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of short fiction in the [[1970s]], and won several [[Hugo Award]]s and [[Nebula Award]]s before he started to turn his attention to novels late in the decade. Although much of his work is fantasy or [[horror fiction|horror]], a number of his earlier works are science fiction occurring in a loosely-defined [[future history]].
In the [[1980s]] he turned to work in television and as an editor. On television, he worked on the new ''[[Twilight Zone]]'' series, as well as ''[[Beauty and the Beast (series)|Beauty and the Beast]]''. As an editor, he oversaw the lengthy ''[[Wild Cards]]'' cycle, which took place in a [[shared universe]] in which an alien virus bestowed strange powers or disfigurements on a slice of humanity during [[World War II]], affecting the history of the world thereafter (the premise was inspired by [[comic book]] [[superhero]]es and a [[Superworld]] superhero [[role-playing game]] of which Martin was [[gamemaster]]). Contributors to the [[Wild_Cards|''Wild Cards'']] series included [[Stephen Leigh]], [[Lewis Shiner]], [[Howard Waldrop]], [[Walter Jon Williams]] and [[Roger Zelazny]]. His own contributions to the series often featured Thomas Tudbury, "The Great and Powerful Turtle," a powerful [[psychokinetic]] whose flying "shell" consisted of an armored [[VW Beetle]].
Martin's short story of the same name was adapted into the feature film ''[[Nightflyers]]'' ([[1987]]).
In [[1996]] Martin returned to writing novel-length stories, beginning his lengthy cycle ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' (ostensibly inspired by the [[Wars of the Roses]]), to great critical acclaim. In November of [[2005]], ''[[A Feast for Crows]]'', the fourth book in this series, became ''[[The New York Times]]'' #1 Bestseller and also achieved #1 ranking on ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' bestseller list.
==Themes==
Martin's work is rarely cheerful; critics have described it as "dark" and "cynical." <!-- Grossman reference here --> His first novel, ''[[Dying of the Light]]'', sets the tone for his future work; it is set on a mostly abandoned world that is slowly becoming uninhabitable as it moves away from its sun. This story, and many of Martin's others, have a strong sense of melancholy. His characters are often unhappy, or at least unsatisfied.
His characters are also multi-faceted, each with surprisingly intricate pasts, inspirations, and ambitions. No one is given an unrealistic string of luck, however, so misfortune, injury, and death (and even false death) can befall any character, no matter how attached the reader has become. Some of his characters are [[tragic heroes]], meaning they have traits that inevitably lead to their downfall.
==Fandom==
In addition to writing, Martin is known for his heavy [[convention|science fiction convention]] attendance schedule and his accessibilty to fans. In the early 70's, critic and writer [[Thomas Disch]] identified Martin as a member of the "Labor Day Group", writers who congregated at the annual [[Worldcon]], usually held around [[Labor Day]].
Martin's fan group, the [http://www.bwbfanclub.com Brotherhood without Banners], is known for throwing lavish and raucous parties at the conventions he attends, most notably at [[Worldcon]] and [[Boskone]]. For the last two [[Worldcon]]s running (as of 2005), the party they have thrown has been voted "Best of Worldcon".
The Brotherhood Without Banners is sometimes known among other fans as "George's [[Cult]]", because of their highly enthusiastic and evangelistic nature. It is also remarkable for skewing relatively young, contravening the general "greying" trend of literary [[science fiction fandom]]. According to the BWB website, the organization currently numbers approximately 500 members.
__NOTOC__
==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*''[[Dying of the Light]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Windhaven]]'' ([[1981]], with [[Lisa Tuttle]])
*''[[Fevre Dream]]'' ([[1982]])
*''[[The Armageddon Rag]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Dead Man's Hand (novel)|Dead Man's Hand]]'' ([[1990]], with [[John J. Miller]])
*''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series:
**''[[A Game of Thrones]]'' ([[1996]])
**''[[A Clash of Kings]]'' ([[1999]])
**''[[A Storm of Swords]]'' ([[2000]])
**''[[A Feast for Crows]]'' ([[2005]])
**''[[A Dance with Dragons]]'' (forthcoming)
**''[[The Winds of Winter]]'' (forthcoming)
**''[[A Time for Wolves]]'' (forthcoming)
===Novellas===
*''[[The Hedge Knight]]'' ([[1998]]) - set in the milieu of ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]''
*''[[The Hedge Knight#The Sworn Sword|The Sworn Sword]]'' ([[2003]]) - sequel to ''The Hedge Knight''
===Collections===
*''[[A Song for Lya]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Songs of Stars and Shadows]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Sandkings]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Songs the Dead Men Sing]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Nightflyers]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Tuf Voyaging]]'' ([[1987]], collection of linked stories)
*''[[Portraits of His Children]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[Quartet (George R. R. Martin)|Quartet]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[GRRM: A RRetrospective]]'' ([[2003]])
<!-- the doubled "R" in "RRetrospective is not a typo -->
===[[Wild Cards]] (as editor)===
*''Wild Cards I'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards II: Aces High'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards III: Jokers Wild'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards IV: Aces Abroad'' ([[1988]])
*''Wild Cards V: Down & Dirty'' ([[1988]])
*''Wild Cards VI: Ace in the Hole'' ([[1990]])
*''Wild Cards VII: Dead Man's Hand'' ([[1990]])
*''Wild Cards VIII: One-Eyed Jacks'' ([[1991]])
*''Wild Cards IX: Jokertown Shuffle'' ([[1991]])
*''Wild Cards X: Double Solitaire'' ([[1992]])
*''Wild Cards XI: Dealer's Choice'' ([[1992]])
*''Wild Cards XII: Turn of the Cards'' ([[1993]])
*''Wild Cards: Card Sharks'' ([[1993]])
*''Wild Cards: Marked Cards'' ([[1994]])
*''Wild Cards: Black Trump'' ([[1995]]) (these three books are a trilogy)
*''Wild Cards: Deuces Down'' ([[2002]])
*''Wilds Cards: Death Draws Five'' ([[2006]])
==Awards==
*"A Song for Lya" 1975 [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Novella|Best Novella]]
*"Sandkings" 1980 Hugo Award for [[Hugo Award for Best Novelette|Best Novelette]] and [[Nebula Award]] for [[Nebula Award for Best Novelette|Best Novelette]]
*"The Way of Cross and Dragon" 1980 Hugo Award for Best [[Hugo Award for Best Short Story|Short Story]]
*"Portraits of His Children" 1986 Nebula Award for Best Novelette
*"The Pear-Shaped Man" 1988 [[Bram Stoker Award]] for [[Bram Stoker Award for Best Long Fiction|Long Fiction]]
*"The Skin Trade" 1989 [[World Fantasy Award]] for [[World Fantasy Award for Best Novella|Best Novella]]
*"Blood of the Dragon" 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella
A more complete list of [http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/NomLit85.html#3030 Martin's awards and nominations] can be found at The ''[[Locus (magazine)|Locus]]'' Index to Science Fiction Awards.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
General sites:
*[http://www.georgerrmartin.com/ George R. R. Martin official site]
*[http://www.westeros.org/ Westeros: The 'A Song of Ice and Fire' Domain]
* {{isfdb name|id=George_R._R._Martin|name=George R. R. Martin}}
Forums:
*[http://asoiaf.westeros.org/ A Song of Ice and Fire]
*[http://www.chronicles-network.com/forum/george-r-r-martin/ George R R Martin (UK)]
Interviews:
*[http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/intgrrm.htm Infinity Plus interview]
*[http://www.locusmag.com/2005/Issues/11Martin.html Locus Mag interview]
[[Category:1948 births|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:Living people|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Martin, George R. R. ]]
[[bg:Джордж Р. Р. Мартин]]
[[ca:George R.R. Martin]]
[[cs:George R. R. Martin]]
[[de:George R. R. Martin]]
[[es:George R. R. Martin]]
[[fr:George R. R. Martin]]
[[it:George Raymond Richard Martin]]
[[he:ג'ורג' ר. ר. מרטין]]
[[nl:George R.R. Martin]]
[[ja:G・R・R・マーティン]]
[[pl:George R. R. Martin]]
[[ru:Мартин, Джордж]]
[[sv:George R.R. Martin]]
[[th:จอร์จ อาร์. อาร์. มาร์ติน]]</text>
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<page>
<title>A Song of Ice and Fire</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Song of Ice and Fire''''' ('''ASoIaF''') is an [[epic fantasy]] series of [[novel]]s by [[George R. R. Martin]]. It is the best-known of his works, and has spawned a successful [[A Song of Ice and Fire (card game)|trading card game]], [[ A Game of Thrones (role-playing game)|a Roleplaying Game]] and [[A Game of Thrones (board game)|board game]]. The books are known for a genre-defying willingness to unflinchingly depict [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] and [[feudalism|feudal]] systems, extremely detailed and complex characters, sudden and often violent plot twists, and intricate political intrigue. In a genre where [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] usually takes center stage, this series has a reputation for its limited and subtle use of magic, employing it as an ambiguous and often sinister background force.
==The books==
So far, the series consists of 4 published novels:
* ''[[A Game of Thrones]]'' (1996)
* ''[[A Clash of Kings]]'' (1999)
* ''[[A Storm of Swords]]'' (2000)
* ''[[A Feast for Crows]]'' (2005)
Martin has also published two short stories in the same setting, often called ''Dunk and Egg stories'' after their two protagonists. These stories are set about 90 years before the events in ''A Game of Thrones''.
* ''[[The Hedge Knight]]'' (appeared in ''Legends'', ed. Robert Silverberg, 1998), also adapted as a graphic novel
* ''[[The Sworn Sword]]'' (appeared in ''Legends II'', ed. Robert Silverberg, 2003)
===Related publicati
|
s an orientation <math>1_y</math>. Then, since tan(&theta;) = ly/lx = &theta; + ... we conclude that an angle in the xy plane must have an orientation <math>1_y</math>/<math>1_x</math> = <math>1_z</math>, which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that sin(&theta;) has orientation <math>1_z</math> while cos(&theta;) has orientation <math>1_0</math>. These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form a sin(&theta;) + b cos(&theta;), where a and b are scalars.
The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive a little more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach one sets up the dimensional equation and solves it as far as one can. If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral. This puts it into "normal form". The orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols, arriving at a solution that is more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives. Often the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd.
As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, &theta;, being in the x-y plane will thus have dimension <math>1_z</math> and the range of the projectile ''R'' will be of the form:
:<math>R=g^a\,v^b\,\theta^c</math> which means <math>L\,1_x\sim
\left(\frac{L\,1_y}{T^2}\right)^a\left(\frac{L}{T}\right)^b\,1_z^c</math>
Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield ''a''=-1 and ''b''=2, and orientational homogeneity requires that ''c'' be an odd integer. In fact the required function of theta will be <math>\sin(\theta)\cos(\theta)</math> which is a series of odd powers of <math>\theta</math>.
It is seen that the Taylor series of <math>\sin(\theta)</math> and <math>\cos(\theta)</math> are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like <math>\cos(\theta)+\sin(\theta)</math> and <math>\exp(\theta)</math> are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical.
It should be clear that the multiplication rule used for the orientational symbols is not the same as that for the cross product of two vectors. The cross product of two identical vectors is zero, while the product of two identical orientational symbols are the identity element.
Ultimately, it can be seen that dimensional analysis and the requirement for physical equations to be dimensionally homogeneous reflects the idea that the laws of physics are independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables. That is, F=ma, for example, is true whether the unit system used is SI, English, or cgs, or any other consistent system of units. Orientational analysis and the requirement for physical equations to be orientationally homogeneous reflects the idea that the equations of physics must be independent of the coordinate system used.
==Buckingham π theorem==
The [[Buckingham π theorem]] forms the basis of the central tool of dimensional analysis. This theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving ''n'' variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of ''n''&ndash;''m'' dimensionless parameters, where ''m'' is the number of fundamental dimensions used. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the equation is still unknown.
== See also ==
*[[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]]
*[[Fundamental unit]]
*[[Similitude (model)]]
*[[Buckingham Pi theorem]]
*[[Units conversion by factor-label]]
==References==
*{{cite book
| first = G. I. | last = Barenblatt | authorlink = Grigory Barenblatt
| year = 1996
| title = Scaling, Self-Similarity, and Intermediate Asymptotics
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Boucher
| coauthors = Alves
| year = 1960
| title = Dimensionless Numbers
| journal = Chem. Eng. Progress
| volume = 55 | pages = 55-64
}}
*{{cite book
| first = P. W. | last = Bridgman | authorlink = Percy Williams Bridgman
| year = 1937
| title = Dimensional Analysis | publisher = Yale University Press
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Edgar | last = Buckingham | authorlink = Edgar Buckingham
| year = 1914
| title = On Physically Similar Systems: Illustrations of the Use of Dimensional Analysis
| journal = Phys. Rev.
| volume = 4 | pages = 345
}}
*{{ cite book
| last = Hart | first = George W.
| month = March 1 | year = 1995
| title = Multidimensional Analysis: Algebras and Systems for Science and Engineering
| publisher = Springer-Verlag
| id = ISBN 0387944176
| url = http://www.georgehart.com/research/multanal.html
}}
*{{ cite book
| last = Huntley | first = H. E.
| year = 1967
| title = Dimensional Analysis
| publisher = Dover
| id = LOC 67-17978
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = A. | last = Klinkenberg
| year = 1955
| title = &nbsp;
| journal = Chem. Eng. Science
| volume = 4 | pages = 130-140, 167-177 }}
*{{cite book
| first = H. L. | last = Langhaar
| year = 1951
| title = Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models
| publisher = Wiley
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = L. F. | last = Moody
| year = 1944
| title = Friction Factors for Pipe Flow
| journal = Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.
| volume = 66 | issue = 671
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = N. F. | last = Murphy
| year = 1949
| title = Dimensional Analysis
| journal = Bull. V.P.I.
| volume = 42 | issue = 6
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = J. H. | last = Perry
| coauthors = et. al.
| year = 1944
| title = Standard System of Nomenclature for Chemical Engineering Unit Operations
| journal = Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs.
| volume = 40 | issue = 251
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = G. W. | last = Petty
| year = 2001
| title = Automated computation and consistency checking of physical dimensions and units in scientific programs.
| journal = Software - Practice and Experience
| volume = 31 | pages = 1067-1076
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Alfred W. | last = Porter
| year = 1933
| title = The Method of Dimensions
| publisher = Methuen}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Lord Rayleigh | authorlink = John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
| year = 1915
| title = The Principle of Similitude
| journal = Nature
| volume = 95
| pages = 66-68
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Donald | last = Siano
| year = 1985
| title = Orientational Analysis - A Supplement to Dimensional Analysis - I
| journal = J. Franklin Institute
| issue = 320 | pages = 267
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Donald | last = Siano
| year = 1985
| title = Orientational Analysis, Tensor Analysis and The Group Properties of the SI Supplementary Units - II
| journal = J. Franklin Institute
| issue = 320 | pages = 285
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = I. H. | last = Silberberg | coauthors = McKetta J. J. Jr.
| year = 1953
| title = Learning How to Use Dimensional Analysis
| journal = Petrol. Refiner
| volume = 32 | issue = 4 (p.5), 5(p.147), 6(p.101), 7(p.129) }}
*{{cite journal
| first = E. R. | last = Van Driest
| year = 1946 | month = March
| title = On Dimensional Analysis and the Presentation of Data in Fluid Flow Problems
| journal = J. App. Mech
| volume = 68 | issue = A-34
}}
==External links==
* http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham-a4.pdf
* http://www.knowledgedoor.com/1/Unit_Conversion/Dimensional_Analysis.htm
* http://rain.aos.wisc.edu/~gpetty/physunits.html
[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Procedural knowledge]]
[[Category:Dimensional analysis|*]]
[[ca:Anàlisi dimensional]]
[[de:Dimensionsanalyse]]
[[es:Magnitudes físicas]]
[[fr:Analyse dimensionnelle]]
[[id:Analisis dimensi]]
[[ja:次元解析]]
[[nl:Dimensieanalyse]]
[[pl:Analiza wymiarowa]]
[[sv:Dimensionsanalys]]</text>
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<title>Discrete math</title>
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<title>December 25</title>
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<comment>rv Jesus "birth"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 25]]''' is the 359th day of the year (360th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 6 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[274]] - [[Roman Emperor]] [[Aurelian]] has a temple dedicated to [[Sol Invictus]] on the supposed day of the [[solstice]] and day of rebirth of the [[Sun]].
*[[800]] - Coronation of [[Charlemagne]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]], in [[Rome]].
*[[1066]] - Coronation of [[William the Conqueror]] as king of [[England]], at [[Westminster Abbey]], [[London]].
*[[1223]] - St. [[Francis of Assisi]] assembles the first [[Nativity scene]].
*[[1599]] - The [[city]] of [[Natal, Brazil]] is founded.
*[[1776]] - [[George Washington]] and his [[army]] cross the [[Delaware River]] to attack Britain's [[Hessian]] mercenaries in [[Trenton, New Jersey]].
*[[1818]] - The first performance of "[[Silent Night]]" takes place in the Church of St. Nikolaus i
|
operation. In this case, ''d'' should be chosen as the smallest integer greater than the sum of the input polynomial degrees that is factorizable into small prime factors (e.g. 2, 3, and 5, depending upon the FFT implementation).
==Some discrete Fourier transform pairs ==
In the following table <math>\omega_N</math> stands for <math>\exp(-2\pi i/N)</math>, a primitive ''N-th'' root of unity.
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|+'''Some DFT pairs'''
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_n\equiv\frac{1}{N}\sum_{k=0}^{N-1}X_k \omega_N^{-kn}</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_k\equiv\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}x_n \omega_N^{kn}</math>
! Note
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_n \omega_N^{-nk}</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_{n-k}\,</math>
| rowspan="2"| Shift theorem
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_{n-k}\,</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_k \omega_N^{nk}</math>
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_n \in \mathbf{R}</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_k=X_{N-k}^*\,</math>
| Real DFT
|-
| align="center" | <math>a^n\,</math>
| align="center" | <math>\frac{1-a^N}{1-a\omega_N^k}</math>
|&nbsp;
|-
| align="center" | <math>{N-1 \choose n}\,</math>
| align="center" | <math>(1+\omega_N^k)^{N-1}\,</math>
|&nbsp;
|}
== See also ==
[[A derivation of the discrete Fourier transform|Derivation of the discrete Fourier transform]] The DFT can be derived as the [[continuous Fourier transform]] of infinite periodic sequences of [[Dirac delta function|impulse]]s.
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Brigham | first = E. Oran
| title=The fast Fourier transform and its applications
| location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| year=1988
| id=ISBN 0133075052
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Oppenheim, Alan V.; Schafer, R. W.; and Buck, J. R.
| title = Discrete-time signal processing
| location = Upper Saddle River, N.J.
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 0137549202
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Smith | first = Steven W.
| url = http://www.dspguide.com/pdfbook.htm
| title = The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing
| location = San Diego, Calif.
| publisher = California Technical Publishing
| year=1997
| id=ISBN 0966017633
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Thomas H. | last = Cormen | authorlink = Thomas H. Cormen
| coauthors = [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]
| year = 2001
| title = [[Introduction to Algorithms]]
| edition = Second Edition
| publisher = MIT Press and McGraw-Hill
| id = ISBN 0262032937
| chapter = Chapter 30: Polynomials and the FFT
| pages = pp.822–848
}} esp. section 30.2: The DFT and FFT, pp.830–838.
* {{cite journal
| author = P. Duhamel, B. Piron, and J. M. Etcheto
| title = On computing the inverse DFT
| journal = IEEE Trans. Acoust., Speech and Sig. Processing
| volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 285–286 | year = 1988
}}
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Numerical analysis]]
[[Category:Transforms]]
[[Category:Unitary operators]]
[[de:Diskrete Fourier-Transformation]]
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[[it:Trasformata di Fourier discreta]]
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[[nl:Discrete fouriertransformatie]]
[[pl:Dyskretna transformata Fouriera]]
[[sr:Дискретна Фуријеова трансформација]]
[[zh:离散傅里叶变换]]</text>
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<title>Double Bass</title>
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<title>Dual polyhedron</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dual Cube-Octahedron.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A dual cube-octahedron.]]
In [[geometry]], '''[[polyhedron|polyhedra]]''' are associated into pairs called '''''duals''''', where the [[vertex|vertices]] of one correspond to the [[face (mathematics)|face]]s of the other. The dual of the dual is the original polyhedron. The dual of a polyhedron with equivalent vertices is one with equivalent faces, and of one with equivalent edges is another with equivalent edges. So the regular polyhedra &mdash; the [[Platonic solid]]s and [[Kepler-Poinsot solid|Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra]] &mdash; are arranged into dual pairs.
Duality is usually defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a concentric sphere. Here, each [[vertex]] is associated with a face plane so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, and the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius. In coordinates, for reciprocation about the sphere
:x<sup>2</sup> + y<sup>2</sup> + z<sup>2</sup> = r<sup>2</sup>,
the vertex
:(x<sub>0</sub>, y<sub>0</sub>, z<sub>0</sub>)
is associated with the plane
:x<sub>0</sub>x + y<sub>0</sub>y + z<sub>0</sub>z = r<sup>2</sup>.
The vertices of the dual, then, are the reciprocals of the face planes of the original, and the faces of the dual lie in the reciprocals of the vertices of the original. Also, any two adjacent vertices define an edge, and these will reciprocate to two adjacent faces which intersect to define an edge of the dual. This can be generalized to ''n''-dimensional space, so we can talk about '''dual [[polytope]]s'''. Then the vertices of one polytope correspond to the (''n'' &minus; 1)-dimensional elements, or facets, of the other, and the ''j'' points that define a (''j'' &minus; 1)-dimensional element will correspond to ''j'' hyperplanes that intersect to give a (''n'' &minus; ''j'')-dimensional element. The dual of a [[honeycomb]] can be defined similarly.
Notice that the exact form of the dual will depend on what sphere we reciprocate with respect to, as we move the sphere around the dual form distorts. The center of the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If multiple symmetry axes are present, they will necessarily intersect at a single point, and this is usually taken to be the center. Failing that a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere (one with all edges as tangents) can be used. It can be shown that all convex polyhedra can be distorted into a canonical form where a midsphere exists such that the points where the edges touch it average out to give the center of the sphere, and this form is unique up to congruences.
We can distort a dual polyhedron such that it can no longer be obtained by reciprocating the original ln any sphere - in this case we can say that the two polyhedra are still topologically dual.
It is worth noting that the vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron can be projected to form a [[graph theory|graph]] on the sphere or on a flat plane, and the corresponding graph formed by the dual of this polyhedron is its [[planar graph|dual graph]].
The concept of ''duality'' here is also related to the [[duality (projective geometry)|duality]] in [[projective geometry]], where lines and edges are interchanged; and is in fact a particular version of the same.
If a polyhedron has an element passing through the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will pass through or be at infinity. Since traditional infinite "Euclidean" space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, must be formed by adding the required plane at infinity.
==See also==
*[[Geometric dual]]
==External links==
*[http://www.software3d.com/Stella.html Software for displaying duals]
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
[[category:polyhedra]]
[[Category:Duality theories]]
[[da:Duale polyedre]]
[[es:Politopo dual]]
[[it:Poliedro duale]]
[[pl:Wielościan dualny]]
[[pt:Poliedro dual]]
[[zh:對偶多面體]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Double bass</title>
<id>8816</id>
<revision>
<id>42149706</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:39:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.217.113.183</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Strings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AGK bass1 full.jpg|thumb|right|Side and front views of a modern double bass with a French bow. It measures approximately 2m tall with the endpin extended, as in this photo.]]
The '''double bass''' is the largest and lowest bowed string instrument used in the modern [[orchestra|symphony orchestra]]. It is used extensively in [[European classical music|Western classical music]] as a standard member of the string section of [[orchestra|symphony orchestra]]s and smaller string [[ensemble]]s. In addition to its use in classical music, it has been widely used in other genres such as [[jazz]], [[blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[psychobilly]] and [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]].
== Origin ==
The double bass is often erroneously considered to be a member of the violin family of [[string instrument]]s, even sometimes being referred to as "bass violin." In reality, however, it is generally regarded as the only modern descendant of the [[viola da gamba]] famil
|
present time.
* [[1974]]: "A Fragment Out Of Time" is the first known [[Star Trek]] slash to be published in fanzine. The author was [[Diane Marchant]]. The vignette was published in Grup #3. The language was highly coded and didn't refer to Spock and Kirk by name but rather referred to them as he and him.
* [[1975]]: In "Halkan Council," [[Diane Marchant]] published an essay about [[Star Trek]] [[Kirk/Spock]] slash. The first public discussion of this essay occurred in the [[Star Trek]] letterzine, ""Grup" #4." as a reaction to the essay written by [[Diane Marchant]].
* [[1975]]: Star Trek Lives!, editted and written by [[Jacqueline Lichtenberg]], Sondra Marshak and Joan Winston, was published. This book contained a chapter at the end of the book which examines Star Trek fan fiction and the Kirk/Spock relationship in fan fiction. This book is important because that last chapter helped formed a lot of the modern thought on slash fan fiction communities. Scholars still cite this source today.
* [[1976]]: According to the [[National Library of Australia]], the [[Star Trek Action Committee]] was formed as a Star Trek Club. This Star Trek Club held its first meeting in April. Members included Susan Clarke, Julie Townsend and Edwina Harvey. This fanclub would publish the Star Trek adult fanzine, containing both het and slash, Beyond Antares.
* [[1976]]: In June, "Alternative: Epilog to Orion" is written by G. Downes and published in a fanzine. It was the second piece of Kirk/Spock slash to appear.
* [[1978]]: Thrust was the first [[Star Trek]] anthology fanzine published to contain only [[Kirk/Spock]] slash.
====1980s====
* [[1980]]: Slash was discussed at a panel at Media West.
* [[1980]]: The [[Starsky and Hutch]] community in England veers into the land of slash. This happened when “Forever Autumn” was published in March. According to Langley and K. S. Boyd, this type of content later caused a disruption in the community as members worried about the reaction of the actors, networks and producers to this material if fen were to publish slash zines. They feared that those parties would acquire these materials and begin a crackdown to prevent the proliferation of this material.
* [[1980]] to [[1984]]: The Professionals (a UK spy TV show starring Martin Shaw and Lewis Collins) fan community starts up as a primarily slash based community.
* [[1980]]: [[Led Zeppelin]] fan fiction was circulating in fanzines. The early zines used the names Tris and Alex instead of Jimmy Page and Robert Plant. This material was being circulated with an awareness on the part of the parties involved and was slashy in nature.
* [[1981]]: Slash was being discussed in the [[Star Trek]] fan fiction community, as was to how people preferred to view the Kirk-Spock-Bones relationship. Verba cited a survey which said most people preferred to see that relationship as a friendship.
* [[1984]]: Archives from [[net.startrek]] during that period show that discussion of slash, referenced as K&S instead of the current convention of K/S to refer to the [[Kirk/Spock]] relationship, was happening on the group, along with advertisements for various [[Star Trek]] fanzines.
* [[1985]]: The term, slash, is used for the first time in the fanzine "Not Tonight, Spock."
* [[1986]]: One of the first pieces of femmeslash was published this year. It appeared in the Women’s List 2. The story was a Star Trek story where Saavik went into pon far and started a relationship with a female Romulan physican. The story was written by Ouida Crozier.
* [[1987]]: Based on analysis of Datazine by Verba, slash was beginning to occupy a large part of the Star Trek community. Datazine 48 listed 47 non-Kirk/Spock zines compared to 30 [[Kirk/Spock]] zines. Verba did another analysis Universal Translator. She found 144 non-Kirk/Spock fanzines compared to 58 Kirk/Spock fanzines.
* [[1989]]: In the Eroica fan fiction community, Caged Flight 1: Le Coq d'Or was written by BT. It was slash. Sequels were published in 1992, 1993 and 1994. It was some of the earliest fan fiction written in this community.
====1990s====
* [[1990]]: Slash appeared on-line this year in one of the first references to be found. This reference happened on Usenet in the Star Trek community. The reference was found in rec.arts.startrek’s FAQ.
* [[1993]]: First slash mailing list created, run from a private list-serv on the East Coast. It was called "Virgule" (a reference to the / symbol) and membership was limited to women. It remained active through the 1990s, until more fandom specific slash mailing lists on Egroups and Yahoogroups became popular.
* [[1995]]: Seven slash stories were posted to alt.tv.x-files.creative.
* [[1996]]: On April 16, Michael Demcio's "Rhyme and Reason," premieres as the first Rescue Ranger fan fiction on Usenet. It was the first novel-length Ranger story, and the first story to explore the possibilities of the Chip/Gadget relationship, the first to provide real character development for any of the characters.
* [[1996]]: Bambi was published. This was a slash zine about the Guns N Roses member, Slash.
* [[1996]]: The X-Files fan fiction community begins to become more Mulder/Scully Romance centered and the subgenre being a dominant force in the organization of the community. At the same time that this is happening, the slash component, largely marginalized and kept separate from the bigger archives and alt.tv.x-files.creative, begins to form and grow. On July 31, Brenda Antrim's "Krychek" was the first piece of Mulder/Krycek slash, and between October and December, the Mulder/Krycek Romantics Association and the Mulder/Skinner Slash Society were created. These three events would be very influential in the X-Files slash fan fiction community.
* [[1997]]: In December, slash reaches a critical mass in the X-Files fan fiction community.
* [[1997]]: alt.fan.disney.afternoon discusses the merits of a Chip/Gadget relationship. This discussion leads to bitterness on both sides of the argument.
* [[1998]]: On March 12, Sofie Werkers founded the Rareslash mailing list.
* [[1998]]: On Alt. Startrek. Creative. Erotica. Moderated, related dialogue involves the issue of if slash and het need to be rated differently.
* [[1998]]: The term, chick with a dick, enters fannish usage through the site God Awful Trek Fic. The term, used derogatorily, referred to male characters being written effiminately in male/male pairings in order to put traditional male/female gender roles on the same sex pairing.
* [[1999]]: In September, Least Expected, the first Lord of the Rings slash archive, was founded.
* [[1999]]: On May 19, the Master and Apprentice archive was founded at http://www.sockiipress.org/ma/index.html . Currently, this archive is the largest archive of Obi-Wan/Qui-Gon on the Internet with over 2,400 stories archived. This archive was also important in that it seems to have set the trend of writing stories based on media BEFORE the media hits the public.
* [[1999]]: “Letters over the Sea,” one of the first pieces of slash published to the Internet and one of the more influential stories in the Lord of the Rings slash community, was published. It featured the Sam/Frodo pairing and was written by Gytha and Prembone.
====2000s====
* [[2000]]: ER Realms of Slash was founded.
* [[2000]]: RS-X, the Rare Slash Real Person Fic mailing list, was founded by Sofie Werkes.
* [[2000]]: Citizens Against Bad Slash was around and giving awards in various communities along with promoting dialogue on how to write good slash.
* [[2000]]: Willtara, a mailing list, was founded on January 30 of this year. It was created for the discussion of and posting of fan fiction related to the female/female slash pairing of Willow/Tara.
* [[2000]]: On February 3, the hpslash mailing list was founded.
* [[2000]]: In October, JayJay proposed the idea for the Snape Slash Fleet on the snapeslash mailing list.
* [[2000]]: On November 2, the snapeslash mailing list was created.
* [[2000]]: In December, the Snape Slash Fleet was founded. The Fleet connected seven sites for seven different Snape slash pairings. These sites and their pairings were: Black and Silver: Severus/Malfoys, Slug & Jiggers Apothecary: the Snape/Rareslash Ship site, King of Cups, Knave of Pentacles: Severus/Neville, Moonshadow: Severus/Remus, The Headmaster's Study: Severus/Albus, Thin Line: Severus/Sirius, Walking the Plank: Severus/Harry and The Snape/Weasleys Archive.
* [[2001]]: The Blink 182 slash fan fiction community based at FanFiction. Net was producing early and influential works in the community. Among these works are Advantages of Alcohol, Letters After Death, In my Room, Defying Gravity, and Deafening.
* [[2001]]: On July 28, the BibleSlash mailing list was created.
* [[2001]]: On March 25, the hpslash community was founded on LiveJournal.
* [[2002]]: On June 1, Armchair_slash, a mailing list for Harry/Draco fan fiction discussion, was founded.
* [[2002]]: In November, the harry_potter_slash mailing list was founded. This list saw its volume peak in December of 2004.
* [[2002]]: On December 12, the harrypottermpreg mailing list was founded. This community’s volume peaked around March/April of 2004.
* [[2002]]: On May 15, slashpuppets was founded. It was one of the first, possibly the first, LotR RPS role playing community.
* [[2003]]: XanderZone, a mailing list, was founded on March 17 of this year. It was created for the discussion and posting of Xander related fan fiction. Slash fic was and is not tolerated on the list.
* [[2003]]: In January, the first Harry Potter slash zine was published.
* [[2003]]: On March 17, the LiveJournal community hp_girlslash was founded.
* [[2003]]: A search for “Harry Potter slash” on Google resulted in over 70,000 pages.
* [[2004]]: On February 2, Blink_Slash, a LiveJournal Blink 182 slash community, was founded.
* [[2
|
upbeat, hopeful note with energetic music.
''Ally McBeal'' was hugely successful, but received much criticism from TV critics and [[feminist]]s who found the title character annoying and demeaning to women because of her excessive flightiness, lack of demonstrated legal knowledge, and extreme emotional instability. Flockhart's visible loss of weight by the second season also caused much media speculation.
However, Ally's search for true love struck a chord with young female audiences, and the [[eccentricity (behaviour)|eccentric]] characters around her were developed further, giving the show firm footing.
In the fourth season, [[Robert Downey Jr.]] joined the regular cast as Ally's boyfriend Larry, resurrecting the [[ratings]] of a show that had lost its novelty and thus much of its audience. However, when Downey was forced to leave as his (real life) [[drug addiction]] caused him legal troubles, plus other central cast members such as [[Lucy Liu]] also left, the ratings sank again. Not even guest appearances from [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]] and singer [[Jon Bon Jovi]] and [[Christina Ricci]] in season five were enough to save the show.
The major cast members of the show included:
*[[Calista Flockhart]]- Ally McBeal
*[[Greg Germann]] - Richard Fish
*[[Jane Krakowski]] - Elaine Vassal
*[[Gil Bellows]] - Billy Thomas (1997-2000)
*[[Lisa Nicole Carson]] - Renée Radick (1997-2001)
*[[Courtney Thorne-Smith]] - Georgia Thomas (1997-2000)
*[[Peter MacNicol]] - John Cage
*[[Vonda Shepard]] - Herself
*[[Lucy Liu]] - Ling Woo (1998-2001)
*[[Portia de Rossi]] - Nelle Porter (1998-2002)
*[[Robert Downey Jr.]] - Larry Paul (2000-2001)
*[[James LeGros]] - Mark Albert (2000-2001)
*[[Regina Hall]] - Corretta Lipp (2001-2002)
*[[Josh Hopkins]] - Raymond Milbury (2001-2002)
*[[James Marsden]] - Glenn Foy (2001-2002)
*[[Julianne Nicholson]] - Jenny Shaw (2001-2002)
*[[Barry Humphries]] (as [[Dame Edna Everage]], uncredited) - (2002)
Notable guest stars on the show included comedian [[Tracey Ullman]] as Ally's unusual [[therapy|therapist]], and singers [[Barry White]], [[Al Green (musician)|Al Green]], [[Gordon Sumner|Sting]], [[Tina Turner]], and [[Barry Manilow]] as themselves. Special musical guests included [[KC and the Sunshine Band]], [[Elton John]] and [[Josh Groban]].
Barry White's music was frequently showcased on the show as a sexual stimulant; when one of the characters mentally "heard" the music, other characters would be attracted. This action was often accompanied by dancing and took place in the unisex bathroom.
At the height of its popularity, re-edited half-hour versions of the show ran under the name ''Ally''.
The show is also noted by many for introducing the '[[dancing baby]]' [[computer-generated image]] (CGI) to mainstream American pop culture.
Known for controversial topics, the show was well-known for the infamous Cro-Magnon episode, whereby a well-endowed male model becomes the focus of the Ally's attentions. Some critics have claimed that this [[penis size]] obsessed view of female sexuality is distorted and reflects more of a male point of view, as the show was written by [[David E. Kelley]]. Others have charged that the ridiculing of modestly endowed men is sexist and harmful, contributing to body issues for men similar to that of young women over their weight. On that note as well, the show has been criticized for the "[[Anorexia nervosa|anorexic]]" main character as being a bad role model for girls.
Due to [[music rights]] issues, Ally McBeal has not been made available on DVD in the United States, though it has been available in [[Italy]], [[Japan]] and [[UK]].
==Awards & Nominations==
===Awards Won===
'''[[Emmy Awards]]:'''
* Outstanding Comedy Series (1999)
* Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (2001)
'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:'''
* Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (1998-1999)
* Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998)
* Best Supporting Actor in a TV Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001)
'''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:'''
* Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1999)
* Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001)
===Awards Nominated===
'''[[Emmy Awards]]:'''
* Outstanding Comedy Series (1998)
* Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1998-1999, 2001)
* Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2000)
* Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (1999)
'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:'''
* Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (2000-2002)
* Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]]
* Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series [[Jane Krakowski]] (1999)
'''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:'''
* Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1998, 2000-2001)
* Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998-2001)
* Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (2000)
* Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2001)
==External links==
''*[http://www.salon.com/ent/tv/1997/10/20ally.html Ally McBeal: Woman of the '90s or Retro Airhead]''
[[Category:Ally McBeal]]
[[Category:Comedy-drama television series]]
[[Category:David E. Kelley television programs]]
[[Category:Fox network shows]]
[[Category:Fictional lawyers|McBeal]]
[[ca:Ally McBeal]]
[[de:Ally McBeal]]
[[et:Ally McBeal]]
[[es:Ally McBeal]]
[[fr:Ally McBeal]]
[[gd:Alli Nic a' Bheoil]]
[[it:Ally McBeal]]
[[he:אלי מקביל]]
[[nl:Ally McBeal]]
[[ja:アリーmyラブ]]
[[pt:Ally McBeal]]
[[sk:Ally McBealová]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andreas Capellanus</title>
<id>1949</id>
<revision>
<id>41800134</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:02:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Churchh</username>
<id>391005</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Give little translation excerpt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''André le Chapelain''', in Latin '''Andreas Capellanus''' (''Capellanus'' meaning "chaplain"), was the 12th century author of a treatise entitled ''[[De amore]]'' (''On Love''). The complete title of his three-volume work published ''c.'' 1185 reads ''Liber de arte honeste amandi et reprobatione inhonesti amantis'' (''Book of the Art of Loving Nobly and the Reprobation of Dishonourable Love'', also known as ''The Book of Courtly Love'').
Capellanus is also an important author for our understanding of mediæval education&mdash;a source of much information about the [[trivium]] and [[quadrivium]] of the period.
After becoming popularized by the troubadours of southern France in the 12th Century, the social system of "courtly love" soon spread. Evidence of the influence of courtly love in the culture and literature of most of Western Europe spans centuries.
The unabridged edition of The Art of Courtly Love codified life at Queens Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174 (although Capellanus wrote it most likely several years later) into "one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization." This translation of a work that may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive, preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in English literature.
Andreas Capellanus (Andre the Chaplain) wrote this work at the request of Countess Marie of Troyes, daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine. (As found on the reverse of The Art of Courtly Love, trans. John Jay Parry, 1960)
The work gives a listing of the stages of love which resembles in some ways the modern [[baseball euphemism]]:
:"Throughout all the ages, there have been only four degrees <nowiki>[</nowiki>''gradus''] in love:
:"The first consists in arousing hope;
:"The second in offering kisses;
:"The third in the enjoyment of intimate embraces;
:"The fourth in the abandonment of the entire person."
== External links ==
* [http://icg.harvard.edu/~chaucer/special/authors/andreas/de_amore.html Extracts from Capellanus' De amore]
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/capellanus.html Full text of De Amore, in Latin] at [[The Latin Library]]
[[nl:Andreas Capellanus]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Civil Liberties Union</title>
<id>1950</id>
<revision>
<id>42074850</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:26:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.72.166.118</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aclu.png|right| ]]
The '''American Civil Liberties Union''', or '''ACLU''', is a [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO) whose stated goal is to "defend and preserve the [[individual rights]] and [[liberty|liberties]] guaranteed to every person ... by the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] and [[Law of the United States|laws]] of the [[United States]]." [[Lawsuit]]s brought by the ACLU have been influential in several important developments in [[U.S. constitution]]al law, and according to the annual report has over 500,000 members as of the end of 2005. The ACLU provides [[lawyer]]s and legal expertise in cases where it believes an individual's or group of individuals' rights are being challenged by the government or other citizens. In many cases where it does not provide legal representation, the ACLU submits ''[[amicus curiae]]'' [[brief (law)|brief]]s in support of its positions. The ACLU has never officially supported or opposed a political candidate, and is not aligned with any political party, though it has been harshly critical of various elected officials of both the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and the [[Repub
|
ρα}}||athēra||{{polytonic|ἀθηρ}}-||ather-||gruel||[[atheroma]], [[atherosclerosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀθλητής}}||athlētēs||{{polytonic|αθλητ}}-||athlet-||contestant in the games||[[athlete]], [[athletics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰθήρ}}||aethēr||{{polytonic|αἰθερ}}-||ether-||massless medium||[[ether]], [[ethereal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰγίς}}||aegis||{{polytonic|αἰγισ}}-||aegis-||armour of Zeus||[[aegis (disambiguation)|aegis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Aἴγυπτος}}||Aegyptos||{{polytonic|Αἴγυπτο}}-||Αegypto-||{{polytonic|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}, ''Aegaeou uptiōs'', below the Aegean, according to Strabo||[[Egyptology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰκία}}||aikia||{{polytonic|αἰκ}}-||aic-||torture, suffering||[[aecium]], [[aeciospore]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἳμα}}||haima||{{polytonic|αἳμ}}-||em-<br>hem-<br>haem-||blood||[[anemia]], [[anemic]], [[hemophilia]], [[hemorrhage]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Aἴολος}}||Aeolus||{{polytonic|Aἴολ}}-||Aeol-||Keeper of the Winds ''Gk. Myth''||[[Aeolic]], [[Aeolian]], [[Aeolotropy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰπύς}}||aipus||{{polytonic|αἰπυ}}-||aepy-||high and steep, utter|| [[aepycamelus]], [[aepyorniformes]], [[aepyornis]], [[aepyornises]], [[aepyornithidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσθάνεσθαι}}||aisthanesthai||{{polytonic|αἰσθητ}}-||aesthet-||to perceive, apprehend by the senses||[[aestheticize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσθητικός}}||aisthētikos||{{polytonic|αἰσθη}}-||aesthē-||of sense-perception, sensitive, perceptive||[[aesthetic]], [[aesthetician]], [[aestheticism]], [[aesthete]], [[aesthetics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσχύνω}}||aeschunō||{{polytonic|αἰσχύν}}-||aeschyn-||dishonour, shame||[[aeschynanthus]], [[aeschynite-(Y)|aeschynite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰτία}}||aetia||{{polytonic|αἰτι}}-||aeti-<br>eti-||cause||[[etiology]], [[aetiology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰχμή}}||aikhmē||{{polytonic|αἰχμ}}-||aikhm-||point of a spear||[[Aechmophorus clarki|aechmophorus]], [[Bromeliaceae|aechmea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰών}}||aeōn||{{polytonic|αἰών}}-||eon-||age||[[eon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰώνιος}}||aeōnios||{{polytonic|αἰώνι}}-||aeonι-||lasting for an age||[[aeonium]], [[aeonian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀκαδημία}}||Akadēmia||{{polytonic|Ἀκαδημ}}-||akadēm-||the school where Plato taught,<br>the field of Academos||[[academy]], [[academic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκακία}}||akakia||{{polytonic|ἀκακια}}-||akakia-||harmless||[[List of Acacia species|acacia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκαλύφη}}||akaluphē||{{polytonic|ἀκαλυφ}}-||acalyph-||stinging-nettle||[[acalypha]], [[acalyphoideae]], [[calyphoideae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκανθος}}||akanthos||{{polytonic|ἄκανθ}}-||akanth-||thorn plant||[[acantharea]], [[acanthite]], [[acanthocephala]], [[acanthocercus]], [[acanthodactylus]], [[acanthosaura]], [[acanthous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκάρι}}||akari||{{polytonic|ἀκαρ}}-||akar-||a kind of mite||[[acarid]], [[acariasis]], [[acarology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκαρπος}}||akarpos||{{polytonic|ἀκαρπ}}-||acarp-||not producing fruit, fruitless||[[acarpous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκατάληκτος }}||akatalēktos||{{polytonic|ἀκατάληκτος}}-||acatalekt-||not incomplete, incessant||[[acatalectic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκέφαλος}}||akephalos||{{polytonic|ἀκεφαλ}}-||akephal-||headless||[[acephali]], [[acephaly]], [[Acephalous line|acephalous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκλινής}}||aklinēs||{{polytonic|ἀκλιν}}-||aclin-||unswerving, without inclination||[[aclinic]], [[aclinic line]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκμή}}||akmē||{{polytonic|ἀκ}}-||ac-||highest point<br>facial erruptin||[[acme]]<br>[[acne]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκόλουθος}}||akoluthos||{{polytonic|ἀκόλουθ}}-||akoluth-||follower||[[anacoluthon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκόνη}}||akonē||{{polytonic|ἀκον}}-||akon-||whetstone||[[aconitum]], [[paragon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκούειν}}||akouein||{{polytonic|ἀκουστικ}}-||acoustic-||to hear||[[acoustic guitar]], [[acoustic nerve]], [[acoustic theory]], [[acoustical engineering]], [[acoustics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκρον}}||akron||{{polytonic|ἀκρο}}-||acro-||edge, topmost||[[acrobat]], [[acrocephalus]], [[acrochordidae]], [[acrochordon]], [[acromantula]], [[acronym]], [[acrotomophilia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκροστιχίς}}||akrostikhis||{{polytonic|ἀκροστιχ}}-||acrostic-||headline, end-line||[[acrostic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκτίς}}||aktis||{{polytonic|ἀκτινo}}-||aktino-||ray||[[actinium]], [[actinobacteria]], [[actinodine]], [[actinolite]], [[actinometer]], [[actinomorphous]], [[actinomycetes]], [[actinophryid]], [[actinophryids]], [[actinopteri]], [[actinopterygii]], [[actinozoa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂκτωρ}}||aktor||{{polytonic|ἀκτ}}-||act-||leader, from {{polytonic|ἂγω}}, to lead or carry, to convey, bring [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%233757]<br>altern. from L. actus, (agere, to drive)||[[actor]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλάβαστρος}}||alabastros||{{polytonic|ἀλάβαστρ}}-||alabastr-||a varietiy of mineral||[[alabaster]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλλαντοειδής}}||allantoeidēs||{{polytonic|ἀλλαντο}}-||allanto-||sausage-shaped||[[allantois]], [[allantoid]], [[allantoin]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλεξείν}}||alexein||{{polytonic|ἀλεξ}}-||alex-||to ward off||[[Alexander]], [[alexipharmic]], [[alexipyretic]], [[alexiteric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλευρον}}||aleuron||{{polytonic|ἀλευρο}}-||aleuro-||flour, meal||[[aleurone]], [[aeluromancy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλληγορείν}}||allēgorein||{{polytonic|ἀλληγορ}}-||allēgor-|| to interpret allegorically||[[allegory]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλγος}}||algos||{{polytonic|ἀλγ}}-||alg-||pain||[[nostalgia]], [[arthralgia]], [[cardialgia]], [[cephalalgia]], [[coxalgia]], [[fibromyalgia]], [[hemialgia]], [[metralgia]], [[myalgia]], [[neuralgia]], [[odontalgia]], [[otalgia]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλείφειν}}||aleiphein||{{polytonic|ἀλειφ}}-||aleiphein-||to anoint with oil||[[aliphatic]], [[Aliphatic hydrocarbon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλκιμος}}||alkimos||{{polytonic|ἀλκ}}-||alc-||strong||[[analcite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλκυών}}||alkuōn||{{polytonic|ἀλκυ}}-||halcy-||kingfisher||[[Tree Kingfisher|halcyon]], [[halcyonic]], [[halcyonidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλληλον}}||allēlon||{{polytonic|ἀλληλο}}-||allēlo-||of one another||[[allelomorph]], [[parallelogram]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλλος}}||allos||{{polytonic|ἀλλο}}-||allo-<br>alle-||other, different||[[allocholesterol]], [[allochton]], [[allodium]], [[allodontidae]], [[allogenes]], [[allograft]], [[allography]], [[allolactose]], [[allometry]], [[allomorph]], [[allopath]], [[allopatry]], [[allophony]], [[allopoiesis]], [[allopurinol]], [[allosaur]], [[allotroph]], [[allotropic]], [[allotropy]]<br>[[allergy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅλς}}||hals||{{polytonic|ἁλ}}-||hal-||salt||[[halogen]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλλότροπος}}||allotropos||{{polytonic|ἀλλoτροπ}}-||allotrop-||strange||[[allotropy]], [[allotropes]], [[allotropism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁλύσκειν}}||haluskein||{{polytonic|ἁλυσκ}}-||halluc-||flee from, shun, avoid, escape [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.refembed=2&layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057&layout.refcit=entry%3Da%29luska%2Fzw&doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%231609&layout.reflookup=a%29lu%2Fskw&layout.reflang=greek&layout.refwordcount=1]<br>alt. f. L. hallucinar, to dream, be deceived||[[Peduncular hallucinosis|hallucinosis]], [[hallucinate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλυσσος}}||alyssos||{{polytonic|ἀλυσσ}}-||alyss-||a plant believed to cure rabies||[[alyssum]], [[Alyssa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλφα}}||alpha||{{polytonic|ἄλφα}}-||alpha-||alpha||[[alphabet]], [[alphabetize]], [[alphagram]], [[alphandia]], [[alphanumeric]], [[alpha particle]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλώπηξ}}||alōpēx||{{polytonic|ἀλωπ}}-||alop-||fox||[[alopecia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅλως}}||halōs||{{polytonic|ἁλως}}-||halo-||round shape, the disk of the sun, circular arcade at Delphi||[[halo]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμαζών}}||Amazōn||{{polytonic|Ἀμαζο}}-||Amazo-||female warriors ''Gk. Myth.''||[[Amazons|Amazon]], [[Amazonomachy]], [[Amazonite]], [[Amazonia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμάλακτος}}||amalaktos||{{polytonic|ἀμαλ}}-||amalg-||that cannot be softened||[[amalgam]], [[amalgamation]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμάλθεια}}||Amalthēa||{{polytonic|ἀμάλθει}}-||Amalthe-||the foster-mother of Zeus||[[Amalthea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμανίται}}||amanitai||{{polytonic|ἀμανίτ}}-||amanit-||a kind of fungus||[[amanita]], [[amanitaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμάρανθος}}||amarantos||{{polytonic|ἀμαρανθ}}-||amaranth-||unfading flower||[[amaranth]], [[amaranthaceae]], [[amaranthine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμαρυλλίς}}||amarullis||{{polytonic|ἀμαρυλλ}}-||amarull-||name of a shepherdess ''Gk. Myth.''||[[amaryllis]], [[amaryllidaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμαύρωσις}}||amaurōsis||{{polytonic|ἀμαυρω}}-||amauro-||blacken||[[amaurosis fugax|amaurosis]], [[amaurophilia]], [[amaurobiidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμβλύς}}||amblus||{{polytonic|ἀμβλυ}}-||ambly-||dim||[[amblygonite]], [[amblyopia]], [[amblypoda]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβροτος}}||ambrotos||{{polytonic|ἀμβρο}}-||ambro-||immortal||[[ambrosia]], [[ambrotype]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβυξ}}||ambix||{{polytonic|ἀμβ}}-||amb-||cup||[[alembic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβων}}||ambōn||{{polytonic|ἀμβω}}-||ambo-||raised edge||[[ambo]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμέθυστος}}||amethustos||{{polytonic|ἀμεθυστ}}-||amethyst-||not drunk or intoxicating||[[amethyst]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμετρος}}||ametros||{{polytonic|ἀμετρο}}-||ametro-||without measure ||[[ametropia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμίαντος}}||amiantos||{{polytonic|ἀμιαντ}}-||amiant-||undefiled||[[amianthus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμμος}}||ammos||{{polytonic|ἀμμο}}-||ammo-||sand||[[ammoperdix]], [[ammophila]], [[ammotrechidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνησία}}||amnēsia||{{polytonic|ἀμνησ}}-||amnēs-||oblivion||[[amnesia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνηστία}}||amnēstia||{{polytonic|ἀμνηστ}}-||amnēst-||forgetfulness, amnesty||[[amnesty]], [[amnestic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμμωνιακός}}||ammōniakos||{{polytonic|ἀμμονια}}-||ammōnia-||from Ammōn||[[ammonia]], [[ammoniacal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμμωνίς}}||ammōnis||{{polytonic|ἀμμων}}-||ammon-||horn of Ammōn||[[ammonite]], [[ammonoid]], [[ammonoidea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνός}}||amnos||{{polytonic|ἀμν}}-||amn-||lamb||[[amnion]], [[amniotic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμοιβή}}||amoebē||{{polytonic|ἀμοιβή}}-||amoeb-||change||[[amoeba]]
|
often carried about by a subversive agent such as a [[secret agent|spy]]; or [[loyalty]] to a competing leader or group. Assassination, like companion terms such as [[terrorism]] and [[freedom fighter]], is often considered to be a [[loaded (language)|loaded term]]. However, while few call themselves terrorists, most assassins appear comfortable enough with their deed to describe it as such publicly. ''Targeted killing'' is sometimes preferred by governments, naming a controversial strategy whereby anticipated acts of [[terrorism]] are prevented by assassinating a person deemed to be related to those acts. According to ''The [[American Heritage Dictionary]]'', "To [[murder]] (a prominent person) by surprise attack, as for political reasons."[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=assassination]
==Etymology==
The term ''Assassin'' originally referred to a Muslim [[Order (religious)|order]] known as the [[Hashshashin]]. According to one derivation, the word means "those who use [[hashish]]" ([[cannabis]] resin) in Arabic because, according to Crusader histories, that group used to ingest hashish before carrying out military or assassination operations, in order to be fearless. The group, known as the Nizari [[Ismaili]]s, was a [[Shi'a Islam|Shia]] order who believed in the notion of the hazir [[imam]] and was organized as a secret underground political order, which infiltrated areas under the control of [[Seljuk Turks]]. In 1090 the sect captured a castle called [[Alamut]] in the mountains of Northern [[Iran]]. This sect was said to carry out assassinations of the enemies of the order, or Muslim rulers they believed to be [[piety|impious]]. The earliest known record of the word in [[English language|English]] dates back to 1603, referring to this sect rather than its more general modern sense. Similar words had earlier appeared in [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]].
However, according to another derivation, the word Hashshashin derives from the Arabic word hassas, from the root hassa, meaning "to shoot".
Another version says that the word Hashshashin has the meaning of followers of Hassan, who would have been the order's first leader and founder.
[[Benjamin of Tudela]] provided the first western account of the sect. [[Marco Polo]]'s elaborate account is probably fictionalized in part. He said that recruits were promised [[heaven|Paradise]] in return for dying in action. They were drugged, often with materials such as [[hashish]] (although some suggest [[opium]] and [[wine]] instead, despite all three drugs being condemned by Islamic religious authorities and interpretations of the time) then spirited away to a garden stocked with attractive and compliant women and fountains of wine. At this time, they were awakened and it was explained to them that such was their reward for the deed, convincing them that their leader, [[Hassan-i-Sabah]], could open the gates to Paradise. The name ''assassin'' is derived from either ''hasishin'' for the supposed influence of their attacks and disregard for their own lives in the process, or ''hassansin'' for their leader. All this history, however, is tenuous, as it relies entirely on crusader-authored histories which have been traditionally very unreliable for information about native cultures.
Nowadays it is known that "hashishinnya" was an offensive term used to depict this cult by its Muslim and Mongolian detractors; the extreme zeal of Nizarites and the very cold preparation to murder makes it very unlikely they ever used drugs, while there is evidence that one of the first of Hassan's sons was sentenced to death by his father only for drinking a little wine. Moreover, despite many unlikely legends, they usually died along with their target (a tale tells of a mother being sad knowing her son survived a "mission"). As far as known they only used daggers (no other weapons, poison or whatever fictional records make them use) and it seems that they killed only five westerners during the time of the Crusades.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Link.assassination.attempt.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|An attempt was made to assassinate [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1981. He was shot and injured, and thereafter appeared in public in a custom-built "[[Popemobile]]" featuring [[bulletproof glass]].]] -->
==Definition problems==
[[Image:King Alexander murdered on 9 oktober 1934.jpg|thumb|250px|Assassination of [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] ]]
Unlike some topics, notably terrorism, wherein there is a substantial [[grey area]] and often bitter controversy between which specific instances qualify or even what standards should be used, the "[[common sense]]" classification of assassination stated at the outset of this article seems to stand with few objections. However, this does open larger issues concerning interpretation, notably regarding attempted killings by those with other motives — is it an assassination simply if the person is a major leader or public figure espousing a cause, or only if the assassin's reason for the attack is due to that person's status as a figurehead for a particular issue?
Notable instances in which this definitive problem might come into effect include the attempt on the life of [[United States President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] by [[John Hinckley]], who was determined subsequently to have serious psychological problems and publicly stated his intent was to get the attention of actress [[Jodie Foster]] rather than make any political statement. The killing of former [[The Beatles|Beatle]] [[John Lennon]] would raise the same problem — despite Lennon's outspokenness on many liberal political issues, his killer does not seem to have been more than an unstable [[Fan (aficionado)|fan]]. The use of the term "assassination" to describe Lennon's murder is a matter of some additional debate, since Lennon was primarily an entertainer, not a political figure, and it could be argued that describing his killing as an assassination is no more appropriate than, for example, using the term to describe the murders of singers [[Selena Quintanilla]] or [[Marvin Gaye]]. In another example, although [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theorists]] suggest the apparent suicide of [[Marilyn Monroe]] might have been a politically motivated murder, the term "assassination" is rarely, if ever, used in this context. The attempt on the life of President [[Gerald Ford]] by a member of [[Charles Manson]]'s [[cult]] could be the same; while it might perhaps be considered part and parcel of the anti-government, neo-fascist ideology to which Manson and his group adhered, [[Lynette Fromme|Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme]], the assassin, was not widely considered legally competent in her judgment at the time (although she was later tried and convicted). Should these cases be classified as attempted assassinations? The issue is further complicated by the fact that while Lennon was likely as outspoken politically as Reagan and Ford, and certainly as famous, Reagan and Ford were elected officials at the time, possibly requiring different criteria for Lennon's case.
One can take one of three positions (note that this consideration is of necessity strictly based upon language, not law): that the killing of someone ''only for political, moral, or ideological reasons'' constitutes an assassination (hence neither Reagan nor Lennon were the victims of assassins' attacks, while Ford was), that the killing of someone ''serving in politics or public office'' counts (thus Reagan's and Ford's attackers were would-be assassins, while Lennon's killer was not), or that anyone ''with a significant level of political involvement'' would be an assassination victim in the event of their murder (in which case all three instances would be assassinations or attempts).
While it must be acknowledged that attempting to read a person's thoughts is both imperfect and somewhat antithetical to the nature of such an issue, for the purposes of this article, the first, most conservative definition is taken. Although it is likely that the second is the most popular, the first is technically the most correct, and the third is generally considered to be too general in application. Therefore, all assassinations or attempts mentioned in the article will strictly follow the guidelines outlined at the outset to prevent confusion.
== Assassinations in history ==
==== Ancient history ====
Some would argue that assassination is one of the oldest tools of [[power politics]], dating back to the earliest governments of the world.
Towards the end of the [[Warring States Period]] (3rd century BC) in China, the state [[Qin]] rose to hegemony over other states. The Prince of the state Yan felt the threat and sought to remove the Qin king (later [[Qin Shi Huang]]) and sent [[Jing Ke]] for the mission. The assassination attempt was foiled and Jing Ke was killed on the spot.
[[Philip II of Macedon]], the father of [[Alexander the Great]], can be viewed as a victim of assassination. It is a fact, however, that by the fall of the Roman Republic assassination had become a commonly-accepted tool towards the end not only of improving one's own position, but to influence policy — the killing of Gaius [[Julius Caesar]] being a notable example, though many [[Emperors of Rome|Emperors]] met such an end. In whatever case, there seems to have not been a good deal of moral indignation at the practice amongst the political circles of the time, save, naturally, by the affected.
As the [[Middle Ages]] came about from the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], the moral and ethical dimensions of what was before a simple political tool began to take shape. Although in that period intentional [[regicide]] was an extremely rare occurrence, the situation changed dramatically with the [[Renaissance]] when the ideas of ''tyrannomachy'' (i.e. killing o
|
pursue it first near to home and then in a series of exotic locations. This template was to be followed in many subsequent campaigns, including ''Fungi from Yuggoth'' (later known as ''Curse of Cthulhu'' and ''Day of the Beast''), ''Spawn of Azathoth'', and the most famous, ''Masks of Nyarlathotep''. Many of these seem closer in tone to the pulp adventures of ''[[Indiana Jones]]'' than H. P. Lovecraft, but they are nonetheless beloved by many gamers.
===Lovecraft Country===
{{main|Lovecraft Country}}
''Lovecraft Country'' was a line of supplements for ''Call of Cthulhu'' released in 1990. These supplements were overseen by [[Keith Herber]] and provided backgrounds and adventures set in Lovecraft's fictional towns of [[Arkham]], [[Kingsport (Lovecraft)|Kingsport]], [[Innsmouth]], [[Dunwich (H. P. Lovecraft)|Dunwich]], and their environs. The intent was to give investigators a common base, as well as to center the action on well-drawn characters with clear motivations. With the departure of Herber, Chaosium's line ended.
===Mythos===
[[Mythos]] was a [[collectible card game]] based on the Cthulhu Mythos that Chaosium produced and marketed during the mid-Nineties. While generally praised for its fast gameplay and unique mechanics, it ultimately failed to gain a very large market presence. It bears mention because its eventual failure brought the company to hard times that affected its ability to produce material for Call of Cthulhu. A second Call of Cthulhu collectible card game is currently being produced by Fantasy Flight Games.
===Recent history===
In the last eight years, since the collapse of the Mythos CCG, the release of CoC books has been very sporadic with up to a year between releases. Chaosium struggled with near bankruptcy for many years before finally starting their upward climb again. [[2005]] was their best year for many years with ten releases for the game and many more scheduled for release in the near future.
Chaosium has recently taken to marketing "monographs" - short books by individual writers with editing and layout provided out-of-house - directly to the consumer. This allows the company to gauge market response to possible new works, though the long-term effects of this program remain uncertain.
==Licensees==
Chaosium has licensed other publishers to create supplements, including [[Delta Green]] by [[Pagan Publishing]]. Other licensees have included [[Theater of the Mind Enterprises]], [[Triad Entertainment]], [[Games Workshop]], [[Fantasy Flight Games]], and [[Grenadier Models]].
==d20 Call of Cthulhu==
In 2001, a stand-alone version of Call of Cthulhu was released by [[Wizards of the Coast]], for the [[d20 system]]. Intended to preserve the feeling of the original game, the conversion of the game rules were supposed to make the game easier to play, a claim many doubt. The d20 system also made it possible to use ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' characters in Call of Cthulhu, as well as to introduce the Cthulhu Mythos into ''Dungeons & Dragons'' games. The game's reception was mixed, with some rejecting it outright and others liking or even loving the d20 version, including some who enjoyed the original.
The d20 version of the game is not supported by either Wizards or Chaosium at this time. The reasons for this are unclear, though lack of revenue may be the cause.
== See also ==
* ''[[Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth]]'' video game
==External links==
* [http://www.chaosium.com Chaosium]
* [http://www.yog-sothoth.com/ Yog-Sothoth] &mdash; [[Horror fiction|Horror]] [[role-playing games|roleplaying]] in the worlds of H.P. Lovecraft
* [http://yog-sothoth.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=31 Call of Cthulhu Products Database] &mdash; A mostly-complete listing of all products produced for the game
[[Category:Basic Role-Playing System]]
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos]]
[[Category:d20 System]]
[[Category:Horror role-playing games]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]
[[de:Call of Cthulhu (Spiel)]]
[[es:La Llamada de Cthulhu (juego de rol)]]
[[fr:L'Appel de Cthulhu (jeu de rôle)]]
[[it:Il richiamo di Cthulhu (gioco di ruolo)]]
[[pl:Zew Cthulhu (gra fabularna)]]
[[sv:Call of Cthulhu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constellations</title>
<id>5723</id>
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<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constellation]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cape Breton Island</title>
<id>5724</id>
<revision>
<id>40056165</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:37:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.22.69.25</ip>
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<comment>Typo: missing " )" after "present day peninsular Nova Scotia and New Brusnwick"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float:right; width: 202px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;">[[Image:Map of Nova Scotia highlighting Cape Breton Island.png]]</div>
[[Image:Cape breton island.png|thumb|200px|Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada]]
'''Cape Breton Island''' ([[French language|French]]: ''île du Cap-Breton'', [[Scottish Gaelic]]: ''Eilean Cheap Breatuinn'', [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]]: ''U'namakika'', simply: ''Cape Breton'') is an [[island]] on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast of [[North America]]. Its name likely derives from the term "Breton", referring to [[Brittany]] and the [[Basque]] region of [[France]] near [[Bayonne]].
Cape Breton Island is part of the province of [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], although physically separated from the [[peninsula|peninsular]] Nova Scotian [[mainland]] by the [[Strait of Canso]]. The island is located east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western [[coast]]s fronting on the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]]; its western coast also forming the eastern limits of the [[Northumberland Strait]]. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean; its eastern coast also forming the western limits of the [[Cabot Strait]]. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the [[highlands]] of its northern cape. A saltwater estuary, [[Bras d'Or Lake]], dominates the centre of the island.
The population of Cape Breton Island as of the [[2001]] census numbers approximately 147,454 "Cape Bretoners"; this is approximately 16% of the provincial population. Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 7% since the previous census in [[1996]]. Approximately 75% of the island's population is located in the [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton Regional Municipality]] (CBRM) which takes in all of [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton County]] and is commonly termed "Industrial Cape Breton", given the history of [[coal]] mining and steel manufacturing in this area.
