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6,900 |
A Social Network Model Based on Topology Vision
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There are many researchers proposed social network models in recent years, and most of them focus on clustering coefficient property of a small-world network and power law degree distribution of a scale-free property. In social network topology, we observed the network is consisted of many nodes with small connectivity and a few high-degree nodes. In the small connectivity part, there are many nodes which have only one degree. Most of past social network models can not generate this part. In this paper, we proposed a social network model based on topology vision and with tunable high hub connectivity. At the same time, we suggested a new characteristic of social network, condensed clustering coefficient, to replace the original clustering coefficient. Finally, this study also includes the analysis of real social network data.
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6,901 |
Assessment of Age-Related Decline of Immunological Function and Possible Methods for Immunological Restoration in Elderly
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The immune system plays an important role in protection against infection and cancer, and in the maintenance of the internal environment of the body. However, such important immune functions are known to decline with age in many mammals, including humans. It is a matter of clinical importance that the incidence of various age-associated diseases such as infections, cancer, and vascular disorders increases with a decrease in immunological vigor. The extent of immunologic decline is variable and exhibits wide interindividual variations. Thus, it is important to assess the extent of immunologic decline in both patients suffering from various diseases and in healthy people in order to maintain healthy conditions. To this end, we have developed a scoring system that analyzes immune parameters according to a database of known age-associated immune changes obtained from a healthy population. Using this scoring system, we can combine several different immunological parameters and express the immune status of individuals as a simple numeral. Several methods of immunological restoration were introduced and the magnitude of restoration was evaluated by the quantitative assessment of immunological level.
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6,902 |
Inflammation During Virus Infection: Swings and Roundabouts
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Inflammation constitutes a concerted series of cellular and molecular responses that follow disturbance of systemic homeostasis, by either toxins or infectious organisms. Leukocytes modulate inflammation through production of secretory mediators, like cytokines and chemokines, which work in an autocrine and/or paracrine manner. These mediators can either promote or attenuate the inflammatory response and depending on differential temporal and spatial expression play a crucial role in the outcome of infection. Even though the objective is clearance of the pathogen with minimum damage to host, the pathogenesis of multiple human pathogenic viruses has been suggested to emanate from a dysregulation of the inflammatory response, sometimes with fatal consequences. This review discusses the nature and the outcome of inflammatory response, which is triggered in the human host subsequent to infection by single-sense plus-strand RNA viruses. In view of such harmful effects of a dysregulated inflammatory response, an exogenous regulation of these reactions by either interference or supplementation of critical regulators has been suggested. Currently multiple such factors are being tested for their beneficial and adverse effects. A successful use of such an approach in diseases of viral etiology can potentially protect the affected individual without directly affecting the virus life cycle. Further, such approaches whenever applicable would be useful in mitigating death and/or debility that is caused by the infection of those viruses which have proven particularly difficult to control by either prophylactic vaccines and/or therapeutic strategies using specific antiviral drugs.
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6,903 |
Imaging of Pulmonary Infections
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Pneumonia is one of the most frequent causes of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. It is the most prevalent community-acquired infection and the second most common nosocomial infectious disorder. Infections may occur in healthy people or individuals with concomitant intrapulmonary or extrathoracic diseases. Pneumonia may develop into a life-threatening condition, especially in immunocompromised patients, in children, and in the elderly.
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6,904 |
Infectious Disease Modeling
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Infectious disease models are mathematical descriptions of the spread of infection. The majority of infectious disease models consider the spread of infection from one host to another and are sometimes grouped together as “mathematical epidemiology.” A growing body of work considers the spread of infection within an individual, often with a particular focus on interactions between the infectious agent and the host’s immune responses. Such models are sometimes grouped together as “within-host models.” Most recently, new models have been developed that consider host–pathogen interactions at two levels simultaneously: both within-host dynamics and between-host transmissions. Infectious disease models vary widely in their complexity, in their attempts to refer to data from real-life infections and in their focus on problems of an applied or more fundamental nature. This entry will focus on simpler models tightly tied to data and aimed at addressing well-defined practical problems.
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6,905 |
Allergie, Pathomechanismen, Krankheitsbilder
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Etwa ein Fünftel der Bevölkerung industrialisierter Länder leidet an mindestens einer Erkrankung aus dem allergischen Formenkreis. Hierzu gehören neben Manifestationen der Haut und des Gastrointestinaltrakts insbesondere die allergischen Erkrankungen der oberen und unteren Atemwege. Aufgrund der hohen und weiter steigenden Prävalenz von Allergien und den sich hieraus ableitenden volkswirtschaftlichen Belastungen ist die Allergologie in den letzten Jahren mehr und mehr in den Mittelpunkt des allgemeinen Interesses gerückt. Zudem haben neue wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse zu einer Erweiterung des pathogenetischen Verständnisses insbesondere allergischer Atemwegserkrankungen geführt, die zunehmend auch die therapeutischen Möglichkeiten erweitern.
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6,906 |
Specific Adoptive T-Cell Therapy for Viral and Fungal Infections
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Despite advances in anti-infective agents, viral and fungal infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) continue to cause life-threatening complications that limit the success of HSCT. Early adoptive T-cell immunotherapy studies showed that administration of allogeneic virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (vCTL) can prevent and control viral infections and reconstitute antiviral immunity to cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Advances in immunobiology, in vitro culture technology, and current good manufacturing practice (cGMP) have provided opportunities for advancing adoptive cell therapy for viral infections: (1) T cells have been expanded targeting multiple pathogens; (2) vCTL production no longer requires viral infection or viral vector transduction of antigen-presenting cells (APCs); (3) the source of lymphocytes is no longer restricted to donors who are immune to the pathogens; (4) naive T cells have been redirected with chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CARTs) or armed with bispecific antibody-armed T cells (BATs) to mediate vCTL activity; (5) these technologies could be combined to targeted multiple viral or fungal pathogens; and (6) pathogen-specific T-cell products manufactured from third parties and banked for “off-the-shelf” use post-HSCT may soon become a reality.
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6,907 |
Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD): Using Genetics and Genomics to Investigate Infectious Disease in an Endangered Marsupial
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The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), so named for its blood-curdling, nocturnal shrieks and snarls, is the largest of the carnivorous marsupials. Although once widely persecuted, concerted efforts are now being made to save the devil from extinction following the emergence of a fatal transmissible malignancy known as devil facial tumour disease (DFTD). DFTD is unusual in that the infectious agent is the cancer cell itself. This chapter discusses the aetiology and pathogenesis of DFTD as well as the profound impact the spread of DFTD has had on the devil’s conservation status. Strategies for managing DFTD and conserving the devil will be explored and the contribution of new sequencing technology to the field of conservation genetics and genomics will be examined with regard to the Tasmanian devil and DFTD.
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6,908 |
The Respiratory Tract
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Cytological investigation of the pulmonary tract is one of the most useful diagnostic tests available to the clinician. A wide range of samples can be provided to the laboratory from a variety of sampling techniques. In many cases, the cytologist can provide a clear diagnosis of malignancy, infection, or other specific disease. Even if a diagnosis cannot be offered, the sample frequently aids the clinician with future management by providing reassurance that tumor is unlikely to be present (in the appropriate clinical and radiological setting). This chapter outlines the various samples that the cytopathologist may be faced with and provides a description of the microscopic features that aid diagnosis.
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6,909 |
Dysbiosis, Probiotics, and Prebiotics: In Diseases and Health
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The microbiome like any other components of the body undergoes numerous challenges during the life-span of a human being. These complications may involve injuries, aggression by pathogens, pollution, hormonal variations, genetic pre-disposition, unbalanced nutrition and onset of diseases. Although the microbial reconfiguration provoked by these stressors are not immediately evident as in the case of an afflicted visible organ where the abnormality is readily observable, the biological perturbations induced manifest themselves in form of various illnesses. The disruption of a working microbiome is referred to as dysbiosis and is a condition whereby the fine balance between the microbial communities and the host is distressed. Diseases such as cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, acne, gastric ulcers, obesity and hypertension can ensue. The pathogeneses of some pulmonary disorders, digestive complications and neurological abnormalities can be traced to the imbalance in the constituents of the microbiome. However, rebiosis, the re-establishment of the native microbiota is proving to be an excellent remedy against this condition. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics are potent therapeutic tools designed to rectify this situation. Probiotics such as Lactobacillus spp are more or less like stem cells utilized to replenish and rejuvenate the microbiome while prebiotics like fructose oligosaccharides (FOS) are microbiome fertilizers akin to mineral supplements or energy nutrients aimed at promoting the proliferation of select microbes in the invisible organ. Synbiotics is a combination of both probiotics and prebiotics in a proper dosage aimed at remedying dysbiosis. The molecular understanding of dysbiosis and rebiosis will offer a very effective non-invasive means in preventing and curing diseases with probiotics and prebiotics. This will have a dramatic impact on our well-being.
