELLOW AND RED CARDS
(a) When a player has been cautioned and temporarily suspended in an
International match the referee will show that player a yellow card.
(b) When a player has been sent off in an International match, the referee
will show that player a red card.
(c) For other matches the Match Organiser or Union having jurisdiction over
the match may decide upon the use of yellow and red cards.
The first yellow card shown in an international was during the All blacks 1995 tour of France when Irish referee Gordon Black showed it to the All blacks lock Mark Cooksley after he'd punched an opponent in a midweek match at Nancy. The ref later found out that it had yet to be introduced officially but it was shortly afterwards.
The first 'official' recipient of a yellow card in a Test match was Ben Clarke, playing for England against Ireland at Lansdowne Road. He stamped on his Bath club mate Simon Geoghegan in the 63rd minute and was shown a yellow card, but played on. Playing on after a yellow card remained law till after the 1999 Rugby World Cup. Then temporary suspension of ten minutes was introduced, signalled by the brandishing of a yellow card.
The first yellow card shown at a world cup was to Argentina's Roberto Grau (ARG) by referee Paddy O'Brien in the 15th minute of the match against Wales in Cardiff at RWC 1999, whereas, Italian Alessandro Moscardi holds the record for most yellow cards at a world cup. At RWC 1999, Moscardi was sent to the sin bin in matches against England, Tonga and New Zealand.
The first player sent off in a world cup match was Wales' Hugh Richards - by referee Kerry Fitzgerald in the 71st minute of the semi-final against New Zealand in Brisbane at RWC 1987.
Incidentally, the French at one stage had a white card as well. Yellow and red were for varying degrees of foul play, the white card for law infractions. The white card has subsequently disappeared.
The Replacement of injured players was added to the 1968-69 Laws (law 12: up to two players per team).
Mike Gibson replaced Barry John in the Lion’s first test against South Africa in 1968 was the first official replacement in a test match (although replacements happened unofficially in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia before that.
Tactical substitutions were introduced in 1996 (three replacements).
Note: For the latest laws, amendments and regulations visit the World Rugby website, there is a wealth of information there, well worth a visit.
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Dec 2010 - Law Amendments Dec 2009 - Recommended Law Amendments from Rulings Dec 2009 - Law Book Review Amendments - Sevens Dec 2009 - Law Book Review Amendments, Special Council Meeting July 2009 - Law Amendment to Law 3 May 2009 Nov 2004 Apr 2004 Apr 2003 - Special Council Meeting Apr 2003 - Law Amendments 2003 Directives - Law Amendments Nov 2002 - Law Amendments Apr 2002 - Law Amendments
IRB Law Clarifications/Rulings:
Date Ruling No. Request by Laws Affected Description Included into Law 15 Apr 15 Clarification 4 2015 UAR 6 Law 6 – Match Officials. 23 Mar 15 Clarification 3 2015 FMRU 4 Law 4 and Regulation 12. 2 Mar 15 Clarification 2 2015 Paddy O'Brien 10, 19 The action of throwing a player forward after he has been supported in the air to receive a kick off. 23 Feb 15 Clarification 1 2015 Joel Jutge 5 Restarting towards the end of the game. 26 Nov 14 Clarification 9 2014 FPR 13, 21 Law 22.8: Ball kicked dead through in-goal 26 Nov 14 Clarification 8 2014 FPR 13 Law 13.15: Drop-out goes into the opponents in-goal 26 Nov 14 Clarification 7 2014 FPR 20 Laws 20.9 (b) and (c). 17 Oct 14 Clarification 6 2014 HKRFU 13 Law 13 – Kick Off and Restarts. 8 Oct 14 Clarification 5 2014 RFU 6 Law 6 – Law Amendment Trial – HIA Protocol 8 Oct 14 Clarification 4 2014 RFU 15, 16 Law 15.5 and Law 16.3 15 Sep 14 Clarification 3 2014 SRU 9 Law 9 – Method of Scoring 4 Jul 14 Clarification 2 2014 RFU 9 Law 9.B.1 (e) – Taking a conversion kick 9 May 14 Clarification 1 2014 SARU 12 Law 12 – Knock-on 12 Sep 13 2013-1 IRFU 9 The Irish Rugby Football Union has requested clarification that apart from a kicking tee no other item or implement may be used. 15 Nov 12 2012-3 IRFU 3 Clarification on Law 3.14(d) 10 Jul 12 2012-2 RFU 3, 5 & 8 Clarification of Law 3.11(b), Law 5.7(e) and Law 8.3(f) 11 Apr 12 2012-1 FFR 22 Grounding of the ball whilst feet in touch 4 Nov 11 2011-04 ARU 12 Ball ripped from ball carrier by opponent (Not currently on iRB Laws site) 4 Nov 11 2011-03 ARU 11 10m Law application after ball 'touched' (Not currently on iRB Laws site) 4 Nov 11 2011-02 ARU 17 Maul going to ground (Not currently on iRB Laws site) 18 May 11 2011-01 RFU 3 Front row replacement in uncontested scrums 19 Mar 10 2010-03 WRU 22 Doubt about grounding 11 Mar 10 2010-02 WRU 13 Restart at end of match 10 Mar 10 2010-01 IRFU 3 Front row replacement in uncontested scrums 11 Nov 09 2009-09 IRFU 19 Receiver running into gap at lineout 16 Oct 09 2009-08 SRU 10 Obstruction at maul following a lineout 25 Aug 09 2009-07 USAR 10/16 binding when joining a ruck 10 Aug 09 2009-06 ARU 20/LAG^ U19 Numbers in the scrum 2009 10 Aug 09 2009-05 RFU 3 Uncontested scrums and all replacements used 11 May 09 2009-04 ARU/NZRU 15/16 Playing ball legally before ruck forms - Can player continue to handle ball? 2009 08 Apr 09 2009-03 FFR 5 Scrum Collapse after time/Lineout offence after time 2010 16 Oct 09 2009-02 Rev SARU 22 Simultaneous grounding and touch in-goal 2009 07 Apr 09 2009-02 SARU 22 Simultaneous grounding and touch in-goal 19 Mar 09 2009-01 RFU 12 Quick throw after a knock on into touch 2010 24 Sept 08 2008-04 RFU 17 Defence voluntarily leaving a maul 13 May 08 2008-03 NZRU 20 No.8 Shove on scrum engagement 2009 13 May 08 2008-02 ARU 3 Uncontested scrum sanctions 21 Jan 08 2008-01 RFU 22 Stationary & moving ball clarification 2009 1 Oct 07 2007-03 GRU 16 Defence voluntarily leaving a ruck 12 Mar 07 2007-02 IRFU 3 Substitutions at a penalty kick 17 Feb 07 2007-01 RFU 20 Scrum Engagement at all age levels 29 Nov 06 2006-09 FFR 17 Tackling the ball carrier in the maul 29 Nov 06 2006-08 FFR 16 Diving over players on the ground at a ruck 14 Nov 06 2006-07 SRU 10 Flying Wedge Question 14 Nov 06 2006-06 IRFU 10 Tackle that starts low but ends high 2009 14 Nov 06 2006-05 FFR 4 Definition of Jersey, shorts & underwear 14 Nov 06 2006-04 SARU 4 Elastic long sleeves with manufacturers mark 06 May 06 2006-03 FFR 3/LAG U19 - Do locks require suitable training? 10 Jan 06 2006-02 FFR 19/21 Penalty kick for goal hits post and goes into touch 10 Jan 06 2006-01 FFR 13/18 Mark after a restart 25 Oct 05 2005-07 ARU 20 Scrum half offside line at scrum 2009 30 Sep 05 2005-06 ARU 3 Re-request of clarification to ruling 2005-04 30 Sep 05 2005-05 IRFU 10 Spear Tackles 2009 15 Aug 05 2005-04 ARU 3 Front row replacements after a temporary suspension 30 Jun 05 2005-03 FPR 21 Intention to kick for goal, then take a quick tap 01 Apr 05 2005-02 FFR 6 Non player touching the ball in the field of play 01 Apr 05 2005-01 IRFU 16 Rucking the ball and other players 2009 24 Dec 04 2004-10 WRU 19/21 Quick throw taken into 22m & Propelling ball with thigh 23 Dec 04 2004-09 IRFU 10/22 Penalty try & Temporary Suspension 01 Sep 04 2004-08 JRFU 15 Other players in a tackle 2009 23 Jun 04 2004-07 SRU 19 Receiver in the line out 2009 04 Jun 04 2004-06 FFR 3 Front row replacements 04 Jun 04 2004-05 ARU 19 Receiver in the line out 24 May 04 2004-04 RFU 19 Receiver in the line out 2009 20 Feb 04 2004-03 JRFU 15 Players not going to ground in a tackle 2009 10 Jan 04 2004-02 FIR 3/19 Front row replacements & Played into own 22m 20 Jan 04 2004-01 WRU 3/14 Player laying on ground tackling & Front row replacements 2009 02 Sep 03 2003-14 UAR 19 Picking up a stationary ball outside the 22m with feet in 22m 2009 18 Aug 03 2003-13 SRU 15 Tackler not going to ground 2009 05 Aug 03 2003-12 RFU 3 Front row replacements 24 Jul 03 2003-11 NZRU 15/17 Forming & collapsing a maul 24 Jul 03 2003-10 NZRU 3 Blood bin over half time 24 Jul 03 2003-09 IRFU 3 Front row replacements 20 Jan 03 2003-08 IRFU 15/17 Tackling a player in a maul 03 Jul 03 2003-07 UAR 10/19 Heading a ball into touch 03 Jul 03 2003-06 SRU 17 Players forming a maul in specific order 27 Jun 03 2003-05 ARU 3 Front row replacements 12 Jun 03 2003-04 NZRU 3 Front row replacements 07 Jun 03 2003-03 SRU 15/17 Tackling the player in the maul 07 Jun 03 2003-02 SRU 3 Front row replacement management 15 Jan 03 2003-01 SARU 19 Receiver in the line out 2009 15 Nov 02 2002-09 Dutch Rugby Union 19 Receiver in the line out 2009 29 Oct 02 2002-08 Rugby Canada 20 Position of locks head in a scrum 01 Oct 02 2002-07 FPR 13 Ball kicked into touch from a kick off, but has not travelled 10m 05 Sep 02 2002-06 IRFU 6/21 Quick tap from a scrum FK or PK 05 Sep 02 2002-05 IRFU 19 Receiver in the line out 23 Jul 02 2002-04 WRU 6/8/10 Quick tap from a scrum FK or PK 23 Jul 02 2002-03 RFU 19 Receiver in the line out 17 May 02 2002-02 RFU 19 Peeling off from the line out 20 Mar 02 2002-01 SRU 3 Clarification of 15 min blood bin
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Evolution of modern laws
"The History of the Laws of Rugby Football" pub 1949 contains 241 pages of changes to the laws that have occurred over the years. "The History of the Laws of Rugby Football 1949 - 1972 contains a further 83 pages.
As you can see although the basic principles remain the same today, extensive attempts have been made over decades to refine the laws, remove ambiguity and improve the enjoyment and safety of the game.
An interesting chapter in the development of the laws was the creation of "The Laws in Plain English" read the full story here.
2012 Law Amendment Trials
The following Law amendments have been approved for global trial by the IRB Council. The implementation dates are the start of the Northern Hemisphere season at or around September 1st 2012 and the start of the Southern Hemisphere season at or around January 1st 2013. It is not intended that the a Union should implement the trial Law amendments mid season or mid competition. Unions will be given the opportunity to provide both quantitative and qualitative feedback on the trials.
The ELV Conference in March 2009 expressed a concern that the maul can be observed to be, and actually can be, a form of ‘legalised obstruction’. This is evidenced by players at the back of an elongated maul holding the ball whilst the maul moves forward (‘truck and trailer’).
An IRB working group concluded:
1. The maul must be formed so that the opposition can contest the maul at the formation; this includes the formation of the maul at a lineout and from a maul formed after kick-offs or restart kicks. (Match Officials were instructed to apply this from May 2009 - a DVD was circulated to all match elite match officials and Referee Managers.) Mauls from open play should be refereed in the same way as mauls formed at lineouts or from restart kicks.
2. A player may have both hands on the ball and be bound into the maul by other players involved in the maul.
3. If a player takes the ball in a formed maul and detaches whilst the players in the maul continue going forward, they are obstructing the opposition if that player continues moving forward using the players in front as a shield.
4. If the ball carrying team in the maul is moved backwards at or immediately after the formation, Law 17.6 (d) and (e) should apply :
"(d) When a maul has stopped moving forward for more than five seconds, but the ball is being moved and the referee can see it, a reasonable time is allowed for the ball to emerge. If it does not emerge within a reasonable time, a scrum is ordered.
(e) When a maul has stopped moving forward it may start moving forward again providing it does so within 5 seconds. If the maul stops moving forward a second time and if the ball is being moved and the referee can see it, a reasonable time is allowed for the ball to emerge. If it does not emerge within a reasonable time, a scrum is ordered."
If the maul is moved backwards, match officials currently do not apply Law 17.6 (d) at the maul formation. If they did so it would only allow one more movement forward and it may encourage the non-ball-carrying side to commit to the maul at its formation.
Match officials also permit mauls to move sideways and do not apply 17.6 (d) and (e). Strict application may assist.
If the referee says "use it" the ball must be used and restarting the maul is not an option.