==History==
* [[Industrial history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Settlement history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Military history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Political history of Cape Breton Island]]
Cape Breton Island's first residents were likely [[Archaic stage|Maritime Archaic Indians]], ancestors of the [[Mi'kmaq]] Nation, who later inhabited the island at the time of European discovery. [[Giovanni Caboto]] (John Cabot) reportedly visited the island in [[1497]] to become the first [[Renaissance|Renaissance Europe]]an explorer to visit present-day Canada. However, historians are unclear as to whether Caboto first visited [[Newfoundland]] or Cape Breton Island. This discovery is commemorated by [[Cape Breton]]'s [[Cabot Trail]].
The island saw active settlement by [[France]] with the island being included in the colony of [[Acadia]]. A French [[garrison]] was established in the central eastern part at [[St. Ann's, Nova Scotia|Ste-Ann]] in the early [[18th century]] before relocating to a much larger fortification at [[Fortress Louisbourg|Louisbourg]] so as to improve defences at the entrance to the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and defend France's fishing fleet on the [[Grand Banks]]. The French named the island "Île Royale." It remained part of [[New France|colonial France]] until it was ceded to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] under the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1763]]. Britain merged the island with its adjacent colony of Nova Scotia (present day peninsular Nova Scotia and [[New Brunswick]]).
Some of the first British-sanctioned settlers to the island following the [[Seven Years' War]] were [[Ireland|Irish]], although upon settlement, they merged with local French communities to form a culture both rich in music and tradition. From [[1763]] to [[1784]] the island was administratively part of the colony of [[Nova Scotia]] and governed from [[Halifax Regional Muncipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]].
In [[1784]], Britain split the colony of Nova Scotia into three separate colonies: New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island, and present-day peninsular Nova Scotia, in addition to the adjacent colonies of [[Prince Edward Island]] and [[Newfoundland]]. The colony of Cape Breton Island had its capital at [[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] on its namesake harbour fronting on Spanish Bay and the [[Cabot Strait]]. Its first Lieutenant-Governor was [[Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres]] (1784&ndash;1787) and his successor was [[William Macarmick]] (1787).
An order forbidding the granting of land in Cape Breton, issued in 1763, was removed in 1784. The mineral rights to the island were given over to the Crown by an order-in-council. The British government had intended that the Crown take over the operation of the mines when Cape Breton was made a colony, but this was never done, probably because of the rehabilitation cost of the mines.
|
atalan]] [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1900]] to [[1914]]. It is one of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]].
The Park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site. The idea of Count [[Eusebio de Guell]]. It was inspired by British developments, hence the original English name ''Park''. It has been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground, although the stations are at a certain distance, by the regular buses, or best by the tourist buses. While the Park is free, Gaudí's house &mdash; containing furniture that he designed &mdash; can be visited at a cost.
[[image:Park Guell Terrace.JPG|left|thumb|[[Gaudí]]'s mosaic work on the main terrace]]
The design of the Park is clearly the work of an architect and Gaudí's unique style is also easily distinguishable. Wavy, lava-like shapes, at places tree-like or in form of Doric columns or stalactites, sometimes lavishly decorated with ornaments of [[trencadís|broken ceramic fragments, a Catalan technique]]. The landscaping of the Park is largely in tune with the natural terrain; steep slopes and cliffs have been allowed to remain, with winding paths, cuttings and grottoes adding to the natural feel.
Although it sounds unlikely, the place is skillfully designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings, though very original and remarkable, are relatively inconspicuous, considering other buildings designed by Gaudí. They have fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles. The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a [[sea serpent]]. Gaudí used a naked man, sitting in clay, to design the bench. The curves form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere.
The large cross at the Park's high-point offers the most complete view of Barcelona. It is possible to view the main city in panaroma, with the [[Sagrada Familia]] and the [[Montjuïc]] area visible at a distance.
==External links==
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.414048,2.150187&spn=0.003677,0.007522&t=k Park Güell at Google Maps]
*[http://www.gardenvisit.com/ge/guel.htm Parque Guell Barcelona - Gardens Guide]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-park-guell/index.html Park Güell Photo Gallery]
{{commons|Parc Güell|Parc Güell}}
[[Category:Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:Parks in Spain|Guell]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]]
[[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]]
[[ca:Parc Güell]]
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[[es:Parque Güell]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Casa Milà</title>
<id>1325</id>
<revision>
<id>38981191</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:46:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jahsonic</username>
<id>5720</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Casamila.jpg|right|thumb|Casa Milà, Barcelona.]]
[[Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|thumb|Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|[[Parabola|Parabolic]] or [[catenary]] [[arch]]es under the terrace of Casa Milà.]]
'''Casa Milà''', better known as '''La Pedrera''' (Catalan for 'The Quarry'), is a building designed by the Catalan [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1905]] to [[1907]]. It is located at 92, Passeig de Gràcia ('passeig' is Catalan for promenade or avenue) in the ''[[Eixample]]'' district of [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. It was built for Roger Segimon de Milà. It is one of the UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites]].
The building does not have any straight lines. Most people consider it magnificent and overwhelming -- some say it is like waves of lava or a sand-dune. This building seems to break our understanding of conventional [[architecture]]. The most astonishing part is the roof with an almost lunar appearance and dreamlike landscape.
The building can be considered more of a sculpture than a regular building. Critics remark on its detachment from usefulness, but others consider it to be art. The Barcelonese of the time considered it ugly, hence the "quarry" nickname, but today it is a landmark of Barcelona.
Casa Milà was a predecessor of some buildings with a similar [[biomorphism|biomorphic]] appearance:
* the 1921 [[Einstein Tower]] in [[Potsdam]], designed by [[Erich Mendelsohn]]
* [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] in [[New York]], designed by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]
* [[Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut]], [[Ronchamp]], [[France]], designed by [[Le Corbusier]]
* the [[Hundertwasserhaus]] and other words by Austrian architect [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]]
* Disney Concert Hall in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], by [[Frank Gehry]]
Free exhibitions are often held on the first floor, which also provides some opportunity to see the interior design. There is a charge of €7 for entrance to the apartments and roof.
==Casa Milà in the media==
* A scene in ''[[Professione: reporter]]'', a film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, was filmed on the building's roof.
[[Image:Casa_Mila_roof.jpg|right|thumb|Stylized stairway entrances on the roof]]
==See also==
* [[List of buildings]]
* [[List of museums]]
<!-- [[Image:Model Gaudi Pedrera Kunsthal mei 2005.jpg|left|thumb|Scale model of a floor with apartments]] -->
==External links==
* [http://www.lapedreraeducacio.org/ La Pedrera Educació]
* [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/barcelona/lapedrera-casamila/ Photographs of Casa Mila / La Pedrera]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-pedrera/index.html Photos of La Pedrera]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]]
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[[sv:Casa Milà]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antiparticle</title>
<id>1327</id>
<revision>
<id>41809972</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:16:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.42.113.233</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Experiment */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Antimatter}}
Corresponding to each kind of [[particle physics|particle]], there is an associated '''antiparticle''' with the same [[mass]] and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. Some particles, such as the [[photon]], are identical to their antiparticle; such particles must have no [[electric charge]], but not all charge-neutral particles are of this kind. The laws of nature were thought to be symmetric between particles and antiparticles until [[CP violation]] experiments found that [[time-reversal symmetry]] is violated in nature. The observed excess of [[baryon]]s over anti-baryons in the universe is one of the primary [[Unsolved problems in physics|unsolved problems]] in [[cosmology]].
Particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other if they are in appropriate [[quantum state]]s. They can also be produced in various processes. These processes are used in today's [[particle accelerator]]s to create new particles and to test theories of [[particle physics]]. High energy processes in nature can create antiparticles. These are visible in [[cosmic ray]]s and in certain [[nuclear reaction]]s. The word [[antimatter]] properly refers to (elementary) antiparticles, composite antiparticles made with them (such as [[antihydrogen]]) and to larger assemblies of either.
== History ==
=== Experiment ===
In [[1932]], soon after the prediction of [[positron]]s by [[Paul Dirac]], [[Carl D. Anderson]] found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a [[cloud chamber]]&mdash; a [[particle detector]] in which moving [[electron]]s (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas. The [[electric charge]]-to-[[mass]] ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the curling of its cloud-chamber track in a [[magnetic field]]. Originally, positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction.
The antiproton and antineutron were found by [[Emilio Segrè]] and [[Owen Chamberlain]] in [[1955]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. Since then the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerator experiments. In recent years, complete atoms of [[antimatter]] have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps.
=== Hole theory ===
<blockquote>
... the development of quantum field theory made the interpretation of antiparticles as holes unnecessary, even though unfortunately it lingers on in many textbooks.
&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; [[Steven Weinberg]] in ''The quantum theory of fields'', Vol I, p 14, ISBN 0521550017
</blockquote>
Solutions of the [[Dirac equation]] contained negative energy quantum states. As a result, an electron could always radiate energy and fall into a negative energy state. Even worse, it could keep radiating infinite amount of energy because there were infinitely negative energy states available. To prevent this unphysical situation from happening, Dirac proposed that a "sea" of negative-energy electrons fills the universe, already occupying all of the lower energy states so that, due to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] no other electron could fall into them. Sometimes, however, one of these negative energy particles could be lifted out of this [[Dirac sea]] to become a positive energy particle. But when lifted out, it would leave behind a ''hole'' in the sea which would act exactly like a positive energy electron with a reversed charge. These he interpreted as the [[proton]], and called his paper of 1930 ''A theory of electrons
|
:30, [[WBUR]] [[Boston]], [[NPR]] news, aired [[July 25]], [[2005]]</ref>
===Foreign policy===
[[Image:Clinton_Blair.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton embraces British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]].]]
[[Image:Clinton and jiang.jpg|right|thumb|[[Jiang Zemin]] and Bill Clinton.]]
[[Image:Clinton Yeltsin sax.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton plays the saxophone presented to him by Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] at a private dinner in Russia, January 13, 1994]]
Clinton deployed the U.S. military several times under hostile circumstances. In 1993, U.S. troops, initially deployed to [[Somalia]] by the Bush administration, fought the [[Battle of Mogadishu]] which attempted to capture local warlord [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid]]. The administration withdrew U.S. troops after suffering 18 casualties (19 according to the film ''Black Hawk Down'') and 73 wounded in the battle. In 1994, Clinton sent U.S. troops into [[Haiti]] to restore [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] as president, ending a period of intense violence. Aristide, who had been elected, had been ousted in a coup just seven months into his term in 1991. Clinton also committed troops twice in the former-[[Yugoslavia]] to stop ethnic violence, most notably in [[Kosovo War|Kosovo]]. In addition, Clinton launched military strikes on Iraq several times to punish violations of [[UN]] sanctions and an attempt to have former President George H. W. Bush assassinated. Clinton did not intervene militarily to end the [[Rwandan genocide]], a decision he later regarded as a "personal failure".
In 1994, Clinton negotiated and signed the Nuclear Accords with [[North Korea]]. The underlying concern was that North Korea was developing [[nuclear weapon]]s technology under the guise of a nuclear power plant. In exchange for assistance with energy needs, North Korea agreed to abandon all ambitions for acquiring nuclear weapons. However, by the mid 1990s defectors from North Korea, along with reports from the [[IAEA]], indicated that North Korea was violating both the Nuclear Accords and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In [[December 2002]], North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors from its Yongbyon nuclear facility, and announced (privately in 2003 and publicly in 2005), that they possessed nuclear weapons.
In November, 1995, Clinton committed troops to the Balkans saying the mission would be “precisely defined with clear realistic goals” that could be achieved in a “definite period of time". Clinton assured Americans the mission would take about one year. In October 1996, shortly before Clinton's reelection, the Clinton Administration denied any change in the plans to withdraw troops in December, 1996. However, shortly after reelection, Clinton announced troops would stay longer. Troops ultimately stayed in Bosnia for nine years. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,176728,00.html Should Congress Investigate Misleading Prewar Intelligence?] - Timothy Lynch, [[FOX]], [[November 25]], [[2005]]</ref>
On [[February 17]] [[1998]], Clinton gave a speech signaling the danger of rogue nations providing weapons of mass destruction to terrorist organizations with global reach. Clinton specifically pointed to Saddam Hussein's Iraq. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/02/17/transcripts/clinton.iraq/ Text Of Clinton Statement On Iraq] - transcript of Clinton speech on [[February 18]], [[1998]], retrieved from [[CNN]], [[February 25]], [[2006]]</ref> In August 1998 UN weapons inspectors left Iraq, leading to [[Operation Desert Fox]] in December.
During Clinton's tenure, [[Al-Qaeda]] began to emerge as a major terrorist threat. In 1998, the group [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|bombed]] the American embassies in [[Tanzania]] and [[Kenya]]. In retaliation, Clinton ordered [[Operation Infinite Reach]], which involved [[cruise missile]] strikes on terrorist camps in [[Kandahar]], [[Afghanistan]] and a suspected chemical weapons facility in [[Khartoum]], [[Sudan]] that was believed to be tied to bin Laden. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/US/9808/20/us.strikes.01/ U.S. missiles pound targets in Afghanistan, Sudan] - [[CNN]], [[August 20]], [[1998]]</ref> Clinton also gave orders authorizing the arrest or, if need be, assassination of Al-Qaeda leader [[Osama bin Laden]]. At the end of his term, in late 2000, the terrorists struck again with the [[USS Cole bombing]]. By this time, Clinton has stated he regarded Al-Qaeda as the foremost threat to national security. <ref> [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/20/politics/20PANE.html?hp=&pagewanted=print&position= Clinton Aides Plan to Tell Panel of Warning Bush Team on Qaeda] - Phlip Shenon, ''[[New York Times]]'', [[March 20]], [[2004]] ([http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0320-07.htm Alternative copy], no registration required) </ref> In the wake of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the independent investigating commission was critical of Clinton for focusing more on diplomatic than military means to eliminate the bin Laden threat. <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A18972-2004Mar23.html 9/11 Panel Critical of Clinton, Bush] - Dan Eggen and John Mintz, ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[March 24]], [[2004]]</ref>
Some critics argue that the American attacks in [[Kosovo War#Criticism of the Case for War|Kosovo]], Somalia, Bosnia, Sudan, and Afghanistan violated international law. <ref>[http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/International_War_Crimes/ClintonWarCriminal_Herman.html Clinton Is The WorId's Leading Active War Criminal] - Edward S. Herman, [[Z Magazine]], December 1999 </ref> <ref>[http://agitprop.org.au/stopnato/19990607clintoncriminal.php The other war criminal -- Bill Clinton] - Alexander Cockburn, [[San Jose Mercury]], [[June 3]], [[1999]]</ref> <ref>[http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=14713 Clinton's dirty little war] - Joseph Farah, WorldNetDaily, [[April 5]], [[1999]] </ref>
After his presidency, Clinton identified his proudest foreign policy accomplishments as mediating peace talks between Israel and the PLO, resulting in the [[Oslo Accords]] (1993). Subsequent events, including the collapse of the [[2000 Camp David Summit]] and the commencement of the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]], resulted in the Oslo Accords being widely discredited within Israel and in various Palestinian factions by 2004.
Clinton identified his major foreign policy failure as lack of response to the 1994 [[genocide]] in [[Rwanda]]. Along with the United Nations, the Clinton administration initially did not publicly acknowledge that genocide was occurring.
===Impeachment and controversies===
{{main|Impeachment of Bill Clinton}}
In 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Senate on two impeachment charges brought by the U.S. House of Representatives: perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony about his relationship to [[Monica Lewinsky]] during a sexual harassment lawsuit brought by former Arkansas-state employee [[Paula Jones]]. The obstruction charge was based on his actions during the subsequent investigation of that testimony. On [[February 12]], the Senate concluded a 21-day trial with the vote on both counts falling short of the Constitutional requirement of a two-thirds majority to convict and remove an office holder. The final vote was party-line, with none of the 45 Democratic Senators voting for conviction on either charge. On the perjury charge 55 senators voted to acquit and 45 voted to convict; on the obstruction charge the Senate voted 50-50. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/02/12/impeachment/ Clinton acquitted; president apologizes again] - [[CNN]], [[February 12]], [[1999]]</ref> Clinton, like the only other president to be impeached, [[Andrew Johnson]], served the remainder of his term.
The day before leaving office, Clinton agreed to a five-year suspension of his Arkansas law license as part of an agreement with the independent counsel to end the investigation. Based on this suspension, Clinton was also automatically suspended from the United States Supreme Court bar, from which he chose to resign. [17][18] Clinton's resignation was mostly symbolic, as he had never practiced before the Supreme Court and was not expected to in the future. Clinton also was assessed a $90 000 fine by federal judge Susan Webber Wright for contempt of court. The Paula Jones lawsuit was settled out of court for $850 000.
In addition to impeachment and the [[Whitewater scandal]], the Clinton White House was the subject of many other controversies.
The [[White House travel office controversy]] involved allegations of impropriety in the firing of civil service staffers. The [[White House personnel file controversy]] involved improper access by security officials to FBI files on White House personnel, without first asking for the individuals' permission. The [[Bill Clinton pardons controversy]] involved a grant of clemency to [[FALN]] bombers in 1999 and pardons to his [[Roger Clinton, Jr.|brother]], tax-evading billionaire [[Marc Rich]] and others in 2001 (see [[List of people pardoned by Bill Clinton]]).
[[Image:Clinton-riady-huang.jpg|left|thumb| President Clinton with convicted felons John Huang (center) and James Riady (right) in the Oval Office]]The [[1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal|"Chinagate"]] controversy involved allegations of improper campaign contributions to President Clinton's legal defense fund and the Democratic National Committee, by individuals such as John Huang, James Riady, and Maria Hsia, et al. Allegedly, the ultimate source of this money was the Chinese government. Seventeen donors and fund-raisers were convicted of felonies due to the affair.
In March, 1998 [[Kathleen Willey]], a White House aide, alleged that Clinton had sexually assaulted her. Also in 1998, [[Juanita Broaddrick]] alleged that Clinton had raped her in 1978. No charges were
|
[Arizona]] in [[November 2004]], the traffic jams on [[Interstate 10]] were so severe that the Arizona Department of Public Safety had to close the nearest off-ramp to the store just to spread out the traffic among other nearby off-ramps.
IKEA's most popular store in [[Brent Park]], [[London]] frequently has traffic jams on the weekends.
A new store opened in [[Edmonton, London|Edmonton]], North London at midnight on [[10 February]] [[2005]]. It attracted over 6,000 visitors due to huge opening discounts in the first three opening hours and resulted in a number of casualties as people were crushed in the rush to get into the store. The store was closed after only 30 minutes (due to the large number of customers, there were inadequate security staff and police). The store was re-opened at 5pm on [[11 February]][[2005]] with no additional incident. One of IKEA's newest stores opened on [[1 March]] [[2006]] in [[West Sacramento, California|West Sacramento]] without any injuries. Showing a responsibility to the community, IKEA built its store right next to the nearest highway onramp.
In Saudi Arabia [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3618190.stm three people were crushed to death] in September 2004 when IKEA offered a limited number of $150 vouchers for free.
Minding the above problems, the store at [[Atlantic Station]] in [[Atlanta]] opened on [[29 June]] [[2005]] with 20 off-duty police officers directing traffic. That store is its first in the [[Southeastern United States|Southeast U.S.]], its third-largest in [[North America]], and the only one to serve [[grits]]. The first person in line had been there a week.
The [[Stoughton, Massachusetts|Stoughton]], [[Massachusetts]] store opened on [[9 November]] [[2005]]. Nearby highways were at a standstill; approaching the store from less than 1 mile took upwards of an hour. IKEA employees indicated that on the first Saturday of operation, the Stoughton store would have sales of $1-1.2M. Over 300,000 visitors were expected on the first weekend of operation.
IKEA was vetoed planning permission for a further store in England in 2004 (to be based in [[Stockport]] in [[Greater Manchester]]) by the [[Office of the Deputy Prime Minister]]. It applied for [[judicial review]] but lost in 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/4278539.stm] [http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/news/s/125/125859_fury_as_prescott_blocks_ikea_store.html] In January 2006 it announced plans to create 10 extra smaller outlets, to be based in city centres. The first of these will be in [[Coventry]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4598068.stm]
== Store format ==
Newer IKEA stores are usually very large blue boxes with few windows. They are often designed around a mandatory "one-way" layout which forces consumers to traverse nearly all parts of the store before reaching the [[cashier]] or [[Point of sale#Traditional stores|check-out stands]]. The sequence involves going through furniture showrooms (showroom) and housewares (market-hall) first, then the warehouse where one collects flatpacks for products seen in the showrooms, and then the cashier.
This design is intended to make customers encounter products which they might not have thought to look for, but has the disadvantage of inconveniencing consumers who already know what they want to buy and just want to return to the warehouse area.
Recently, in some stores, shortcuts have been introduced between various sections, making travel time through the store much shorter if necessary. However, though they may be indicated on store maps, these shortcuts are often not obvious so an inexperienced IKEA shopper is likely to overlook them and travel through the whole layout of the store. In addition, the shortcuts are heavily criticized for not being long enough for convenience.
Whilst the original design involved the warehouse on the lower level and the showroom and markethall on the upper, some stores are single-level bungalow-style stores while many U.S. stores place the showroom upstairs and the marketplace and warehouse both downstairs. Some stores<!-- Most U.S. stores? --> operate separate additional warehouses for the larger or less popular flatpacks to keep the size of the customer warehouse down (and therefore less daunting) and allow more stock to be kept on-site at any given time. Unfortunately, this occasionally results in customers being unable to find the goods they paid for at the cashier without direction from staff and the impression of [[Queue area|queueing]] twice (once at the cashier, once at the external warehouse). However, there are few complaints about being able to collect goods quicker from the customer warehouses.
Many stores include [[restaurant]]s serving typically [[Swedish cuisine|Swedish food]], and beverages such as [[lingonberry]] juice. The restaurant area is usually the one place in the store where there are large windows. Outside of Sweden, these restaurants are sometimes complemented by mini-shops selling Swedish-made, Swedish-style groceries. As would be expected with IKEA, you can buy IKEA's specialities, such as [[Meatball|Swedish meatballs]], in parts (i.e. the ingredients) at these stores and assemble it (that is, simple, straightforward food preparation) at home.
Most IKEA stores also offer an "as-is" area at the end of the warehouse just prior to the cashiers. Returned, damaged and formerly showcased products which are not in "as new" condition are displayed here, and sold with a discount, but also with a "no-returns" policy.
In Hong Kong, where shop space is limited and costly, IKEA has opened four outlets across the country, which are actually part of conveniently located shopping malls. They are relatively tiny, compared to common "large blue box" store design, yet most of them are still in the "one-way" layout. However, the newest outlet in [[Telford Plaza]] does not follow this template, and the three independent floors can be accessed freely from each. Following IKEA tradition, though, the only cashier is located on the lowest floor.
== Corporate structure ==
Despite IKEA's Swedish roots, the owner/franchiser of the IKEA concept is a Dutch company, Inter IKEA Systems BV. The operator/franchisee of the majority of the stores worldwide is a separate entity, the IKEA Group, a private group of companies owned by a Dutch charitable foundation.
Of the 202 IKEA stores in 32 countries, 180 are run by the IKEA Group. The remaining 22 are run by franchisees outside of the IKEA Group.[http://www.ikea-group.ikea.com/about_ikea/organized.html]
INGKA Holding BV is the ultimate parent company for all IKEA Group companies, including the industrial group [[Swedwood]]. [[INGKA Holding BV]] is wholly owned by [[Stichting INGKA Foundation]], which is a foundation registered in the [[Netherlands]].
This complicated structure is seen by some as an attempt to avoid Sweden's high taxation at the time. Another reason could be to make it difficult to acquire IKEA.
== Criticisms ==
Some criticisms of IKEA:
*IKEA has [http://www.metropolismag.com/html/content_0203/ob/ob05_0203.html demolished historic buildings], in at least one case for a [http://www.nydailynews.com/boroughs/story/267758p-229361c.html parking lot].
*In the 1990s, there were several complaints arising from IKEA's [[United Kingdom|British]] television [[advertising campaign]]s:
**“Stop being so English”: In which a “Swedish [[psychologist]]” claims the British are uptight due to their taste in “English” furniture. (complaints were dismissed). [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=143.html]
**An advertisement where a [[Management consulting|management consultant]] suggests how much more furniture a company could buy, if it fired an office worker. (complaints were dismisssed but IKEA voluntarily withdrew the advert) [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=10.html]
** A campaign under the slogan, "Just pack up, ship out, find a place of your own. And for all your new things, you know where to come. Make a fresh start," got complaints that it was trivializing [[Legal separation|marriage breakups]] and showing a homosexual relationship. (complaints were dismissed) [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=288.html]
**An advertisement in which a boss tells members of his staff to smell each other's [[armpit]]s.
As a side note, the IKEA furniture line was satirized in the movie [[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]].
==Diversity==
IKEA was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 by ''[[Working Mothers]]'' magazine.
== Design reform ==
As pointed out by circuit lecturer [[Will Novosedlik]], IKEA embodies the principles of [[design reform]] begun by [[William Morris]] and [[John Ruskin]]. "Socialistic" in nature, IKEA attempts to elevate public taste by providing quality goods at affordable prices.
== IKEA's debut in each country ==
<!-- Source: http://franchisor.ikea.com/showContent.asp?swfId=facts3 -->
* 1958 [[Sweden]] &mdash; [[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]]
* 1963 [[Norway]] &mdash; [[Asker]] ([[Nesbru]])
* 1969 [[Denmark]] &mdash; [[Copenhagen]] ([[Ballerup]])
* 1973 [[Switzerland]] &mdash; [[Zürich]] ([[Spreitenbach]])
* 1974 [[Germany]] &mdash; [[Munich]] ([[Eching]])
* 1975 [[Australia]] &mdash; [[Sydney]] ([[Artarmon, New South Wales|Artarmon]])
<!-- The IKEA site spells Artarmon "Artamon", I'm asuming that Artarmon, NSW is correct -->
* 1975 [[Hong Kong]] &mdash; [[Kowloon]] ([[Tsim Sha Tsui]])
* 1976 [[Canada]] &mdash; [[Vancouver]] ([[Richmond, British Co
|
ther was and how he should take the weapons back to him. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.
When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeas, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Aegeas kill Theseus by asking him to capture the [[Marathonian Bull]], but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him but at the last second, Aegeas recognized the sandals, shield and sword and knocked the wine glass out of Theseus' hand. Father and son were reunited.
While visiting in Athens, King [[Minos]]' son, [[Androgeus]], managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during a feast. Out of jealousy, Aegeus killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every year to [[Crete]] to be fed to the [[Minotaur]], a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.
Aegeus had told Theseus, before he left, to put up the white sails when he left Crete, if he had been successful in killing the Minotaur. Theseus forgot (deliberately, according to some accounts) and Aegeus jumped into the sea when he saw the black sails coming into Athens, in the mistaken belief that his son had been slain, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Henceforth, this sea was known as the [[Aegean Sea]].
See also:
[[Apollodorus]]. [[Bibliotheke]]; [[Catullus]], LXIV; [[Plutarch]]. [[Theseus]].
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[[fr:Égée (mythologie)]]
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[[pt:Egeu (mitologia)]]
[[sl:Egej]]
[[tr:Egeus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aegina</title>
<id>2627</id>
<revision>
<id>41991820</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:14:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flauto Dolce</username>
<id>30706</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the island. For the [[Greek mythology|Greek mythological]] figure, see [[Aegina (mythology)]]. For the asteroid, see [[91 Aegina]]. The word also refers to the main town on the island of Aegina.''
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{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="float:right; empty-cells:show; margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:0,5em; background:#FFDEAD;"
<!--! Seal
! Map
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!
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! align="center" | [[Image:AiginaGreece.png]]
! align="center" | [[Image:GreecedotonAigina.png]]
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! align="center" colspan="2" | Statistics
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| [[Prefectures of Greece|Prefecture]] || [[Attica]]
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| [[Metropolitan Area]]: || [[Athens]] (Piraeus)
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| Prefectural sect: || [[Piraeus]]
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| [[Provinces of Greece|Province]]: || Aigina (106 km²)
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| Location: || {{coor dms|37|44|44|N|23|25|39|E|region:GR}}
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| Area:<br>-Total<br>-Water<br>-Rank||<br>110 km²<br><!-- km²<br>[[List of municipalities of Greece by area|Rank xxth]]-->
<!--|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Dwellings: ||-->
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| Population: ([[2001]])<br>&nbsp;- Total<br>&nbsp;- Density¹<br>&nbsp;- Rank||<br>&nbsp;11,639<br><br>&nbsp;151.13/km</small><br>
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Elevation:<br>&nbsp;-lowest:<br>&nbsp;-centre:<!--<br>&nbsp;-highest:-->||<br>sea level<br>19 m(centre)<br>532 m
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| [[List of postal codes in Greece|Postal code]]: || 180 10
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| [[Area codes in Greece|Area/distance code]]: || 11-30-[[Greece dialing code 22970|210]] (030-22970)<br>
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[YPES|Municipal code]]: || 4003
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[License plates in Greece|Car designation]]: || <code>Y</code> (prev.)<br><code>Z</code> pres.
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| 3-letter abbreviation: || EGP
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| Name of inhabitants: || Aeginian ''sing.''<br>-s ''pl.''
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| Address of administration: || 1 Christou Lada St..<br>Aigina 180 10
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| Website: || [http://www.aigina.gr www.aigina.gr]
<!--|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
! colspan="2" | Politics
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| [[Mayor]]: ||-->
|}
'''Aegina ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αίγινα ''Egina''), one of the [[Greek islands|Saronic Islands]] of [[Greece]] in the [[Saronic Gulf]], 31 miles (50 km) from [[Athens]]. [[Tradition]] derives the name from Aegina, the mother of [[Aeacus]], who was born in and ruled the island. In shape Aegina is triangular, eight miles (13 km) long from northwest to southeast, and six miles (15 km) broad, with an area of about 41 square miles (106 km²). Two thirds of Aegina constitute an extinct volcano. The northern and western side consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some [[cotton]], vines, [[almond]]s, olives and [[fig]]s, but the most characteristic crop of today (1990s) Aegina is the [[pistachio]]. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side. From the absence of marshes the climate is the most healthy in Greece.
The island forms part of the modern Uomos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance. The capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants. [[Capo d'Istria]] (1776-1831) had a large building erected intended for a barracks, which was subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school. The museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the collection was transferred to [[Athens]] in [[1834]]. A statue in the principal square comemorates him.
== Antiquities ==
[[Image:Glypto aegina.JPG|thumb|[[Athena]] from the east pediment of the Aphaea temple in Aegina]]
The archaeological interest of Aegina is centred in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner of the island. Excavations were made on its site in [[1811]] by Baron [[Haller von Hallerstein]] and the English architect C. R. Cockerell, who discovered a considerable number of the sculptures from the pediment, which was bought in [[1812]] by the crown prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the [[Glyptothek]] at [[Munich]] after the figures had been restored by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]]. His restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering.
Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the figures. That according to which they were set up at Munich was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a fallen warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the composition; the corners were filled with fallen warriors. In [[1901]] Professor [[Adolf Furtwängler]] began a more systematic excavation of the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments in Munich, have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality. According to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions, into a series of groups of two or three figures each.
A figure of Athena still occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set farther forward than in the old reconstruction. On each side of this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other figures also &ndash; the bowmen especially &ndash; face towards the angles, and so give more variety to the composition. The western pediment, which is more conservative in type, represents the earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to episodes in the Trojan war. There are also remains of a third pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but never placed on the temple. For the character of the sculptures see [[Greek Art]]. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable for the unsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the [[cella]] into the [[opisthodomus]]. This opisthodomus was completely fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine). It was disputed in earlier times whether
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cal language of the [[Christian]] minority.
Beginning from around [[2700 BC]], Egyptians used [[pictogram]]s to represent [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]] -- both [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] vocalizations (see [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Hieroglyph: Script]]). By [[2000 BC]], 26 [[pictogram]]s were being used to represent 24 (known) main [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]]. The world's [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|oldest known alphabet]] (c. [[1800 BC]]) is only an [[abjad]] system and was derived from these [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|uniliteral signs]] as well as other [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s.
The hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the [[4th century]] AD. Attempts to decipher it began after the [[15th century]] (see ''[[Hieroglyphica]]'').
===Literature===
* c. [[19th century BC|1800 BC]]: [[The Story of Sinuhe|Story of Sinuhe]]
* c. 1800 BC: [[Ipuwer papyrus]]
* c. [[16th century BC|1600 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]]
* c. 1180 BC: [[Papyrus Harris I]]
* c. [[11th century BC|1000 BC]]: [[Story of Wenamun]]
==Culture==
{{see also|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
The Egyptian religions, embodied in [[Egyptian mythology]], were a succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, as early as [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] times and all the way until the coming of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] in the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] era. These were conducted by Egyptian [[priest]]s or [[magician]]s, but the use of [[magic and religion|magic]] and [[spell (paranormal)|spell]]s is questioned.
Every animal portrayed and worshipped in ancient Egyptian art, writing and religion is indigenous to [[Africa]], all the way from the [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] until the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] eras, over 3000 years. The [[Dromedary]], [[Domestication|domesticated]] first in [[Arabia]], first appears in Egypt (and North Africa) beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE.
The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the [[arts of the ancient world]]. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. [[Ancient Egyptian art]] in general is characterized by the idea of order.
Evidence of [[Mummy#Mummies in other civilizations|mummies]] and [[Pyramid#Structures|pyramids outside ancient Egypt]] indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other [[prehistory|prehistoric]] cultures, transmitted in one way over the [[Silk Road]]. Ancient Egypt's [[Foreign contacts of Ancient Egypt|foreign contacts]] included [[Nubia]] and [[Punt]] to the south, the [[Aegean]] and [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greece]] to the north, the [[Levant]] and other regions in the [[Near East]] to the east, and also [[Libya]] to the west.
Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually [[Symbolism|symbolic]].
==Ancient achievements==
[[image:Egypte louvre 316.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Louvre Museum]] antiquity]]
See [[Predynastic Egypt]] for inventions and other significant achievements in the [[Civilization#Sahara Region|Sahara region]] before the [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt|Protodynastic Period]].
The art and science of [[engineering]] was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as [[surveying]]). These skills were used to outline [[pyramid]] bases. The [[Egyptian pyramids]] took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. [[Cement|Hydraulic Cement]] was first invented by the Egyptians. The [[Al Fayyum]] [[Irrigation]] (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|twelfth dynasty]] using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the [[First dynasty of Egypt|First dynasty]] or before, the Egyptians [[Mining|mined]] [[turquoise]] in [[Sinai Peninsula]].
The earliest evidence (circa [[1600 BC]]) of traditional [[empiricism]] is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith]] and [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers papyri]]. The roots of the [[Scientific method#History|Scientific method]] may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known [[alphabet]], [[decimal system]] {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}} and complex [[Timeline of mathematics|mathematical formularizations]], in the form of the [[Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri]]. An awareness of the [[golden ratio]] seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the [[Egyptian pyramids]].
The art of glass making is of very ancient origin with the Egyptians, as is evident from the glass jars, figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing. These illustrations representing smiths blowing
their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. Therefore it can be concluded that glass-blowing is apparently of Egyptian origin.
===Timeline===
''(All dates are approximate.)''
====Predynastic====
''See main article and timeline: [[Predynastic Egypt]].''
* [[3500 BC]]: [[Senet]], world's oldest (confirmed) [[board game]]
* [[3500 BC]]: [[Faience]], world's earliest known earthenware
====Dynastic====
[[Image:Pyramide_Kheops.JPG|thumb|200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza]].]]
[[Image:Egyptian Glass.jpg|thumb|200px|Egypt was first to create glass objects. {{3d_glasses}}]]
* [[33rd century BC|3300 BC]]: [[Bronze]] works (see [[Bronze Age#Near East Bronze Age|Bronze Age]])
* [[3200 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s fully developed (see [[First dynasty of Egypt]])
* [[3200 BC]]: [[Narmer Palette]], world's earliest known [[historical document]]
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Decimal|Decimal system]], {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}}, world's earliest (confirmed) use
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Wine cellar]]s, world's earliest known {{ref|www.touregypt.net.361}}
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Mining]], [[Sinai Peninsula#History|Sinai Peninsula]]
* [[3100 BC|3050 BC]]: [[Shipbuilding]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], {{ref|xoomer.virgilio.it.362}}
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Export]]s from [[Nile]] to [[Israel]]: [[wine]] (see [[Narmer]])
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Copper]] [[plumbing]] (see [[Copper#History|Copper: History]])
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Papyrus]], world's earliest known [[paper]]
* [[3000 BC]]: [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|Medical Institutions]]
* [[2900 BC]]: possible [[steel]]: [[carbon]]-containing [[iron]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.363}}
* [[2700 BC]]: [[Surgery#History of surgery|Surgery]], world's earliest known
* [[2700 BC]]: precision [[Surveying#Origins|Surveying]]
* [[2700 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Uniliteral signs]], forming basis of world's [[History of alphabets|earliest known alphabet]]
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Sphinx]], still today the world's largest single-stone [[statue]]
* [[2600 BC|2600s]]&ndash;[[2500 BC]]: [[Shipping]] expeditions: [[Sneferu|King Sneferu]] and [[Sahure#History|Pharaoh Sahure]]. See also {{ref|www.msichicago.org.364}}, {{ref|www.touregypt.net.365}}.
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Barge]] transportation, stone blocks (see [[Egyptian pyramids#Construction techniques|Egyptian pyramids: Construction]])
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Pyramid of Djoser]], world's earliest known large-scale stone building
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Menkaure's Pyramid]] & [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known works of carved [[granite]]
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid [[granite]] work
* [[2600 BC|2580 BC]]: [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], the [[World's tallest structures|world's tallest structure]] until [[1300|AD 1300]]
* [[2500 BC]]: [[Beekeeping]], {{ref|www.vftn.org.366}}
* [[2400 BC]]: [[Egyptian calendar|Astronomical Calendar]], used even in the [[Middle Ages]] for its [[mathematics|mathematical]] regularity
* [[2200 BC]]: [[Beer]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.367}}
* [[1900 BC|1860 BC]]: possible [[Suez Canal|Nile-Red Sea Canal]] ([[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt]])
* [[1800 BC]]: [[History of the alphabet|Alphabet]], world's oldest known
* [[1800 BC]]: [[Timeline of mathematics|Berlin Mathematical Papyrus]], {{ref|www.math.buffalo.edu.368}}, 2nd order [[algebraic equations]]
* [[1800 BC]]: [[Moscow Papyrus|Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]], generalized formula for volume of [[frustum]]
* [[1650s BC|1650 BC]]: [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]]: [[geometry]], [[cotangent]] analogue, [[algebraic equations]], [[arithmetic series]], [[geometric series]]
* [[1600 BC]]: [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], medical tradition traces as far back as c. [[3000 BC]]
* [[1550s BC|1550 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers Medical Papyrus]], traditional [[empiricism]]; world's earliest known documented [[tumors]] (see [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|History of medicine]])
* [[1500 BC]]: [[Glass|Glass-making]], world's earliest known
* [[1250s BC|1258 BC]]: [[Peace treaty]], world's earliest known (see [[Ramesses II#Life|Ramesses II]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.369}})
* [[1160s BC|1160 BC]]: [[Turin papyrus]], world's earliest known [[geology|geologic]] and [[topographic]] map
* [[1000 BC]]: [[Tar|Petroleum tar]] used in [[Mummy|mummification]]{{ref|www.geotimes.org.feb05}} <!-- world's earliest known use of petroleum???? need documentation -->
* [[500s BC|5th]]&ndash;[[400s BC|4th century BC]] (or perhaps earlier): battle games ''petteia'' and ''seega''; possible precursors to [[Chess]] (see [[Origins of chess]])
====Other====
** c.[[2500 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]]
** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Ipuwer papyrus]]
** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Papyrus Harris I]]
** c.[[1400 BC]]: [[Tulli Papyrus]]
** c.[[1300 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Brugsch Papyrus]]
** Unknown date: [[Rollin Papyrus]]
<!-- shouldn't this section just
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decades. However, their construction is more expensive than more common forms.
====Terms used for automobile battery power ratings====
: see [[Car battery]]
===Battery explosion===
Under extreme conditions, certain types of batteries can explode. A battery explosion is usually caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery (such as the recharging of a non-rechargeable battery or shorting a car battery).
With car batteries, explosions are most likely to occur when a short circuit generates very large currents. A short circuit malfunction in a battery placed in parallel with other batteries ("jumped") can cause its neighbour to discharge its maximum current into the faulty cell, leading to overheating and possible explosion. In addition, car batteries liberate hydrogen when they are overcharged (because of [[electrolysis]] of the water in the electrolyte). Normally the amount of overcharging is very small and so is the amount of explosive gas developed, and the gas dissipates quickly. However, when "jumping" a car battery, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which could be ignited by a spark nearby (for example, when removing the jumper cables).
When a non-rechargeable battery is recharged at a high rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the walls of the battery, leading to pressure build-up and a possible explosion. In extreme cases, the battery acid may spray violently from the casing of the battery and cause injury.
Additionally, disposing of a battery in fire may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case of the battery.
Overcharging, which is charging a battery beyond its electrical capacity, can also lead to a battery explosion, leakage, or irreversible damage to the battery. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.
==Common battery types==
===Rechargeable and disposable batteries===
[[image:batteries.jpg|framed|Various batteries(clockwise from bottom left): two 9-volt, two "AA", one "D", a cordless phone battery, a camcorder battery, a 2-meter handheld ham radio battery, and a button battery, one "C" and two "AAA" plus, a U.S. quarter, for scale]]
From a user's viewpoint, at least, batteries can be generally divided into two main types&mdash;'''[[rechargeable battery|rechargeable]]''' and '''non-rechargeable''' (disposable). Each is in wide usage.
Disposable batteries, also called '''primary cells''', are intended to be used once, until the chemical changes that induce the electrical current supply are complete, at which point the battery is discarded. These are most commonly used in smaller, portable devices with either low current drain, only used intermittently, or used well away from an alternative power source. Primary cells can be recharged with varying degrees of success using a specialised charging technique called [[periodic current reversal]] which is a form of biased AC (i.e. alternating current with a DC offset) However battery manufacturers don't recommend attempting to recharge primary cells (cynics claim this is for commercial motives) and claim that conventional DC charging of primary cells can present dangers of leakage, overheating and even explosion.
By contrast, rechargeable batteries or '''secondary cells''' can be re-charged after they have been drained. This is done by applying externally supplied electrical current which causes the chemical changes that occur in use to be reversed. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery still in modern usage is the "wet cell" [[lead-acid battery]]. This battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well-ventilated to deal with the explosive [[hydrogen]] gas which is vented by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.
A common form of lead-acid battery is the modern [[car battery]]. This can deliver about 10,000 [[watt]]s of power for a short period, and has a peak current output that varies from 450 to 1100 [[ampere]]s. The battery's electrolyte includes [[sulfuric acid]], which can cause serious injury if splashed on the skin or eyes.
A more expensive type of lead-acid battery called a '''gel battery''' (or "gel cell") contains a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage. More portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units and are therefore useful in appliances like [[mobile phone]]s and [[laptop]]s. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include [[nickel-cadmium battery|nickel-cadmium]] (NiCd), [[nickel metal hydride battery|nickel metal hydride]] (NiMH), and [[lithium ion battery|lithium-ion]] (Li-Ion) cells.
====Disposable====
Non-rechargeable - sometimes called "primary cells".
* [[Zinc-carbon battery]] - low cost - used in light drain applications
* [[Zinc-chloride battery]] - similar to zinc carbon but slightly longer life
* [[Alkaline battery]] - alkaline/manganese "long life" batteries widely used in both light drain and heavy drain applications
* [[Silver-oxide battery]] - commonly used in hearing aids
* [[Lithium battery]] - commonly used in digital cameras. Sometimes used in watches and computer clocks. Very long life (up to seven years in wristwatches) and capable of delivering high currents but expensive
* [[Mercury battery]] - commonly used in digital watches
* [[Zinc-air battery]] - commonly used in hearing aids
====Rechargeable ====
Also known as secondary batteries or accumulators.
* [[Lead-acid battery]] - commonly used in vehicles, alarm systems and [[uninterruptible power supply|uninterruptible power supplies]]. Used to be used as a "A" or "wet" battery in valve/[[vacuum tube]] radio sets.
** [[Absorbed glass mat]]
** [[Gel battery]]
* [[Lithium ion battery]]
* [[Lithium ion polymer battery]]
* [[NaS battery]]
* [[Nickel metal hydride battery]]
* [[Nickel-cadmium battery]] - used in many domestic applications but being superseded by Li-Ion and Ni-MH types
* [[Sodium-metal chloride battery]]
* [[Nickel-zinc battery]]
===Homemade cells===
Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes into a [[Lemon battery|lemon]], potato, glass of soft drink, etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. [[As of 2005]], "two-potato clocks" are widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, etc.) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock. Homemade cells of this kind are of no real practical use, because they produce far less current&mdash;and cost far more per unit of energy generated&mdash;than commercial cells, due to the need for frequent replacement of the fruit or vegetable.
===Traction batteries===
Traction batteries (secondary batteries or accumulators) are designed to provide power to move a vehicle, such as an electric car or tow motor. A major design consideration is power to weight ratio since the vehicle must carry the battery. To prevent spilling, the electrolyte in traction batteries is gelled. The electrolyte may also be embedded in a glass wool which is wound so that the cells have a round cross-sectional area ([[Absorbed Glass Mat|AGM-type]]).
The following types are also in use[http://www.madkatz.com/ev/battery.html]:
* Zebra NiNaCl (or NaNiCl) battery operating at 270 °C requiring cooling in case of temperature excursions
* NiZn battery (higher cell voltage 1.6 V and thus 25% increased specific energy, very short lifespan)
[[Lithium_ion_battery|Lithium-ion batteries]] are now pushing out NiMh-technology in the sector while for low investment costs the lead-acid technology remains in the leading role[http://www.e-mobile.ch/pdf/2005/Subat_WP5-006.pdf].
See also: [[Battery pack]]
===Flow batteries===
[[Flow Battery|Flow batteries]] are a special class of battery where additional quantities of [[electrolyte]] are stored outside the main power cell of the battery, and circulated through it by pumps or by movement. Flow batteries can have extremely large capacities and are used in marine applications and are gaining populatity in [[grid energy storage]] applications.
==Common battery sizes==
Disposable cells and some rechargeable cells come in a number of standard sizes, so the same battery type can be used in a wide variety of appliances. Some of the major types used in portable appliances include the A-series ([[A battery|A]], [[AA battery|AA]], [[AAA battery|AAA]], [[AAAA battery|AAAA]]), [[B battery|B]], [[C battery|C]], [[D battery|D]], [[F battery|F]], [[G battery|G]], [[J battery|J]], and [[N battery|N]], [[3R12 battery|3R12]], [[4R25 battery|4R25]] and variants, [[PP3 battery|PP3]] and [[PP9 battery|PP9]], and the lantern [[996 battery|996]] and [[PC926 battery|PC926]]. These and less common types are included in the list of battery sizes appearing in the following section (the list can be opened as a [[List of battery sizes|separate page]] as well).
A good cross-reference of different manufacturer's battery and cell designations can be found here [http://www.gpina.com/consumer/primary/button.htm] and here [http://batterywholesale.com/lithium_cross.html].
{{:List of battery sizes}}
==History==
There is s
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of electric double basses were developed. Even though these instruments had electric pickups, they were still variants of the double bass, because they were unfretted and played vertically. The Audiovox Manufacturing Company in [[Seattle, Washington]] had an upright solidbody electric bass on the market by February 1935, designed by Paul Tutmarc, a musician, instrument maker, and amplifier designer.
Subsequently, Paul Tutmarc developed a guitar-style electric bass instrument that was fretted and designed to be held and played horizontally. Audiovox's sales catalogue of 1935-6 listed what is probably the world’s first fretted, solid body electric bass that is designed to be played horizontally - the Model #736 Electric Bass Fiddle. The change to a "guitar" form made the instrument easier to hold and transport; the addition of guitar-style frets enabled bassists to play in tune more easily (which also made the new electric bass easier to learn).
The first mass-produced electric bass was developed by innovator and manufacturer [[Leo Fender]] in the early 1950s. Fender trained as an [[accountant]] and was a self-taught electrical engineer who started repairing radios and built public address (P.A.) systems before getting into the electronics and amplification of electric instruments. Ironically, Leo Fender could not even play guitar or bass: by his own admission, "not a note."
The [[Fender Precision Bass]] was first offered in 1951. Named for the exact intonation a player could achieve with its fretted neck, the Precision Bass was equipped with a single piece, four-pole pickup, and a simple, uncontoured 'slab' body design. In 1954 the body was contoured with beveled edges for comfort. In 1957, the pickup was changed to a single "split pickup" (staggered) design. The pickguard also underwent a radical change, as did the headstock.
This 1957 design has remained as the standard electric bass, and is still widely available. Another industry standard, the similar, but more highly-engineered [[Jazz Bass|Fender Jazz Bass]], was introduced in 1960. These designs have become so ubiquitous that pickups based on the ones found on the Precision and Jazz basses are often referred to as "P" or "J", respectively. (Fender also produced a six-string bass, the [[Fender VI]], in the 1960s, although it was tuned higher than a modern six-string bass.)
Following Fender's lead, other companies such as [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]], [[Danelectro]], and many others started to produce their own version of the electric bass. Some, like the Rickenbacker 4000 series, became identified with a particular style of music. [[Rickenbacker]]s were pioneered by [[Paul McCartney]], [[John Entwistle]], [[Chris Squire]], [[Geddy Lee]], and other [[progressive rock]] bassists.
In 1971 [[Alembic Inc|Alembic]] established the template for what would subsequently be known as "high end" electric bass. Key design elements included active electronics, premium woods, and multi-laminate neck-through-body construction. Other innovations by Alembic included the world’s first graphite neck bass and one of the early production 5-string bass with a low "B" string, both in 1976. Another manufacturer, Fodera, also began producing an electric bass with a low "B" string in the mid-1970s. In collaboration with the highly-respected bassist [[Anthony Jackson]], Fodera developed a new six-string electric bass.
Early uses of the electric bass saw bassists doubling the double bass part or replacing the upright bass entirely with their new, more portable and easily amplified instrument. By the 1960s, the electric bass had replaced the upright bass in most forms of popular music-although country music and jazz were an exception to this trend. The switch to electric bass moved bassists more into the foreground of a band, in two senses. From an aural perspective, electric bass tone can often "cut through" a live mix better. As well, electric basses can be amplified to very high levels without the problem of feedback "howls" that can plague upright bass players trying to amplify their instruments. From a visual point of view, the switch to the electric bass allowed bassists much more freedom of movement on stage. The double bass sits on an endpin, and stands vertically, and players typically play in a single location for the duration of a song. However, the electric bass is smaller, and is held up with a strap, which allows the electric bassist to move about on the stage while playing, and get closer to other musicians or the audience.
The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of rock and country music. The rockabilly revival led by the chart-topping Stray Cats made upright basses "hip" again. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Popular bands such as the Canadian group Barenaked Ladies decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass. A trend for "[[MTV Unplugged|unplugged]]" performances further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and [[acoustic bass guitar]]s. Even in the early 2000s, the upright bass continued its comeback, with punk/"[[psychobilly ]]" groups such as [[Tiger Army ]], [[The Living End]] and the HellRazors using the upright bass.
Innovations and refinements to electric bass equipment continue through to the present day.
== Design considerations ==
The distinctive 4-string Fender Precision bass or copies by other manufacturers remains the most popular choice in many styles of music. Major musical groups from the 1950s to today in genres varying from blues to punk continue to use the iconic Fender-style bass. In some genres, such as traditional blues or country, departing from this de facto standard is uncommon.
However, in many musical settings, musicians have embraced the wide variety of different electric bass designs, which include a huge variety of options for the body, neck, pickups, and other features. Musicians have become open minded towards the new technologies and approaches to musical instrument design that have developed for the electric bass. As well, instruments handmade by highly-skilled masters of the craft of [[lutherie]] (guitar-making) are becoming an increasingly popular choice for professional and highly-skilled amateur bassists. These developments have given the modern bass player a wide range of choices when choosing an instrument. Design options include:
=== Body ===
Bodies are typically made of wood although other materials such as [[graphite]] (for example, some of the [[Steinberger]] designs) have also been used. A wide variety of woods are suitable - the most common include [[alder]], [[mahogany]] and [[ash_tree|ash]]. The choice of body material and shape can have a significant impact on the [[timbre]] of the completed instrument as well as [[aesthetic]] considerations. Other design considerations include:
* A wide range of colored or clear lacquer, wax and oil finishes exploiting the amazing variety of natural wood forms
* Various flat and carved industrial designs for different types of both traditional and exotic woods, large percentage of [[luthier]]-produced unique instruments (affecting weight, balance and aesthetics)
* Headed and headless (with tuning done at the bridge) designs
* Several artificial materials developed especially for instrument building, most notable being [[luthite]]
* Unique production techniques for artificial materials, including die-casting for cost-effective complex body shapes
One further variable is the solidity of the body. Most basses have solid bodies but variations include chambers for increased resonance or to reduce weight. Basses are also built with entirely hollow bodies. Many of these have enough volume for unamplified performance in a small venue. Hollow-bodied basses are discussed in more detail in the article on [[acoustic bass guitar]]s.
=== Number of strings (and tuning)===
[[ Image:Notesonbass.jpg|thumb|550px|Note positions on a right-handed 4-string bass]]
The standard design electric bass has four strings, tuned E, A, D, G (with the fundamental frequency of the E string set at 41.3 Hz, the same as the lowest string on the double bass). Modern variants include:
* Five strings (normally B, E, A, D, G but sometimes E, A, D, G, C)
* Six strings (B, E, A, D, G, C or B, E, A, D, G, B—although E, A, D, G, B, E has also been used). Six string basses are not very popular, but some noted bass players do use them, such as [[New Order]]'s [[Peter Hook]] and [[Dream Theater]]'s [[John Myung]]. Basses with seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven and even twelve (untripled) strings are also available (see also [[extended-range bass]]).
* Double and triple courses of strings (e.g., an 8-string bass would be strung Ee, Aa, Dd, Gg, while a 12-string bass might be tuned Eee Aaa Ddd Ggg, with standard pitch strings augmented by two strings an octave higher), which are found in 8-, 10-, and 12-string varieties (doubled versions of 4, 5, and 6 string basses)
* Tenor bass: A, D, G, C
* Piccolo bass: e, a, d, g (an octave higher than standard bass tuning—-the same as the bottom four strings of a guitar)
* Sub contra bass : C#, F#, B, E (C# being at 18 Hz and the E string being the same as the E string found on standard basses)
* [[Detuner]]s, commonly called [[Hipshot]]s, allow one or more strings to be easily adjusted while playing (most commonly used to give the option of dropping the E string down to D on a four string bass). This type of tuning peg is descended from the [[Scruggs peg]], used on [[banjo]]s.
=== Pickups ===
[[Image:Bassguitarpickup
|
to give the body a possibility of becoming soil again.
Rarer forms of disposal of the dead include [[excarnation]], where the corpse is exposed to the elements. This was done by some groups of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]; it is still practiced by [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]]s in [[Bombay]], where the [[Towers of Silence]] allow [[vulture]]s and other carrion eating [[bird]]s to dispose of the corpses. It is also practiced by some Tibetan Buddhist monks where it is sometimes called "sky burial".
[[Cannibalism]] is also practiced post-mortem in some countries. The practice has been linked to the spread of a [[prion]] disease called [[kuru (disease)|kuru]].
[[Mummy|Mummification]] is the drying of bodies to preserve them. The most famous practitioners of mummification were ancient Egyptians: many nobles and high-ranked bureaucrats of the old Egyptian kingdom had their corpses [[Embalming|embalmed]] and stored in luxurious [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] inside their funeral mausoleum or, in the case of some [[Pharaoh|Pharaons]], [[pyramid]].
==Control by the decedent of the details of the funeral==
In [[law]] in the United States, the deceased have surprisingly little say in the manner in which their funerals can be conducted. The law generally holds that the funeral rituals are for the benefit of the survivors, rather than to express the personal whims and tastes of the decedent.
The decedent may, in most U.S. jurisdictions, provide instructions as to his funeral by means of a [[Will (law)|Last Will and Testament]]. These instructions can be given some legal effect if [[bequest]]s are made contingent on the [[heir]]s carrying them out, with alternative gifts if they are not followed. This assumes, of course, that the decedent has enough of an estate to make the heirs pause before doing something that will invoke the alternate bequest. To be effective, the will must be easily available, and some notion of what it provides must be known to the decedent's survivors.
[[image:funeral.name.tribute.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A name tribute (MUM) at a funeral in England.]]
Some people dislike the clutter and display of flowers at funerals, and feel that there is an unseemly competition in the number and size of the floral arrangements sent. Many [[newspaper]]s refuse to print an [[obituary]] that requests that flowers not be sent; to do so would be to offend the florists' industry. Many obituaries, however, contain notices regarding "memorial gifts" to a [[charity]]. It is usually understood in these situations that a gift to the charity made in memory of the decedent relieves the donor of the social duty of sending flowers.
==Anatomical gifts==
Another way of avoiding some of the rituals and costs of a traditional funeral is for the decedent to donate some or all of her or his body to a [[medical school]] or similar institution for the purpose of instruction in [[anatomy]], or for similar purposes. Students of [[medicine]] and [[osteopathy]] frequently study anatomy from donated cadavers; they are also useful in [[forensic]] research.
Making an anatomical gift is a separate transaction from being an [[organ donor]], in which any useful organs are removed from the unembalmed cadaver for [[medicine|medical]] [[transplant]]. Under a [[Uniform Act]] in force in most jurisdictions of the United States, being an organ donor is a simple process that can often be accomplished when a [[driver's license]] is renewed.
There are some medical conditions, such as [[amputation]]s, or various [[surgery|surgeries]], that can make the cadaver unsuitable for these purposes. Conversely, the bodies of people who had certain medical conditions are useful for research into those conditions. All US medical schools rely on the generosity of "anatomical donors" for the teaching of anatomy. Typically the remains are cremated once the students have completed their anatomy classes, and many medical schools now hold a memorial service at that time as well.
==See also==
*[[State funeral]]
*[[Mourning]]
*[[Bereavement in Judaism]]
*[[Requiem]]
*[[Funeral (album)]]
*[[Museum of funeral customs|Museum of Funeral Customs]]
==External links==
*[http://www.funeralmuseum.org/index.html Museum of Funeral Customs homepage]
*[http://www.amc.edu/Academic/anatomical_gift_program/anatomical_gift_program-medica.htm List of anatomical gift contacts] from [[Albany Medical School]]
*[http://www.genealogytoday.com/guide/funeral_cards.html Finding Funeral Cards Online for your Genealogy]
[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Ceremonies]]
[[es:Sepultura]]
[[fr:Rite funéraire]]
[[it:Funerale]]
[[he:הלוויה]]
[[nl:Begrafenis]]
[[ja:葬儀]]
[[pl:Pogrzeb]]
[[pt:Funeral]]
[[ru:Похороны]]
[[simple:Funeral]]
[[fi:Hautajaiset]]
[[zh:葬礼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FAA (disambiguation)</title>
<id>11183</id>
<revision>
<id>35175747</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T19:13:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SNIyer12</username>
<id>224762</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FAA (other uses)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 11</title>
<id>11184</id>
<revision>
<id>41514459</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:49:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=11}}
|}
'''[[February 11]]''' is the 42nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 323 days remaining, 324 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[660 BC]] - Traditional founding date of [[Japan]] by [[Emperor Jimmu]].
* [[731]] - [[Pope Gregory II|Gregory II]] ends his reign as [[Pope]].
* [[824]] - [[Pope Paschal I|Paschal I]] ends his reign as [[Pope]].
* [[1531]] - [[Henry VIII of England]] recognized as supreme head of the [[Church of England]].
* [[1752]] - [[Pennsylvania Hospital]], 1st hospital in the [[United States]], opens.
* [[1790]] - [[Religious Society of Friends]] petitions [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for abolition of [[slavery]].
* [[1794]] - First session of [[United States Senate]] open to the public.
* [[1808]] - [[Anthracite]] coal first burned as fuel, experimentally.
* [[1809]] - [[Robert Fulton]] patents the [[steamboat]]
* [[1812]] - [[Massachusetts]] governor [[Elbridge Gerry]] [[gerrymandering|gerrymanders]] for the first time.
* [[1814]] - [[Norway]]'s independence is proclaimed, marking the ultimate end of the [[Kalmar Union]].
* [[1826]] - [[University College London]] is founded under the name ''[[University of London]]''.
* [[1837]] - [[American Physiological Society]] organizes in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
* [[1840]] - [[Gaetano Donizetti]]'s opera [[La Fille du Régiment]] receives its first performance in [[Paris]].
* [[1843]] - [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera [[I Lombardi]] receives its first performance in [[Milan]].
* [[1855]] - [[Kassa Hailu]] is crowned [[Tewodros II]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]], by [[Abuna Salama III]] in a ceremony at the church of [[Derasge Maryam]].
* [[1858]] - The [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] reputedly appears to Saint [[Bernadette Soubirous]] of [[Lourdes]].
* [[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States House of Representatives]] unanimously passes a resolution guaranteeing noninterference with [[slavery]] in any state.
* [[1873]] - King [[Amadeus I of Spain]] abdicates.
* [[1889]] - [[Meiji constitution]] of [[Japan]] adopted; 1st [[Diet of Japan]] convenes in [[1890]].
* [[1895]] - The lowest ever [[United Kingdom|UK]] temperature of -27.2°C was recorded at [[Braemar]] in [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]]. This record was equalled on [[10 January]],[[1982]] .
* [[1902]] - Police assault [[universal suffrage]] demonstrators in [[Brussels]].
* [[1903]] - [[Anton Bruckner]]'s [[9th Symphony]] receives its first performance in [[Vienna]].
* [[1905]] - [[Pope Pius X]] publishes the encyclical ''[[Vehementer nos]]''.
* [[1908]] - [[Australia]] regain [[the Ashes]] with a 308 run cricket victory over [[England]].
* [[1916]] - [[Emma Goldman]] arrested for lecturing on [[birth control]].
* [[1919]] - [[Reichspräsident|Friedrich Ebert]] ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]), elected [[President of Germany]].
* [[1922]] - [[Navy]] [[USS Michigan (BB-27)]] Decomisioned.
* [[1928]] - [[1928 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[St. Moritz]], [[Switzerland]].
* [[1929]] - [[Italy]] and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] sign the [[Lateran Treaty]].
* [[1937]] - A sit-down strike ends when [[General Motors]] recognizes the [[United Auto Workers Union]].
* [[1938]] - [[BBC One|BBC Television]] produces the world's first ever [[science fiction television]] programme, an adaptation of a section of the [[Karel Capek]] play ''[[R.U.R.]]'' (The play which coined the term "[[robot]]").
* [[1941]] - First Gold record presented to [[Glenn Miller]] for "[[Chattanooga Choo Choo]]".
* [[1943]] - General [[Dwight Eisenhower]] selected to command the [[allies|allied]] armies in [[Europe]].
* [[1945]] - [[Yalta Conference]] ends.
* [[1948]] - [[John Costello]] succeeds [[Eamon de Valera|Éamon de Valera]] as [[Taoiseach]] of [[Ireland]].
* [[1953]] - [[President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower]] refuses clemency appeal for [[Ethel and Julius Rosenberg]].
* 1953 - The [[Soviet Union]] breaks off diplomatic relations with [[Israel]].
* [[1961]] - Trial of [[Adolf Eichmann]] begins in [[Jerusalem]].
* [[1963]] - [[The Beatles]] tape 10 tracks for their first album, including "[[Please, Please Me]]".
* [[1964]] - At the [[Washington, DC]] [[Coliseum]], [[The Beatles]] have their 1st live appearance in the [[United States]].
* 1964 - [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Turk
|
==Architecture==
[[Image:Bank of china night.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Bank of China Tower]] at dusk.]]
{{main|Architecture of Hong Kong}}
Due to the [[creative destruction]] so endemic to Hong Kong over the past 50 years, few historical buildings remain in Hong Kong. Instead the city has become a centre for [[modern architecture]], especially in and around [[Central and Western district|Central]]. The tall business buildings of Central comprise the skyline along the coast of the [[Victoria Harbour]], which is one of Hong Kong's famous tourist attractions. In [[Kowloon]], which once included the anarchistic settlement called the [[Kowloon Walled City]], strict height restrictions were in force until [[Kai Tak Airport]] closed in 1998, but these restrictions have now been lifted, and several new skyscrapers in Kowloon are being planned.
Hong Kong's best-known building is arguably [[I. M. Pei|Ieoh Ming Pei]]'s [[Bank of China Tower]], completed in 1990 and now Hong Kong's third tallest skyscraper. The building attracted heated controversy from the start, as its sharp angles were said to cast negative [[feng shui]] energy into the heart of Hong Kong. Predating the Bank of China Tower, another well-known structure is the [[HSBC Hong Kong headquarters building|HSBC Headquarters Building]], finished in 1985. This building is featured on many of [[Hong Kong banknotes|Hong Kong's banknote]]s. It was built on the site of Hong Kong's first skyscraper, which was finished in 1935 and was the subject of a bitter heritage [[Architectural conservation|conservation]] struggle in the late 1970s.
One of the largest construction projects in Hong Kong and the world was the new [[Hong Kong International Airport]] on [[Chek Lap Kok]] near [[Lantau]], a huge land reclamation project linked to the centre of Hong Kong by the [[Lantau Link]], which features three new major [[bridge]]s: the world's [[List of largest suspension bridges|sixth largest]] [[suspension bridge]], [[Tsing Ma Bridge|Tsing Ma]], the world's longest [[cable-stayed bridge]] carrying both road and railway traffic, [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge|Kap Shui Mun]], and the world's first major 4-span cable-stayed bridge, [[Ting Kau Bridge|Ting Kau]].
==Transport==
[[Image:Hong Kong Airport Inside.JPG|thumb|250px||right|Departure hall at [[Hong Kong International Airport]].]]
[[Image:HongKongBuses.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Single and double-decker buses [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus]], [[New World First Bus]] at [[Wan Chai Pier]] bus terminus.]]
{{main|Transport in Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong has a highly developed and sophisticated [[transport]] network, encompassing both [[public transport|public]] and private transport. The [[Octopus card]] stored value [[smart card]] payment system can be used to pay for fares on almost all railways, buses and ferries in Hong Kong. All [[parking meter]]s in Hong Kong only accept payment by Octopus card, and Octopus card payment can be made at various carparks.
Hong Kong Island is dominated by steep, hilly terrain, which required the development of unusual methods of transport up and down the slopes. In [[Central and Western district]] there is an extensive system of [[escalator|escalators]] and [[moving sidewalk|moving sidewalks]], including the longest outdoor covered elevator system in the world, the [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator|Mid-levels Escalator]].