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6,910 |
Procedure diagnostiche invasive nelle malattie infiltrative diffuse del polmone
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Le malattie polmonari che, già all’esordio clinico e/o nel loro decorso, coinvolgono più di un lobo e caratterizzate dall’accumulo od infiltrazione nel lobulo polmonare secondario di sostanze o cellule non normalmente presenti in tale sede o presenti, comunque, in quantità anomala, possono essere definite con il termine di pneumopatie infiltrative diffuse (PID) [1].
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6,911 |
6 Infectieziekten
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Infectieziekten (synoniem: infecties) zijn ziekten veroorzaakt door levende micro-organismen. Niet alle ziekmakende micro-organismen kunnen van de ene op de andere mens worden overgedragen; in dat geval zijn de patiënten niet besmettelijk.
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6,912 |
Collagen Fabrication for the Cell-based Implants in Regenerative Medicine
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Though transplantation of cells, tissue or organ has been regarded as an ideal approach, scarcity of donor is a practical barrier in clinics. Current progresses in cell engineering has opened a new era, providing tools for host-regeneration by implanting manipulated cells in forms of cell therapy, which includes delivery of single cells or multicellular structural support of hybridized cells, as a representative individualized treatment method. This chapter mainly concerns on the cellbased implant made of cells and collagen, the main structural protein in extracellular matrix in mammalian tissue, as it has been regarded as a promising method for manufacturing a biologically mimicked artificial tissues.
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6,913 |
Kindergeneeskunde
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Ieder kind maakt tijdens zijn of haar groei en ontwikkeling ziekten door. Veelal betreft het onschuldige aandoeningen, vaak van infectieuze aard. Meestal zijn deze aandoeningen ‘self-limiting’ en horen ze bij een normale ontwikkeling. De toediening van medicijnen heeft zin als onderdeel van een gerichte behandeling. Het voorschrijven van geneesmiddelen aan kinderen is helaas (nog steeds) zelden onderbouwd door goed wetenschappelijk onderzoek naar de effectiviteit en veiligheid ervan bij kinderen. Veelal zijn het soort en de dosering van geneesmiddelen afgeleid van bekende toepassingen en doseringen bij volwassenen. Een dosering wordt daarbij veelal omgerekend op grond van het lichaamsgewicht. Hoewel dit bij jonge kinderen over het algemeen een goed uitgangspunt is voor het berekenen van de juiste dosering, moet er bij oudere kinderen (globaal boven de acht jaar) rekening worden gehouden met de maximale dosering voor volwassenen, omdat men deze onbedoeld kan overschrijden bij het berekenen van de dosering per kg lichaamsgewicht bij deze (oudere) leeftijdsgroep. Voor pasgeborenen en zuigelingen bestaan vaak aparte doseringsvoorschriften. Het therapeutisch effect en bijwerkingen van veel medicamenten zijn bij zuigelingen vaak anders dan bij kinderen en volwassenen.
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6,914 |
Working Group II: The Threat from Armed Conflict and Terrorism
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Both terrorism and armed conflict can be threats to water security, either directly or indirectly. Both forms of violence have used disruption or poisoning of water supplies as a weapon, and both may cause collateral damage to water supplies. The distinction between war and terrorism can be arguable. Special Operations forces may use some tactics similar to terrorists, with similar repercussions for water systems, but the main practical distinction is between formal military actions and more informal, smaller scale guerrilla-style activities that may be directed more at civilian personnel and designed to engender fear and panic as much as specific damage.
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6,915 |
CD4 T-Cell Immunity in the Lung
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T helper cells are a distinct lineage of T-cells that can differentiate into the well-characterized subsets, Th1 and Th2 and a newer subset called Th17 cells. Data to date suggest that these cells play specific roles in host defense in the lung and thus, these subsets can also be targeted for vaccine-induced immunity. Here we summarize recent progress in our understanding of these specific T-cell subsets, their effector cytokines, and how these cells regulate host defense against pulmonary infection.
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6,916 |
Proteasome inhibitors as complementary or alternative antiviral therapeutics
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6,917 |
Engineering Plants for the Future: Farming with Value-Added Harvest
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Plants and their rich variety of natural compounds are used to maintain and to improve health since the earliest stages of civilization. Despite great advances in synthetic organic chemistry, one fourth of present-day drugs have still a botanical origin, and we are currently living a revival of interest in new pharmaceuticals from plant sources. Modern biotechnology has defined the potential of plants to be systems able to manufacture not only molecules naturally occurring in plants but also newly engineered compounds, from small to complex protein molecules, which may originate even from non-plant sources. Among these compounds, pharmaceuticals such as vaccines, antibodies and other therapeutic or prophylactic entities can be listed. For this technology, the term plant molecular farming has been coined with reference to agricultural applications due to the use of crops as biofactories for the production of high-added value molecules. In this perspective, edible plants have also been thought as a tool to deliver by the oral route recombinant compounds of medical significance for new therapeutic strategies. Despite many hurdles in establishing regulatory paths for this “novel” biotechnology, plants as bioreactors deserve more attention when considering their intrinsic advantages, such as the quality and safety of the recombinant molecules that can be produced and their potential for large-scale and low-cost production, despite worrying issues (e.g. amplification and diffusion of transgenes) that are mainly addressed by regulations, if not already tackled by the plant-made products already commercialized. The huge benefits generated by these valuable products, synthesized through one of the safest, cheapest and most efficient method, speak for themselves. Milestone for plant-based recombinant protein production for human health use was the approval in 2012 by the US Food and Drug Administration of plant-made taliglucerase alfa, a therapeutic enzyme for the treatment of Gaucher’s disease, synthesized in carrot suspension cultures by Protalix BioTherapeutics. In this review, we will go through the various approaches and results for plant-based production of proteins and recent progress in the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals (PMPs) for the prevention and treatment of human diseases. An analysis on acceptance of these products by public opinion is also tempted.
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6,918 |
Structural Alignment of Pseudoknotted RNA
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In this paper, we address the problem of discovering novel non-coding RNA (ncRNA) using primary sequence, and secondary structure conservation, focusing on ncRNA families with pseudo-knotted structures. Our main technical result is an efficient algorithm for computing an optimum structural alignment of an RNA sequence against a genomic substring. This algorithm finds two applications. First, by scanning a genome, we can identify novel (homologous) pseudoknotted ncRNA, and second, we can infer the secondary structure of the target aligned sequence. We test an implementation of our algorithm (Pal), and show that it has near-perfect behavior for predicting the structure of many known pseudoknots. Additionally, it can detect the true homologs with high sensitivity and specificity in controlled tests. We also use Pal to search entire viral genome and mouse genome for novel homologs of some viral, and eukaryotic pseudoknots respectively. In each case, we have found strong support for novel homologs.
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6,919 |
Insect RNAi: Integrating a New Tool in the Crop Protection Toolkit
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Protecting crops against insect pests is a major focus area in crop protection. Over the past two decades, biotechnological interventions, especially Bt proteins, have been successfully implemented across the world and have had major impacts on reducing chemical pesticide applications. As insects continue to adapt to insecticides, both chemical and protein-based, new methods, molecules, and modes of action are necessary to provide sustainable solutions. RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a significant tool to knock down or alter gene expression profiles in a species-specific manner. In the past decade, there has been intense research on RNAi applications in crop protection. This chapter looks at the current state of knowledge in the field and outlines the methodology, delivery methods, and precautions required in designing targets. Assessing the targeting of specific gene expression is also an important part of a successful RNAi strategy. The current literature on the use of RNAi in major orders of insect pests is reviewed, along with a perspective on the regulatory aspects of the approach. Risk assessment of RNAi would focus on molecular characterization, food/feed risk assessment, and environmental risk assessment. As more RNAi-based products come through regulatory systems, either via direct application or plant expression based, the impact of this approach on crop protection will become clearer.
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6,920 |
Introducing Ebola (EVD): An Unnecessary Surprise
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Chapter 4 tackles the Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease, EVD) pandemic of 2014/2015. It notes that coming in the wake of the ongoing HIV pandemic, the rights of those infected with Ebola to be identified and treated were largely uncontested. The questions of who would be treated, by whom, with what, remained however extremely contentious. The international response to the pandemic also saw, for the first time, not only non-state actors involved in mediating and mitigating a health crisis, but also military intervention. This chapter lays out both the uses and the dilemmas of military response. It explores the impact of these interventions in this Ebola pandemic, with a view towards possible future military deployments against health threats, and offers an initial analysis of the consequences thereof on the relationship between individual and state rights and responsibilities.