5. The concern about ‘truck and trailer’ is not about the ball being one or two players back from the ball carrier when the maul is moving forward, as that replicates a scrum. The concern is about the player ‘hanging’ on the back of the maul. Strict application of the definition of a bind may assist in resolving this issue:
“Binding. Grasping firmly another player’s body between shoulders and the hips with the whole arm in contact from hand to shoulder”.
If the ball carrier player does not bind in this way, the maul is considered to be over and match officials insist the ball is used. If the player rejoins and binds on the players in front, the team should be penalised for obstruction. This may encourage players to bind appropriately.
The official document can be obtained here.
February, 2010 - Charging into a ruck
Players entering a ruck must do so in accordance with the Laws of the Game. Referees are reminded that appropriate binding is a requirement, and charging into a ruck is dangerous play and must be penalised as such. Video examples can be seen here.
16.2 JOINING A RUCK
(b) A player joining a ruck must bind on a team-mate or an opponent, using the whole arm. The bind must either precede, or be simultaneous with, contact with any other part of the body of the player joining the ruck.
Sanction: Penalty kick
10.4 DANGEROUS PLAY AND MISCONDUCT
(g) Dangerous charging. A player must not charge or knock down an opponent carrying the ball without trying to grasp that player.
Sanction: Penalty kick
(h) A player must not charge into a ruck or maul. Charging includes any contact made without use of the arms, or without grasping a player.
February, 2011 - Dangerous Tackles (high tackles)
The specific provisions of Law 10.4(e) in relation to High Tackles are as follows:
A player must not tackle (or try to tackle) an opponent above the line of the shoulders even if the tackle starts below the line of the shoulders. A tackle around the opponent’s neck or head is dangerous play.
A stiff-arm tackle is dangerous play. A player makes a stiff-arm tackle when using a stiff-arm to strike an opponent.
At an IRB Medical Conference held in November 2010 at Lensbury the results of studies related to injuries sustained as a result of tackles were outlined. A study in England concluded that “stricter implementation of the Laws of Rugby relating to collisions and tackles above the line of the shoulder may reduce the number of head/neck injuries”. A separate study in New Zealand concluded that “ball carriers were at highest risk from tackles to the head and neck region”.
The participants at the Medical Conference generally recognised that tackles above the line of the shoulders have the potential to cause serious injury and noted that a trend had emerged whereby players responsible for such tackles were not being suitably sanctioned.
The purpose of this Memorandum is to emphasise that as with tip tackles, they must be dealt with severely by Referees and all those involved in the off-field disciplinary process.
It is recognised of course, as with other types of illegal and/or foul play, depending on the circumstances of the high tackle, the range of sanctions extends from a penalty kick to the player receiving a red card. An illegal high tackle involving a stiff arm or swinging arm to the head of the opponent, with no regard to the player’s safety, bears all the hallmarks of an action which should result in a red card or a yellow card being seriously considered.
Referees and Citing Commissioners should not make their decisions based on what they consider was the intention of the offending player. Their decision should be based on an objective assessment (as per Law 10.4(e)) of the overall circumstances of the tackle.
May 15th, 2012 - IRB and Unions Sanction Global Law Trials (from IRB press release)
The International Rugby Board and its Member Unions have sanctioned a global trial of five aspects of Law amendments following an extensive process of consultation and evaluation.
The trial, approved by the IRB Council at its Annual Meeting in Dublin on Tuesday, will commence at the start of the next season in each hemisphere (August 2012 in the north and January 2013 in the south) and will be applicable to both international and domestic competition.
Aspects of Law approved for trial include limiting the time that the ball is available at the back of a ruck and the positioning of taking a quick throw-in. In addition to the suite of five Laws approved for global trial, three additional trials will operate during 2012.
A trial extension of the jurisdiction of the Television Match Official will be introduced later this year, while the number of nominated replacements in Test Rugby will be increased to eight for a trial in the November window.
The global trial has been sanctioned after an unprecedented evaluation process that kicked off with submissions and recommendations for 20 potential amendments from Member Unions and has culminated with recent trials of amendments to seven aspects of Law as a package at dedicated playing environments in Cambridge and Stellenbosch.
This evaluation process is in line with the remit of the Laws Amendment Process approved by the IRB Council in December 2009.
Unlike previous amendment processes, the process of selection, monitoring and evaluation has been steered by an independent Laws Representative Group, comprising technical representatives from each of the 10 Tier 1 Unions covering elite and community Rugby and representatives of the IRB Rugby Committee.
Extensive evaluation of the Cambridge and Stellenbosch University trials undertaken earlier this year determined that each of the seven amendments could have a positive effect on the Game or clarify existing areas of Law and therefore a recommendation was made to the IRB Council via the IRB Rugby Committee to approve a global trial of all seven amendments.
The five Law amendments to be trialled globally are:
1. Law 16.7 (Ruck): The ball has to be used within five seconds of it being made available at the back of a ruck following a warning from the referee to “use it”. Sanction – Scrum.
2. 19.2 (b) (Quick Throw-In) For a quick throw in, the player may be anywhere outside the field of play between the line of touch and the player’s goal line.
3. 19.4 (who throws in) When the ball goes into touch from a knock-on, the non-offending team will be offered the choice of a lineout at the point the ball crossed the touch line; or a scrum at the place of the knock-on. The non-offending team may exercise this option by taking a quick throw-in.
4. 21.4 Penalty and free kick options and requirements: Lineout alternative. A team awarded a penalty or a free kick at a lineout may choose a further lineout, they throw in. This is in addition to the scrum option.
5. A conversion kick must be completed within one minute 30 seconds from the time that a try has been awarded.
In addition to the global trials, the IRB Council approved three specific additional trials:
1. A trial to extend the jurisdiction of the TMO to incidents within the field of play that have led to the scoring of a try and foul play in the field of play to take place at an appropriate elite competition in order that a protocol can be developed for the November 2012 Tests.
2. A trial has been sanctioned for the November 2012 Test window permitting international teams to nominate up to eight replacements in the match day squad for Test matches. In line with current practice at domestic elite Rugby level, the additional player must be a qualified front row player.
3. An amendment to Law 3.4 (Sevens Variation) to enable Sevens teams to nominate up to five replacements/substitutes. Under the revision, which will operate from June 1 2012, a team may substitute or replace up to five players during a match. Approval has been granted on player welfare grounds to recognise the additional demands on players and squads owing to the expansion of the HSBC Sevens World Series where there are three blocks of three events on consecutive weekends.
Council also approved the referral by the Laws Representative Group of one potential Law amendment that was successfully trialled at Cambridge and Stellenbosch for further consideration by the specialist Scrum Steering Group (overseeing scrum force project) to be considered alongside the ongoing review of the scrum.
The amendment that will be considered by the Group relates to the engagement sequence and will see the referee call “crouch” then “touch”. The front rows crouch then touch and using outside arm each prop touches the point of the opposing prop’s outside shoulder. The props then withdraw their arms. The referee will then call “set” when the front rows are ready. The front rows may then set the scrum.
“We have a collective responsibility to ensure that the Game is as enjoyable to play, officiate and watch as possible at every level while player welfare is of paramount importance,” said IRB Chairman Bernard Lapasset.
“Rugby is currently in good health with participation growing around the world, but there is collective responsibility to ensure that a structured process can be implemented to allow for global analysis and to monitor trends relating to the shape and character of the Game as it evolves.”
“The approval of five aspects of Law for global trial is the culmination of the Laws Amendment Process which was agreed by the IRB Council in 2009. The journey to this point has been exhaustive and collaborative and has involved full stakeholder consultation and I would like to thank Member Unions for their buy-in and commitment to the process from the outset.”
“The Laws Representative Group were encouraged by the outcomes of the initial trials in Cambridge and Stellenbosch. The next step is a global trial with full buy-in and which has been approved by Council on the basis that the amendments can have a positive effect on the playing of the Game.”
“The global trials are not fait accompli. It is essential at the end of the global trial process that decisions made are in the best interest of Rugby worldwide,” added Lapasset.
Laws Representative Group (LRG): David Nucifora (ARU), Rob Andrew (RFU), Franco Ascione (FIR), Joel Dumé (FFR), Owen Doyle (IRFU), Rod Hill (NZRU), Stephen Gemmell (SRU), André Watson (SARU), Francisco Rubio (UAR), Joe Lydon (WRU), Paddy O'Brien and Graham Mourie (IRB Rugby Committee).
IRB Laws Amendment Process (approved December 2009):
Laws Laboratories commenced in early 2012 (Stellenbosch and Cambridge)
LRG considered outcomes – statistical, player/coach feedback and match to criteria
Council reviewed the recommendations and approve global trials if applicable
Global trials – August 2012 NH – January 2013 SH if applicable
LRG review and recommendations to the Rugby Committee
Recommendations to Council Annual Meeting 2014
Implementation immediate if accepted
May 5th, 2015
The quadrennial laws review process kicked off with technical experts beginning the process of critiquing the game’s law book following commentary and feedback submitted by unions.
Every four years, the governing body runs a health-check on the laws of the game with a view to ensuring the enhancement of player welfare, the maximisation of enjoyment for players and fans, while making sure the sport can continue to develop at all levels around the world.
During two days of productive analysis and discussion in London, the expert Law Representation Group critiqued feedback in order to make recommendations for the Rugby Committee to consider at its next meeting in September. Truly representative, the LRG is made up of coaches, players, referees, medics and union delegates.
Considerations included reinforcing of the application of existing law, edits or re-writes of law and the introduction of new laws deemed appropriate for local trial. The process could culminate in law amendments within the next Rugby World Cup cycle but no changes can be made prior to RWC 2015 in England.
The scrum and breakdown was a particular area of focus with the group agreeing:
- Scrum: With the crouch-bind-set engagement sequence proving successful in reducing scrum injuries, the LRG has recommended that the specialist scrum steering group reconvenes to consider strategies to improve scrum duration and completion rates
- Breakdown: the LRG will further consider proposals regarding the tackle, ruck and maul with a view to maintaining a fair contest for possession while also enhancing player welfare
LRG and Rugby Committee Chairman John Jeffrey said: “World Rugby is committed to continual review and assessment of the laws of the game to ensure that the game is enjoyable to watch and play and is as safe to play as possible at all levels, from the elite, professional tier right down to community and youth rugby.
“This important process occurs after every Rugby World Cup and is an opportunity to take stock, review the laws, drawing on expert input and make changes where needed with those who play and support the game and ongoing prosperity of the sport in mind.
“It was great to see our unions and associations making such a strong contribution, while the level of expertise and discussion from our expert group when considering the submissions was very impressive. We have lots to consider and some interesting proposals to develop.”
New Zealand representative and All Blacks head coach Steve Hansen added: “We all have a responsibility to ensure that rugby is as simple, enjoyable and safe to play as possible. It was a fascinating review and I look forward to ongoing involvement in this important process.”
The previous cycle saw the revision of the scrum engagement sequence on player welfare grounds following extensive evaluation and trials. The crouch-bind-set sequence has reduced forces on engagement by up to 40 per cent at the elite level.
World Rugby confirms closed law trial programme
September 10th 2015
Exciting law trials will take place in national competitions during 2015-16 season with the successful ones taken forward to global trial from 2017.
With the promotion of player welfare, law simplification and spectator experience at the core, World Rugby has confirmed details of a package of law trials that will be trialled domestically within the current quadrennial law review process.
Every four years, rugby’s governing body undertakes a complete health-check of the game’s playing trends across the Rugby World Cup cycle to ensure that the sport continues to develop at all levels around the world. This extensive process is undertaken with full union consultation.
The approval of the package of law trials by the World Rugby Executive Committee, follows detailed analysis and evaluation of union submissions by the specialist Law Review Group (LRG), Scrum Steering Group (SSG) and the Multi-Disciplinary Injury Prevention Group (MDIPG) over the past five months and is the third of a seven-phase process of law change.
The full package of law trials can be viewed here.
In previous cycles, closed trials were operated by World Rugby at Cambridge and Stellenbosch but a desire to deliver extensive, meaningful, elite-level analysis and feedback, meant that unions were asked to nominate competitions for the trials. All trials will be filmed and independently analysed in preparation for World Rugby Council to consider which trials go forward for global trial in 2017.
World Rugby’s Pacific Challenge, U20 Trophy, Tbilisi Cup and Nations Cup in 2016 will trial the full package of law amendments, while the first trials are underway with the Principality Cup in Wales and the National Rugby Championship in Australia. A full inventory of competitions will be released in due course.
Player, coach, fan, match official and media feedback will be sought as part of a comprehensive evaluation of the closed trials by the LRG in mid-2016 with recommendations made to the World Rugby Council in November 2016 as to whether to adopt or not as global trial. Any global trials will commence in January 2017 (south) and August 2017 (north).
LRG and Rugby Committee Chairman John Jeffrey said: “World Rugby is committed to continual review and assessment of the laws of the game to ensure that rugby is enjoyable to watch and play and is as safe to play as possible at all levels, from the elite, professional tier right down to community and youth rugby.
“This important process occurs after every Rugby World Cup and is an opportunity to take stock, review the laws, drawing on expert input and make changes where needed with those who play and support the game and ongoing prosperity of the sport in mind.
“It is great to see our unions and associations making such a strong contribution to this process, while the level of expertise and discussion from our expert group when considering the submissions was very impressive. While this is not a fait accompli, we are excited by the package of trials and look forward to detailed coach, player and fan feedback.”
Meanwhile, the World Rugby EXCO has approved a package of minor law edits, which will operate globally from 1 January, 2016 (south) and 1 August (north). These edits follow submissions by unions as part of the law review process and were recommended to EXCO following detailed evaluation by the Law Review Group and Rugby Committee. These changes will be put in front of Council in October 2015. The LRG is also currently undertaking a wider review of the tackle and ruck area.