Hong Kong has several different modes of public rail transport. The two [[metro]] systems for the city are the [[MTR]] and [[KCR]] (KCR also operates a [[light rail]] system in northwest New Territories), which are operated by the [[MTR Corporation Limited]] and the [[Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation]] respectively. The [[Hong Kong Tramways|tramway system]] covers the northern parts of Hong Kong Island and is the only [[tram]] system in the world run exclusively with [[double decker]]s.
Five separate companies operate franchised public [[bus]] services in Hong Kong. Double-decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong in 1949. They are now used almost exclusively in Hong Kong just as in [[Dublin]], [[London]] and [[Singapore]]. However, single-decker buses remain in use for routes with lower demand or roads with lower carrying capacity and are used exclusively in South Lantau. Most normal franchised bus routes in Hong Kong operate until 1am in the morning. [[Public light bus|Public light buses]] run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas where standard bus lines cannot reach or do not reach as frequently, quickly, or directly. [[Taxicab|Taxi]]s are also widely used throughout Hong Kong. 99% of taxis in Hong Kong run on liquefied petroleum gas, the rest are still diesel operated.
Most ferry services are provided by licensed ferry operators, which serve [[Islands of Hong Kong|outlying islands]], new towns, and inner-[[Victoria Harbour]]. The two routes operated by the [[Star Ferry]], operating for over 100 years, are franchised. Additionally, 78 "[[kai-to]]" ferries are licensed to serve remote coastal settlements.
Hong Kong has one active [[international airport]], known as [[Hong Kong International Airport]] located at [[Chek Lap Kok]]. This replaced the famous airport of the same name at [[Kai Tak International Airport|Kai Tak]] in 1998. After dreadful delays in the cargo systems in the first few months, the airport now serves as a transport hub for [[Southeast Asia]], and as the hub for [[Cathay Pacific Airways]], [[Dragonair (airline)|Dragonair]], [[Air Hong Kong]] and [[Hong Kong Express]]. Additionally, both Hong Kong International Airport and [[Cathay Pacific Airways]] have been voted best in the world, in the airport and airline criteria respectively, by [[Skytrax]] from 2001 to 2005. [[Hong Kong International Airport]] serves more than 36 million passengers in the year 2004.
Access to the airport includes 'Airport Express', 'CityFlyers' and 'Airbuses', These services connect the airport to the rest of Hong Kong. The Airport Express zooms passengers to [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] on Hong Kong Island in just 23 minutes. Recent opening of [[Sunny Bay (MTR)|Sunny Bay Station]] of the [[MTR]] allows easy access to the Disneyland Resort.
==Military==
[[Image:Hkgarrison.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The [[PLA Hong Kong Garrison|Hong Kong Garrison]] of the [[People's Liberation Army]] entering Hong Kong for the first time in 1997.]]
{{main|Military of Hong Kong}}
The PRC [[Central People's Government]] (CPG) assumed sovereignty over Hong Kong on [[1 July]] [[1997]] and stationed a [[garrison]] of the [[PLA Hong Kong Garrison|People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) to manage its defence affairs. Although the garrison has no military significance, the stationing of the PLA troops in the region is a significant symbol of the PRC government's resumption of sovereignty over Hong Kong.
According to the [[Basic Law]], military forces stationed in Hong Kong shall not interfere with local affairs; Hong Kong government shall remain responsible for the maintenance of public order. The Hong Kong Garrison, composed of [[army|ground]], [[navy|naval]], and [[air force]]s, is under the command of the Chinese [[Central Military Commission]]. The garrison subsequently opened the barracks on [[Stonecutters Island]] and [[Stanley, Hong Kong|Chek Chu]] to the public to promote understanding and trust between the troops and residents.
Under British rule, ethnic Chinese Hongkongers were allowed to join the [[British Forces Overseas Hong Kong|British defence forces]]. However, since the handover in 1997, they were no longer allowed to join the PLA.
==International rankings==
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], not ranked out of 62 countries
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2005] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 1st out of 155 countries, for 11 years in a row.
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 2nd out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715 Third annual worldwide press freedom index (2004)], ranked 34th out of 167 countries
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], not ranked out of 110 countries
* [[Skyline]]: [http://www.emporis.com/en/bu/sk/st/sr/], ranked 1st out of all cities of the world
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 18th out of 111 countries
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], ranked 16th out of 146 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/ Human Development Index 2004], ranked 23rd out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking], ranked 21st out of 104 countries
==References==
* ''A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong''. Frank Welsh. Kodansha America. [[1 October]] [[1993]]. 624 pages. ISBN 1568360029.
* ''Hong Kong's History: State and Society Under Colonial Rule (Asia's Transformations)''. Tak-Wing Ngo. Routledge. [[1 August]] [[1999]]. 205 pages. ISBN 0415208688.
* ''The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, Arts, Identity''. Poshek Fu, David Deser. [[Cambridge University Press]]. [[25 March]] [[2002]]. 346 pages. ISBN 0521776023.
* ''A Modern History of Hong Kong''. Steve Tsang. I. B. Tauris. [[14 May]] [[2004]]. 356 pages. ISBN 1860641849.
* ''An Outline History of Hong Kong''. Liu Shuyong.
|
1916 to include elliptical orbits, using a quantization of [[generalized momentum]].
The ad hoc Bohr-Sommerfeld model was extremely difficult to use, but it made impressive predictions in agreement with certain spectral properties. However, the model was unable to explain multielectron atoms, predict [[transition rate]]s or describe [[fine structure|fine]] and [[hyperfine structure]]. In 1925, [[Erwin Schrödinger]] developed a full theory of quantum mechanics, described by the [[Schrödinger equation]]. Together with [[Wolfgang Pauli]]'s [[Pauli exclusion principle|exclusion principle]], this allowed study of atoms with great precision when digital computers became available. Even today, these theories are used in the [[Hartree-Fock]] [[quantum chemistry|quantum chemical]] method to determine the energy levels of atoms. Further refinements of quantum theory such as the [[Dirac equation]] and [[quantum field theory]] made smaller impacts on the theory of atoms.
Another model of historical interest, proposed by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1916, had [[cubical atom]]s with electrons statically held at the corners. The cubes could share edges or faces to form chemical bonds. This model was created to account for chemical phenomena such as bonding, rather than physical phenomena such as atomic spectra.
==See also==
* [[Atomism]]
* [[Basic quantum mechanics]]
* [[Chemical bond]]
* [[Exotic atom]]
* [[Infinite divisibility]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Radioactive isotope]]
* [[Superatom]]
* [[Super-heavy atom]]
* [[Transuranium element]]
==References==
* Kenneth S. Krane, ''Introductory Nuclear Physics'' (1987)
== External links ==
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm How Atoms Work]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics_Atom:The_Atom Wikibooks FHSST Physics Atom:The Atom]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Atomic_structure Wikibooks Atomic structure]
{{composite}}
[[Category:Atoms| ]]
[[af:Atoom]]
[[ar:ذرة (علوم)]]
[[an:Atomo]]
[[ast:Átomu]]
[[bg:Атом]]
[[bs:Atom]]
[[br:Atom]]
[[ca:Àtom]]
[[cs:Atom]]
[[da:Atom]]
[[de:Atom]]
[[et:Aatom]]
[[es:Átomo]]
[[eo:Atomo]]
[[fa:اتم]]
[[fr:Atome]]
[[gl:Átomo]]
[[ko:원자]]
[[hr:Atom]]
[[io:Atomo]]
[[id:Atom]]
[[ia:Atomo]]
[[is:Frumeind]]
[[it:Teoria atomica]]
[[he:אטום]]
[[kn:ಅಣು]]
[[ka:ატომი]]
[[la:Atomus]]
[[lv:Atoms]]
[[lt:Atomas]]
[[hu:Atom]]
[[mk:Атом]]
[[ms:Atom]]
[[nl:Atoom]]
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[[ja:原子]]
[[no:Atom]]
[[nn:Atom]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arable land</title>
<id>903</id>
<revision>
<id>41774993</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:37:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rjgibb</username>
<id>868299</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:040719_172_dorset_marnhull.jpg|thumb|220px|Modern arable agriculture typically uses large [[field (agriculture)|fields]] like this one in [[Dorset]], [[England]].]]
In [[geography]], '''arable land''' (from [[Latin]] ''arare'', to [[plough]] ) is a form of [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[land use]], meaning [[land (economics)|land]] that can be (and is) used for growing [[agriculture|crops]]. [[David Ricardo]] incorporated the idea of arable land into [[economic]] [[theory]].
Of the earth's 57 million square miles (148,000,000&nbsp;km&sup2;) of land, more than 12 million square miles (31,000,000&nbsp;km&sup2;) are arable.
Most of the arable land on earth is around the largest rivers on earth. Some examples are: the [[Nile]] River, the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] Rivers, the [[Yellow River]], the [[Amazon River]], the [[Ganges]] and the [[Rhine]] River. These rivers flood regularly, overspilling their banks. When the flood is over, the rivers recede, leaving behind rich [[silt]]. This silt is excellent fertilizer for [[crops]]. Even if the land is overfarmed, and all the [[nutrient]]s are depleted from the soil, the land renews its fertility when the next flood comes. Rivers and streams can make desert land arable.
==Unarable land==
On unarable land, farming is nearly impossible unless more advanced methods of [[agriculture]] are used. Unarable land usually has no source of fresh water, and is often too hot (desert), too cold (arctic), too rocky, too mountainous, too salty, too rainy, too snowy, or too cloudy. Clouds block the sunlight plants need for [[photosynthesis]] (making sunlight into food). The plants starve without light. [[Starvation]] and [[nomad]]ism often exist on unarable land. Unarable land is sometimes called 'wastes', 'badlands', 'worthless' or 'no man's land'.
Sometimes, unarable land can be turned into arable land. New arable land makes more food, and can prevent [[starvation]], saving lives. This also makes the country more [[self-sufficient]] and politically independent, because the country doesn't have to buy food from other countries. Making unarable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aquaducts, [[desalination]] plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, [[hydroponic]]s, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, [[pesticide]]s, [[reverse osmosis]] water processors, [[mylar]] insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas.
Some examples of infertile '''unarable''' land being turned into fertile '''arable''' land are:
* Aran Island: This island off the west coast of Ireland, (not to be confused with the [[Isle of Arran]] in [[Scotland]]'s [[Firth of Clyde]]), was unarable because it was too rocky. The people covered the island with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. This made it arable. Today, they grow crops there.
* [[Israel]]: Israel was mostly unarable desert until [[desalination]] plants were built on the coast. The plants turn salt water into fresh water for farming, drinking, and washing. They created their own large fresh water source.
Some examples of fertile '''arable''' land being turned into infertile '''unarable''' land are:
* Droughts like the '[[dust bowl]]' of the [[Great Depression]] in the U.S. turned farmland into desert.
* [[Rainforest]] Deforestation: The fertile tropical forests turn into infertile desert land.
* [[Roman Republic|Roman]]s' destruction of [[Carthage]]: At the end of the [[Punic War]]s, the victorious Romans sowed the earth with salt, to symbolize total victory. The Roman symbol meant that Carthage would never grow back - their civilization ended. Crops won't generally grow in salty soil. This is why salt water from the ocean can't be used to water crops.
* Each year more arable land is lost to desertification and [[erosion]] from human industrial activities. Irrigation of farm land also increases the [[sodium]], [[calcium]], and [[magnesium]] in the soil. This process steadily concentrates salt in the ground, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.
* [[Urban sprawl]]: In the United States, about 2.2 million acres (8,900 km²) of land was added to urban areas between 1992 and 2002, much of it farm land now paved.
== See also ==
*[[List of environment topics]]
==External links==
*[http://pages.prodigy.net/jhonig/bignum/qland2.html Surface Area of the Earth]
*[http://www.cnie.org/pop/conserving/landuse.htm Conserving Land: Population and Sustainable Food Production]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aluminium</title>
<id>904</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42089447</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:30:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UkPaolo</username>
<id>269651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.144.119.56|66.144.119.56]] ([[User talk:66.144.119.56|talk]]) to last version by Spaully</comment>
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ase_date=[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px|Japan]] [[September 1]] [[2001]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px|United States]] [[August 30]] [[2002]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25px|Australia]] [[March 6]] [[2003]]<br>
[[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|25px|Italy]] [[May 5]] [[2003]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px|United Kingdom]] [[June 26]] [[2003]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|25px|Argentina]] [[July 1]] [[2003]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of Brazil.svg|25px|Brazil]] [[September 12]] [[2003]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px|France]] [[October 1]] [[2003]]
|runtime=120 min.
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{{nihongo|'''''Cowboy Bebop'''''|カウボーイビバップ|Kaubōi Bibappu}} (1998) is an [[anime]] television series and motion picture that follows a band of American-stylized [[Bounty hunter|bounty hunters]] thrown together by circumstance and necessity, but each with passionately disparate private agendas. Each episode tells the story of how the group tracks down wanted criminals in a futuristic setting while dealing with personal issues that arise by location, people they meet, or misgivings about the [[morality]] of the subject of their bounty. While every episode, or the movie, stands on its own, the back-stories of the characters and their growing intimacy together make the whole much greater than the sum of its parts.
''Cowboy Bebop'' was popular in [[Japan]] and became one of the biggest adult [[anime]] hits ever in the [[United States]], opening the genre to an audience that previously considered anything but live action to be juvenile. The unflinching adult themes of the show, along with the cool [[jazz]] tracks and [[political]] undertones became a favorite of many Americans tuning into [[Cartoon Network]]'s new late-night "[[Adult Swim]]". Pirated copies of the Japanese Cowboy Bebop movie, [[Knockin' on Heaven's Door]], became available in 2002 dubbed with rough translations. By 2003, [[Sony]] Pictures released it to theatres, and eventually [[DVD]], an official version of the movie using the voices of the original English-speaking actors. Two ''Cowboy Bebop'' [[manga]] comic books were created based on the TV show, and a [[Playstation 2]] [[video game]] is due in the [[United States]] in March of 2006. (See also [[Cowboy Bebop#Licensing, authors, and publishers|Licensing, authors, and publishers]])
Cowboy Bebop is widely respected for its multiple layers and deep characters, combined with a very free-flowing feel to the story itself (heavily influenced by American culture, especially the [[jazz]] movements of the 1940s, hence "[[bebop]]") and a large number of well-choreographed action fighting sequences (from space battles to [[martial arts]] hand-to-hand combat).
== Longevity ==
''Cowboy Bebop'' has remained a longtime favorite of [[anime]] fans in both [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]. A recent poll in the magazine ''[[Newtype (magazine)|Newtype]]'' asked the notoriously fickle [[Japanese people|Japanese]] audience to rank the "Top 20 Anime Titles of All Time"; ''Cowboy Bebop'' placed at number eight on a list that includes classics of the genre like ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'' and ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]''.
In the U.S., CN has dropped ''Cowboy Bebop'' from its [[Adult Swim]] line-up several times only to return it later due to its popularity. The network has also rotated ''Cowboy Bebop'' out of its anime lineup periodically in order to show other anime features such as ''[[Read or Die]]'' and ''[[Blue Gender]]''. ''Cowboy Bebop'' is usually rotated out for a quarter of a year and then returned to the lineup due to its long-running success and high appeal among anime fans of all age groups. Critics of the series see it as preventing other series from airing on the Adult Swim block, one of the few widely-broadcast North American venues for anime.
== History of ''Bebop'' ==
''Cowboy Bebop'' almost did not make it on Japanese broadcast television due to its (relatively) graphic depictions of violence. The show had an aborted first run beginning on April 3, 1998 and running until June 19, 1998 on [[TV Tokyo]], broadcasting only episodes 2, 3, 7-15 and 18. Later that year, the series was shown in its entirety beginning on October 23 and running until April 23, 1999 on the satellite network [[WOWOW]]. ''Cowboy Bebop'' was popular enough that a movie, ''[[Cowboy Bebop: The Movie|Cowboy Bebop: Tengoku no Tobira]]'' (''Knockin' on Heaven's Door''), was commissioned and released in Japan in 2001 and later released in the United States as ''Cowboy Bebop: The Movie'' in 2003.
[[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The crew of the ''Bebop''. From left to right: Spike, Jet, Ed, Faye, and Ein.]] In 2001, ''Cowboy Bebop'' became the first anime title to be shown as part of the U.S. [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Adult Swim]] block of programming. At the time, it was quite a risk for the fledgling networks as a more "adult" anime had never been broadcast in such a mainstream venue before. However, it turned out to be a rousing success, continuing to be broadcast regularly until present. The success of ''Cowboy Bebop'' paved the way for Cartoon Network's embrace of mature anime, including ''[[InuYasha]]'', ''[[Lupin III|Lupin the Third]]'', ''[[Trigun]]'', ''[[Blue Gender]]'', ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'', ''[[FLCL]]'', ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'', and [[Wolf's Rain]]''.
In the [[United Kingdom]], ''Cowboy Bebop'' was first broadcast in 2003 as one of the highlights of the ill-fated 'cartoon network for adults', [[CNX]].
In [[France]] ''Cowboy Bebop'' was broadcast during summer 2000 on [[Canal+]].
[[Bandai]] released a ''Cowboy Bebop'' shooter in [[Japan]] for the [[PlayStation]] in 1998 . A [[PlayStation 2]] ''Cowboy Bebop'' video game has been released in [[Japan]] already and the [[Region One]] version is set for release in North America during the first quarter of 2006. [http://www.bandaigames.com/games/cb.html]
In 2005, seven years after its original Japanese broadcast, ''Bebop'' was finally licensed and released in the European market by [[Beez]], an extension of [[Bandai Entertainment]].
== Plot ==
{{details|List of Bountyheads in Cowboy Bebop}}
In the year 2071, the crew of the spaceship ''Bebop'' travel the [[solar system]] trying to apprehend bounties. In the slang of the era, "cowboys" are bounty hunters, hence the name of the series. Each member of the ''Bebop'' crew contributes their own unique abilities to help catch bounties. Most episodes revolve around a bounty; however the real focus of the show concerns the pasts of each character, which unravel and connect as the series progresses.
Arguably, the main plotline focuses on Spike Spiegel, a former member of the 'Red Dragon' crime syndicate who is haunted by a past love triangle between his former syndicate partner, Vicious, and a mysterious woman named Julia.
The series also focuses on the histories of the other ''Bebop'' crew members: Jet Black, a former ISSP officer on the Jovian moon [[Ganymede]]; Faye Valentine, an indebted gambler recently awakened from cryogenic slumber; Edward, a genius child computer [[hacker]]; and Ein, a revolutionary "Data Dog" capable of countless amazing acts, including hacking at twice the speed of an expert hacker.
== Background ==
In the year 2021, a series of ring-shaped [[hyperspace]] gateways were constructed across the solar system, allowing for easy [[interplanetary travel]]. Unfortunately, the gate network contained a fatal instability that was ignored by the contractors who built the system. The instability grew until a gateway near Earth exploded, releasing a powerful burst of energy that cracked the Moon. In a disaster referred to as "the Gate Incident", meteoric debris from the Moon destroyed much of Earth's surface, killing billions. People mostly live underground, as debris continues to rain down on the planet daily, although a sizeable number of people refuse to leave or simply can't afford to. Most, however, left Earth after the Gate Incident and spread out across the solar system, living in colonies on [[Venus (planet)|Venus]], [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], some habitable [[asteroid]]s, and the [[Galilean moon|Galilean moons of Jupiter]].
It is interesting to note that the total population for the Solar System of 2071 is only about 1.3 billion. Assuming that the population of Earth in 2021 was greater than 6 billion (as on present-day Earth), the explosion of the gate was the worst disaster to ever befall humankind — at least 4.7 billion lives were lost.
Some of the colonies are more hospitable than others, but all planets and moons seen in the series except for Mars are [[terraformed]]. This situation points to the soft sci-fi nature of the series, since Mars is often considered the most easily terraformable planet, while terraforming the others within the next century is considered an almost impossible undertaking.
The domed craters of Mars are a great place to live, for those who can afford it. The poor can live on Venus, although the unlucky may be blinded or killed by Venus sickness. Rough [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] is a dreary and cold moon (with the city of Blue Crow having an all male population), [[Io (moon)|Io]] is toxic and volcanic, while [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] is almost completely surrounded by water and known for its fishing industry. [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s largest moon, is a barren desert world which has been at war since the 2060s. There is even a Solar System Penitentiary on [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]].
Most importantly to the general plot of the series, sometime after the advent of space travel, the [[bounty system]] of the Old West was reinstated by the government to help curb growing crime levels. Vigilantes are encouraged to capture bounties and return them (alive and relatively unharmed) to th
|
re they are not regarded as 'thieves of the lease' but as '[[squatter|squatters]]' and the law provides different remedies. [[Identity theft]] is another example of the adaptation of physical property laws to intangible items, though that term itself is seen as problematic by some.
====Alternative terms====
In [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as [[intellectual rights]], traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included [[moral rights]] and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term ''intellectual rights'' has declined since the early [[1980]]'s, as use of the term ''intellectual property'' has increased.
An alternate term '''monopolies on information''' has emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably [[Richard Stallman]] - ''see below''. The [[backronym]]s ''intellectual protectionism'' and ''intellectual poverty'', whose initials are also ''IP'', have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym ''[[digital restrictions management]]''.
Another issue is that if intellectual property exists there must be a parallel concept of [[intellectual capital]] - [[capital (economics)]] being the property that permits more property to be created. This, and the related term [[instructional capital]] that applies to the proper subset of [[patent]]s and non-fiction [[copyright]], are controversial notions that economists have no clear agreement on, so one refers to the "intellectual capital debate" rather than thinking of it as an actual [[capital asset]]. ''See more in the "Economic view" section below.''
The fact that the three most common forms of intellectual property law concern different subject matter with different histories and purposes &mdash; [[copyright]] concerns original creative or artistic works, [[patent]] concerns new and useful inventions, and [[trademark]]s concerns signs which uniquely identify the commercial origin of products or services &mdash; is seen by some as countering what they consider to be the dogma of the [[United Nations]]' [[World Intellectual Property Organisation]] on intellectual property as the "creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce" [http://www.wipo.org/about-ip/en/]. These critics see this assertion as [[propaganda]] for a "property view" of the intellectual property laws, and suggest alternative terms such as [[individual capital]], [[instructional capital]] and [[social capital]] over the term "[[intellectual capital]]," which has an ambiguous status, even among believers in [[neoclassical economics]]. Indeed, recent historical and econometric research has begun to "challenge the positive description of previous models and the normative conclusion that monopoly through copyright and patent is socially beneficial" [http://minneapolisfed.org/research/sr/sr303.html]).
===Expansion in nature and scope of IP laws===
In recent times there has been a general expansion in intellectual property laws. This can be seen in the extension of laws to new types of subject matter such as databases, in the regulation of new categories of activity in respect of subject matter already protected, in the increase of terms of protection, in the removal of restrictions and limitations on exclusive rights, and in an expansion of the definition of "author" to include corporations as the legitimate creators and owners of works. The concept of [[work for hire]] has also had the effect of treating a corporation or business owner as the legal author of works created by employees.
The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act|in the United States]] and [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|in Europe]], such that it is unclear when subsisting copyright protection will eventually expire.
The nature and scope of what constitutes "intellectual property" has also expanded. In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]]. Pursuant to TRIPs, any [[sign (semiotics)|sign]] which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark. Under this definition, trademarks such as [[Microsoft]]'s slogan "Where do you want to go today?" are generally considered registrable. Furthermore, as the essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the commercial origin of products or services, any sign which fulfills this purpose may be registrable as a trademark. However, as this concept converges with the increasing use of [[non-conventional trademark]]s in the [[marketplace]], harmonisation may not amount to a fundamental expansion of the trademark concept.
In the context of patents, the grant of patents in some [[jurisdiction]]s over certain life forms, [[computer software|software]] algorithms, and business models has led to ongoing controversy over the appropriate scope of patentable subject matter.
Some consider that the expansion of intellectual property laws upsets the balance between encouraging and facilitating creativity and innovation, and the dissemination of new ideas and creations into the [[public domain]] for the [[common good]]. They consider that as most new ideas are simply derived from other ideas, intellectual property laws tend to reduce the overall level of creative and scientific advancement in society. They argue that innovation and competition is in effect stifled by expanding IP laws, as litiguous IP rights holders aggressively or frivolously seek to protect their portfolios.
The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based [[digital rights management]] tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. This can have the effect of limiting [[fair use]] provisions of copyright law and even make the [[first-sale doctrine]] (known in [[EU]] law as "[[exhaustion of rights]]") moot. This would allow, in essence, the creation of a book which would disintegrate after one reading. As individuals have proven adept at circumventing such measures in the past, many copyright holders have also successfully lobbied for laws such as the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]], which uses criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital "rights management" systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the [[EU Copyright Directive|Copyright Directive]]. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the Conditional Access Directive of 1998 (98/84/EEC).
At the same time, the growth of the [[Internet]], and particularly distributed search engines like [[Kazaa]] and [[Gnutella]], represents a challenge for exclusive rights policy. The [[Recording Industry Association of America]], in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against what it terms "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company [[Napster]], and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. However, the increasingly decentralized nature of such networks makes legal action against distributed search engines more problematic.
===Economic view===
Exclusive rights such as copyrights and patents secure their holder an exclusive right to sell, or license rights. As such, the holder is the only seller in the market for that particular item, and the holder is often described as having a [[monopoly]] for this reason.
However, it may be the case that there are other items of "intellectual property" that are close substitutes. For example, the holder of publishing rights for a book may be competing with various other authors to get a book published. In such cases, economists may find that another [[market form]], such as [[oligopoly]] or [[monopolistic competition]] better describes the workings of the markets for expressive works and inventions. This is one reason to prefer the term ''exclusive rights'' over ''monopoly rights''.
The case for "intellectual property" in economic theory notes certain substantial differences from the case for tangible property. Consumption of tangible property is rivalrous. For example, once one person eats an apple, no one else can eat it; if one person uses a plot of land on which to build a home, that plot is unavailable for use by others. Without the right to exclude others from tangible resources, a [[tragedy of the commons]] can result.
The subjects of intellectual property do not share this feature of rivalness. For example, an indefinite number of copies can be made of a book without interfering with the use of the book by owners of other copies. When combined with a lack of exclusive intellectual property rights, this nonrivalrousness and nonexcludability combine to make them [[public good]]s and susceptible to the [[free rider problem]]. A rationale for "intellectual property" therefore rests on incentive effects to overcome the free rider problem. This case asserts that without a subsidy that is afforded by exclusive rights, there is no direct financial incentive to create new inventions or works of authorship. However, as [[Wikipedi
|
erson Arcadia 2001 FAQ]
==External links==
*[http://www.gstsoftware.co.nz/ Download the latest Arcadia 2001 emulator from here.]
*[http://www.gstsoftware.co.nz/ Arcadia 2001 emulator]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm The Dot Eaters entry] on the mighty Arcadia 2001
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Computer and video game flops]]
[[it:Arcadia 2001]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andreini tessellation</title>
<id>2961</id>
<revision>
<id>39428256</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T01:55:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomruen</username>
<id>63601</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>relink header/anchor change</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[geometry]], the '''Andreini [[tessellation]]s''' are the complete set of 28 [[tessellation of space|uniform (space-filling) honeycombs of 3-space]]. They are the three dimensional equivalent to the [[List of uniform planar tilings|uniform tilings of the plane]]. They are named in honor of ''A. Andreini'' who studied and enumerated these tessellation forms around 1905. (See references below)
A uniform honeycomb is constructed by identical sets of convex uniform polyhedral cells around each vertex. Uniform cells can include the 5 [[Platonic solid|Platonic]], 13 [[Archimedean solid]]s, and infinite sets of uniform [[prism (geometry)|prisms]] and [[antiprism]]s.
The 28 tessellations can be divided into 4 groups by the existence of parallel uniform polygon-tiled planes:
# 10 are tessellations with no planar face-tilings.
# 12 are formed by stacked prisms of the 11 planar face-tilings.
# 1 has alternate planes of vertices, but only has one planar face-tiling.
# 5 have alternate planes of vertices with both planar face-tiled.
Note: See [[Uniform polychoron#Geometric derivations]] for some terminology for some of these names below.
These groups are listed largely in order of least to most polyhedra per vertex. The first group has 4 to 6 polyhedra per vertex, while the last has 12 to 14!
The listing below follows the four groups, and orders them by [n/m] where '''n''' is the number of cells per vertex, and '''m''' is the number of types of cells.
[[Image:Truncated octahedra.jpg|thumb|[[Bitruncated cubic honeycomb]]]]
* '''No face-tiling planes''' (with cubic honeycomb naming) (4 to 6 polyhedra per vertex)
*# [4/1] 4 truncated octahedra
*#* [[Bitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*#* Dual [[Disphenoid tetrahedral honeycomb]]
*# [4/2] 2 truncated cuboctahedra, 2 octagonal prisms
*#* [[Omnitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [4/3] 2 truncated cuboctahedra, 1 truncated octahedron, 1 cube
*#* [[Cantitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [4/3] 2 truncated cuboctahedra, 1 truncated cube, 1 truncated tetrahedron
*#* [[Cantitruncated alternated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/2] 4 truncated cubes, 1 octahedron
*#* [[Truncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/3] 2 rhombicuboctahedra, 1 cuboctahedron, 2 cubes
*#* [[Cantellated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/3] 3 rhombicuboctahedra, 1 tetrahedron, 1 cube
*#* [[Runcinated alternated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/3] 2 truncated octahedra, 2 truncated tetrahedra, 1 cuboctahedron
*#* [[Truncated alternated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/4] 1 truncated cube, 1 rhombicuboctahedron, 2 octagonal prisms, 1 cube
*#* [[Runcitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [6/2] 4 cuboctahedra, 2 octahedra
*#* [[Rectified cubic honeycomb]]
[[Image:Cubic honeycomb.png|thumb|[[Cubic honeycomb]] lattice]]
* '''Identical faced-tiling planes''' (6 to 12 cells per vertex)
*# [6/1] 6 hexagonal prisms ([[hexagonal tiling]] planes),
*#* [[Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]],
*#* dual [[Triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [6/2] 4 dodecagonal prisms, 2 triangular prisms ([[Truncated hexagonal tiling|3.12.12 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Truncated hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [6/2] 4 octagonal prisms, 2 cubes ([[Truncated square tiling|4.8.8 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Truncated square prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [6/3] 2 dodecagonal prisms, 2 hexagonal prisms, 2 cubes ([[Great rhombitrihexagonal tiling|4.6.12 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Omnitruncated triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [8/1] 8 cubes ([[square tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Cubic honeycomb]]
*#* Self-dual
*# [8/2] 4 hexagonal prisms, 4 triangular prisms, ([[Trihexagonal tiling|3.6.3.6 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [8/3] 2 hexagonal prisms, 2 triangular prisms, 4 cubes ([[Small rhombitrihexagonal tiling|3.4.6.4 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Rhombitriangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] 2 hexagonal prisms, 8 triangular prisms ([[Snub hexagonal tiling|3.3.3.3.6 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Snub triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] (I) 6 triangular prisms, 4 cubes ([[Prismatic trisquare tiling|3.3.3.4.4 tiling]] planes),
*#* [[Elongated triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] (II) 6 triangular prisms, 4 cubes, ([[Square tiling|4.4.4.4 tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers
*#* [[Gyroelongated triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] 6 triangular prisms, 4 cubes ([[Snub square tiling|3.3.4.3.4 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Snub square prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [12/1] (I) 12 triangular prisms ([[triangular tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Triangular prismatic honeycomb]],
*#* dual [[Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
* '''Alternating planes, one face-tiled''' (8 polyhedra per vertex)
*# [8/2] 6 truncated tetrahedra, 2 tetrahedra ([[Trihexagonal tiling|3.6.3.6 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Bitruncated alternated cubic honeycomb]]
[[Image:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb.png|thumb|Tetra-Octa honeycomb]]
* '''Alternating planes, both face-tiled''' (12 to 14 polyhedra per vertex)
*# [12/1] (II) 12 triangular prisms ([[square tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers
*#* [[Gyrated triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [13/3] (I) 3 octahedra, 4 tetrahedra, 6 triangular prisms ([[triangular tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Elongated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [13/3] (II) 3 octahedra, 4 tetrahedra, 6 triangular prisms ([[triangular tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers
*#* [[Gyroelongated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [14/2] (I) 8 tetrahedra, 6 octahedra ([[triangular tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]]
*#* Dual [[Rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb]]
*# [14/2] (II) 8 tetrahedra, 6 octahedra ([[triangular tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers
*#* [[Gyrated tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]]
*#* Dual [[trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb]]
The (I) and (II) forms have the same vertex polyhedra, but repeat differently. The (II) forms have a rotation symmetry group.
All 28 Andreini tessellations are found in [[crystal]] arrangements.
The [[Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]] is of special importance since its vertices form a cubic [[close-packing]] of spheres. The space-filling [[truss]]es of packed octahedra and tetrahedra was apparently first discovered by [[Alexander Graham Bell]] and independently re-discovered by [[Buckminster Fuller]] (who called it the [[octet truss]] and patented it in the 1940s)
[http://tabletoptelephone.com/~hopspage/Fuller.html]
[http://members.cruzio.com/~devarco/energy.htm]
[http://www.n55.dk/MANUALS/DISCUSSIONS/OTHER_TEXTS/CM_TEXT.html]
[http://www.cjfearnley.com/fuller-faq-2.html]. Octet trusses are now one of the most common type of truss used in construction.
<!--
FIXME: move this discussion of octet truss to [[Buckminster Fuller]] or perhaps [[octet truss]], leaving behind a link to where it went.
-->
==External links==
*[http://polyhedra.doskey.com/UniformHoneycombs.html Uniform Honeycombs in 3-Space] VRML models
*[http://metalrg.iisc.ernet.in/~lord/clusters/andreini.ppt Tiling space with regular and semiregular polyhedra] MS-PowerPoint
*[http://web.ukonline.co.uk/polyhedra/honeycombs/honeycombs.htm Elementary Honeycombs]
* [http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/math/pdf/9906/9906034.pdf Uniform partitions of 3-space, their relatives and embedding] PDF, 1999
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
== References ==
* [[Branko Grünbaum]], Uniform tilings of 3-space. [[Geombinatorics]] 4(1994), 49 - 56.
* A. Andreini, Sulle reti di poliedri regolari e semiregolari e sulle corrispondenti reti correlative, Mem. Societa Italiana della Scienze, Ser.3, 14 (1905) 75–129.
** Italian-to-English: "On the regular and semiregular nets of polyhedra and on the correspondents correlative nets, Mem. Italian Societa of Sciences"
[[Category:Tiling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Gore</title>
<id>2962</id>
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<timestamp>2005-11-01T17:26:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quadell</username>
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<comment>#Redirect [[Albert Arnold Gore]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Albert Arnold Gore]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Assassination</title>
<id>2963</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:43:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palm dogg</username>
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<comment>Image changes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{redirect|Assassin}}
[[Image:Oswald shot by Ruby (Pulitzer).jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|[[Jack Ruby]] murdered [[Lee Harvey Oswald]], the alleged assassin of U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]], in a very public manner.]]
In its most common use, '''assassination''' has come to mean the [[murder]] of an important person. An assassin — one who carries out the assassination — is usually [[ideology|ideologically]]- or [[politics|politically]]-motivated. Other motivations may be [[money]] in the case of a [[contract killing]]; opposition to a person's [[belief]]s or belief systems in the case of a [[fanatic]]; orders from a [[government]] that are
|
on, 1998.
* Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, ''Encyclopedia of Cults and New Religions'', Harvest House, Eugene, 1999.
* Enroth, Ronald (ed)., ''A Guide to New Religious Movements'', InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2005.
* Geisler, Norman L. and Ron Rhodes, ''When Cultists Ask'', Baker, Grand Rapids, 1997
* House, H.Wayne, ''Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2000.
* LeBar, James J. ''Cults, Sects, and the New Age'', Our Sunday Visitor, Huntington, 1989.
* Martin, Walter R. ''The Kingdom of the Cults'', edited by Ravi Zacharias, Bethany, Bloomington, 2003
* McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, ''Handbook of Today's Religions'', Thomas Nelson, Nashville, 1992
* Rhodes, Ron, ''The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2001
* Sire, James W. ''Scripture Twisting: Twenty Ways the Cults Misread the Bible'', InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 1980.
* Sire, James W. ''The Universe Next Door'' 4th ed., InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2004.
* Tucker, Ruth A. ''Another Gospel: Cults, Alternative Religions and the New Age Movement'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2004.
* ''Vatican Report on Sects, Cults and New Religious Movements'', St. Paul Publications, Sydney, 1988.
=== History and critical assessments ===
* Cowan, Douglas E. ''Bearing False Witness? An Introduction to the Christian Countercult'' (Praeger Publishers, Westport, Connecticut & London, 2003).
* Enroth, Ronald M. and J. Gordon Melton, ''Why Cults Succeed Where The Church Fails'' (Brethren Press, Elgin, 1985).
* Jenkins, Philip, ''Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History'' (Oxford University Press, New York, 2000).
* Johnson, Philip, "Apologetics, Mission, and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach," [http://www.sacredtribes.com/apolog1.htm''Sacred Tribes: Journal of Christian Missions to New Religious Movements''], 1 (1) (2002)
* Melton, J. Gordon., "The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective," in ''Challenging Religion: Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker'', edited by James A. Beckford & James T. Richardson, (Routledge, London, 2003), pp. 102-113.
* Saliba, John A., ''Understanding New Religious Movements'', 2nd edition (Alta Mira Press, Walnut Creek, Lanham, New York & Oxford, 2003).
{{cults}}
[[Category:Christian fundamentalism and evangelicalism]]
[[Category:Cults]]
[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Professor X</title>
<id>7732</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:55:02Z</timestamp>
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<username>Liastnir</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Early Life */ fixed a bad use of semicolons</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox|
image=[[Image:Xav-lopr.png|200px]]
|caption=Professor Charles Xavier. Art by Aaron Lopresti.
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Professor X
|real_name=Charles Francis Xavier
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''X-Men'' #1
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]<br>[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Unknown
|alliances= [[Illuminati (comics)|Illuminati]]
|previous_alliances=[[X-Men]], [[Cadre K]], [[Starjammers]], [[Excalibur (comics)|Excalibur]]
|aliases=Chuck
|relatives=Dr. Brian Xavier (father, deceased), Sharon Xavier (mother, deceased), [[Cassandra Nova|Cassandra Nova Xavier]] (sister), Kurt Marko (step-father, deceased), Cain Marko ([[Juggernaut (comics)|Juggernaut]], step-brother), David Charles Haller ([[Legion (Marvel Comics character)|Legion]], son, deceased), [[Lilandra|Lilandra Neramani]] (former wife, [[marriage]] [[annulment|annulled]]), Cal'syee Neramani ([[Deathbird]], former sister-in-law), D'Ken Neramani (former brother-in-law)
|powers=vast Telepathic powers, easily able to read and project thoughts, and manipulate minds to alter memories, control minds, and cast illusions
|}}
'''Charles Francis Xavier''', also known as '''Professor X''', is a [[comic book]] character in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]]. He is the founder, mentor and sometime leader of the team of [[Mutant (fictional)|mutant]] [[superhero]]es the [[X-Men]]. Created by [[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], he first appeared in ''X-Men'' #1 (1963).
Xavier is considered one of the most powerful [[mutant (fictional)|mutants]] on Earth due to his [[psionic]] powers. Xavier can read, control and influence human minds and cast [[illusion]]s. He can also detect the presence of other mutants. A natural genius, he is also a leading authority on [[genetics]], [[mutation]], and psionic powers, has considerable expertise in other life sciences and is highly talented in creating equipment for utilizing and enhancing psionic powers.
A visionary, Xavier has devoted his life to helping mutants learn to live with their powers, and to helping mutants and normal humans coexist peacefully and without fear of one another.
Professor Xavier's character is inspired by [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and [[Francis Xavier|St. Francis Xavier]], and may also be a derivative of [[Marie François Xavier Bichat]], or Charles Xavier from [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s 1962 book [[Pale Fire]].
==Character biography==
Professor Xavier is a mutant - one of the world's most powerful [[telepath]]s. As a young man, he was rendered a [[paraplegia|paraplegic]] in an accident that was later revealed to have been caused by an alien called [[Lucifer (Marvel Comics)|Lucifer]]. In addition to his mutant gifts, Xavier is a world-class scientific intellect. His undergraduate education was conducted at [[Harvard University]]; he later did graduate work at [[Oxford University]].
===Early Life===
Charles Xavier was born to Brian and Sharon Xavier, a couple that was wealthy partially due to Brian being a well-respected scientist. After Brian died in a nuclear accident, his science partner Kurt Marko comforted the grieving Sharon and eventually married her. When Xavier's telepathic mutant powers emerged, he discovered Kurt really only cared about her money.
[[Image:Profxy.PNG|A young Charles Xavier. Art by Jack Kirby.|thumb|left]]
Kurt moved in with the Xaviers, bringing with him his son [[Juggernaut (comics)|Cain]]. Kurt eventually showed his true colors, neglecting Sharon, driving her to alcoholism and abusing Charles and Cain. Cain took out his frustrations and insecurities on his step-brother. Charles once used his telepathic powers to read Cain's mind and see his psychological damage, which only led to Cain becoming more aggressive toward him.
Sharon died soon after. Later, a fight erupted between Cain and Charles causing some of Kurt's lab equipment to explode. Mortally wounded, he managed to drag the two children out before dying himself.
Thanks to his telepathy and intellect, Xavier became a brilliant student and athlete, though he gave up the latter after believing his powers gave him an unfair advantage. He later met a fellow student who he fell in love with, a [[Scotland|Scottish]] girl named [[Moira McTaggart|Moira Kinross]], who would later change her last name to 'McTaggart'. The two eventually agreed to get married but Xavier was drafted into the war. While he was away Moira broke up with him.
===World travels===
After the war, Xavier travelled around the world. In [[Cairo]] he ran into the [[Shadow King]], who was posing as an Arabian crime lord. Xavier was able to defeat the Shadow King barely escaping with his life. This encounter led to Xavier's decision of devoting his life to protecting humanity from evil mutants and safeguarding innocent mutants from human oppression.
Xavier later visited an old friend, Daniel Shomron, who had opened a clinic for traumatized [[Holocaust]] victims in [[Haifa]], [[Israel]]. There, he met the man who would become [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]], a Holocaust survivor himself who worked as a volunteer in the clinic and [[Gabrielle Haller]], a catatonic Holocaust survivor. Xavier was able to use his mental powers to break her out of her catatonia and the two later fell in love.
[[Image:Xavmags.png|170px|thumb|Xavier and Magneto would eventually part ways due to the differences in their beliefs on how to help mutants. Art by Carlos Pacheco.]]
Xavier also became good friends with Magneto. Neither revealed to the other the fact that he was a mutant. The two held lengthy debates hypothesizing what would happen if humanity were to be faced with a new, super-powered, race of humans. While Xavier was optimistic, Magneto's experiences in the Holocaust led him to believe that humanity would ultimately oppress the new race of humans like they did any other minority.
The two friends revealed their powers to each other when they fought Nazi [[Baron Wolfgang von Strucker]] and his [[HYDRA]] agents, who had kidnapped Gabrielle because she had known the location of their secret cache of gold. Magneto attempted to kill Strucker by dropping the cave in on him; the baron somehow managed to survive and resurfaced much later. Realizing that his and Xavier's views on mutant-human relations were incompatible, Magneto left with the gold.
Charles continued to stay in Israel for some time, but eventually he and Gabrielle separated on good terms not knowing at the time that she was pregnant with his son, who would grow up to become the [[Autism|autistic]] mutant [[Legion (Marvel Comics)|Legion]].
Xavier later encountered the alien [[Lucifer (Marvel Comics)|Lucifer]], foiling his plans for an invasion. The alien retaliated by dropping a large boulder on Xavier's legs, crushing them and leaving him crippled. After Lucifer had left, a young woman named [[Sage (comics)|Sage]] heard his telepathic cries for help and rescued him, bringing him to safety. Xavier told her she was a mutant and what that meant.
===The X-Men===
[[Image:Xavxmen
|
ituation. Each pitch begins a new ''play,'' which might consist of nothing more than the pitch itself.
Each half-inning, the goal of the defending team is to get three members of the other team out. A player who is out must leave the field and wait for his next turn [[at bat]]. There are many ways to get batters and baserunners out; some of the most common are catching a batted ball [[in flight|in the air]], [[tag out]]s, [[force out]]s, and [[strikeout]]s. After the fielding team has put out three players from the opposing team, that half of the inning is over and the team in the field and the team at bat switch places; there is no upper limit to the number that may bat in rotation before three outs are recorded. Going through the entire order in an inning is referred to as "batting around". It is indicative of a high scoring inning. A complete inning consists of each opposing side having a turn (three outs) on offense.
The goal of the team at bat is to score more runs than the opposition; a player may do so only by batting, then [[baserunning|becoming a base runner]], touching all the bases in order (via one or more plays), and finally touching home plate. To that end, the goal of each batter is to enable [[#Running the bases|baserunners]] to score or to become a baserunner himself. The batter attempts to hit the ball into [[fair territory]]—between the baselines—in such a way that the defending players cannot get them or the baserunners out. In general, the pitcher attempts to prevent this by pitching the ball in such a way that the batter cannot hit it cleanly or, ideally, at all.
A baserunner who successfully touches home plate after touching all previous bases in order scores a ''[[run (baseball statistics)|run]]''. In an enclosed field, a [[fair ball]] hit over the fence on the fly is normally an automatic ''[[home run]]'', which entitles the batter and all runners to touch all the bases and score. A home run hit with all bases occupied ('bases loaded') is called a ''grand slam''.
===Fielding team===
{{seealso|Baseball positions|Baseball positioning}}
The team in the field is the defensive team; they attempt to prevent the baserunners from scoring. There are nine defensive positions, however, only two of the positions have a mandatory location (pitcher and catcher), the locations of the other seven fielders is not specified by the rules, except that at the moment the pitch is delivered they must be positioned in fair territory and not in the space between the pitcher and the catcher. These fielders often shift their [[baseball positioning|positioning]] in response to specific batters or game situations, and they may exchange positions with one another at any time. The nine positions are: pitcher, catcher, first baseman, second baseman, third baseman, shortstop, left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. Scorekeepers label each position with a number starting with the pitcher (1), catcher (2), first baseman (3), second baseman (4), third baseman (5), shortstop (6), left fielder (7), center fielder (8), right fielder (9). This convention was established by [[Henry Chadwick]]. The reason the shortstop seems out of order has to do with the way fielders positioned themselves in the early years of the game.
====The battery====
The ''[[battery (baseball)|battery]]'' is composed of the ''[[pitcher]]'', who stands on the rubber of the mound, and the ''[[catcher]]'', who squats behind home plate. These are the two fielders who always deal directly with the batter on every pitch, hence the term "battery", coined by [[Henry Chadwick]] and later reinforced by the implied comparison to [[artillery]] fire.
The pitcher's main role is to [[pitch (baseball)|pitch]] the ball toward home plate with the goal of getting the batter [[out (baseball)|out]]. Pitchers also play defense by fielding batted balls, [[Covering a base|covering bases]] (for a potential [[tag out]] or [[force out]] on an approaching runner), or backing up throws. The catcher's main role is to receive the pitch if the batter does not hit it. Together with the pitcher and coaches, the catcher plots game strategy by suggesting different pitches and by shifting the starting positions of the other fielders. Catchers are also responsible for defense in the area near home plate.
====The infielders====
The four infielders are the ''[[first baseman]]'', ''[[second baseman]]'', ''[[shortstop]]'', and ''[[third baseman]]''. Originally the first, second and third basemen played very near their respective bases, and the shortstop generally played "in" (hence the term), covering the area between second, third, and the pitchers box, or wherever the game situation required. As the game evolved, the fielding positions changed to the now-familiar "umbrella", with the first and third baseman generally positioned a short distance toward second base from their bases, the second baseman to the right side of second base, and the shortstop playing to the left of second base, as seen from the batter's perspective, filling in the gaps.
The [[first baseman]]'s job consists largely of making [[force play]]s at [[First baseman|first base]] on [[ground ball]]s hit to the other [[infielder]]s. When an [[infielder]] picks up a ball from the ground hit by the [[batter]], he must throw it to the [[first baseman]] before the [[batter]] gets to the base for the [[batter]] to be out. The [[first baseman]] must be able to catch the ball very well. The [[first baseman]] also fields balls hit near first base. The [[first baseman]] also has to receive throws from the pitcher in order to tag runners out who have reached base safely. The position is less physically challenging than the other positions, but there is still a lot of skill involved. [[Infielders]] don't always make good throws to first base, so it is the [[first baseman]]'s job to field any ball thrown toward him cleanly. Older players who can no longer fulfill the demands of their original positions also often become first basemen. The [[second baseman]] covers the area to the right of [[Second baseman|second base]] and provides backup for the [[first baseman]] in [[bunt]] situations. He/She also is a cut-off for the [[outfield]]. This is when the outfielder doesn't have to throw the full distance from him/her to the base, but just to the cut-off. The [[shortstop]] fills the critical gap between second and third bases—where right-handed [[batter]]s generally hit ground balls—and also covers second or third base and the near part of [[left field]]. This player is also a cut-off for the [[outfield]]. This position is the most demanding defensively, so a good [[shortstop]] doesn't need to necessarily be a good [[batter]]. The [[third baseman]]'s primary requirement is a strong throwing arm, in order to make the long throw across the [[infield]] to the [[first baseman]]. Quick reaction time is also important for third basemen, as they tend to see more sharply hit balls than the other [[infielder]]s.
====The outfielders====
The three outfielders, ''[[left fielder]]'', ''[[center fielder]]'', and ''[[right fielder]]'', are so named from the [[catcher]]'s perspective looking out onto the field. The [[right fielder]] generally has the strongest arm of all the [[outfielder]]s due to the need to make throws on runners attempting to take [[Third baseman|third base]]. The [[center fielder]] has more territory to cover than the corner [[outfielder]]s, so this player must be quick and agile with a strong arm to throw balls in to the [[infield]]; as with the [[shortstop]], teams tend to emphasize defense at this position. Also, the [[center fielder]] is considered the [[outfield]] leader, and left- and right-fielders often cede to his direction when fielding [[fly ball]]s. Of all outfielders, the ''[[left fielder]]'' often has the weakest arm, as they generally do not need to throw the ball as far in order to prevent the advance of any baserunners. The left fielder still requires good fielding and catching skills, and tends to receive more balls than the right fielder due to the fact that [[right-handed]] hitters, who are much more common, tend to "pull" the ball into left field. The left fielder also backs up [[third baseman|third base]] on pick-off attempts from the [[catcher]].
====Defensive strategy====
=====Pitching=====
[[Image:baseball_pitching_motion_2004.jpg|thumb|420px|The typical motion of a pitcher]]
{{main|Pitching}}
Effective pitching is vitally important to a baseball team, as pitching is the key for the defensive team to retire batters and to preventing runners from getting on base. A full game usually involves over one hundred pitches thrown by each team. However, most pitchers begin to tire before they reach this point. In previous eras, pitchers would often throw up to four complete games (all nine innings) in a week. With new advances in medical research and thus a better understanding of how the human body functions and tires out, starting pitchers tend more often to throw fractions of a game (typically 6 or 7 innings depending on their performance) about every five days (though a few complete games do still occur each year).
Multiple pitchers are often needed in a single game, including the [[starting pitcher]] and [[relief pitcher]](s). Pitchers are substituted for one another like any other player (see below), and the rules do not limit the number of pitchers that can be used in a game; the only limiting factor is the size of the squad, naturally. In general, starting pitchers are not used in relief situations except sometimes during the post-season when every game is vital. If a game runs into many extra innings, a team may well empty its bullpen. If it then becomes necessary to use a "position player" as a pitcher, major league teams generally have certain players pre-designated as emergency relief pitchers, to avoid making a mocker
|
5. South Australia; 6. Western Australia; 7. Tasmania; 8. Northern Territory|right|400px]]
==States and Territories of Australia==
''(Listed with capital city and number corresponding to map, where applicable)''
===States===
*[[Image:Flag of New South Wales.svg|25x15px]] [[New South Wales]] (NSW) ([[Sydney]]) (#2)
*[[Image:Flag of Victoria (Australia).svg|25x15px]] [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] (VIC) ([[Melbourne]]) (#3)
*[[Image:Flag of Queensland.svg|25x15px]] [[Queensland]] (QLD) ([[Brisbane]]) (#4)
*[[Image:Flag of South Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[South Australia]] (SA) ([[Adelaide]]) (#5)
*[[Image:Flag of Western Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Western Australia]] (WA) ([[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]) (#6)
*[[Image:Tasmania flag.png|25x15px]] [[Tasmania]] (TAS) ([[Hobart]]) (#7)
===Mainland territories===
*[[Image:Australian Capital Territory flag.png|25x15px]] [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) ([[Canberra]]) (#1)
*[[Image:Northern Territory flag.png|25x15px]] [[Northern Territory]] (NT) ([[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]) (#8)
*[[Image:Australian Capital Territory flag.png|25x15px]] [[Jervis Bay Territory]]
===External territories===
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
*[[Image:Norfolk island flag large.png|25x15px]] [[Norfolk Island]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Christmas Island]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Cocos Islands|Cocos and Keeling Islands]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Coral Sea Islands Territory]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard and McDonald Islands]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
:''See also:'' [[Ranked list of Australian states]]
==Background and overview==
The states originated as separate British colonies prior to Federation (in 1901). Their powers are protected by the [[Constitution of Australia|Australian constitution]], and Commonwealth legislation only applies to the states where permitted by the constitution. The territories, by contrast, are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth government. The Australian Parliament has powers to legislate in the territories that it does not possess in the states.
Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth government, while three (the Northern Territory, the Australian Capital Territory and Norfolk Island) administer themselves. In the self-governing territories the Australian Parliament retains the full power to legislate, and can override laws made by the territorial institutions, which it has done on rare occasion. For the purposes of Australian (and joint Australia-New Zealand) intergovernmental bodies, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are treated as a state.
Furthermore, the distribution of powers between the Commonwealth and the territories is different from that between the Commonwealth and the states. In the Northern Territory, the Commonwealth retains the power to directly administer uranium mining and [[indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] lands, powers which it does not possess with respect to the states.
Each state has a Governor, appointed by the [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen]], which by convention she does on the advice of the state Premier. The Administrators of the Northern Territory and of Norfolk Island are, by contrast, appointed by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]. The Australian Capital Territory has neither a Governor or Administrator, but the Governor-General exercises some powers that in other jurisdictions are exercised by the Governor of a state or Administrator of a territory, such as the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly.
Each state has a [[bicameral]] [[Parliament]] except Queensland, which abolished its upper house in 1922. The lower house is called the Legislative Assembly, except in South Australia and Tasmania, where it is called the House of Assembly. Tasmania is the only state to use [[proportional representation]] for elections to its lower house; all others elect members from single member constituencies, using the
[[alternative vote]]. The upper house is called the Legislative Council, and
is generally elected from multi-member constituencies using proportional
representation. The three self-governing territories, the ACT, the Northern
Territory and Norfolk Island, have [[unicameral]] Legislative Assemblies.
The head of government of each state is called the Premier, appointed by the state's Governor. In normal circumstances the Governor will appoint as Premier whoever leads the party or coalition which exercises control of the lower house (in the case of Queensland, the only house) of the state Parliament. However, in times of constitutional crisis, the Governor can appoint someone else as Premier. The head of government of a self-governing territory is called the Chief Minister, and likewise they are appointed by the territory's Administrator, in normal circumstances to whoever controls the territory's Legislative Assembly.
==Compared Terminology==
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
! rowspan = "1" | Entity
! rowspan = "1" | Executive
! rowspan = "1" | Head of Government
! colspan = "2" | Parliament
! colspan = "2" | Member of Parliament*
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! rowspan = "1" | [[Parliament of Australia|Australia]]
! rowspan = "1" | Governor-General
! rowspan = "1" | Prime Minister
! rowpos = "3" colpos="4" | Senate
! rowpos = "3" colpos="5" | House of Representatives
! rowpos = "3" colpos="6" | Senator
! rowpos = "3" colpos="6" | MHR
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Parliament of New South Wales|New South Wales]]
| rowspan="6" | Governor
| rowspan="6" | Premier
| rowspan="2" | Legislative Council
| rowspan="3" | Legislative Assembly
| rowspan="2" | MLC
| rowspan="2" | MLA
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Parliament of Victoria|Victoria]]
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Parliament of Queensland|Queensland]]
| None
| None
| MP
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Parliament of South Australia|South Australia]]
| rowspan="3" | Legislative Council
| rowspan="2" | House of Assembly
| rowspan="3" | MLC
| rowspan="2" | MHA
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Tasmania]]
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Parliament of Western Australia|Western Australia]]
| rowspan="3" | Legislative Assembly
| rowspan="3" | MLA
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly|Australian Capital Territory]]
| Governor-General
| rowspan="2" | Chief Minister
| rowspan="2" | None
| rowspan="2" | None
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
!| [[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly|Northern Territory]]
| Administrator
|- style="background: #f9f9f9;"
| rowspan = "1" colspan = "7" | *''Note: The abbreviation '''MP''' is an acceptable, and indeed more common term for members of each lower house.''
|}
== Governors of States and Administrators of Territories ==
{{main|Governors of the Australian states}}
*[[Governor of New South Wales]] - Her Excellency Professor [[Marie Bashir]] AC; appointed March 2001
*[[Governor of Victoria]] - His Excellency [[John Landy]], AC MBE; appointed October 2001
*[[Governor of South Australia]] - Her Excellency [[Marjorie Jackson-Nelson]] AC CVO MBE; appointed November 2001
*[[Governor of Queensland]] - Her Excellency Ms [[Quentin Bryce]] AC; appointed July 2003
*[[Governor of Tasmania]] - His Excellency [[William Cox]] AC RFD ED; appointed December 2004
*[[Governor of Western Australia]] - His Excellency [[Ken Michael|Dr Ken Michael]] AM; appointed October 2005
*[[Administrator of the Northern Territory of Australia|Administrator of the Northern Territory]] - Mr [[Ted Egan]] AM; appointed October 2003
*[[Administrator of Norfolk Island]] - The Honourable [[Grant Tambling]]; appointed November 2003
== Premiers and Chief Ministers of States and Territories ==
{{main|Premiers of the Australian states}}
*[[Premier of Queensland]] - The Hon [[Peter Beattie]] MP ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since June 1998
*[[Premier of Victoria]] - The Hon [[Steve Bracks]] MLA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since October 1999
*[[Chief Minister of the Northern Territory of Australia]] - Ms [[Clare Martin]] MLA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since August 2001
*[[Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory]] - Mr [[Jon Stanhope]] MLA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since November 2001
*[[Premier of South Australia]] - The Hon [[Mike Rann]] MHA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since March 2002
*[[Premier of Tasmania]] - The Hon [[Paul Lennon]] MHA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since March 2004
*[[Premier of New South Wales]] - The Hon [[Morris Iemma]] MLA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since August 2005
*[[Premier of Western Australia]] - The Hon [[Alan Carpenter]] MLA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since January 2006
== Parliaments of States and Territories ==
{{main|Parliaments of the Australian states and territories}}
*[[Parliament of New South Wales]]
*[[Parliament of Queensland]]
*[[Parliament of South Australia]]
*[[Parliament of Tasmania]]
*[[Parliament of Victoria]]
*[[Parliament of Western Australia]]
*[[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly]]
== State and Territory police forces ==
{{main|
|
hips|Giulio Cesare]]
[[it:Giulio Cesare (corazzata)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>INS Vikrant</title>
<id>15442</id>
<revision>
<id>40851394</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T12:21:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OrphanBot</username>
<id>621721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing image with no copyright information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:INS_Vikrant_BW.jpg |thumb|300px|File photo of INS Vikrant while it was in service]] -->
The '''INS ''Vikrant''''' (formerly the [[HMS Hercules (R49)|'''HMS ''Hercules'' (R49)''']]) was a [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic''-class]] light [[aircraft carrier]] of the [[Royal Navy]]. Her [[keel]] was laid down [[November 12]], [[1943]] by [[Vickers-Armstrong]] of [[Tyne, England]], and she was launched on [[September 22]], [[1945]]. Construction was suspended after [[World War II]] and she was laid up for possible future use. In January [[1957]] she was sold to [[India]], and construction was completed at [[Harland and Wolff]] with an extensively modernized design, including an angled deck with [[steam catapult]]s, a modified [[island]], and many other improvements.
The Indian high commissioner to the [[United Kingdom]], [[Vijayalakshmi Pandit]], commissioned her as '''INS ''Vikrant''''' on [[4 March]] [[1961]] while she was still at [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]]. Captain Pritam Singh was the first commanding officer of the carrier. She formally joined the Indian fleet at [[Mumbai|Bombay]] on [[November 3]], [[1961]], when she was received at Ballard Pier by Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and other high-ranking dignitaries.
The <i>Vikrant</i>'s initial airwing consisted of British [[Hawker Sea Hawk]] [[fighter-bomber]]s and a [[France|French]] [[Breguet Alize|Alize]] [[Anti-submarine weapon|anti-submarine]] aircraft. On [[May 18]], [[1961]], the first jet landed on board, piloted by Lieutenant (later Admiral) R H Tahiliani.
In [[1965]], [[Pakistan]] claimed that it had sunk the ''Vikrant''. At the time, however, the ship was under refit in [[dry dock]].
Despite a crack in a [[boiler]], she saw real combat against Pakistan in the [[1971]] [[Liberation War of Bangladesh]]. She was considered important enough by the [[Pakistan Navy]] that they sent the [[submarine]] [[PNS Ghazi|''Ghazi'']] all the way to the [[Bay of Bengal]] to [[naval mine|mine]] the [[Visakhapatnam]] [[harbor]] in an unsuccessful attempt to sink the ''Vikrant''; the Ghazi itself falling prey to INS Rajput. The ''Vikrant'' played an instrumental role in sinking several Pakistani [[patrol boat]]s and naval vessels. During the war the crew of ''Vikrant'' earned two [[Mahavir Chakra]]s and 12 [[Vir Chakra]]s.
''Vikrant'' was given an extensive refit, including new engines and modernization between [[1979]] and [[January 3]], [[1982]]. Between December 1982 and February [[1983]] she was refitted again to enable her to operate [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]]. After the retirement of the [[Breguet Alizé|Alize]] [[propeller]]-driven anti-submarine planes from carrier service in [[1989]], she received a '[[ski jump]]' for more efficient use of her [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]].
''Vikrant'' was India's only carrier for over 20 years, but by the early [[1990s]] she was effectively out of service because of her poor condition. Even following major overhauls she was rarely put to sea. She was formally decommissioned [[January 31]], [[1997]] and is preserved as a museum at [[Mumbai]].
The name ''Vikrant'' was taken from [[Sanskrit]] ''vikrānta'' = "stepped beyond", i.e. "courageous", "victorious".
[[Image:INS_Vikrant_Stamp.jpg |thumb|Indian Postal Stamp of INS Vikrant]]
=== General characteristics ===
* Displacement: 15,700 tons standard, 19,500 tons full load
* Length: 192 m (630 ft) waterline, 213.3 m (700 ft) extreme
* Beam: 24.4 m (80 ft) waterline, 39 m (128 ft) extreme
* Draft: 7.3 m (24 ft)
* Propulsion: Parsons geared steam turbines, 4 Admiralty three-drum boilers, 2 shafts, 40,000 hp (30 MW), 23 knots (43 km/h)
* Range 12,000 miles (19,000 km) at 14 knots (26 km/h)
* Crew: 1075 usual, 1340 wartime
* Armor: none
* Armament: 16 x 40 mm Bofors antiaircraft guns, later reduced to eight
* Aircraft:
** 6 Westland Sea King Mk42B
** 3 Westland Sea King Mk42C
** Fixed Wing 6 BAe Sea Harriers FRS.51
{{Majestic class aircraft carrier}}
[[Category:Museum ships|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Cold War aircraft carriers of India|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Majestic class aircraft carriers|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian Navy aircraft carriers]]
[[ja:ヴィクラント (空母)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imperialism in Asia</title>
<id>15443</id>
<revision>
<id>41295122</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T09:52:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.31.41.12</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References and further reading */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Western '''imperialism in Asia''' traces its roots back to the late [[15th century]] with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to [[South Asia]] in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in [[spices]]. Before [[1500]] European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to a growing trade in lucrative [[commodity|commodities]]—a key development in the rise of today's modern world [[capitalism|capitalist]] economy.
In the [[16th century]], the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] established a monopoly over trade between Asia and Europe by managing to prevent rival powers from using the water routes between Europe and the Indian Ocean. However, with the rise of the rival [[Dutch East India Company]], Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed. Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between [[1640]] and [[1660]] wrestled [[Malacca]], [[Ceylon]], most southern Indian ports, and the lucrative [[Japan]] trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in India and established a trade with China; and their own acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the [[Seven Years War]] in [[1763]], the British eliminated French influence in India and established the [[British East India Company]] as the most important political force on the [[Indian subcontinent]].
Before the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the mid-to-late [[19th century]], demand for oriental goods remained the driving force behind European imperialism, and (with the important exception of British East India Company rule in India) the European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialization, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; and the severe [[Long Depression]] of the [[1870s]] provoked a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global colonial expansion known as "the [[New Imperialism]]," which saw a shift in focus from trade and [[indirect rule]] to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of the [[First World War]] in [[1914]], Britain, France, and the Netherlands—the established colonial powers in Asia—added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. In the same period, [[Japan]], following the [[Meiji Restoration]]; [[German Empire|Germany]], following the end of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in [[1871]]; [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]]; and the [[United States]], following the [[Spanish-American War]] in [[1898]] quickly emerged as new imperialist powers in East Asia and in the Pacific.
In Asia, World War I and [[World War II]] were played out as struggles among several key imperialist powers—conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese powers. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both world wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of the Asia's remaining colonies, [[decolonization]] was intercepted by the [[Cold War]]; and Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid postwar economic development of the [[East Asian Tigers]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], along with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], have loosensed European and North American influence in Asia, generating speculation today about the possible reemergence of China and Japan as regional powers.
==Asian empires before European contact==
''To be inserted upon completion''
==Early European penetration of Asia==
===Medieval European exploration of Asia===
[[Image:Marco Polo traveling.JPG|thumb|Illustration of Marco Polo's arrival in a Chinese city]]
In the [[13th century|13th]] and [[14th century|14th centuries]], a number
|
25% (1993 est.)