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6,921 |
Interstitial Lung Diseases
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The term interstitial lung diseases (ILD) comprises a diverse group of diseases that lead to inflammation and fibrosis of the alveoli, distal airways, and septal interstitium of the lungs. The ILD consist of disorders of known cause (e.g., collagen vascular diseases, drug-related diseases) as well as disorders of unknown etiology. The latter include idiopathic interstitial pneumonias (IIPs), and a group of miscellaneous, rare, but nonetheless interesting, diseases. In patients with ILD, MDCT enriches the diagnostic armamentarium by allowing volumetric high-resolution scanning, i.e., continuous data acquisition with thin collimation and a high spatial frequency reconstruction algorithm. CT is a key method in the identification and management of patients with ILD. It not only improves the detection and characterization of parenchymal abnormalities, but also increases the accuracy of diagnosis. The spectrum of morphologic characteristics that are indicative of interstitial lung disease is relatively limited and includes the linear and reticular pattern, the nodular pattern, the increased attenuation pattern (such as ground-glass opacities and consolidation), and the low attenuation pattern (such as emphysema and cystic lung diseases). In the correct clinical context, some patterns or combination of patterns, together with the anatomic distribution of the abnormality, i.e., from the lung apex to the base, or peripheral subpleural versus central bronchovascular, can lead the interpreter to a specific diagnosis. However, due to an overlap of the CT morphology between the various entities, the final diagnosis of many ILD requires close cooperation between clinicians and radiologists and complementary lung biopsy is recommended in many cases.
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6,922 |
The Scientific Challenge
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In the last chapter, I described how a number of argument forms that had traditionally been characterized by philosophers as weak or fallacious modes of reasoning could be shown to facilitate scientific inquiry into BSE when little was known about this new brain disease in cattle. The point was made that these argument forms have relevance to the epidemiologists and public health scientists whose task it was to identify and respond to this emerging infectious disease. However, this point requires some explanatory work if it is to have more than a very general application to the work of these public health professionals. For these professionals might ask with some justification why they should treat seriously argument forms that have been deemed to be logically inadequate by generations of philosophers. They might also wonder if philosophical discussion of reasoning has anything but the most abstract lessons for scientists who are charged with containing infectious diseases. In this chapter, I undertake this explanatory work by arguing that philosophical contributions on reasoning and argument are not only relevant to epidemiology, but that they also represent the very best prospect for investigators of addressing some of the criticisms of epidemiology that have been raised in recent years. These criticisms have been expressed most clearly by Christakos et al. (2005), although other theorists have also added their voices to the exchange.
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6,923 |
Protein-Based Bioproducts
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Plant proteins can be used for the production of a variety of bioproducts, including films and coatings, adhesives, fibres and pharmaceuticals. Proteins derived from plant production systems have many advantages: they are safe, low-cost and rapidly deployable, allow for simple product storage and result in proteins that are properly folded, assembled and post-translationally modified. While plant-derived protein-based products are natural, renewable, biodegradable and environmentally friendly, they tend to be lower in strength and elasticity than their corresponding synthetic products. Current research in this area is focused on overcoming challenges in plant production platforms related to yield, purification, regulatory approval and customer acceptance.
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6,924 |
The History and Formation of East Asian Sports Leagues
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This chapter considers the creation and growth of professional sport leagues throughout East Asia. In this, the different leagues and sport are examined, and noted for their hybrid use of both North American and European methods of business and regulation of sport leagues. Notably, prominent Japanese, Chinese, South Korean, and Taiwanese sport organizations are covered in their emergence as the top sport businesses within the region. The creation of these leagues varies from the old (Japanese baseball) to the new (Chinese football). As the dynamics of political and economic power has shifted in East Asia in the last several decades, so has the popularity and importance of many of the sport leagues in the region. At the same time, as these leagues have grown, many of the top stars have begun to leave for more popular and competitive leagues in North America and Europe. This chapter concludes in considering the future potential of sport leagues in Asia, and whether the teams and leagues will be able to continue to survive in their current formats.
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6,925 |
Errors, Uncertainty, and Ethical Issues
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Various medical giants have admonished us to “do no harm,” and yet as we swim in waters of uncertainty, errors do happen. Physician author Lewis Thomas praises restraint in health care, and Arthur Bloomfield reminds us that in our quest to help some, there are no patients we cannot harm.
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6,926 |
Biomarkers of Infectious Diseases
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Infection is defined as a pathologic process caused by the invasion of normally sterile tissue or fluid or body cavity by pathogenic or potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Sepsis is defined as the presence of organ dysfunction occurring as the result of a dysregulated host response to an infection.
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6,927 |
Artikel von A bis Z
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Nach frühem Tod der Eltern Erziehung in Genf; 1843–1848 Studium in Genf und Berlin, dort Bekanntwerden mit der deutschen Philosophie; Reisen in Frankreich und Italien; 1849 Professur für Ästhetik in Genf; 1854 Professur für Philosophie; Wegbereiter des späten deutschen Idealismus in der frankophonen Welt; wenige Veröffentlichungen (Gedichte und Essays) zu Lebzeiten; Verfasser eines postum veröffentlichten Tagebuchs, das für den Ich-Kult des späteren 19. Jh.s von großer Bedeutung war.
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6,928 |
Animal Models of Multiple Sclerosis
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To determine whether an immunological or pharmaceutical product has potential for therapy in treating multiple sclerosis (MS), detailed animal models are required. To date many animal models for human MS have been described in mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, marmosets, and rhesus monkeys. The most comprehensive studies have involved murine experimental allergic (or autoimmune) encephalomyelitis (EAE), Semliki Forest virus (SFV), mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), and Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV). Here, we describe in detail multispecies animal models of human MS, namely EAE, SFV, MHV, and TMEV, in addition to chemically induced demyelination. The validity and applicability of each of these models are critically evaluated.
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6,929 |
Adenosine Receptors in the Lungs
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The ubiquitous adenine nucleoside adenosine (Ado), which plays an important role in cellular energetics, is released from cells under physiologic and pathophysiologic conditions. Another source of extracellular Ado is rapid degradation of extracellular adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP) by ectoenzymes. Extracellular Ado acts as an autocrine and paracrine agent by the activation of G protein-coupled cell surface receptors (GPCRs), designated as A(1), A(2A), A(2B), and A(3). Almost four decades ago, published data have indicated that Ado could play a role in immune-mediated histamine release from pulmonary mast cells. Since then, numerous studies have indicated that Ado’s signal transductions are involved in various pulmonary pathologies including asthma and COPD. This chapter is a succinct review of recent studies in this field.
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6,930 |
Rethinking Sepsis: New Insights from Gene Expression Profiling Studies
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Critically ill patients encompass an enormously heterogeneous population and, as such, therapeutic interventions, including drug therapy, can produce multiple outcomes in different patient subgroups. For example, researchers not only look for an ‘average effect’ of a drug on a typical patient, but also seek to understand individual variability. The presence of variability impacts significantly on the success of clinical trials and failure to identify this variability can result in the clinical trial being under-powdered to detect a treatment effect. For clinicians, failure to recognize variability can result in unintended toxicity or excessive harm in certain patients. Hence, understanding variability is critically important in both research and clinical practice.
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6,931 |
Promoting an Inclusive Approach to Benefit Sharing: Expanding the Scope of the CBD?
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The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a major international agreement to ensure the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of various components of biological diversity, and fair and equitable access and benefit sharing of advances arising from the use of related genetic resources. The CBD excludes human genetic resources. In light of the rapid advances in biotechnology, genetic resources are increasingly being utilised by different types of users and in different industries. This usage is not confined to plants, animals or micro-organisms but includes human genetic resources and sometimes a mix of such resources. In the absence of any international agreement, various national governments are framing their own rules and guidelines. This patchwork of regulation may eventually impede global research efforts. This chapter argues that the CBD is qualified to be the central agency at the global level for the advance of broader benefit sharing frameworks. By implication, the scope of the CBD should be expanded to include human genetic resources.