Law trials and minor law amendments set for 2016
December 23rd, 2015
A number of minor law amendments, approved and announced in September, will come into effect in the southern hemisphere on 1 January and 1 July in the northern hemisphere, while 2016 will also see a programme of closed law trials begin in earnest as World Rugby's quadrennial law review process continues in 2016.
- Package of closed law trials announced in September with some already underway
- Minor amendments come into effect on 1 January (south) and 1 July (north)
- Player welfare at the heart of the process
Every four years, rugby's governing body undertakes a complete health-check of the game's playing trends across the Rugby World Cup cycle to ensure that the sport continues to develop at all levels around the world. This extensive process is undertaken with full union consultation and has player welfare, game simplification and fan experience at its core.
The implementation of the package of law trials and law amendments by World Rugby Council follows detailed analysis and evaluation of union submissions by the specialist Law Review Group (LRG) which reports to the Rugby Committee. This evaluation process also featured specialist input from the Scrum Steering Group (SSG) and the Multi-Disciplinary Injury Prevention Group (MDIPG) over the past year and is the next phase of the law change process.
2016 minor law amendments recap
Play acting or "simulation” will be specifically outlawed in the game in a move that formalises resistance to a practice that has been creeping into the game in recent years. Any player who dives or feigns injury in an effort to influence the match officials will be liable for sanction. Previously, such offences were covered under the laws covering general acts contrary to good sportsmanship.
CLICK HERE FOR THE MINOR LAW AMENDMENTS >>
2016 closed trials recap
With the closed law trials kicking-off in Wales and Australia in August with the Principality Cup and National Rugby Championship respectively, 2016 will see other tournaments follow, including a number of World Rugby competitions, namely the Pacific Challenge Cup (March), U20 Trophy (April), Nations Cup (June) and Tbilisi Cup (June), providing valuable data from players, coaches and match officials for the LRG to consider.
2016 law clarifications recap
In addition, as announced in September, a package of clarifications in law have been brought within the law book. All clarifications are already effective from the date of the designated members' decision. However, the LRG felt that these clarifications should be recognised by full inclusion in the law book:
- If the ball travels forward from the ball carrier as the result of a rip or deliberate ball-strike by an opponent then that should not be considered a knock-on and play should continue.
- Try-scoring teams will have the option of declining to take the conversion and, if they do so prior to time elapsing at half-time or full-time, the restart shall take place.
Editors Notes Law review proposals were considered against the following agreed principles:
1. Player welfare, especially concussion, is the number-one priority
2. The laws must allow for a fair contest for possession, especially in the contact area, in general play and when play is restarted at scrums, lineouts and kick-offs
3. The game remains a sport for all shapes and sizes, for men and women, and for boys and girls
4. The unique identities of the game must be maintained, including the scrum, lineout, ruck, maul, tackle, kick-off and restarts
5. Any changes must promote enjoyment for participants and entertainment for spectators and must be in line with World Rugby's core values of passion, respect, integrity, discipline and solidarity
6. The laws must be applicable by match officials
7. The game should be as easy to understand as possible for players, coaches, match officials and spectators
Law review cycle 2015-18:
1. Early 2015: Call for suggested amendments
2. Mid-2015: LRG reviews suggestions made by unions/regional associations
3. September 2015: Rugby Committee meets to discuss proposals
4. Early 2016: Initial trials are conducted in relevant competitions
5. Mid-2016: Initial trials are reviewed by LRG
6. October 2016: Initial trials are reviewed by Rugby Committee
7. November 2016: Global trials (if appropriate) are approved by World Rugby Council
8. January 2017: Any such global trials start in southern hemisphere and August 2017 in northern hemisphere
9. June 2018: Any global trials are reviewed by LRG
10. October 2018: Recommendations are made to Rugby Committee
11. November 2018: Council confirms law amendments (if appropriate) at a special meeting and the law is changed accordingly
LRG members were nominated by the top 10 unions (Six Nations and SANZAR). Composition includes directors of rugby, coaches, players and referee representatives. Every World Rugby member union and all the regional associations had an opportunity to propose law changes and trials. As part of the review process, all relevant footage is analysed independently against agreed success criteria, for desired and undesired results as well as looking for possible unintended outcomes (positive and negative).
At the original LRG meeting the members agreed that Laws 15-17 (Tackle, Ruck and Maul) needed further consideration. All unions were asked to further consider any potential trials with their Unions. As a result the LRG met again and agreed to trial the following elements of the game, the full list of which can be found HERE.
Law 15 – Tackle
1. The tackler must get up before playing the ball and then may only play the ball from behind his side of the breakdown mid-point. (amend current 15.4 (c). The breakdown mid-point is not the ball but the point where players are in contact.
2. A tackled player must immediately pass the ball or release it. That player must also get up or move away from it at once (existing 15.5 (b)).
3. If tackler and ball carrier only then there is no breakdown or offside line – this is open play and subsequent attacking players maybe be tackled by retreating players.
4. Recognise assist tackler in law
Players in opposition to the ball carrier who remain on their feet who bring the ball carrier to ground so that the player is tackled must clearly release the ball and the ball carrier immediately after the tackled player is put on the ground. Those players may then play the ball providing they are on their feet and do so from behind the breakdown mid-point (Existing 15.6 (c))
Law 16 – Breakdown
1. A breakdown commences when at least one player from the attacking team is on their feet and over the ball which is on the ground (tackled player, tackler plus one more). At this point the offside line is created (new definition).
2. Only players acting as a half-back can play the ball with their hands (lift the ball out of the breakdown). They must be on their feet and on-side. They must subsequently run, pass or kick (new 16.2 – Joining a breakdown). A half-back is any one player who is not part of the breakdown and behind the hindmost foot who is in a position to play the ball emerging from the breakdown. The hindmost foot will be the offside line for half-back players.
3. Offside line at a ruck is the back foot plus one metre. If the back foot of the hindmost player is on or behind the goal line, the offside line for the defending team is the goal line. To be policed by assistant referees (new 16.5 (a) – offside at the breakdown).
4. All arriving players must come from an onside position (see 3 above) and can enter their side of the breakdown mid-point (no gate). Players must remain on their feet (new 16.5 (c)).
5. No players at breakdown can have hands on the ground beyond the ball, hold onto or lean on or have knees on players on the ground. Players off their feet sealing the ball will be penalised. Arriving players encouraged to drive over or past the ball (existing 16.4).
6. Players must not handle the ball in a breakdown once the breakdown is formed. Once the breakdown contest is formed the player must release the ball (new 16.4 – other breakdown offences).
7. The breakdown ends when the ball emerges or the ball is picked up (new 16.6 – successful end to a breakdown).
Law 17 – Maul
The group debated trialling a collapsed maul. The consensus was that this would be perceived as dangerous and should not be trialled.
The group agreed to issue a law application (from 1 January) guideline to enforce the following:
The ball can be moved backwards hand-to-hand once the maul has formed. A player is not allowed to move or slide to the back of the maul when he is in possession of the ball. Sanction: Penalty kick.
1. The Daily News, Tuesday April 29, 1890.
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| 0.959859 | 11,064 | 2.96875 | 3 |
|Motto: Nunavut Sanginivut (Nunavut our strength)|
- % fresh water
(1st lgst terr.)
2 093 190 km²
- Total (2001)
|Admittance into Confederation
|Time zones||UTC -4,-5,-6,-7
*Southampton Island[?] does not observe DST
|Postal information (http://www.canadapost.ca)
Postal code prefix
NU (temporarily NT)
|Commissioner||Peter T. Irniq[?]|
|Government of Nunavut (http://www.gov.nu.ca)|
Nunavut is Canada's newest territory. Formerly part of the vast Northwest Territories, Nunavut officially separated on April 1, 1999 via the Nunavut Act[?] and the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act[?], though the actual boundaries were established as early as 1993.
The capital of Nunavut is Iqaluit (formerly Frobisher Bay) on Baffin Island. Other major communities include Rankin Inlet[?] and Cambridge Bay[?]. Nunavut has a population of only about 27,000 (Nunavumiut, sg. Nunavumiuq) spread over an area the size of Western Europe.
History The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of Baffin Island with the Helluland[?] described in Norse sagas[?], so it is possible that the inhabitants of the region had occasional contact with Norse sailors. For more information on the earliest inhabitants and explorers of Nunavut, see Paleoeskimo[?], Neoeskimo[?] and Helluland[?].
The recorded history of Nunavut began in 1576. Martin Frobisher, while leading an expedition to find the Northwest Passage, thought he had discovered gold ore in what is now known as Frobisher Bay on the coast of Baffin Island. The ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit. The contact was hostile, with Frobisher capturing four Inuit people and bringing them back to England, where they quickly perished.
(and there were quite a few more after that. More needs to be said about various explorers and colonial history in Nunavut. But for now, let's make a jump into recent history)
In 1976, negotiations for a land claim agreement and the new territory between the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada[?] and the federal government began. In April 1982, a majority of Northwest Territories residents voted in favour of a division, and the federal government gave a conditional agreement seven months later. A land claims agreement was reached in September, 1992 and ratified by nearly 85% of the voters in Nunavut. In June 1993 the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act[?] and the Nunavut Act[?] were passed by the Canadian Parliament, and the transition was completed on April 1, 1999.
People Nunavut has a population of approximately 27,000, of whom around 85% are native peoples.
Geography The territory covers approximately 1.9 million square kilometers of land and water including part of the mainland, most of the Arctic Islands, and all of the islands in Hudson Bay, James Bay, and Ungava Bay[?] which were formerly attached to the Northwest Territories. The Belcher Islands are the southernmost part of Nunavut.
The creation of Nunavut created Canada's only "four corners," at the intersection of the boundaries of Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, at 60°00' north, 102°00' west, on the southern shore of Kasba Lake[?]. This is not the tourist spot it might be, as it is extremely remote and inaccessible.
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| 0.925566 | 816 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Genealogists have learned that "genealogy without documentation is mythology." We are taught to document our findings by entering a source citation for each piece of information we enter into our genealogy management software.
Some genealogists fall short when it comes to labeling each document, printed or digital, with its complete citation. In Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace, Elizabeth Shown Mills explains:
"Full citations should appear on every photocopied or scanned document and on every page of a research report. To avoid altering the face of a photocopy, some researchers place the source label on the blank back side. As that photocopy goes into circulation, however, the inevitable happens: someone in the circulation chain fails to copy the reverse of the record. Thereafter, others have a document with no identification." (pages 66-67)
Sound familiar? Have you ever received a copy of an obituary, only it lacks the name and date of the newspaper?
It is simple to attach a citation to a printed document. Today's practice is to write the citation into the margin of the photocopy's face, or attach a printed label to it. However, as more and more documents are digitally distributed, this becomes more of a problem. Some researchers attempt to adequately identify a digital image by giving it a descriptive digital file name. Evidence Explained comments that "aside from the insufficient identification of the source, another problem ensues. As the file is distributed electronically, others in the chain are likely to change the file label to suit their own filing system, thereby eliminating all clues to the source."
Adding the citation to a digital image is certainly possible using your photo editing software. On the right is a scanned image of an 1865 Minneapolis, Minnesota city directory. Without the full citation, it is impossible to determine the correct year.
To add a citation to the image with your photo editing software, follow these general steps (not all photo editing software works exactly the same, but the same concepts apply. PhotoShop Elements 5.0 is demonstrated here):
1. If there is not enough space in the margin of the digital image, make space:
Click on the Image menu > Resize > Canvas size. Change the anchor and width (see image on below). Change the Canvas Extension color to white. Click OK.
2. Using the text tool, type the citation, rotate it, and place it appropriately in the margin.
It takes a couple of extra minutes to add the citation to a digital image, but the citation will always accompany the image when it is distributed with others.
To learn more about Evidence Explained, or to purchase your own copy, click here.
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| 0.900506 | 557 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Knowing this could impact your parenting style more than you realise. more
How to prepare your daughter for puberty and menstruation
Puberty is a time of massive change
The is the time where our children begin the transition from kids to adults. It can be anxious, exciting, difficult and challenging all in one. There are ways that you can help your daughter through this stage and preparation is the key.
Having 'the talk'
Back in the day, parents sat their children down and had 'the talk' about the birds and bees and our changing bodies. While it's great to talk to our daughters, the discussion about puberty should be more than just one chat or lecture. The best way to prepare your daughter for the big changes she's about to go through is to have a series of frank discussions. These can begin quite young and don't have to be detailed in the beginning. Just opening up the channels of communication and laying a good foundation of trust is the best way to start. This way your daughter will feel comfortable and secure talking to you.
The details of puberty
As she begins to get closer to puberty, this is the time to talk about all the nitty gritty details. Explain how her body is going to change – breasts growing, underarm and pubic hair sprouting, needing to use deodorant, etc. Talk about menstruation, what will happen when she gets her first period, about sanitary protection and what to expect. If she has as much knowledge as possible before her first period arrives, she won't feel scared about what's happening to her. Your daughter will also feel comfortable coming to you and talking about what is happening and any questions she may have.
Prepare a period pack
Prepare a pack of sanitary products that she can carry in her school bag, in case she gets her period while out and about. This is a good chance to talk about what different products (ie pads, tampons, liners) can be used and when. It will also make her feel more confident about what is happening to her.
Boost her self-esteem
During puberty a young girl's self-esteem can take a battering. Her changing body can make her feel self-conscious and embarrassed. You can help her by complimenting her looks and making her feel good about herself. A girl who feels confident will be able to handle the big changes with greater ease.