; [[Irrigated land]]:
: 4,350 km² (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: [[Flooding]] is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of [[Jutland]], along the southern coast of the island of [[Lolland]]) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes
; Environment - current issues:
: [[Air pollution]], principally from vehicle and power plant emissions; [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] pollution of the [[North Sea]]; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides
; Environment - international agreements:
:* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the Sea]], Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
:* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
; Geography - note:
: Controls [[Danish Straits]] ([[Skagerrak]] and [[Kattegat]]) linking Baltic and North Seas; about one-quarter of the population lives in [[Copenhagen]]
==See also==
*[[List of islands of Denmark]]
==External links==
*[http://www.kms.dk/C1256C62002F8C6B/ Online charts and maps by the Danish survey authority]
*[http://www.kms.dk/C1256C6200312D33/(AllDocsByDocId)/8133C59F44437DC9C1256CBB0052E7B4 Denmark in numbers]
[[Category:Geography of Denmark| ]]
[[es:Geografía de Dinamarca]]
[[fr:Géographie du Danemark]]
[[it:Geografia della Danimarca]]
[[pt:Geografia da Dinamarca]]
[[ru:География Дании]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Denmark</title>
<id>8033</id>
<revision>
<id>41471254</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:58:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.9.192.165</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Most [[Denmark|Danes]] today trace their heritage to a Germanic people who have inhabited Denmark since prehistoric times. However, with immigration in recent into the country from various parts of the world, the Danish population has become increasingly heterogeneous. [[Danish language|Danish]] is the principal language of [[Denmark]].
During the [[Völkerwanderung]] migrations (times of [[Huns]] and later [[Slavs]] and [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] onslaughts into [[Magna Germania]]), Danes came onto the peninsula of [[Jutland]]. They were repelled by native Juetlanders, Friesians and other native Germanic tribes. Danish attackers left many ships, on which they came, stuck in the moors, which can still be found today. In time the [[Franks|Frankish]]/German emperors married off the Jutland chief's daughters to Danes, thus making them part of the empire as kings.
A small German-speaking minority lives in southern part of Denmark on Jutland, more exactly in northern Sleswig. [[Schleswig-Holstein|Schleswig and Holstein]] dukes were for a long time under the Holy Roman Empire also the kings of Denmark. The dukes of Schleswig/Holstein were to also be kings of Denmark, but it was to always remain separate. Despite this the northern part of Schleswig near Tondern was cut off and "given" to Denmark after the first world war at [[Versailles]]. Today most people in border regions of Europe speak both languages.
A mostly [[Inuit]] population inhabits [[Greenland]]; and the [[Faroe Islands]] have a Nordic population with its own language. Education is compulsory from ages seven to 18 and is free through the university level.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church (''Den danske folkekirke'') is state-supported and, according to statistics from January 2002, accounts for about 84.3% of Denmark's religious affiliation. Denmark has religious freedom, however, and other religions exist, both Protestant denominations and other. The office of the Minister of Religion (''Kirkeministeren'') recognizes 12 different religions for tax and legal purposes; in addition it acknowledges a number of other religious groups for the purpose of conducting wedding ceremonies.
[[Ansgar]] was in [[835]] designated archbishop over the North and East. His bishopric [[Hamburg-Bremen]] remained so until Lund was designed to take on their own archbishopric in [[1103]].
'''Population''':
5,432,335 (July 2005 est.)
'''[[Age structure]]''':
* 0-14 years: 18.8% (male 524,250; female 497,683)
* 15-64 years: 66.1% (male 1,811,787; female 1,780,907)
* 65 years and over: 15.1% (male 349,458; female 468,250) (2005 est.)
[[Population growth rate]]: 0.34% (2005 est.)
[[Birth rate]]: 11.36 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
[[Death rate]]: 10.43 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
[[Net migration rate]]:
2.53 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
[[Sex ratio]]:
* at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
* under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
* 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
* 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female
* total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
[[Infant mortality rate]]: 4.56 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
[[Life expectancy]]:
* total population: 77.62 years
* male: 75.34 years
* female: 80.03 years (2005 est.)
Total [[fertility rate]]:
1.74 children born/woman (2005 est.)
[[Nationality]]:
* noun: [[Dane]](s)
* adjective: Danish
[[Ethnic groups]]:
* [[Denmark|Danish]] 93.8%
* [[Asia|Asian]] 1.5%
* [[Turkey|Turkish]] 0.9%
* Residents of [[former Yugoslavia]] 0.8%
* [[Africa|African]] 0.7%
* [[England|English]] 0.2%
* [[Germany|German]] 0.2%
* [[Sweden|Swedish]] 0.2%
* [[Inuit]] 0.1%
* [[Faroese people|Faroese]] 0.1%
* Others 1.5%
[[Religion]]s:
* [[Lutheran]] 84.3%,
* other [[Protestant]] and [[Roman Catholic]] 3%, [[Islam]] 2%
* other/non-religious 10.7%
[[Language]]s:
* [[Danish language|Danish]]
* [[Faroese language|Faroese]],
* [[Greenlandic]] (an [[Inuit]] dialect),
* [[German language|German]] (small minority)
''note:'' [[English language|English]] is the predominant second language
[[Literacy]]: (''definition: age 15 and over can read and write'')
* total population: 100%
* male: 100%
* female: 100%
==See also==
* [[Denmark]]
* [[Religion in Denmark]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Denamrl]]
[[Category:Geography of Denmark]]
[[Category:Danish society]]
[[es:Demografía de Dinamarca]]
[[pt:Demografia da Dinamarca]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Denmark</title>
<id>8034</id>
<revision>
<id>15906057</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-28T08:44:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>make redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Denmark]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Denmark</title>
<id>8035</id>
<revision>
<id>41419123</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:53:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab welfare</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Denmark]]'s industrialized market economy depends on imported raw materials and foreign trade. Within the [[European Union]], Denmark advocates a liberal trade policy. Its standard of living is among the highest in the world, and the Danes devote 0,7% of GDP to foreign aid.
Denmark is self-sufficient in energy - producing oil, natural gas and wind-energy. Its principal exports are machinery, instruments and food products. The U.S. is Denmark's largest non-European trading partner, accounting for about 5% of total Danish merchandise trade. Aircraft, computers, machinery, and instruments are among the major U.S. exports to Denmark. There are some 250 U.S.-owned companies in Denmark. Among major Danish exports to the U.S. are industrial machinery, chemical products, furniture, pharmaceuticals, and canned ham and pork.
From 1982, a center-right government corrected accumulated economic pressures, mainly [[inflation]] and balance-of-payments deficits, but lost power in 1993 to a [[Social democracy|Social Democratic]] coalition government led by [[Poul Nyrup Rasmussen]], who remained in office following the March [[1998]] election. The government of Poul Nyrup Rasmussen had success in cutting official unemployment, which peaked at 12.5% and is now below 5.5 %. Average annual growth rates are now 2-3%. In [[November]] [[2001]], a center-right government led by [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] won the election on maintaining the current [[tax]] level, and improving the overall administrational efficiency.
For the last two years (2004,2005) the danish economy has been surprisingly strong - surplus on the national budget is expected to be 39 billions DKK for 2006.
The government of Denmark is using most of this surplus to reduce the national debt (total net national debt (internal+external) was 417.8 billions DKK at the end of 2005 ).
Danes are proud of their highly developed welfare safety net, which ensures that all Danes receive free health care and need not fear real poverty. Over the last 20 years, however, the number of Danes living on transfer payments has grown to about 1 million working-age persons (roughly 20% of the population), and the system is beginning to show strains. Health care and care for the elderly particularly have suffered, and the need for welfare reform is increasingly discussed. More than one-quarter of the labor force is employed in the public sector. Thus 61% of the adult population in Denmark is either living of transfer payments or employed by the government (2005). The large public sector is financed through high taxes. A [[Value added tax]] of 25% is levied on the sale of most goods and services (including groceries). The income tax in Denmark ranges from 9%-44% for
|
ct, and builds a wonderfully imaginative story around it. An always extant being called Qfwfq narrates the stories, each of which is a memory of an event in the history of the universe.
The most well known is probably the first one, '''"The distance of the moon"''', which takes the fact that the moon used to be much closer to the earth, and builds it into a romantic story about two men and one woman in a tribe of people who used to jump up onto the moon when it passed overhead.
Some other stories:
*'''"The aquatic uncle"''' — A tale on the fact that at one stage in evolution animals left the sea and came to live on land. The story is about a family living on land that is a bit ashamed of their old uncle who still lives in the sea, refusing to come ashore like "civilized" people.
*"'''The Light Years'''" is one story is about Qfwfq looking at other galaxies, and spotting one with a sign pointed right at him saying "I saw you." Given that there's a gulf of 100,000,000 light years, he checks his diary to find out what he had been doing that day, and finds out that it was something he wished to hide. Then he starts to worry.
*'''"All at one point"''' — The fact that all matter and creation used to exist in a single point. ''"Naturally, we were all there, - old Qfwfq said, - where else could we have been? Nobody knew then that there could be space. Or time either: what use did we have for time, packed in there like sardines?"''
*'''"A sign in space"''' — The idea that the galaxy slowly revolves becomes a story about a being who is desperate to leave behind some unique sign of his existence.
*'''"The Spiral"''' — A beautiful story about life as a mollusk, and the nature of love.
*'''"The Dinosaurs"''' — How some dinosaurs lived after most of them had become extinct, and how it felt to be that last existing dinosaur in an age where all the current mammals feared your kind as demons.
*"'''Games Without End'''" — A galactic game of marbles back before the universe had formed much more than particles.
*'''"How Much Shall We Bet"''' — A story about betting on the long term evolution of mankind.
All of the stories feature non-human characters with very human qualities.
[[Category: 1965 books]]
[[fa:کمدیهای کیهانی]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IA-32</title>
<id>15046</id>
<revision>
<id>40322149</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T20:32:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guy Harris</username>
<id>122189</id>
</contributor>
<comment>IA-32 is a comptuer architecture in the "more specific sense" of an instruction set architecture.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|X86 assembly language}}
'''IA-32''', sometimes generically called x86-32, is the [[instruction set architecture]] of [[Intel]]'s most successful [[microprocessor]]s. Within various [[programming language]] directives it is also referred to as "[[i386]]". The term may be used to refer to the 32-bit extensions to the original [[x86]] architecture, or to the architecture as a whole.
This architecture defines the [[instruction set]] for the family of microprocessors installed in the vast majority of [[personal computer]]s in the world.
The term means '''Intel Architecture, 32-bit''', which distinguishes it from the 16-bit versions of the architecture that preceded it, and the 64-bit architecture [[IA-64]] (which is very different, although it has an IA-32 compatibility mode). The more generic name for all 16 and 32-bit versions of this [[computer architecture|architecture]] is [[x86]].
Intel was the inventor and is the biggest supplier of processors compatible with this instruction set, but it is not the only supplier of such processors. The second biggest supplier is [[AMD]]. And then there are numerous even smaller more specialized suppliers of these processors.
This instruction set was introduced in the [[Intel 80386]] microprocessor in [[1985]]. This instruction set is still the basis of most PC microprocessors twenty years later in 2005. Even though the instruction set has remained intact, the successive generations of microprocessors that run it have become much faster at running it.
The IA-32 instruction set is usually described as CISC ([[Complex Instruction Set Computer]]) architecture, though such classifications have become less meaningful with advances in microprocessor design.
==Two memory management models==
There are two memory access models that IA-32 supports. One is called [[Real mode]], and the other is called [[Protected mode]]. In Real Mode, the processor is limited to accessing a total of just over 1MB of memory, while in Protected mode it can access all of its memory.
===Real mode===
The old [[DOS]] operating system required the '''[[real mode]]''' to work, while newer Windows, Linux and other operating systems usually require the '''[[protected mode]]'''. Upon power-on (aka [[booting]]), the processor initiates itself into Real mode, and then it begins loading programs automatically into RAM from ROM and disk. A program inserted somewhere along the boot sequence may be used to put the processor into the Protected mode.
===Protected mode===
In Protected mode, a number of other advantages beyond just the additional memory addressability beyond the DOS 1MB limit get activated. One of them is [[protected memory]], which prevents programs from corrupting one another. Another one is [[virtual memory]], which lets programs use more memory than is physically installed on the machine. And the third feature is task-switching, aka [[computer multitasking|multitasking]], which lets a computer juggle multiple programs all at once to look like they are all running at the same time.
The size of memory in Protected mode is usually limited to 4GB. However, this isn't the ultimate limit of the size of memory in IA-32 processors. Through tricks in the processor's page and segment memory management systems, IA-32 operating systems may be able to access more than 32-bits of address space, even without the switchover to the 64-bit paradigm. One such trick is known as [[PAE]] (Physical Address Extensions).
====Virtual 8086 mode====
There was also a sub-mode of operation in Protected mode, called ''[[virtual 8086 mode]]''. This is basically a special hybrid operating mode which allowed old [[DOS]] programs and operating systems to run while under the control of a Protected mode supervisor operating system. This allowed for a great deal of flexibility in running both Protected mode programs and DOS programs simultaneously. This mode was added only with the IA-32 version of Protected mode, it did not exist previously in the 80286 16-bit version of Protected mode.
==Registers==
The [[Intel 80386| 386]] has eight 32-bit ''general purpose'' registers for application use. There are 8 floating point stack registers. Later processors added new registers with their various [[SIMD]] instruction sets too, such as [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], and [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]].
There are also system registers that are used mostly by operating systems but not by applications usually. They are known as ''segment'', ''control'', ''debug'', and ''test'' registers. There are six segment registers, used mainly for memory management. The number of ''control'', ''debug'' or ''test'' registers varies from model to model.
===General Purpose registers===
The x86 general purpose registers are not really as general purpose as their name implies. That is because these general purpose registers have some highly specialized tasks that can often only be done by using only one or two specific registers. In other architectures, any general purpose register can be used for any purpose. The x86 general purpose registers further subdivide into registers specializing in data and others specializing in addressing.
Also a lot of operations can be done either inside a register or directly inside RAM without requiring the data to be loaded into a register first. The 1970s heritage of this architecture shows through by this behaviour.
'''Note:''' with the advent of the 64-bit extensions to [[x86]] in [[AMD64]], this odd behaviour has now been cleaned up (at least in 64-bit mode). General purpose registers are now truly general purpose and they can be used interchangeably. This does not affect the 32-bit architecture, however.
====8-bit and 16-bit register subsets====
8-bit and 16-bit subsets of these registers are also accessible. For example, the lower 16-bits of the 32-bit '''EAX''' registers can be accessed by calling it the '''AX''' register. Some of the 16-bit registers can be further subdivided into 8-bit subsets too; for example, the upper 8-bit half of '''AX''' is called '''AH''', and the lower half is called '''AL'''. Similarly, '''EBX''' is subdivided into '''BX''' (16-bit), which in turn is divided into '''BH''' and '''BL''' (8-bit).
====General data registers====
All of the four following registers may be used as general purpose registers. However each has some specialized purpose as well. Each of these registers also have 16-bit or 8-bit subset names.
* EAX Accumulator (with a special interpretation for arithmetic instructions; a for ''accumulator'')
* EBX base register (used for addressing data in the data segment)
* ECX counter (with a special interpretation for loops, c for ''counter'')
* EDX data register
====General address registers====
Used only for address pointing. They have 16-bit subset names, but no 8-bit subsets.
* EBP base pointer (holds the address of the current [[stack frame]])
* ESI source index (for [[string (computer science)|string]] operations)
* EDI destination index (for string operations)
* ESP stack pointer (holds the top address of the stack)
* EIP instruction pointer (holds the current instruction addr
|
At near-light velocities, we use the correct [[relativistic]] formula:
:<math>E_k = m c^2 (\gamma - 1) = \gamma m c^2 - m c^2 \;\!</math>
:<math>\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - (v/c)^2}} </math>
where
''v'' is the [[velocity]] of the body
''m'' is its [[rest mass]]
''c'' is the [[speed of light]] in a [[vacuum]], which is approximately 300,000 kilometers per second
<math>\gamma m c^2 \,</math> is the ''total energy'' of the body
<math>m c^2 \,</math> is again the [[rest mass]] energy.
See also, [[E=mc²]].
In the form of a [[Taylor series]], the [[relativistic]] formula can be written as:
:<math>E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv^2 - \frac{3}{8} \frac{mv^4} {c^2} + \cdots </math>
Hence, the second and higher terms in the series correspond with the "inaccuracy" of the Newtonian approximation for kinetic energy in relation to the [[relativistic]] formula.
However, the phrase "conservation of energy" is often confusing to a non scientist. This is so, because of the common usage of the terms "save energy" or conserve energy" used in campaigns for conservation of energy resources like electricity or fossil fuels.
=== Potential energy ===
{{main|Potential energy}}
In contrast to [[kinetic energy]], which is the energy of a [[system]] due to its [[motion]], or the internal motion of its particles, the [[potential energy]] of a system is the energy associated with the spatial configuration of its components and their interaction with each other. Any number of particles which exert forces on each other automatically constitute a system with potential energy. Such forces, for example, may arise from [[electrostatic]] interaction (see [[Coulomb's law]]), or [[gravity]].
In an isolated system consisting of two stationary objects that exert a force <math>f(x)</math> on each other and lie on the x-axis, their [[potential energy]] is most generally defined as
:<math>E_p = -\int f(x) \, dx</math>
where the force between the objects varies only with [[distance]] <math>x</math> and is [[integrated]] along the line connecting the two objects.
To further illustrate the relationship between [[force]] and [[potential energy]], consider the same system of two objects situated along the x-axis. If the [[potential energy]] due to one of the objects at any point <math>x</math> is <math>U(x)</math>, then the force on that object at <math>x</math> is
:<math>f(x) = -\frac{dU(x)}{dx}</math>
This mathematical relationship demonstrates the direct connection between [[force]] and [[potential energy]]: the [[force]] between two objects is in the direction of decreasing [[potential energy]], and the magnitude of the [[force]] is proportional to the extent to which [[potential energy]] decreases. A large [[force]] is associated with a large decrease in [[potential energy]], while a small [[force]] is associated with a small decrease in [[potential energy]]. Notice how, in this case, the [[force]] on an object depends entirely on its [[potential energy]].
These two relationships &ndash; the definition of [[potential energy]] based on [[force]], and the dependence of [[force]] on [[potential energy]] &ndash; show how the concepts of [[force]] and [[potential energy]] are intimately linked: if two objects do not exert forces on each other, there is no [[potential energy]] between them. If two objects do exert forces on each other, then [[potential energy]] naturally arises in the system as part of the system's total energy. Since [[potential energy]] arises from forces, any change in the system's spatial configuration will either increase or decrease the system's [[potential energy]] as the objects are repositioned.
When a system moves to a lower [[potential energy]] state, energy is either released in some form or converted into another form of energy, such as [[kinetic energy]]. The [[potential energy]] can be "stored" as [[gravitational energy]], [[elastic energy]], [[chemical energy]], [[rest mass energy]] or [[electrical energy]], but arises in all cases from the spatial positioning and interaction of objects within a system. Unlike [[kinetic energy]], which exists in any moving body, [[potential energy]] exists in any body which is interacting with another object.
For example a [[mass]] released above the [[Earth]] initially has [[potential energy]] resulting from the [[gravity|gravitational attraction]] of the Earth, which is transferred to [[kinetic energy]] as the [[gravitational force]] acts on the object and its [[potential energy]] is decreased as it falls.
Equation:
:<math>E_p = mgh \;</math>
where ''m'' is the mass, ''h'' is the [[height]] and ''g'' is the value of [[acceleration]] due to [[gravity]] at the Earth's surface (see [[gee]]).
===Internal energy===
{{main|Internal energy}}
''Internal energy'' is the [[kinetic energy]] associated with the motion of [[molecule]]s, and the [[potential energy]] associated with the [[rotation|rotational]], [[vibration|vibrational]] and [[electric]] energy of [[atom]]s within molecules. [[Internal energy]], like energy, is a quantifiable [[state function]] of a system.
==History==
In the past, energy was discussed in terms of easily observable effects it has on the [[property|properties]] of objects or changes in state of various systems. Basically, if something changed, some sort of energy was involved in that change. As it was realized that energy could be stored in objects, the concept of energy came to embrace the idea of the potential for change as well as change itself. Such effects (both potential and realized) come in many different forms; examples are the [[electrical energy]] stored in a battery, the [[chemical energy]] stored in a piece of food, the [[thermal energy]] of a water heater, or the [[kinetic energy]] of a moving train. To simply say energy is "change or the potential for change", however, misses many important examples of energy as it exists in the physical world.
The concept of energy and work are relatively new additions to the physicist’s toolbox. Neither [[Galileo]] nor [[Newton]] made any contributions to the theoretical model of energy, and it was not until the middle of the 19th century that these concepts were introduced.
The development of [[steam engines]] required engineers to develop concepts and formulas that would allow them to describe the [[mechanical]] and [[thermal]] efficiencies of their systems. Engineers such as [[Sadi Carnot]] and [[James Prescott Joule]], mathematicians such as [[Émile Claperyon]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz ]], and amateurs such as [[Julius Robert von Mayer]] all contributed to the notions that the ability to perform certain tasks, called work, was somehow related to the amount of energy in the system. The nature of energy was elusive, however, and it was argued for some years whether energy was a substance (the [[caloric theory|caloric]]) or merely a physical quantity, such as [[momentum]].
William Thomson ([[Lord Kelvin]]) amalgamated all of these laws into his laws of [[thermodynamics]], which aided in the rapid development of energetic descriptions of chemical processes by [[Rudolf Clausius]], [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]], [[Walther Nernst]]. In addition, this allowed [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] to describe entropy in mathematical terms, and to discuss, along with [[Jožef Stefan]], the laws of [[radiant energy]].
For further information, see the [[Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes|Timeline of thermodynamics]].
==Energy and Economy==
{{main articles|[[Energy development]] and [[Energy policy]]}}
The way in which humans use energy is one of the defining characteristics of an economy. The progression from animal power to [[steam power]], then the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[electricity]], are key elements in the development of modern civilization. [[Future energy development]], for example of [[renewable energy]], may be key to avoiding the [[effects of global warming]].<!--- etc etc much more to be said -->
==See also==
*[[Principles of energetics]]
*[[List of energy topics]]
=== Energy in natural sciences ===
* [[Energy conversion]]
* [[Enthalpy]]
* [[Energy quality]]
* [[Exergy]]
* [[Power (physics)]]
* [[Specific orbital energy]]
* [[Solar radiation]]
* [[Thermodynamics]]
* [[Thermodynamic entropy]]
===Energy resources===
*[[List of energy resources|List]]
*[[Embodied energy]]
*[[Emergy]]
*[[Energy crisis|Crisis]]
*[[Energy development|Development]]
*[[Energy policy|Policy]]
*[[Renewable energy|Renewable]]
*[[Energy balance]]
*[[Energy demand management|Management]]
*[[Energy storage|Storage]]
*[[Energy transmission|Transmission]]
*[[EU Energy Label]]
*[[EU Intelligent Energy]],
*[[energy efficiency|Efficiency]]
== Further reading ==
*[[Richard Feynman|Feynman, Richard]]. ''Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher''. Helix Book. See the chapter "conservation of energy" for Feynman's explanation of what energy is and how to think about it.
*[[Albert Einstein|Einstein, Albert]] (1952). ''Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (Fifteenth Edition)''. ISBN 0-517-88441-0
*[[Alfred J. Lotka]] (1956). ''Elements of Mathematical Biology'', forerly published as 'Elements of Physical Biology', Dover, New York.
== Notes ==
{{note|nasa}} This definition is one of the most common; e.g. [http://observe.arc.nasa.gov/nasa/space/stellardeath/stellardeath_6.html Glossary at the NASA homepage]
== External links ==
*[http://www.physicsweb.org/article/world/15/7/2 What does energy really mean? From Physics World]
*[http://www.energy.ca.gov/glossary/ Glossary of Energy Terms]
* [http://www.iea.org International Energy Agency IEA - [[OECD]]]
* (pdf) - [http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0004055.pdf 'Actual' (First-Law)
|
er River]]. It is separated from Telangana by the low [[Erramala]] hills, and from Coastal Andhra by the Eastern Ghats.
The Krishna and Godavari rivers together irrigate thousands of square kilometres of land, and create the largest perennial cultivable area in the country. Andhra Pradesh leads in the production of [[rice]] ([[paddy]]) and is called India's Rice Bowl.
===Languages in Andhra Pradesh===
[[Telugu language|Telugu]] is the regional and official language of the state, spoken by 84.86% of the population. The major linguistic minority groups in the State include the speakers of [[Urdu]] (7.86%), [[Hindi]] (2.65%) and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (1.27%). The minority language speakers who constitute less than 1% are the speakers of [[Kannada]] (0.94%), [[Marathi]] (0.84%), [[Oriya]] (0.42%), [[Malayalam]] (0.10%), [[Gondi]] (0.21%), and [[Koya]] (0.30%).
The state government has notified the areas where the population of linguistic minority constitutes 15% or more of the local population. 38% of Urdu speaking population in Andhra Pradesh is bilingual in Telugu as well.
===Important Cities/Towns===
*[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] is the [[capital]] of the state and, along with its twin town of Secunderabad, is the largest city.
*[[Visakhapatnam]] is the second largest city, India's fourth largest [[port]], an important Naval Centre and an industrial hub.
*[[Tirupati]] features the famous Venkateswara temple, is a major pilgrimage center.
*[[Vijayawada]] is the third largest city and an important [[trade|trading]] center and a prominent [[railway]] junction.
*[[Guntur]] is the fourth largest city of A.P, it is the heart of the [[tobacco]], [[cotton]] industry, features the famous [[Amaravati]].
*[[Warangal]] was the capital of the [[Kakatiya]] dynasty.
*[[Nellore]] is famous for its sea food and rice quality. Also famous for mica industry and space research centre.
*[[Kurnool]] was the capital city of the Andhra state.
*[[Kakinada]] is the hub of [[natural gas]] exploration and industrial activity.
*[[Rajahmundry]] is known for the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] barrage which is the largest bridge in the state.
*[[Ramagundam]] is an industrial town in the upper Godavari valley
===Districts===
[[Image:Map_AP_dist_all_shaded.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Districts of Andhra Pradesh]].]]
''[[Districts of Andhra Pradesh|23 districts of Andhra Pradesh]]''
{|
|-
|
* [[Adilabad]]
* [[Anantapur]]
* [[Chittoor]]
* [[Cuddapah]]
* [[East Godavari]]
* [[Guntur]]
* [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]
* [[Karimnagar]]
* [[Khammam]]
* [[Krishna District|Krishna]]
* [[Kurnool]]
* [[Mahbubnagar]]
* [[Medak]]
* [[Nalgonda]]
* [[Nellore]]
* [[Nizamabad]]
* [[Prakasam]]
* [[Rangareddy]]
* [[Srikakulam]]
* [[Visakhapatnam]]
* [[Vizianagaram]]
* [[Warangal]]
* [[West Godavari]]
|}
==Politics==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:APLegislativeAssembly.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The [[Andhra Pradesh]] State Legislative Assembly at the center of the [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] City. This white building was originally a [[Nizam]] construction.]] -->
Andhra Pradesh has a [[Legislative Assembly]] of 294 seats. The state has 60 members in the [[Indian national parliament]]: 18 in the [[Rajya Sabha]] (upper house) and 42 in the [[Lok Sabha]] (lower house).
Andhra Pradesh had a row of Congress governments till 1982. Kasu Bramhananda Reddy held the record for the longest serving chief minister which was broken by [[Nara Chandrababu Naidu]]. [[P.V. Narasimha Rao]] also served as the chief minister for the state, who later went on to become the Prime Minister of India. Among the notable chief ministers of the state are Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, Kasu Bramhananda Reddy, Dr. Marri Chenna Reddy , Kotla Vijaya Bhasker Reddy , [[N T Rama Rao]] and Nara Chandrababu Naidu.
===The Beginning of Multi-Party Politics===
1982 saw the rise of NT Rama Rao (or NTR) as the chief minister of the state for the first time introducing a formidable second political party to Andhra politics and thus breaking the virtually-single party monopoly on Andhra politics. Nadendla Bhaskar Rao attempted a hijack when NTR was away to the United States for a medical treatment. After coming back, NTR successfully convinced the governor to dissolve the Assembly and call for a fresh election. NTR won by a large majority. His government's policies included investment in education and rural development and in holding corrupt government offices accountable.
1989 assembly elections ended the 7-year rule of NTR with the congress being returned to power and Dr. Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. He was replaced by N. Janardhan Reddy who was in turn replaced by Kotla Vijaya Bhasker Reddy.
In 1994 Assembly saw NTR becoming the chief minister again, but he was soon thrown out of power by his finance minister and son-in-law N Chandrababu Naidu. Naidu won a second term before he was defeated by the Congress-led coalition in the May 2004 polls.
[[Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy]] of the Indian National Congress (INC) is the current chief minister of the states. Rajasekhara Reddy fought the 2004 Assembly elections in an alliance with a new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi (or TRS), which hopes to form a separate state called Telangana.
See [[Andhra Pradesh Politics]] <br>
See [[Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh]]<br>
See [[:Category:Indian political parties-Andhra Pradesh|List of political parties in the state]]
==Economy==
[[Image:Map_AP_dist_NH_roads.png|thumb|right|300px|Major road links of Andhra Pradesh]]
===Recent Economic Progress===
In the last decade, the state has emerged at the forefront of India's progress in fields like
* [[Information Technology]],
* [[Biotechnology]],
* [[Pharmaceuticals]],
* [[Business Management]], and
* [[Construction]],
and has emerged as a land of immense business opportunities.
In spite of some liberalization since 1990, Andhra's economy still faces many challeges, especially in the drought-hit agricultural sector.
Agriculture has been the chief source of income for the state's economy. Two important rivers of India, the [[Godavari]] and [[Krishna]], flow through the state. [[Rice]], [[sugarcane]], [[cotton]], [[Chilli pepper|mirchi]], and [[tobacco]] are the local [[agriculture|crops]]. The state has also started to focus on the fields of [[information technology]] and [[biotechnology]].
===Urban Centers of Economic Importance===
[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], the capital of Andhra Pradesh, is the fifth largest cosmopolitan city in India, rich in culture, enduring history and industrial growth. It is unique in being one of the few cities where tradition and technology co-exist. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], like [[Bangalore]], has become a center for [[outsourcing]]. Notable amongst the multinational companies in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] are [[Microsoft]], Google, [http://www.rediff.com/money/2004/may/10bpo5.htm Bank of America], Intergraph and Oracle.
[[Vizag]], Andhra's main port, is home to the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command. The city's shipyards, fisheries, docks, and steel works make it an economic powerhouse. Recently, Vizag has seen a rise in investment as industry in Andhra begins to turn towards the lucrative export market. Also, because of its highly valuable geographic location, and because of recent political movement towards a creation of a separate [[Telangana]] state, Vizag has seen a massive rise in investment in the city's real estate market.
==Culture==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:MovieManiaAP.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|Movie posters cover a wall in [[Vijayawada]], Andhra Pradesh.]] -->
===Language===
[[Telugu language|Telugu]] (తెలుగు) is the state's official language. Telugu is the second most widely spoken language in India after the national language, Hindi. It is known for its mellifluous nature and has also been called ''Italian of the East''. An [[Urdu]]-speaking and predominantly [[Muslim]] minority lives mostly in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]. Among the many tribal languages, [[Banjara]], [[Koyi]], and [[Gondi]] have the greatest number of speakers.
===Movies===
Andhra has 1,500 movie theaters, the second-most in India. The state also produces about 100 movies a year.
Now it also houses IMax theatre with a big 3D screen and also 3-5 multiplexes
===Music===
The state has a rich cultural heritage. The great composers of [[carnatic music]] [[Annamacharya]], [[Tyagaraja]] and many others were of Telugu descent who chose [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as their language of composition, thus enriching the language.
===Literature===
{{main|Telugu literature}}
[[Nannayya]], [[Tikkana]], and [[Yerrapragada]] form the trinity who translated the great epic Mahabharatha into Telugu. Modern writers include [[Jnanpith Award]] winners [[Viswanatha Satyanarayana|Sri Viswanatha Satyanarayana]] and [[C. Narayana Reddy|Dr. C.Narayana Reddy]].
===Dance===
Classical dance in Andhra can be performed by both men and women, however women tend to learn it more often.
[[Kuchipudi]] is the state's best-known and widely practiced classical [[dance]] form.
Another classical dance form, [[Andhra Naatyam]], was historically a dance that defined Andhra's culture. Danced since antiquity at both Buddhist and Hindu temples, it has seen a resurgence in recent years, after nearly dying out.
===Cultural Institutions===
Andhra Pradesh has many museums, including the [[Salar Jung Museum]] in Hyderabad, which features a varied collection of sculptures, paintings, and religious artifacts, and the [http://www.vizagcityonline.com/visakha_museum/ Visakha Museum] in Vizag, which displays the history of the pre-Independence [[Madras Presidency]] in a rehabilitated Dutch bungalow.
===Newspapers===
Andhra Pradesh has several newspapers. Prominent among them are
Telugu Newspapers - Eenadu , Vaartha, Andhra Jyothi, Prajasakti, Andhra Bhumi, Visalandra,
English Newspapers - [[Deccan Chronicle]],[[The Hin
|
ck led many to assume Bonds would not play in the 2005 season. It also raised much speculation as to whether [[Hank Aaron]]'s career home run record of 755 is out of reach.
On [[August 1]], in an interview with MLB.com, Bonds stated that he would most likely not return for the 2005 season due to continued buildup of fluid in the knee due to activities. On [[August 5]], however, he stated on his website that he was unsure but remained optimistic.
In September, Bonds started working out with the team while the team was in Los Angeles, playing the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Dodgers]]. On [[September 10]], the Giants announced that Bonds would be activated on [[September 12]]. He was indeed activated that day and immediately returned to being a starter in left field. In his return against the [[San Diego Padres]], he nearly hit a home run in his first at-bat, but the ball was ruled to be only a double due to fan interference. Bonds finished the night 1-for-4 with a double. Bonds continued his pre-injury dominance at the plate, hitting home runs in four consecutive games from [[September 18]] to [[September 21]].
==2006 season his last?==
On [[February 19]], [[2006]], Bonds announced in an interview with [[USA Today]] that he plans on retiring at the conclusion of the 2006 season, with or without the all-time home run record. ""I've never cared about records anyway," Bonds said, "so what difference does it make? I'm not playing baseball anymore after this. The game (isn't) fun anymore. I'm tired of all of the crap going on. I want to play this year out, hopefully win, and once the season is over, go home and be with my family. Maybe then everybody can just forget about me." Bonds also claimed in his interview that he wasn't as athletic as he used to be.[http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/nl/giants/2006-02-19-bonds-retirement_x.htm?POE=SPOISVA] However, the next day, Bonds softened his stance and said he would perhaps play in the 2007 season if his knee improved.[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2336586] He currently stands at 708 home runs; to break Hank Aaron's record, he will have to hit 48 home runs in the 2006 season.
==Career Statistics (as of September 29, 2005)==
<pre>
Year Ag Tm Lg G AB R H 2B 3B HR RBI SB CS BB SO BA OBP SLG TB SH SF IBB HBP GDP
+---+--+---+--++---++---+---+---+--+--+--+---+--+--+---+---+----+----+----+---+--+--+---+---+---+
1986 21 PIT NL 113 413 72 92 26 3 16 48 36 7 65 102 .223 .330 .416 172 2 2 2 2 4
1987 22 PIT NL 150 551 99 144 34 9 25 59 32 10 54 88 .261 .329 .492 271 0 3 3 3 4
1988 23 PIT NL 144 538 97 152 30 5 24 58 17 11 72 82 .283 .368 .491 264 0 2 14 2 3
1989 24 PIT NL 159 580 96 144 34 6 19 58 32 10 93 93 .248 .351 .426 247 1 4 22 1 9
1990 25 PIT NL 151 519 104 156 32 3 33 114 52 13 93 83 .301 .406 .565 293 0 6 15 3 8
1991 26 PIT NL 153 510 95 149 28 5 25 116 43 13 107 73 .292 .410 .514 262 0 13 25 4 8
1992 27 PIT NL 140 473 109 147 36 5 34 103 39 8 127 69 .311 .456 .624 295 0 7 32 5 9
1993 28 SFG NL 159 539 129 181 38 4 46 123 29 12 126 79 .336 .458 .677 365 0 7 43 2 11
1994 29 SFG NL 112 391 89 122 18 1 37 81 29 9 74 43 .312 .426 .647 253 0 3 18 6 3
1995 30 SFG NL 144 506 109 149 30 7 33 104 31 10 120 83 .294 .431 .577 292 0 4 22 5 12
1996 31 SFG NL 158 517 122 159 27 3 42 129 40 7 151 76 .308 .461 .615 318 0 6 30 1 11
1997 32 SFG NL 159 532 123 155 26 5 40 101 37 8 145 87 .291 .446 .585 311 0 5 34 8 13
1998 33 SFG NL 156 552 120 167 44 7 37 122 28 12 130 92 .303 .438 .609 336 1 6 29 8 15
1999 34 SFG NL 102 355 91 93 20 2 34 83 15 2 73 62 .262 .389 .617 219 0 3 9 3 6
2000 35 SFG NL 143 480 129 147 28 4 49 106 11 3 117 77 .306 .440 .688 330 0 7 22 3 6
2001 36 SFG NL 153 476 129 156 32 2 73 137 13 3 177 93 .328 .515 .863 411 0 2 35 9 5
2002 37 SFG NL 143 403 117 149 31 2 46 110 9 2 198 47 .370 .582 .799 322 0 2 68 9 4
2003 38 SFG NL 130 390 111 133 22 1 45 90 7 0 148 58 .341 .529 .749 292 0 2 61 10 7
2004 39 SFG NL 147 373 129 135 27 3 45 101 6 1 232 41 .362 .609 .812 303 0 3 120 9 5
2005 40 SFG NL 14 42 8 12 1 0 5 10 0 0 9 6 .286 .404 .667 28 0 1 3 0 0
+---+--+---+--++---++---+---+---+--+--+--+---+--+--+---+---+----+----+----+---+--+--+---+---+---+
</pre>
</center>
==The BALCO scandal==
In [[2003 in baseball|2003]], Bonds became embroiled in a scandal when [[Greg F. Anderson]] of the [[Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative]], Bonds' trainer since 2000, was indicted by a federal [[grand jury]] and charged with supplying [[anabolic steroids]] to athletes, including a number of unnamed baseball players. This led to speculation that Bonds had used performance-enhancing drugs during a time when there was no mandatory testing in Major League Baseball. Bonds declared his innocence, attributing his changed physique and increased power to a strict regimen of bodybuilding and legitimate dietary supplements.
During grand jury testimony on December 4, 2003 — which was obtained through unknown means by the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' and published almost a year later, on December 3, 2004 [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/12/03/MNGGFA0UDU65.DTL] — Bonds said Anderson gave him a rubbing balm and a liquid substance he called "the cream" and "the clear". BALCO founder Victor Conte had identified "the clear" as the designer steroid [[Tetrahydrogestrinone|THG]], and prosecutors contended "the cream" was a testosterone-based ointment. Bonds said that at the time he did not believe them to be steroids. Bonds would later quote that he "unwillingly" used steroids for his defense.
In August 2005, all four defendants in the BALCO steroid scandal trial, including Anderson, struck deals with federal prosecutors that did not require them to reveal names of athletes who may have used banned drugs.
Some baseball pundits, fans, and even players have taken this as evidence that Bonds has used illegal steroids. However, Bonds has never failed a drug test administered by the league.
==Salary==
Bonds re-signed with the Giants for a five-year, [[US dollar|$]]90 million contract in January 2002. His salary for the 2005 season was $22 million, and is tied with [[Manny Ramirez]] for the second-highest salary in Major League Baseball. Some have argued that Bonds, who will turn 42 in July 2006, has a better chance of setting the career home run record as a [[designated hitter]], and that due to his diminished defensive skills, the Giants would benefit from Bonds leaving the team. This has led to speculation about possible trades involving Bonds. Giants owner [[Peter Magowan]] has said he wants Bonds back, but would not rule out a trade. However, as a player with 10 years of major league service (five with the same club), Bonds must approve any deal, and he has stated on the record that he will not accept a trade.
[[Category:San Francisco Giants players|Bonds, Barry]]
[[Category:500 home run club|Bonds, Barry]]
[[Category:BALCO Scandal]]
[[Category:Baseball Families]]
[[da:Barry Bonds]]
[[es:Barry Bonds]]
[[fr:Barry Bonds]]
[[gl:Barry Bonds]]
[[ja:バリー・ボンズ]]
[[zh:貝瑞·邦茲]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Numbers</title>
<id>4376</id>
<revision>
<id>41198627</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:57:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Torah}}
The '''Book of Numbers''' is the fourth of the books of the [[Pentateuch]], called in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ba-midbar'' &#1489;&#1502;&#1491;&#1489;&#1512;, i.e., "in the desert." In the [[Septuagint]] version it is called ''Arithmoi'' ("Numbers"), and this name is now the usual title of the book. It is so called because it contains a record of the numbering of the people in the wilderness of [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] (1-4), and of their numbering afterwards on the plain of [[Moab]] (26).
This book is of special historical interest as furnishing us with details as to the route of the [[Israelites]] in the wilderness and their principal encampments. It may be divided into three parts:
#The numbering of the people at Sinai, and preparations for resuming their march (1-10:10). The sixth chapter gives an account of the vow of a [[Nazirite]].
#An account of the journey from Sinai to Moab, the sending out of the spies and the report they brought back, and the murmurings (eight times) of the people at the hardships by the way (10:11-21:20).
#The transactions in the plain of Moab before crossing the [[Jordan River]] (21:21-ch. 36).
The period comprehended in the history extends from the second month of the second year after the [[Exodus]] to the beginning of the eleventh month of the fortieth year, in all about thirty-eight years and ten months; a dreary period of wanderings. They were fewer in number at the end of their wanderings than when they left the land of [[Egypt]].
The expression "the book of the wars of the Lord," occurring in 21:14, has given rise to much discussion. But, after all,
"what this book was is uncertain, whether some writing of Israel not now extant, or some writing of the [[Amorites]] which contained songs and triumphs of their king [[Sihon]]'s victories, out of which [[Moses]] may cite this testimony, as [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] sometimes does out of heathen poets (Acts 17:28; Titus 1:12)."
The modern [[docu
|
at Pinochet should lose his senatorial immunity from prosecution. On [[December 2]], [[2004]], the Santiago Appeals Court stripped Pinochet of immunity from prosecution over the 1974 assassination of General [[Carlos Prats]], his predecessor as Army Commander-in-Chief, who was killed by a car bomb during exile in Argentina. On [[December 13]], [[2004]], [[Judge]] [[Juan Guzmán]] placed Pinochet under house arrest and indicted him over the disappearance of nine opposition activists and the killing of one of them during his regime. On [[March 24]], [[2005]], the Supreme Court reversed the Santiago Appeals Court ruling in the [[Carlos Prats]] case, and affirmed Pinochet's immunity in that particular case. In another case involving the killing of 119 dissidents, the Supreme Court decided to strip Pinochet of his immunity in a ruling issued on [[September 14]], 2005.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4246780.stm] The following day he was acquitted of the human rights case due to his ill health. Late in November of 2005, he was deemed fit to stand trial by the Chilean Supreme Court and was indicted on [[human rights]], for the disappearance of six dissidents arrested by Chile's security services in late 1974, and again placed under [[house arrest]], on the eve of his 90th birthday. (''See'' [[Operation Colombo]].)
===Tax fraud and foreign bank accounts===
A year long [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] investigatory committee released a report about [[Riggs Bank]] on [[July 15]], [[2004]], which had solicited Pinochet and controlled between USD $4 million and $8 million of his assets. According to the report, Riggs participated in [[money laundering]] for Pinochet, setting up offshore [[Shell company|shell corporations]] (referring to Pinochet as only "a former public official"), and hiding his accounts from regulatory agencies. The report said the violations were "symptomatic of uneven and, at times, ineffective enforcement by all federal bank regulators, of bank compliance with their anti-money laundering obligations." Five days later, a Chilean court formally opened an investigation into Pinochet's finances for the first time, on allegations of fraud, misappropriation of funds, and bribery. Then, a few hours later, the state prosecutor, Chile's [[Chile State Defense Council|State Defense Council]] (''Consejo de Defensa del Estado)'', presented a second request for the same judge to investigate Pinochet's assets, but without directly accusing him of crimes. On [[October 1]], [[2004]], Chile's Internal Revenue Service ("Servicio de Impuestos Internos") filed a lawsuit against Pinochet, accusing him of fraud and tax evasion, for the amount of USD $3.6 million in investment accounts at Riggs between 1996 and 2002. Pinochet could face fines totaling 300 percent of the amount owed, and prison time, if convicted. Aside from the legal ramifications, this evidence of financial impropiety has severely embarrassed Pinochet. According to the State Defense Council, his hidden assets could never have been acquired solely on the basis of his salary as President, Chief of the Armed Forces, and Life Senator. Late in November of 2005, he was deemed fit to stand trial by the Chilean Supreme Court and was indicted and put under house arrest on [[tax fraud]] and [[passport forgery]], but was released on bail; however he remained under house arrest, due to unrelated human rights charges.
On 23 February 2006 Augusto Pinochet's children Lucía, Jacqueline, Marco Antonio, Jacqueline and Verónica Pinochet; Augusto Pinochet's wife, Lucia Hiriart; a daughter-in-law; and Pinochet's personal secretary were indicted on charges of tax fraud, including failing to declare bank accounts overseas, and using false passports. Lucía flew to the US, but was detained and returned to Argentina, her country of departure, after attempting unsuccessfully to claim political asylum[http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/01/28/chile.pinochet/?section=cnn_topstories]. Further developments are to be expected (Feb 2006).
==Legacy==
Chileans remain deeply divided on his legacy. Some see him as a brutal dictator who ended democracy and led a regime characterized by torture and favoritism towards the rich, while others believe that he saved the country from communism and led the transformation of the Chilean economy into Latin America's most stable and fastest growing economy.
After a downturn at the end of the [[1960s]], Chile's economy entered a period of growth when Allende was elected. However, by the time the coup took place in 1973, the economy was in disarray. This was not entirely due to natural causes: in 1999 the US government released heavily censored versions of more than 1,100 previously classified documents from the CIA, defence and state department archives which detail efforts to provoke violent protests and economic chaos in Chile as part of US efforts to destabilise Allende's regime [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,260382,00.html].
Things initially grew worse during beginning of Pinochet's rule. Unemployment, 4.4% in 1973, increased to 19.9% in 1976, and peaked at 30.4% in 1983 [http://www.unc.edu/home/pconway/aea2000/Chilemac.pdf]. By end of Pinochet's rule, Chile was experiencing high economic growth. An analysis of Pinochet's reforms show that at beginning of Pinochet's rule, Chile attracted massive foreign investment but that very little was invested in production. The price of Chile's exports fell and wages were reduced. [[Income distribution]] became more regressive, and both relative and actual poverty increased. Homelessness and malnutrition became more widespread, and there was a sharp increase in the [[infant mortality rate]]. Many small businesses went bankrupt whilst the economy, including newly-privatised industries, came to be dominated by monopolies with connections to the junta and by foreign corporations. [[Inflation]] peaked in 1976, but was then slashed, and the economy started to grow again towards the end of the [[1970s]]. Although unemployment remained high, poverty started to fall. However, a second recession hit Chile in 1982, and the economy did not start to grow again until 1986. Unemployment also started to decline, and had fallen to 7.8% when Pinochet left power in 1990.
Any doubts about the human rights abuses carried out by the Pinochet regime have been stilled by several detailed reports and the emergence of evidence. In [[January 2005]], the Chilean Army accepted institutional responsibility for past abuses. Other institutions also accept that abuses took place, but blame them on individuals, rather than official policy. Lucía Pinochet Hiriart, Augusto Pinochet's eldest daughter, said the use of torture during his 1973–90 regime was "barbaric and without justification", after seeing the [[Valech Report]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Salvador Allende]] | title = [[President of Chile]]<br>(military dictator) | years = 1974–1990| after = [[Patricio Aylwin]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Presidents of Chile}}
==Notes==
{{anb|Name}} Pronunciation ([[IPA chart for English|IPA]]):
{{IPA|/aw'gusto/}} ''or'' {{IPA|a'gusto/}},
{{IPA|/pino'ʧεt/}} ''or'' {{IPA|/pino'ʧε/}}. (i.e. "Pih-noh-CHET" is correct rather than the common mispronunciation "Pih-noh-SHAY").<br>
{{anb|Tortured}} Many human rights organizations say more than 200,000 were arrested and tortured. The [[Valech Report]] (published in [[November 2004]]) tells of some 28,000 arrests in which the majority of those detained were tortured.
==Cites==
{{Note|Hudson}} Hudson, Rex A., ed. "Chile: A Country Study." GPO for the Library of Congress. 1995. [[March 20]], [[2005]] <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cltoc.html>
==See also==
*[[History of Chile]]
*[[U.S. intervention in Chile]]
*[[1970 Chilean presidential election]]
*[[Operation Condor]]
*''[[Missing (film)|Missing]]'', film based on the life of U.S. journalist [[Charles Horman]], who disappeared in the aftermath of the Pinochet coup.
==External links==
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/pinochet/overview.htm Pinochet's Chile] (Washington Post)
*[http://news.amnesty.org/pages/pinochet_timeline Timeline of Pinochet Prosecution] (Amnesty International)
*{{es icon}}[http://www.pinochet.cl/ Augusto Pinochet Ugarte Foundation]
*{{es icon}}[http://www.pinochetreal.cl/ Pinochet Real – For Supporters of General Pinochet]
*[http://www.trentu.ca/~mneumann/pinochet.html "The crimes of Augusto Pinochet"] (several case studies)
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/special_report/1998/10/98/the_pinochet_file/newsid_198000/198306.stm BBC coverage] (special report)
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3604122.stm Article: "Doubts Remain over Pinochet's Fate: Chile's 'antiquated penal code' could be his undoing"]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19991115165001/http://www.reconcile-chile.co.uk/press_releases.html Reconcile Chile]
*[http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Congress/1770/harris.pdf A Tale of Two Chileans: Pinochet and Allende]
*[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=1174 Fidel, Pinochet & Me] by David Horowitz
*[http://www.thenewamerican.com/tna/2000/04-10-2000/vo16no08_pinochet.htm Article: "Persistent Persecution of Pinochet"] (The New American)
*{{es icon}}[http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/comision_valech/index.asp Valech report on political imprisonment and torture, November 2004
*BBC News report: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4352905.stm "Banks accused over Pinochet cash"]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engamr220101999 Amnesty International]
*[http://www.remember-chile.org.uk/inside/HRQ83-05-04f.htm Remember Chile Inside]
*[http://www.remember-chile.org.uk/beginners/index.htm Remember Chile Begins]
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm George Washington University article]
*[http://www.amaz
|
er than oral administration; that this type and scale of damage (>20% mortality) would translate to hundreds of thousands or millions of deaths which had not materialized in the real world amidst extremely broad global MDMA usage; and, perhaps most important, that other research teams could not duplicate the study's findings.
On [[September 6]], [[2003]], Dr. George A. Ricaurte and his team announced that they were retracting all results of their commonly cited and controversial study. The researchers said that the labels on the drugs had been somehow switched, and they had inadvertently injected their experimental monkeys and baboons with extremely high doses of [[methamphetamine]] instead of MDMA. The chemical supplier, [[Research Triangle Institute]], has publicly claimed that the proper drug was supplied, and Ricaurte has yet to pursue them for their alleged error.
Ricaurte had also come under fire for supplying PET scans to the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy that were used in anti-drug literature (''Plain Brain/Brain After Ecstasy'') that seemed to suggest MDMA created holes in human brains, an implication that critics called misleading. Ricaurte later asked the Agency to change the literature, citing the "poor quality" of the images.
== Legal issues ==
Use, supply and trafficking of ecstasy are currently illegal in most countries. In the United States, MDMA was legal and unregulated until May 31st [[1985]], at which time it was added to [[Controlled Substances Act|DEA Schedule I]], for drugs deemed to have no medical uses and a high potential for abuse. During DEA hearings to criminalize MDMA, most experts recommended [[Controlled Substances Act|DEA Schedule III]] prescription status for the drug, due to its beneficial usage in psychotherapy. The judge overseeing the hearings, [[Francis Young]], also made this recommendation. Nonetheless, DEA classified it as Schedule I.
That same year, the [[World Health Organization]]'s Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that MDMA be placed in Schedule I of the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]. Unlike the [[Controlled Substances Act]], the Convention has a provision (in [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1971/articles.htm#7 Article 7(a)]) that allows use of Schedule I drugs for "scientific and very limited medical purposes". The Committee's report stated[http://www.ecstasy.org/books/e4x/e4x.ap.01/e4x.ap.01.015.html]:
:''It should be noted that the Expert Committee held extensive discussions concerning therapeutic usefulness of 3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. While the Expert Committee found the reports intriguing, it felt that the studies lacked the appropriate methodological design necessary to ascertain the reliability of the observations. There was, however, sufficient interest expressed to recommend that investigations be encouraged to follow up these preliminary findings. To that end, the Expert Committee urged countries to use the provisions of article 7 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances to facilitate research on this interesting substance.''
In the [[United Kingdom]], MDMA is Schedule I/Class A, making it illegal to sell, buy, or possess without a license. Penalties include a maximum of seven years and/or unlimited fine for possession; life and/or unlimited fine for production or trafficking. A mandatory seven year sentence is now the penalty for a third conviction for trafficking.
===Medical use===
In [[2001]], the FDA approved MDMA for research with patients suffering from [[post-traumatic stress disorder]]. In March of 2004, the DEA issued its first Schedule I possession [[license]]s for those conducting research under the FDA approval; research is being conducted through the [[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies]] (MAPS) on [[veteran]]s from the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]], [[rape]] victims, and [[cancer]] patients. For further information on this, see [http://www.maps.org/research/mdma/ MAPS's MDMA Research Information] and the recent article from [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7613571/site/newsweek/ MSNBC/Newsweek].
== Safety ==
The illegality of this drug in many countries makes exact study of its effects difficult. Some of the effects ascribed to ecstasy, which may or may not be conclusive, are the following:
* Because of its illegality, the dose and purity of a pill advertised as ecstasy may be stronger than is desired or may be unsafe.
* Ecstasy affects the regulation of the body's internal systems. Continuous dancing without sufficient breaks or drinks can lead to dangerous overheating and [[dehydration]]. Drinking too much water without consuming a corresponding amount of salt can lead to [[hyponatremia]] or [[Water intoxication]].
* The use of ecstasy can exacerbate [[clinical depression|depression]] and may produce temporary depression as an after-effect for some users.
* The use of ecstasy can be very dangerous when combined with other drugs (particularly [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]] (MAOIs) and [[antiretroviral drugs]]).
* Because it substantially affects perception, concentration, and motor skills, it is dangerous to operate heavy machinery or motor vehicles when using ecstasy.
* Long-term after-effects are greatly exacerbated by high doses and frequent use.
* A small percentage of users may be highly sensitive to MDMA; this may make first-time use especially hazardous. This includes but is not limited to people with congenital heart defects, and a small percentage of people who lack the proper enzymes to break down the drug.
==See also==
* [[Sextasy]]
* [[Empathogen/Entactogen]]
* [[Amphetamine]]
* [[Phenethylamine]]s
* [[Psychedelic therapy]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]
* [[RAVE Act]]
* [[Retracted article on neurotoxicity of ecstasy]]
* [[Leah Betts]] & [[Anna Wood]] (people who have died as a result of drinking too much water while on ecstasy)
== External links ==
=== Media ===
[[Image:Ecstacy rising.jpg|thumb|right|The title screen to ''Peter Jennings - Ecstasy Rising'']]
[[Image:Dateline - The X Files.jpg|thumb|right|The title screen to ''The "X" Files - A Dateline Special'']]
*Jennings, Peter. &quot;[http://www.youtube.com/w/Ecstasy-Rising?v=aAEauEQEwzQ Primetime Special: Peter Jennings - Ecstasy Rising].&quot; ''[[ABC News]]'', [[April 1]], [[2004]].
*Conant, Eve. &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7613571/site/newsweek/ Ecstasy: A Possible New Role for a Banned Club Drug].&quot; ''[[Newsweek]]'', [[May 2]], [[2005]].
*[http://video.fox6.com/launcher/28793 Generation on X: An undercover look at the growing trend of teens using Ecstasy] [[FOX News]], [[April 26]], [[2005]].
*Weiss, Rick. &quot;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27716-2004Dec26.html 'Ecstasy' Use Studied to Ease Fear in Terminally Ill].&quot; ''[[The Washington Post]]'', [[December 27]], [[2004]].
*Philipkoski, Kristen. &quot;[http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,65025,00.html Wired News: Long Trip for Psychedelic Drugs].&quot; ''[[Wired magazine|Wired]]'', [[September 27]], [[2004]].
*Philipkoski, Kristen. &quot;[http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,62506,00.html DEA Approves Ecstasy Tests].&quot; ''[[Wired magazine|Wired]]'', [[March 2]], [[2004]].
*Darman, Jonathan. &quot;[http://www.msnbc.com/news/1001897.asp Out of the Club, Onto the Couch] ''[[Newsweek]].com'', [[December 5]], [[2003]]. - An [[interview]] with [[New York University|NYU]]'s Dr. Julie Holland
*Weiss, Rick. &quot;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A33096-2003Sep5.html Results Retracted on Ecstasy Study].&quot; ''[[The Washington Post]]'', [[September 6]], [[2003]].
*Recer, Paul &quot;[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/26/health/main523423.shtml Ecstasy-Parkinson's Connections?].&quot; ''[[CBS News]]'', [[September 26]], [[2002]].
=== Academic ===
* [http://www.maps.org/research/mdma/index.html The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS): MDMA project] MAPS is at the forefront of human MDMA research, having obtained FDA permits for two studies administering MDMA to human volunteers in order to explore the drug's potential psychiatric benefits (one study is already underway.)
* [http://TheDEA.org/neurotoxicity.html TheDEA.org's extensive critique/review of the evidence against MDMA ('ecstasy') causing brain damage at common recreational doses.]
* [http://www.dancesafe.org/slideshow/index.html This is your brain on Ecstasy] - A slideshow that illustrates the neuropharmacokinetics of Ecstasy (how the drug affects the brain.) Some of the information on this page is at present (July 2005) outdated.
* [http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/pihkal/pihkal109.shtml PiHKAL entry]
* [http://www.maps.org/sys/w3pb.pl?face=simple/ The MAPS research library, containing downloadable copies of most of the MDMA and LSD research ever done.]
=== General ===
* [http://www.maps.org Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies] - A non-profit organization currently conducting FDA-approved studies with MDMA.
* [http://www.ecstasydata.org/ EcstasyData.org] A database of photos and lab-test results of over 1500 pills of "Ecstasy".
* [http://www.pillreports.com Pillreports] A similar database to EcstasyData, but with user-contributed photos of pills and subjective "pill reports" and ratings. Over 1600 listings (as of Jan. 2006).
*[http://www.tripproject.ca/march/drugContent.php?info=ecstasy User-friendly info on Ecstasy] provided by the TRIP! Project, Toronto Canada
* [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/ecstasy/index.htm The Good Drugs Guide] - The Good Drugs Guide - Ecstasy
* [http://www.dancesafe.org DanceSafe] - a risk reduction site with lots of information on Ecstasy. Includes a large database of photographs of different pill types, along with laboratory analysis of what was actually found in the pill.
* [http://www.dancesafe.org/slideshow/ This is yo
|
nnel carrier ===
[[Image:M113.jpg|thumb|right|The [[M113]], one of the most common tracked APCs, on duty during the [[Vietnam War]]]]
{{main | Armoured personnel carrier}}
'''Armoured personnel carriers''' (APCs) are light [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s for the transport of [[infantry]]. They usually have only a [[machine gun]] although variants carry [[recoilless rifle]]s, [[anti-tank guided missile]]s (ATGMs), or [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s. They are not really designed to take part in a direct-fire battle, but to carry the troops to the battlefield safe from [[shrapnel]] and [[ambush]]. They may have [[wheel]]s or [[Caterpillar track|tracks]]. Examples include the American [[M113]] (tracked), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[FV 432 AFV|FV 432]] (tracked) the [[France|French]] [[Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé|VAB]] (wheeled) and the Soviet [[BTR-60 |BTR]] (wheeled). The concept was fully realized by the Canadian Army in Normandy in 1944 with the invention of the Kangaroo. Previous APCs were either semi-tracked (halftracks) or too small to effectively move a section/squad of infantry (such as the Universal Carrier).
=== Infantry fighting vehicle ===
{{main |infantry fighting vehicle}}
The first attempt to carry troops in an armoured tracked vehicle was made by the British in the First World War, a lengthened [[Mark I (tank)#Mark V|Mark V]] that could house a squad of infantry while still armed as a tank. Post-war, the idea was largely dropped in favour of trucks and lightly-armoured half-tracks, which were widely used during the Second World War. During WWII there were some experiments into heavily armoured carriers, such as the [[Kangaroo (armoured personnel carrier)|Kangaroo]]s, converted by stripping turrets from tanks. After the war, there was a shift away from half-tracks to tracked or wheeled armoured personnel carriers (APCs), usually armed with a machine gun for self-defence.
[[Image:Cv90 8.jpg|thumb|left|Swedish [[Combat Vehicle 90]], a modern IFV.]]
Modern IFVs are well-armed infantry carriers that allow the infantry inside to fight from within the vehicle. They are different from earlier APCs by their heavier armament allowing them to give direct-fire support during an [[attack |assault]], firing ports allowing the infantry to fire [[firearms |personal weapons]] while mounted, and improved [[vehicle armour |armour]]. They are typically armed with a twenty-millimetre or larger [[autocannon]], and possibly with [[ATGM]]s. IFVs are usually [[Caterpillar track|tracked]], but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category, too.
Specially-equipped IFVs have taken on some of the roles of light tanks; they are used by reconnaissance organizations, and light IFVs are used by airborne units which must be able to fight without the heavy firepower of tanks.
By comparison the Israeli [[Merkava]] is a main battle tank with the ability to carry a section of infantry.
=== Self-propelled artillery and assault gun ===
{{main articles|[[self-propelled artillery]], [[assault gun]]}}
[[Image:Su152 2.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet [[SU-152]] assault gun, mounting a 152-mm gun.]]
Various types of [[artillery]] pieces have been given their own integral transport by mounting them on armoured, [[caterpillar track |tracked]] or wheeled chassis. This lets them keep up with the pace of [[armoured warfare]], and gives them nominal protection from [[counter-battery]] or [[small arms]] fire. Like towed artillery, a battery of [[self-propelled artillery|self-propelled guns]] must still set up in a relatively safe area to perform [[fire mission]]s, but they are able to relocate more quickly.
[[Assault gun]]s are self-propelled artillery pieces intended support [[infantry]] in the direct-fire role. They usually have a large-calibre gun capable of firing a heavy high-explosive [[shell (projectile) |shell]], effective against dug-in troops and fortifications.
=== Tank destroyer ===
{{main|tank destroyer}}
[[Image:JPz IV-70.jpg|thumb|left|German [[Jagdpanzer IV |Jagdpanzer IV/70 (V)]], mounting the Panther tank's 75-mm gun on a Panzer IV chassis.]]
Self-propelled anti-tank guns, or ''tank destroyers'', are used primarily to provide [[antitank]] support for [[infantry]] or [[tank]] units, in [[defence (military) | defensive]] or [[withdrawal (military) |withdrawal]] operations. They may mount a high-velocity anti-tank gun or sometimes an [[antitank guided missile]] launcher, or ATGM.
Tank destroyers cannot fulfil the many roles of tanks; they are much less flexible, and usually lacking in anti-infantry capability. But they are much less expensive to manufacture, maintain, and resupply than tanks.
Gun-armed tank destroyers have been largely supplanted by the more general-purpose tanks since Second World War, but lightly-armoured ATGM carriers are used for supplementary long-range antitank capabilities, and to replace tanks in light or [[airborne forces|airborne]] forces.
=== Tankette ===
[[Image:TKS.jpg |thumb|right|Polish [[TKS]] tankette, armed with a single 7.92-mm machine gun.]]
{{main |tankette}}
A tankette is a small armoured fighting vehicle with a crew of one or two, similar to a tank, intended for infantry support or reconnaissance. Most had no [[turret]] and were armed with one or two [[machine gun]]s, or rarely with a heavier gun or grenade launcher. Tankettes were produced between about [[1930]] and [[1935]], but the concept was abandonded because of its limited utility and vulnerability to antitank weapons. Their role was largely taken over by armoured cars.
A classic design was the British [[Carden Loyd Tankette]]—many others were modelled after it. Japan was among the most prolific users of tankettes, producing a number of designs, which they found useful for [[jungle warfare]].
See also [[Universal Carrier]].
== See also ==
* [[Armoured warfare]]
* [[List of armoured fighting vehicles]]
* [[Tank classification]]
* [[Vehicle armour]]
[[he:רכב קרבי משוריין]]
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[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armor</title>
<id>2149</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Armour]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acid House</title>
<id>2150</id>
<revision>
<id>15900588</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-03T08:00:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lexor</username>
<id>5364</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Acid house]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acid house]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anton Drexler</title>
<id>2151</id>
<revision>
<id>38636741</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T17:25:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Holland</username>
<id>361801</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anton Drexler''' ([[June 13]], [[1884]] - [[February 24]], [[1942]]) was a machine-fitter before becoming a [[railway]] [[locksmith]] in [[Berlin]] in [[1902]]. He joined the Fatherland Party during [[World War I]]. He was a [[poet]] and a member of the [[Volk|völkisch]] agitators who, together with journalist [[Karl Harrer]], founded the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in [[Munich]] with [[Gottfried Feder]] and [[Dietrich Eckart]] in [[1919]]. At the behest of [[Adolf Hitler]], who had joined the party shortly afterwards, Drexler changed the name to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]) early in 1920. When Hitler finally wrested control of the party from Drexler in the autumn of 1921, Drexler had to content himself with the post of honorary chairman.
Drexler was also a member of a ''völkisch'' political club for affluent members of Munich society known as the [[Thule Society]]. His membership in the NSDAP ended when it was temporarily outlawed in 1923 following the [[Beer Hall Putsch]], in which Drexler had not taken part; he was elected to the Bavarian state parliament for another party in 1924 and had no part in the NSDAP's refounding in 1925. He rejoined only after Hitler had come to power in 1933. He received the party's "blood badge" in 1934 and was still occasionally used as a propaganda tool until about 1937, but was never again allowed any real power. He was largely forgotten by the time of his death.