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6,932 |
Lung
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The lungs are particularly sensitive to RT, and are often the primary dose-limiting structure during thoracic therapy. The alveolar/capillary units and pneumocytes within the alveoli appear to be particularly sensitive to RT. Hypoxia may be important in the underlying physiology of RT-associated lung injury. The cytokine transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), plays an important role in the development of RT-induced fibrosis. The histopathological changes observed in the lung after RT are broadly characterized as diffuse alveolar damage. The interaction between pre-treatment PFTs and the risk of symptomatic lung injury is complex. Similarly, the link between changes in PFTs and the development of symptoms is uncertain. The incidence of symptomatic lung injury increases with increase in most dosimetric parameters. The mean lung dose (MLD) and V20 have been the most-often considered parameters. MLD might be a preferable metric since it considers the entire 3D dose distribution. Radiation to the lower lobes appears to be more often associated with clinical symptoms than is radiation to the upper lobes. This might be related to incidental cardiac irradiation. In pre-clinical models, there appears to be a complex interaction between lung and heart irradiation. TGF-β has been suggested in several studies to predict for RT-induced lung injury, but the data are still somewhat inconsistent. Oral prednisone (Salinas and Winterbauer 1995), typically 40–60 mg daily for 1–2 weeks with a slow taper, is usually effective in treating pneumonitis. There are no widely accepted treatments for fibrosis. A number of chemotherapeutic agents have been suggested to be associated with a range of pulmonary toxicities.
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6,933 |
Cibotium barometz
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Cibotium barometz plant habit
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6,934 |
Fetal and Neonatal Illnesses Caused or Influenced by Maternal Transplacental IgG and/or Therapeutic Antibodies Applied During Pregnancy
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The human fetus is protected by the mother’s antibodies. At the end of the pregnancy, the concentration of maternal antibodies is higher in the cord blood, than in the maternal circulation. Simultaneously, the immune system of the fetus begins to work and from the second trimester, fetal IgM is produced by the fetal immune system specific to microorganisms and antigens passing the maternal-fetal barrier. The same time the fetal immune system has to cope and develop tolerance and T(REG) cells to the maternal microchimeric cells, latent virus-carrier maternal cells and microorganisms transported through the maternal-fetal barrier. The maternal phenotypic inheritance may hide risks for the newborn, too. Antibody mediated enhancement results in dengue shock syndrome in the first 8 month of age of the baby. A series of pathologic maternal antibodies may elicit neonatal illnesses upon birth usually recovering during the first months of the life of the offspring. Certain antibodies, however, may impair the fetal or neonatal tissues or organs resulting prolonged recovery or initiating prolonged pathological processes of the children. The importance of maternal anti-idiotypic antibodies are believed to prime the fetal immune system with epitopes of etiologic agents infected the mother during her whole life before pregnancy and delivery. The chemotherapeutical and biological substances used for the therapy of the mother will be transcytosed into the fetal body during the last two trimesters of pregnancy. The long series of the therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and conjugates has not been tested systematically yet. The available data are summarised in this chapter. The innate immunity plays an important role in fetal defence. The concentration of interferon is relative high in the placenta. This is probably one reason, why the therapeutic interferon treatment of the mother does not impair the fetal development.
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6,935 |
The Dynamic World View in Action
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The dynamical system is a mathematical concept motivated first by Newtonian mechanics. The state of the system is generally denoted by a point in an appropriately defined geometrical space. A dynamical system operates in time. Typically, we take the time set T to be the real line R (a continuous-time system) or the set of integers Z (a discrete-time system). We then formalize an autonomous system as a ordered pair (Q, g), where Q is the state space, and g : T × Q → Q is a function that assigns to each initial state x(0) ∈ Q the state x = g(t, x(0)), in which the system will be after a time interval t if it started in state x(0). A fundamental property of g, then, is the validity of the identity g(t + s, x(0)) ≡ g(s, g(t, x(0))) (4.1) for all states x, and times t, s. Loosely speaking g is a fixed rule which governs the motion of the system.
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6,936 |
Microbiology
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In order to render an accurate diagnosis, and correctly identify clinically important microorganisms, a good understanding and knowledge of microbiology is essential. This chapter provides a broad overview of microbiology that is relevant to the practicing cytologist. Virology addresses the cytopathic effects caused by viruses and discusses many key infections. Bacteriology covers important bacterial causes of infection including those due to mycobacteria and filamentous bacteria. Mycology deals with common fungi as well as deep mycoses, particularly those caused by invasive and dimorphic fungal organisms. Parasitology highlights the protozoa, apicomplexans, and helminths likely to be seen in cytology samples. Algae are also briefly mentioned.
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6,937 |
The Crowded Cytosol
|
While, given the expansion of the world population, it cannot be guaranteed that it will always be so, currently one accepts as a temporary discomfort short periods of crowding, as in a crowded elevator or subway train. However, if, like most intracellular macromolecules, one were both blind and deaf, the need to communicate by touch might make crowding an option of choice. It seems likely that the first cells to evolve soon discovered the advantage of intracellular crowding, which persists to this day [2]. Indeed, the physiological environment of enzymes is very different from the environment we can normally create in the test-tube.
|
6,938 |
Infecties van de luchtwegen en cystische fibrose
|
Sereuze of mucopurulente neusuitvloed, passagebelemmering, minimale algemene verschijnselen; meestal geen koorts.
|
6,939 |
Human Mobility, Networks and Disease Dynamics on a Global Scale
|
Disease dynamics is a complex phenomenon and in order to address these questions expertises from many disciplines need to be integrated. One method that has become particularly important during the past few years is the development of computational models and computer simulations that help addressing these questions. In the focus of this chapter are emergent infectious diseases that bear the potential of spreading across the globe, exemplifying how connectivity in a globalized world has changed the way human-mediated processes evolve in the 21st century. The examples of most successful predictions of disease dynamics given in the chapter illustrate that just feeding better and faster computers with more and more data may not necessarily help understanding the relevant phenomena. It might rather be much more useful to change the conventional way of looking at the patterns and to assume a correspondingly modified viewpoint—as most impressively shown with the examples given in this chapter.
|
6,940 |
Immune response in human pathology: infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites
|
Despite the introduction of effective health measurements, vaccination and antimicrobial therapy infectious diseases continue to threaten human life. The reasons are numerous and diverse: antibiotic resistance, hospital-invading pathogens, new emerging infectious diseases, bioterrorism, biological warfare. This chapter is an introduction to several aspects of infectious diseases viewed from the host as well as from the pathogen (bacterium, virus and parasite). Furthermore the basic principles of INNATE and ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES, especially in debilitated patients, are described. Detailed information is given on the pathogenesis of septic shock, AIDS and vaccination strategies.
|
6,941 |
Bronchitis, Bronchiolitis und Lungenemphysem
|
Die Bronchitis wird in die akute und die chronische Erkrankungsform eingeteilt. Bei der chronischen Form müssen zusätzlich das Vorhandensein einer zusätzlichen Atemwegsobstruktion und Sekundärveränderungen, insbesondere das Lungenemphysem, berücksichtigt werden.
|
6,942 |
Mediator-Based Architecture for Integrated Access to Biological Databases
|
The amount of biological information accessible via the internet is growing at a tremendous rate. The biologists often encounter problems in accessing huge amount of widely spread data due to disparate formats, remotely dispersed and varying implementation on different platforms and data models. Besides that, the custom browsing and querying mechanism implemented in different data sources requires the users to uniquely query each individual database. Instead of having different custom interfaces to these public bioinformatics databases, an intuitive common integrated data access method is proposed to provide uniform transparent access to disparate biological databases. The proposed mediator-based architecture consists of three conceptual layers namely Query Formulation, Query Transformation and Query Execution.
|
6,943 |
Neurotische, Belastungs- und somatoforme Störungen (F40–F48)
|
Epidemiologischen Studien zufolge beträgt die durchschnittliche Lebenszeitprävalenz der Zwangsstörung bei Erwachsenen der Allgemeinbevölkerung ca. 2,5 %. Die Punktprävalenz liegt bei etwa 1,5 %. Bei der Zwangsstörung finden sich keine Geschlechterunterschiede in den Häufigkeitsraten.
|
6,944 |
Unmet Medical Needs and the Role of Pharmaceutical Companies
|
Rising health care costs have been prioritized in the budget planning of all Western countries. Rising R&D costs of up to $800 million per marketed new pharmaceutical have dramatically reduced the approval of new chemical entities (NCEs). Globalization of diseases like AIDS and SARS has had a definite impact on the economic situation not only in the Western world, but also in developing countries, especially for AIDS in Africa and SARS in Asia. The World Health Organization (WHO) is calling for free anti-tuberculosis (TB) drugs to be made available to people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The spread between unmet medical need in large indications (e.g. Alzheimer's disease) and in niche indications (e.g. Huntington disease) and the economic burden to create a blockbuster ($1 billion sales within one year after launch) has created a marketing-driven clinical development of new chemical entities. A paradigm shift has occurred by which developing a new innovative drug by documenting shortterm efficacy, quality and safety rather than long-term efficacy and emphasizing pharma-covilliglance including considerations of health economy within the medical environment a shift that has fundamentally changed and challenged the pharmaceutical industry.