Read more about puberty, girls and menstruation:
- What are the first signs of puberty?
- The myths of puberty
- Help your daughter become confident about her body
- Girls and boys
- How to talk to your daughter about periods
- Menstruation - the facts and figures
- Puberty and mood
- Coping with period pain
- Sex education and contraception
- Tackling teen acne
- Puberty for girls
- Stages of puberty
- Early menstruation
- Precocious puberty in girls
Last revised: Tuesday, 26 July 2011
This article contains general information only and is not intended to replace advice from a qualified health professional.
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| 0.958505 | 728 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Thursday, October 3, 2013
Specialist in Energy Policy
During the winter of 1999-2000, the price of home heating oil virtually doubled in some Northeastern states while storage levels of middle distillate stocks—the range of home heating oil and diesel fuels—sharply declined. The situation attracted lawmakers’ attention and concern. Of the U.S. households that use heating oil to heat their homes, 69% reside in the Northeast. The Northeastern states continue to rely on heating oil as a source of home heating, but at a reduced level of dependency compared to 2000. The Northeast demand for home heating oil has declined by 47% since 2000, from nearly 7 billion gallons to 3.6 billion gallons in 2011. However, the price of heating oil has increased more than 2½ times from roughly $1.50 per gallon beginning in 2000 to just over $4.00 gallon in early 2013. The price increase reflects the trend in the price of crude oil.
Both population and housing occupancy rates ostensibly drive heating oil demand. Both increased in the Northeast over the past decade. At the same time, improved insulation and more energyefficient heating systems in newly constructed homes may have offset demand. As a percent of overall domestic demand for natural gas, the Northeast region has remained nearly steady, varying between 20% and 22%, and recently returned to a level barely above 2001-2002 demand. Natural gas, electricity, bottled propane, and wood can substitute for heating oil. Natural gas demand in 2011 barely exceeded the 2000 demand. While natural gas production in the Northeast has increased because of unconventional gas shale development, the existing pipeline distribution system has not expanded in the New England States. Retail electricity sales have increased in New York and Pennsylvania, the two most populous states in the Northeast, while sales in the New England states remained nearly level. While the Energy Information Administration (EIA) does obtain volume data on residential propane sales, it does not publish this data. However, U.S. propane residential prices did rise from $1 per gallon in 2000 to over $2.80 per gallon in 2012. Residential use of kerosene has also declined.
In response to the 1999-2000 heating oil price spike and supply shortage, the United States Congress authorized the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve (NHHOR) in the Energy Policy Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-469). As a two million barrel emergency stockpile of government-owned heating oil, NHHOR was intended to meet roughly 10 days of demand by the Northeastern states at the time it was created. Congress also authorized the National Oilheat Research Alliance (NORA) to develop projects for the research, development, and demonstration of clean and efficient oilheat utilization equipment; and to operate programs that enhanced consumer and employee training.
Middle-distillate range petroleum products can serve as a heating and transportation needs. In its 13-year history, NNHOR has only released fuel for use by federal, state, and local emergency responders during natural disasters and not for retail sales during market dislocations. While the release demonstrated the utility of maintaining a distillate stockpile, the authorizing legislation had only anticipated a heating oil supply shortage during market dislocation. The recent change out of NHHOR stocks with ultra-low sulfur distillate increased its utility as a transportation fuel. In the absence of NHHOR, residential consumers have the recourse of substituting ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel for their heating needs.
Date of Report: September 19, 2013
Number of Pages: 24
Order Number: R43235
R43235.pdf to use the SECURE SHOPPING CART
For email and phone orders, provide a Visa, MasterCard, American Express, or Discover card number, expiration date, and name on the card. Indicate whether you want e-mail or postal delivery. Phone orders are preferred and receive priority processing.
Posted by Penny Hill Press, Inc. at Thursday, October 03, 2013
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| 0.942906 | 815 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Data definitions also called as meta data are managed and created in ABAP Dictionary. It allows to maintain a huge volume of data without data redundancy. The ABAP Dictionary describes the logical structure of all the dictionary objects used in Application development. It also provides you with the flexibility of accessing the data on the screen and allows you to maintain manage and create without any programmers intervention.
The data dictionaries can be categorized into the following.
- Database table
- Data types
- Search Help
- Lock Objects
Tables can be defined independently in the database in the ABAP Dictionary. The fields of the table are defined together with their data types and lengths.
A table definition has following components:
A View is a logical representation of tables. This is just a way of organizing the data by combining more than one table by comparing the common fields which is called a join.
It’s an attribute to tell as to what kind of data is it going to hold like numbers, characters, integers etc. A data type can be an elementary data type or a reference data type.
A domain contains the technical attributes of the data type. Like the length, the actual data type ( like char, integer), The output characteristics and the value range which tells us as to what kind of data can be accepted as a valid input.
A search help is simply what you see in SAP when you key in the F4 button. It provides you with the list/range of values.
A search help can be categorised into three types:
Elementary Search help
Collective Search Help
Append Search Help
A lock object is virtual link of an sap table which is used to synchronize the data when more than one user attempts to write to the Database table. These lock objects are called and handled inside the program based on requirement.
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| 0.864253 | 374 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Frederick Douglass, whose birthday is honored on February 14, was born a slave in 1818, and now remembered for his eloquence, activism, and fearless championing against slavery.
Paige Scofield's posts.
Working at the National Constitution Center, the Constitution Daily writers all pay probably more attention to news items relating to the Constitution than most folks. So when this story came to our attention last month, we were fascinated by Maryland’s belated attention to the 17th Amendment.
Constitution Daily does a spin on the “Twelve Days of Christmas.”
By the Numbers is data you can use to shape an opinion or start a civic conversation.
The Federalist Papers provide insight into divisive topics facing presidential candidates on the campaign trail.
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| 0.949484 | 158 | 2.796875 | 3 |
1 Music A low-pitched stop in an organ or harmonium, typically a sixteen-foot stopped diapason.
- These names have all been used denote a Bourdon pitched an octave lower, at 16' or 32'.
- The scale for the Bourdon pipes is the same as the Soubasse pipes except two notes smaller.
- Bourdons are stopped pipes, that are only half the length of an open pipe of the same pitch.
2The drone pipe of a bagpipe.
- In one of his best poems, then, we find such relatively unfamiliar words as apodictic, valency, crenellated, enteric, and bourdon.
- Up to four unstopped strings, called bourdons, sound drones.
- On the hurdy-gurdy, the drone strings are called bourdons, in contrast to the melody string, which is a chanterelle.
Middle English (in the sense 'drone of a bagpipe'): from Old French, 'drone', of imitative origin.
For editors and proofreaders
Definition of bourdon in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.
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| 0.887264 | 267 | 3.265625 | 3 |
By Matt Cunningham
CPR, when a responder pumps blood and breaths for a victim of cardiac arrest, is very important and can save lives. It does not require extensive training, and special tools are not required. Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in the United States.
Many lives could be saved if every high school student was capable of performing CPR. I believe that CPR training should be added to the curriculum of a mandatory health class. At my school, one health class is required for graduation.
Although CPR training is very important, schedules are very crowded already and I don’t think a separate class for CPR training would be practical or popular. But by adding it to an already mandatory course, no new classes would be added and the curriculum could be taught effectively. Red Cross CPR courses take about five hours. That is equivalent to about a week of in class time, making a CPR unit in a health class a very realistic idea.
I think everyone should learn CPR, even if it is not required curriculum, but simply because CPR can save someone’s life.
— Matt Cunningham is a freshman at Fayetteville-Manlius High School
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Contents - Previous - Next
1.1 Focus on nutrition/food security and
1.2 Prospective developments to year 2010
1.3 Factors in the growth of agriculture in developing countries
1.4 Further pressures on agricultural resources and the environment
1.5 Technological and other policies to minimize trade-offs between agricultural development and the environment
1.6 Forest sector prospects
1.7 Increasing resource constraints in fisheries
1.8 Policies for agriculture and rural development in developing countries
1.9 Emphasis on human resources development in developing countries
1.10 Concluding remarks
1.1 Focus on nutrition/food security and agricultural resources/sustainability
This study assesses prospects for world food and agriculture to the year 2010, with special focus on the developing countries. The results present the situation as it is likely to develop and several chapters are devoted to the discussion of ways of tackling both persisting and newly emerging problems. The study covers a wide array of issues in varying degrees of detail as regards their geographic, commodity, resources, technology, and other dimensions as well as related policies. The overall framework for the assessment of prospects is provided by two related major issues in world food and agriculture:
The importance of these issues was underlined by the major international conferences of recent years: the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the FAO/WHO International Conference on Nutrition (ICN).
Food and nutrition: progress and failures in the historical period
World per caput supplies of food for direct human consumption are today some 18 percent above what they were 30 years ago. The majority of the developing countries participated in this progress and improved nutrition. However, impressive as this progress has been, it has bypassed a large number. of countries and population groups. Many countries continue to have very low per caput food supplies and have hardly made any progress. Indeed, sub-Saharan Africa is today worse off nutritionally than 30 or 20 years ago. In parallel, continuous population growth has meant that the declines in the percentage of the population chronically undernourished did not lead to commensurate declines in the absolute numbers affected. The latter have fallen only modestly and remain stubbornly high at some 800 million persons.
It is now well recognized that failure to alleviate poverty is the main reason why undernutrition persists. This realization, together with the evidence that the world as a whole faced no major constraints in increasing food production by as much as required to meet the growth of effective demand (as shown by the long-term trends for food prices not to rise in real terms, and indeed to decline on balance), contributed to focus attention on ways and means to alleviate poverty and improve the "food entitlements" of the poor, while downplaying the role of increasing per caput food supplies. However, the two aspects cannot be separated in the quest for policy responses to the problem of undernutrition. In the majority of the developing countries, increasing food production is among the principal means for combating poverty. This follows from the fact that the majority of the poor depend on agriculture for employment and incomes. So long as this dependence continues to be high, the growth of food production and of agricultural productivity in the countries with high concentrations of rural poverty will continue to be among the principal means for alleviating poverty and improving nutrition.
The role of world food markets
But global food production capabilities will continue to be important, even if the focus is on the nutrition problem in the developing countries. The fact that success in a number of countries was based on rapidly growing food imports, particularly in the 1970s following the growth of export earnings from the oil boom and easy access to external finance, underlines the role of world food markets in the nutritional developments of the developing countries. In the past, world markets were abundantly supplied by the main cereal exporters, mainly the Western developed countries. This evidence suggests that the world as a whole had sufficient production potential to respond to spurts in import demand without raising prices, apart from occasional shocks. Whether this will be so in the longer term future is another question, which is addressed later on, drawing on the analyses of this study.
In particular the historical evidence needs to be interpreted with care, because the behaviour of world food markets in the past was influenced by the agricultural support policies of major cereals exporting countries. This led to surplus production, stock accumulation, subsidized exports and depressed world market prices. In addition, environmental and resource degradation problems were less of an issue than at present in the decision to support increases in production. Policy reforms under way and in prospect would contribute to all these factors playing a less important role in the future compared with the past in increasing supplies to world markets. Already such policy changes, together with a slowdown in world demand for cereal imports, have led to a decline in recent years in cereals production of the main exporting countries. These declines are behind the fact that world per caput production of cereals is today below its peak of the mid-1980s (see below).
The significance of agricultural resources in the food security problematique
In the quest for solutions to the problem of food security and undernutrition, concerns are often expressed about the capability of the world's agricultural resources, technology and human ingenuity to increase food supplies by as much as required to ensure to all people adequate access to food. However, the adequacy of agricultural resources to produce more food is only one part of the resources/environment/sustainability nexus having a bearing on the food problem. Agricultural resources are not only an input into food production but also the major economic asset on which depends a good part of the population in the developing countries for employment and income. Thus, even if the world's resources were adequate to underpin continued growth in food production, the solution of the food problem would still be constrained if the agricultural resources of the poor were insufficient to ensure their livelihood. From this standpoint, the relevant dimension of the perceived growing global imbalance between population and agricultural resources is not so much the need to produce more food globally for more people but rather the fact that the population dependent on agriculture for a living continues to grow.
Some developing countries have made the transition to reduced dependence on agricultural resources for their total employment and income. They include countries which have achieved medium-high levels of per caput food availabilities, even though their agricultural resources per caput (of the total population) have declined to very low levels. Some of them have come to depend increasingly on food imports. For them, the agricultural resource constraints most relevant to their food welfare are those impinging on the global capabilities of the world to produce more food. However, many developing countries are far from this transition. For these latter countries, local agricultural resource constraints will continue to be a major factor in the prospects for solving their food problem. This is because a high proportion of their population, often growing in absolute numbers, depends on these very agricultural resources. Moreover, efforts of growing numbers to make a living out of dwindling resources per caput are sometimes associated with degradation and reduction of the productive potential of these resources. In such cases, there is a high risk that a vicious circle between increasing poverty and resource degradation may be established.
However, it would be incorrect to assume that agricultural resource degradation is exclusively a poverty-related phenomenon. There is sufficient evidence of resource degradation associated with agricultural practices in areas which are certainly not poor, e.g. overuse of agrochemicals in Europe, soil erosion associated with part of grain production in North America and effluents from intensive livestock operations in many countries. Some of these effects are generated or strengthened by policies which provide incentives for unsustainable practices, e.g. support and protection policies which make profitable the excessive use of agrochemicals. Thus, devising policies to safeguard agricultural resources, reduce more general adverse environmental impacts and make progress towards sustainability requires taking account of the factors that determine behaviour vis-a-vis the resources of both the poor in the developing countries and the non-poor everywhere.