{{nazi-stub}}
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{{succession box | before = [[Karl Harrer]] | title = [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Chairman of the DAP]] | years = [[1919]]&ndash;[[1921]] | after = [[Adolf Hitler]] }}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1884 births|Drexler, Anton]]
[[Category:1942 deaths|Drexler, Anton]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Drexler, Anton]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitic people|Drexler, Anton]]
[[de:Anton Drexler]]
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[[sv:Anton Drexler]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>All Quiet on the Western Front</title>
<id>2152</id>
<revision>
<id>42085292</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.26.72.154</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The horror of war */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''All Quiet on the Western Front''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Erich Maria Remarque]], a [[Germany|German]] veteran of [[World War I]], about the horrors of that war and also the deep detachment from German civilian life felt by many men returning from the front. The book was first published in German as ''Im Westen nichts Neues'' in January 1929. It sold a million copies within a year in Germany and a further million abroad. In 1930 the
|
y demanding process, with the adult losing as much as 83 g of body weight a day<ref>Warham, J. (1990) ''The Petrels - Their Ecology and Breeding Systems'' London:Academic Press. </ref>.
After hatching the chick is brooded and guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend and [[thermoregulation|thermoregulate]] itself. During this period the chick is fed regularly with small meals by its parents when they relieve each other from duty. After the brooding period is over the chick is fed in regular intervals by both parents. The parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long foraging trips, providing meals that weigh around 12% of their body weight (around 600 g). The meals are composed of both fresh [[squid]], [[fish]] and [[krill]], as well as [[stomach oil]], an [[food energy|energy]]-rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items<ref>Warham, J. (1976) "The incidence, function and ecological significance of petrel stomach oils." ''Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society'' '''24''': 84-93</ref>. This oil is created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from digested prey items by all tubenoses, and gives them their distinctive musty smell.
Albatross chicks take a long time to fledge. In the case of the great albatrosses it can up to 280 days, even for the smaller albatrosses it takes anywhere between 170 and 140 days<ref name ="delhoyo">Carboneras, C. (1992) "Family Diomedeidae (Albatross)" in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5</ref>. Like many seabirds, albatross chicks will actually gain enough weight to be heavier than their parents, and prior to fledging they use these reserves to build up body condition (particularly growing all their flight feathers), usually fledging at the same weight as their parents. Albatross chicks fledge on their own, and receive no further help from their parents, who will actually return to the nest after fledging, unaware their chick has left. Studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour, a genetically coded navigation route, that helps young birds first at sea<ref>Åkesson, S., & Weimerskirch, H., (2005) "Albatross Long-Distance Navigation: Comparing Adults And Juveniles" ''Journal of Navigation'' '''58''': 365-373.</ref>.
==Albatrosses and humans==
===Etymology===
The name albatross is derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-câdous'', (a [[pelican]]), which travelled to English via the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] form ''Alcatraz''. The [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] notes that the word ''alcatraz'' was originally applied to the [[frigatebird]]; the modification to ''albatross'' was perhaps influenced by [[Latin]] ''alba'' meaning "white", in contrast to frigatebirds which are black.
They were once commonly known as '''Goonie birds''' or '''Gooney birds''', particularly those of the North [[Pacific]]. In the southern hemisphere the name '''mollymawk''' is still well established in some areas, which is a corrupted form of ''malle-mugge'', an old [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name for the [[Northern Fulmar]]. The name ''Diomedea'', assigned to the albatrosses by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] references the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warrior [[Diomedes]] into birds.
===Albatrosses and culture===
Albatrosses have been described as "the most legendary of all birds"<ref name ="delhoyo">Carboneras, C. (1992) "Family Diomedeidae (Albatross)" in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5</ref>. They feature prominently in [[poetry]] such as the [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] poem ''[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]''. In part due to the poem, there is a widespread [[urban legend|myth]] that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross; in truth, however, sailors regularly killed and ate them<ref name = "Brit">Cocker, M., & Mabey, R., (2005) ''Birds Britannica'' London:Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0-701-16907-9</ref>. But they were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors. More recently they have become part of [[popular culture]], for example, in a [[Monty Python]] [[Albatross (Monty Python sketch)|sketch]], or the song [[Echoes (1971 song)|Echoes]] by [[Pink Floyd]]. In the movie ''[[Serenity_(film)|Serenity]]'', the character River was refered to as an albatross by The Operative, in the context of Coleridge's poem.
===Threats and conservation===
In spite of often being accorded legendary status by people albatrosses have not escaped both indirect and direct pressure from humanity. Early encounters with albatrosses by [[Polynesia]]ns and [[Aleut]] Indians resulted in hunting and in some cases expiration from some islands (such as [[Easter Island]]). As [[European]]s began sailing the world they too began to hunt albatross, "fishing" for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport<ref>Safina, C. (2002) ''Eye of the Albatross: Visions of Hope and Survival'' New York:Henry Holt & Company ISBN: 0805062297</ref>. This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for [[Australia]], and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from, and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons. In the 19th century, albatross colonies, particularly those in the North Pacific, were harvested for the feather trade, leading to the near extinction of the [[Short-tailed Albatross]].
According to the [[IUCN Red List]], 19 of the 21 albatross species are considered to have a [[conservation status]] as vulnerable or worse<ref>IUCN, 2004. [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/search.php?freetext=Albatross&modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&redlistAssessyear%5B%5D=all&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all&regions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=104&Submit.y=16 Red List: Albatross Species]. Retrieved [[September 13]], [[2005]].</ref>, partially due to the impact of commercial [[long-line fishing]]<ref>Brothers NP. 1991. "Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean." ''Biological Conservation'' '''55''': 255-268.</ref>, as the albatrosses and other [[seabird]]s are attracted to the set bait, become hooked on the lines and drown. The scale of the problem is made worse by [[pirate]] fisheries, and an estimated 100,000 albatross are killed a year in this fashion. Two species (as recognised by the IUCN) are considered critically [[endangered species|endangered]], the [[Amsterdam Albatross]] and the [[Chatham Albatross]].
Another threat to albatrosses is [[introduced species]], which can be predators, like rats or [[feral cat]]s, directly attacking the albatross or its chicks and eggs; or they can have indirect effects, cattle overgrazed essential cover on [[Amsterdam Island]]; on other islands introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat.
[[Image:albab.jpg|thumb|200px|Black-browed Albatrosses are one of the many species threatened by long-line fisheries]]
Ingestion of floating [[plastic]] [[flotsam]] is another problem, one faced by many seabirds. The amount of plastic in the seas has increased dramatically since the first record in the 1960s, coming from waste discarded by ships, offshore dumping, litter on beaches and waste washed to sea by rivers. It is impossible to digest and takes up space in the stomach or [[gizzard]] that should be used for food, or can cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly. Studies of birds in the North Pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in declining [[body weight]] and body condition<ref>Spear, L.B., Ainley, D.G. & Ribic, C.A. (1995). "Incidence of plastic in seabirds from the tropical Pacific, 1984–91: relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight." ''Marine Environmental Research'' '''40''': 123–146. </ref>. This plastic is sometimes regurgitated and fed to chicks; a study of [[Laysan Albatross]] chicks on [[Midway Atoll]] showed large amounts of ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks killed in accidents<ref>Auman, H.J., Ludwig, J.P., Giesy, J.P., Colborn, T., (1997) "Plastic ingestion by Laysan Albatross chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995." in ''Albatross Biology and Conservation'', (ed by G. Robinson and R. Gales). Surrey Beatty & Sons:Chipping Norton. Pp. 239-44 [http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ocean/Albatross-Plastic-Ingestion1997.htm]</ref>. While not the direct cause of death, this plastic caused physiological stress and caused the chick to feel full during feedings, reducing its food intake and reducing the chances of survival.
Scientists and conservationists (most importantly [[BirdLife International]] and their partners, who have run a Save the Albatross campaign) are working with governments and [[fishermen]] to find solutions to the threats albatrosses face. Techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers can all reduce the by-catch in seabirds by fishing fleets<ref>Food and Agriculture Organisation (1999) "The incidental catch of seabirds by longline fisheries: worldwide review and technical guidelines for mitigation. FAO Fisheries Circular No.937. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. [http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/W9817E/W9817E00.HTM]</ref>. For example, a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen in [[New Zealand]] succ
|
's oratorio Messiah in Dublin, Ireland.
*[[1829]] - The [[British Parliament]] grants [[freedom of religion]] to [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]]
*[[1849]] - [[Hungary]] becomes a republic
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Fort Sumter]] surrenders
*[[1873]] - [[Colfax Massacre]]
*[[1883]] - [[Alferd Packer]] is convicted of [[murder]]
*[[1902]] - [[James C. Penney]] opens his first store in [[Kemmerer, Wyoming]]
*[[1919]] - The Establishment of the [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]]
*[[1919]] - [[Amritsar massacre]]: [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Gurkha]] troops [[massacre]] at least 379 unarmed demonstrators in [[Amritsar]], [[India]]
*[[1921]] - Foundation of the [[Spanish Communist Workers' Party (1921)|Spanish Communist Workers' Party]].
*[[1939]] - In [[India]], the [[Hindustani Lal Sena]] (Indian Red Army) is formed and vows to engage in armed struggle against the [[UK|British]].
*[[1941]] - Pact of [[neutrality]] between the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and [[Japan]] is signed
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The discovery of a [[mass grave]] of [[Poland|Polish]] [[prisoner of war|prisoners-of-war]] [[execution (legal)| executed]] by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces in the [[Katyn Massacre|Katy&#324; Forest Massacre]] was announced in [[Germany]], driving a wedge between the Western [[Allies]], the [[Polish government in exile|Polish government-in-exile]] in [[London]], and the Soviet Union.
*[[1943]] - The [[Jefferson Memorial]] is dedicated in [[Washington, DC]], on the 200th anniversary of [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s birth.
*[[1945]] - German troops massacre more than 1000 political and military prisoners in [[Gardelegen (war crime)|Gardelegen]] Germany. The atrocity is discovered two days later by American forces.
*[[1970]] - The [[oxygen]] tank aboard ''[[Apollo 13]]'' explodes, putting the crew into deadly peril. The explosion occurred on April 14th in several time zones.
*[[1972]] - The [[Universal Postal Union]] decides to recognize the [[People's Republic of China]] as the only legitimate Chinese representative, effectively expelling the [[Republic of China]] administering [[Taiwan]].
*[[1974]] - [[Western Union]] (in cooperation with [[NASA]] and [[Hughes Aircraft]]) launches the [[United States of America|USA]]'s first commercial [[Geosynchronous satellite|geosynchronous]] [[communications satellite]], [[Westar 1]].
*[[1975]] - An attack by [[Phalangist]]s on a [[Palestinian]] bus in Ain El Remmeneh, [[Lebanon]] marks the beginning of a 15 year civil war.
*[[1983]] - [[Harold Washington]] is elected as the first African-American mayor in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s history
*[[1984]] - [[Pete Rose]] becomes the first player in [[National League]] history to collect 4,000 hits
*[[1985]] - [[Enver Hoxha]] is succeeded by [[Ramiz Alia]] as the leader of [[Albania]]
*[[1986]] - [[Jack Nicklaus]] wins his sixth [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]]
*[[1987]] - [[Portugal]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] sign an agreement in which [[Macau]] would be returned to China in [[1999]]
*[[1990]] - The [[Soviet Union]] admits to committing the [[Katyn Massacre]]
*[[1993]] - [[Baseball]]: [[Lee Smith (baseball player)|Lee Smith]] passes [[Jeff Reardon]] for first on the all-time [[save (sport)|save]]s list with his 358th save in a 9-7 win over the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
*[[1997]] - [[Tiger Woods]] becomes the youngest [[golf]]er to win golf's [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]]
*[[1998]] - [[WWE]] [[Monday Night Raw]] overtakes [[WCW Monday Nitro]] in the ratings for the first time in nearly two years, thanks to a [[Steve Austin]] vs [[Vince McMahon]] main event. This started a boost for WWE and decline for WCW, culminating in the WWE takeover of WCW in 2001.
*[[2000]] - [[Tazz]] wins ECW world title, first ever match between a [[WCW]] contracted wrestler and a [[WWE]] contracted wrestler.
*[[2003]] - The body of [[Laci Peterson]] is found in [[California]].
*[[2003]] - [[Mike Weir]] becomes first Canadian and first [[leftie]] to win the golf [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]]
==Births==
*[[1506]] - [[Peter Faber]], French Jesuit theologian (d. [[1546]])
*[[1519]] - [[Catherine de Medici]], queen of [[Henry II of France]] (d. [[1589]])
*[[1570]] - [[Guy Fawkes]], English conspirator (d. [[1606]])
*[[1584]] - [[Albert VI of Bavaria]] (d. [[1666]])
*[[1593]] - [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford]], English statesman (d. [[1641]])
*[[1618]] - [[Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy]], French writer (d. [[1693]])
*[[1648]] - [[Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon]], French (d. [[1717]])
*[[1713]] - [[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Frederick (Lord) North]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1792]])
*[[1715]] - [[John Hanson]], President of the United States in Congress Assembled (d. [[1783]])
*[[1729]] - [[Thomas Percy (bishop)|Thomas Percy]], Bishop of Dromore and magazine editor (d. [[1811]])
*[[1735]] - [[Isaac Low]], New York delegate to the Continental Congress (d. [[1791]])
*[[1743]] - [[Thomas Jefferson]], 3rd [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1826]])
*[[1747]] - [[Louis Philip II, Duke of Orléans]] (d. [[1793]])
*[[1764]] - [[Laurent, Marquis de Gouvion Saint-Cyr]], French marshal (d. [[1830]])
*[[1769]] - [[Thomas Lawrence]], English painter (d. [[1830]])
*[[1771]] - [[Richard Trevithick]], English engineer and inventor (d. [[1833]])
*[[1780]] - [[Alexander Mitchell]], Irish engineer (d. [[1868]])
*[[1784]] - [[Friedrich Graf von Wrangel]], Prussian field marshal (d. [[1877]])
*[[1787]] - [[John Robertson (U.S. congressman)|John Robertson]], U.S. congressman (d. [[1873]])
*[[1802]] - [[Leopold Fitzinger]], Austrian zoologist (d. [[1884]])
*[[1808]] - [[Antonio Meucci]], Italian inventor (d. [[1896]])
*[[1825]] - [[Thomas D'Arcy McGee]], Canadian journalist and politician (d. [[1868]])
*[[1828]] - [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]], English theologian and Bishop of Durham (d. [[1889]])
*[[1832]] - [[Juan Montalvo]], Ecuadoran author (d. [[1889]])
*[[1841]] - [[Louis-Ernest Barrias]], French sculptor (d. [[1905]])
*[[1850]] - [[Arthur Matthew Weld Downing]], British astronomer (d. [[1917]])
*[[1852]] - [[F.W. Woolworth]], American businessman (d. [[1919]])
*[[1860]] - [[James Ensor]], Belgian painter (d. [[1949]])
*[[1866]] - [[Butch Cassidy]], American outlaw (d. [[1908]])
*[[1872]] - [[Alexander Roda Roda]], Austrian writer (d. [[1945]])
*[[1873]] - [[John W. Davis]], American politician (d. [[1955]])
*[[1875]] - [[Ray Lyman Wilbur]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior (d. [[1949]])
*[[1880]] - [[Charles Christie]], Canadian film studio owner (d. [[1955]])
*[[1881]] - [[Ludwig Binswanger]], Swiss psychiatrist (d. [[1966]])
*[[1885]] - [[Georg Lukács]], Hungarian-born philosopher and literary critic (d. [[1971]])
*[[1887]] - [[Gordon S. Fahrni]], Canadian physician and President of the Canadian Medical Association (d. [[1995]])
*[[1889]] - [[Herbert Osborne Yardley]], American cryptographer (d. [[1958]])
*[[1890]] - [[Frank Murphy]], American public servant (d. [[1949]])
*[[1891]] - [[Nella Larsen]], African-American novelist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1892]] - [[Arthur Travers Harris|Arthur Travers 'Bomber' Harris]], British Air Force commander in World War II (d. [[1984]])
*1892 - Sir [[Robert Watson-Watt|Robert Alexander Watson-Watt]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1894]] - [[Arthur Fadden]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1973]])
*[[1897]] - [[Werner Voss]], German World War I pilot (d. [[1917]])
*[[1900]] - [[Pierre Molinier]], French painter and photographer (d. [[1976]])
*[[1901]] - [[Jacques Lacan]], French psychoanalyst and semanticist (d. [[1981]])
*[[1902]] - [[Philippe de Rothschild]], French race car driver and wine grower (d. [[1988]])
*[[1904]] - Sir [[Sir David Robinson|David Robinson]], British philanthropist and entrepreneur (d. [[1987]])
*[[1906]] - [[Samuel Beckett]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1989]])
*[[1907]] - [[Harold Stassen]], American Presidential candidate (d. [[2001]])
*[[1909]] - [[Stanislaw Marcin Ulam]], Polish mathematician (d. [[1984]])
*1909 - [[Eudora Welty]], American writer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1911]] - [[Ico Hitrec]], Croatian footballer (d.[[1946]])
*[[1919]] - [[Roland Gaucher]], French journalist
*1919 - [[Howard Keel]], American actor, singer, and president of the Screen Actors Guild (d. [[2004]])
*1919 - [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]], American atheist (disappeared [[1995]])
*[[1920]] - [[Roberto Calvi]], Italian banker (d. [[1982]])
*1920 - [[Claude Cheysson]], French politician
*1920 - [[Liam Cosgrave]], fifth [[Taoiseach]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]
*1920 - [[John LaPorta]], American musician (d. [[2004]])
*[[1922]] - [[John Braine]], British novelist (d. [[1986]])
*1922 - [[Julius Nyerere]], Tanzanian politician (d. [[1999]])
*[[1923]] - [[Don Adams]], American actor and comedian (d. [[2005]])
*[[1924]] - [[Jack Chick]], American evangelist
*1924 - [[Stanley Donen]], American film director
*[[1926]] - [[John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough]]
*[[1928]] - [[Alan Clark]], English politician (d. [[1999]])
*[[1931]] - [[Dan Gurney]], American race car driver
*[[1932]] - [[Orlando Letelier]], Chilean politician (d. [[1976]])
*[[1933]] - [[Ben Nighthorse Campbell]], U.S. Senator
*[[1935]] - [[Lyle Waggoner]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Edward Fox (actor)|Edward Fox]], English actor
*1937 - [[Lanford Wilson]], American playwright
*[[1939]] - [[Seamus Heaney]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1939 - [[Paul Sorvino]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Michael Stuart Brown]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1943]] - [[Bill Conti]], American musician
*[[1944]] - [[Jack Casady]], American musician ([[Jefferson Airplane]])
*1944 - [[Susan Davis]], American politician
*[[1945]] - [[Tony Dow]], American actor
*1945 - [[Bob Kalsu]], Ameri
|
less it eats at least a half a kilogram of milk chocolate. Dark, sweet chocolate has about 50% more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the [[Merck Veterinary Manual]], approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram dog.
===Health benefits===
Recent studies have shown that cocoa or dark chocolate has potent health benefits for people. Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is full of the [[flavonoid]]s [[epicatechin]] and [[gallic acid]], which are antioxidants that help protect blood vessels, promote cardiac health, and prevent cancer. It also has been effectively demonstrated to counteract mild [[hypertension]]. In fact, dark chocolate has more [[flavonoids]] than any other antioxidant-rich food such as red wine, green and black tea, and blueberries. There has even been a [[fad diet]] named "Chocolate diet" that emphasises eating chocolate and cocoa powder in capsules. However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking milk with dark chocolate, appears to largely negate the health benefits. Chocolate is also a calorie-rich food with a high content of saturated fat, so daily intake of chocolate also requires reducing caloric intake of other foods.
Two-thirds of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms of a [[saturated fat]] called [[stearic acid]] and a monounsaturated fat called [[oleic acid]]. However, unlike other saturated fats, stearic acid does not raise levels of [[Low density lipoprotein|LDL]] [[cholesterol]] in the bloodstream<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ynhh.org/online/nutrition/advisor/chocolate.html | title=Chocolate:Food of the Gods. | publisher=Yale-New Haven Hospital | accessdate=2006-03-03}}</ref>. A 2001 study by researchers at [[Penn State University]] found that the flavonoids in chocolate slowed the [[oxidation]] of LDL cholesterol, a process that is believed to lead to [[atherosclerosis]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/74/5/596 | title=Effects of cocoa powder and dark chocolate on LDL oxidative susceptibility and prostaglandin concentrations in humans | coauthors=Ying Wan, Joe A. Vinson, Terry D. Etherton, John Proch, Sheryl A. Lazarus and Penny M. Kris-Etherton | work=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition'', Vol. 74, No. 5, 596&ndash;602 | year=November 2001}}</ref>.
===Medical applications===
[[Mars, Incorporated]], a Virginia-based candy company, spends millions of dollars each year on flavanol research. The company is in talks with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavanol molecules.
According to Mars-funded researchers at [[Harvard]], the [[University of California]], and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases. [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/stdn/std/World/GG27Wd10.html]
Mars is presently marketing the [http://www.cocoavia.com/default.asp Cocoavia™ brand ], a line of [[functional food]] chocolates which have cholesterol-reducing [[phytosterol]]s and at least 100 [[milligram]]s of [[flavanols]]. The snacks are designed to be eaten primarily for heart benefits, and as such, Mars has recommended a regimen of two snacks per day.
=== Chocolate as a drug ===
Current research indicates that chocolate is a weak [[stimulant]] because of its content of [[theobromine]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15549276]
However, chocolate contains too little of this compound for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with a [[coffee]] buzz. The [[pharmacologist]] [[Ryan J. Huxtable]] aptly noted that "[Chocolate is] more than a [[food]] but less than a [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]". However, chocolate is a very potent stimulant for [[dog]]s and [[horse]]s; its use is therefore banned in [[horse-racing]]. [[Theobromine]] is also a contributing factor in [[Acid Reflux|acid reflux]] because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid to more easily enter the esophagus.
Chocolate also contains caffeine in significant amounts, though less than tea or coffee, according to careful scientific studies and despite a few websites which claim otherwise. Some chocolate products contain synthetic caffeine as an [[additive]].
[[Image:Chocolate02.jpg|thumb|200px|Melting piece of a chocolate bar|]]
Chocolate also contains small quantities of the [[Cannabinoids#Endogenous Cannabinoids|endogenous cannabinoid]] [[anandamide]] and the cannabinoid breakdown inhibitors [[N-oleoylethanolamine]] and [[N-linolenoylethanolamine]]. Anandamides are produced naturally by the body, in such a way that their effects are extremely targeted (compared to the broad systemic effects of drugs like [[tetrahydrocannabinol]]) and relatively short-lived. In experiments ''N''-oleoylethanolamine and ''N''-linolenoylethanolamine interfere with the body's natural mechanisms for breaking down endogenous cannabinoids, causing them to last longer. However, noticeable effects of chocolate related to this mechanism in humans have not yet been demonstrated.
===Pleasure of consuming chocolate===
Part of the pleasure of eating chocolate is ascribed to the fact that its [[melting point]] is slightly below human body temperature; it melts in the [[mouth]]. Chocolate intake has been linked with release of [[serotonin]] in the brain, which is thought to produce feelings of pleasure.
Research has shown that heroin addicts tend to have an increased liking for chocolate; this may be because it triggers [[dopamine]] release in the brain's [[reinforcement]] systems &ndash; an effect, albeit a legal one, similar to that of [[opium]]. See also: [[chocoholic]].
===Chocolate as an aphrodisiac===
Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an [[aphrodisiac]]. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. More recently, suggestion has been made that [[serotonin]] and other chemicals found in chocolate, most notably [[phenethylamine]], can act as mild sexual stimulants. While there is no firm proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, giving a [[gift]] of chocolate to one's sweetheart is a familiar courtship ritual.
=== Acne ===
There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate can cause [[acne]]. Such an effect could not be shown in scientific studies as the results are inconclusive.[http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/22/1/62]
[[Image:Dscn4337-choc-chicks crop 600x1000.jpg|thumb|right|Chocolate, ranging from dark to light, can be moulded and decorated like these chickens with ribbons.]]
=== Lead ===
Chocolate has one of the highest concentrations of [[lead]] among all products that constitute a typical Westerner's diet. This is thought to happen because the cocoa beans are mostly grown in developing countries such as [[Nigeria]]. Those countries still use [[tetra-ethyl lead]] as a gasoline additive and, consequently, have high atmospheric concentrations of lead.
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, levels of lead in chocolate are sufficiently low that even people who eat large amounts of chocolate every day are not at risk of any adverse effects.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:LargeChocolateFountain.jpg|thumb|200px|Large Chocolate Fountain surrounded by Assorted Foods.]] -->
==Production==
===Varieties===
There are three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolates. "Criollo", the variety native to Central America, the Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American states, is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market. There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as Criollo, since most populations have been exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are difficult to grow, as they are vulnerable to a host of environmental threats and deliver low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollo is characterized as delicate but complex, low in classic "chocolate" flavor, but rich in "secondary" notes of long duration. ''Forastero'' is a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, probably native to the Amazon basin. The huge African cocoa crop is entirely of the Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than Criollo. Forastero cocoas are typically big in classic "chocolate" flavor, but this is of short duration and is unsupported by secondary flavors. There are exceptional Forasteros, such as the "Nacional" or "Arriba" variety, which can possess great complexity. ''Trinitario'', a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, originated in [[Trinidad]] after an introduction of (Amelonado) Forastero to the local Criollo crop. These cocoas exhibit a wide range of flavor profiles according to the genetic heritage of each tree.
Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties. The share of higher quality Criollos and Trinitarios (so-called ''flavour cacao'') is just under 5% per annum [http://www.icco.org/questions/varieties.htm].
===Harvesting===
Firstly, the [[cacao]] pods, containing cacao beans, are harvested. The beans, together with their surrounding pulp, are removed from the pod and left in piles or bins to ferment for 3-7 days. The beans must then be quickly dried to prevent mold growth; climate permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun.
The beans are then roasted, graded and ground. [[Cocoa butter]] is removed from the resulting chocolate liquor either by being pressed or by the [[Broma process]]. The resid
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[[fr:Interaction élémentaire]]
[[ko:기본 상호작용]]
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[[nl:Fundamentele natuurkracht]]
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<page>
<title>Floppy disk</title>
<id>10891</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41916293</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:25:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.114.133.23</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The 3½-inch microfloppy diskette */ minor style improvement</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Image3%2C5%27%27-Diskette_removed.jpg|100px|right]]
A '''floppy disk''' is a [[data storage device]] that is composed of a [[annulus|ring]] of thin, flexible (i.e. "floppy") [[magnetic storage]] medium encased in a [[square (geometry)|square]] or [[rectangle|rectangular]] [[plastic]] wallet. Floppy disks are read and written by a '''floppy disk drive''' or '''FDD''', the latter initialism not to be confused with "fixed disk drive", which is an old [[IBM]] term for a [[hard disk|hard disk drive]].
<!--right aligning stuff has a tendency to cause overlapping in situations like this, nested tables tend to work better-->
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{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="bottom"|''Historical sequence of floppy disk formats, including the last format to be generally adopted &mdash; the "1.44 MB" 3½-inch HD floppy, introduced 1987''.
|-
!align="center" width=28%|Floppy disk format
!align="center" width=22%|Year introduced
!align="center" width=28%|Storage capacity<br>([[kibibyte|binary kilobytes]] if not stated)
!align="center" width=22%|Marketed<br>capacity
|-
|8-inch (read-only)
|align="center"|1971
|align="right"|80
|align="right"|←
|-
|8-inch
|align="center"|1973
|align="right"|256
|align="right"|256 KB
|-
|8-inch [[double density|DD]]
|align="center"|1976
|align="right"|500
|align="right"|0.5 MB
|-
|5¼-inch
|align="center"|1976
|align="right"|110[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|←
|-
|8-inch double sided
|align="center"|1977
|align="right"|1200
|align="right"|1.2 MB
|-
|5¼-inch DD
|align="center"|1978
|align="right"|360
|align="right"|360 KB
|-
|3½-inch<br/>HP single sided
|align="center"|1982
|align="right"|<!--256×16×70 = -->280
|align="right"|264 KB
|-
|3-inch
|align="center"|1982[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|360[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|←
|-
|3½-inch (DD at release)
|align="center"|1984
|align="right"|720
|align="right"|720 KB
|-
|5¼-inch QD
|align="center"|1984
|align="right"|1200
|align="right"|1.2 MB
|-
|3-inch DD
|align="center"|1984[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|720[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|←
|-
|3-inch<br/>Mitsumi Quick Disk<!--I guess we should refer to the size of the disks themselves, not the plastic cartridges (3x4″ in this case). --Wernher-->
|align="center"|1985
|align="right"|128 to 256
|align="right"|←
|-
|2-inch
|align="center"|1985[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|720[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|←
|-
|5¼-inch Perpendicular
|align="center"|1986[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align="right"|100 [[mebibyte|MiB]]
|align="right"|←
|-
|3½-inch HD
|align="center"|1987
|align="right"|1440
|align="right"|1.44 MB
|-
|3½-inch ED
|align="center"|1991
|align="right"|2880
|align="right"|2.88 MB
|-
|3½-inch LS-120
|align="center"|1996
|align="right"|120.375 [[mebibyte|MiB]]
|align="right"|120 MB
|-
|3½-inch LS-240
|align="center"|1997
|align="right"|240.75 MiB
|align="right"|240 MB
|-
|3½-inch HiFD
|align="center"|1998/99
|align="right"|150/200 MiB[[to be confirmed|?]] <!--that figure looks to round to be real-->
|align="right"|150/200 MB
|-
|colspan=4 align="center"|Acronyms:&nbsp;&nbsp;'''DD''' = Double Density; '''QD''' = Quad Density; '''HD''' = High Density '''ED''' = Extended Density; '''LS''' = Laser Servo; '''HiFD''' = High capacity Floppy Disk
|-
|colspan=4 align="left"|Dates and capacities marked [[to be confirmed|?]] are of unclear origin and need source information; other listed capacities refer to:<br>
*For 8-inch: standard [[IBM]] formats as used by the [[System/370]] mainframes and newer systems
*For 5¼- and 3½-inch: standard PC formats, capacities quoted are the total size of all sectors on the disk and include space used for the bootsector and filesystem
Other formats may get more or less capacity from the same drives and disks.
|}
</table>
== Background ==
Floppy disks, also known as '''floppies''' or '''diskettes''' (a name chosen in order to be similar to the word "cassette"), were ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s, being used on [[home computer|home]] and [[personal computer]] ("PC") platforms such as the [[Apple II family|Apple II]], [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[Commodore 64]], [[Amiga]], and [[IBM PC]] to distribute software, transfer data between computers, and create small [[backup]]s. Before the popularization of the hard drive for PCs, floppy disks were often used to store a computer's [[operating system|operating system (OS)]], [[software application|application software]], and other data. Many home computers had their primary OS [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]]s stored permanently in on-board [[read-only memory|ROM]] chips, but stored the [[disk operating system]] on a floppy, whether it be a proprietary system, [[CP/M]], or, later, [[DOS]].
By the early 1990s, the increasing size of software meant that many programs were distributed on sets of floppies. Toward the end of the 1990s, software distribution gradually switched to [[CD-ROM]], and higher-density backup formats were introduced (e.g., the [[Iomega]] [[Zip drive|Zip disk]]). With the arrival of mass [[Internet]] access, cheap [[Ethernet]] and [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] "[[keydrive]]s", the floppy was no longer necessary for data transfer either, and the floppy disk was essentially superseded. Mass backups were now made to high capacity [[magnetic tape#magnetic tape data storage|tape drive]]s such as [[Digital Audio Tape|DAT]] or [[streamer]]s, or written to [[compact disc|CD]]s or [[DVD]]s. One unsuccessful (in the marketplace) attempt in the late 1990s to continue the floppy was the [[SuperDisk]] (LS-120), with a capacity of 120 MB (actually 120.375 MiB<!--- 6848 cylinders x 36 blocks/cylinder x 512 bytes; see http://linuxcommand.org/man_pages/floppy8.html --->), while the drive was backward compatible with standard 3½-inch floppies.
Nonetheless, manufacturers were reluctant to remove the floppy drive from their PCs, for backward compatibility, and because many companies' [[information technology|IT]] departments appreciated a built-in file transfer mechanism that always worked and required no [[device driver]] to operate properly. [[Apple Computer]] was the first mass-market computer manufacturer to drop the floppy drive from a computer model altogether with the release of their [[iMac]] model in 1998, and [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]] made the floppy drive optional in some models starting in 2003. To date, however, these moves have still not marked the end of the floppy disk as a mainstream means of data storage and exchange.
External [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]-based floppy disk drives are available for computers without floppy drives, and they work on any machine that supports USB.
Floppy disk sizes are almost universally referred to in [[imperial measurement]]s, even in countries where [[SI|metric]] is the standard, and even when the size is in fact defined in metric (for instance the 3½-inch floppy). Formatted capacities are generally set in terms of binary kilobytes (as 1 sector is generally 512 bytes). However, recent sizes of floppy are often referred to in a strange hybrid unit, <!-- does anyone know where this practice started?-->i.e. a "1.44 megabyte" floppy is 1.44×1000×1024 bytes, not 1.44×1024×1024 bytes nor 1.44×1000×1000.<!--- (I'm removing this because other editors may not have followed this directive) In the rest of this article kilobyte (or K or k) should be taken to mean the binary kilobyte and we have avoided the use of the term megabyte without clarification. --->
==History==
===Origins, the 8-inch disk===
{{see also|Table of 8-inch floppy formats}}
[[Image:8-inch floppy driver.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|An 8-inch disk drive with a half-inserted floppy disk.]]In 1967 [[International Business Machines|IBM]] gave their [[San Jose, California]] storage development center a new task: develop a simple and inexpensive system for loading [[microcode]] into their [[System/370]] [[IBM mainframe|mainframe]]s. The 370s were the first IBM machines to use semiconductor memory, and whenever the power was turned off the microcode had to be reloaded ([[magnetic core memory|'magnetic core' memory]],
|
lt;span id="mccready1994">McCready, William D. Miracles and the Venerable Bede. Studies and Texts: Studies and Texts (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies), 118 (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1994).
<span id="opland1980">Opland, Jeff Anglo-Saxon Oral Poetry: A Study of the Traditions (New Haven and London, 1980). </span>
==See also==
*[[English historians in the Middle Ages]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book1.html ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''], Book 1, L.C. Jane's 1903 Temple Classics translation. From the [[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]].
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.pdf Bede's Ecclesiastical History and the Continuation of Bede (pdf)], at [http://www.ccel.org CCEL], edited & translated by A.M. Sellar.
*[http://www.bedesworld.co.uk/ Bede's World: the museum of early medieval Northumbria at Jarrow]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/211/0506.html Bede’s ''Ecclesiastical History''] commentary from ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', Volume I, 1907&ndash;21.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20041125.shtml The Venerable Bede] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]
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[[bg:Беда Достопочтени]]
[[de:Beda Venerabilis]]
[[es:Beda]]
[[fr:Bède le Vénérable]]
[[ko:베다 베네라빌리스]]
[[it:San Beda il Venerabile]]
[[he:בדה ונרביליס]]
[[ja:ベーダ・ヴェネラビリス]]
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[[sv:Beda venerabilis]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Baroque Art</title>
<id>4043</id>
<revision>
<id>15902345</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-02T17:41:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#redirect [[Baroque art]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Baroque art]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Boston Tea Party</title>
<id>4044</id>
<revision>
<id>42053448</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:00:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DanielCD</username>
<id>81016</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.11.200.2|168.11.200.2]] ([[User talk:168.11.200.2|talk]]) to last version by Shijeru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boston tea party.jpg|thumb|300px|This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party.]]
The '''Boston Tea Party''' was a protest by the [[Colonists]] against [[Great Britain]] in which they destroyed many crates of [[tea]] on ships in [[Boston Harbor]]. The incident, which took place on [[December 16|16 December]] [[1773]], has been seen as helping to spark the [[American Revolution]].
==Background==
The [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] of [[1765]] and the [[Townshend Acts]] of [[1767]] angered colonists regarding British decisions on taxing the colonies with no representation in the Westminster Parliament ("no taxation without representation"). One of the protesters was [[John Hancock]]. In [[1768]], his ship ''Liberty'' was seized by customs officials and he was charged with smuggling. He was defended by [[John Adams]] and the charges were eventually dropped. However, Hancock later faced several hundred more indictments.
Hancock organized a boycott of tea from [[China]] sold by the [[British East India Company]], whose sales in the colonies then fell from 320,000lb to 520lb. By [[1773]], the company had large debts, huge stocks of tea in its warehouses and no prospect of selling it because smugglers such as Hancock were importing tea without paying taxes (import tax). The British government passed the [[Tea Act]], which allowed the East India Company to sell tea to the colonies directly, thereby allowing them to sell for lower prices than those offered by the colonial merchants and smugglers.
The ships carrying tea were prevented from landing as most American ports turned the tea away. In [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], however, the East India Company had the help of the British-appointed governor — plans were made to bring in — by force — the tea under the protection given by British armed ships.
==The Tea Party==
[[Image:Boston Tea Party-Cooper.jpg|thumb|250px|1789 engraving]]
On [[December 16]], [[1773]], the evening before the tea was supposed to be landed, the [[Sons of Liberty]], three groups of from 50-150 Boston residents each organized by [[Samuel Adams]], burst from the [[Old South Meeting House]] and headed toward Griffin's Wharf, dressed as [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]]s. Three ships — the ''Dartmouth'', the ''Eleanor'' and the ''Beaver'' — were loaded with hundreds of crates of tea. The men boarded the ships and began destroying the cargo. By 9pm they had smashed 342 crates of tea in all three ships and had thrown them into [[Port of Boston|Boston Harbor]]. They took off their shoes, swept the decks, and made each ship's first mate agree to say that the Sons of Liberty had destroyed only the tea. The whole event was remarkably quiet and peaceful. The next day, they sent someone around to fix the one padlock they had broken.
==Reaction==
This act brought criticism from both colonial and British officials. For instance, [[Benjamin Franklin]] stated that the destroyed tea must be repaid and offered to repay with his own money. The British government responded harshly by closing the port of Boston and put in place other laws that were known as the "[[Intolerable Acts]]". This act proved to be one of those that led to the [[American Revolution]]. At the very least, the Boston Tea Party and the reaction that followed served to rally support for revolutionaries in the [[thirteen colonies]] who were eventually successful in their fight for independence.
==External links==
{{Commons|Boston Tea Party}}
*[http://www.boston-tea-party.org The Boston Tea Party Historical Society]
[[Category:Pre-revolutionary history of the United States|Boston Tea Party]]
[[Category:American Revolution|Boston Tea Party]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the United States|Boston Tea Party]]
[[da:Teselskabet i Boston]]
[[de:Boston Tea Party]]
[[es:Motín del té en Boston]]
[[fr:Boston Tea Party]]
[[he:מסיבת התה של בוסטון]]
[[hu:Bostoni teadélután]]
[[nl:Boston Tea Party]]
[[ja:ボストン茶会事件]]
[[pl:Herbatka bostońska]]
[[sk:Bostonské pitie čaju]]
[[sl:Bostonska čajanka]]
[[fi:Bostonin teekutsut]]
[[sv:Tebjudningen i Boston]]
[[zh:波士頓茶葉事件]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bubble tea</title>
<id>4045</id>
<revision>
<id>41972966</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:46:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>M3light</username>
<id>1008937</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pearl_Milktea.jpg|thumb|Bubble tea]]
'''Bubble tea''' is a [[tea]] [[drink|beverage]] mixture with [[milk]] and balls of [[tapioca]]. Originating in Taiwan, bubble tea is especially popular in Asian countries such as the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[South Korea]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Singapore]]. The drink is also popular in [[Europe]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]].
==Definition==
Bubble tea consists of a mixture of iced or hot sweetened tea, milk, and possibly other flavorings. The beverage is shaken, producing the small bubbles characteristic of the name. Black gummy balls made of tapioca, called "pearls," sit at the bottom of the cup. The pearls, much larger than those found in [[tapioca pudding]], have a diameter of at least 6 millimeters, but smaller balls are occasionally used. The pearls are sucked through a wide straw along with the drink, providing something to chew on between sips.
When ordering, customers are often asked whether they want "boba" or "pearls" in their beverages, and both terms refer to the tapioca balls. An hour is required to prepare the tapioca, and in the preparation and cooking of the tapioca, the pearls expand considerably. After this period, the tapioca is drained from the water, poured into a sugar and water solution, and are ready to use.
Another alternative to the traditional tapioca balls is [[nata de coco|coconut jelly]], a lighter option. Coconut jelly is served in small [[Lego]]-like pieces and has a sweet, crunchy consistency. They add a new dimension to bubble tea and are often ordered "half and half," meaning half pearls and half coconut jelly.
The recipes for bubble tea vary, but flavoring is usually added to hot black or green tea, which is shaken in a [[cocktail shaker]] or mixed in [[blender (device)|blender]] with ice until chilled. The mixture is usually combined with milk and softened tapioca pearls. Most cafes that serve bubble tea also use a machine to seal to the top of the cup with a plastic cellophane, which a drinker pierces with a straw.
Some cafes use a nondairy milk substitute to replace milk; the substitute adds a distinct flavor and consistency to the final product. The possible reason for a nondairy milk substitute is the [[lactose intolerance]] of many Asian people.
The flavorings added to bubble tea are usually fruity and can be powders, fruit juice, pulp, or syrups. Sellers sometimes differentiate between bubble tea made with fruit pulp, juice, and pearls; and green, black, or brown milk teas.
Bubble tea can also refer to hot [[Hong Kong-style milk tea]] with tapioca balls.
==Origin==
[[Image:Annarbor bubble island.JPG|thumb|A bubble tea shop in the [[midwestern United States]]]]
Bub
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s, primarily by dropping [[bomb]]s. Fighters are comparatively small, fast, and maneuverable. Fighters were developed in response to the fledgeling use of aircraft and [[dirigibles]] in [[WWI]] for reconnaissance and ground attack roles. These early fighters were mostly wood biplanes with light machineguns. As aerial warfare became increasingly important, so did control of the airspace. By WWII, fighters were predominantly metal monoplanes with wing-mounted cannon. Following the war, [[turbojet|turbojets]] replaced piston engines as the means of propulsion, and missiles augmented or replaced guns. Jet fighters are, for historical purposes, divided into several generations. Modern jet fighters are predominantly powered single or twin-turbofan, armed primarily with missiles, and equipped with a radar as the primary method of target acquisition.
== World War I ==
[[Image:Sopwith_Camel_at_the_Imperial_War_Musuem.jpg|thumb|right|375px|A [[Sopwith Camel|Sopwith Camel 2F1]] bi-plane at the [[Imperial War Museum]] in London.]]
Combat between aircraft has its origins in encounters between opposing scout aircraft early in WWI. Since early scout aircraft were unarmed, early encounters between opposing scouts were peaceful - pilots would often wave to one another as they passed by. Crafty pilots attempted to shoot down their counterparts in a manner of amateur ways - including grappling hooks, small arms, and grenades. As militaries realized the importance of aerial reconnaissance by airplanes and dirigibles, they also realized the importance of arming aircraft to destroy enemy scouts. One early solution was to mount a swiveling machine gun for the backseater or a forward-facing machine gun on the top wing to clear the propeller. Neither was particularly useful for a single seater, the latter being difficult to aim and reload. The central obstacle was firing a machine gun through the arc of the propeller without hitting the blades. French aviator [[Roland Garros]]'s solution was to fit deflector plates to his propellers where the machinegun would strike. This was an imperfect solution as the plates could not withstand repeated fire. A copy eventually ended up in German hands after a prototype crashed in German terriorty. Inspired by this, [[Anthony Fokker]]'s team invented the more reliable [[interrupter gear]], which enabled the widespread design of single-seat fighters.
* Significant aircraft:
** [[Nieuport]]
** [[Rumpler Taube]]
** [[Fokker]]: [[Fokker Dr.I]], [[Fokker D.VII]]
** [[S.P.A.D.]], or "[[Spad]]"
** [[Sopwith Camel]]
** [[RAE SE5a]]
** [[Albatros-Flugzeugwerke|Albatros]]
== 1919-1938 ==
[[Image:Hawker Fury (Yugoslav).jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Hawker Fury in Yugoslav service.]]
Fighter development slowed between the wars, the most significant change coming from the change from wood, cloth-skinned [[biplanes to metal]], [[monocouque]] or [[semi-monocoque]] monoplanes. Nations dabbled with twin-engined fighters as heavy fighters, but the idea did not take hold except for some specialized applications requiring a heavier payload. The primary driver of fighter innovation were not military budgets, but civilian aircraft races. Aircraft designed for these races sported innovations like streamlining and liquid-cooled engines that would find their way into the fighters of WWII.
[[image:peashooter.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An early fighter: the Boeing [[P-26 Peashooter]] which first flew in 1932]]
Biplanes
*[[Bristol Bulldog]]
*[[Gloster Gladiator]] - operated in the [[Mediterranean]] during WW2
*[[Hawker Fury]] - served in Spanish Civil War
Monoplanes
*[[Boeing P-26]]
*[[Brewster Buffalo]]
*[[Polikarpov I-16]]
== World War II ==
[[Image:303 plane picture.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Supermarine Spitfire.]]
Aerial combat formed an important part of WWII military doctrine. The ability of aircraft to locate, harrass, and interdict ground forces was an instrumental part of the German combined-arms doctrine, and their inability to seize air superiority over Britain rendered an invasion infeasible. Erwin Rommel noted the effect of airpower with the following quote: "Anyone who has to fight, even with the most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage against modern European troops, under the same handicaps and with the same chances of success."
Fighter aircraft of the second world war featured all the innovations of the 1930s. Piston-engined fighters continued to be refined and developed with increasing performance and capabilities, up until the advent of [[jet aircraft]] such as the [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] and [[Gloster Meteor]]. Many of these fighters would do over 400 mph (600 km/h) in level flight, and were fast enough in a dive that they started encountering the transonic buffeting experienced near Mach 1, occasionally breaking up in flight due to the heavy load placed on an aircraft near the so-called "sound barrier". Dive brakes were developed late in WW II to minimize these problems and restore control to the pilots.
Radar, invented shortly prior to WWII, was fitted to some fighters, such as the [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] and [[Northrop P-61 Black Widow]] to enable them to locate targets at night. Another innovation of this period was the strike fighter. Short on aircraft, Marines in the Pacific bolted bomb racks on to their [[F4U Corsair]]s. This proved a versatile concept, as the fighters were able to fight enemy fighters once they had relieved themselves of their bombload.
Notable Aircraft:
* Germany
** [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]]
** [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]]
** [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190]]
** [[Messerschmitt Me 163]]
** [[Messerschmitt Me 262]]
** [[Heinkel He 162]]
*Japan
** [[Kawanishi N1K-J]]
** [[Mitsubishi Zero]]
* Soviet Union
** [[Yakovlev Yak-9]]
** [[Lavochin]] [[La-5]]
* United Kingdom
** [[Supermarine Spitfire]]
** [[Hawker Hurricane]]
** [[Hawker Typhoon]]
** [[Hawker Tempest]]
** [[De Havilland Mosquito]]
** [[Gloster Meteor]]
* United States
** [[Grumman]] [[F4F Wildcat]]
** [[Vought]] [[F4U Corsair]]
** [[Grumman]] [[F6F Hellcat]]
** [[Lockheed]] [[P-38 Lightning]]
** [[Bell Aircraft Corporation|Bell]] [[P-39 Airacobra]]
** [[Curtiss P-40]]
** [[Republic Aviation Company|Republic]] [[P-47 Thunderbolt]]
** [[North American Aviation|North American]] [[P-51 Mustang]]
== The Jet age ==
Jet fighters are classified by generation. Note that the years are not exact and intended as a guideline.
===First Generation (1945 - 1953)===
[[Image:MiG-15 RB1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A MiG-15 in [[Poland|Polish]] markings.]]
The first generation represents the first attempts at utilizing turbojets for propulsion, providing greatly increased speed as efficiency of piston-driven propellers drops off considerably at speeds approaching Mach 1. Outside of the speed difference, these early jets in other respects resembled their piston-driven counterparts. They were straight-winged aircraft armed primarily with cannon; radar was not yet in common usage except on specialized night fighters.
The first jets were developed during WWII and saw combat in the last year. Messerschmitt developed the first operational jet fighter, the Me 262. It was considerably faster than piston-driven aircraft, and in the hands of a competent pilot, was practically untouchable. Due to German fuel shortages, however, it was little used. Nevertheless the plane indicated the obsolence of piston-driven aircraft. Spurred by reports of the German jets, Britain's Gloster Meteor entered production soon after. By the end of the war almost all work on piston powered fighters had ended.
Despite the advantages, the early jet fighters were far from perfect. Their operational lifespans could be measured primarily in hours; the engines themselves were fragile and balky, and power could only be adjusted slowly. Technology such as [[swept wing]]s, [[ejector seat]]s, and all-moving [[tailplane]]s were introduced in this period.
* U.S.
** [[Lockheed]] [[P-80 Shooting Star]]
** [[North American Aviation|North American]] [[F-86 Sabre]]
** [[Northrop]] [[F-89J Scorpion]]
** [[McDonnell]] [[XF-85 Goblin]]
* U.S.S.R
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15]]
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17]]
* United Kingdom
** [[de Havilland Vampire]]
** [[Hawker Hunter]]
** [[Gloster Javelin]]
* France
** [[Dassault Ouragan]]
** [[Dassault_Myst%C3%A8re_IV]]
* Sweden
** [[Saab Tunnan]]
* [[Canada]]
** [[Avro CF-100]]
=== Second Generation (1953-1960) ===
[[Image:F-100.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A "second generation" North American [[F-100 Super Sabre]]. This was the first American jet aircraft to break the sound barrier in level flight.]]
The second generation describes the integration of many new technologies to greatly improve the fighting capability of the jet fighter. The introduction of guided missiles such as the [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] and [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] moved combat to beyond visual range (though it often devolved into [[dogfights]] in visual range), necessitating the standardization of radar to acquire targets. Designers experimented with a variety of aeronautical concepts, such as the [[swept wing]] [[delta wing]], [[variable-sweep]] wings, and [[area-rule]]d fuselages. With the aid of swept wing, these were the first aircraft to break the sound barrier.
The primary specializations of this era were the [[fighter-bomber]] (such as the [[F-105]] and the [[Sukhoi Su-7]], and the interceptor ([[English Electric Lightning]] and [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25]]). The interceptor was an outgrowth of the vision that guided missles would completely replace guns and combat would take place at beyond visual range. As a result, interceptors were designed with a large missile payload and a powerful radar, sacrificing agility in favor of speed and [[rate of climb]].
Notable Aircraft:
* U.S.
** [[Chance-Vought]] [[F-8 Crusader]]
** [[Republic Aviation|Republic]] [[F-105 Thunderchief]]
** [[Lockheed]] [[F-104 Starfighter
|
he strikers held mass meetings in defiance of the regime, and the army openly sided with the workers. A few days later a [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|provisional government]] headed by [[Prince Lvov]] was named by the Duma. The following day the tsar abdicated. Meanwhile, the socialists in Petrograd had formed a soviet (council) of workers and soldiers' deputies to provide them with the power that they lacked in the Duma.
In July, the head of the provisional government resigned and was succeeded by [[Alexander Kerensky]], who was more progressive than his predecessor but not radical enough for the Bolsheviks. While Kerensky's government marked time, the Marxist soviet in Petrograd extended its organization throughout the country by setting up local soviets. Meanwhile, Kerensky made the fatal mistake of continuing to commit Russia to the war, a policy extremely unpopular with the masses.
Lenin returned to Russia from exile in [[Switzerland]], with the help of Germany, which hoped that widespread strife would cause Russia to withdraw from the war. A tumultuous reception by thousands of peasants, workers, and soldiers took place as Lenin's train rolled into the station. After many behind-the-scenes maneuvers, the soviets seized control of the government in November 1917, and drove Kerensky and his moderate provisional government into exile, in the events that would become known as the [[October Revolution]].
When the national assembly, which met in January [[1918]], refused to become a rubber-stamp of the Bolsheviks, it was dissolved by Lenin's troops. With the dissolution of the constituent assembly, all vestiges of bourgeois democracy were removed. With the handicap of the moderate opposition removed, Lenin was able to free his regime from the war problem by the harsh [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] (1918) with Germany, with great sacrifice of Russian territory.
==Russian Civil War==
''Main article: [[Russian Civil War]]''
A powerful group of counterrevolutionaries termed the [[White movement]] began to organize to topple the Bolsheviks. At the same time the Allied powers sent several expeditionary armies to Russia to support the anti-Communist forces. The Allies feared that the Bolsheviks were in a conspiracy with the Germans because of Brest-Litovsk; they also hoped that the White Russians might renew hostilities against Germany. In the fall of 1918 the Bolshevik regime was in a perilous position, opposed by Russia's former allies and internal enemies, as well as in sporadic conflict with short-lived nationalist republics in Belarus and Ukraine and anarchist forces.
To counteract this emergency, a reign of terror was begun within Russia as the [[Red Army]] and the [[Cheka]] (the secret police) destroyed all enemies of the revolution. However lofty their goals were, the Bolsheviks did not have the consent of all elements of society and thus had to force their rule over Russia during the civil war. They swept away the tsarist secret police, so despised by Russians of all political persuasions, along with other tsarist institutions, but ensured the survival of their own regime by replacing it with a political police of considerably greater dimensions, both in the scope of its authority and in the severity of its methods. By [[1920]] all White resistance had been crushed, foreign armies evacuated, and Bolshevik governments established in Belarus, Ukraine, and the Caucasus, but at the cost of perpetuating Russia's long pattern of autocratic rule in new forms.
As Russia was bogged down in [[Russian civil war|civil war]], the frontiers between Poland and Russia were not clearly defined by the postwar [[Treaty of Versailles]] and were further rendered chaotic by the civil war. The [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1919–1921), which ended with the defeat of the Red Army, determined the borders between Soviet Russia and Poland.
==Soviet Union==
''Main article: [[History of Russia and the Soviet Union (1917-1927)|History of the Soviet Union]]''
===Creation of the Soviet Union===
The history of Russia between [[1922]] and [[1991]] is essentially the history of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or [[Soviet Union]]. This ideologically-based union, established in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party, was roughly coterminous with the Russian Empire. At that time, the new nation included four constituent republics: the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian SSR]], [[Belarusian SSR]], and the [[Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]].
The constitution, adopted in 1924, established a '''''federal'' system''' of government based on a succession of soviets set up in villages, factories, and cities in larger regions. This pyramid of soviets in each constituent republic culminated in the All-Union Congress of Soviets. But while it appeared that the congress exercised sovereign power, this body was actually governed by the Communist Party, which in turn was controlled by the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] from Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union, just as it had been under the tsars before Peter the Great.
===War communism and the New Economic Policy===
The period from the consolidation of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 until [[1921]] is known as the period of [[war communism]]. Banks, railroads, and shipping were nationalized and the money economy was restricted. Strong opposition soon developed. The peasants wanted cash payments for their products and resented having to surrender their surplus grain to the government as a part of its civil war policies. Confronted with peasant opposition, Lenin began a strategic retreat from war communism known as the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP). The peasants were freed from wholesale levies of grain and allowed to sell their surplus produce in the open market. Commerce was stimulated by permitting private retail trading. The state continued to be responsible for banking, transportation, heavy industry, and public utilities.
Although the left opposition among the Communists criticized the rich peasants or [[kulak]]s who benefited from the NEP, the program proved highly beneficial and the economy revived. The NEP would later come under increasing opposition from within the party following Lenin's death in early [[1924]].
===Changes in Russian society===
While the Russian economy was being transformed, the social life of the people underwent equally drastic changes. From the beginning of the revolution, the government attempted to weaken patriarchal domination of the family. [[Divorce]] no longer required court procedure; and to make women completely free of the responsibilities of childbearing, [[abortion]] was made legal as early as 1920. As a side effect, the emancipation of the women increased the labor market. Girls were encouraged to secure an education and pursue a career in the factory or the office. Communal nurseries were set up for the care of small children and efforts were made to shift the center of people's social life from the home to educational and recreational groups, the soviet clubs.
The regime abandoned the tsarist policy of [[discrimination|discriminating]] against [[national minorities]] in favor of a policy of incorporating the more than two hundred minority groups into Soviet life. Another feature of the regime was the extension of medical services. Campaigns were carried out against [[typhus]], [[cholera]], and [[malaria]]; the number of doctors was increased as rapidly as facilities and training would permit; and [[infant mortality]] rates rapidly decreased while [[life expectancy]] rapidly increased.
The government also promoted [[atheism]] and [[materialism]], which formed the basis of Marxist theory. It opposed organized religion, especially in order to break the power of the Russian Orthodox Church, a former pillar of the old tsarist regime and a major barrier to social change. Many religious leaders were sent to internal exile camps. Members of the party were forbidden to attend religious services. The education system was separated from the Church. Religious teaching was prohibited except in the home and atheist instruction was stressed in the schools.
===Industrialization and collectivization===
[[Image:Magnito.jpg|thumb|left|The construction of steel-producing city of [[Magnitogorsk]] in 1932 appears above. Magnitogorsk was at the forefront of Stalin's Five-Year Plans in the 1930s.]]
The years from [[1929]] to [[1939]] comprised a tumultuous decade in Russian history—a period of massive industrialization and internal struggles as [[Joseph Stalin]] established near total control over Russian society, wielding unrestrained power unknown to even the most ambitious tsars. Following Lenin's death Stalin wrestled to gain control of the Soviet Union with rival factions in the Politburo, especially [[Leon Trotsky]]'s. By [[1928]], with the [[Trotskyist]]s either exiled or rendered powerless, Stalin was ready to put a radical program of industrialization into action.
In 1928 Stalin proposed the first [[Five-Year Plan]]. Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources though the buildup of heavy industry, the [[Collectivisation in the USSR|collectivization of agriculture]], and the restricted manufacture of [[consumer goods in the Soviet Union|consumer goods]] and for the first time in history a government controlled all economic activity. While in the capitalist countries factories and mines were idle or running on reduced schedules during the [[Great Depression]] and millions were unemployed, the Soviet people worked many hours a day, six days a week, in a thoroughgoing attempt to revolutionize the Soviet economic structure.
As a part of the plan, the government took control of agriculture through the state and collective farms (''see'' [[collectivisation in the USSR|col
|
ng, management and calculation, conforming to legal standards. Eventually, this means that the total amount of work involved in commercial administration outgrows the total amount of work involved in government administration. In modern capitalist society, private sector bureaucracy is ''larger'' than government bureaucracy, if measured by the number of administrative workers in the [[division of labour]] as a whole. Some corporations nowadays have a turnover larger than the national income of whole countries, with large administrations supervising operations.
A fourth source of bureaucracy inheres in the technologies of mass production, which require many standardised routines and procedures to be performed. Even if mechanisation replaces people with machinery, people are still necessary to design, control, supervise and operate the machinery. The technologies chosen may not be the ones that are best for everybody, but which create ''incomes'' for a particular class of people or maintain their power. This type of bureaucracy is nowadays often called a [[technocracy]], which owes its power to control over specialised technical knowledge.
In Marx's theory, bureaucracy rarely creates new wealth by itself, but rather controls, co-ordinates and governs the production, distribution and consumption of wealth. The bureaucracy as a social stratum derives its income from the appropriation of part of the social [[surplus product]] of human labour. Wealth is appropriated by the bureaucracy by law through fees, taxes, levies, tributes, licensing etc.
Bureaucracy is therefore always a ''cost'' to society, but this cost may be accepted insofar as it makes [[social order]] possible, and maintains it. Nevertheless there are constant conflicts about this cost, because it has the big effect on the distribution of incomes; all producers will try to get the maximum return from what they produce, and minimise administrative costs. Typically, in epochs of strong economic growth, bureaucracies proliferate; when economic growth declines, a fight breaks out to cut back bureaucratic costs.
Whether or not a bureaucracy as a social stratum can become a genuine [[ruling class]] depends greatly on the prevailing [[property]] relations and the [[mode of production]] of wealth. In capitalist society, the state typically lacks an independent economic base, finances many activities on credit, and is heavily dependent on levying taxes as a source of income. Therefore, its power is limited by the costs which private owners of the productive assets will tolerate. If, however, the state owns the [[means of production]] itself, the state bureaucracy can become much more powerful, and act as a ruling class or power elite. Because in that case, it directly controls the sources of new wealth, and manages or distributes the social product. This is the subject of Marxist theories of [[bureaucratic collectivism]].
Marx himself however never theorised this possibility in detail, and it has been the subject of much controversy among Marxists. The core organisational issue in these disputes concerns the degree to which the ''administrative'' allocation of resources by government authorities and the ''market'' allocation of resources can achieve the social goal of creating a more free, just and prosperous society. Which decisions should be made by whom, at what level, so that an optimal allocation of resources results? This is just as much a moral-political issue as an economic issue.
Central to the Marxian concept of [[socialism]] is the idea of workers' self-management, which assumes the internalisation of a [[morality]] and self-discipline among people that would make bureaucratic supervision and control redundant, together with a drastic reorganisation of the [[division of labour]] in society. Bureaucracies emerge to mediate conflicts of interest on the basis of laws, but if those conflicts of interest disappear, bureaucracies would also be redundant.
Marx's critics are however skeptical of the feasibility of this kind of socialism, given the continuing need for administration, and the propensity of people to put their own self-interest before the communal interest. That is, the argument is that self-interest and the communal interest might ''never'' coincide, or, at any rate, can always diverge significantly.
==Max Weber on bureaucracy==
[[Max Weber]] has probably been one of the most influential users of the word in its [[social science]] sense. He is well-known for his study of bureaucratization of society; many aspects of modern [[public administration]] go back to him; a classic, hierarchically organized [[civil service]] of the [[continental]] type is&mdash;if basically mistakenly&mdash;called ''"Weberian civil service"''.
However, contrary to popular belief, "bureaucracy" was an [[English language|English]] word before Weber; the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] cites usage in several different years between [[1818]] and [[1860]], prior to Weber's birth in [[1864]].
Weber described the '''[[ideal type]]''' bureaucracy in positive terms, considering it to be a more rational and efficient form of organization than the alternatives that preceded it, which he characterized as ''[[charismatic domination]]'' and ''[[traditional domination]]''. According to his terminology, bureaucracy is part of [[legal domination]]. However, he also emphasized that bureaucracy becomes inefficient when a decision must be adopted to an individual case.
According to Weber, the attributes of modern bureaucracy include its impersonality, concentration of the means of administration, a leveling effect on social and economic differences and implementation of a system of authority that is practically indestructible.
Weber's analysis of bureaucracy concerns:
* the historical and administrative reasons for the process of bureaucratization (especially in the [[Western civilisation]])
* the impact of the [[rule of law]] upon the functioning of bureaucratic organisations
* the typical [[personal orientation]] and [[occupational position]] of a bureaucratic officials as a [[status group]]
* the most important attributes and consequences of bureaucracy in the modern world
A bureaucratic organization is governed by the following seven principles:
# official business is conducted on a continuous basis
# official business is conducted with strict accordance to the following rules:
## the duty of each official to do certain types of work is delimited in terms of impersonal criteria
## the official is given the authority necessary to carry out his assigned functions
## the means of coercion at his disposal are strictly limited and conditions of their use strictly defined
# every official's responsibilities and authority are part of a vertical hierarchy of authority, with respective rights of supervision and appeal
# officials do not own the resources necessary for the performance of their assigned functions but are accountable for their use of these resources
# official and private business and income are strictly separated
# offices cannot be appropriated by their incumbents (inherited, sold, etc.)
# official business is conducted on the basis of written documents
A bureaucratic official:
* is personally free and appointed to his position on the basis of conduct
* exercises the authority delegated to him in accordance with impersonal rules, and his loyalty is enlisted on behalf of the faithful execution of his official duties
* appointment and job placement are dependent upon his technical qualifications
* administrative work is a full-time occupation
* work is rewarded by a regular salary and prospects of advancement in a lifetime career
An official must exercise his judgment and his skills, but his duty is to place these at the service of a higher authority; ultimately he is responsible only for the impartial execution of assigned tasks and must sacrifice his personal judgment if it runs counter to his official duties.
==Criticism==
As Max Weber himself noted, in reality no ideal type organisation can exist. Thus the real bureaucracy will be less optimal and effective than his ideal model. Each of Weber's seven principles can degenerate:
* Vertical hierarchy of authority can became chaotic, some offices can be omitted in the decision making process, there may be conflicts of competence;
* Competences can be unclear and used contrary to the spirit of the law; sometimes a decision itself may be considered more important than its effect;
* [[Nepotism]], [[political corruption|corruption]], political infighting and other degenerations can counter the rule of impersonality and can create a recrutation and promotion system not based on [[meritocracy]] but rather on [[oligarchy]];
* Officials can try to avoid responsibility and seek anonymity by avoiding documentation of their procedures (or creating extreme amounts of chaotic, confusing documents)
Even a non-degenerated bureaucracy can be affected by common problems:
* Overspecialisation, making individual officials not aware of larger consequences of their actions
* Rigidity and inertia of procedures, making decision-making slow or even impossible when facing some unusual case, and similarly delaying change, evolution and adaptation of old procedures to new circumstances;
* A phenomenon of ''group thinking'' - zealotry, loyalty and lack of critical thinking regarding the organisation which is ''perfect'' and ''always correct'' by definition, making the organisation unable to change and realise its own mistakes and limitations;
* A phenomenon of ''[[Catch-22]]'' (named after a famous book) - as bureaucracy creates more and more rules and procedures, their complexity raises and coordination diminishes, facilitating creation of contradictory rules
In the most extreme examples, bureaucracy can lead to the treatment of individual human beings as impersonal objects. This process has been criticise
|
since they could have modified their characters locally. ''Diablo II'' also had a unique feature that would show the players in the Battle.net chatroom as [[Avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]]s who looked like their characters did in the game. It also used a different Battle.net interface than previous games, where previously there were mainly only color differences. There was also expanded ladder support including a "Hardcore" ladder which listed players whose characters would be removed permanently if they died in-game. Again, with ''Diablo II'' usage of Battle.net increased steadily, climbing even higher with the release of the expansion pack ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]'' in 2001.
[[Image:battlenet_warcraft3.jpg|thumb|left|Battle.net interface for [[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]].]]