|
6,945 |
The Golgi apparatus and main discoveries in the field of intracellular transport
|
In this chapter, we summarize important findings in the field of intracellular transport, which have considerably contributed to the understanding of the function and organization of the Golgi apparatus (GA). It is not possible to mention all authors in this huge field. We apologize for gaps and incompleteness, and are thankful for suggestions and corrections.
|
6,946 |
Respiratory Failure in a Patient with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
|
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, in its advanced stages, commonly causes chronic respiratory failure. Additionally, patients with fibrotic lung disease can develop acute respiratory failure due to a myriad of causes, though one of the most common and most deadly is an acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. In this chapter we review the differential diagnosis for patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis who present with acute respiratory failure. Furthermore, we review the available evidence pertinent to the intensivist when these patients are cared for in the intensive care unit. Lastly, we explore treatment controversies (Extracorporeal Life Support, corticosteroids, non-invasive ventilation strategies) that are employed by some centers, but with limited evidence.
|
6,947 |
Respiratory Diseases of Pregnancy
|
Respiratory complaints in the gravid patient are often difficult to identify as a disease state, expected physiologic changes of pregnancy or both. Understanding the underlying pulmonary physiologic changes that come with pregnancy as well as those conditions which are unique to the pregnant patient will help arrive at the correct diagnosis and management. Recognizing that the gravid patient has other physiologic changes that contribute to decreased respiratory reserve, increased risk of aspiration, infection, and difficult airway can help in managing these patients acutely.
|
6,948 |
Aminopeptidases
| null |
6,949 |
Respiratory Emergencies in Children
|
Focused clinical observation is the key in the initial recognition of respiratory distress in an acutely ill child.
|
6,950 |
Pädiatrische Transfusionsmedizin
|
Die Indikation zur Transfusion von Blutprodukten wird in den letzten Jahren zurückhaltender gestellt. Dazu trägt die Sorge vor möglichen übertragbaren Infektionen ebenso bei wie eine verbesserte Kenntnis der Gewebeoxygenierung. Prinzipiell sollten nur die fehlenden Blutkomponenten verabreicht werden, die der Patient benötigt, und alle unnötigen und möglicherweise gefährlichen Bestandteile vermieden werden („Hämotherapie nach Maß“). In der Intensivmedizin erlaubt z.B. die Messung der zerebralen Sauerstoffausschöpfung eine auf die individuelle Oxygenierung des Patienten abgestimmte Entscheidung zur Erythrozytensubstitution; vorgegebene starre Transfusionsgrenzen verlieren dadurch an Bedeutung.
|
6,951 |
Relative Lempel-Ziv Compression of Genomes for Large-Scale Storage and Retrieval
|
Self-indexes – data structures that simultaneously provide fast search of and access to compressed text – are promising for genomic data but in their usual form are not able to exploit the high level of replication present in a collection of related genomes. Our ‘RLZ’ approach is to store a self-index for a base sequence and then compress every other sequence as an LZ77 encoding relative to the base. For a collection of r sequences totaling N bases, with a total of s point mutations from a base sequence of length n, this representation requires just [Formula: see text] bits. At the cost of negligible extra space, access to ℓ consecutive symbols requires [Formula: see text] time. Our experiments show that, for example, RLZ can represent individual human genomes in around 0.1 bits per base while supporting rapid access and using relatively little memory.
|
6,952 |
Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia
|
A 50-year-old diabetic male patient was admitted to the hospital with ischemic stroke (GCS = E1V1M3). He was put on invasive positive-pressure ventilation support. On the fourth day of ICU stay, he developed fever (38.6 °C), a rise in total leukocyte count (156,000, N 93%), and heterogeneous, ill-defined shadows in the right lower zone in the chest X-ray. Chest auscultation revealed bronchial breathing in the right infra-axillary area, and the nurse reported an increase in amount and purulence of secretions requiring frequent suctioning. The patient needed 5 mcg/min noradrenaline to maintain systolic blood pressure of more than 100 mmHg.
|
6,953 |
Koorts en koortssyndromen
|
Ongeveer 25–40 % van de kinderen zoeken acute kindergeneeskundige hulp in verband met koorts. In dit hoofdstuk behandelen de auteurs: (1) alarmsymptomen en beleid van een ernstige of specifieke infectie (bijv. pneumonie en urineweginfectie); (2) febris e causa ignota (koorts e.c.i.), die zich kenmerkt door aanhoudende of recidiverende koorts; (3) kinderen met een tropische infectieziekte (waaronder malaria en dengue); dit is zeldzaam, maar er zijn veel mogelijke oorzaken van koorts na tropenbezoek. Een systematische benadering is van belang om de aandoeningen te identificeren die bedreigend, behandelbaar en/of besmettelijk zijn.
|
6,954 |
5 Zorgvuldig en verantwoord werken
|
Verzorgenden in verpleeg- en verzorgingshuizen willen meer scholing over handelingen die de vrijheid van zorgvragers beperken. Ook is er te weinig toezicht op bewoners en zorgvragers. Verzorgenden beperken wekelijks de vrijheid van zorgvragers, maar zijn zich daar niet altijd van bewust. Dat blijkt uit onderzoek onder het Panel Verpleegkundigen & Verzorgenden (TvV, april 2007).
|
6,955 |
16 Longziekten
|
Longziekten komen zeer frequent voor. De meeste longaandoeningen ontstaan in de luchtwegen; voorbeelden hiervan zijn astma en COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease).
|
6,956 |
Litigations for Unexpected Adverse Events
|
A 53-year-old Iranian female who immigrated to Canada about 3.5 years before was referred to an internist for a positive Mantoux skin test (11 mm in diameter). The subject was previously well with no symptoms indicative or suggestive of active tuberculosis. A routine tuberculosis skin test was performed because the patient had applied to be a volunteer at a local hospital. She had no significant past illness or known allergies, and she was never diagnosed with nor had known contact with anyone with active tuberculosis. The subject never ingested alcohol and was not known to have hepatitis or be a carrier of any hepatitis virus. Baseline investigations performed by the internist included routine complete blood count, routine biochemical tests (liver enzymes, creatinine, and glucose), serum ferritin, and thyroid-stimulating hormone – all of which were normal. A chest radiograph was reported to be normal.
|
6,957 |
Investigation of Animal Reservoir(s) of SARS-CoV
|
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a novel infectious disease in the new millennium. It has been ascertained that a new coronavirus, SARS-CoV, is the etiological agent of SARS. While the extraordinarily rapid isolation and full genome sequencing of SARS-CoV constituted a remarkable scientific achievement, identification of the actual animal reservoir(s) of SARS-CoV is more difficult. Initial evidences indicated that the masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) was the primary suspect of the animal origin of SARS (Guan et al., 2003; Song et al., 2005). Recent studies suggested that horseshoe bat is one of the real reservoirs (Lau et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005) and masked palm civet may have only served as an intermediate amplification host for SARS-CoV and fulfilled efficient interspecies transmission (Lau et al., 2005). This chapter will summarize the studies on the animal reservoir(s) of SARS-CoV.
|
6,958 |
Rhinosinusitis and Tonsillopharyngitis
|
Sinusitis is characterized by mucosal inflammation of the sinuses which is almost always accompanied by inflammation of the nasal passages. Since nasal mucosa is contiguous with paranasal sinus mucosa, the term sinusitis is often used interchangeably with [1]; the latter term will be used in this chapter. Rhinosinusitis can be acute (less than 4 weeks’ duration), subacute (4–12 weeks), or chronic (greater than 12 weeks) [2].
|
6,959 |
A Graph Cellular Automata Model to Study the Spreading of an Infectious Disease
|
A mathematical model based on cellular automata on graphs to simulate a general epidemic spreading is presented in this paper. Specifically, it is a SIR-type model where the population is divided into susceptible, infected and recovered individuals.
|
6,960 |
Die Vielfalt des Fachjournalismus
|
Als zusammenfassendes Verständnis von Fachjournalismus lässt sich bis an diese Stelle aus der theoretischen Analyse heraus formulieren: Fachjournalismus ist Journalismus. In diesem Sinne ist Fachjournalismus ein Sub- und Leistungssystem des publizistischen Systems Journalismus. Er hat sich in viele Richtungen aus-differenziert aufgrund der Komplexität seiner Beobachtungsobjekte. Ebenso wenig wie es den einen Journalismus gibt, existiert nur ein Fachjournalismus. Der Singular bezeichnet das System, die Pluralform muss angewendet werden bei der Beschreibung der empirischen Vielfalt.