Notwithstanding the above-mentioned occurrences of increased pressures on agricultural resources generated by the actions of the non-poor, poverty reducing development remains the main hope for easing such pressures in the long term. In the first place, overall population growth slows down with development and agricultural population declines; and secondly, there is less scope for further increases in per caput food consumption when people are well fed. The pressures for increasing food production and for extracting incomes out of agricultural resources in non-sustainable ways become accordingly less intense at higher levels of development. In addition, the objective of resource conservation and environmental protection ranks higher with development in society's hierarchy of preferences, while the means to pursue this objective are also less scarce.
In this context, the question of primary interest for policy is not only how to break the vicious circle between increasing poverty and resource degradation but also how to manage the process of development in ways which minimize the trade-offs between it and the environment. Later sections in this chapter summarize, and other chapters discuss more fully, the environmental pressures likely to emerge in the next 20 years as they can be deduced from the production, resource use and technology projections of this study. They set the stage for examining the options offered by technology and other policies to respond to this challenge.
1.2 Prospective developments to year 2010
Continuing, but slower, growth in world population
Over the time horizon of the study the world population may grow to 7.2 billion (or to 7.0 billion according to the latest UN projection; UN, 1994), up from the 5.3 billion of 1990 and the 3.7 billion of only 20 years earlier: 94 percent, or 1.8 billion (1.6 billion in the latest projections) of the total increment in world population will be in the developing countries. Moreover, the regional patterns of population growth are very disparate, e.g. 3.2 percent p.a. in sub-Saharan Africa (reduced to 2.9 percent p.a. in the latest revision of the demographic projections), 1.2 percent p.a. in East Asia. These demographic trends in the developing countries, in combination with their still low levels of per caput food consumption, would require continued strong growth in their food supplies. Not all these additional needs will be expressed as effective market demand. The aggregate increase in the food supplies of the developing countries is likely to be less than required to raise average per caput supplies to levels compatible with food security for all. This is because the general development scene is likely to leave many developing countries and population groups with per caput incomes and potential for access to food not much above present levels.
Better prospects for overall economic growth in the developing countries but with significant exceptions
In the crisis decade of the 1980s. all developing regions experienced declines in per caput incomes, with the important exception of Asia, both East and South. It is likely that these trends will be reversed in the future. The latest World Bank assessment indicates that Asia would continue to perform at fairly high rates of economic growth while the prospects are for modest recovery in both Latin America/Caribbean and the Near East/North Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa would also shift to higher economic growth rates compared with the disastrous 1980s but its per caput income would grow only slightly. These developments in the overall economy already foreshadow the prospect that some regions will continue to make progress towards food security and that others may not make much progress.
The Western developed countries are likely to continue to perform as in the past. The prospects for the ax-centrally planned economies (CPEs) of Europe are shrouded in uncertainty. Their combined GDP is thought to be at present about one-third below that of the pre-reform m period. The decline will probably bottom-out in the near future, but it may take a long time before sustained growth re-establishes per caput incomes at the pre-reform levels.
World agricultural growth will continue to slow down
The detailed assessments of this study indicate that the growth rate of world agricultural production at 1.8 percent p.a. will be lower in the period to 2010 compared with that of the past. This slowdown is largely a continuation of long-term historical trends. World production grew at 3.0 percent p.a. in the 1960s, 2.3 percent p.a. in the 1970s and 2.0 percent p.a. in 1980-92. The slowdown is not a negative outcome per se to the extent that it reflects some positive developments in the world demographic and development scenes. In the first place, and as noted above, world population growth has been on the decline. Secondly, more and more countries have been raising their per caput food consumption to levels beyond which there is limited scope for further increases. Most developed countries are in this class and they are being gradually joined by some developing countries. To put it in plain language, people who have money to buy more food do not need to do so, though they will probably continue to increase their expenditure on food to pay for the ever increasing margins of marketing, processing, packaging and the services that go with them.
The negative aspect of the slowdown has to do with the fact that it has been happening and will continue to happen while many countries and a significant part of the world population continue to have totally inadequate consumption levels and access to food, with consequent persistence of high levels of undernutrition. In short, the slowdown in world agricultural growth is also due to the fact that people who would consume more do not have sufficient incomes to demand more food and cause it to be produced. World output could expand at higher rates than envisaged in this study if effective demand were to grow faster.
There is in the preceding discussion a notional separation between demand and supply: demand expands independently of supply and causes production to respond. If the additional production is forthcoming at non-increasing prices, one cannot speak of constraints to increasing output. This description fits fairly well the situation in the more advanced countries where incomes and demand originate predominantly in sectors other than agriculture. But it applies much less to many developing countries where incomes of large parts of their population depend, directly and indirectly, on agriculture. In such situations, increasing demand and increasing production are in many respects two faces of the same coin. For if production constraints limit agricultural growth, they act as brakes on both incomes and demand as well as supply. In such situations, one can speak of production constraints limiting progress towards food security, even though such constraints may not apply at the world level.
The policy implication is that in countries with heavy dependence on agriculture, progress towards improved food security depends in major ways on making their own agriculture more productive, at least until such dependence is significantly reduced in the process of development. This self evident conclusion is not new. It is restated here in order to dispel the notion that agricultural resource constraints do not stand in the way of improving world food security just because there is probably still ample potential for increasing food production in the world as a whole. This notwithstanding, as development proceeds and poor countries reduce their dependence on agriculture for income and employment, and become more integrated into the world economy, the issue of whether there are agricultural resource constraints to making progress towards food security for all will tend to shift from the local level to the global one.
Progress in food and nutrition, but not for all
The implications of the demographic and overall development prospects, together with the assessments of this study for production, consumption and trade are that per caput food supplies for direct human consumption (as measured by the food balance sheets) in the developing countries as a whole would continue to grow, from nearly 2500 calories today to just over 2700 calories by the year 2010. It is likely that by the year 2010 the Near East/North Africa, East Asia (including China) and Latin America/Caribbean regions will be at or above the 3000 calorie mark - significant progress particularly for East Asia. South Asia may also make significant progress but it will still be in 20 years time at a middling position. But the prospects are that per caput food supplies in sub-Saharan Africa will remain at very low levels.
Under the circumstances, the incidence of chronic undernutrition could decline in the three regions with the better prospects. Progress will likely be made also in South Asia, though there could still be 200 million people undernourished in the region by the year 2010. Chronic undernutrition is likely to remain rampant in sub-Saharan Africa, with 32 percent of the population (some 300 million) affected. Thus, the scourge of chronic undernutrition in terms of absolute numbers affected will tend to shift from South Asia to sub Saharan Africa. These estimates are broad orders of magnitude and relative trends rather than precise predictions of what may happen, subject to the necessary caveats (discussed in Chapter 2). They indicate that it is likely that chronic undernutrition in the developing countries as a whole will persist, perhaps at somewhat lower absolute levels, some 650 million people in the year 2010, against some 800 million people today. Therefore, there will be no respite from the need for interventions to cope with the problem, nor from that of seeking to eradicate poverty, the root cause of undernutrition.
World production of cereals to continue to grow, but not in per caput terms
In the past 20 years, per caput production of cereals for the world as a whole grew from 302 kg in 1969/71 to a peak of 342 kg in 1984/86 but then it declined to 326 kg in 1990/92. It is probable that the average may not grow further and it would still be 326 kg in 2010. This is, however, no cause for general alarm for the reasons discussed earlier in connection with the progressive slowdown in world agricultural growth. In particular, the consumption requirements for all uses in the developed countries (which have 635 kg of per caput total use of cereals and account for 46 percent of world consumption) grow only slowly and may fall in per caput terms. These countries produce collectively as much as needed for their own consumption and to meet the increase in net exports to the developing countries. They could produce more, if more were demanded. These prospects are heavily influenced by possible developments in the excepts of Europe whose total domestic use of cereals would not only stop increasing rapidly as in the past but may actually fall. This possible development has its origin in the prospect that per caput consumption of livestock products may not recover fully to the pre-reform levels, that there is significant scope for economies in the use of cereals as feed and that post-harvest losses could be reduced significantly.
The recent decline in the world per caput production of cereals has been interpreted by some as indicating a structural change for the worse in the world food trends caused by increasingly binding constraints on the side of production. However, the decline after the mid-1980s was entirely due to falls in the aggregate production of the major net cereal exporting countries. It has not been associated with rises in world market prices and was to a large measure related to policies of some major countries to control the growth of production in that period. Therefore, the decline may not be interpreted as signalling the onset of constraints on the production side which made it difficult to meet the growth of effective demand. The real problem must be seen in the too slow growth of effective demand on the part of those countries and population groups with low levels of food consumption.
The preceding discussion indicates that the world average per caput production has only limited value for measuring trends in world food security. It can also be misleading if it conveys the idea that with the world average constant, any gains in per caput production of one group of countries must be counterbalanced by declines in another group. This need not be the case. It was not so in the 1980s and it will likely not be so in the future. Per caput production is projected to increase in both the developed and the developing countries while the world average may remain at 326 kg (see Table 2.1 in Chapter 2). This paradox is due to the fact that the developing countries start with low per caput production and high population growth rates, and the developed countries are in the opposite situation.
In the event, per caput production of cereals in the developing countries is foreseen to continue growing, from the 216 kg in 1988/90 to 229 kg in 2010. This is a smaller increment than was achieved in the past: 15 kg per decade in the 1970s and the 1980s. But their per caput consumption for all uses may grow faster than production, from 235 to 254 kg, part of it for feed to support the rapidly growing livestock sector. This will require further growth of net imports from the developed countries, which may grow from the 90 million tonnes of 1988/90 to about 160 million tonnes in 2010. The implied rate of growth of the net import requirements is not particularly high judged by the historical record. It is more like that of the 1980s rather than the very rapid one of the 1970s. Financing increased food imports may be considered a normal feature of those developing countries in which both incomes and consumption, particularly of livestock products, grow and other sectors generate foreign exchange earnings. But those developing countries which cannot easily finance increased food imports from scarce foreign exchange earnings will face hardship. It is, therefore, reasonable to foresee a continued role for food aid for a long time to come. If policy reforms towards a more market-oriented international agricultural trade system were to limit the scope for food aid from surpluses, alternative measures will be required to meet the needs. In this respect, the decision included in the Final Act of the recently completed Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, about measures to attenuate the effects on the food importing developing countries of an eventual rise in world market prices, creating conditions for food security stocks and continuation of food aid flows, assumes particular importance.
Modest growth in the demand for exports of cereals from the major exporting developed regions
Although the prospects for further growth of exports of cereals from the major exporting developed countries to the developing countries offer some scope for further growth of production and exports of the former, the prospects are for their net exports to the rest of the world to grow by much less. This is because the group of the ex-CPEs of Europe would probably cease to be a large net importer in the future and there is a possibility that it could turn into a modest net exporter of cereals by 2010.
There might be significant changes in the market shares in these total net exports of the three major exporting OECD areas, W Europe, N America and Oceania. The policy reforms under way and in prospect, in particular in the context of the provisions of the Final Act of the Uruguay Round, would probably lead to W Europe not increasing further its net exports from the levels of the late 1980s, with all of the additional combined exports of the three groups, and perhaps some more, accruing to North America and Oceania. At least this is what is indicated by the results of most analyses concerning the possible effects of the policy reforms. These findings are, of course, subject to the many caveats attached to the assumptions and models on which these analyses are based.
Continuing strong growth in the livestock sector
The past trends for the livestock sector in developing countries to grow at a relatively high rate are set to continue, though in attenuated form. Part of the growth in their cereal imports will be for increased production and consumption of livestock products. However, the consumption of livestock products in the developing countries will still be well below that of the developed countries in per caput terms in the year 2010. These averages for the developing countries mask wide regional and country diversities, and in both South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa consumption will generally remain at very low levels. The disparities reflect those in incomes as well as production constraints. The latter are a factor in the unfavourable nutritional prospects of some countries in which livestock products, particularly milk, are a major staple food, e.g. in the pastoral societies.
The livestock sector of the developed countries may also grow, but at much slower rates compared with the past, with per caput consumption growing only for poultry meat. This would reflect the prospect that (a) in the ex-CPEs the production and per caput consumption of livestock products may take a long time to recover to near pre-reform levels after the sharp initial declines, and (b) the other developed countries have generally high levels of per caput consumption.
With the continued growth of the livestock sector in the developing countries, their use of cereals as feed will continue to grow fast and it may more than double by the year 2010 to some 340 million tonnes, about 23 percent of their total use. This increasing proportion of total cereals supplies used to feed animals in the developing countries may give rise for concern given the persistence of undernutrition. The concern would be well founded if the use of cereals for feed diverted supplies that would otherwise be available for use by the poor as direct food. This could happen but only in situations where the additional demand for feed would raise prices rather than supplies (whether from domestic production or imports) and price the poor out of the market. There are reasons to believe that this is the exception rather than the rule, as discussed in Chapter 3.
Roots, tubers, plantains: continuing importance in the total food supplies of countries in the humid tropics
Roots, tubers and plantains account for some 40 percent of total food supplies (in terms of calories) for about one-half of the population of sub-Saharan Africa, where overall food supplies are at very low levels. Other countries in both Africa and Latin America/Caribbean also depend significantly on these staples. Production could be increased, and will do, to meet future needs. However, the past trends have been for per caput consumption to decline, at least as far as it can be ascertained from imprecise statistics for this sector. The decline has reflected essentially trends towards urbanization where the high perishability and labour-intensive nature of preparation for consumption make them less preferred foods. With increasing urbanization, it can be expected that there will be further, though modest, declines in average per caput consumption. But dependence of these countries on these products for their total food supplies will continue to be high. The trend towards decline in per caput consumption may be attenuated if imported cereals were to become scarcer, which may well be the case if policy reforms in the developed countries were to raise prices and reduce supplies for concessionary sales and food aid. Likewise, further research into converting starchy roots into less perishable and more convenient food products for the urban population could contribute to attenuate these trends.