===Warcraft III===
''[[Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos]]'' was released in 2002 and combined with its expansion pack ''[[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]]'' which was released in 2003 are the most recent games Blizzard released which support Battle.net. The release of these two games brought with them a number of new features to the online service. The most significant feature to be added was probably the concept of Anonymous Matchmaking. This feature allowed a user who wanted to play a game to simply press a button and automatically be matched up with one or more other players who were similar in skill (based on ranking) and also wanted to play a game. This allowed for people to get into games quickly and easily. It also reduced win-trading, where two people would purposely win and lose games to artificially raise their rank on the ladder. The matchmaking concept was also expanded to team games in a feature called "Arranged Teams". In an arranged team game, you could get together with a friend of yours to make a team, which was then anonymously matched up with another team of the same size and rank. Automated tournaments were added in the expansion, where players would compete to be crowned tournament champion in a series of games played throughout the day. In addition to the new game styles, a slew of other features were added including selectable chatroom icons, a friends list, and clan support.
===World of Warcraft===
''[[World of Warcraft]]'', Blizzard's [[MMORPG]] released in 2004 uses a completely different server and network structure, and thus does not run on the Battle.net online gaming service.
==Usage==
According to Blizzard's claims, Battle.net is the largest online gaming network in the world. It currently has nearly 12 million active users, who spend more than 2.1 million combined hours online per day. At any one given time, Battle.net averages about 200,000 concurrent users with a peak volume of 400,000 concurrent users. About 50,000 games are being played on typical weekday evenings, more than half of which are StarCraft.
==bnetd==
:''Main article: [[bnetd]]''
A group of gamer/programmers produced a freely available clone of Battle.net called [[bnetd]]. Blizzard games normally only work over the Internet with Battle.net, but bnetd allowed gamers to run their own private server.
In February 2002, lawyers retained by Blizzard threatened legal action under provisions of the [[DMCA|Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] against the bnetd developers, and the project was officially halted. As this case was one of the first major test cases for the DMCA, the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] became involved, and for a while negotiations were ongoing to resolve the case without a trial. The negotiations failed however, and Blizzard won the case on all counts: the defendants were ruled to have breached both Blizzard's [[End User License Agreement]] (EULA) and the [[Terms of Use]] of Battle.net. [http://blizzard.com/press/041008.shtml]
Development of similar software, however, did not end. Upon the base of [[bnetd]], another program called [[PvPGN]] (standing for Player-versus-Player Gaming Network) has risen and represents continued development of [[bnetd]].
==Community==
A community of [[software developers|developers]] has arisen around Battle.net. Many unofficial [[Client (computing)|clients]] are available for Battle.net, and most of the [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]] used by Battle.net-enabled games has been reverse-engineered and [http://bnetdocs.valhallalegends.com published] by volunteers.
===BNLS===
'''BNLS''', or the '''Battle.Net Login Server''', is a [[third party]] server used to emulate the hashing and encryption methods required to login to [[Blizzard Entertainment]]'s Battle.net servers. It was co-authored by [[Valhalla Legends]] (vL), a clan known for its programming members, members ''Skywing'' and ''Yoni'' as a reliable tool to make bot development easier. BNLS is [[closed source]] and is only hosted by vL.
==== Advantages and Disadvantages ====
Developers often choose BNLS over "local hashing" because no updates are required on the user's end when a Battle.net game is patched, and it requires none of the binary files necessary for local hashing. Some disadvantages cited by critics include slow reactions to patches, a longer time to connect compared to local hashing, and occasional server downtime. Also, some [[Computer game bot|bot]] users are uncomfortable sending their [[CD key]]s and passwords to the server in plain text, which is part of the purpose behind the service anyway (BNLS automates calculations required by the client on plaintext data that are difficult in certain situations, including instances where the developer is using [[Visual Basic]] because of its lack of support for [[unsigned]] data). Because of the mix of advantages and disadvantages, many developers have included both methods of connecting.
==== Imitators ====
Some BNLS imitators have been made, with varying degrees of success. Most fall short of the popularity of BNLS because it works as it should, comes from one of the most reputable Battle.net development sources in existence, and is the original.
On October 19, 2004, ''The-FooL'' released JBLS (Java Battle.net Login Server), an [[open source]] and somewhat incomplete emulator of BNLS. Immediately, numerous JBLS servers were started. Members of the community that started their own servers and were known to be trustworthy saw some traffic, and indeed, some still receive notable amounts of requests as of November 2005. Although less reliable and often slower, most of the JBLS servers claimed faster response times to patches to Blizzard games. As BNLS downtime became more frequent, some users made permanent switches to JBLS servers. JBLS was also upgraded in somewhat short order to fully support the BNLS protocol, as at its first release, it did not support the [[Secure remote password protocol|SRP]] protocol used by Blizzard's new [[Warcraft III]] clients.
==== Other Similar Products ====
Related to his Java-based program [[JavaOp]], another member of Valhalla Legends, ''iago'', created a system by which only the Battle.net revision check would be completed. He dubbed this [[RCRS]] (Remote CheckRevision Server), which used a plaintext protocol to retrieve only current version information based on Battle.net's logon challenge. This had several advantages, mostly being that a [[text protocol]] is easier to code for and did not include plaintext passwords or CD keys, but also did not provide for the hashing of CD keys or passwords, leaving users to rely on their own code or to use BNLS for this anyway.
Later, another Battle.netizen who contributed to the Valhalla Legends community, ''shadypalm88'', released [[BNCSUtil]], which was an [[open-source]] [[GPL]] [[C++]] library that performed all of the local hashing and revision checking. Local revision checks, however, still required local game files to function. Still, this paved the way for already-BNLS-enabled clients to use BNCSUtil for sensitive functions such as CD key decoding and password hashing and using BNLS or RCRS for the revision check. Shortly after, ''MyndFyre'' released [[MBNCSUtil]], a [[Microsoft.NET|.NET]] version of BNCSUtil, written in [[C sharp|C#]], under the GPL.
==== External links ====
* [http://www.valhallalegends.com/yoni/BNLSProtocolSpec.txt The BNLS Protocol Specification]
* [http://www.quikness.com/forums/index.php?showforum=19 The JBLS Home Page]
* [http://www.javaop.com/ JavaOp] - includes information about RCRS
* [http://bncsutil.ionws.com BNCSUtil]
* [http://www.jinxbot.net/mbncsutil/ MBNCSUtil]
==List of Battle.net Games==
* ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]''
* ''[[Diablo II]]''
* ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]''
* ''[[Warcraft II|Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition]]''
* ''[[Warcraft III|Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos]]''
* ''[[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]]''
* ''[[StarCraft]]''
* ''[[StarCraft: Brood War]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.battle.net/ Battle.net website]
* [http://www.blizzard.com/ Blizzard Entertainment website]
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:05:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.219.24.16</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Infobox_nrl_club | clubname = Brisbane Broncos
| image = [[Image:brisbane 2000.jpg|center|200px]]
| fullname = Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Football Club Limited
| emblem = Bronco
| colours = Maroon, gold, white and blue
| founded = [[1988]]
| sport = [[Rugby league]]
| league = [[National Rugby League]]
| ground = [[Suncorp Stadium]]
| capacity = 52,500
| ceo= Bruno Cullen
| captain = [[Darren Lockyer]]
| coach = [[Wayne Bennett (rugby league coach)|Wayne Bennett]]
| season = 2004
| position = 5th o
|
floor peg.
* Finally, the flared end is known as the ''bell''. Contrary to popular belief, the bell does not amplify the sound; rather, it improves the uniformity of the instrument's tone for the lowest notes in each register. For the other notes the sound is produced almost entirely at the tone holes and the bell is irrelevant. As a result, when playing to a microphone, the best tone can be recorded by placing the microphone not at the bell but a little way from the finger-holes of the instrument. This relates to the position of the instrument when playing to an audience: pointing down at the floor, except in the most vibrant parts of certain styles of music and when called for specifically by the composer in the music (for example, in the music of [[Gustav Mahler]]).
==Usage and repertoire of the clarinet==
Clarinets have a very wide compass, which is showcased in chamber, orchestral, and wind band writing. Additionally, improvements made to the fingering systems of the clarinet over time have enabled the instrument to be very agile; there are few restrictions to what it is able to play.
===Classical music===
In [[European classical music|classical music]], clarinets are part of standard [[orchestra]]l instrumentation, which frequently includes two clarinetists playing individual parts &mdash; each player usually equipped with a pair of standard clarinets in B&#9837; and A. Clarinet sections grew larger during the 19th century, employing a third clarinetist or a bass clarinet. In the 20th century, composers such as [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Richard Strauss]] and [[Olivier Messiaen]] enlarged the clarinet section on occasion to up to nine players, employing many different clarinets including the E&#9837; or D soprano clarinets, bassett horn, bass clarinet and/or contrabass clarinet. This practice of using a variety of clarinets to achieve colouristic variety was common in [[20th century classical music|20th century music]] and continues today. However, many clarinetists and conductors prefer to play parts originally written for obscure instruments such as the C or D clarinets on B&#9837; or E&#9837; clarinets, which are of better quality and more prevalent and accessible.
The clarinet is widely used as a solo instrument. The relatively late evolution of the clarinet (when compared to other orchestral woodwinds) has left a considerable amount of solo repertoire from the [[Classical music era|Classical]], [[Romantic music|Romantic]] and [[Modern music|Modern]] periods but few works from the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era. A number of [[clarinet concerto]]s have been written to showcase the instrument, with the concerti by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Aaron Copland|Copland]] and [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]] being particularly well known.
Many works of [[chamber music]] have also been written for the clarinet. Particularly common combinations are:
* clarinet and piano (including [[clarinet sonata]]s)
* clarinet, piano and another instrument (for example, [[string instrument]] or voice)
* [[Clarinet Quintet]], generally made up of a clarinet plus a [[string quartet]],
* [[Wind Quintet]], consists of [[flute]], [[oboe]], [[clarinet]], [[bassoon]], and [[horn (instrument)|horn]].
* [[Trio d'Anches]], or ''Trio of Reeds'' consists of [[oboe]], [[clarinet]], and [[bassoon]].
* [[Wind Octet]], consists of pairs of [[oboe]]s, [[clarinet]]s, [[bassoon]]s, and [[horn (instrument)|horn]]s.
* clarinet, violin, piano
=== Concert bands ===
In [[concert band|wind bands]], clarinets are a particularly central part of the instrumentation, occupying the same space (and often playing the same parts) in bands that the strings do in orchestras. Bands usually include several B&#9837; clarinets, divided into sections each consisting of 2-3 clarinetists playing the same part. There is almost always an E&#9837; clarinet part and a bass clarinet part, usually doubled. Alto, contra-alto, and contrabass clarinets are sometimes used as well, and ''very'' rarely a piccolo A&#9837; clarinet.
===Jazz===
Clarinets are also commonly found in [[jazz]], especially in its earlier forms such as the Big Band music of the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]].
The clarinet was a central instrument in early jazz starting in the [[1910s]] and remaining popular through the [[big band]] era into the [[1940s]]. [[Larry Shields]], [[Ted Lewis (musician)|Ted Lewis]], [[Jimmie Noone]] and [[Sidney Bechet]] were influential in early jazz. The B&#9837; soprano was the most common, but a few early jazz musicians such as [[Louis Nelson Deslile]] and [[Alcide Nunez]] prefered the C soprano, and many New Orleans jazz brass bands have used E&#9837; soprano.
Swing clarinetists such as [[Benny Goodman]], [[Artie Shaw]], and [[Woody Herman]] led perhaps the most successful [[popular music]] groups of their era.
With the decline of big bands' popularity in the late 1940s, the clarinet faded from its prominent position in jazz, though a few players ([[Buddy DeFranco]], [[Eric Dolphy]], [[Jimmy Giuffre]], [[Perry Robinson]] and others) used clarinet in [[bebop]] and [[free jazz]]. However, the instrument has seen something of a resurgence since the 1980s, with [[Eddie Daniels]], [[Don Byron]] and others playing the clarinet in more contemporary contexts. The instrument remains common in such styles as [[Dixieland]], Pete Fountain being a notable performer in this genre. One notable enthusiast is filmmaker [[Woody Allen]], who regularly plays New Orleans-style jazz in New York.
=== Klezmer ===
Clarinets also feature prominently in much [[Klezmer]] music, which requires a very distinctive style of playing. This folk genre makes much use of quarter-tones, making a different embouchure (mouth position) necessary.
===Groups of clarinets===
Groups of clarinets playing together have become increasingly popular among clarinet enthusiasts in recent years. Common forms are:
* [[clarinet choir]], which features a large number of clarinets playing together, usually involving a range of different members of the clarinet family (see [[clarinet#Extended family of clarinets|Extended family of clarinets]]). The homogeneity of tone across the different members of the clarinet family produces an effect with some similarities to a human [[choir]].
* [[clarinet quartet]], for which three B&#9837; sopranos and one B&#9837; bass is a particularly common combination
Clarinet choirs and quartets often play arrangements of both classical and popular music, in addition to a body of literature specially written for a combination of clarinets by composers such as [[Arnold Cooke]], [[Alfred Uhl]], [[Lucien Caillet]] and [[Vaclav Nehlybel]].
== Extended family of clarinets ==
Clarinets other than the standard B&#9837; and A clarinets are sometimes known as harmony clarinets. However, there are many differently-pitched clarinet types, some of which are very rare. They may be grouped into sub-families, but grouping and terminology vary; the following grouping is intended to reflect the most popular usage:
* [[Piccolo clarinet]] &mdash; Very rare. Also known as [[Octave clarinet]] or [[Sopranino clarinet]]. About an octave higher than the B&#9837; clarinet.
** A&#9837; piccolo clarinet &mdash; Used chiefly in Italian marching bands.
** Shackleton (see [[Clarinet#References|references]]) lists also obsolete instruments in C, B&#9837;, and A.
* [[Soprano clarinet]] &mdash; The most familiar type of clarinet.
** [[E-flat clarinet|E&#9837; clarinet]] &mdash; Fairly common in America and western Europe. Also affectionately called the "Eefer". Used in marching bands, wind ensembles, clarinet choirs and sometimes in orchestras to increase the upper range of the clarinet choir. The piercing quality of this smaller clarinet carries well in outdoor situations. Less common in eastern Europe. Shackleton lists this and the D clarinet, along with obsolete instruments in G, F, and E as sopranino clarinets, but this terminology is not commonly used.
** D clarinet &mdash; Rare in America and western Europe. Occasionally used in orchestral writing (for example, [[Richard Strauss]]'s "[[Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche|Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks]]", [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)|5th symphony]]), but these pieces are usually played on an E&#9837; soprano. More common in eastern Europe.
** C clarinet &mdash; Moderately rare. Was fairly common in the early [[19th century]], with some music by composers such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]] and [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] written for it. C clarinet parts are quite common in Italian music and opera. C parts are often played on a standard B&#9837; or A dependent on key. However, the C clarinet is having somewhat of a resurgence in the orchestral and solo literature.
** B&#9837; clarinet &mdash; This is the standard clarinet used for marching band, orchestra, wind ensemble, and jazz band.
** A clarinet &mdash; Standard orchestral instrument used alongside the B&#9837; Soprano. Orchestral clarinetists almost always equip themselves with a pair of clarinets. The A clarinet offers a slightly richer tone than the B&#9837;, but the instrument's primary advantage is its greater ease of playing in orchestral repertoire written in keys with many sharps.
** G clarinet &mdash; Also called a "Turkish Clarinet". It has a much deeper [[timbre]] than the soprano and is capable of [[Microtonal music|microtones]]. It is primarily used in ethnic music.
** Shackleton lists also obsolete instruments in B and A&#9837;. The latter and the clarinet in G often occurred as [[clarinette d'amour]] in the mid-18th century.
* [[Basset clarinet]] &mdash; The basset clarinet was written for mainly by [[Mozart]]. It is essentially a soprano clarinet wi
|
losed for several years during the transformation. At the same time, primary and secondary education were greatly expanded in rural China, and urban students were encouraged or required to spend some time in the countryside, both to teach the peasants and to learn from them. Critics have charged that the practice of curtailing and transforming university education and sending students to the countryside was anti-intellectual. In the view of the Chinese government, however, state-funded education should be made to serve first and foremost the needs of the society at large. A poor country with a mostly rural population, it argued, had more need of general, practical education for many than of highly specialized education for a few.
In [[Cambodia]], a country in which few people have access to formal education (the literacy rate is about 50% as of 2004), the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime (1975&ndash;1979) was generally disdainful of intellectuals and saw many as enemies or traitors (see also: [[Khmer Rouge]] and [[Democratic Kampuchea]]). In some sectors anyone who wore glasses was shot by Khmer guards, as glasses were seen as a mark of education and intellectualism.
==Anti-intellectualism in the classical world==
The [[Roman Republic|Roman]] statesman [[Cato the Elder]]'s public career displayed many traits that today would be considered anti-intellectual. He vehemently opposed the introduction of [[ancient Greece|Greek]] cultural ideals and models into the Roman republic, believing them to be subversive of traditional plainspokenness and rugged military values. He urged the [[Roman Senate]] to pass its decree against the newly imported [[Bacchanalia]]n [[mystery religion|mysteries]], which it did in the ''Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus'' in [[186 BC]]. He urged the deportation of three [[Athens|Athenian]] philosophers, [[Carneades]], [[Diogenes]], and [[Critolaus]], who had been sent to [[Rome]] as [[ambassador]]s from Athens, on the grounds that he found the opinions they expressed were dangerous. The Emperor [[Augustus]] also exiled many philosophers.
However, rulers in the ancient in classical world were generally intolerant of anyone who disagreed with them. Anti-intellectualism as hostility by self-identified "common" people, or those that claim to speak for them, against a ''perceived class'' of cultural elites is generally considered a modern phenomenon.
==A loaded term?==
Not surprisingly, intellectuals commonly use allegations of anti-intellectualism as a charge against their critics. Critics of certain intellectuals in turn argue that "anti-intellectualism" is itself a [[loaded term]]. The term 'intellectual' implies knowledge, wisdom, and intelligence, and thus to be called 'anti-intellectual' can often be perceived as meaning one favours ignorance or [[stupidity]].
Sometimes criticism of intellectuals can take the form of a specific critique of an intellectual's specific field of study or theory. Not all 'intellectual' theories are correct, and thus an intellectual's beliefs can be disputed without necessarily being against the larger concept of intellectual study.
== See also ==
* [[Anti-science]]
* [[Boffins|Boffin]]
* [[Creation-evolution controversy]]
* [[Geek]]
* [[God complex]]
* [[Lysenkoism]]
* [[Nerd]]
* [[Philistinism]]
* [[Post-Autistic Economics]]
* [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars]]
== References ==
*''Anti-Intellectualism in American Life'', by [[Richard Hofstadter]]: ISBN 0394703170
*Hinton, William. ''Hundred Day War: The Cultural Revolution at Tsinghua University''. New York: New York UP, 1972. ISBN 0853452814.
*[http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa7.html Moynihan Commission Report, Appendix A, 7. The Cold War, footnote 103] quoted from Robert Warshow, ''The Legacy of the 30’s: Middle-Class Mass Culture and the Intellectuals’ Problem,'' Commentary Magazine (December 1947): 538.
[[Category:Academia]]
[[Category:criticisms|Intellectualism]]
[[zh:反智主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-communism</title>
<id>3179</id>
<revision>
<id>41931100</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:29:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trovatore</username>
<id>310173</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anti-communism''' is the opposition to [[communism|communist]] ideology, organization, or government, on either an [[ideology|ideological]] or [[pragmatism|pragmatic]] basis. Anti-communism is a catch-all phrase which defines any opposition to communism as a [[philosophy|philosophical]] basis for a political and social alliance.
The term came to have a global meaning during the [[Cold War]], when the powers of [[Western society]] sought to coordinate an opposition to the apparent [[militarism|militarist]] expansion of the [[Soviet Union]]. For much of the period between [[1950]] and [[1991]] anti-communism was one of the major components of the [[Origins of the Cold War#Containment|containment]] policy of the [[United States]].
Anticommunism in Europe is often associated with the struggle for [[democracy]] and [[civil rights]]. To [[Communist]] supporters the term represents [[Fascism]] and other governments that they consider to be as horrible.
==Background==
[[Image:Hitlermusso.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Adolf Hitler]] forged the anticommunist [[Anti-Comintern Pact]] and were the two most notable anticommunist leaders of the 1930s and 1940s]]
Today, many liberal anti-communists object to the lack of individual freedom in [[Communist states]], criticize the way in which the concept of democracy is interpreted by communists very differently than in Western [[liberal democracy]], and critique the socialist economic programs proposed by communists.
Many communists rebut this criticism by saying that democracy is actually essential for a planned economy to prevent what many more left-winged communists call "[[state-capitalism]]", in which they say a [[dictatorship]] would act just as oppressive to the workers as the corporations in [[capitalism]].
After the [[Russia]]n [[October Revolution]] in [[1917]], critics of communism were inspired to resist communist ideology from a [[conservatism|conservative]] point of view. With the advent of [[Stalinism]] in the [[1920s]], many liberal communists, [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]], and [[social democracy|social democrats]] opposed the [[Soviet Union]] for its alleged violations of human rights, thus anti-communism became common on both the [[Left-wing politics|Left]] and [[Rightism|Right]] of the [[political spectrum]].
==Types of Anti-Communists==
The reasons that different people have opposed communism can be very different. Conservative and liberal critics of communism often oppose Marxism or even [[socialism]] in general. They see communism as a doctrine based on radical, and incorrect, arguments. They believe that [[capitalism]] gives economic freedoms to everyone (whereas the communists believe only the [[bourgeoisie]] [''see'' [[Marxism]]] have economic liberties over the [[proletariat]]), and regard the lack of [[property rights]] under communism as a violation of their conception of [[human rights]].
Other people oppose communism due to contradictions or errors within the communist theory and gaps between communist theory and practice. Many anti-communists feel that the theory is less objectionable than its adherents' actions in power. Democratic socialists as [[George Orwell]] or [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[anarcho-socialism|anarcho-socialist]] theorists such as [[Noam Chomsky]] see communism as a doctrine whose aims are noble in theory but which fails to attain them in practice.
==Fascism and Anti-Communism==
{{Main|Anti-Comintern Pact}}
[[Fascism]] and "Soviet" [[communism]] are political systems that arose to prominence after [[World War I]]. Historians of the period between World War I and [[World War II]] such as [[E.H. Carr]] and [[Eric Hobsbawm]] point out that [[liberal democracy]] was under serious stress in this period and seemed to be a doomed philosophy. The success of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] resulted in a brief revolutionary wave across Europe, in Germany and Hungary in particular. The socialist movement worldwide split into separate [[social democratic]] and [[Leninist]] wings with the formation of the [[Third International]] prompting severe debates within social democratic parties resulting in supporters of the Russian Revolution splitting to form [[Communist Parties]] in most industrialised (and many non-industrialised) nations. The acceptance of the war by the social democratic parties gave the communist parties credibility with many people, as a result of them labelling it as being [[imperialism|imperialist]].
At the end of World War I there were attempted socialist uprisings or threats of socialist uprisings throughout Europe. Most notably in Germany where the [[Spartacist uprising]] in Germany led by [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and [[Karl Liebknecht]] in January 1919 failed. In Bavaria, Communists successfully overthrew the government and established the [[Munich Soviet Republic]] that lasted from 1918-1919. A short lived Soviet government was also established in Hungary under [[Béla Kun]] in 1919.
The Russian Revolution also inspired attempted revolutionary movements in Italy with a wave of factory occupations, a strike wave in Britain, the [[Winnipeg General Strike]], the [[Seattle General Strike]] and other radical events.
Many historians view fascism as a response to these developments -- a movement that both tried to appeal to the [[working class]] and divert them from [[Marxism]] and also appealed to [[capitalists]] as a bulwark against [[Bolshevism]]. Italian fascism founded and led by [[Benito Mussolini]] took power with the blessing of Italy's king after years of leftist unrest led many conservatives
|
scued). During the [[World War II|Second World War]], fear of death by bombing was much less prevalent than during [[World War I]], even though many more bombs fell; air wardens would complain of civilians continuing to gossip on street corners instead of taking shelter. Similarly, when cars were new, fear of them was such that for a time the law required a man with a red flag to walk in front of it to warn the public; today, tens of thousands die in road accidents each year yet governments struggle to instill a real fear of [[drunk driving]] or [[speeding]].
In 2005, [[University of Toronto]] researchers traced the origin of memories to the [[prefrontal cortex]] of the brain.[http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin6/050915-1631.asp]
==Further reading==
*Joanna Bourke (2005), ''Fear: a cultural history'', Virago
*Corey Robin (2004), ''Fear: the history of a political idea'', Oxford University Press
*Duenwald, Mary. "The Psychology of ...Facial Expressions" Discovery Magazine Vol. 26 NO. 1
*Krishnamurti, J. (1995), ''On Fear'', Harper Collins, ISBN 0062510142
==See also==
*[[Angst]]
*[[Phobia]]
*[[Night terror]]
*[[Appeal to fear]]
*[[Culture of fear]]
*[[Shame]]
*[[Guilt]]
*[[Freud]]
*[[Litany against fear]]
*[[Panic]]
*[[Strategy of tension]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.thefamousquotations.com/subjects/fear-quotations.htm Quotations on Fear]
*[http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/fear.html A Buddhist View on Fear]
[[Category:Emotion]]
[[Category:Propaganda]]
[[ca:Por]]
[[de:Angst]]
[[es:Miedo]]
[[fa:ترس]]
[[he:פחד]]
[[hr:Strah]]
[[io:Pavoro]]
[[nl:Angst]]
[[pl:Strach]]
[[pt:Medo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Florida</title>
<id>10829</id>
<revision>
<id>42084172</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:47:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.146.100.22</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Law and government */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US Confederate state |
Name = Florida |
Fullname = State of Florida|
Flag = Flag of Florida.svg |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Florida]] |
Seal = Florida state seal.svg |
Map = Map of USA highlighting Florida.png |
Nickname = Sunshine State |
Capital = [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]] |
Senators = [[Bill Nelson (politician)|Bill Nelson]] (D)
[[Mel Martinez]] (R) |
LargestCity = [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] |
UnincorporatedPlace = [[Brandon, Florida|Brandon]] |
Governor = [[Jeb Bush]] (R)|
PostalAbbreviation = FL |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] |
AreaRank = 22<sup>nd</sup> |
TotalArea = 170&nbsp;451 |
LandArea = 137,374 |
WaterArea = 30,486 |
PCWater = 17.9 |
PopRank = 4<sup>th</sup> |
2000Pop = 15,982,378 |
DensityRank = 8<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 114.43 |
AdmittanceOrder = 27<sup>th</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[March 3]], [[1845]] |
SecessionDate = [[January 10]], [[1861]] |
ReadmittanceDate = [[June 25]], [[1868]] |
TimeZone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight saving time|-4]]<br/>[[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: UTC-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] (western panhandle)|
Latitude = 24°30'N to 31°N |
Longitude = 79°48'W to 87°38'W |
Width = 260 |
Length = 800 |
HighestElev = 105 |
MeanElev = 30 |
LowestElev = 0 |
ISOCode = US-FL |
Website = www.myflorida.com
}}
'''Florida''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Southeastern United States|southeast]] [[United States]], situated mostly on a large [[peninsula]] between the [[Gulf of Mexico]], the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and the [[Straits of Florida]]. ''Florida'' is a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] adjective meaning ''flowery''. The peninsula was named by [[Juan Ponce de León]], who landed on the coast on [[April 2]], [[1513]], during [[Pascua Florida]], a [[Spain|Spanish]] term for the [[Easter season]]. ''Pascua Florida Day'', April 2, is a legal holiday in Florida.[http://www.flsenate.gov/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=Ch0683/ch0683.htm] Its U.S. Postal abbreviation is '''FL''', though a traditional abbreviation is '''Fla.'''
==History==
[[Image:Five flags of Florida.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Five of the flags that have been flown over Florida throughout the centuries.]]
{{main|History of Florida}}
Archaeological finds indicate that Florida had been inhabited for many thousands of years prior to any European settlements. Of the many indigenous people, the largest tribes were the [[Ais (tribe)|Ais]], [[Calusa]], [[Tequesta]], [[Timucua]] and the [[Tocobago]] tribes. [[Juan Ponce de León]], a Spanish [[conquistador]], named this new land in honor of his discovery of the land on [[April 2]] [[1513]], during [[Pascua Florida]], which is a Spanish term for the [[Easter season]]. From that date forward, the land became known as "La Florida." Over the following century, the Spanish and [[France|French]] both established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success. Spanish [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]] was established by Don [[Tristán de Luna y Arellano]] as the first European settlement in the continental United States in 1559, but its settlement was interrupted by a [[hurricane]]. French [[Huguenots]] founded [[Fort Caroline]] in modern day [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] in 1564, but it was conquered by forces from the new Spanish colony of [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] the following year. When Huguenot leader [[Jean Ribault]] had learned of the new Spanish threat, he launched an expedition to sack their settlement. En route, however, severe storms at sea waylaid the expedition, which consisted of most of the colony's men, allowing St. Augustine founder [[Pedro Menéndez de Avilés]] time to march his men over land and conquer the poorly defended to Fort Caroline. Most of the Huguenots were slaughtered, and Menéndez de Avilés marched south and captured the survivors of the wrecked French fleet, ordering all but a few [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] executed beside a river subsequently called ''[[Matanzas River|Matanzas]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "killings"). St. Augustine, the US' oldest continually inhabited European settlement besides [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]], and Pensacola, the first European settlement in the [[Continental United States]], came to serve as the capitals of the British and Spanish colonies of [[East Florida|East]] and [[West Florida|West]] Florida, respectively. The Spanish never had a firm hold on Florida, maintaining a tenuous control of the region by converting the local tribes, briefly with [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] and later with [[Franciscan]] friars. The local leaders or [[caciques]] demonstrated their loyalty to the Spanish by converting to Catholicism and welcoming the Franciscan priests into their villages.
The area of Florida diminished with the establishment of [[Great Britain|British]] colonies to the north and [[France|French]] colonies to the west. The English weakened Spanish power in the region by supplying their [[Creek people|Creek Indian]] allies with firearms and urging them to raid the [[Timucua]]n and [[Apalachee]] client-tribes of the Spanish. At other times, the English outright attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times, while the citizens hid behind the walls of the [[Castillo de San Marcos]]. The Spanish, meanwhile, encouraged slaves to flee the British-held [[Carolinas]] and come to Florida, where they were converted to Catholicism and given freedom, in return for settling in a buffer community north of St. Augustine, called Gracie Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, the first completely black settlement in what would become the United States. Great Britain eventually gained control of Florida diplomatically in 1763 through the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Peace of Paris]] (the Castillo de San Marcos surrendered for the first time, having never been taken militarily). England tried to develop Florida through the importation of immigrants for labor, including some from [[Minorca]] and [[Greece]], but this ultimately failed. Spain regained Florida after England's defeat by the American colonies and the subsequent Treaty of Paris in 1783. Spain finally ceded Florida to the United States with the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]] in 1819, in exchange for the U.S. renouncing any claims on [[Texas]]. On [[March 3]] [[1845]], Florida became the 27th state of the United States of America. Florida seceded from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] on [[January 10]] [[1861]] at the outbreak of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and became one of the founding members of the [[Confederate States of America]] ten days later. After then end of the war in 1865, Florida's [[United States Congress|Congress]]
representation was restored on [[June 25]], [[1868]].
Until the mid-twentieth century, Florida was the least populous Southern state. However, migration from the [[Rust Belt]] combined with Florida's warm climate (tempered by the growing availability of [[air conditioning]]) made it a haven for newcomers. Today, Florida is the most populous state in the South besides [[Texas]] and the fourth most populous in the US. The [[USS Florida|USS ''Florida'']] was named in honor of the state.
==Law and government==
{{main|Government of Florida}}
The basic structure, duties, function, and operations of the Government of the State of Florida are defined and established by the [[Florida Constitution]], which also establishes the basic law of the state and guarantees various rights and freedoms of the people. The state government consists of thre
|
as activated, but thought it might not have enough power to get a signal to the United States. The Australia station was vital to picking up the signal during the moonwalks, or keeping the astronauts waiting on the moon eight hours before venturing out. A communications team was dispatched to Spain to begin setting up the telephone circuits for NASA's inverse multiplexed signal.
European telecommunications administrators, mostly government post offices, were not accustomed to doing the business required: they would normally require telegram messages to be exchanged, with top level administrative approval, but the twelve circuits had to be recovered from six countries to be made available to NASA, which had set a time limit two hours before launch, or the launch would be canceled. It would be the last ideal launch window before 1970. Other launch windows had been missed due to spacecraft equipment problems. An official with the Spanish communications authority helped the team secure the circuits with his own personal list of contacts.
The last circuit using inverse multiplexing was accepted by NASA just minutes before the time limit. Three days later, the transmissions from the Moon were picked up in Spain, relayed to the United States over the undersea circuits, and made available by NASA to the Americas. They were beamed across the Pacific Ocean, and from the Far East were carried on the Indian Ocean satellite.
The postal/telephone authority in West Germany turned a large radio dish to aim at the Indian Ocean satellite, picking up the signal from Australia and providing it to Western Europe, therefore, viewers in Western Europe saw Neil Armstrong set foot on the moon a full half second later than those in the United States, and some 1.8 seconds after it actually happened.
Had this vital communications link not been restored, the pledge of President [[John F. Kennedy]] to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade would have been missed.
==Mission trivia and urban legends==
===Trivia===
* Some internal NASA planning documents referred to the callsigns of the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|CSM]] and [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]] as "Snowcone" and "Haystack"; these were quietly changed before being announced to the press.
* Shortly after landing, before preparations have begun for the [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]], Aldrin broadcast that -
::''This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way.''
:He then took [[Eucharist|Holy Communion]], privately. At this time, NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] (who had objected to the ''[[Apollo 8]]'' crew reading from the [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Book of Genesis]]), which demanded that their astronauts refrain from religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin (an [[Episcopalian]]) chose to refrain from directly mentioning this. He had kept the plan quiet, not even mentioning it to his wife, and did not reveal it publicly for several years.
* Several books indicate that early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin, not Neil Armstrong, as the first man on the Moon.
* A replica of the footprint left by Neil Armstrong is located in Tranquility Park in [[Houston, Texas]]; the park was dedicated in 1979, a decade after the first moon landing.
* The [[Australia]]n movie, ''[[The Dish]]'' (2000), tells the (slightly fictionalised) story of how the images of the moon-walk were received by the [[radio telescope]] at [[Parkes Observatory]], [[New South Wales]].
* According to the [[HBO]] [[mini-series]] ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (HBO)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'', [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] made the following suggestion as to what Armstrong should say upon stepping onto the lunar surface: "If you had any balls, you'd say 'Oh, my God, what is [[extraterrestrial life|that thing]]?' then scream and cut your [[microphone|mic]]."
* Armstrong claims to have said "That's one small step for ''a'' man, one giant leap for mankind.", although the "''a''" is not at all clear in recordings made at ground control. It has been pointed out that the audio and video links were somewhat intermittent (partly due to storms near [[Parkes Observatory]]). Recently, digital analysis of the tape by NASA revealed the "a" may have been spoken, but obscured by static.[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_362]
===Folklore===
*At some point while on the moon Armstrong supposedly said "Good luck Mr. Gorski". Some years later Gorski died, so he felt he could now explain this remark. As a boy, he heard a couple next door arguing, and the wife said: "Oral sex? Is it oral sex you want? You'll get oral sex when the kid next door walks on the moon, Mr. Gorski!" This story is untrue. [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/mrgorsky.htm]
* Neil Armstrong apparently took a [[tartan]] where no tartan had been worn before. A tiny swatch of the [[Scottish clan|Clan]] Armstrong plaid was affixed to his suit when he walked on the Moon. Another item that Armstrong took with him was a special diamond-studded [[astronaut pin]] which was given to [[Deke Slayton]] by the widows of the ''[[Apollo 1]]'' crew. The pin had been intended to be flown in ''Apollo 1'', then given to Deke after the mission, but due to the disaster, the widows ended up giving the pin to him after the funerals. Deke gave the pin to Neil to leave at Tranquility Base.
* Two main [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] surround the mission.
** Firstly that the [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations|landing was a hoax]]. This is generally discounted, although it has slowly grown in popularity, particularly since the release of the movie ''[[Capricorn One]]'' (1978), which portrays a NASA attempt to fake a landing on Mars.
** Secondly, a less well known [[urban legend]] suggests that they were being 'watched' while on the Moon, and had seen alien vehicles there. This grew in popularity after the book ''Someone else is on our Moon'' was published.
*According to another legend, a survey undertaken in the 1980s in [[Morocco]] revealed that a substantial percentage didn't think man had landed on the Moon; this was not due to conspiracy theory, but rather to that segment not having been informed.
==See also==
{{commons|Apollo 11}}
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]
==External links==
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html NASA: ''Apollo'' Lunar Surface Journal]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo11.htm ''Apollo 11'' entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [[USGS]]: [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/ ''Apollo'' Mission Traverse Maps]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/moon/computer.htm Description of The Lunar Module Computer]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html Record of Lunar Events]
* [http://www.CompleatHeretic.com/pubs/columns/apollo11.html First moon landing in 1969 marked an entire generation]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ ''Apollo'' simulation for Orbiter spaceflight sim]
===References===
* {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm | title = ''Apollo'' by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference | author = Richard W. Orloff | publisher = NASA }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm | title = The ''Apollo'' Spacecraft: A Chronology }}
* {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm | title = ''Apollo'' Program Summary Report }}
* {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.39.htm | title = ''Apollo 11'' Characteristics | work = SP-4012 NASA Historical Data Book }}
* {{cite web | url = http://moonpans.co.uk/missions.htm | title = ''Apollo'' Assembled Panoramas }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.apolloarchive.com/ | title = ''Apollo'' Image Gallery }}
* {{snopes | link = http://www.snopes.com/quotes/onesmall.asp | title = One Small Step }}, discussing (mis-)quote
* {{cite web | url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710015566_1971015566.pdf | title = ''Apollo 11'' Mission Report | format = PDF }}
* {{cite web | author=Office of Public Affairs, NASA | url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/apollo11_log/log.htm | title=EP-72 Log of ''Apollo 11'' | publisher=NASA History Office | accessdate=2006-01-16 }}
* {{cite web | url = http://moon.google.com/ | title = Google Moon }} Lunar Landing Sites - in honor of the first manned Moon landing
{{Project Apollo| before=''[[Apollo 10]]''| after=''[[Apollo 12]]''}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Apollo 8</title>
<id>663</id>
<revision>
<id>41819462</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:21:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tianxiaozhang</username>
<id>557868</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox" style="font-size: 95%; width: 20em;"
|+style="font-size: larger;" | '''''Apollo 8'''''
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia
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' ([[1950]])
*''Tea for Two'' ([[1950]])
*''The West Point Story'' ([[1950]])
*''Storm Warning'' ([[1951]])
*''Lullaby of Broadway'' ([[1951]])
*''[[On Moonlight Bay]]'' ([[1951]])
*''I'll See You in My Dreams'' ([[1951]])
*''Starlift'' ([[1951]]) (Cameo)
*''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Night Life'' ([[1952]]) (short subject)
*''The Winning Team'' ([[1952]])
*''[[April in Paris]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[By the Light of the Silvery Moon]]'' ([[1953]])
*''So You Want a Television Set'' ([[1953]]) (short subject) (Cameo)
*''[[Calamity Jane]]'' ([[1953]])
*''Lucky Me'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Young at Heart]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Love Me or Leave Me (movie)|Love Me or Leave Me]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' ([[1956]])
*''Julie'' ([[1956]])
*''[[The Pajama Game]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Teacher's Pet]]'' ([[1958]])
*''The Tunnel of Love'' ([[1958]])
*''It Happened to Jane'' ([[1959]])
*''[[Pillow Talk]]'' ([[1959]])
*''Please Don't Eat the Daisies'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Midnight Lace]]'' ([[1960]])
*''Lover Come Back'' ([[1961]])
*''[[That Touch of Mink]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[Jumbo (musical)|Billy Rose's Jumbo]]'' ([[1962]])
*''The Thrill of It All'' ([[1963]])
*''[[Move Over, Darling]]'' ([[1963]])
*''Send Me No Flowers'' ([[1964]])
*''Do Not Disturb'' ([[1965]])
*''Every Girl's Dream'' ([[1966]]) (short subject)
*''[[The Glass Bottom Boat]]'' ([[1966]])
*''The Ballad of Josie'' ([[1967]])
*''Caprice'' ([[1967]])
*''Rowan & Martin at the Movies'' ([[1968]]) (short subject)
*''Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?'' ([[1968]])
*''[[With Six You Get Eggroll]]'' ([[1968]])
*''Don't Pave Main Street: Carmel's Heritage'' ([[1994]]) (documentary) (narrator)
==Albums==
*[[1949]] ''You're My Thrill''
*[[1950]] ''[[Young Man with a Horn]]'' (w/ [[Harry James]]) (soundtrack)
*[[1951]] ''Lullaby of Broadway'' (soundtrack)
*[[1951]] ''[[On Moonlight Bay]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1951]] ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (soundtrack)
*[[1953]] ''[[By the Light of the Silvery Moon]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1953]] ''[[Calamity Jane]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1954]] ''[[Young at Heart]]'' (soundtrack) (w/ [[Frank Sinatra]])
*[[1955]] ''[[Love Me or Leave Me (movie)|Love Me or Leave Me]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1956]] ''Day By Day''
*[[1957]] ''[[The Pajama Game]]'' (soundtrack) (w/ [[John Raitt]] and cast of film)
*[[1957]] ''Day By Night''
*[[1958]] ''Hooray for Hollywood Vol. 1''
*[[1959]] ''Hooray for Hollywood Vol. 2''
*[[1959]] ''Cuttin' Capers''
*[[1960]] ''[[What Every Girl Should Know (album)|What Every Girl Should Know]]''
*[[1960]] ''Show Time''
*[[1961]] ''Bright and Shiny''
*[[1961]] ''[[I Have Dreamed (1961 album)|I Have Dreamed]]''
*[[1962]] ''Duet'' (w/ [[Andre Previn]])
*[[1962]] ''[[You'll Never Walk Alone (Doris Day album)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]''
*[[1962]] ''Billy Rose's Jumbo'' (soundtrack) (w/ cast of film)
*[[1963]] ''[[Annie Get Your Gun]]'' (w/ [[Robert Goulet]])
*[[1963]] ''Love Him''
*[[1964]] ''The Doris Day Christmas Album''
*[[1964]] ''With a Smile and a Song''
*[[1965]] ''Latin for Lovers''
*[[1965]] ''Doris Day's Sentimental Journey''
*[[1967]] ''[[The Love Album]]'' (released in 1994)
==Trivia==
She is mentioned in the [[Beatles]]' song "Dig It," the [[Billy Joel]] song "[[We didn't start the fire,]]" , the [[Wham]] song "Wake Me Up Before You Go Go", and in the song "Sandra Dee," part of the musical [[Grease (musical)|Grease]].
During the [[Canadian federal election, 2000|2000 Canadian federal election]], [[Canadian Alliance|Alliance]] party leader [[Stockwell Day]] promised to institute a policy under which a petition with 3% of Canadian voters' signatures could trigger a referendum on any subject. As a result, Canadian satirists made a mock on-line petition to hold a referendum to force Stockwell Day to change his name to Doris Day, and obtained more than three times more signatures than the needed 3%.
==External links ==
*{{imdb name|id=0000013|name=Doris Day}}
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/day.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Doris Day]
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/11/doris_day.html Doris Day] - A timeline of her life
*[http://www.dorisday.net/ Another filmography and fan page]
*[http://www.legacyrecordings.com/dorisday/discography.html A discography of her work]
*[http://www.parabrisas.com/d_dayd.html Bio] on the "SOLID!" site
*[http://www.ddal.org Doris Day Animal League]
<!-- *[http://www.dorisday.com Doris Day's Official Website] (Actually link to Cypress Inn) -->
*[http://www.dorisday.de.vu Inoffizielle Doris Day Online Vita]
*[http://www.dorisdaytribute.com/ Doris Day tribute page]
*[http://www.mp3.com/doris-day/artists/2577/biography.html Biography on the MP3.com site]
*[http://www.epinions.com/content_3847135364 A Sentimental Journey] - Bio on the "Epinions" site
*[http://www.gemini-records.no/releases/Import/Proper/disk103.htm discographic info on some of her late-40s releases]
*http://www.dorisday.ixy.de Erste deutsche Doris Day Homepage/First German Doris Day Page
<!-- Pillow Talk -->
[[Category:1924 births|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:American actors|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:American female singers|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar Nominee|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Big band singers|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Christian Science|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Daytonians|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Film actors|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Living people|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Television talk show hosts|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Traditional pop music singers|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Day, Doris]]
[[de:Doris Day]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Distillation</title>
<id>8301</id>
<revision>
<id>41381748</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:40:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mahanchian</username>
<id>606519</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dewikification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Scotland Strathisla distillery.jpg|thumb|Strathisla whisky distillery in [[Keith, Scotland]]]]
'''Distillation''' is a method of separation of [[chemical substance|substance]]s based on differences in their vapour pressures.
Known since [[Ancient history|antiquity]], the [[concentration]] of [[alcohol]] by the application of [[heat]] to a [[fermentation|fermented]] [[liquid]] [[solution]] is perhaps the oldest form of distillation, in the course of producing [[distilled beverage]]s. However, the technique is now widely used for a variety of liquids in the [[chemical industry]] and in the production of [[petroleum]] products, among other fields.
The liquid solution evaporates, such that the vapor has a composition determined by the chemical properties of the solution. Distillation of a given component is possible, if the vapor has a higher proportion of the given component than the solution. This is caused by the given component having a higher vapor pressure &mdash; and thus a lower boiling point &mdash; than the other components.
However, interactions between the components of the solution can create properties unique to the solution. Such interactions can result in an [[azeotrope]]. At an [[azeotrope]], the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, [[ethyl alcohol]] and [[Water (molecule)|water]] form an azeotrope of 95% at 78.2°C.
By the nature of the process, it is theoretically impossible to completely purify the components using distillation, as distillation only tends to purity, never reaching it. This is comparable to dilution, which never reaches purity. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be used.
The minimum in distillation is [[flash distillation]], where either the temperature is rapidly increased or pressure reduced, and vapor and liquid fractions are thus obtained, which may be processed as such. The device used in distillation is referred to as a ''[[still]]'' and consists at a minimum of a '''reboiler''' or ''pot'' in which the source material is heated, a '''condenser''' in which the heated [[gas|vapor]] is cooled back to the liquid [[phase (matter)|state]], and a '''receiver''' in which the concentrated or purified liquid is collected.
The equipment may affect separation by one of two main methods. Firstly the vapours given off by the heated solution may consist of two liquids with significantly different boiling points. Thus, the vapour that is given off is in the vast majority of one or the other liquid, which after [[condensation]] and collection effects the separation.
The second method ([[fractional distillation]]) is more effective at separating liquids with similar boiling points. This method relies upon a gradient of temperatures existing in the condenser stage of the equipment. Often in this technique, a vertical condenser, or column, is used. By extracting products that are liquid at different heights up the column, it is possible to extract liquids that have different boiling points. The greater the distance over which the temperature gradient in the condenser is applied leads to easier and more complete separation.
Many countries [[tax]] distilled alcohol, and preserve government income by legal restrictions on the use of a still.
Distillation was developed into its modern form with the invention of the [[alembic]] by Persian alchemist [[Jabir ibn Hayyan]] c. [[800]]; he is also credited with the invention of numerous other chemical apparatus and processes that are still in use today. [[Image:Simple_chem_distillation.PNG|frame|right|Di
|
alonica RIC vII 163v.jpg|thumb|300px|''Staring eyes'' on later Constantine coinage.]]
Constantine, following a widespread custom, was not [[baptism|baptized]] until close to his death in 337, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], who happened, despite his being an ally of [[Arius]], to still be the [[bishop]] of the region. Also, Eusebius was a close friend of Constantine's sister; she probably secured his recall from exile.
The great staring eyes in the iconography of Constantine, though not specifically Christian, show how official images were moving away from early imperial conventions of realistic portrayal towards schematic representations: the [[Emperor]] ''as'' Emperor, not merely as this particular individual Constantine, with his characteristic broad jaw and cleft chin. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the 4th century progresses: compare the early 5th century silver coinage of [[Theodosius I]].
==Later life==
His victory in [[312]] over [[Maxentius]] at the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge]] resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire [[Western Roman Empire]]. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling [[Tetrarchy]].
In the year 320, [[Licinius]], emperor of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], reneged on the religious freedom promised by the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313 and began another [[persecution]] of the Christians. This was a puzzling inconsistency since [[Constantia]], half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius, was an influential Christian. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great [[civil war]] of 324. The armies were so large another like these would not be seen again until at least the 14th century. Licinius, aided by [[Goths|Goth]] [[Mercenary|mercenaries]], represented the past and the ancient faith of [[Paganism]]. Constantine and his [[Franks]] marched under the Christian standard of the ''[[labarum]]'', and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious. With the defeat and murder of Licinius, Constantine then became the sole emperor of the entire [[Roman Empire]]. ''(MacMullen 1969)''
[[Image:Byzantinischer Mosaizist um 1000 002.jpg|thumb|225px|'''Constantine the Great'''<br> (mosaic in [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Constantinople]], c. 1000)]]
This battle represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginnings of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Empire]] as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilt the city of [[Byzantium]] which was said to have been founded by [[colonists]] from the Greek city of [[Megara]] under [[Byzas]] in [[667 BC]]. He renamed the city ''Nova Roma'' ([[New Rome]]), providing it with a [[Byzantine Senate|Senate]] and civic offices similar to the older [[Rome]], and the new city was protected by the alleged [[True Cross]], the Rod of [[Moses]] and other holy [[relic]]s. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into [[Christian symbolism]]. On the site of a temple to [[Aphrodite]] was built the new [[Basilica of the Apostles]]. Generations later there was the story that a [[Vision (religion)|Divine vision]] lead Constantine to this spot, and an [[angel]] no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. After his death it was renamed Constantinopolis (or [[Constantinople]], "Constantine's City"), and gradually became the capital of the [[empire]]. ''(MacMullen 1969)''
Constantine also passed laws making the occupations of [[butcher]] and [[baker]] hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the ''coloni'' ([[tenant farmer]]s) into [[serfs]] &mdash; laying the foundation for [[Europe|European]] [[society]] during the [[Middle Ages]].
In his later life he even turned to [[preaching]], giving his own sermons in the [[palace]] before his court and invited crowds. His sermons preached harmony at first, but gradually turned more confrontational with the old pagan ways. The reason for this later "change of heart" remains conjectural. However, pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life. Exerting his absolute power, the [[army]] recited his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. He began a large building program of [[churches]] in the [[Holy Land]], which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth of the [[clergy]].
==Constantine's legal standards==
Constantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age. Some examples:
*For the first time, girls could not be abducted.
*A punishment of death was mandated to anyone collecting taxes over the authorized amount.
*A prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness, but must be given the outdoors and daylight.
*A condemned man was allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his "heavenly beautified" face, just on the feet.
*Parents caught allowing their daughters to be seduced were to have molten [[lead]] poured down their throats.
*[[Gladiator|Gladiatorial games]] were ordered to be eliminated in 325, although this had little real effect.
*A slave master's rights were limited, but a slave could still be beaten to death.
*[[Crucifixion]] was abolished for reasons of Christian piety, but was replaced with hanging, to show there was Roman law and justice.
*[[Easter]] could be publicly celebrated.
*Sunday was declared a day of rest, on which markets were banned and public offices were closed (except for the purpose of freeing slaves). There were however no restrictions on farming work.
''(MacMullen 1969, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)''
==Constantine's courts and appointees==
Constantine respected [[cultivation]] and [[Christianity]], and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian.
''(MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)''
"From [[Paganism|Pagan]] temples Constantine had his statue removed. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. These funds were given to the favored Christian [[clergy]]. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of [[Jesus|Christ]] was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. There was a singing of hymns." (''New Catholic Encyclopedia'' 1908)
==Constantine's legacy==
Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the [[Franks]] and [[Alamanni]] (306&ndash;308), the Franks again (313&ndash;314), the [[Visigoths]] in 332 and the [[Sarmatians]] in 334. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of [[Dacia]], which [[Aurelian]] had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the [[Persian Empire]].
He was succeeded by his three sons by Fausta, [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine II]], [[Constantius II]], and [[Constans]]. A number of relatives were murdered by followers of Constantius. He also had two daughters, [[Constantina]] and Helena, wife of [[Julian the Apostate|Emperor Julian]].
===Legend and Donation of Constantine===
In later years, historical facts were clouded by legend. It was considered inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by a bishop of questionable orthodoxy, and hence a legend emerged that [[Pope Silvester I]] (314-335) had cured the pagan Emperor from [[leprosy]]. According to this legend, Constantine was baptized after that and donated buildings to the [[Pope]]. In the 8th century, a document called the "[[Donation of Constantine]]" first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over [[Rome]], [[Italy]] and the [[Occident]] to the Pope. In the [[High Middle Ages]], this document was used to and accepted as the basis for the Pope's [[temporal power]], though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet [[Dante Alighieri]]. In the 15th century renewed philological expertise proved the document a forgery.
===Constantine in Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''Historia''===
Because of his fame and his being proclaimed Emperor in [[Britain]], Constantine was later also considered a British King. In the 11th century, the [[English (people)|English]] writer [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] published a fictional work called ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', in which he narrates the supposed history of the Britons and their kings from the [[Trojan War]] to [[King Arthur]] and the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon conquest]]. In this work, Geoffrey claimed that Constantine's mother Helena was actually the daughter of "[[Old King Cole|King Cole]]", the mythical King of the [[Britons]] and eponymous founder of [[Colchester]]. A daughter for [[King Cole]] had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Monmouth also said that Constantine was proclaimed "[[Kings of the Britons|King of the Britons]]" at York, rather than [[Roman Emperor]].
|
use of a thanksgiving psalm instead of a lament psalm creates an important theological point. In the popular understanding of Jonah, the fish is interpreted to be the low point of the story. Yet even the fish is an instrument of Yahweh's sovereignty and salvation.
==Bibliography==
* Abegg, Martin, Jr., et al. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English''. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1999.
* Cathcart, Kevin J. and Robert P. Gordon. ''The Targum of the Minor Prophets''. The Aramaic Bible, Vol 14. Wilmington, De.: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1989.
==External links==
===Translations===
====Jewish translations====
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/jps/jon.htm Jewish Publication Society] "Tanakh" (1917)
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15762 Yonah - Jonah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
====Christian translations====
*[http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/32_jonah.htm New Revised Standard Version]
*[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/jonah/jonah1.htm New American Version]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/RsvJona.html Revised Standard Version]
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=jonah;&version=31 New International Version] and others (Bible Gateway)
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Jonah Authorised King James Version] (Wikisource)
*[http://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/Jon/Jon001.html#top BlueLetter Bible] (King James Version and others, plus commentaries)
====Ancient texts, translations====
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t17.htm Hebrew], [http://www.cnrs.ubc.ca/greekbible/Ionas.pdf Greek], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/jonah.html Latin]
===About===
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=389&letter=J&search=jonah Jewish Encyclopedia: Book of Jonah] (1901-1905)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08497b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Jonah] (1911)
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/jonah/jonah.html Jonah on the Web], annotated directory and art galleries
* [http://www.bible.gen.nz/jonah/ Study notes on the Book of Jonah] by Dr. Tim Bulkeley
*[http://www.geocities.com/j_owens05/ot/jonah/index.html Biblical Scholarship: Book of Jonah]
[[Category:Nevi'im|Jonah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Jonah]]
[[ca:Llibre de Jonàs]]
[[cs:Kniha Jonáš]]
[[de:Jona (Buch)]]
[[es:Libro de Jonás]]
[[fr:Livre de Jonas]]
[[ko:요나 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Kitab Yunus]]
[[he:ספר יונה]]
[[jv:Yunus]]
[[nl:Jona]]
[[ja:ヨナ書]]
[[pl:Księga Jonasza]]
[[pt:Livro de Jonas]]
[[fi:Joonan kirja]]
[[sv:Jona]]
[[zh:約拿書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Micah</title>
<id>4452</id>
<revision>
<id>40785013</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:20:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Manuel Anastácio</username>
<id>54600</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Micah''' is one of the books of the [[ Nevi'im]] and of the [[Old Testament]].
==Who wrote it?==
[[Micah]] wrote the book in the reigns of [[Jotham]], [[Ahaz]], and [[Hezekiah]], roughly 735-700 BC. Few [[Old Testament]] scholars today would defend [[Micah]]'s authorship of the entire book. However, some scholars attribute much more of the materials to [[Micah]] than others. The authorship of the book of Micah is somehow controversial. It is generally agreed that Micah composed chapters 1 through 3; some scholars hold that chapter 6 and sections of chapter 7 were also written by the historical Micah.
==When was it written?==
The superscription suggests the time of the ministry of [[Micah]] as being during the reigns of [[Jotham]] (742-735 BC), [[Ahaz]] (735-715 BC), and [[Hezekiah]] (715-687 BC). These figures allow a maximum period of fifty-five years for [[Micah]]'s ministry, but it is not likely that he was active as a [[prophet]] during all of that time. He was active during the late eighth century BC; he was among the earliest of the [[Minor Prophets]]. The message in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Micah#Chapter_1 Micah 1:2-9] was given before the destruction of [[Samaria]] in 721 BC. The appeal of [[Jeremiah]]'s supporters to the [[prophecy]] of [[Micah]] confirms his connection with [[Hezekiah]]: "And some of the land arose and said to all the assembled people, [[Micah]] of Moresheth prophesied during the days of [[Hezekiah]] king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]" ([http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Jeremiah#Chapter_26 Jeremiah 26:17])
==Where was it written==
[[Micah]] had a populist message in a small town southwest of [[Jerusalem]], Moresheth-gath. Most of the messages of hope can be credited to [[Micah]], but often their general content hinders reconstruction of a specific historical setting. Although we read the canonical book through the eyes of the postxilic community of faith, who come to the fore in 7:8-20, the importance of these sections lies in the spiritual message of these prophetic texts. For this reason, scholars look very carefully at messages of hope. They ask whether they came from the [[prophet]] who gave his name to the book or from later [[prophet]]s. Certainly the final edition of the book gives the impression of coming from early postexilic times.
==Why was it written==
The purpose of writing the book was to express disdain for the corruptions and pretensions of [[Jerusalem]] and its leaders. In an era of urbanization, he championed the traditions of early [[Israel]]. [[Micah]] condemned religious practice untethered from ethical performance (3:9-10,6:3-5,6-8). [[Micah]] was probably not a professional [[prophet]]. He criticizes the prophets who give oracles for money (3:11) or tailor their messages according to their clients' generosity (3:5). His credentials are divine inspiration and his unflinching stand for moral truth (3:8). His strong sense of call is exhibited in virtually every line. Fervently yet concisely he speaks to the issues of his day in terms of [[Israel]]'s [[covenant]] obligations. Behind the [[covenant]], in spite of [[Israel]]'s failure to maintain that bond, is the [[God]] of the [[covenant]] who yet will lead his people to future glory...
==What are the themes of the books?==
The book may be divided into three sections:
#Chapters 1-3 mainly consist of oracles of judgment.
#Chapters 4-5 of oracles of hope.
#Chapters 6-7 begins with judgment and moves to hope.
Chapters 1-3, mainly consist of oracles of judgment. The judgment motif is so strong in this book that [[Micah]] only preached about judgment. Judgment in [[Micah]] is seen in destruction of [[Samaria]], in the coming of an invader against [[Jerusalem]], in the greedy land-grabbers loss of their land and in their being abandoned by [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]], in shame for the false prophets, in the siege of [[Jerusalem]] and the cleaning of the land from idolatry and militarism.
Chapters 4-5 consist of oracles of hope. The [[prophet]] said that those conditions would not prevail forever. Judgment would come but a saved, chastened, and faithful remnant would survive. A new king from the [[Davidic line|line of David]] would be born in [[Bethlehem]] and replace the present weak king on the throne. He would reign in the majesty of the name of [[Yahweh]]. His people would dwell securely and he would be great to the ends of earths.
Chapters 6-7, begin with judgment and move to hope. [[Micah]] puts a protest on the people's lips, offering any religious response [[God]] cared to ask for. God's indictment becomes specific in 6:9-16. Violence, deception, and crooked business practices were rampant. They would bring desolation and destruction to the land. The reference to [[Omri]] and [[Ahab]] indicates that the same kinds of corruption that destroyed the northern kingdom had now spread to [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].
In conclusion, [[Micah]]'s later hearers take his messages to heart. His words of hope gave them new heart to live as God's people in a darkened world.
==References==
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15763 Michah - Micah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/33_micah.htm Micah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Micah}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_English,_King_James,_Micah Micah at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
{{eastons}}
[[Category:Christian prophets|Micah]]
[[Category:Nevi'im|Micah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Micah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[de:Micha (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Michée]]
[[he:מיכה]]
[[id:Mikha]]
[[ja:ミカ書]]
[[jv:Mikha]]
[[ko:미가 (구약성서)]]
[[nl:Micha (boek)]]
[[pl:Księga Micheasza]]
[[pt:Miquéias]]
[[fi:Miikan kirja]]
[[sv:Mika]]
[[zh:彌迦書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Nahum</title>
<id>4453</id>
<revision>
<id>39065279</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T13:39:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PJM</username>
<id>482576</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''book of Nahum''' is a book in the [[Bible]]'s [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]].
[[Nahum]] prophesied, according to some, in the beginning of the reign of [[Ahaz]] ([[740s BC]]). Others, however, think that his prophecies are to be referred to the latter half of the reign of
|
ext meeting they attended. For example John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on [[August 8]]. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on [[July 10]]), and the delegation signed the Articles on [[July 21]], [[1778]].
The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles, and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on [[July 24]], New Jersey on [[November 26]], and Delaware on [[February 12]], [[1779]]. After a wait of two years, Maryland ratified, and her delegates signed the Articles on [[March 1]], [[1781]]. The articles were finally in force.
Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''' were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.
The signers and the states they represented were:
* [[New Hampshire]]: [[Josiah Bartlett]] and [[John Wentworth Jr.]]
* [[Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay]]: [[John Hancock]], [[Samuel Adams]], [[Elbridge Gerry]], [[Francis Dana]], [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]], and [[Samuel Holten]]
* [[Rhode Island|Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]: [[William Ellery]], [[Henry Marchant]], and [[John Collins (delegate)|John Collins]]
* [[Connecticut]]: [[Roger Sherman]], [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]], [[Oliver Wolcott]], [[Titus Hosmer]], and [[Andrew Adams]]
* [[New York]]: [[James Duane]], [[Francis Lewis]], [[William Duer (1747-1799)|William Duer]], and [[Gouverneur Morris]]
* [[New Jersey]]: [[John Witherspoon]] and [[Nathaniel Scudder]]
* [[Pennsylvania]]: [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]], [[Daniel Roberdeau]], [[Jonathan Bayard Smith]], [[William Clingan]], and [[Joseph Reed (jurist)|Joseph Reed]]
* [[Delaware]]: [[Thomas McKean]], [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]], and [[Nicholas Van Dyke (1738-1789)|Nicholas Van Dyke]]
* [[Maryland]]: [[John Hanson]] and [[Daniel Carroll]]
* [[Virginia]]: [[Richard Henry Lee]], [[John Banister]], [[Thomas Adams (politician)|Thomas Adams]], [[John Harvie]], and [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]]
* [[North Carolina]]: [[John Penn (delegate)|John Penn]], [[Cornelius Harnett]], and [[John Williams (delegate)|John Williams]]
* [[South Carolina]]: [[Henry Laurens]], [[William Henry Drayton|Will Henry Drayton]], [[John Mathews]], [[Richard Hutson]], and [[Thomas Heyward Jr.]]
* [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]: [[John Walton (1738-1783)|John Walton]], [[Edward Telfair]], and [[Edward Langworthy]]
==Presidents of the Congress of the Confederation==
The following list are those who led the [[Congress]] under the Articles of Confederation as the [[President of the United States in Congress Assembled|Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled]]. The "president" under the Articles was the presiding officer of Congress, not the chief [[executive (government)|executive]], as is the [[President of the United States]] under the Constitution. Also, the Articles defined the powers of a [[confederation]] of states as opposed to the current [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], which defines the powers of a [[federation]] of states.
#[[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]]
#[[Thomas McKean]]
#[[John Hanson]]
#[[Elias Boudinot]]
#[[Thomas Mifflin]]
#[[Richard Henry Lee]]
#[[John Hancock]]
#[[Nathaniel Gorham]]
#[[Arthur St. Clair]]
#[[Cyrus Griffin]]
For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see [[President of the Continental Congress]].
==References==
#{{note|ratificationletter}}[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc00941)) Monday, November 17, 1777], Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lawhome.html A Century of Lawmaking, 1774-1873]
#{{note|washingtonclinton}}[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw270170)) Letter George Washington to George Clinton], September 11, 1783. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwhome.html The George Washington Papers, 1741-1799]
==External links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.law.ou.edu/hist/artconf.html Text Version of the Articles of Confederation]
* [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Library of Congress: Articles of Confederation and related resources]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: November 15"]
* [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html The United States Constitution Online: The Articles of Confederation]
{{US Constitution}}
[[Category:Defunct constitutions]]
[[Category:United States historical documents]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Federalism]]
[[Category:1781 in law]]
[[de:Konföderationsartikel]]
[[eo:Artikoloj de Konfederacio]]
[[fr:Articles de la Confédération]]
[[it:Articoli della Confederazione]]
[[nl:Artikelen van de Confederatie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archaeology/Broch</title>
<id>693</id>
<revision>
<id>15899219</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-30T12:00:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removing 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Broch]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asia Minor</title>
<id>694</id>
<revision>
<id>15899220</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-01T22:52:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{R with possibilities}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anatolia]]{{R with possibilities}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adam Sedgwick</title>
<id>695</id>
<revision>
<id>42103474</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:22:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Introduction */ dab Prince Albert</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adam sedgwick.JPG|right|thumb|Adam Sedgwick]]
'''Adam Sedgwick''' ([[March 22]], [[1785]] &ndash; [[January 27]], [[1873]]) was one of the founders of modern [[geology]]. He proposed the [[Devonian period]] of the geological timescale and later the [[Cambrian]] period. The latter proposal was based on work which he did on [[Wales|Welsh]] rock strata.
Sedgwick was born in [[Dent (Lonsdale)|Dent]], at that time in [[Yorkshire]], the third child of an Anglican vicar. He was educated at [[Sedbergh School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].