|
6,961 |
Mykobakteriose (pulmonale)
| null |
6,962 |
Current Issues in Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia
|
Infections in critically ill patients account for a major proportion of the mortality, morbidity, and cost associated with their care. Infection rate in critically ill patients are about 40% and may be 50–60% in those remaining in the intensive care unit (ICU) for more then 5 days.(1,2) Pneumonia acquired in the ICU (after 48 h intuba tion) ranges from 10% to 65%,(3,4) and respiratory infections account for 30–60% of all infections acquired in the ICU(.5,6) Mortality rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) have been very high (30–70%) and may account for 15% of all deaths in the ICU. (7–9) When controlled for severity of underlying disease and other factors the attributable mortality of VAP range from 0% to 50% absolute increase, and prolonged length of ICU stay (range 5–13 days).(10) In a recent review of the clinical and economic consequences of VAP from analysis of studies published after 1990, the findings were: 10–20% of ICU-ventilated patients will develop VAP, and are twice as likely to die compared to patients without VAP, with 6 extra days in the ICU and an additional US$10019 hospital cost per case.(11) Empiric broad-spectrum antimicrobials in the ICU for presumed pneumonia has contributed substantially to the worldwide increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria in hospitals. This has compounded the problem of increasing morbidity, mortality, and cost because of the challenge posed by these difficult-to-treat microorganisms, particularly the use of expensive drugs and need for isolation.
|
6,963 |
Small Scale Academic Web Archiving: DACHS
| null |
6,964 |
Viral Infections of the Lung
|
The lungs are among the most vulnerable to microbial assault of all organs in the body. From a contemporary vantage, lower respiratory tract infections are the greatest cause of infection-related mortality in the United States, and rank seventh among all causes of deaths in the United States.2,3 From a global and historic perspective, the scope and scale of lower respiratory tract infection is greater than any other infectious syndrome, and viral pneumonias have proven to be some of the most lethal and dramatic of human diseases. The 1918–1919 influenza pandemic, perhaps the most devastating infectious disease pandemic in recorded history, resulted in an estimated 40 million deaths worldwide, including 700,000 deaths in the U.S.4 The global outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) during 2003, although considerably smaller in scale, resulted in 8098 cases and 774 deaths5 and is a dramatic contemporary example of the ability of viral pneumonias to rapidly disseminate and cause severe disease in human populations.
|
6,965 |
The Physiology of Brain Death and Organ Donor Management
|
Brain death is associated with complex physiologic changes that may impact the management of the potential organ donor. Medical management is critical to actualizing the individual or family’s intent to donate and maximizing the benefit of that intent. This interval of care in the PICU begins with brain death and consent to donation and culminates with surgical organ procurement. During this phase, risks for hemodynamic instability and compromise of end organ function are high. The brain dead organ donor is in a distinct and challenging pathophysiologic condition that culminates in multifactorial shock. The potential benefits of aggressive medical management of the organ donor may include increased number of donors providing transplantable organs and increased number of organs transplanted per donor. This may improve graft function, graft survival, and patient survival in those transplanted. In this chapter, pathophysiologic changes occurring after brain death are reviewed. General and organ specific donor management strategies and logistic considerations are discussed. There is a significant opportunity for enhancing donor multi-organ function and improving organ utilization with appropriate PICU management.
|
6,966 |
Aandoeningen van de luchtwegen
|
Luchtwegaandoeningen vormen een van de meest frequente oorzaken van morbiditeit bij kinderen. Alleen al luchtweginfecties maken meer dan de helft uit van alle ziekteperioden bij kinderen en zijn verantwoordelijk voor ongeveer eenderde van alle schoolverzuim.
|
6,967 |
Chromatin and Aging
|
Recent studies from a number of model organisms have indicated chromatin structure and its remodeling as a major contributory agent for aging. Few recent experiments also demonstrate that modulation in the chromatin modifying agents also affect the life span of an organism and even in some cases the change is inherited epigenetically to subsequent generations. Hence, in the present report we discuss the chromatin organization and its changes during aging.
|
6,968 |
Schnupfenviren
| null |
6,969 |
The Past and Present Threat of Avian Influenza in Thailand
|
Avian influenza H5N1 infection was first identified in Thailand in January 2004. Since then, there have been three major outbreaks in the cold season of 2003–2004 and in the rainy and cold seasons of 2004–2005 and 2005–2006. More than 62 million birds died or were culled. The burden shifted from large industrial farming in the first outbreak to small farms, backyard chickens, and free-grazing ducks. Up to November 2005, there were 20 confirmed cases of human H5N1 infection. Thirteen of these died. Most of the confirmed cases were solitary ones except for three persons in a single family, and epidemiological evidence indicated that person-to-person transmission may have been involved in this cluster. However, sequence analysis of the virus in the cluster did not suggest any changes that might enhance the viral ability to get transmitted among humans. H5N1 viruses in Thailand and Vietnam belong to a single lineage genetically and are antigenically distinguishable from the viruses of the same genotype Z from southern China and Indonesia. Despite the seemingly subsiding epidemic in Thailand, the problem is far from resolved. H5N1 viruses are still sporadically isolated from domestic poultry as well as from wildlife. More important, isolates were also found in asymptomatic animals. Natural selection may have adapted the virus to a less aggressive form. This would make the virus more elusive and difficult to control. A threat of a pandemic strain emerging from the H5N1 virus is still imminent. A national strategic plan for avian influenza control and influenza pandemic preparedness has been implemented. The plan aims at effective control of avian influenza spread in animals as well as in humans for a three-year period and at efficient pandemic preparedness within one year. Nevertheless, more regional and international collaboration is needed. With proper collective preparedness, there is a hope that the threatening influenza pandemic can be prevented by confining and eliminating a potential pandemic strain at its origin. In December 2003, poultry farms in the eastern, central, and northern regions of Thailand experienced large-scale die-offs. The outbreak started from the eastern region of the country. The disease caused rapid death, with a very high attack rate. At that time, H5N1 outbreaks had been reported in South Korea, Vietnam, and Japan (OIE, 2005). A few humans with pneumonia were suspected to originate from contact with sick or dead poultry. Final diagnosis in these patients was not done as clinical samples were not available at the time when proper diagnostic testing became available. On 23 January 2004, the first case of human H5N1 infection in Thailand was reported. It was a boy from Kanchanaburi, a province about 100 km west of Bangkok. He was admitted to Siriraj Hospital in Bangkok and was diagnosed to have severe progressive pneumonia. The patient was initially treated with broad spectrum antibiotics, and respiratory samples were tested for influenza virus. The laboratory result showed that the patient harbored influenza virus, and sequencing of the viral RNA indicated that the virus belonged to the H5 subtype (Chokephaibulkit et al., 2005; Puthavathana et al., 2005). When this result was reported to the Ministry of Public Health, the government announced that there was a highly pathogenic avian influenza (AI) outbreak in Thailand. The Department of Livestock Development (DLD) confirmed the presence of H5N1 viruses in poultry on the same day. Subsequent analysis of the virus from patients and animals confirmed that it was H5N1 AI virus of genotype Z and was closely related to the virus from Vietnam (Viseshakul et al., 2004; Puthavathana et al., 2005).
|
6,970 |
P-Type Lectins: Cation-Dependent Mannose-6-Phosphate Receptor
|
In eukaryotic cells, post-translational modification of secreted proteins and intracellular protein transport between organelles are ubiquitous features. One of the most studied systems is the N-linked glycosylation pathway in the synthesis of secreted glycoproteins (Schrag et al. 2003). The N-linked glycoproteins are subjected to diverse modifications and are transported through ER and Golgi apparatus to their final destinations in- and outside the cell. Incorporation of cargo glycoproteins into transport vesicles is mediated by transmembrane cargo receptors, which have been identified as intracellular lectins. For example, mannose 6-phosphate receptors (Ghosh et al. 2003) function as a cargo receptor for lysosomal proteins in the trans-Golgi network, whereas ERGIC-53 (Zhang et al. 2003) and its yeast orthologs Emp46/47p (Sato and Nakano 2002) are transport lectins for glycoproteins that are transported out of ER.
|
6,971 |
Pharyngitis
| null |
6,972 |
Nierentransplantation
|
Die Nierentransplantation ist die effektivste Behandlungsmethode der chronischen terminalen Niereninsuffizienz. Seit den 1960er Jahren entwickelte sie sich zu einer Standardtherapie. Wichtige Voraussetzungen waren die Entdeckung des HLA-Systems, die Entwicklung der Immunsuppressiva sowie die technische Perfektionierung des Organerhaltes außerhalb eines lebenden Körpers. Die 5-Jahres-Überlebensrate für Allotransplantate beträgt etwa 65%, diejenige von Lebendspenden 79%.