The oilcrops sector of the developing countries: continued rapid growth in prospect
In the last 20 years the oilcrops sector of the developing countries grew fast and underwent radical structural change. The oilpalm in East Asia and soybeans in
South America exhibited spectacular growth. The shares of these products and regions in total oilcrop production increased rapidly and those of the other oilcrops of the developing countries (coconuts, groundnuts, cottonseed, sesame) and of the other regions declined accordingly.
The production growth of the sector will continue to be above average compared with the rest of agriculture. Structural change will also continue, but at a much slower pace compared with the past. The expansion of the oilpalm sector will continue to be the most rapid, increasing its share to perhaps 38 percent, up from 32 percent at present and only 16 percent 20 years ago. Soybean production in South America will also continue to grow rapidly, but nothing like the 12-fold increase of the last 20 years, when growth had started from a very low base. The continuation of fairly high growth rates of the oilcrops sector reflects the rapid increase in consumption of the developing countries for both vegetable oils for food and oilseed proteins in support of their rapidly growing livestock sectors. They would also increase further their exports of oils and to a lesser extent those of oilmeals to the rest of the world.
Slower growth in the other main agricultural exports of the developing countries
There are well-known reasons why the generally unfavourable trends in the net exports of the major export commodities of the developing countries to the rest of the world may continue. For sugar, the reason is mostly the probable continuation of support and protection policies, market access restrictions and subsidized exports of major developed countries. Then, the ex-CPEs are likely to be much smaller net importers in the future. Therefore, net exports to the developed countries will likely continue to fall. But the developing exporting countries are likely to continue to expand exports because there are growing markets in the net importing developing countries, which increased their net imports nearly four-fold in the last 20 years.
Unlike sugar and some other major export commodities, coffee and cocoa are produced only in the developing countries and consumed mostly in the Western developed countries, where per caput consumption levels are already generally high. Therefore, efforts by developing countries to increase supplies in competition with each other translate into small increases in the volume of exports and large declines in prices. For the longer term, there is scope for the situation to improve given the low consumption levels prevailing in the ex-CPEs and the developing countries themselves. But little of this scope may materialize in the form of increased consumption and imports in the next 20 years. Therefore, growth in net exports of about 25 percent, and somewhat higher in production, is a likely outcome. For tea, there are somewhat better prospects for production growth, though not for exports, because a good proportion of production is consumed in the developing countries themselves and per caput consumption will continue to increase. Finally, exports of bananas have better prospects than those of the tropical beverages since there is still scope for per caput consumption to increase in the developed countries.
In general, for the commodities produced only or mainly in developing countries competing with each other and consumed mostly in developed countries with nearly saturated consumption levels, the prospects for export earnings will continue to be dominated by movements in prices rather than volumes. The very long run remedy to declining prices may be found in the growth of consumption in yet unsaturated markets (ex-CPEs and developing countries themselves) and ultimately in the general development of the producing countries themselves. The latter factor is important because it will create alternative income-earning opportunities and put a floor to how low the returns to labour in these commodity sectors may fall before supply contracts and prices recover.
Finally, the prospects for some agricultural raw materials traditionally exported from the developing countries offer limited scope for growth in net export earnings, though for different, and not always negative, reasons. Thus, net exports of tobacco to the developed countries may not grow at all because their consumption is on the decline while it is on a rapid growth path in the developing countries themselves. For cotton, the developing countries have recently turned from being net exporters to become net importers and will further increase their net imports in the future. This is, on the whole, a positive development because it reflects their growing and increasingly export-oriented textiles industry. These trends could become even more pronounced if restrictions to textile exports become less stringent or are abolished. Similar considerations apply to the hides and skins sector and the associated expansion of exports of leather goods. Finally, natural rubber exports to the developed countries would continue to grow, but also here the developing countries will gradually increase their share in world consumption and may, by the year 2010, account for over one-half of the world total, compared with less than one quarter 20 years ago. Much of the expansion of consumption will be in East Asia.
The developing countries likely to turn from net agricultural exporters to net importers
The prospective developments presented above for the major commodity sectors indicate that the net imports of the developing countries of the agricultural commodities for which they are or may become net importers will be growing faster than their net exports of their major export commodities. These trends in import and export volumes point firmly in the direction of the developing countries' combined agricultural trade account switching from surplus to deficit. The movement in this direction has been evident for some time in the historical period. The positive net balance of trade on agricultural account shrank rapidly in the 1970s when food imports from the developed countries exploded. Although the trend was somewhat reversed in the 1980s the overall surplus was only $5.0 billion in 1988/90 compared with $17.5 billion in 1969/71 (both at 1988/90 prices).
The prospect that the developing countries may turn into net agricultural importers does not by itself say much about the welfare implications of this turnaround. It is certain that it will have a negative impact on the welfare of those countries which will continue to depend heavily on slowly growing agricultural exports to finance their food and other imports. There are many low-income countries in this situation and they include those which depend heavily on agricultural export commodities with limited growth prospects. However, for other countries these prospects are part and parcel of the development process. These are the countries whose increased imports or reduced exports of agricultural raw materials are more than compensated by growing exports of the related manufactures; and those in which the increased food imports reflect their growing incomes and food consumption and which are financed from export earnings of other sectors.
Contents - Previous - Next
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Shattering the Genital Herpes Myth
March 22, 2000 (Atlanta) -- Many people who have tested positive for the virus that causes genital herpes, but say they have no symptoms of the disease, may in fact have the virus in their genital tracts, according to a study in this week's issue of The New England Journal of Medicine. This is important, researchers say, because it means that -- contrary to popular belief -- asymptomatic people are potentially infectious, and they could be unknowingly fueling the herpes epidemic.
Previous studies have found that almost 25% of adults over age 12 in the United States are infected with herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), but only 10% to 25% of people who have the infection report having lesions.
"Most genital infections are caused by herpes simplex virus type 2, and numerous studies have shown that most people with [HSV-2] infection don't give a history of genital herpes," study author Anna Wald, MD, MPH, tells WebMD. "There has always been a question of whether those people are shedding the virus -- meaning whether they have the virus present in their genital area -- or whether they are truly asymptomatic." Wald is an assistant professor in the department of medicine and epidemiology at the University of Washington in Seattle.
"So we followed men and women who were seropositive for HSV-2 and who denied a history of genital herpes. We taught [this group] what herpes looks like and explained what genital herpes was like, and we asked them to collect, on a daily basis, swabs of their genital area," Wald says. "It turned out that once they knew what herpes was, the majority became symptomatic with herpes. They recognized that they do in fact have herpes, but their outbreaks were short and infrequent."
The other major finding, she says, was that 83% of this group were potentially infectious.
The researchers recruited 53 people with no reported history of genital herpes but who were found to be HSV-2 seropositive on a blood test. All attended an educational session on genital herpes that reviewed lesion types and symptoms. Herpes lesions include blisters, ulcers, or crusted patches of skin in the buttocks or genital or anal areas. Other symptoms include pain or burning, tickling, tingling, or similar sensations. Herpes can also be pain-free.
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A cerebral artery bypass procedure is much like a cardiac bypass procedure. But where a cardiac bypass procedure is done on an artery that feeds the heart, a cerebral artery bypass procedure is done on an artery in the brain.
An artery bypass procedure is done to treat severe cerebral artery stenosis. Bypass surgery is done when the narrowing of the artery in the brain is either completely blocked or nearly completely blocked. In this situation, angioplasty and stenting are not the best options.
The Cerebral Artery Bypass Procedure
A cerebral artery bypass procedure uses either a small artery from the scalp or a vein from the leg to create a path around the blocked section of the cerebral artery.
The replacement blood vessel is connected from the carotid artery in the neck and tunneled under the skin to connect to the narrowed artery beyond the blocked point. This gives that section of the brain greater blood flow.
This procedure is known as an extra-cranial, intra-cranial (EC-IC) bypass.
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http://www.cedars-sinai.edu/Patients/Programs-and-Services/Neurosurgery/Centers-and-Programs/Neurovascular-Center/Conditions-and-Treatments/Cerebral-Artery-Bypass-Surgery.aspx
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Den här sidan är utskriven från Högskolan i Halmstads webbplats (www.hh.se). Texten uppdaterades senast den 2009-04-24. Besök webbplatsen om du vill vara säker på att läsa den senaste versionen.
R2D2 - Reliable Real-time communications for Dependable Distributed systems
|Duration:||March, 2009 - March, 2012|
|Senior researcher:||Elisabeth Uhlemann|
Wireless technologies offer significant benefits in many application areas; they provide a novel approach to existing applications, such as localization and tracking of goods, or enable new applications where wireless access is the only option, e.g., measure-ments and control of rotating or highly mobile devices. These application areas have diverse communication requirements, where real-time constraints are one important category. In a real-time system late delivery of information has the same effect as lost information and thus each real-time task has a deadline to meet. What happens if the deadline is missed varies with application. Many emerging applications using wireless communications also have concurrent requirements on reliable and real-time communications. However, existing communication protocols typically provide either reliable (e.g., emailing) or real-time communications (e.g., voice) — but not both. Research on real-time communication is traditionally focused on scheduling and priority in conjunction with different medium access control (MAC) methods, i.e. introducing real-time properties, but assuming a reliable (i.e., a wired) communication channel. When a wireless channel is considered and more reliable communications is called for, retransmissions are typically introduced and hence the real-time properties are lost.
In contrast to traditional research on real-time communications, the research in the R2D2 project is focused on increasing the data reliability by introducing changes to the lower layers in the communication stack such that real-time properties still hold (or are enforced). By using cross-layer design such that specific Quality-of-Service (QoS) requirements from the application layer are allowed to influence physical layer parameters (e.g., adaptive coding and modulation), the data reliability can be enhanced while respecting real-time deadlines.
Besides reliable wireless real-time communications, many applications employing dependable distributed systems also have additional requirements such as low latency (e.g., traffic safety systems) or energy efficiency (e.g., wireless sensor networks). Since the wireless channel is error-prone with limited resources that all users share, the communication protocols need to be made application specific such that the available resources can be fully exploited. A cross-layer design paradigm enables sufficient dynamics to meet the increased performance requirements of emerging applications such that the specific QoS constraints can be satisfied. Suitable trade-offs between information reliability, latency, energy efficiency, required bandwidth and complexity can then be obtained. R2D2 thus aims at developing adaptive, cooperative error control strategies tailored to the QoS parameters of each specific application or even situation. Information theoretical tools such as cooperative coding, cooperative diversity and network coding, will be applied and evaluated for practical systems with realistic assumptions.
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Environment & Source Control
The Ruby ecosystem has tens of thousands of Gem libraries we can utilize in our programs. A typical Rails application might rely on 50 libraries. In the days of Rails 2 managing these dependencies was a real challenge, especially when coordinating multiple machines and developers.
As the core team built Rails 3, they addressed this problem by creating Bundler (http://gembundler.com/). In our project we create a
Gemfile which specifies our gem dependencies and source(s). Using that file, Bundler can resolve the complex interactions of library dependencies and install/utilize gems as needed.
A very simple
Gemfile might look like this:
1 2 3
From the terminal, in the project directory, we can process this
Gemfile and setup the dependencies with one command:
install is the default
bundle command you can omit it, like so:
Bundler will attempt to utilize gems already installed on the system to meet the dependencies, fetching additional gems from the "source" (in our example RubyGems) as needed.
Once in awhile you’ll want to run
bundle when you’re offline. To tell Bundler to only use locally installed gems, add the
local flag like this:
Most Ruby libraries move fast, some move incredibly slowly. While there are established Version Policies (http://docs.rubygems.org/read/chapter/7) for RubyGems, their implementation is spotty at best. Using the above
Gemfile, our application would (at the time of this writing) pull down Rails version 3.0.10 and Rake 0.9.2.
Six months from now, though, it might pull down Rails version 3.2.0. Will that break our application? Probably. So we should lock our gems down to specific versions. Adding exact versions to the above
Gemfile would look like this:
1 2 3
But what about bug and security fixes? I can build against Rails 3.0.10, but if a security issue is found they’ll release a 3.0.11. The third number is called the "patch level", and when it increments it should be completely backwards compatible. 3.0.11 should introduce no issues for an app built against 3.0.10. This rule generally holds true.
But patch levels are released every few weeks. This can make keeping the
Gemfile up to date a real pain. We can add some flexibility to our dependencies with the "squiggle-rocket" operator:
1 2 3
Now Bundler will use Rails version
3.0.11, or any patch level in the
3.0.* series. It will not, however, use
This is usually the ideal behavior. Upgrading the "minor" version, from
3.1, is likely to necessitate changes in your application.
Managing Edge Code
Often you’ll be developing a gem while you’re developing an application that uses it. Or, sometimes you’ll need to use the absolute bleeding edge code for a Gem before it’s released on RubyGems. In that case, Bundler can resolve dependencies directly from Git or GitHub:
1 2 3
Building an application using git-based dependencies is an extremely bad idea unless you control the repository. The easiest way to do that is fork the repository on GitHub, then reference your fork in your
Gemfile. You can keep your fork up to date by adding the original repository as an upstream remote (https://github.com/MarkUsProject/Markus/wiki/Gitkeepingpace).