==Introduction==
In [[1817]] he took [[holy orders]], and in [[1818]] he became [[Woodwardian Professor of Geology]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] [[University of Cambridge Department of Earth Sciences|Department of Earth Sciences]], holding a chair that had been endowed ninety years before by the natural historian [[John Woodward (naturalist)|John Woodward]]. He lacked formal training in geology, but he quickly became an active researcher in geology and [[paleontology]]. During his tenure, he immensely enlarged the geological collections of Cambridge University, and carried out important field research all over [[Great Britain]]. Sedgwick is said to have remarked, upon being appointed Woodwardian Professor, "Hitherto I have never turned a stone; henceforth I will leave no stone unturned." In [[1822]] he carried out fieldwork unraveling the complex geology of the [[Lake District]] of [[northern England]], armed with the new discoveries and techniques of [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]]. He met and befriended the poet [[William Wordsworth]] on this expedition, and also met the poet [[Robert Southey]] and the chemist [[John Dalton]]. His lectures at [[Cambridge]] were immensely popular; he was a spellbinding [[lecturer]], and -- breaking with the traditions of his time -- his lectures were open to women, whom Sedgwick thought could make great contributions to natural history. He continued to rise in his profession: in [[1829]] he became President of the [[Geological Society of London]], and in [[1845]] a Vice-Master of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]]. As Vice-Master, he led campaigns to open Cambridge to non-[[Anglican]]s and to reorganize the academic programs, in the process meeting and becoming close to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and her consort [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]]. By the 1850s he was in poor health, cared for by his niece Isabella. Still, he kept giving his famous lectures until [[1871]].
==Early work==
Sedgwick was one of several great figures in what has been called the Heroic Age of geology -- the time when the great geological time periods were defined, and when much exploration and fundamental research was carried out. Sedgwick's work placed him at the epicenter of one of the most heated geological controversies of his day, stemming from his work with the gentleman geologist [[Roderick Murchison]]. They explored the [[geology of Scotland]] in [[1827]], and in [[1839]] they jointly presented their researches on certain rocks in [[Devon]], [[England]], which had a distinctive [[fossil]] assemblage that led them to propose a new division of the geological time scale -- the [[Devonian]]. In the early 1830s, both men were working on the rocks of Wales, which were and are very difficult to work on due to extensive [[folding]
|
of mind]]
[[be:Ідэалізм]]
[[da:Idealisme]]
[[de:Idealismus (Philosophie)]]
[[et:Idealism]]
[[es:Idealismo]]
[[eo:Ideismo]]
[[fa:آرمانگرایی]]
[[fr:Idéalisme (philosophie)]]
[[ko:관념론]]
[[is:Hughyggja]]
[[it:Idealismo]]
[[he:אידיאליזם]]
[[hu:Idealizmus]]
[[nl:Idealisme]]
[[ja:観念論]]
[[pl:Idealizm]]
[[pt:Idealismo]]
[[ru:Идеализм]]
[[sk:Idealizmus]]
[[sr:Идеализам]]
[[sv:Idealism]]
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[[zh:唯心主義]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inheritance</title>
<id>15430</id>
<revision>
<id>38088740</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T02:28:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.220.97.91</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Inheritance''' is the practice of passing on [[property]], [[title]]s, [[debt]]s, and [[obligation]]s upon the death of an individual. It has long played an extremely important role in human societies.
Both [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]] have made detailed studies in this area. Many cultures feature [[patrilineal]] succession, also known as [[gavelkind]], where only male children can inherit. Some cultures also employ [[matrilineal]] succession only passing property along the female line. Even more radical than the patrilineal succession is the practice of [[primogeniture]], under which all property goes to the eldest child, or often the eldest son (the first-born). Conversely there are also systems where everything is left to the youngest child. Some ancient societies and most modern states employ [[partible inheritance]], under which every child inherits (usually equally). There was also mixed systems:
* in Swedish culture beginning from 13th century and up until 19th century, a son inherited twice as much as his sister. This rule was introduced by the Regent [[Birger Jarl]], and it was regarded as an improvement in its era, since daughters were previously usually left without.
* among ancient [[Israelite]]s, the eldest son received twice as much as the other sons.
Many states have [[inheritance tax]]es, under which a portion of any estate goes to the [[government]], though the government technically is not an heir.
Employing differing forms of succession can effect many areas of society. Gender roles are profoundly affected by inheritance laws and traditions. Primogeniture has the effect of keeping large estates united and thus perpetuating an elite. With partible inheritance large estates are slowly divided among many descendants and great wealth is thus diluted, leaving higher opportunities to individuals to make a success. (If great wealth is not diluted, the positions in society tend to be much more fixed and opportunities to make an individual success are lower.)
Inheritance can be organized in a way that its use is restricted by the desires of someone (usually of the decedent). An inheritance may have been organized as a [[fideicommission]], which usually cannot be sold or diminished, only its profits are disposable. A fideicommission's succession can also be ordered in a way that determines it long (or eternally) also with regard to persons born long after the original decedent. Cf also [[trust (property)|trust]]. [[Royal succession]] has typically been more or less a fideicommission, the realm not (easily) to be sold and the rules of succession not to be (easily) altered by a holder (a monarch).
In more [[archaic]] days, particularly the possession of inherited [[land (economics)|land]] has been much more like a family trust than a property of an individual. Yet quite recently in many European countries, sale of the whole of or a significant portion of a farm required consent from certain heirs, and/or heirs had the intervening right to obtain the land in question with same sales conditions as in the sales agreement in question.
In [[common law]] jurisdictions an ''heir'' is a person who is entitled to receive a share of the decedent's property via the rules of inheritance in the [[jurisdiction]] where the decedent died or owned property at the time of his death. Strictly speaking, one only becomes an heir upon the death of the related person: it was improper to speak of the "heir" of a living person since the exact identity of the persons entitled to inherit would not be determined until the time of death. However, it is not totally wrong to speak about "heir" during the lifetime of the decedent at least in cases where the heir has such a position that only her/his own demise before, may prevent becoming a heir at the death (for example, if the birth of another person cannot take away the position as a heir) - this is a [[heir apparent]].
==See also==
* [[Intestacy]]
* [[Majorat]]
* [[Nobility]]
* [[Order of succession]]
* [[Probate]]
* [[Royal family]]
* [[Will (law)]]
* [[Remainderman]]
[[Category:Family law]]
[[Category:Property law]]
[[ca:Hereu]]
[[es:Heredero]]
[[he:ירושה]]
[[nl:Nalatenschap]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISO 6166</title>
<id>15432</id>
<revision>
<id>40200509</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T22:39:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.172.122.138</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 6166''' defines the structure of an International Securities Identifying Number ([[ISIN]]). An ISIN uniquely identifies a fungible security. Securities with which ISINs can be used include debt securities, shares, options, derivatives and futures.
ISINs consist of two alphabetic characters, which are the [[ISO 3166-1]] code for the issuing country, nine alpha-numeric digits (the National Securities Identifying Number, or NSIN, which identifies the security), and one numeric check digit. The NSIN is issued by a national numbering agency (NNA) for that country. Regional substitute NNAs have been allocated the task of functioning as NNAs in those countries where NNAs have not yet been established.
ISINs are slowly being introduced worldwide. At present, many countries have adopted ISINs as a secondary measure of identifying securities, but as yet only some of those countries have moved to using ISINs as their primary means of identifying securities.
NNAs cooperate through the [[Association of National Numbering Agencies]] (ANNA). ANNA also functions as the ISO 6166 [[Maintenance agency|Maintenance Agency]] (MA).
==External links==
*[http://www.anna-web.com/ Association of National Numbering Agencies] &ndash; has more information on ISO 6166
*[http://www.pruefziffernberechnung.de/I/ISIN.shtml Prüfziffernberechnung in der Praxis] &ndash; site in German; describes in detail how to construct the ISIN from the NSIN
[[Category:ISO standards|#06166]]
[[de:ISO 6166]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interlingue</title>
<id>15433</id>
<revision>
<id>15912907</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-30T03:18:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
<id>48742</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Occidental language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isopropyl alcohol</title>
<id>15434</id>
<revision>
<id>41561306</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:59:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Big . Joe</username>
<id>628532</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;"
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}} <!-- replace if not identical with the article name -->
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:2-propanol.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Propan-2-ol
|-
| Other names
| 2-propanol, isopropanol,<br/>Isopropyl alcohol
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CC(O)C
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 60.10 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colorless liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 67-63-0
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.78 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid <!-- ? g/cm<sup>3</sup>, solid / ? g/ml, liquid / ? g/l, gas -->
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Fully [[miscible]]
|-
| Solubility in [[brine]]
| Slightly soluble
|-
| In [[ethanol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]]<br/> In [[acetone]], [[toluene]]
| Fully miscible<br/> Soluble
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| -88 °C (185 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 82 °C (355 K)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''<sub>a</sub>)
| 16.5 for H on [[hydroxyl]]
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 2.86 c[[Poise|P]] at 15 °C<br/>1.77 c[[Poise|P]] at 30 °C
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 1.66 [[Debye|D]] (gas)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards <!-- Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information -->
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]] <!-- please replace with proper link-->
|-
| Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s
| Flammable
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h1.png]][[Image:nfpa_f3.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| 12 °C
|-
| [[Risk and Safety Statements|R/S statement]]
| R: 11-36-67<br/> S: 7-16-24/25-26
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| NT8050000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Structure and properties|Structure an
|
ot;, "was", "were", "been". Traditionally, it had even more, including "art", "wast", "wert", and, occasionally, "best" as a subjunctive. On the history of the paradigm, see: [[Indo-European copula]].
==Copulas in other languages==
Languages tend to use copulas in quite different ways.
===Chinese===
In [[Chinese language|Chinese]] languages, both states and qualities are generally expressed with [[stative verb]]s with no need for a copula, e.g., "to be tired" (累 ''lèi''), "to be hungry" (饿 ''è''), "to be located at" (在 ''zài''), "to be stupid" (笨 ''bèn'') and so forth. These verbs are usually preceded by an adverb such as 很 ''hěn'' ("very") or 不 ''bù'' ("not").
Only sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g. "this is my sister") use the verb "to be": 是 ''shì''. This is used frequently: for example, instead of having a verb meaning "to be Chinese", the usual expression is "to be a Chinese person", using 是 ''shì''. Other sentences use adjectives plus the nominaliser 的 ''de'', e.g. 这是红的 ''zhè shì hóng de'' "this is [a] red [one]".
The history of the Chinese copula 是 is a controversial subject. Before the [[Han Dynasty]], the character served as a [[demonstrative pronoun]] meaning "this" (this usage survives in some idioms and proverbs). Some linguists argue that 是 developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the subject of a sentence (in [[classical Chinese]] we can say, for example: "George W. Bush, '''this''' president of the United States" meaning "George W. Bush '''is''' the president of the United States). Other scholars cannot completely accept the explanation, proposing that 是 served as a demonstrative pronoun and a copula at the same time in ancient Chinese. [[etymology|Etymologically]], 是 means "straight"; in modern Chinese, 是 means "yes" as an interjection, and "correct", "right" as an adjective, implying a sense of judgement.
<small>N.B. The characters used are [[Simplified Chinese|simplified]] ones, and the transcriptions given in italics reflect [[standard Mandarin]] pronunciation, using the [[Pinyin]] system.</small>
===Japanese===
[[Japanese language|Japanese]] has copulas which would most often be translated as one of the so-called be-verbs of English. The Japanese copula has many forms, including but not limited to ''da'', ''na'', ''de'', and ''desu''. The first and last are used to [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] sentences, while the middle two are used within sentences to modify or connect.
Japanese sentences with copulas most often equate one thing with another, that is, they are of the form "A is B." Examples:
* &#12371;&#12428;&#12399;&#12506;&#12531;&#12391;&#12377;&#12290;''Kore wa pen desu''. "This is a pen" (lit., this <small>TOPIC</small> pen <small>COPULA</small>)
* &#20693;&#12399;&#23398;&#29983;&#12384;&#12290;''Boku wa gakusei da'' "I am a student" (lit., I-<small>MASCULINE</small> <small>TOPIC</small> student <small>COPULA</small>)
The following examples show the use of the copula as a modifier or connector.
* &#21307;&#32773;&#12398;&#12362;&#12376; ''isha no oji'' "uncle who is a physician" (lit., physician <small>COPULA</small> uncle)
* &#22909;&#12365;&#12391;&#12383;&#12414;&#12425;&#12394;&#12356; ''suki de tamaranai'' "I love it so much I'm gonna burst" (lit., like <small>COPULA</small> not-be-able-to-bear)
The difference between ''da'' and ''desu'' is simple: ''desu'' is more formal and polite than ''da''. Thus, the two sentences below are identical in meaning and differ only in their politeness.
* &#12354;&#12428;&#12399;&#12507;&#12486;&#12523;&#12384;&#12290;''Are wa hoteru da''. "That is a hotel." (lit., that <small>TOPIC</small> hotel <small>COPULA</small>)
* &#12354;&#12428;&#12399;&#12507;&#12486;&#12523;&#12391;&#12377;&#12290;''Are wa hoteru desu''. "That is a hotel." (lit., that <small>TOPIC</small> hotel <small>COPULA</small>)
Japanese sentences may be predicated with copulas or with verbs. However, ''desu'' may not always be a predicate. In some cases, its only function is to make a sentence predicated with a [[stative verb]] more polite. In a sense, there are two words ''desu'' in Japanese: one is a polite copula that predicates sentences, and the other is a politeness marker added to stative verbs. However, ''da'' always functions as a predicate, so it cannot be combined with a stative verb, because sentences need only one predicate. See the examples below.
* &#12371;&#12398;&#12499;&#12540;&#12523;&#12399;&#12358;&#12414;&#12356;&#12290;''Kono biiru wa umai'' "This beer is good" (lit., this beer <small>TOPIC</small> be-tasty)
* &#12371;&#12398;&#12499;&#12540;&#12523;&#12399;&#12358;&#12414;&#12356;&#12391;&#12377;&#12290;''Kono biiru wa umai desu'' "This beer is good" (lit., this beer <small>TOPIC</small> be-tasty <small>POLITE</small>)
: but
* ''Kono biiru wa umai da'' - unacceptable
Japanese also has two verbs corresponding to English "to be": ''aru'' and ''iru''. Neither of them is a copula. ''Aru'' is used for inanimate objects, including plants, while ''iru'' is used for people and animals, though there are exceptions to this generalization. Different usages of the copula, stative verbs, and the two verbs of being are shown below.
* &#26412;&#12399;&#12486;&#12540;&#12502;&#12523;&#12395;&#12354;&#12427;&#12290;''Hon wa teeburu ni aru.'' "The book is on the table."
* &#12461;&#12512;&#12373;&#12435;&#12399;&#12371;&#12371;&#12395;&#12356;&#12427;&#12290;''Kimu-san wa koko ni iru.''"Kim is here."
* &#31169;&#12399;&#12450;&#12513;&#12522;&#12459;&#20154;&#12384;&#12290;''Watashi wa amerikajin da.'' "I am an American."
* &#32020;&#23376;&#12373;&#12435;&#12399;&#22793;&#12384;&#12290;''Junko-san wa hen da.'' "Junko is strange."
* &#12371;&#12428;&#12399;&#27005;&#12375;&#12356;&#12290;''Kore wa tanoshii.'' "This is fun."
===Indo-European languages===
{{main|Indo-European copula}}
In [[Indo-European language]]s, the words meaning "to be" (originating in stem ''*es'') often sound similar to each other. Due to the high frequency of their use, their inflection retains a considerable degree of similarity in some cases. Thus, for example, the [[English language|English]] form ''is'' is an apparent [[cognate]] of [[German language|German]] ''ist'', Latin ''est'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''<nowiki>jest'</nowiki>'', in spite the fact that the Germanic, Romance, and Slavic language groups split at least three thousand years ago.
A feature of most [[Romance language]]s is the coexistence of two different verbs meaning "to be", the main one from the [[Latin]] ''sum'', and a secondary one from '''sto'' (see [[Romance copula]]). The difference is that the former usually refers to essential characteristics, whilst the latter refers to states and situations, e. g. "Bob is old" versus "Bob is well". (Note that the English words just used, "essential" and "state" are also cognate with the Latin roots ''esse'' and ''stare''.)
*[[Italian language|Italian]] ''Bob è vecchio'' &mdash; Bob is old
*[[Italian language|Italian]] ''Bob sta bene'' &mdash; Bob is well
In Spanish, for example, the quite high degree of verbal [[inflection]], plus the existence of two copulae (''ser'' and ''estar''), means that there are 105 separate forms to express the eight of English, and one of Chinese.
In certain languages there are not only two copulae but the [[syntax]] is also changed when one is distinguishing between states or situation and essential characteristics. For example, in [[Irish language|Irish]], describing the subject's state or situation typically uses the normal VSO ordering with the verb ''bí''. The copula ''is'', which is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences, requires a change in word order so that the subject does not immediately follow the copula (see [[Irish syntax]]).
===Russian and Hungarian===
In languages such as [[Russian language|Russian]] or [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], the copula in present tense is implied rather than spoken (Russian: я&nbsp;&mdash; человек, ''ya&nbsp;&mdash; chelovek'' "I (am) a human"; Hungarian: ''&#337; ember'', "he (is) a human"). This usage (also common in [[Semitic languages]]), is known generically as the '''[[zero copula]]'''. Note that in other tenses (sometimes in other persons besides singular third) the copula usually reappears.
In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in 3rd person singular and plural (see examples above): "Ő ember/Ők emberek&nbsp;&mdash; "s/he is a human"/"they are humans"; but: "(én) ember vagyok"&nbsp;&mdash; "I am a human", "(te) ember vagy"&nbsp;&mdash; "you are a human", "(mi) emberek vagyunk"&nbsp;&mdash; "we are humans", "(ti) emberek vagytok&q
|
entité de Bézout]]
[[it:Identità di Bézout]]
[[ru:Теорема Безу]]
[[zh:&#35997;&#31062;&#31561;&#24335;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Banacek</title>
<id>4948</id>
<revision>
<id>41337211</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:06:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>replaced ad hoc dab message with distinguish => [[Banachek]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Distinguish|Banachek}}
'''''Banacek''''' (one of the rotating ''[[NBC Mystery Movie]]'' series) was a short lived light hearted detective [[Television programs|TV series]] on [[NBC]] from [[1972]] to [[1974]]. [[George Peppard]] played Thomas Banacek, a [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]-based freelance investigator who worked mostly for finder's fees offered by insurance companies by solving seemingly impossible theft cases. The show had a mixture of humor combined with rather intricate plots that never generated the ratings needed to keep it on the air. Banacek's catch-phrase was, "There's an old [[Poland|Polish]] proverb that says ...".
Also featured were [[Ralph Manza]] as Banacek's chauffeur Jay Drury, [[Murray Matheson]] as rare-bookstore owner Felix Mulholland, and [[Christine Belford]] as Carlie Kirkland.
''Banacek'' alternated in its timeslot with several other shows, but it was the only one to last beyond its first season. It was later rebroadcast on [[A&E Network]].
==Episodes==
''Pilot''<br>
1. Banacek: Detour to Nowhere<br><br>
''Season One''<br>
2. Let's Hear It For A Living Legend<br>
3. Project Phoenix<br>
4. No Sign of the Cross<br>
5. A Million the Hard Way<br>
6. To Steal A King<br>
7. Ten Thousand Dollars A Page<br>
8. The Greatest Collection of Them All<br>
9. The Two Million Clams of Cap'n Jack<br><br>
''Season Two''<br>
10. No Stone Unturned<br>
11. If Max Is So Smart, Why Doesn't He Tell Us Where He Is?<br>
12. The Three Million Dollar Piracy<br>
13. The Vanishing Chalice<br>
14. Horse of A Slightly Different Color<br>
15. Rocket to Oblivion<br>
16. Fly Me- If You Can Find Me<br>
17. Now You See Me, Now You Don't<br>
==External links==
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0068044/ IMDb: ''Banacek'']
{{US-tv-stub}}
[[fr:Banacek]]
[[Category:NBC network shows]]
[[Category:1970s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Crime television series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blue Angels</title>
<id>4949</id>
<revision>
<id>42004403</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:05:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ummit</username>
<id>328950</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */ can → could</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Blueangelsformationpd.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Blue Angels F/A-18 Hornets fly in tight [[diamond formation]], maintaining 18" wingtip-to-canopy separation.]]
[[Image:BAHR6.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Blue Angels fly their F-4J Phantoms cross-country between show sites in a [[line abreast]] formation.]]
The [[United States Navy]]'s '''Blue Angels''' (or '''Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron'''), formed at the end of [[World War II]], is the world's first officially-sanctioned military aerial demonstration team. The team started out flying 3 aircraft in formation, then four, and currently operates 6 aircraft per show.
The team is split into "the Diamond" (Blue Angels 1 through 4) and the Opposing Solos (Blue Angels 5 and 6). Most of their display alternates between maneuvers performed by the diamond, and those performed by the solos. The diamond performs maneuvers in tight formation, usually at lower speeds, such as formation loops and barrel rolls or transitions from one formation to another. The opposing solos usually perform their maneuvers just under the speed of sound, and show off the capabilities of their individual F/A-18s through the execution of high-speed passes, slow passes, fast rolls, slow rolls, and very tight turns. Some of the maneuvers include both solo F/A-18s performing at once, such as opposing passes (where the solos fly towards each other in what appears to be a collision course, and then narrowly miss one another) and mirror formations (the two F/A-18s being flown back-to-back or belly-to-belly; in such formations, one of the aircraft is often inverted). At the end of the routine, all 6 aircraft join in formation and execute the team's signature "[[fleur-de-lis]]" closing maneuver.
The parameters of each show must be tailored to the local visibility: in clear weather the "high" show is performed, in overcast conditions it is the "low" show that the spectators see, and in limited visibility (weather permitting) the "flat" show is presented. The "high" show requires an 8,000 foot ceiling and visibility of three nautical miles from the show's centerpoint. "Low" and "flat" ceilings are 3,500 and 1,500 feet respectively.
==History==
[[Image:Voris and 1st Blue Angel team.jpg|thumb|310px|right|The first Blue Angel Flight Demonstration Squadron, 1946&ndash;1947 (l to r): Lt. Al Taddeo, Solo; Lt. (J.G.) Gale Stouse, Spare; Lt. Cdr. R.M. "Butch" Voris, Flight Leader; Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, Right Wing; Lt. Mel Cassidy, Left Wing.]]
On [[April 24]], [[1946]] [[Chief of Naval Operations]] [[Admiral]] [[Chester Nimitz]] issued a directive ordering the formation of a flight exhibition team (the first such official venture by any of the Armed Services) to boost Navy morale, demonstrate naval air power, and maintain public interest in naval aviation. However, an underlying mission was to help the Navy generate public and political support for a larger allocation of the shrinking defense budget. In April of that year, Rear Admiral Ralph Davison personally selected [[Lieutenant Commander]] [[Roy Marlin Voris|Roy Marlin "Butch" Voris]], a World War II [[flying ace]], to assemble and train a flight demonstration squadron, naming him Officer-in-Charge and Flight Leader. Voris selected two fellow instructors to join him (Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll and Lt. Mel Cassidy, both veterans of the War in the Pacific), and the three spent countless hours developing the show. The group perfected their initial maneuvers in secret over the Florida [[Everglades]] so that, in Voris' words, "''...if anything happened, just the alligators would know.''" Their first demonstration before Navy officials took place on [[May 10]], 1946 and was met with enthusiastic approval.
On [[June 15]] Voris led a trio of [[Grumman F6F Hellcat|Grumman F6F-5 Hellcats]], specially modified to reduce weight and painted sea blue with gold leaf trim, through their inaugural 15-minute-long performance at the Southern Air Show at [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville, Florida's]] '''Craig Field'''. The group, known simply as the "Navy Flight Exhibition Team," thrilled spectators with low-flying maneuvers performed in tight formations, and (according to Voris) by "''...keeping something in front of the crowds at all times. My objective was to beat the Army Air Corps. If we did that, we'd get all the other side issues. I felt that if we weren't the best, it would be my naval career''." The Blue Angels' first public demonstration also netted the team its first trophy, which sits on display at the team's current home in [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]].
[[Image:Blue Angels Bearcats.jpg|thumb|300px|left|On August 25, 1946 the Blue Angels transitioned to the Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat and introduced the famous "diamond" formation at the '''World Air Carnival''' in [[Birmingham, Alabama]].]]
The team soon became known worldwide for its spectacular aerobatic stunts. During a trip to the "[[Big Apple]]," Lt. Wickendoll came across an advertisement in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' for the city's popular "Blue Angel" nightclub. Voris liked the name and on [[July 19]] officially made it the team's moniker. On [[August 25]] the squadron upgraded their aircraft to the [[F8F Bearcat|F8F-1 Bearcat]]. Though Voris left the team on [[May 30]], [[1947]] the "Blues" continued to perform nationwide until the start of the Korean War in 1950, when (due to a shortage of pilots) the team was disbanded and its members were ordered to combat duty. Once aboard the aircraft carrier [[USS Princeton|USS ''Princeton'']] the group formed the core of VF-191, '''Satan's Kittens'''.
The Blue Angels were officially recommissioned on [[October 25]], [[1951]], and reported to [[Naval Air Station Corpus Christi|NAS Corpus Christi]], Texas. Lt. Cdr. Voris was again tasked with assembling the flight team (he was the first of only two commanding officers to lead the group twice). By the end of the [[1940s]], the Blue Angels were flying their first jet aircraft, the Grumman [[F9F Panther|F9F-2 Panther]], but now would be utilizing the newer and faster version of the Panther, the F9F-5. The Blue Angels remained in Corpus Christi until the winter of [[1954]], when they relocated to their present home at [[Naval Air Station Pensacola|NAS Pensacola, Florida]]. It was here that they progressed to the swept-wing Grumman [[F9F Cougar|F9F-8 Cougar]]. The ensuing 20 years saw the Blue Angels transition to two more aircraft, the Grumman [[F11F Tiger|F11F-1 Tiger]] ([[1957]]) and the McDonnell Douglas [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4J Phantom II]] ([[1969]]), the only plane to be flown by both the "Blues" and the [[United States Air Force]] [[Thunderbirds (squadron)|Thunderbirds]].
[[Image:BAHR9.jpg|thumb|right|300px|All six Blue Angel A-4F Skyhawks fly in [[delta formation]] with "smoke on."
|
amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 2.04% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 36,145 people, 12,833 households, and 7,558 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 493.1/km&sup2; (1,277.2/mi&sup2;). There are 13,271 housing units at an average density of 181.1/km&sup2; (468.9/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 95.14% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.57% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.15% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.61% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.41% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.09% from two or more races. 1.08% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 12,833 households out of which 26.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 7.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.1% are non-families. 25.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.45 and the average family size is 2.91.
In the city the population is spread out with 18.0% under the age of 18, 30.6% from 18 to 24, 20.5% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 26 years. For every 100 females there are 88.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 85.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $40,226, and the median income for a family is $56,158. Males have a median income of $37,235 versus $26,312 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,140. 16.7% of the population and 5.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 8.5% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Notable natives ==
* [[Annabeth Gish]] -- actress
* [[Gary Kroeger]] -- actor, [[Saturday Night Live]] 1982-1985
* [[Robert James Waller]] -- author of ''[[The Bridges of Madison County]]''
* [[Kurt Warner]] -- [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback, played for the [[St. Louis Rams]] and [[New York Giants]], currently on the [[Arizona Cardinals]]; a [[University of Northern Iowa]] alumnus
* [[Trev Alberts]] -- former All-american linebacker at [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|University of Nebraska]] and former analyst on [[ESPN]]'s [[College GameDay]]; attended Northern University (NU) High School
* [[Nancy Price]] -- author of ''Sleeping With the Enemy''
*[[Mark Steines]] -- co-host, [[Entertainment Tonight]], alumnus of the [[University of Northern Iowa]]
* [[Don Denkinger]] -- umpire that made a call that eventually lost the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] the World Series
* [[Rebecca Cummings]] -- porn star
== Points of interest ==
* [[University of Northern Iowa]]
* [[University of Northern Iowa Teaching and Research Greenhouse]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ci.cedar-falls.ia.us/ Official City of Cedar Falls Website]
* [http://www.uni.edu/ UNI - University of Northern Iowa]
* [http://www.cedarfalls.org/ Cedar Falls Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.sturgisfalls.org/ Sturgis Falls Celebration Website]
* [http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0504110183apr11,1,1790110.story?coll=chi-newsnationworld-hed Chicago Tribune Article about controversial 1975 Cedar Falls murder]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.52352|-92.446402}}
{{Iowa}}
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]
[[Category:Black Hawk County, Iowa]]
[[io:Cedar Falls, Iowa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cleveland Indians</title>
<id>6652</id>
<revision>
<id>41802379</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:19:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EurekaLott</username>
<id>94900</id>
</contributor>
<comment>re-insert image sizes, add expandsection tags</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Indians}}
The '''Cleveland Indians''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. They currently are in the [[American League Central|Central Division]] of the [[American League]].
==Franchise history==
===1901-1959: Early to middle history of the franchise===
{{expandsection}}
Contrary to popular belief, the team was not named for 19th century Cleveland player [[Louis Sockalexis]] when it assumed its current name in 1915. Rather, when the Naps needed a new name after [[Napoleon Lajoie]] was sent to the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] after the end of the [[1914 in baseball|1914 season]], [[Charles Somers]], the team owner, asked the local newspapers to come up with a new name for the team. They chose "Indians" as a play on the name of the 1914 [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], who were known as the "Miracle Boston Braves" after going from last place on July 4 to a sweep in the World Series. The proponents of the name acknowledged that the [[Cleveland Spiders]] of the [[National League]] had sometimes been informally called the "Indians" during Sockalexis' short career there, a fact which merely reinforced the new name. In any case, the name change was assumed to be temporary, but it stuck. And 34 years later, the Indians went on to defeat those same Braves, 4 games to 2, in the [[1948 World Series]] -- after winning a one game playoff against Boston's other team, the [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]]. The victory over the Braves was the franchise's second of two world titles; the Tribe had also won the [[1920 World Series]], defeating the [[Brooklyn Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]] 5 games to 2. (Pluto, 1999)
The Tribe, as the Indians are affectionately referred to by Clevelanders, fielded a competitive team through the late 1940s and early 1950s, featuring pitching stars [[Bob Feller]], [[Early Wynn]], [[Bob Lemon]], and [[Mike Garcia]] (also known as the Big Four). They broke the [[Baseball color line|color barrier]] in the [[American League]] by signing [[Larry Doby]] in [[1947 in baseball|1947]], eleven weeks after [[Jackie Robinson]] signed with the Dodgers. They appeared in the World Series in 1948 and [[1954 World Series|1954]] (when they won a record 111 games in a 154-game season), and were in regular contention for the pennant with the dominant [[New York Yankees]].
===1960-1993: The curse of Rocky Colavito===
{{expandsection}}
[[Image:Indian uprising.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The infamous 1987 ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' "Indian Uprising" cover]]
A 30+ year slump began for the Indians with the club's most infamous trade; which involved slugging right fielder, and huge fan favorite, [[Rocky Colavito]]. Just before opening day in [[1960]] Colavito was traded to the [[Detroit Tigers]] for [[Harvey Kuenn]]. The [[Akron Beacon Journal]]'s beat reporter for the Tribe, [[Terry Pluto]], has documented the decades of woe that seemed to follow the trade, in his book ''The [[Curse of Rocky Colavito]]''. Pluto takes an in-depth look at this particular era, in which the franchise perennially played an almost comically bad brand of baseball. Pluto has written other books on the Indians, most notably, ''[[Our Tribe : A Baseball Memoir]].''
[[Frank Lane|Frank 'Trader' Lane]] was the main culprit in the construction of what became a running joke in baseball for three decades. His poor trades left the team with little in assets, and the legacy snowballed. Without any strength in their [[Farm team|farm system]] to nurture, the team fell deeper and deeper into a slump, which discounting a few moments of false hope, continued until the Tribe's inaugural season at [[Jacobs Field]] in 1994.
===1994 and beyond: A new beginning ===
[[Image:Jacobs_field3.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Jacobs Field]] ]]
Indians General Manager [[John Hart (baseball)|John Hart]] and team owner [[Dick Jacobs]] finally found the light at the end of the tunnel. In what seems to have been a case of life imitating art, the 1994 Cleveland Indians re-discovered their winning ways of the 1940s and 1950s; The [[1989 in film|1989]] [[film|motion picture]] ''[[Major League (film)|Major League]]'' featured the Indians as a worst-to-first story: the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] Indians ended their era at [[Cleveland Stadium|Cleveland Municipal Stadium]], 76-86, which was last in the American League East Division. The team opened the [[1994 in baseball|1994 season]] with a new stadium, [[Jacobs Field]], and with it came the success and the spirits of their movie counterparts. The 1994 MLB Season ended prematurely, with a [[Major League Baseball Players Association|Players Union]] [[1994 baseball strike|strike]]; on the day the strike began, the Indians were one game behind the [[Chicago White Sox]] -- their newly-formed AL Central rivals-- with 49 left to be played.
The strike, which extended into the [[1995 in baseball|1995 season]], hardly dampened the teams newly found success. Without losing a step, the 1995 Indians went 100-44 in a shortened season. The team went on to defeat the [[Boston Red Sox]] in the [[1995 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]]; and the [[Seattle Mariners]] in the [[1995 American League Championship Series|ALCS]], reaching the [[1995 World Series|World Series]] for their first time since 1954. Although the Tribe went on to lose to the World Series four games to two against the [[Atlanta Braves]], 1995 was still a remarkable year for the Indians; besides winning 100 games, they also led Major League Baseball in [[batting average]] and led the American League in team [[earned run average|ERA]].
The Tribe took the AL Central Crown again in [[1996 in baseball|1996]], but lost to the [[Baltimore Orioles]] (three games to one) in the [[1996 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]]. In [[1997]] the Tribe started lukewarm, but finis
|
udius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech:
<blockquote>"If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'."<ref>English translation of Berlin papyrus by W.D. Hogarth, in Momigliano (1934).</ref></blockquote>
It is not known if this plea had any effect on discourse.
[[Image:claudiussc.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A bronze [[As (coin)|As]] issued during Claudius' reign. Note the "SC" mark on the reverse, meaning issued with the Senate's approval.]]
In 47 he assumed the office of [[Censor]] with [[Lucius Vitellius]], which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The Lyons Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He also increased the number of [[Patrician]]s by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] and [[Julius Caesar]].
Despite this, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius was forced to reduce the Senate's power for efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an imperial [[Promagistrate|Procurator]] after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the emperor.
Several coup attempts were made during Claudius' reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. [[Appius Silanus]] was executed early in Claudius' reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus, the governor of [[Dalmatia]] and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, and the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius' son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In 46, [[Asinius Gallus]], the grandson of [[Asinius Pollio]], and Statilius Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius' own freedmen. [[Valerius Asiaticus]] was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge was adultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Statilius Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius' consulship, and may have induced him to overlook the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of [[Gaius Silius]] in the year after his consulship, 48, is detailed in the section discussing Claudius's third wife, [[Messalina]]. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius' reign<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 29.</ref>. Needless to say, the necessary responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate-emperor relations.
==The Secretariat and centralization of powers==
[[Image:claudiuscameo.jpg|left|thumb|175px|A [[sardonyx]] [[cameo]] of Claudius. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]
Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the [[princeps]] became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers.
The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedmen. [[Tiberius Claudius Narcissus|Narcissus]] was the secretary of correspondence. [[Pallas (freedman)|Pallas]] became the secretary of the treasury. [[Callistus (freedman)|Callistus]] became the equivalent of the U.S. Attorney General. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under [[Polybius (freedman)|Polybius]] until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius' stead before the conquest of Britain. Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves. If freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius to a man<ref>Tac. ''Ann.'' XII 65. Seneca ''Ad Polybium.''</ref>. He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas' brother, [[Antonius Felix|Felix]]. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius' policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout.
Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. [[Pliny the Elder]] notes that several of them were richer than [[Crassus]], the richest man of the Republican era<ref>Pliny ''Natural History'' 134.</ref>.
==Religious reforms and games==
Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He reinstituted old observances and archaic language. Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the [[Eleusinian mysteries]] which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as [[haruspices]]) as a replacement. He was especially hard on [[Druidism]], because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] activities. It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because the appearance of Christianity had caused unrest within the Jewish community.<ref>There is some debate about what actually happened. It is reported by Suetonius and in Acts (18:2), Cassius Dio minimizes the event and Josephus - who was reporting on Jewish events - does not mention it at all. Some scholars hold that it didn't happen, while others have only a few missionaries expelled for the short term.</ref>. Claudius opposed proselytizing in any religion, even those where he allowed natives to worship freely. The results of all these efforts were recognized even by Seneca, who has an ancient Latin god defend Claudius in his satire<ref>Seneca ''Apocolo.'' 9.</ref>.
Claudius performed the [[Secular games|Secular Games]], marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus' excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning. Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the Fucine lake.
==Marriages and personal life==
[[Image:Messalina2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Messalina holding the infant Britannicus. Courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]
Claudius' love life was unusual for an upper-class Roman of his day. As [[Edward Gibbon]] mentions, of the first fifteen emperors, "Claudius was the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct" - the implication being that he was the only one not to take [[Homosexuality|men]] or [[Pederasty|boys]] as lovers. Gibbons based this on Suetonius' factual statement that "He had a great passion for women, but had no interest in men."<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 33.</ref> Suetonius and the other ancient authors actually used this against Claudius. They accused him of being dominated by these same women and wives, of being uxorious, and of being a womanizer.,
Claudius mar
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incarnation, this achievement would eventually change the nature of physical security.
===Experimental aircraft===
Bell was also interested in [[aircraft]] and was a supporter of [[aerospace engineering]] research through the [[Aerial Experiment Association]]. The Association was officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia in October 1907 at the suggestion of Mrs. Mabel Bell and with her financial support. It was headed by the inventor himself. The founding members were four young men, American [[Glenn Curtiss|Glenn H. Curtiss]], a motorcycle manufacturer who would later be awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one-kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere and later be world-renowned as an airplane manufacturer; [[Frederick W. "Casey" Baldwin]], the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in [[Hammondsport, New York]]; J.A.D. McCurdy; and Lieutenant [[Thomas Selfridge]], an official observer of the U.S. government. One of the project's inventions, the [[aileron]], is a standard component of aircraft today. (Note that the aileron was also invented independently by [[Robert Esnault-Pelterie]].)
In 1909, Bell's ''[[Silver Dart]]'' made the first controlled powered flight in Canada. However, a series of Canadian flights failed to interest the Canadian military in developing the airplane.
===The hydrofoil===
The March 1906 ''[[Scientific American]]'' article by American [[hydrofoil]] pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils. Bell considered the invention of the [[Hydrofoil|hydroplane]] as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat.
Bell and Casey Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor [[Enrico Forlanini]] and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft.
During his world tour of 1910&ndash;1911 Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck a number of designs were tried culminating in the HD-4, using Renault engines. A top speed of 54 miles per hour was achieved, with rapid acceleration, good stability and steering, and the ability to take waves without difficulty.
Bell's report to the navy permitted him to obtain two 350 [[horsepower]] (260 [[Watt|kW]]) engines in July 1919. On [[September 9]] [[1919]] the HD-4 set a world's marine speed record of 70.86 miles per hour. This record stood for ten years.
==Eugenics==
Along with many very prominent thinkers and scientists of the time, Bell was connected with the [[eugenics]] movement in the United States. From 1912 until 1918 he was the chairman of the board of scientific advisors to the [[Eugenics Record Office]] associated with [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]] in [[New York]], and regularly attended meetings. In 1921 he was the honorary president of the [[Second International Congress of Eugenics]] held under the auspices of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York. Organizations such as these advocated passing laws (with success in some states) that established the [[compulsory sterilization]] of people deemed to be, as Bell called them, a "defective variety of the human race".
Much of his thoughts about people he considered defective centered on the deaf because of his long contact with them in relation to his work in [[deaf education]]. In addition to advocating sterilization of the deaf, Bell wished to prohibit deaf teachers from being allowed to teach in schools for the deaf, he worked to outlaw the marriage of deaf individuals to one another, and he was an ardent supporter of [[oralism]] over [[manualism]]. His avowed goal was to eradicate the language and culture of the deaf so as to force them to integrate into the hearing culture for their own long-term benefit and for the benefit of society at large. Although this attitude is widely seen as paternalistic and arrogant today, it was accepted in that era.
Although he supported what many would consider harsh and inhumane policies today, he was not unkind to deaf individuals who proved his theories of oralism. He was a personal and longtime friend of [[Helen Keller]], and his wife Mabel was deaf, though none of their children were. Bell was well known as a kindly father and loving family man who took great pleasure playing with his many grandchildren.
== Tribute ==
In the early 1970s, UK Rock Group [[The Sweet]] recorded a tribute to Bell and the telephone, suitably titled "Alexander Graham Bell". The song tells a fictional account of the invention, in which Bell devises the telephone so he can talk to his girlfriend who lives on the other side of the United States from him. The song reached the top 40 in the UK and went on to sell over one million recordings world-wide.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}{{commons|Alexander Graham Bell}}
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42027 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://bell.uccb.ns.ca/ Alexander Graham Bell Institute]
*[http://www.bellhomestead.ca/ Bell Homestead, National Historic Site]
*[http://www.alexanderbell.com/ Alexander Bell.com - Telecom Pioneers by Phonebook of the World.com]
*[http://histv2.free.fr/bell/bell1.htm Bell's speech] before the American Association for the Advancement of Science in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] on [[August 27]], [[1880]], presenting the [[photophone]]. Very clear description. Published as "On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light" in the ''American Journal of Sciences'', Third Series, vol. '''XX''', #118, October 1880, pp. 305 - 324; and as "[[Selenium]] and the Photophone" in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', September 1880.
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=174465.WKU.&OS=PN/174465&RS=PN/174465 United States Patent and Trademark Office], patent US174465 for the telephone.
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/bellhome.html Alexander Graham Bell family papers] Online version at the Library of Congress comprises a selection of 4,695 items (totaling about 51,500 images) containing correspondence, scientific notebooks, journals, blueprints, articles, and photographs documenting Bell invention of the telephone and his involvement in the first telephone company, his family life, his interest in the education of the deaf, and his aeronautical and other scientific research.
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[[ar:الكسندر غراهام بيل]]
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[[it:Alexander Graham Bell]]
[[he:אלכסנדר גרהם בל]]
[[lt:Aleksandras Grehemas Belas]]
[[mr:अलेक्झांडर ग्रॅहॅम बेल]]
[[nl:Alexander Graham Bell]]
[[ja:アレクサンダー・グラハム・ベル]]
[[ko:알렉산더 그레이엄 벨]]
[[no:Alexander Graham Bell]]
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[[ru:Белл, Александер Грэм]]
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[[ta:அலெக்ஸாண்டர் கிரஹாம் பெல்]]
[[th:อเล็กซานเดอร์ เกรแฮม เบลล์]]
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[[zh:亚历山大·格拉汉姆·贝尔]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Amhrán na bhFiann</title>
<id>853</id>
<revision>
<id>40627918</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:53:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.80.100.62</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Lyrics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Amhrán na bhFiann'''''<sup>1</sup> is the [[national anthem]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Although usu
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rdegna]]'' ([[1892]])
*''[[Le vie del male]]'' ([[1892]])
*''[[Racconti sardi]]'' ([[1895]])
*''[[Anime oneste]]'' ([[1895]])
*''[[Elias Portolu]]'' ([[1903]])
*''[[Cenere (book)|Cenere]]'' ([[1904]])
*''[[L'edera]]'' ([[1912]])
*''[[Canne al vento]]'' ([[1913]])
*''[[Marianna Sirca]]'' ([[1915]])
*''[[La madre]]'' ([[1920]])
*''[[La fuga in Egitto]]'' ([[1925]])
*''[[Il sigillo d'amore]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Cosima]]'' ([[1937]]) published posthumously
*''[[Il cedro del Libano]]'' ([[1939]]) published posthumously
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[George Bernard Shaw]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1926 | after = [[Henri Bergson]]
}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
*[http://members.tripod.com/~GraziaDeledda/ETEXT-F.HTM Works on the Web]
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1926/deledda-autobio.html Nobel Prize autobiography]
[[Category:1871 births|Deledda, Grazia]]
[[Category:1936 deaths|Deledda, Grazia]]
[[Category:Italian writers|Deledda, Grazia]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Deledda, Grazia]]
[[de:Grazia Deledda]]
[[es:Grazia Deledda]]
[[eo:Grazia DELEDDA]]
[[fr:Grazia Deledda]]
[[hr:Grazia Deledda]]
[[it:Grazia Deledda]]
[[he:גרציה דלדה]]
[[lt:Grazia Deledda]]
[[no:Grazia Deledda]]
[[pl:Grazia Deledda]]
[[sk:Grazia Deledda]]
[[fi:Grazia Deledda]]
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[[tr:Grazia Deledda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glenn T. Seaborg</title>
<id>13120</id>
<revision>
<id>37336114</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T08:51:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mike Dillon</username>
<id>368827</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab [[Chancellor (education)|chancellor]] link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|[[Seaborg (computer)|Seaborg]] is an IBM SP RS/6000 [[supercomputer]] located at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] named after Glenn T. Seaborg. [http://www.nersc.gov/nusers/resources/SP/]}}
[[Image:Glenn T. Seaborg.jpg|thumb|100px|Glenn T. Seaborg]]
'''Glenn Theodore Seaborg''' ([[April 19]], [[1912]] &ndash; [[February 25]], [[1999]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[chemist]], who was prominent in the discovery and isolation of many [[transuranic element]]s (including [[plutonium]], during the [[Manhattan Project]]), for which he won the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in [[1951]]. He was later the chairman of the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] from [[1961]] until [[1971]].
==Early life==
Of [[Sweden|Swedish]] ancestry, Seaborg was born in [[Ishpeming, Michigan]], grew up in [[South Gate, California]] (a suburb next to [[Watts, Los Angeles, California|Watts]] in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]), took his bachelors degree at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] in [[1934]], where he joined [[Alpha Chi Sigma]], and his [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctorate]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in [[1937]]. He lived most of his retired life in [[Lafayette, California]].
He followed [[Frederick Soddy]]'s work investigating [[isotope]]s, and discovered many new isotopes of common elements.
==A graduate student==
As a graduate student in the [[1930s]] doing wet chemistry research for his advisor [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]], Seaborg devoured the text ''[[Applied Radiochemistry]]'' by [[Otto Hahn]], of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry]] in [[Berlin]]. For several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial [[radioactivity]] using the Lawrence [[cyclotron]] at Cal Berkeley. He was excited to learn from others that [[nuclear fission]] was possible -- but also chagrined, as his own research might have led him to the same discovery.
Seaborg also became expert in dealing with the great Berkeley [[physicist]] [[Robert Oppenheimer]]. Oppenheimer was so quick and knew so much, he had a habit of answering a junior man's question before it had even been stated. Often the question answered was more profound than the one asked, but of little practical help. Seaborg learned to state his questions to Oppenheimer very quickly and succinctly, and this habit of asking succinct questions stood Seaborg in good stead all his professional life.
==Career==
In [[1939]] he became an instructor in [[chemistry]] at UC Berkeley, was promoted to professor in [[1945]], and served as [[Chancellor (education)|chancellor]] from [[1958]] to [[1961]]. (In an amusing quirk, his last name is an anagram of the popular Berkeley cheer, "Go Bears!")
He is credited for discovering and isolating [[plutonium]], [[americium]], [[curium]], [[berkelium]], and [[californium]] at Berkeley (the last four of which he codiscovered with [[Albert Ghiorso]]) and, with [[Edwin McMillan]], shared the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in [[1951]] for the creation of the first transuranium elements.
In the same year in which he produced plutonium, [[1941]], he also discovered that the isotope U<sup>235</sup> undergoes fission under appropriate conditions. He therefore was responsible for two different approaches to the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s. At this time he was transferred to the [[Manhattan Project]] and was part of [[Enrico Fermi]]'s team which achieved the first [[nuclear chain reaction]] in [[1942]].
On [[April 19]], [[1942]], Seaborg reached Chicago, and joined up with the chemistry group at the [[Metallurgical Laboratory]] at the [[University of Chicago]], where Fermi and his group had already learned how to convert U<sup>238</sup> to [[plutonium]] using a chain-reacting pile. Seaborg's role was to figure out how to extract the tiny bit of plutonium from the mass of [[uranium]].
Seaborg was elected to the [[National Academy of Sciences]] in [[1948]].
Seaborg served as chairman of the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] from [[1961]] to [[1971]]. In [[1976]], when the [[Sweden|Swedish]] king visited the United States, Seaborg played a major role in welcoming the king.
On [[August 24]], [[1998]], while in Boston to attend a meeting by the [[American Chemical Society]], Seaborg suffered a [[stroke]], which led to his death six months later.
==Marriage==
In 1942, Seaborg married Helen Griggs, the secretary of [[Ernest Lawrence]].
Under wartime pressure, Seaborg had moved to [[Chicago, Illinois]]. Later, when Seaborg returned to collect Griggs for them to be together, they took the train from Los Angeles to Chicago. They got off in [[Caliente, Nevada]] for what they thought would be a quick wedding, but when they asked for City Hall, they found Caliente had none&mdash;they would have to go 25 miles north to [[Pioche, Nevada|Pioche]], the [[county seat]]. Happily, one of Caliente's newest deputy sheriffs turned out to be a recent graduate of the Berkeley chemistry department. He was happy to do a favor for Glenn Seaborg. The deputy sheriff arranged for the wedding couple to ride up and back to Pioche in a mail truck. The witnesses at their wedding were a clerk and a janitor.
He had six children with Helen, of whom the first, Peter Glenn Seaborg, died in [[1997]]. The others were Lynne Seaborg Cobb, [[David Seaborg]], Steve Seaborg, Eric Seaborg, and Dianne Seaborg.
==Quote==
National Commission on Education report in 1983, Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman.
<blockquote>
Our Nation is at risk. Our once unchallenged preeminence in commerce, industry, science and technological innovation is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world.... the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and as a people. What was unimaginable a generation ago has begun to occur--others are matching and surpassing our educational attainments.
<P>
If an unfriendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war. [http://teidnt3.lbl.gov/seaborg/risk.htm]
</blockquote>
==Seaborgium==
The element [[seaborgium]] was named for him in honor of his accomplishments. It was so named while he was still alive, which [[element naming controversy|proved extremely controversial]]. For the remainder of his life, Seaborg was the only person in the world who could write his address in chemical elements: [[seaborgium]], [[lawrencium]], [[berkelium]], [[californium]], [[americium]] (Glenn Seaborg, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]], [[United States|United States of America]]).
==External links==
* [http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/gseaborg.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Seaborg,+Glenn Annotated bibliography for Glenn Seaborg from the Alsos Digital Library]
==Books==
* ''[[The Actinide Elements]]'' (with Joseph Katz) ([[McGraw-Hill]], [[1954]])
* ''[[The Transuranium Elements]]'' ([[New Haven, Connecticut]]: [[Yale University Press]], [[1958]])
* ''[[Nuclear Milestones]]'' ([[San Francisco]]: [[W. H. Freeman]], [[1972]])
* ''[[Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban]]'' (with [[Benjamin S. Loeb]]) ([[University of California Press]], [[1981]])
* ''[[Stemming the Tide: Arms Control in the Johnson Years]]'' (with [[Benjamin S. Loeb]]) ([[Lexington, Massachusetts]]: [[Lexington Books]], [[1987]])
* ''[[The Atomic Energy Commission under Nixon: Adjusting to Troubled Times]]'' (New York: [[St. Martin's Press]], [[1993]])
* ''[[The Plutonium Story: Journals of Professor Glenn T. Seaborg, 1939&ndash;1946]]'' ([[Columbus, Ohio]]: [[Battelle Press]], [[1994]])
* ''[[A Chemist in the White House: From the Manhattan Project to the End of the Cold War]]'' ([[Washington, D.C.]]: [[American Chemical Society]], [[1996]])
* ''[[Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington]]'' (with son [[Eric Seaborg]]) ([[Farrar, Straus and
|
ons Treaty]] in Moscow on [[24 May]] [[2002]], potentially the largest ever cut in deployed strategic nuclear warheads.
==See also==
*[[nuclear disarmament]]
*[[nuclear warfare]]
==External links==
*[http://www.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/2001/6848.htm US Announcement of withdrawal (2001)]
[[Category:Arms control]]
[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:Missile defence]]
[[Category:United States treaties]]
[[de:ABM-Vertrag]]
[[es:Tratado sobre Misiles Anti-Balísticos]]
[[fr:Traité ABM]]
[[it:Trattato anti missili balistici]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American sign language</title>
<id>2977</id>
<revision>
<id>15901354</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Sign Language]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcoholic beverage</title>
<id>2978</id>
<revision>
<id>42106964</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:46:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Discordance</username>
<id>762600</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Types of alcoholic beverages */ wiki-table!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CachacaDivininha.jpg|thumb|250px|Bottles of [[cachaça]], a [[Brazil]]ian alcoholic beverage.]]
'''Alcoholic beverages''' are [[drink|drinks]] containing [[ethanol]]. Most governments regulate or restrict the sale and use of alcohol.
==Chemistry==
The ethanol (CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH) in alcoholic beverages is almost always produced by [[fermentation]], which is the [[metabolism]] of [[carbohydrate]]s (usually [[sugar]]s) by certain species of [[yeast]] in the absence of [[oxygen]]. The process of culturing yeast under conditions that produce alcohol is referred to as [[brewing]].
It should be noted that in [[chemistry]], [[alcohol]] is a general term for any [[organic compound]] in which a [[hydroxyl]] [[Functional group|group]] (''-[[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]]'') is bound to a [[carbon]] atom, which in turn is bound to other [[hydrogen]] and/or carbon atoms. Other alcohols such as [[propylene glycol]] and the [[sugar alcohol]]s may appear in food or beverages regularly, but these alcohols do not make them ''alcoholic''.
It has been suggested that alcoholic impurities, [[congener]]s, are the cause of [[hangover]]s.
Alcoholic beverages with a concentration of about 50% ethanol or greater (100 proof) are [[flammable]] liquids and easily ignited.
''See also: [[ethanol]]''
==Alcoholic content==
The [[concentration]] of alcohol in an alcoholic beverage may be specified in percent [[alcohol by volume]] (ABV), in percentage by weight (sometimes abbreviated '''w/w''' for ''weight for weight''), or in [[alcoholic proof|proof]]. The 'proof' measurement roughly corresponds in a 2:1 ratio to percent alcoholic content by volume (e.g. 80 proof ≈ 40% ABV). Common [[distillation]] cannot exceed 192 proof because at that point ethanol is an [[azeotrope]] with water. Alcohols of this purity are commonly referred to as [[grain alcohol]] and are not meant for human consumption, with the notable exception of [[neutral grain spirit]]s.
Most yeasts cannot grow when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18% by volume, so that is a practical limit for the strength of fermented beverages such as [[wine]], [[beer]], and [[sake]]. Strains of yeast have been developed that can survive in solutions of up to 25% alcohol by volume, but these were bred for ethanol fuel production, not beverage production. Spirits are produced by [[distillation]] of a fermented product, concentrating the alcohol and eliminating some of the by-products. Many wines are [[fortified wines]] with additional grain alcohol to achieve higher ABV than is easily reached using fermentation alone.
==Flavouring==
Ethanol is a moderately good solvent for many "fatty" substances and essential "oils", and thus facilitates the inclusion of several coloring, flavouring, and aromatic compounds to alcoholic beverages, especially to distilled ones. These flavouring ingredients may be naturally present in the starting material, or may be added before fermentation, before distillation, or before bottling the distilled product. Sometimes the flavour is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in barrels made of special wood, or in bottles where scented twigs or fruits &mdash; or even insects &mdash; have been inserted.
A well-stocked bar will include a selection of beers and wines, along with the typical spirits of [[vodka]], [[rum]], [[gin]], [[tequila]], and [[whisky]]; each in varying qualities from "well" quality (off brand) to premium quality (name brand) to "top shelf" (usually very expensive, ranging from $50 to several hundred USD per 750 ml bottle). Alcoholic beverages can be combined at the time of serving, sometimes with other ingredients, to create [[cocktail]]s or ''mixed drinks''. Small servings of pure liquor (shots) are also common, with whisky and tequila being traditionally popular selections.
==History==
{{main|History of alcohol}}
Alcoholic beverages have been widely consumed since prehistoric times by people around the world, seeing use as a component of the standard diet, for hygienic or medical reasons, for their relaxant and euphoric effects, for [[recreational drug use|recreational purposes]], for artistic inspiration, as [[aphrodisiac|aphrodisiacs]], and for other reasons. Some have been invested with symbolic or religious significance suggesting the mystical use of alcohol, e.g. by [[Greek religion|Greco-Roman religion]] in the [[ecstasy (emotion)|ecstatic]] rituals of [[Dionysus]] (also called [[Bacchus]]), god of drink and revelry; in the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Eucharist]]; and at the [[Jew]]ish [[Passover]].
===Fermented beverages===
Chemical analyses of organics absorbed and preserved in pottery jars from the Neolithic village of [[Jiahu]], in Henan province, Northern China, have revealed that a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit was being produced as early as 9,000 years ago. This is approximately the same time that barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the Middle East. Recipes have been found on clay tablets and art in [[Mesopotamia]] that show individuals using straws to drink [[beer]] from large vats and pots.
Wine was consumed in [[Classical Greece]] at breakfast or at [[symposium|symposia]], and in the [[1st century BC]] it was part of the diet of most [[Roman Empire|Roman]] citizens. However, both Greeks and Romans generally consumed their wine watered (from 1 parts of wine to 1 part of water, to 1 part of wine to 4 parts of water). The transformation of water into wine at a wedding feast is one of the miracles attributed to [[Jesus]] in the [[New Testament]], and his symbolic use of wine in the [[Last Supper]] led to it becoming an essential part of the [[Catholic]] [[Eucharist]] rite.
The ambiguity of the [[Qur'an]]ic ban on alcoholic beverages, meant that wine (usually sold by Christian tavern-keepers) remained fairly popular in Islamic lands over the centuries, as revealed in the verses of [[Persian people|Persian]] poet and mathematician [[Omar Khayyám]] (1040&ndash;1131):
:"Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough,
:A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse&mdash;and Thou
:Beside me singing in the Wilderness&mdash;
:And Wilderness is Paradise enow." [http://www.armory.com/~thrace/ev/siir/Omar_Khayyam.html]
In [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]], beer was consumed by the whole family, thanks to a triple fermentation process &mdash; the men had the strongest, then women, then children. A document of the times mentions [[nun]]s having an allowance of six pints of ale a day. [[Cider]] and [[pomace wine]] were also widely available, while grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, wine production in Europe appears to have been sustained chiefly by monasteries.
By the time the Europeans reached the [[Americas]] in the [[15th century]], several [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native]] civilizations had developed alcoholic beverages. According to a post-Conquest [[Aztec]] document, consumption of the local "wine" (''[[pulque]]'') was generally restricted to religious ceremonies, but freely allowed to those over 70 years old (possibly the all-time record for [[legal drinking age]]). The natives of [[South America]] manufactured a beer-like product from [[cassava]] or [[maize]] (''[[cauim]]'', ''[[chicha]]''), which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to turn the [[starch]] into sugars. (Curiously, the same technique was used in ancient [[Japan]] to make ''[[sake]]'' from [[rice]] and other starchy crops.)
The medicinal use of alcoholic beverages was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dated from [[2100 BC]] or earlier. The [[Hebrew Bible]] recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery. <!--to be expanded-->
===Distilled beverages===
{{main|Distilled beverages}}
Beer and wine are typically limited to a maximum 15 percent alcohol, although brewers have reached 25% alcohol. Beyond this limit yeast is adversely affected and cannot ferment. Since the fourth millennium BC in Babylonia, higher levels of alcohol have been obtained in a number of ways. It was not until the [[still]] was invented by [[Islam]]ic alchemists in the 8th or 9th centuries that the history of [[distilled beverage]]s began. Distilled alcohol appeared first in Europe in the mid 12th century and by the early [[14th century]] it had spread throughout Europe. It also spread eastward, mainly by the [[Mongol]]s, a
|
se encoding)
* [http://www.s110058824.onlinehome.us/main2.html Chinese Literature Classics] (listed in English, with links to Chinese texts and translations in several languages)
[[Category:Chinese classic texts]] [[Category:Confucian texts]]
[[fr:Classiques chinois]]
[[zh-cn:&#20013;&#25991;&#21476;&#20856;&#20856;&#31821;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Call centre</title>
<id>7243</id>
<revision>
<id>41952440</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:16:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''call centre''' ([[Commonwealth English]]) or '''call center''' ([[American English]]) is a centralized office used for the purpose of receiving and transmitting a large volume of requests by [[telephone]].
A call centre is operated by a [[company]] to administer incoming product support or information inquiries from consumers. Outgoing calls for [[telemarketing]], clientele, and debt collection are also made. In addition to a call centre, collective handling of [[letters]], [[facsimile|faxes]], and [[e-mails]] at one location is known as a '''contact centre'''.
A call centre is often operated through an extensive open workspace, with work stations that include a computer, a [[telephone]] set/[[headset]] connected to a [[telecom switch]], and one or more supervisor stations. It can be independently operated or networked with additional centres, often linked to a corporate [[computer network]], including [[mainframe|mainframes]], [[microcomputer|microcomputers]] and [[local area network|LANs]]. Increasingly, the voice and data pathways into the centre are linked through a set of new technologies called [[computer telephony integration]] (CTI).
Most major businesses use call centres to interact with their customers. Examples include utility companies, mail order catalogue firms, and customer support for computer hardware and software. Some businesses even service internal functions through call centres. Examples of this include help desks and sales support.
==Mathematical theory==
A call center can be viewed, from an operational point of view, as a queueing network. The simplest call center, consisting of a single type of customers and statistically-identical servers, can be viewed as a single-queue. [[Queueing theory]] is a branch of mathematics in which models of such queueing systems have been developed. These models, in turn, are used to support work force planning and management, for example by helping answer the following common staffing-question: given a service-level, as determined by management, what is the least number of telephone agents that is required to achieve it. (Pevalent examples of service levels are: at least 80% of the callers are answered within 20 seconds; or, no more that 3% of the customers hang-up, due to their impatience, before being served.)
Queueing models also provide qualitative insight, for example identifying the circumstances under which economies of scale prevail, namely that a single large call centre is more effective at answering calls than several (distribued) smaller ones; or that cross-selling is beneficial; or that a call center should be quality-driven of efficiency-driven or, most likely, both '''Q'''uality and '''E'''fficiency '''D'''riven (abbreviated to QED). Recently, queueing models have also been used for planning and operating skills-based-routing of calls within a call center, which entails the analysis of systems with multi-type customers and multi-skilled agents.
Call center operations have been supported by matehmatical models beyond queueing. For example, for forecsting of calls, for determining shift-structures, and even for analyzing customers' impatience while waiting to be served by an agent.
A survey of operational/mathematical models of call centers is given in
http://ie.technion.ac.il/serveng/References/Gans-Koole-Mandelbaum-CCReview.pdf
==Accommodation==
The centralization of call management aims to improve a company's operations and reduce costs, while providing a standardized, streamlined, uniform service for consumers, making this approach is ideal for large companies with extensive customer support needs. To accommodate for such a large customer base, large warehouses are often converted to office space to host all call centre operations under one roof.
==Personnel management==
Centralized offices mean that large numbers of workers can be managed and controlled by a relatively small number of managers and support staff. They are often supported by computer technology that manages, measures and monitors the performance and activities of the workers. Call centre staff are closely monitored for [[quality control]], level of proficiency, and customer service. Typical contact center operations focus on the discipline areas of [[workforce management]], queue management, quality monitoring, and reporting. Reporting in a call centre can be further broken down into real time reporting and historical reporting. The types of information collected for a group of call centre agents typically include: agents logged in, agents ready to take calls, agents available to take calls, agents in wrap up mode, average call duration, average call duration including wrap-up time, longest duration agent available, longest duration call in queue, number of calls in queue, number of calls offered, number of calls abandoned, average speed to answer, average speed to abandoned and service level, calculated by the percentage of calls answered in under a certain time period.
Many call centres use [[workforce management]] software, which is software that uses historical information coupled with projected need to generate automated schedules. This aims to provide adequate staffing skilled enough to assist callers.
The relatively high cost of personnel and worker inefficiency accounts for the majority of call centre operating expenses, influencing '''[[outsourcing]]''' in the call centre industry.
Inadequate computer systems can mean staff take one or two seconds longer than necessary to process a transaction. This can often be quantified in staff cost terms. This is often used as a driving factor in any business case to justify a complete system upgrade or replacement. For several factors, including the efficiency of the call centre, the level of computer and telecom support that may be adequate for staff in a typical branch office may prove totally inadequate in a call centre.
==Technology==
Call Centres use a wide variety of different technologies to allow them to manage the large volumes of work that need to be managed by the call centre. These technologies ensure that agents are kept as productive as possible, and that calls are queued and processed as quickly as possible, resulting in good levels of service.
These include ;
* ACD ([[automatic call distribution]])
* Agent performance analytics
* BTTC (best time to call)/ Outbound call optimization
* IVR ([[interactive voice response]])
* CTI ([[computer telephony integration]])
* [[Enterprise Campaign Management]]
* Outbound [[predictive dialer]]
* CRM ([[customer relationship management]])
* CIM ([[customer interaction management]]) solutions (Also known as 'Unified' solutions)
* Email Management
* Chat and Web Collaboration
* Desktop Scripting Solutions
* TTS ([[text to speech]])
* WFM ([[workforce management]])
* [[Voice analysis]]
* [[Voice recognition]]
* [[Voicemail]]
* [[Voice over IP|VoIP]]
* [[Speech Analytics]]
==Call centre dynamics==
Types of calls are often divided into ''outbound'' and ''inbound''. Inbound calls are calls that are made by the consumer to obtain information, report a malfunction, or ask for help. These calls are substantially different from outbound calls, where agents place calls to potential customers mostly with intentions of selling or service to the individual. ''[[Telemarketing|(See telemarketing)]]''
Call centre staff are often organized into a multi-tier support system for a more efficient handling of calls. The first tier in such a model consists of operators, who direct inquiries to the appropriate department and provide general directory information. If a caller requires more assistance, the call is forwarded to the second tier, where most issues can be resolved. In some cases, there may be three or more tiers of support staff. If a caller requires more assistance, the caller is forwarded to the third tier of support; typically the third tier of support is formed by product engineers/developers or highly-skilled technical support staff of the product.
Call centres have their critics. Some critics argue that the work atmosphere in such an environment is de-humanising. Others point to the low rates of pay and restrictive working practices of some employers. There has been much controversy over such things as restricting the amount of time that an employee can spend in the bathroom. Furthermore, call centres have been the subject of complaints by callers who find the staff often do not have enough skill or authority to resolve problems, while the dehumanized workers very often exhibit an attitude of apathy to even the most abusive customer.