|
6,973 |
International Flight Considerations
|
Combined with the rising number of passengers, and increased capacity of larger airplanes with more long-distance domestic and international flights, with long-haul aircrafts—such as the Airbus A380 and Boeing 777 LR now capable of extending flight times to 18–20 h—it is likely that the incidence of in-flight medical emergencies will continue to increase in the coming years. International air travel in particular combines long-haul, extended flight times with unique exposures and an even more austere, secluded environment for passengers with acute and/or chronic illnesses, and suggests unique medical challenges for recognition, stabilization, treatment, diagnosis, and disposition.
|
6,974 |
Disabled defences
| null |
6,975 |
Anti-infective activity of immunomodulators
|
The availability of a vast array of recombinant and synthetic IMMUNOMODULATORS is a significant milestone toward the development of effective therapies for infectious diseases. This is evinced by licensing of several recombinant human CYTOKINES, including COLONY-STIMULATING FACTORS, INTERLEUKINS, INTERFERONS and erythropoietin, for clinical use in patients. Diverse combinations with INTERFERONS and other CYTOKINES for the treatment of various infections have been proposed. Others, including various CHEMOKINES, synthetic CpG oligodeoxynucleotides and glucans, are extensively being investigated in clinical and preclinical studies. Considerable advances have been made on compounds exhibiting CYTOKINE inhibitory properties useful for new treatments of infectious and inflammatory diseases. Many of the major developments and current trends are highlighted in this review. Novel strategies based on the engineering of CYTOKINES and inhibitors are poised to revolutionize therapeutic options contingent upon scientific evidence rather than dictates of discursive empiricism in the coming decades.
|
6,976 |
Use of IgY Antibodies in Human and Veterinary Medicine
| null |
6,977 |
Numerical Simulation of Urban Coastal Zones
| null |
6,978 |
Pattern Recognition Receptors in CNS Disease
|
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are germline encoded receptors utilized by cells of the innate immune system for pathogen recognition. PRRs are classically activated by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) present in whole classes of pathogens, but not in mammalian cells, termed the “infectious nonself model” (Medzhitov and Janeway, 2002). It has also been recent appreciated that there are self-derived products released upon tissue injury or necrotic cell death that can activate PRRs (Morgan et al., 2005). PRR activation leads to opsonization, activation of complement and coagulation cascades, phagocytosis, activation of proinflammatory signaling pathways, and the induction of apoptosis (Janeway and Medzhitov, 2002; Matzinger, 2002). Additionally, activation of the innate immune system is crucial for the induction of adaptive immune responses and the eventual clearance of pathogens (Janeway and Medzhitov, 2002).
|
6,979 |
Don’t Toss Your Turtle! Seizures and Fever in an Infant
|
A 10-month-old male presented with new-onset seizure activity, a 6-week fever of unknown origin, and a left-sided frontoparietal subdural fluid collection. The child’s mother reported tonic-clonic movements that lasted for about 15 min and that resolved with one dose of lorazepam. At 9 months of age, the infant’s pediatrician had noted an increase in the patient’s head circumference.
|
6,980 |
Scientific Models in the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Research and in the Biology Curriculum
|
An in-depth case study of the authentic scientific research during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) crisis revealed a rich list of features of nature of science (NOS). Among these features, model building stands as a prominent activity of scientists for understanding, explaining, and making sense of some of puzzling observations. In this chapter, we present a detailed analysis of four key episodes of the scientific inquiries during the SARS epidemic, namely, (1) the identification of the transmission mode, (2) the hunt for the causative agent of SARS, (3) the search for the natural host of the SARS-related coronavirus, and (4) the explanation of the mysterious infection pattern in the tragic outbreak at Amoy Gardens (a residential complex), to highlight the important roles and characteristics of models, modeling, and multiple levels of representations of science. We also describe how these scientific models developed were intricately related to social, cultural, and political environments. We then review the roles and nature of scientific models emphasized in the most recent biology curriculum implemented in Hong Kong and critique on its inadequacies in fully reflecting the important function of models and modeling in the authentic scientific inquiries.
|
6,981 |
Role of Epithelial Cells in Chronic Inflammatory Lung Disease
|
Airborne pathogens entering the lungs first encounter the mucus layer overlaying epithelial cells as a first line of host defense [1, 2]. In addition to serving as the physical barrier to these toxic agents, intact epithelia also are major sources of various macromolecules including antimicrobial agents, antioxidants and antiproteases [3, 4] as well as proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that initiate and amplify host defensive responses to these toxic agents [5]. Airway epithelial cells can be categorized as either ciliated or secretory [6]. Secretory cells, such as goblet cells and Clara cells, are responsible for the production and secretion of mucus along the apical epithelial surface and, in conjunction with ciliated cells, for the regulation of airway surface liquid viscosity. In addition, submucosal mucus glands connect to the airway lumen through a ciliated duct that propels mucins outward. These glands are present in the larger airways between bands of smooth muscle and cartilage. See Fig. 1.
|
6,982 |
Emerging Disease and the Evolution of Virulence: The Case of the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic
|
“Why do parasites harm their host?” is a recurrent question in evolutionary biology and ecology, and has several implications for the biomedical sciences, particularly public health and epidemiology. Contrasting the meaning(s) of the concept of “virulence” in molecular pathology and evolutionary ecology, we review different explanations proposed as to why, and under what conditions, parasites cause harm to their host: whereas the former uses molecular techniques and concepts to explain changes and the nature of virulence seen as a categorical trait, the latter conceptualizes virulence as a phenotypic quantitative trait (usually related to a reduction in the host’s fitness). After describing the biology of emerging influenza viruses we illustrate how the ecological and the molecular approaches provide distinct (but incomplete) explanations of the 1918–19 influenza pandemic. We suggest that an evolutionary approach is necessary to understand the dynamics of disease transmission but that a broader understanding of virulence will ultimately benefit from articulating and integrating the ecological dynamics with cellular mechanisms of virulence. Both ecological and functional perspectives on host-pathogens’ interactions are required to answer the opening question but also to devise appropriate health-care measures in order to prevent (and predict?) future influenza pandemics and other emerging threats. Finally, the difficult co-existence of distinct explanatory frameworks reflects the fact that scientists can work on a same problem using various methodologies but it also highlights the enduring tension between two scientific styles of practice in biomedicine.
|
6,983 |
Emerging Infectious Diseases in Camelids
|
Growing interest in camelids presents a unique challenge to scientists and veterinarians engaged in diagnosing infectious diseases of this species. It is estimated that 65 % of fatalities in Old World camels (OWC, i.e., Camelus dromedarius and C. bactrianus) and 50 % in New World camelids/South American camelids (NWC/SAC, i.e., the domestic alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama)) are caused by infectious diseases. Factors that contribute to disease emergence in camelids involve climate change and increased demand for camel products resulting in the intensification of production and expanding camel contacts with other animal species and humans. In this chapter, the most important emerging diseases of camelids are described and discussed. The most notable emerging viral infections in OWC include camelpox, Rift Valley fever (RVF), peste des petits ruminants (PPR), and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection. Brucellosis, Johne’s disease (JD), and dermatophilosis are the emerging bacterial diseases in OWC. Emerging diseases of NWC include infections with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bluetongue (BT), and coronavirus. Parasitic emerging infections in NWCs include the small liver fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum) and meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis).
|
6,984 |
An Ensemble Trajectory Method for Real-Time Modeling and Prediction of Unfolding Epidemics: Analysis of the 2005 Marburg Fever Outbreak in Angola
|
We propose a new methodology for the modeling and real time prediction of the course of unfolding epidemic outbreaks. The method posits a class of standard epidemic models and explores uncertainty in empirical data to set up a family of possible outbreak trajectories that span the probability distribution of models parameters and initial conditions. A genetic algorithm is used to estimate likely trajectories consistent with the data and reconstruct the probability distribution of model parameters. In this way the ensemble of trajectories allows for temporal extrapolation to produce estimates of future cases and deaths, with quantified levels of uncertainty. We apply this methodology to an outbreak of Marburg hemorrhagic fever in Angola during 2005 in order to estimate disease epidemiological parameters and assess the effects of interventions. Data for cases and deaths was compiled from World Health Organization as the epidemic unfolded. We describe the outbreak through a standard epidemic model used in the past for Ebola, a closely related viral pathogen. The application of our method allows us to make quantitative prognostics as the outbreak unfolds for the expected time to the end of the epidemic and final numbers of cases and fatalities, which were eventually confirmed. We provided a real time analysis of the effects of intervention and possible under reporting and place bounds on population movements necessary to guarantee that the epidemic did not regain momentum.
|
6,985 |
The Angiotensin-(1-7) Axis: Formation and Metabolism Pathways
|
The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) constitutes a key hormonal system in the physiological regulation of blood pressure via peripheral and central mechanisms. Dysregulation of the RAS is considered a major factor in the development of cardiovascular pathologies and pharmacologic blockade of this system by the inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) or antagonism of the angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT(1)R) is an effective therapeutic regimen. The RAS is now defined as a more complex system composed of different angiotensin peptides with diverse biological actions mediated by distinct receptor subtypes. The classic RAS comprises the ACE-Ang II-AT(1)R axis that promotes vasoconstriction, water intake, sodium retention and increased oxidative stress, fibrosis, cellular growth, and inflammation. The non-classical or alternative RAS is composed primarily of the ACE2-Ang-(1-7)-AT(7)R pathway that opposes many actions of the Ang II-AT(1)R axis. In lieu of the complexity of this system, the chapter discusses the current evidence on the enzymatic cascade of the Ang-(1-7) axis of the RAS regarding the peptidases that contribute to the formation and degradation of the peptide in the circulation and various tissues.