Unless you have a lot of time to waste and enjoy frustration, never build against "Edge Rails" as shown here.
Many gems provide command-line executables, like
Old vs. New
When you run
rake at the command line, for instance, your system searches its
PATH for a matching executable. If you had both Rake versions
0.9.2 installed, which one would it use? Rubygems will cause the system to use the newest installed version.
But your application might be written with
0.8.7. There isn’t a way, using the normal command line, to force Rubygems to use the older version.
Running in Your Bundle
Bundler provides a command line function
bundle exec. When you run
bundle exec, Bundler will:
- sandbox execution so your system gems are not accessible
- load the gems specified in your
- then run whatever command you add after the
So, for example:
Would force usage of the version of Rake specified in your project’s
Gemfile, regardless of what other versions are installed in the system gems.
Once your project has a
Gemfile, it is a good practice to prefix every command line instruction with
bundle exec. So you might do operations like:
bundle exec rake db:migrate
bundle exec rails generate model Article
bundle exec rspec spec
It’s a pain to type
bundle exec all the time, so some developers will create an alias in the OS to
be rake db:migrate, etc.
On MacOS or Linux you could create such an alias by opening your
.bash_profile and adding this line:
alias be="bundle exec $1"
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Census History and 20th-Century Firsts
The census has grown with the country
This article was posted on October 1, 2000.
The census has come a long way. In 1790, a group of federal marshals rode on horseback through the original 13 states counting the U.S. population, which was then just shy of four million.
Today, with its use of the Internet, sophisticated computers, and advanced statistical analysis, the census
is more accurate and comprehensive than ever.
Required by the Constitution
That first census was the product of political compromise. The U.S. Constitution
requires a census every ten years
to determine how many members of Congress can be allocated to each state.
1990 Census Criticized
The Census Bureau was heavily criticized following the 1990 census, which missed an estimated 8.4 million people and counted some 4.4 million people twice.
An additional 13 million people were counted in the wrong place, made up, or included by mistake. Part of the problem has been the declining levels of census participation.
Some 30 million households did not respond, partly because they may not have been able to read English.
The founding fathers suspected that each state would try to augment its population to increase its representation
. So, the first census was also used to allocate the cost of the Revolutionary War
, with more populous states paying more. Since no state would want to pay more than its fair share, it was thought that each would seek a truly accurate count.
Low-Tech First Census
In those days, there was no form to fill out; marshals asked the questions and recorded the results in a multitude of notebooks or whatever bits of paper were handy. It took 18 months to count 3.9 million inhabitants. They recorded the number of free persons by sex and color, and slaves. Slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person, while Indians were not taxed and therefore excluded.
Evolution of the Census
With each new decade, the form and purpose of the census evolved somewhat:
- Between 1790 and 1840 the number of census questions ballooned from six to over 70.
- In 1850 Congress revised the process, including questions on national birth and occupation and establishing a Census Office.
- After the Civil War, the Thirteenth Amendment abolished the three-fifths compromise.
- The Fourteenth Amendment sought to use the census to enforce the enfranchisement of freed blacks. Adult male citizens who were denied voting rights would affect an individual state's representation.
- The census of 1890 was the first to be tabulated by machine.
A Massive Undertaking
- The 1920 census indicated that for the first time more Americans lived in cities than rural areas.
- During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the census department began measuring unemployment and income.
- The first non-defense computer was developed to tabulate the 1950 census.
- In the 1962 Baker vs. Carr decision, the U.S. Supreme Court made its famous "one man one vote" ruling, requiring that legislative boundaries in each state must also contain equal populations.
- Mail-in forms took precedence over door-to-door enumerators in 1970.
- In January 1999, the Supreme Court ruled that statistical sampling—which allows for the estimation of certain populations, such as the homeless or minorities—could not be used to redistribute Congressional seats.
Employing some 860,000 temporary workers and costing $6 billion, Census 2000 is the largest peacetime mobilization of resources and personnel. Despite concerns that completing the count too quickly could affect accuracy, Census 2000 has generally gone relatively smoothly.
The Census Bureau expects the state population count to be completed by Dec. 31, 2000. The population of a given state or municipality is the basis for the distribution of an estimated $185 billion in federal funds, for everything from schools, highway and mass transit, aid to the elderly, and hospitals, to name a few.
Officials reported that 67% of the 120 million families in the U.S.—2% more than in 1990—had returned their forms by the April 17 deadline. By early July, census workers had either counted or declared vacant the 42 million housing units that did not return a questionnaire in the mail.
In an effort to reach everyone, Census 2000 used forms printed in six languages: English, Spanish, Korean, Chinese, Vietnamese, Tagalog, spoken in the Philippines.
Race & Ethnicity Data
The federal government also relies on race and ethnicity data collected by the census to determine whether states and municipalities are in compliance with Voting Rights Act of 1964.
Racial information will include 63 categories of race in combination with various Hispanic designations, making a total of 126 acknowledged racial identities.
In response to critics who charge that too much attention is paid to racial categorizing, officials point out that all censuses since the first survey in 1790 have included a question on race.
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STALKING SARS: CDC AT WORK
The first reports came in February 2003. Two people in Hong Kong were coming down with a new type of flu. Then there were other reports—people in China were getting sick with high fevers, headaches, body aches, and other symptoms too. Could these cases be the same disease? Was there a new and deadly flu on the loose? CDC started working to crack the case.
The first clue led nowhere—the flu in Hong Kong (influenza A H5N1) was rare and dangerous, but…it wasn’t what the people in China had. No one knew what that disease was yet. (Eventually, scientists called the new disease Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome or SARS). A mysterious and rapidly spreading illness?!? Now THAT was a case worth going after.
CDC called on some of their best detectives—including Ali Khan, Keiji Fukuda, Mary Reynolds, and Dan Rutz—to work together with the World Health Organization (WHO) and investigators from each of the countries where SARS was spreading.
- Page last reviewed: May 9, 2015
- Page last updated: May 9, 2015
- Content source:
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| 0.968605 | 251 | 2.84375 | 3 |
>>>>> "MARK" == MARK CALLAGHAN <mdcallag@stripped> writes:
>> Based on what I just read from
>> it looks like we use a dynamic array for the buckets and a linked list for
>> the data elements within the bucket. Did I read that correctly?
MARK> See earlier in the thread for the reference to coalesced hashing. The
MARK> links are between buckets. When two items hash to the same bucket, the
MARK> duplicates must find an empty bucket and the buckets are 'linked'.
MARK> The implementation misses an optimization. The original hash value for
MARK> entries is not saved, so when the chain of entries is followed, key
MARK> comparisons are always done rather than only done when the (unmasked)
MARK> hash values match.
This is just done to save space; We need to do one hash calculation once
for the first lookup to check if we had a match or not. For other
entries in the linked list we don't have to do this.
MARK> Putting N entries into N buckets makes it very likely that there will
MARK> be conflicts. Using a 'sparse' array makes that less likely at the
MARK> cost of a larger array. For a small amount of extra memory, conflicts
MARK> can be reduced and as the dynamic array already has allocated that
MARK> extra memory in most cases this is worth exploring.
Yes, there is some conflicts but there are other advantages:
- We can grow dynamicly with O(1)
- We don't need a separate space for conflicts
- We can do any number of inserts+updates+deletes without degrading
- At any point, we know exact how much memory we need.
MARK> There is a lot of great analysis of hash functions on the web now.
MARK> Search for burtlebob or visit wikipedia. I am not a whiz on this, but
MARK> there are hash functions designed to work with a mask that is a power
MARK> of 2 rather than use mod prime to compute the bucket number.
I wrote the current hash functions 15 years ago so it's not perfect.
However, I did then spend days on it and the current hash functions
was the best one that I found that works for all the following data:
- CHAR fields
- 4 byte Integers with increasing value
- Random integers
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| 0.899458 | 526 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
A receptacle tester is a device that indicates if the live, neutral, and ground wires are properly connected at the power receptacle or power outlet. It contains selector switches and indicator lights, which are usually neon bulbs that drain very little current. The connection of the alternating current (AC) wall outlet should be correct before the receptacle is certified as safe to use. Receptacle testers are also used to verify that the neutral wire is not shorted to ground. This is confirmed as indicated by a good neutral-to-ground separation indicator or its equivalent.
Also called outlet tester, the receptacle tester is used by electrical inspectors to make sure that electrical wiring meets technical and safety standards. Polarized plugs ensure that the connections for live, neutral, and ground are consistent so that people cannot plug them in the wrong way. There is only one orientation wherein the power plug can be inserted into the AC wall outlet. This is very important because any modification that defeats the polarized nature of the plug and outlet is a safety risk.
One possible fault with the receptacle wiring is that only one wire is connected to the receptacle. If there is only one wire connected and it is the live wire, there is high risk of people getting electrocuted. Most equipment will have a resistance to neutral that is relatively low, as well as a relatively low resistance from neutral to ground. The ground is usually connected to conductive parts of the appliance or equipment casing. Again, if people touch an ungrounded unit or a unit with no neutral connection, electrocution risk is imminent.
It is possible to use electrical as well as electronic test equipment to confirm the proper wiring of the AC receptacle. Only the receptacle tester can show the results very quickly. If there are many receptacles to test, a receptacle tester and a voltmeter can be used. A voltmeter or multi-tester can quickly show the voltage from live to neutral, then to ground. If the two voltages are not the same, it indicates there is a live connection and there is no short circuit between the neutral and the ground.
The ground wire and the neutral wire are designed to be separate. There are some erroneous cases where the neutral wire is shorted to the ground wire at the receptacle. This may complicate the effective energy sources for the appliance or equipment. During lightning storms, electromagnetic discharge may induce currents into the grounding system. If the neutral is grounded, the input voltage to the appliance or equipment could surge beyond safe levels and create damage that could have been prevented by proper wiring.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
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| 0.944588 | 587 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Life would be so much easier if we had robots to take care of our most arduous, time-consuming tasks, right? A new installation at the Jewish Museum Berlin takes that notion one step further, questioning whether a robot’s usefulness can extend beyond basic errands to one of the most sacred Jewish traditions: the act of writing a Torah scroll.
The Torah-writing robot, presented for the first time this week at the Berlin museum, uses the human writing tools of pen and ink without requiring the bathroom or lunch breaks a human scribe might. The result is an incredible increase in speed: according to the Associated Press, the robot can complete a 260-foot long Torah scroll—which contains 304,805 Hebrew letters—in about three months. A human scribe, known as a sofer, needs about one year to complete a full Torah scroll.
However, the work produced by the robot is not fit for use in a synagogue. Berlin Rabbi Reuven Yaacobov explained the qualifications of a “kosher” Torah: “In order for the Torah to be holy, it has to be written with a goose feather on parchment, the process has to be filled with meaning and I’m saying prayers while I’m writing it.”
The distinctions between the mechanical scribe and its human counterpart are explored in the Jewish Museum’s exhibit, called “The Creation of the World,” which focuses on the importance of text to the Jewish tradition and features an assortment of Hebrew manuscripts. Juxtaposing innovation with tradition, Yaacobov himself sits in a nearby room of the exhibit, writing a traditional Torah scroll by hand with a quill pen.
The creators of the Torah-writing robot, German artist group robotlab, see this duality as an essential part of their work; a description of the installation on the Jewish Museum’s website states that, “While the Sofer guarantees the sanctity of the Scripture, the installation highlights its industrial reproducibility.”
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| 0.949252 | 419 | 3.03125 | 3 |
I like to see it lap the Miles Theme of Man and the Natural World
The train itself may be the star of "I love to see it lap the Miles," but we shouldn't forget about the supporting actors – valleys and mountains that serve as the backdrop to the poem. By framing the unnatural creature, the steam train, in natural terms and in a natural setting, Dickinson forces us to contemplate its unnatural nature, if you catch our drift. And, while manmade creation and the natural world coexist uneasily in the poem, there's something missing. Did you notice how, except for the disembodied "I" of the speaker, there are no people to be found? The marked absence of humans immediately tips us off to the fact that the relationship between "man and the natural world" is something we ought to be thinking about.
Questions About Man and the Natural World
- What do you make of the total absence of human beings in this poem?
- What does the natural world, as described by the speaker, look like?
- Why do you think the speaker chooses to describe the train in such lively, animal-like terms?
Chew on This
By playfully comparing the train to a mysterious animal, the poet attempts to frame this new technology in terms of the preexisting relationship of man's dominance over the natural world.
The train's personification in "I like to see it lap the Miles" seems at first to suggest that it is an inhabitant of the natural world; however, the exaggerated nature of these animal-like traits ultimately emphasizes its foreignness to the natural landscape.
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| 0.954521 | 331 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Free Fourth Grade Worksheets
Welcome to tlsbooks.com, where you'll find a variety of free fourth grade worksheets related to math, language arts, science and other subject areas.
The fourth grade worksheets found here are meant to be used to supplement the work your child is already doing in school. Depending on your child's abilities, you may wish to review these third grade and fifth grade worksheets for additional practice materials.
In order to view and print worksheets from this site you will need Adobe Reader version 6 or later. You may download the latest version of the free Adobe Reader here.
Printing Tip: If a worksheet page does not appear properly, reload or refresh the .pdf file.
Fourth Grade Worksheets
Fourth Grade Math Worksheets
You may also enjoy these Timed Math Drills.
Addition and Subtraction Worksheets
Alien Addition Maze - Students will solve addition problems and color spaces containing the number 6 in the answer to help the alien find the spaceship.
Addition Worksheet 11 - This addition practice sheet includes adding three 4-digit numbers with no carrying.
Addition Worksheet 12 - Adding three 4-digit numbers with some carrying.
Subtract and Check - Students will solve subtraction problems and check their answers using addition.
Math Pyramid - Students will use their addition and subtraction skills to complete the math pyramids.
Add or Subtract Worksheet 4 - Students will practice addition and subtraction when they complete this math worksheet.
Math Practice - Students will answer questions, recognize a row and a column, and solve multiplication equations.
Lucky Leprechaun Multiplication - Students will multiply two 2-digit numbers when completing this fun holiday worksheet.
Multiplying by Two-Digit Numbers - This drill sheet provides practice multiplying 2 and 3-digit numbers by a 2-digit number.
Monster Math - Students will solve the multiplication problems then decode their answers to find five monster names including big foot and medusa.
Three-Digit Multiplication - Practice multiplying 4 and 5-digit numbers by a 3-digit number.
Three-Digit Multiplication Worksheet 2 - Students will multiply a 4-digit number by a 3-digit number.
Multiplication Drill Sheets 1-4 - Two pages in this set consist of multiplying 4-digits by a single digit number and two worksheets provide practice multiplying a 4-digit number by a 2-digit number.
Multiplication Practice Worksheet 5 - Students will find the product of two 2-digit numbers.
Reptile Mystery Math - Find the quotients and the names of five reptiles when completing this two page division worksheet. No remainders.
More Division Practice Worksheet 1 - Students will practice long division and learn how to check their answers.
Division Practice Worksheet A - Division practice with remainders.
Division Practice Worksheet - This worksheet provides practice dividing a 4-digit number by a 2-digit number with remainders and includes a quote from Martin Luther King, Jr.
Division Practice 2 - Divide a 4-digit number by a 1-digit number. Some problems have a remainder.
Division Practice Worksheet 12 - Students will practice dividing a 3-digit number by a 2-digit number. Some problems include a remainder.
Christmas Division Practice Worksheet 5 - Divide a 4-digit number by a 1-digit with no remainder.
Christmas Division Practice Worksheet 4 - Practice dividing a 3-digit number by a 1-digit number with a remainder.
Geometry and Measurement Worksheets
Identifying Triangles by Sides - Students will identify equilateral, isosceles, and scalene triangles.
Identifying Triangles by Angles - Students will learn about and identify acute, obtuse, and right triangles.
Identifying Angles Worksheet 1 - Students will identify acute, obtuse, right, and straight angles.
Perimeter Worksheet 4 - Find the missing value to make each statement true.
Perimeter Worksheet 2 - Solve for the missing measurement.
Find the Area - Students will use the floor plan provided to find the area for different parts of this house.
Introduction to Intersecting Lines - Students will identify the intersecting lines on this worksheet.
Introduction to Parallel Lines Worksheet - Students will identify the parappep lines on this worksheet.
Perpendicular Lines - Students will learn about and identify perpendicular lines when completing this worksheet.
Parts of a Circle Workseheet 1 - Students will learn about and identify the radius, diameter, and center of a circle.
Money Matters - Can your students solve these word problems?
The School Play - Students will solve a variety of word problems using addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Word Problems Worksheet B - Solve these word problems using addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems.
Division Word Problems - Division word problems with multiplication check.
Division Word Problems - Easy money division word problems with no remainders.
The Fourth Grade Grocer - Subtraction, multiplication, and division word problems.
School Supply Math - Students will divide to find the number of items each classroom will receive.
Dime Store Math - Students will use their division skills to find quantities for a variety of items.
Decimal and Fraction Worksheets
Introduction to Adding Decimals - Instructions and sample problems for adding decimals when the addends have the same number of decimal places.
Multiplying Decimals Worksheet 1 - Basic drill sheet with thirty decimal multiplication problems.
Multiplying Decimals Secret Code - Students will multiply the decimals then solve a secret code to reveal a science related fact.
Sharpen Your Skills Worksheet 8 - Students will gain practice working with decimals and fractions.
Sharpen Your Skills Worksheet 5 - Students will write fractions as decimals and write the decimal to tell the shaded part of an object.
Reducing Fractions Worksheet 2 - Reduce the fractions to lowest terms.
Comparing Fractions - Basic fraction comparison worksheet.
Adding Fractions Worksheet 1 - Adding fractions with a common denominator.
Fractions Worksheet 4 - Students will reduce fractions to lowest terms and write improper fractions as mixed numbers.
Fourth Grade Fractions - Adding fractions with a common denominator.
Ordering the Parts - Draw the fractional parts then put them in order from least to greatest.
Fraction Riddles Worksheet 1 - Students must be familiar with fractions in order to solve these riddles!
Fractions of Time - Students must relate the periods of time to fractions.
Place Value Worksheets
Place Value Gumshoe - Students will determine the place value of digits to the ten thousands.
Place Value and Standard Form Students will write numbers in standard form and give the value of underlined digits.
Place Value Worksheet D - Tell which number is in the ones, tens, and hundreds place.
Place Value Worksheet C - Write numbers to the hundred thousands place in standard form and expanded notation.
Place Value Worksheet B - Write the place value of digits to the ten thousands place.
Place Value Worksheet A - Write the value of digits to the thousands place.
Comparing and Ordering Numbers
Money Review Worksheet 1 - Compare and order money from least to greatest and greatest to least.
Ordering Integers Worksheet B - Write the integers in order from least to greatest and greatest to least.
Ordering Integers - Order five integers from greatest to least and least to greatest.
Miscellaneous Math Worksheets
Sharpen Your Skills Worksheet 1 - Addition and multiplication practice for 4th-5th grade.
Writing Numbers Worksheets 3-5 - Students will write numbers using digits and words. The three worksheets increase in difficulty to hundred millions.
Writing Large Numbers in Standard Form - Writing numbers up to the hundred millions.
Math Who Am I? Worksheet 4 - Read the math vocabulary clues then use the code box to check your answers.
Number Detective Worksheet 2 Students will determine the unknown number for each statement.
Find the Average - Introduction to finding the average of three numbers. A word problem worksheet.
Fourth Grade English/Language Arts Worksheets
Cause and Effect Worksheet 1 - Compare and contrast text, thinking skills.
Complete or Incomplete Sentences Worksheet 1 - Identify each group of words as a sentence or an incomplete sentence.
Children's Authors Worksheet 3 - Rewrite sentences using the correct punctuation.
Using a or an - Students will complete each sentence with a or an.
Why Are They Nouns - Noun review and thinking skills.
Parts of Speech Matching - Draw a line from each definition to the part of speech it describes.
Reading A Label - Students will answer questions using a label from a healthy tonic bottle.
Reading the Want Ads - Read the want ads and answer the questions.
Using Homophones - Students will use pairs of homophones to complete sentences.
Dictionary Skills Review - Do your students know how to use a dictionary? This worksheet will help!
Scream to Scrubber - Students will use guide words and alphabetize twenty words.
Haymow to Headrest - Practice with guide words and alphabetizing.
Thesaurus 1 - Students will use a thesaurus to complete this worksheet.
Word Wizard - Students will add a letter to the beginning of a group of words to make a new word or common phrase when they complete this challenging vocabulary worksheet.
The Newspaper - Although students probably get most of their news online, reading a newspaper is still a skill they should acquire. A local paper is required to complete this worksheet.
Fourth Grade Science Worksheets
Jupiter - Read the passage about Jupiter and answer the questions. A reading comprehension worksheet.
Your Five Senses - Sort words into five categories.
Collared Peccary - An informational coloring page.
Creatures of the Grand Canyon - Three worksheets focusing on animals of the Grand Canyon.
Space Shuttle Fact Sheet - Read about the space shuttle.
Bison Fact Sheet - Read about the American Buffalo.
Hidden Animals 2 - Fill in the missing letter in each animal name to find a hidden animal name.
Rain Forest Word Search - Students will find twelve words related to the rain forest in this puzzle.
Space Age Word Search Puzzle - Find a variety of words in the puzzle and write a short paragraph about two missions.
Hidden Animals - Can your students find the animals names hiding in these sentences?
Hurricane Scramble - Students will unscramble the names of twenty sea creatures and draw a picture of their favorite ocean animal.
Fourth Grade History and Social Studies Worksheets
Presidents Word Search - This file includes four word search puzzles with presidential trivia questions.
Fourth Grade Geography Worksheets
Map Skills - Use the legend to answer the questions.
Following Directions - Follow the directions to mark spots on the grid.
Map Study 1 - Students will study the U.S. map and answer the multiple choice questions. Beginning map skills.
What State Am I Series - This file includes four worksheets, covering all fifty states. Students will read each blurb gives the state nickname and a bit of trivia then draw a line to the state being described.
What State Am I Self-checking Worksheet - Students will read each clue and try to guess the name of seven states. They can check their answers using the answer box.
All worksheets created by Tracey Smith.
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This page has 95 printable fourth grade worksheets.
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Definitions of hopper
n. - One who, or that which, hops. 2
n. - A chute, box, or receptacle, usually funnel-shaped with an opening at the lower part, for delivering or feeding any material, as to a machine; as, the wooden box with its trough through which grain passes into a mill by joining or shaking, or a funnel through which fuel passes into a furnace, or coal, etc., into a car. 2
n. - See Grasshopper, 2. 2
n. - A game. See Hopscotch. 2
n. - See Grasshopper, and Frog hopper, Grape hopper, Leaf hopper, Tree hopper, under Frog, Grape, Leaf, and Tree. 2
n. - The larva of a cheese fly. 2
n. - A vessel for carrying waste, garbage, etc., out to sea, so constructed as to discharge its load by a mechanical contrivance; -- called also dumping scow. 2
The word "hopper" uses 6 letters: E H O P P R.
No direct anagrams for hopper found in this word list.
List shorter words within hopper, sorted by length
All words formed from hopper by changing one letter
Browse words starting with hopper by next letter
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Bakrid 2011 Date, Eid al adha 2011 date, history, stories
Bakrid or eid ul adha or eid al adha is one of the prominent festivals for Muslims across the world. Eid al adha is celebrated as a festival of sacrifice. Ramzan or Ramadan and bakrid or eid ul adha are the major festivals for Muslims. Ramzan is said to be festival of fasting and bakrid is the festival of sacrifice and feast with mutton.
Bakrid (eid al adha) 2011 date: There is no fixed date for bakrid. Bakrid (Eid al adha) 2011 falls on the 10th day of Dhul Hijja month of Islamic calendar. Dhul Hijja is the last month of Islamic calendar. In this month Muslim devotees from across the world take a pilgrimage to macca. This year Bakrid 2011 is falling on 7th November 2011. Public Holidays are observed in Muslim countries and where Muslim population is prominent like UAE,Oman,Qatar,Saudi Arabia,India andPakistan.
Other names for bakrid festival: Eid-el-kibir ( the big eid), baqri eid,barieid, baed eid, , Qurban bayram, Kurban bayram, Kurban bajram, , bakri eid, Kurban eit,
History of bakrid 2011 / stories about Eid al adha: Prominent significance of bakrid is that according to god’s command, Prophet Abraham prepares to sacrifice his son Ishmael on the day of bakrid. But god replaces his son with sheep and Abraham sacrifices the sheep to the god. This way Muslims offer sheep, goat or camel depending on their financial ability. They distribute the meat among friends and relatives. One third is given to the poor, one third to friends and relatives and the remaining to be kept for the members of family. Muslims devotees offer feast with meat to near and dear. This way the festival is enjoyed.
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Grace was a happily married woman with a family and a career. After more than 20 years of marriage, her husband left her. After her divorce, she began dating George, a close family friend she had known for years. They became lovers. Because she was beyond childbearing years, she wasn't worried about getting pregnant and didn't think about using condoms. And because she had known George for years, it didn't occur to her to ask about his sexual history or if he had been tested for HIV.
Most people with HIV don't need a special diet. But if you're feeling sick and having symptoms like nausea, diarrhea, or weight loss, you may need some changes to what and how you eat.
Losing too much weight can be serious. Without good nutrition, you may get sicker.
"Good nutrition is very important for people with HIV," says Brad Hare, MD, director of the HIV/AIDS clinic at San Francisco General Hospital. Without a healthy diet, your body will have a harder time recovering and fighting off i...
At age 55 she had a routine medical checkup. Her blood tested positive for HIV. George had infected her. She will spend the rest of her life worrying that the virus would develop into life-threatening AIDS -- that any cough, sneeze, rash, or flu would, in fact, indicate AIDS and perhaps the beginning of the end of her life.
What Are HIV and AIDS?
HIV (short for human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus that kills cells in your immune system, the system that fights diseases. Once your immune system is weakened to the point where you get certain types of life-threatening diseases, infections, and cancers, you have what is called AIDS (short for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. If there's any chance that you might be infected with HIV, you should be tested, because now there are drugs you can take to help your body keep the HIV in check and fight off AIDS.
Many people do not have any symptoms when they are first infected with HIV. It can take as little as a few weeks for minor flu-like symptoms to show up or as long as 10 years or more for more serious symptoms. Symptoms can include headache, chronic cough, diarrhea, swollen glands, lack of energy, loss of appetite and weight loss, frequent fevers and sweats, frequent yeast infections, skin rashes, pelvic and abdominal cramps, sores on certain parts of your body, and short-term memory loss. People age 50 and older may not recognize HIV symptoms in themselves because they think what they are feeling and experiencing is part of normal aging.
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| 0.980756 | 550 | 2.8125 | 3 |
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