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6,986 |
Infectious Diseases and the Kidney
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The kidney is involved in a wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic diseases. In most systemic infections, renal involvement is a minor component of the illness, but in some, renal failure may be the presenting feature and the major problem in management. Although individual infectious processes may have a predilection to involve the renal vasculature, glomeruli, interstitium, or collecting systems, a purely anatomic approach to the classification of infectious diseases affecting the kidney is rarely helpful because most infections may involve several different aspects of renal function.
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6,987 |
Genetic Diversity of Microbial Endophytes and Their Biotechnical Applications
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The need for new and useful compounds and biological processes to provide assistance and relief in all aspects of the human condition is ever growing. Drug resistance in bacteria, the appearance of life-threatening viruses, and a tremendous increase in the incidence of fungal and drug-resistant bacterial infections in the world’s population, each only underscores our inadequacy to cope with these medical problems. Added to this are enormous difficulties in raising enough food on certain areas of the earth to support local human populations. Environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, and spoilage of land and water also add to problems facing mankind. In addition, there is the need for bio-derived fuels to supplant the ever-growing demand for petroleum and petroleum products.
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6,988 |
Tracheobronchitis und Bronchiolitis
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Definition. Bronchitis im Kindesalter ist eine durch Infektionserreger ausgelöste entzündliche Krankheit der Bronchien, bei der durch den gleichen Erreger häufig auch weitere Teile der Luftwege mitbefallen sind. Die chronische Bronchitis ist im Kindesalter nicht definiert und kommt entsprechend der Definition für Erwachsene (3 oder mehr Monate mit produktivem Husten über 2 oder mehrere aufeinanderfolgende Jahre) nicht vor. Kinder mit häufigen Bronchitiden (mehr als 6 pro Jahr) werden jedoch häufig gesehen.
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6,989 |
Governance of Food Security in the 21(st) Century
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Governance is broadly defined as the exercise of power in an institutional context with the main aim of directing, controlling, and regulating activities concerned with the public interest.
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6,990 |
Aspiration, Bronchial Obstruction, Bronchiectasis, and Related Disorders
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The conducting airways play a pivotal role in the spectrum of pulmonary pathology, not only as conduits for injurious agents to enter the lung, but also as an anatomic compartment that is affected by a diverse array of primary or secondary bronchocentric diseases. This chapter discusses aspiration and bronchial obstruction in detail, with emphasis on the aspiration of toxic, infective, or particulate matter. Lung abscess, a frequent complication of obstruction or aspiration, is also reviewed. Both aspiration and lung abscess are reconsidered within the context of pulmonary infectious disease mainly in Chapter 8 on bacterial infections, and to some extent in the chapters on mycobacterial (Chapter 9), fungal (Chapter 10), and parasitic diseases (Chapter 14).
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6,991 |
The Sixth Mass Extinction
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After the five mass extinctions on Earth that were caused by meteorite impacts, volcanism and large-scale climate change, several scientists predict that we are currently at the beginning of a sixth mass extinction. In this scenario, it is humankind that is causing the mass extinction with the illegal trade in wildlife as one of the most important hazards to wildlife species. This chapter presents an analysis of the causes and consequences of the global defaunation in the context of technological innovation and industrialisation of the wildlife trade. The complexity of the current decline of biodiversity and the effect of defaunation will be demonstrated by the sensibility of ecological interaction between animals and plants. The exploitation of natural resources has become a part of the social, political and economic dynamics.
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6,992 |
Farming human pathogens
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Here we examine examples of the farming of coevolutionary systems, focusing on the mutually amplifying roles of large-scale psychosocial stress, economic structure, and reductionist interventions in the ecology and evolution of highly adaptive disease organisms. We find, in general, that population-level socioeconomic and other stressors, in synergism with reductionist interventions, are precisely suited to trigger mesoscale resonance coevolutionary resilience domain shifts affecting rapidly evolving pathogens.
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6,993 |
Pre-primary and Primary Prophylaxis of Variceal Hemorrhage
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Variceal hemorrhage is a life-threatening complication of portal hypertension. Thus, prevention of variceal formation (pre-primary prophylaxis) or at least prevention of variceal bleeding are important goals to improve life quality and—if possible—survival of patients with liver cirrhosis. Interruption of the underlying cause of liver disease is the most successful approach, which, however, often fails. For this situation interruption or modulation of different pathophysiological mechanisms leading to fibrosis, hyperdynamic circulation and portal hypertension have been shown effective in animal models. But few could be translated to humans. By contrast, different steps to prevent first bleeding from varices have proven successful in many clinical trials. These applied mainly drugs to lower portal pressure, such as nonselective β-blockers, or endoscopic obliteration of varices, while prophylactic shunt procedures are not advised.
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6,994 |
Cardiovascular Emergencies
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A good focused history is essential to the adequate assessment of chest pain. It is important to rapidly exclude potentially life-threatening causes of chest pain to avoid adverse clinical outcomes.This should be preceded by an ABCD (airway, breathing, circulation, disability) assessment. Once cardiac chest pain is determined to be likely, early risk stratification should be achieved in order to guide choice of further management.
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6,995 |
Common Infections Following Lung Transplantation
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The lungs are the only transplanted organ in direct contact with the ‘outside world’. Infection is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in lung transplantation. Early accurate diagnosis and optimal management is essential to prevent short and long term complications. Bacteria, including Mycobacteria and Nocardia, viruses and fungi are common pathogens. Organisms may be present in the recipient prior to transplantation, transmitted with the donor lungs or acquired after transplantation. The degree of immunosuppression and the routine use of antimicrobial prophylaxis alters the pattern of post-transplant infections.
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6,996 |
An RT-PCR Assay for Detection of Infectious Bronchitis Coronavirus Serotypes
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Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a chicken Gammacoronavirus, is a major poultry pathogen, and is probably endemic in all regions with intensive poultry production. Since IBV was first described in 1936, many serotypes and variants of IBV have been isolated worldwide. IBV isolates are capable of infecting a large range of epithelial surfaces of the chicken, involving the respiratory, renal, and reproductive systems; however, the clinical signs are usually not specific for differential diagnoses. Virus isolation is commonly used for diagnosis of IBV infection, which was achieved through passage of clinical materials via the allantoic route of embryos. Currently, more sensitive molecular approaches for the detection of avian pathogens have been developed, including reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and real-time RT-PCR, which are more suitable for use in diagnostic laboratories. In this chapter, we describe a one-step RT-PCR which can be used for detecting most of IBV serotypes in the IBV-infected allantoic fluid and has been used routinely in our laboratories for detection of IBVs.
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6,997 |
Human and Animal Viruses in Food (Including Taxonomy of Enteric Viruses)
| null |
6,998 |
The welfare of laboratory rabbits
| null |
6,999 |
The US CDC Global AIDS Program in China
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The China-US Cooperation-Global AIDS Program (GAP) was a strategic technical collaboration program jointly implemented by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. This program developed, piloted, launched, and evaluated a broad range of projects supporting national and local HIV prevention and control programs; evidence-based decision-making; strengthening systems and capacity at national, provincial, and local levels; prioritizing high-risk geographic areas and populations; developing innovative approaches for scale-up; answering important scientific questions that can be most effectively answered in China but also with global implications for the HIV response; and increasing China’s engagement with the global public health community and sharing critical lessons learned. A productive working relationship with well-conceived models, a results-based activity implementation plan, and proper linkage to the domestic policy process has made a significant contribution to HIV control and prevention in China.
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