Owing to the highly technological nature of the operations in such offices, the close monitoring of staff activities is easy and widespread. This can be argued to be beneficial, to enable the company to better plan the workload and time of its employees. Some people have argued that such close monitoring breaches human rights to privacy. Yet another argument is that close monitoring and measurement by quantitative metrics can be counterproductive in that it can lead to poor customer service and a poor image of the company, and an ability to keep within the "stats" while still doing horrible things.
Many call centres in the UK h
|
'' are [[soldier]]s or [[marine|marines]] who fight primarily on foot with [[small arms]] in organized [[military unit]]s. "Infantry" also refers to the branch of the [[military]] in which these troops serve.
==History==
{{History of war}}
With few exceptions, most armies in history have been built around a core of infantry. While the specific weapons have varied, the common factor is that these soldiers have relied on their own two feet for transportation to the battlefield (especially in the pre-industrial era) and [[military tactic|tactical]] movement.
In earliest days, infantry were little more than armed mobs, fighting in opposing lines under the voice direction of individual commanders. However, the benefits of uniform equipment, weaponry and above all training led to the development of formations able to carry out pre-arranged maneuvers in the heat of battle.
As with any other area of conflict, the history of infantry is a story of balance between heavily-armed formations such as the [[Greece|Greek]] [[phalanx formation|phalanx]] fighting in rigid formations, and more lightly-armed but more mobile units like the [[Roman legion]] able to move relatively quickly around the battlefield and exploit opportunities as they arose. Mobility, weaponry, and protection are the competing yet complementary factors which must be balanced to create effective infantry.
=== Classical Period ===
Examples of infantry units of the Classical period are the [[phalanx formation|phalanx]]es of [[ancient Greece]] and the [[Roman legion|legion]]s of [[Imperial Rome]]. In contrast to the strictly organized phalanxes and legions, most armies of the ancient world also employed units of [[skirmisher]]s (often [[mercenaries]] or [[slaves]]) who wore minimal armor and carried an eclectic mix of weapons ranging from [[sword]]s and [[javelin throw|javelin]]s to slings and bows. Infantry was the primary combat arm of the period in open battles, as a result of multiple factors, including the cultural bias toward hand-to-hand combat and the relatively limited effectiveness of ranged weapons. Ranged weapons were primarily used as [[artillery]] and [[siege weapon]]s.
Large, well-disciplined units of infantry were common to the wars of the ancient world. However, as the [[Roman Empire]] declined and fell to the depredations of Germanic tribes such as the [[Vandal]]s, [[Goths]], and [[Visigoths]] in the 5th century AD, the political and military resources necessary for the maintenance of such units largely disappeared until the later Middle Ages with the appearance of the large bureaucratic systems associated with the [[monarchy|monarchical]] [[nation-state]]s.
=== Middle Ages ===
For most of the Middle Ages, warfare and society were dominated by the glamour of [[cavalry]], expressed at the time in the form of [[knight]]s. Knights were generally drawn from the aristocracy, while the infantry levies were raised from the common-folk or peasants. This led to a stagnation of the technologies and tactics that would improve the effectiveness of the infantry. However, some tactics were seen to be very effective. Infantry often took up long [[spear]]s or [[halberd]]s to counter the long reach of knights' [[lance]]s. It also became more and more common for infantry to carry ranged weapons, as these would also effectively nullify the cavalry's advantage of momentum, speed, height, and reach. By the late Middle Ages, these tactics were crystallizing.
[[Image:Relief infantry.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Relief]] of infantry at building of Museum of Art in [[Olomouc]], [[The Czech Republic]].]]
While bows remained in use long after the development of [[firearm]]s, technological fine-tuning (along with the development of the [[wheel-lock]]) allowed firearms to supersede even the feared [[English longbow]] as the ranged weapon of choice for infantry. The bow also declined in favor due to the ease with which musketeers could be trained (days or weeks to attain moderate proficiency, as opposed to many years for the longbow).
Many nations combined firearms with extremely long [[pike (weapon)|pike]]s into units that were virtually invincible against cavalry formations. Eventually, with the development of the [[bayonet]], the pikemen were dropped from the formation, resulting in the first examples of an infantry unit as recognizable today.
=== Modern ===
Before the development of [[railroad]]s in the 19th century, infantry armies got to the battlefield by walking, or sometimes by [[ship]]. The Marines were first conceived in the 17th century by the English Royal Navy. Due to Britain's island status, a large army was unnecessary, however infantry soldiers were still required for eventual landings. A typical Royal Navy warship carried 600 men. Of these men, 120-180 would be Royal Marines. These men usually had a deck to themselves and had little to do with sailing the vessel. The men were proficient in the use of metal-working, gunpowder and modern weapons of the day and would form landing parties when exploring. The Marines also defended the vessel if boarded and would repair damaged weapons and cannon after a battle.
In the 1890s and later, some countries used [[bicycle infantry]], but the real revolution in mobility started in the 1920s with the use of motor vehicles, resulting in [[motorized infantry]]. Action in [[World War II]] demonstrated the importance of protecting the soldiers while they are moving around, resulting in the development of [[mechanized infantry]], who use armored vehicles for transport. World War II also saw the first widespread use of [[paratroop]]s, which played key roles in several campaigns in the European theater. During the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam conflict]], the [[United States Army]] pioneered the use of [[helicopter]]s to deliver large numbers of infantry quickly to and from key locations on the battlefield.
Modern-day mechanized infantry is supported by [[armored fighting vehicle]]s, [[artillery]], and [[aircraft]], but along with [[light infantry]], which does not use armored fighting vehicles, is still the only kind of military force that can take and hold ground, and thus remains essential to fighting wars.
== Organization ==
[[Image:Military camp.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Historical [[military camp]] - infantry.]]
Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have been developed over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment. Up until the 20th Century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close organized formations up until the last moment possible. This was necessary to allow commanders to retain control of the unit, especially while maneuvering, as well as allowing officers to retain discipline amongst the ranks.
With the development of weapons with increased firepower, it became necessary to disperse the infantry over a wider expanse of terrain. This made the unit less susceptible to high explosive and rapid fire weapons. From World War I, it was recognized that infantry were most successfully employed when using their ability to maneuver in constricted terrain and evade detection in ways not possible for other weapons such as vehicles. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment and greater focus on small unit training.
== Missions ==
The most important role of the infantry has been as the primary force of an army. It is the infantry which ultimately decides whether ground was held or taken, and it is the presence of infantry that assures control of territory. While the tactics of employment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the infantry have not.
'''Attack''' operations are the most basic role of the infantry, and along with defense, form the two primary stances of the infantry on the battlefield. Traditionally, in an open battle, or [[meeting engagement]], two armies would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their infantry and other units opposite each other. Then one or both would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy force. The goal of an attack remains the same: to advance into an enemy-held objective and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the objective. Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them due to the high number of casualties suffered while advancing under enemy fire. Successful attacks rely on sufficient force, preparative reconnaissance and bombardment, and retention of unit cohesion throughout the attack.
'''Defense''' operations are the natural counter to attacks, in which the mission is to hold an objective and defeat enemy forces attempting to dislodge the defender. Defensive posture offers many advantages to the infantry, including the ability to use terrain and constructed fortifications to advantage and the reduced exposure to enemy fire compared with advancing forces. Effective defense relies on minimizing losses to enemy fire, breaking the enemy's cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions.
'''Patrol''' is the most common infantry mission. Full scale attacks and defensive efforts are occasional, but patrols are constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to discern enemy deployments and ambush enemy patrols. Patrols are used not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy infiltration or insurgencies are possible.
'''Pursuit''' is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of enemy forces which are not capable of effectively engaging friendly units before they can build their strength to the point where they are effective. Infantry traditionally have been the main force to overrun these units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue enemy forces in constricted terrain
|
[World War I]], a significant deviation from this rule was tried. The intention was to create a ship which was both much faster than a battleship and with guns that were just as powerful, so that it could hunt down and destroy enemy cruisers.
This [[battlecruiser]] role was achieved by building a vessel which had the size and firepower of a battleship but only the armor protection of a cruiser; the weight saving used to provide it with more powerful propulsion. The result was a ship with superior tactical initiative: it could engage and outgun any surface ship up to cruiser size, yet outrun anything that potentially outgunned it.
The concept was successful where battlecruisers were employed in their designed role, as at the [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] in [[1914]]. However the ships proved disastrously vulnerable when they engaged enemy battlecruisers or battleships in a fleet action, as at [[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] in [[1916]] where three British battlecruisers exploded as a result of German heavy gunfire. The [[Royal Navy]] quickly scrapped most of theirs after the war, and upgraded the armor on the rest to the limited extent that was possible.
The weakness of the battle cruiser against a battleship was further demonstrated in the Second World War, during the hunt for the German battleship [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] by the British fleet in [[1940]]. The battlecruiser [[HMS Hood (1918)|HMS ''Hood'']], known as "The Mighty Hood", was the pride of the British fleet. Armed with eight 15-inch guns, she presented equal firepower to that of ''Bismarck''. However, her weak deck armour left her vulnerable and during the [[battle of the Denmark Strait]] she did not strike the ''Bismarck'' before plunging fire penetrated ''Hood''s armour and she exploded. The ''Hood'' was split in two and sank rapidly after the spectacular explosion, and only 3 men of the crew of 1,419 survived.
==Later 20th century==
[[Image:USSCapeStGeorgeCG-71.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] cruiser [[USS Cape St. George (CG-71)|USS ''Cape St. George'']] (CG-71), firing a Tomahawk missile.]]
The rise of air power during [[World War II]] dramatically changed the nature of naval combat. Even the fastest cruisers could not outrun an airplane, which were increasingly able to attack at longer distances over the ocean. This change led to the end of independent operations by single ships or very small task groups, and for the second half of the 20th century naval operations were based around very large fleets able to fend off all but the largest air attacks. This has led most navies to change to fleets designed around ships dedicated to a single role, [[anti-submarine]] or [[anti-aircraft]] typically, and the large "generalist" ship has disappeared from most forces. The [[United States Navy]], the [[Russian Navy]], and the [[Peruvian Navy]] (with a relic kept for historical purposes, the [[BAP_Almirante_Grau_%28CLM-81%29 | Almirante Grau ]]) are the only remaining navies which operate cruisers.
In the [[Soviet Navy]], cruisers formed the basis of their combat groups. In the immediate post-war era they built a fleet of large-gun ships, but replaced these fairly quickly with very large ships carrying huge numbers of [[guided missile]]s and anti aircraft missiles. The most recent ships of this type, the four [[Kirov class battlecruiser|''Kirovs'']], were built in the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], and are in very poor repair today. The last operational ''Kirov''-class cruiser, [[Soviet battlecruiser Kirov|''Petr Velikiy'']], was recalled to port in March [[2004]] with severe [[nuclear reactor|reactor]] problems.
The United States Navy has centered on the [[aircraft carrier]] since WWII. The [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] cruisers, built in the [[1980s]], were originally designed and designated as a class of [[destroyer]], intended to provide a very powerful air-defense in these [[aircraft carrier|carrier]]-centered fleets. The ships were later "mis-named" largely as a [[public relations]] move, in order to highlight the capability of the [[Aegis combat system]] the ships were designed around. In the years since the launch of [[USS Ticonderoga (CG-47)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']] in [[1981]] the class has received a number of upgrades that have dramatically improved their capabilities for [[anti-submarine]] and land attack (using the [[BGM-109 Tomahawk|Tomahawk missile]]), and today the name is not mis-applied at all. Like their Soviet counterparts, the modern ''Ticonderogas'' can also be used as the basis for an entire battle group.
==The US Navy's "cruiser gap"==
''Main article: [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]''
Prior to the introduction of the ''Ticonderogas'', the US Navy used odd naming conventions that left its fleet seemingly without many cruisers, although a number of their ships were cruisers in all but name. From the 1950s to the 1970s, US Navy "cruisers" were large vessels equipped with heavy offensive missiles (including the [[Regulus missile|Regulus]] [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] [[cruise missile]]) for wide-ranging combat against land-based and sea-based targets. All save one &mdash; [[USS Long Beach (CGN-9)|USS ''Long Beach'']] &mdash; were converted from World War II [[Baltimore class cruiser|''Baltimore'']] and [[Cleveland class cruiser|''Cleveland'']] class cruisers. "[[Frigate]]s" under this scheme were heavy destroyers almost as large as the cruisers and optimized for [[anti-aircraft]] warfare, although they were capable anti-surface warfare combatants as well. In the late [[1960s]], the US government perceived a "cruiser gap" &mdash; at the time, the US Navy possessed six ships designated as "cruisers," compared to 19 for the Soviet Union, even though the USN possessed at the time 21 "frigates" with equal or superior capabilities to the Soviet cruisers &mdash; because of this, in 1975 the Navy performed a massive redesignation of its forces:
* CVA/CVAN were redesignated CV/CVN (although [[USS Midway (CV-41)|USS ''Midway'' (CV-41)]] and [[USS Coral Sea (CV-43)|USS ''Coral Sea'' (CV-43)]] never embarked anti-submarine squadrons).
* DLG/DLGN (Frigate/Nuclear-powered Frigate) were redesignated CG/CGN (Guided Missile Cruiser/Nuclear-powered Guided Missile Cruiser).
* [[Farragut class destroyer (1958)|''Farragut''-class]] guided missile frigates (DLG), being smaller and less capable than the others, were redesignated to DDGs ([[USS Coontz (DDG-40)|USS ''Coontz'']] was the first ship of this class to be re-numbered; because of this the class is sometimes called the ''Coontz'' class);
* DE/DEG (Ocean Escort/Guided Missile Ocean Escort) were redesignated to FF/FFG (Guided Missile Frigates), bringing the US "Frigate" designation into line with the rest of the world.
Also, a series of Patrol Frigates of the [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry'' class]], originally designated PFG, were redesignated into the FFG line. The cruiser-destroyer-frigate realignment and the deletion of the Ocean Escort type brought the US Navy's ship designations into line with the rest of the world's, eliminating confusion with foreign navies.
==See also==
* [[Protected cruiser]]
* [[Armored cruiser]]
* [[Light cruiser]]
* [[Heavy cruiser]]
* [[Battlecruiser]]
* [[List of cruisers]]
* [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]
[[Category:Cruisers| ]]
[[Category:Cruiser classes|*]]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[cs:Křižník]]
[[da:Krydser]]
[[de:Kreuzer (Schiff)]]
[[et:Ristleja]]
[[es:Crucero]]
[[fr:Croiseur]]
[[ko:순양함]]
[[it:Incrociatore]]
[[he:סיירת (ספינה)]]
[[nl:Kruiser]]
[[ja:巡洋艦]]
[[pl:Krążownik]]
[[pt:Cruzador]]
[[ru:Крейсер]]
[[sl:Križarka]]
[[sr:Крстарица]]
[[fi:Risteilijä]]
[[sv:Kryssare]]
[[zh:巡洋舰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese zodiac</title>
<id>7036</id>
<revision>
<id>15905136</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-20T07:37:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Olivier</username>
<id>3808</id>
</contributor>
<comment>changed redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese astrology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chlamydia</title>
<id>7037</id>
<revision>
<id>41473836</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:19:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NickelShoe</username>
<id>418205</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chlamydia''' is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases worldwide - &mdash; about 4 million cases of chlamydia occur in the [[United States|USA]] each year. Not all people exhibit symptoms of chlamydia. About half of all men and three-quarters of all women who have chlamydia have no symptoms and do not know that they are carriers of the disease. The disease is transmitted by the ''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]'' [[bacterium]]. It can be serious but it is easily cured if detected in time. It is also, and possibly more importantly, the biggest ''preventable'' cause of [[blindness]] in the world. Blindness occurs as a complication of '''[[trachoma]]''' (chlamydia conjunctivitis).
==Features==
Almost half of all women who get chlamydia and aren't treated by a [[physician|doctor]] will get [[pelvic inflammatory disease]] (PID), a generic term for infection of the [[uterus]], [[fallopian tubes]], and/or [[ovaries]]. PID can cause scarring inside the [[reproductive organ]]s, which can later cause serious complications, including chronic [[pelvis|pelvic]] pain, difficulty becoming [[pregnancy|pregnant]], [[ectopic pregnancy|ectopic (tubal) pregnancy]], and other dangerous complications of pregnancy. Chlamydia causes 250,000 to 500,000 cases of PID every year in the U.S. [h
|
ells, such as [[neuron|neurons]], never divide once they become locked in a [[G0 phase|'''G<sub>0</sub> phase''']]. However, recent data has shown that neurons undergoing cell death re-enter the cell cycle. Addition of cell cycle inhibitors prevent this type cell death called apoptosis.
==External links==
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/cell_cycle.shtml Cell Cycle and Cytokinesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.zytologie-online.net/ Cell Cycle and Cell Biology with Cytokinesis]
[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Cell cycle|*]]
[[cs:Buněčný cyklus]]
[[de:Zellzyklus]]
[[es:Ciclo celular]]
[[hu:Sejtciklus]]
[[ja:細胞周期]]
[[nl:Celcyclus]]
[[pt:Ciclo celular]]
[[sk:Bunkový cyklus]]
[[fi:Solusykli]]
[[sv:Cellcykeln]]
[[vi:Chu kỳ tế bào]]
[[zh:细胞周期]]
[[sr:Животни циклус ћелије]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartesianism</title>
<id>7253</id>
<revision>
<id>15905330</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-06T17:53:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.7.211.94</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[da:Kartesiansk]]
[[de:kartesisch]] [[fr:Cartésien]]
'''''Cartesian''''' means of or relating to the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes. See:
*[[René Descartes]], after whom the term is named
*[[Cartesian dualism]]
*[[Cartesian theater]]
*[[Cartesian product]], a direct product of two [[set]]s
*[[Cartesian coordinate system]], modern rectangular [[coordinate system]]
*the [[Cartesian diver]] experiment
*''[[Cartesian Meditations]]'', a work by [[Edmund Husserl]]
*''[[Cartesian Linguistics]]'', a work by [[Noam Chomsky]]
Related articles: [[Cultural movement]], [[French materialism]], [[Dualistic interactionism]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Connection (dance)</title>
<id>7255</id>
<revision>
<id>37645471</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T07:36:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eitch</username>
<id>419294</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Connection''' is essential to all partner [[dancing]].
In [[Lindy Hop]], [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]], [[East Coast Swing]], [[West Coast Swing]], [[salsa (dance)|Salsa]], [[Contra dance]], and other styles of partner dance, connection is the primary means of communication between the [[lead and follow]]. Other forms of communication, such as visual cues, are often considered to spoil the dance, unless used in specific circumstances, e.g., in figures danced without physical connection.
Following and leading is accomplished by maintaining a physical connection called the [[frame (dance)|frame]] that allows the lead to transmit body movement to the follow, and for the follow to suggest ideas to the lead.
Connection occurs in both open and closed body positions.
In [[closed position]] with [[body contact (dance)|body contact]], connection is achieved through maintenance of the [[frame (dance)|frame]]. The follow moves to match the lead, maintaining the pressure between the two bodies as well as the position. The hands are secondary.
In an [[open position]] or a [[closed position]] without [[body contact (dance)|body contact]], the hands and arms provide the connection, which may be one of three forms: tension, compression or neutral.
During '''tension''' or '''leverage connection''', the dancers are pulling away from each other with an equal and opposite force. The arms do not originate this force: this is provided by tension in trunk musculature, through body weight or by momentum.
During '''compression connection''', the dancers are pushing together. In a neutral position, the hands do not impart any force other than the weight of the follow's hands in the lead's.
In the swing dances only, tension and compression may be maintained for a significant period of time. In other dances, such as [[Ballroom dance|Latin]], tension and compression are indications of upcoming movement. However, in both styles, tension and compression does not signal immediate movement: the follow must be careful not to move until actual movement by the lead. Until then, the dancers must match pressures without moving their hands. In some styles of [[Lindy Hop]], the tension may become quite high without initiating movement.
The general rule for open connections is that moves of the leader's hands back, forth, left or right are originated through moves of the entire body. Accordingly, for the follower, a move of the connected hand is immediately transformed into the coresponding move of the body. Tensing the muscles and locking the arm achieves this effect but is neither comfortable nor correct. Such tension eliminates the subtler communication in the connection, and eliminates free movement up and down, such as is required to initiate many turns.
Instead of tensing the arms, connection is achieved by engaging the shoulder, upper body and torso muscles. Movement originates in the body's core. A leader leads by moving himself and maintaining frame and connection: he does not push or pull the follow.
The connection between two partners has a different feel in every dance and with every partner. Good social dancers adapt to the conventions of the dance and the responses of their partners.
==See also==
*[[Frame (dance)|Frame]]
*[[Dance move]]
*[[Lead and follow]]
*[[Musicality (dance)|Musicality]]
[[Category:Partner dance technique]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardiovascular system</title>
<id>7256</id>
<revision>
<id>15905333</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-16T18:56:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[circulatory system]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caste</title>
<id>7257</id>
<revision>
<id>42073649</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:16:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.114.20.182</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Nepalese caste system */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}
'''Caste''' systems are traditional, hereditary systems of [[social stratification]]. Though historically and geographically widespread, the most well-known caste system today is the [[Indian caste system]].
The word ''caste'' is derived from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''casta'', meaning "lineage", the corresponding Sanskrit word is ''jati'' meaning a birth based classification.
alternative spelling: "cast system"
[[cultural anthropology|Anthropologists]] use the term more generally to refer to a social group that is [[Endogamy|endogamous]] and [[Profession|occupationally]] specialized; such groups are common in highly stratified societies with a very low degree of social mobility. In the broadest sense, some caste-based societies include [[South Africa]] during the era of [[apartheid]], the [[antebellum]] South of the [[United States]] through the [[American Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights movement]], colonial [[Latin America]] under [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule (see [[Casta]]), and [[India]] prior to 1947. However, a difference arises when comparing caste-like systems in other countries to India.
In the other countries, the separation between one group and the other was usually along racial lines. Within India, the 4 major castes are subdivided into hundreds of sub-castes,In Southern India ,castes based on "occupation" are as follows:
Carpenters are ASAARI,goldsmiths are THATTAAN,coppersmiths are MUUSAARI , ironsmiths are KARUVAN,washerwomen are MANNAN,coblers are PARAYAN and so on. Usually they are within similar ethnic groups that shared the same language, traditions, and religion. Endogamous marriage including polyandry,and even association within caste was enforced strongly and along social and religious lines. For instance, until the recent century, many Brahmins would not allow Dalits to touch them or would wash themselves or their possessions if it had been touched by Dalits (Untouchables).Based on the caste system there was also a practice to define the distance at which one can keep from person of another caste.As a result of this children who came from school where all caste had their presence had to bathe in running water before entrance to their home. In some parts of India this is still practiced.
===Jati===
*Sub-castes within a group of Varna are called Jati
*Each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati.
*People are born into their Jati and it cannot be changed.
*Each jati is part of a locally based system of interdependence with other groups, involving occupational specialization, and is linked in complex ways with networks that stretch across regions and throughout the nation.
==Indian caste system==
{{main|Indian caste system}}
===Modern perceptions of caste===
While the Vedas mention only four main varnas or castes, contemporary India has numerous sub-castes or ''[[jati]]s'' within each Varna. Jatis are officially documented through the [[census]], primarily to determine those deserving [[reservation]] (an [[affirmative action]] process similar to and pre-dating the [[United States|US]] system). Caste-based [[politics]] have strong roots in many Indian states, as most politicians have an inability or unwillingness to discuss economic and social issues in any rational manner. At most times, conversions to other religions (e.g., [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]]) results in expulsion from the ''jati'' - there are numerous examples where individuals lost their ''jati'' out of a misdeed and not by religious conversion alone. Many such converts feel they are now essentially freed of the caste system and on an equal social footing with others, regardless of their birth or education.
[[
|
]
*[[Bogomils]]
*[[Bosnian Church]]
*[[Cathar|Catharism]]
*[[Chiliasm]]
*[[Docetism]]
*[[Donatism]]
*[[Euchites]]
*[[Gnosticism]]
*[[Henry the Monk]]
*[[Jansenism]]
*[[Luciferians]]
*[[Lollardry]]/[[Lollardism]]
*[[Mandaeism]]
*[[Manichaeism]]
*[[Marcionism]]
*[[Monarchianism]]
*[[Monophysitism]]
*[[Monothelitism]]
*[[Montanism]]
*[[Nestorianism]]
*[[Ophites]]
*[[Patripassianism]]
*[[Paulicianism]]
*[[Pelagianism]]/[[Semipelagianism]]
*[[Peter of Bruis]]
*[[Predestination]]
*[[Priscillianism]]
*[[Psilanthropism]]
*[[Sabellianism]]
*[[Socianism]]
*[[Waldensians]]
See also [[Manichaeism]], a pre-Christian religion that influenced early Christians, notably Augustine, often in ways held to be heretical.
====Heresy in Catholicism====
Heresy is defined by [[Thomas Aquinas]] as "a species of infidelity in men who, having professed the [[faith]] of Christ, corrupt its [[dogma|dogmas]]." The [[Roman Catholic Church| Catholic Church]] teaches that its doctrines are the authoritative understandings of the faith taught by Christ and that the Holy Spirit protects the Church from falling into error when teaching these doctrines. To deny one or more of those doctrines, therefore, is to deny the faith of Christ. Heresy is both the nonorthodox belief itself, and the act of holding to that belief.
While the term is often used by laymen to indicate any [[orthodoxy|nonorthodox]] belief such as [[Paganism]], by definition heresy can only be committed by someone who considers himself a Christian, but rejects the teachings of the Catholic Church. A person who completely renounces [[Christianity]] is not considered a heretic, but an [[apostasy|apostate]], and a person who renounces the authority of the Church but not its teachings is a [[schism]]atic.
The Church makes several distinctions as to the seriousness of an individual [[heterodoxy]] and its closeness to true heresy. Only a belief that directly contravenes an [[Article of Faith]], or that has been explicitly rejected by the Church, is labelled as actual "heresy."
Canon 751 of the Catholic Church's Code of [[Canon Law]] promulgated by [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1983 (abbreviated "C.I.C." for Codex Iuris Canonici), the little-known juridical systematization of ancient law currently binding the world's one billion Latin Rite Catholics, defines heresy as the following: "Heresy is the obstinate denial or doubt after the reception of baptism of some truth which is to be believed by divine and Catholic faith." The essential elements of canonical heresy therefore technically comprise 1) obstinacy, or continuation in time; 2) denial (a proposition contrary or contradictory in formal logic to a dogma) or doubt (a posited opinion, not being a firm denial, of the contrary or contradictory proposition to a dogma); 3) after reception of valid baptism; 4) of a truth categorized as being of "Divine and Catholic Faith," meaning contained directly within either Sacred Scripture or Sacred Tradition per Can. 750 par. 1 C.I.C. ("de fide divina") AND proposed as 'de fide divina' by either a Pope having spoken solemnly "[[ex cathedra]]" on his own (example: dogmatic definition of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1950), or defined solemnly by an Ecumenical Council in unison with a Pope (ex: the definition of the Divinity of Christ in the Council of Chalcedon) ("de fide catholica").
An important distinction is that between ''formal'' and ''material heresy''. The difference is one of the heretic's subjective belief about his opinion. The heretic who is aware that his belief is at odds with Catholic teaching and yet continues to cling to his belief pertinaciously is a formal heretic. This sort of heresy is sinful because in this case the heretic knowingly holds an opinion that, in the words of the first edition of the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', "is destructive of the virtue of Christian faith . . . disturbs the unity, and challenges the Divine authority, of the Church" and "strikes at the very source of faith." Material heresy, on the other hand, means that the individual is unaware that his heretical opinion denies, in the words of Canon 751, "some truth which is to be believed by divine and Catholic faith." The opinion of a material heretic is still heresy, and it produces the same objective results as formal heresy, but because of his ignorance he commits no sin by holding it.
The penalty for a baptized Catholic above the age of 18 who obstinately, publicly, and voluntarily manifests his or her adherence to an objective heresy is automatic [[excommunication]] ("latae sententiae") according to Can. 1364 par.1 C.I.C..
A belief that the church has not directly rejected, or that is at variance with less important church teachings, is given the label, ''sententia haeresi proxima'', meaning "opinion approaching heresy." A [[theology|theological]] [[Logical argument|argument]], [[belief]], or [[theory]] that does not constitute heresy in itself, but which leads to conclusions which might be held to do so, is termed ''propositio theologice erronea'', or "erroneous theological proposition." Finally, if the theological position only suggests but does not necessarily lead to a doctrinal conflict, it might be given the even milder label of ''sententia de haeresi suspecta, haeresim sapiens'', meaning "opinion suspected, or savoring, of heresy."
Some significant controversies of doctrine have risen over the course of history. At times there have been many heresies over single points of doctrine, particularly in regard to the nature of the [[Trinity]], the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] and the [[immaculate conception]].
===== Types of heretics =====
# the heretic impenitent and not relapsed (for the first time)
# the heretic impenitent and relapsed (for the first time was penitent now is impenitent)
# the heretic penitent and relapsed (for the first time was penitent now is penitent too, but relapsing was the capital offence)
# the heretic negative (who denied his crime)
# the heretic contumacious (who absconded)
Since the Church doesn't thirst for blood ''(ecclesia non sitit sanguinem)'', the first four types were all delivered over to the secular arm. The state usually immediately punished heresy with [[death sentence]]. The longest delay could be five days. The custom that the impenitent heretics (the first two types) were cast into the flames alive and the penitent (the third type) were first strangled or hanged and then burned was not always observed.
=====Catholic response to heresy=====
The Church has always fought in favor of orthodoxy and the [[Pope|Pope's]] authority as the successor of [[St. Peter]] to determine truth. At various times in history, it has had varying degrees of power to resist or punish heretics, once it had defined them.
In the early church, heresies were sometimes determined by a selected council of bishops, or [[ecumenical council]], such as the First Council of Nicaea. The orthodox position was established at the council, and all who failed to adhere to it would thereafter be considered heretics. The church had little power to actually punish heretics in the early years, other than by [[excommunication]]. To those who accepted it, an excommunication was the worst form of punishment possible, as it separated the individual from the body of Christ, his Church, and prevented [[salvation]]. Excommunication, or even the threat of excommunication, was enough to convince many a heretic to renounce his views. [[Priscillian]] achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian burned alive for heresy in [[385]] at [[Trier|Treves]].
In later years, the Church instituted the [[Inquisition]], an official body charged with the suppression of heresy. The Inquisition was active in several nations of [[Europe]], particularly where it had fervent support from the civil authority. The [[Albigensian Crusade]] ([[1209]]-[[1229]]) was part of the [[Roman Catholic Church | Catholic Church]]'s efforts to crush the [[Cathars]]. It is linked to the movement now known as the [[Medieval Inquisition]]. The [[Spanish Inquisition]] was particularly brutal in its methods, which included the [[burning at the stake]] of many heretics. However, it was initiated and substantially controlled by [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|King Ferdinand of Spain]] rather than the Church; King Ferdinand used political leverage to obtain the Church's tacit approval. Another example of a medieval heretic (according to some, proto-Protestant) movement is the [[Hussite]] movement in the [[Czech lands]] in the early [[1400s]].
It is widely reported that the last person to be burned alive at the stake on orders from Rome was [[Giordano Bruno]], executed in [[1600]] for a collection of heretical beliefs including [[Copernicus|Copernicanism]] and (probably more important) an unlimited universe with innumerable inhabited worlds. The last case of an execution at an ''[[auto de fe]]'' by the Spanish Inquisition was the schoolmaster [[Cayetano Ripoll]], accused of [[deism]] and executed by [[garroting]] [[July 26]], [[1826]] in [[Valencia]] after a two-year trial.
The development of the [[printing press]] greatly hampered the ability of the church to suppress dissidents, with the result that [[Martin Luther]] was able to successfully fight the Papacy and forge the [[Protestant Reformation]].
=====Modern Catholic response to Protestantism=====
The Catholic Church, in the spirit of ecumenism, tends not to refer to [[Protestantism]] as a heresy nowadays, even if the teachings of Protestantism are indeed heretical from a Catholic perspective. Modern usage favors referring to Protestants as "separated brethren" rather than "heretics", although the latter is still on occasion used vis-a-vis Catholics who abandon their Church to join a Protestan
|
popular support from the poor, it was this popularity, rather than any armed insurgency that alarmed the American government. Like Vietnam in the North, Indonesia might 'go communist'.
Throughout the 1965-66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position. Although he remained president, in March 1966, Sukarno had to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Sukarno ceased to be a political force and lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.
==New Order era==
''For more details on this topic, see [[New Order (Indonesia)]]''
In 1968, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) formally selected Suharto to a full 5-year term as president, and he was re-elected to successive 5-year terms in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. President Suharto proclaimed a "New Order" in Indonesian politics and dramatically shifted foreign and domestic policies away from the course set in Sukarno's final years.
The New Order established economic rehabilitation and development as its primary goals and pursued its policies through an administrative structure dominated by the military but with advice from Western-educated economic experts. During his term, these policies, and heavy exploitation of Indonesia's natural resources, produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth in the country. For example, [[hunger]] was greatly reduced in the country during the 1970s and 1980s. He also enriched himself, his family, and close associates through widespread corruption.
===Act of Free Choice===
Rejecting [[United Nations]] supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favor. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an "Act of Free Choice" was conducted 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. After training in [[Indonesian language]] they were warned to vote in favor of Indonesian integration. The group unanimously voted to in just this manner. A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.
West Irian was renamed [[Irian Jaya]] ('glorious Irian') in [[1973]]. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]]) gave rise to small-scale guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control.
===Annexation of [[East Timor]]===
''For full coverage, see [[History of East Timor]]''
In [[1975]], the [[Carnation Revolution]] in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of [[Portuguese Timor]], the eastern half of the island of [[Timor]] whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of [[East Nusa Tenggara]]. In the elections held in 1975, [[Fretilin]], a left-leaning party and [[UDT]], aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. Apodeti, a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support.
Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was [[communist]], and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on [[August 11]], [[1975]], and a month-long civil war. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory, and did not resume the decolonisation process. On [[November 28]], Fretilin [[unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared independence]], and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'. Nine days later, on [[December 7]], Indonesia invaded East Timor, eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally.
===Transmigration===
''For full coverage, see [[Transmigration program]]''
Under Suharto, development and modernisation of Indonesian urban centers, as well as rising living standards caused urban population density to rise dramatically, as rural peoples migrated to the cities in search of jobs. To counteract this, Suharto sanctioned [[transmigration program]]s, moving people from the islands of [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Bali]], and [[Madura]] to areas including [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Sulawesi]].
At its peak between 1979 and 1984, 535,000 families, or almost 2.5 million people, moved under the transmigration program. It had had a major impact on the demographics of some areas; for example, in 1981 sixty percent of the three million people in the southern Sumatra province of [[Lampung]] were transmigrants. The [[World Bank]], [[Asian Development Bank]] and bilateral donors funded the program with huge sums of money in the 1980s.
The stated purpose of the program was to reduce poverty and crowding on Java, provide opportunities for hard-working poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilize the natural resources of the outer islands. The program coincided with efforts to further unify the country through the creation of a single 'Indonesian' identity to augment or replace regional identities.
Critics of these program accused the government of Indonesia of trying to use these migrants to replace native populations, and to weaken [[separatist]] movements. The program became a subject of considerable controversy and conflict, including violence between settlers and [[indigenous]] populations.
In August [[2000]], after the [[Asian financial crisis]] and the fall of the Suharto government, the Indonesian government officially cancelled the large-scale transmigration program, funding no longer being available to underwrite it.
===Pro-democracy movement===
In [[1996]] Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The [[Indonesian Democratic Party]] (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of Parliament [[Suryadi]] against a faction loyal to [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]], the daughter of [[Sukarno]] and PDI's proper chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in [[Medan]] [[June 20]] - [[June 22 |22]], Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on [[Jakarta]] due to a set of high-profile [[ASEAN]] meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On [[July 26]], officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums. (Aspinall 1996)
On [[July 27]], police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation. (Amnesty International 1996)
===Fiscal crisis===
In [[1997]] [[Asian financial crisis]] had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, and Suharto's regime. The [[rupiah]], the Indonesian [[currency]], took a sharp dive in value. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[United States]], over longtime embezzlement of funds and some [[protectionist]] policies. In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact [[austerity]] measures, including cuts to public services and removal of [[subsidies]], in return for receiving the aid of the IMF and other donors.
[[Image:Suharto resigns.jpg|thumb|250px|Suharto resigned, handed over presidency to [[Jusuf Habibie]] on [[21 May]] [[1998]].]]
Beginning early [[1998]], the [[austerity]] measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence in the regime. Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, and fees for public services including education rose dramatically. The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption.
Suharto stood for reelection by [[parliament]] for the seventh time in [[1998|March 1998]], justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. The parliament approved a new term. This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the [[Indonesian 1998 Revolution]]. Dissent within the ranks of his own [[Golkar]] party and military finally weakened Suharto, and on [[May 21]] he stood down from power. He was replaced by his deputy [[Jusuf Habibie]].
==Reformation era==
President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet. One of its main
|
ry junta]] had seized power in Greece, the political impetus for enosis had faded, partly as a result of the non-aligned foreign policy of Cypriot President [[Makarios]]. Enosis remained an ideological goal, despite being pushed significantly further down the political agenda. Dissatisfaction in Greece with Makarios's perceived failure to deliver on earlier promises of enosis convinced the Greek colonels to sponsor the 1974 coup in Nicosia.
[[Turkey]] responded by launching a military operation on Cyprus in a move not approved by the other two international guarantor powers, Greece and the United Kingdom which aimed to protect the Turkish minority from Greek militias. The intervention is called "Cyprus Peace Operation" by the Turkish side. Turkish forces captured the northern part of the island(see [[Cyprus dispute]]). Many thousands of others, from both sides, left the island entirely.
Subseqently, the Turkish Cypriots established their own [[seperatist]] institutions with a popularly elected [[de facto]] President and a Prime Minister responsible to the National Assembly exercising joint executive powers. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriots declared an independent state called the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ]] (TRNC), an action opposed by the [[United Nations]] Security Council. In 1985, the [[TRNC]] adopted a constitution and held its first elections.
See also:
* [[Foreign relations of Cyprus]]
* [[List of political parties in Cyprus]]
* [[Military of Cyprus]]
===Political division===
Cyprus gained independence from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1960]], with the UK, [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] retaining limited rights to intervene in internal affairs.
Since 1974, Cyprus has been divided, [[de facto]], into the Greek-Cypriot controlled southern two-thirds of the island and the Turkish-occupied northern one-third. The '''Republic of Cyprus''' is the internationally recognised government of Cyprus, which controls the southern two-thirds of the island. Turkey aside, all foreign governments and the [[United Nations]] recognise the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the whole island of Cyprus.
The Turkish Cypriot administration of the northern part of the island, together with [[Turkey]], does not accept the Republic's rule over the whole island and refer to it as the "Greek Authority of Southern Cyprus". Its territory, the status of which remains disputed, extends over the northern third of the island.
The north proclaimed its independence in [[1975]], and the self-styled [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] was established in [[1983]]. This state was recognised only by [[Turkey]]. The [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] granted it observer member status under the name of "Turkish Cypriot State".
The other power with territory on Cyprus is the [[United Kingdom]]. Under the independence agreement, the UK retained title to two areas on the southern coast of the island, around [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]], known collectively as the [[UK sovereign base]] areas. They are used as military bases.
===Exclaves and enclaves===
Cyprus has four [[exclave]]s, all in territory that belongs to the [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia]]. The first two are the villages of [[Ormidhia]] and [[Xylotymvou]]. Additionally there is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is an [[enclave]] like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an enclave &mdash;although it has no territorial waters of its own [http://geosite.jankrogh.com/cyprus.htm].
The [[United Nations]] (UN) buffer zone separating the territory controlled by the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|Turkish Cypriot administration]] from the rest of Cyprus runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side, off of [[Ayios Nikolaos (Cyprus)|Ayios Nikolaos]] (connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor). In that sense, the buffer zone turns the south-east corner of the island, the [[Paralimni]] area, into a [[de facto]], though not [[de jure]], exclave.
===Reunification, the Annan Plan and EU entry===
The results of early negotiations between the Greek and Turkish sides resulted in a broad agreement in principle to reunification as a bi-cameral, bi-zonal [[federation]] with territory allocated to the Greek and Turkish communities within a united island. However, agreement was never reached on the finer details, and the two sides often met deadlock over the following points, among others:
The Turkish side:
* favoured a weak central government presiding over two sovereign states in voluntary association, a legacy of earlier fears of domination by the majority Greek Cypriots; and
* opposed plans for demilitarisation, citing security concerns.
The Greek side:
* took a strong line on the right of return for refugees to properties vacated in the 1974 displacement of Cypriots on both sides;
* took a dim view of any proposals which did not allow for the repatriation of Turkish settlers from the mainland who had emigrated to Cyprus since 1974; and
* supported a stronger central government.
The continued difficulties in finding a settlement presented a potential obstacle to Cypriot entry to the [[European Union]], for which the government had applied in 1997. UN-sponsored talks between the Greek and Turkish leaders, [[Glafkos Klerides]] and [[Rauf Denktash]], continued intensively in [[2002]], but without resolution. In [[December 2002]] the EU formally invited Cyprus to join in 2004, insisting that EU membership would apply to the whole island and hoping that it would provide a significant enticement for reunification resulting from the outcome of ongoing talks. However, weeks before the UN deadline, Klerides was defeated in presidential elections by center candidate [[Tassos Papadopoulos]]. Papadopoulos had a reputation as a hard-liner on reunification and had rejected previous UN attempts to reunify the island. By mid-March, the UN declared that the talks had failed.
A [[United Nations]] plan sponsored by [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] was announced on [[31 March]] [[2004]], based on what progress had been made during the talks in [[Switzerland]] and fleshed out by the UN, was put to both sides in separate referenda on [[24 April]] [[2004]]. The Greek side overwhelmingly rejected the [[Annan Plan]], and the Turkish side voted in favour.
In [[May 2004]], Cyprus entered the EU, although in practice membership only applies to the southern part of the island. In acknowledgement of the Turkish Cypriot community's support for reunification, however, the EU made it clear that trade concessions would be reached to stimulate economic growth in the north, and remains committed to reunification under acceptable terms.
See also:
* [[Annan Plan]]
* [[Cyprus reunification referendum, 2004|2004 referendum]]
* [[Cyprus dispute]]
* [[UN Buffer Zone on Cyprus]].
==Economy==
:''Main article: [[Economy of Cyprus]]''
Economic affairs in Cyprus are dominated by the division of the country due to the Turkish occupation of the north part of the island.
The Cypriot economy is prosperous and has diversified in recent years. Cyprus has been sought as a basis for several offshore businesses, due to its highly developed infrastructure. Economic policy of the Cyprus government has focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union.
Recently, oil has been discovered in the sea South of Cyprus (between Cyprus and Egypt) and talks are under way with Egypt to reach an agreement as to the exploitation of these resources. The level of the oil field in terms of production (barrels per day) that the two countries will be able to produce is still a matter of speculation.
The economy in the occupied part of Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for subsidies for its survival. The economy relies heavily on agriculture. The influx of about 100,000 Turkish economic migrants in the occupied part of Cyprus, who in their majority are uneducated workers, has brought even more trouble in the economy of the occupied area. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the Turkish lira is legal tender.
Eventual adoption of the [[euro]] currency is required of all new countries joining the European Union, and the Cyprus government currently intends to adopt the currency on [[1 January]] [[2008]].
==Demographics==
:''Main article: [[Demographics of Cyprus]]''
Greek and Turkish Cypriots share many customs but maintain their ethnicity based on [[religion]], [[language]], and close ties with their respective motherlands.
The major part of Greek Cypriots are [[Eastern Orthodox Christians]], whereas Turkish Cypriots are [[Muslims]].
Greek is the predominant language in the south, Turkish in the north. This delineation is only reflective of the post-1974 division of the island, which involved an expulsion of Greek Cypriots from the north and the analoguous move of Turkish Cypriots from the south. Historically however, the Greek language was largely spoken by all Greek Cypriots and by many Turkish Cypriots.
[[English_language|English]] is widely understood, and is taught in schools from primary age.
==Education==
Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. Unlike in other countries, state schools are generally seen as equivalent or better in quality of education than private sector institutions.
The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, EU & US universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and [[Australia]]. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities.
According to the 1960 constitution, education is under t
|
g the [[1920s]] her only paid work was as a columnist for feminist journals, notably ''[[Equal Rights]]'' and ''[[Time and Tide]]''. Eastman claimed that "''life was a big battle for the complete feminist,''" but she was convinced that the complete feminist would someday achieve total victory.
Eastman has been called one of the United States' most neglected leaders, because, although she wrote pioneering legislation and created long-lasting political organizations, she disappeared from history for fifty years.
==Reference==
[[Blanche Wiesen Cook]], ed., ''Crystal Eastman on Women and Revolution'' (1978).
[[Category:Feminists|Eastman, Crystal]]
[[Category:1881 births|Eastman, Crystal]]
[[Category:1928 deaths|Eastman, Crystal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christopher Alexander</title>
<id>7612</id>
<revision>
<id>41867534</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:16:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ScierGuy</username>
<id>1014728</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added links to sequence theory, which formerly was a missing article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A professor-emeritus (the [[University of California, Berkeley]]) and licensed contractor as well as architect, '''Christopher Alexander''' (born [[October 4]], [[1936]] in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]) is noted for his design of building complexes in [[California]], [[Japan]], and [[Mexico]]. However, he may be famous mostly for his popular appeal and his theoretical contributions. With [[Sarah Ishikawa]] and [[Murray Silverstein]], he produced and validated an architectural system, a [[pattern language]] designed to empower any human being to design and build quite well at any scale. He began the project because he believes that users know more about the buildings they need than any architect could. Based in [[England]], he continues to practice architecture and consult in planning.
==Life==
Alexander grew up in England. His education started in sciences. He was awarded the top open scholarship to [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] in 1954, in chemistry and physics and went on to read mathematics. He earned a [[Bachelor's degree]] in Architecture and a [[Master's degree]] in Mathematics. He took his doctorate in Harvard (the first [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Architecture ever awarded at [[Harvard University]]), and was elected fellow at Harvard. During the same period he worked at MIT in transportation theory and in computer science, and worked at Harvard in cognition and cognitive studies. He became professor of Architecture at Berkeley in [[1963]], taught there continuously for 38 years, and is now Professor Emeritus at the University of California. He is widely recognized as the father of the pattern language movement in computer science. He was elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1996 for his contributions to architecture.
==Work==
===Writings===
''[[The Timeless Way of Building]]'' described the perfection of use to which buildings could aspire:
:''"There is one timeless way of building. It is a thousand years old, and the same today as it has ever been. The great traditional buildings of the past, the villages and tents and temples in which man feels at home, have always been made by people who were very close to the center of this way. It is not possible to make great buildings, or great towns, beautiful places, places where you feel yourself, places where you feel alive, except by following this way. And, as you will see, this way will lead anyone who looks for it to buildings which are themselves as ancient in their form, as the trees and hills, and as our faces are."''
''[[A Pattern Language]]: Towns, Buildings, Construction'' described a practical architectural system in a form that a theoretical mathematician or computer scientist might call a [[generative grammar]].
The work originated from an observation that many medieval cities are attractive and harmonious. The authors said that this occurs because they were built to local regulations that required specific features, but freed the architect to adapt them to particular situations.
The book provides rules and pictures, and leaves decisions to be taken from the precise environment of the project. It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs.
A notable value is that the architectural system consists only of classic patterns tested in the real world and reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality.
The book includes all needed surveying and structural calculations, and a novel simplified building system that copes with regional shortages of wood and steel, uses easily-stored inexpensive materials, and produces long-lasting classic buildings with small amounts of materials, design and labor. It first has users prototype a structure on-site in temporary materials. Once accepted, these are finished by filling them with very-low-density concrete. It uses [[vault]]ed construction to build as high as three stories, permitting very high densities.
This book's method was adopted by the University of Oregon, as described in ''The [[Oregon Experiment]]'', and remains the official planning instrument. It has also been adopted in part by some cities as a building code.
The idea of a [[pattern language]] appears to apply to any complex engineering task, and has been applied to some of them. It has been especially influential in [[software engineering]] where [[Design pattern (computer science)|patterns]] have been used to document collective knowledge in the field.
[[The Nature of Order|The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe]] is his latest and major work. It consists of four volumes. In it, he puts forward a new theory about the nature of the space around us and describes how this theory influences thinking about architecture, building, and so forth.
The mostly static patterns from ''A Pattern Language'' have been amended by [[sequence theory|more dynamic sequences]], which describe how to work towards patterns (which can roughly be seen as the end result of sequences). [[sequence theory|Sequences]], like [[pattern language|patterns]], promise to be tools of wider scope than building (just as his theory of space goes beyond architecture).
His other books are:
* ''The Production of Houses''
* ''A New Theory of Urban Design''
* ''A Foreshadowing of 21st Century Art, The Geometry of Very Early Turkish Carpets''
* ''The Mary Rose Museum''
* ''Notes on the Synthesis of Form''
* ''The Linz Cafe''
Published in 2002-2003
* ''The Nature of Order'' I - IV
===Buildings===
Among Alexander's most notable built works are the Eishin Campus near Tokyo; the Julian Street Inn (a homeless shelter) in [[San Jose, California]] (both described in ''Nature of Order''); the Martinez House (an experimental house in [[Martinez, California]] made of lightweight concrete); and the low-cost housing in [[Mexicali|Mexicali, Mexico]] (described in ''The Production of Houses'').
==Influence==
===Computer Science===
Alexander's [[Notes on the Synthesis of Form]] was required reading, for researchers in computer science, throughout the 1960's. [[Marvin Minsky]], Founder of MIT's Artificial Intelligence Lab, recommended it to students & colleagues. It had an aesthetic influence in the 1960's & 1970's on [[programming language design]], [[modular programming]], [[object-oriented programming]], [[software engineering]] and other design methodologies. Alexander's mathematical concepts and orientation were similar to [[Edsger Dijkstra]]'s influential [[A Discipline of Programming]].
''[[A Pattern Language]]''‘s best known conceptual effect is the [[design patterns]] movement. Alexander's philosophy of incremental, organic, coherent design influenced also the [[Extreme programming]] movement.
[[Will Wright]] wrote that Alexander's work was influential in the origin of [[The Sims]] computer game, and in his current new work.
==References==
[[Category:American architects|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:Austrian architects|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:1936 births|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:Living people|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley faculty|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[de:Christopher Alexander]]
[[ja:クリストファー・アレグザンダー]]
[[sv:Christopher Alexander]]
[[zh:克里斯托佛·亚历山大]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Clabbers</title>
<id>7614</id>
<revision>
<id>27798406</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-09T06:56:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unforgettableid</username>
<id>504717</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm 1 cat b/c it doesn't really pertain to ALL of Scrabble</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Clabbers example board.png|thumb|An example board from a game of Clabbers]]
'''Clabbers''' is a game played by tournament [[Scrabble]] players for fun, or occasionally at Scrabble variant tournaments. The name derives from the fact that the words CLABBERS and SCRABBLE form an [[anagram]] pair.
Its rules are identical to that of Scrabble, except that valid plays are only required to form anagrams of acceptable words; in other words, the letters in a word do not need to be placed in the correct order. If a word is challenged, the player who played the word must then name an acceptable word that anagrams to the tiles played.
For example, in the board shown, the word BEERY has been played as EBRYE so as to place the Y on the [[double letter score]].
Because the number of "words" that can be formed is vast
|
ced [[spreadsheet]] programs such as [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]] or [[OpenOffice.org]] Calc
*for more advanced calculations one can use a [[computer algebra]] program, such as [[Mathematica]], [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]] or [[Matlab]].
*browsers can perform calculations using [[client-side scripting]], e.g. using [[Client-side JavaScript]] by entering "javascript:alert(12*13)" in the address bar (the answer 156 appears in a separate alert window) or "document.write (12*13)" in a [[HTML]] file, preceded with "<script type="text/javascript">" and followed by "</script>".
*an interpreter or compiler for a general programming language can be used
*calculations can also be performed [[server-side]], e.g. with the [[List of Google services and tools#Calculator|calculator feature of the Google search engine]]
==History==
===Origin: The Abacus===
[[Image:Abacus 6.png|thumb|right|Chinese abacus.]]
{{main|Abacus}}
The first calculators were abacuses, and were often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires. Abacuses were in use centuries before the adoption of the written Arabic numerals system and are still widely used by merchants and clerks in China and elsewhere.
===The 17th century===
[[Wilhelm Schickard]] built the first automatic calculator called the "Calculating Clock" in 1623. Some 20 years later, in 1645, French philosopher [[Blaise Pascal]] invented the calculation device later known as [[Pascal's calculator]], which was used for taxes in France until 1799. The German philosopher G.W.v.[[Leibniz]] also produced a [[Calculus ratiocinator| calculating machine]].
===1930s to 1960s===
[[Image:Mechanical-Calculator.png|thumb|right|Mechanical calculator from 1914]]
From approximately the [[1930s]] through the [[1960s]], mechanical calculators were often used (see ''Mechanical Calculator'' under [[History of computing hardware]]). These desktop devices were motor-driven and had multiple columns of keys for each digit. [[Addition]] and [[subtraction]] were performed in a single operation, as on a conventional adding machine, but [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]] were accomplished by repeated mechanical additions and subtractions. Handheld mechanical calculators such as the [[Curta]] continued to be used until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.
In [[1954]], [[IBM]] demonstrated a large all-[[transistor]] calculator and, in [[1957]], they released the first ''commercial'' all-transistor calculator (the IBM 608). In October [[1961]], the world's first ''all-electronic desktop'' calculator, the Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA Mk.VII was released. This British designed-and-built machine used [[vacuum tube]]s in its circuits and cold-cathode [[nixie tube]]s for its display. It was superseded, technologically, in [[1964]] when [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] introduced the CS-10A—the world's first ''all-transistor'' ''desktop'' calculator—which weighed 25 kg (55 lb) and cost 500,000 yen (~US$2500). The first ''handheld'' electronic calculators went on sale in [[1970]] with models from Japanese manufacturers Sharp and [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] weighing around 770 g (1.7 lb).
{|
|[[Image:Calculator_facit_hg.jpg|thumb|Facit NTK (1954)]]
|[[Image:Calculator_triumphator_hg.jpg|thumb|Triumphator CRN1 (1958)]]
|[[Image:Calculator_walther_hg.jpg|thumb|Walther WSR160 (1960)]]
|[[Image:Calculator_divisumma24_hg.jpg|thumb|Olivetti Divisumma 24 (1964)]]
|}
===1970s to mid-1980s===
In the early [[1970s]], the ''Monroe EPIC'' programmable calculator came on the market. A large desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it was capable of being programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only ''branch'' instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any [[conditional branch]] (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer.
The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly referred to as ''The Bowmar Brain''), measuring 5.2×3.0×1.5 in (131×77×37 mm), came out in the fall of [[1971]], with four functions and an eight-digit red [[light-emitting diode|LED]] display, for $240, while in August [[1972]] the four-function [[Sinclair Executive]] became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4×2.2×0.35 in (138×56×9 mm) and weighing 2.5 oz (70g). It retailed for around $150 ([[Pound Sterling|GB£]]79). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than $10 (GB£5).
The first pocket calculator with ''scientific'' functions, i.e. the first slide rule-replacing model, was the [[1972]] [[HP-35]] from [[Hewlett Packard|Hewlett Packard (HP)]]; it, along with all later HP engineering calculators, used [[reverse Polish notation]] (RPN) (where a calculation like "6 – 2" is performed by pressing "6", "Enter↑", "2", and "–"; instead of algebraically: "6", "–", "2", "=").
In [[1973]], [[Texas Instruments|Texas Instruments (TI)]] introduced the [[SR-10]], (''SR'' signifying [[slide rule]]) a hand-held ''algebraic notation'' calculator, which was later followed by the [[SR-11]] and eventually the [[TI-30]].
The first ''programmable'' hand-held calculator was the [[HP-65]], in [[1974]]; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. A year later the [[HP-25C]] introduced ''continuous memory'', i.e. programs and data were retained in memory during power-off. In [[1979]], HP released the first ''[[alphanumeric]]'', programmable, ''expandable'' calculator, the [[HP-41|HP-41C]]. It could be expanded with [[random access memory|RAM]] (memory) and [[read-only memory|ROM]] (software) modules, as well as peripherals like [[bar code]] readers, [[microcassette]] and [[floppy disk]] drives, paper-roll [[thermal printer]]s, and miscellaneous communication interfaces ([[RS-232]], [[HP-IL]], [[HP-IB]]).
===Mid-1980s to present===
[[Image:TI-84_Plus.jpg|right|thumb|A [[TI-84 Plus series|TI-84 Plus]] graphing calculator from Texas Instruments.]]
The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released steadily more feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 90s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a [[graphing calculator]] and a PDA/ [[handheld computer]] was not always clear (forgetting the keyboard for the sake of the argument), as some very advanced calculators such as the [[TI-89]] and [[HP-49G]] could [[derivative|differentiate]] and [[integration|integrate]] [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, run [[word processing]] and [[Personal information manager|PIM]] software, and connect by wire or [[infrared|IR]] to other calculators/computers.
In March [[2002]], HP announced that the company would no longer produce calculators, which was hard to fathom for some fans of the company's products; the [[HP-48]] range in particular had an extremely loyal customer base. Nevertheless, HP restarted their production of calculators in late 2003. The new models, however, reportedly didn't have the mechanical quality and sober design of HP's earlier calculators for which HP calculators were once famous (instead featuring the more "youthful" look and feel of contemporary competing designs from TI). In the days when
a scientific calculator cost about as much as a computer does today, HP sales reps were famous
for starting demonstrations by slamming the calculator on the floor. But today calculators
are regarded as cheap, disposable gadgets.
The [[HP-12C|HP 12c]] financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with nearly no changes. The HP 12c featured the [[reverse Polish notation]] mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry.
==Trivia==
*The word "calculator" is occasionally used as a pejorative term to describe an inadequately capable general-purpose [[microcomputer]]. The synonym of this meaning is "[[wikt:bitty box|bitty box]]", as discussed in the [[Jargon file]].
*A curious episode of the mid 1970s involved the Melcor 635, a scientific calculator with a [[computer bug|bug]] in its [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions. Because the [[CORDIC]] algorithms used in most calculators cannot compute the inverse trigonometric functions of [[0 (number)|zero]], these need to be [[hardcoded]] — and some engineer at Melcor got it wrong. For any input other than exactly zero, even for instance 1.0E-99, the calculator worked correctly; the user simply had to remember not to compute the [[trigonometric function#inverse functions|arc-cosine]] of zero. The company discovered this after making 50,000 calculators. The upshot was an advertisement in Summer and Fall 1975 issues of such publications as ''[[Scientific American]]'' and the MIT alumni magazine headlined 'Somebody Goofed', offering these calculators, for which a typical retail price at the time would have been around 100 dollars, for $59.99.
*As many schoolchildren and students know, some words and simple phrases can be written using an ordinary [[seven-segment display]] calculator; this involves entering [[calculator spelling|certain numbers]] and then viewing the resulting words by turning the calculator display upside-down.
==See also==
General interest:
*[[:Category:Calculators]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[Beghilos]]
Mechanical calculators:
*[[Abacus]]
*[[Napier's bones]]
*[[Comptometer]]
*[[Me
|
he band scored a [[top 40]] [[hit]] with the song "[[Touch of Grey]]" (from ''In the Dark''), which garnered a much younger and more [[mainstream]] [[fandom]] that was considered sharply different from the traditional Deadheads. These new followers were deemed "Touchheads" by the more established fans, a reference to their relative inexperience with the band. The late 1980s and 90s saw the Grateful Dead attracting a huge following that left many long time deadheads in doubt as to whether people were coming out for shows to see the band, or simply to be part of the atmosphere. Whatever their differences, the deadheads are often considered to be the most devoted fans in the rock world.
The parking lot of a Grateful Dead concert was as much a part of the event as the concert itself. One could find items for sale at many cars in the lot, from grilled cheese sandwiches to "kind" brews and nitrous balloons. (Some deadheads would earn their entire touring budget selling such items.) Concertgoers typically congregated in the lot for hours before a show, playing guitar, hacky sacking and getting high. After the show, a deadhead with the post-show munchies could probably find a grilled cheese sandwich made on a camping stove at the door of a VW bus by a friendly hippie.
=== Live releases ===
[[Image:gdead4.jpg|frame|right|Late lineup of The Grateful Dead, mid-90s.]]
Starting in [[1991]], the Grateful Dead released numerous live concerts from their archives in two concurrent series: the ''From the Vault'' releases are multi-track remixes, whereas the ''Dick's Picks'' series (named for the band's late archivist, [[Dick Latvala]]) are based on two-track mixes made at the time of the recording. There have been at least 36 Dick's Picks releases [[As of 2005|as of November 2005]]. A series of videos began to trickle out of "The Vault", starting with ''View From the Vault'' (recorded in [[Pittsburgh]] on [[July 8]], [[1990]] at [[Three Rivers Stadium]]) and ''View from the Vault II'' (recorded in [[Washington, DC]] on [[June 14]], [[1991]] at [[Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium|RFK Stadium]]); these releases are accompanied by the simultaneous release of multi-disc soundtrack CDs of the same shows represented on the videos. All three series of releases continue to this day.
In the summer of [[2005]] the Dead began offering downloadable versions of both their existing live releases, and a new internet-only series, ''The Grateful Dead Download Series'', that is available exclusively through both their own GDStore.com (which offers the albums in both 256 kbit/s [[mp3]] files and [[FLAC]] files -- a preferred audio standard for those who archive Dead and other fan-made live recordings on the Internet) and the [[iTunes Music Store]] (which offers them in their 128 kbit/s [[AAC]] format). Not surprisingly, these Internet-only albums have met with the same success as their CD-based brethren.
In [[November]] of [[2005]], the Dead's management outraged fans by asking the operators of the popular [[Internet Archive]] (archive.org) to stop making concerts available for download, and to offer only streamcast recordings instead. The band's spokesman, [[Dennis McNally]], claimed such a repository "doesn't represent Grateful Dead values" because it doesn't foster one-to-one connections between fans. However, [[David Gans]], host of a syndicated radio program, "The Grateful Dead Hour," speculates that the band is motivated by money, noting "when they were making $50 million a year on the road, there wasn't a lot of pressure to monetize their archives."[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/30/arts/music/30dead.html?hp&ex=1133413200&en=e55a04436f0887b4&ei=5094&partner=homepage]
The removal of the Dead's concerts from Archive.org created a storm of protest, in addition to a rapidly spreading boycott of the band's remaining commercial products. Several days after the announcement that the concerts had been removed, Brewster Kahle of Archive.Org made a cryptic announcement that audience tapes of the concerts would again become available, though so-called board tapes would only be available as streaming audio. Kahle claimed that the whole affair had been a "misunderstanding," but [[John Perry Barlow]], one of the band's lyricists, claimed that concerts had been restored after several members of the band had backed away from their earlier opposition after realizing they had created a public relations "catastrophe."
==History==
The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands like the [[Beatles]] and [[Rolling Stones]] were dominating the airwaves. Former folk-scene star [[Bob Dylan]] had recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation. Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring [[New York]] "folk-rock" band [[The Lovin' Spoonful]] that they decided to "go electric." Gradually, many of the East-Coast American [[folk music]]ians, formerly luminaries of the coffee-house scene, were moving in the electric direction. It was natural for [[Jerry Garcia]] and [[Bob Weir]], each of whom had been immersed in the American folk-music revival of the late 1950s and early '60s, to be open-minded toward electric guitars. But the new Dead music was also naturally different from bands like Dylan's or the Spoonful, partly because their fellow musician [[Phil Lesh]] came out of a schooled [[classical]] and electronic-music background, while [[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] was a no-nonsense deep [[blues]] lover and drummer [[Bill Kreutzmann]] had a [[jazz]] background. Listening to their first LP (''[[The Grateful Dead (album)|''The Grateful Dead'']]'', Warner Brothers, 1967), one is also reminded that it was recorded only a few years after the big "surfing music" craze; ''that'' California rock-music sound seeped in, to some degree, as well.
[[image:Grateful_Dead-American_Beau.jpg|thumb|right|The cover of the 1970 album ''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]'']]
The Grateful Dead’s early music (in the mid 1960s) was part of the process of establishing what "[[psychedelic music]]" was, but theirs was essentially a "street party" form of it. This was natural, because they played psychedelic dances, open-air park events, and closed-street [[Haight-Ashbury]] block parties. The Dead were not inclined to fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country/western. Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and more, frequently melding several of them. Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes&#8212;a form of psychedelia that might run the gamut from strange to exotically beautiful. Most connoisseurs believe that the Grateful Dead's true spirit was rarely well captured in studio performance.
The early records reflected the Dead's live repertoire &#8212; lengthy instrumental jams with [[guitar]] solos by Garcia, best exemplified by "[[Dark Star (song)|Dark Star]]" &#8212; but, lacking the energy of the shows, did not sell well. The [[1969]] live album ''[[Live/Dead]]'' did capture more of their essence, but commercial success did not come until ''[[Workingman's Dead]]'' and ''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]'', both released in [[1970]]. These records largely featured the band's laid-back acoustic musicianship and more traditional [[song]] [[structure]]s.
=== Dissolution and Continuation of the band ===
Following Garcia's death in [[1995]], the remaining members formally decided to disband. Though some of them occasionally toured through the late [[1990s]] under the name "[[The Other Ones]]", they mainly chose to pursue various solo projects, most notably [[Bob Weir]]'s [[Ratdog]], [[Phil Lesh and Friends]] and Mickey Hart's music for the [[1996 Olympics]]. The remaining members occasionally got together under the [[pseudonym]] ''Crusader Rabbit Stealth Band'' during the late 1990s, infrequently playing unannounced shows. The mid-[[2002]] [[autumn|fall]] tour of [[The Other Ones]], with Bob, Bill, Phil and Mickey, was so successful and satisfying that the band decided the name was no longer appropriate. On [[February 14]], [[2003]], (as they said) "reflecting the reality that [was]," they renamed themselves [[The Dead]], reflecting the abbreviated form of the band name that fans had long used and keeping "Grateful" retired out of respect for Garcia. The members would continue to tour on and off through the end of their 2004 Summer Tour, the "Wave That Flag" tour, named after a lyric from the song, "U.S. Blues." The band accepted Warren Haynes as their new lead guitarist. Haynes is best known for his work with Gov't Mule and the Allman Brothers Band. The band did not tour in 2005, due to a fight between Bob Weir and Phil Lesh over how they believe certain things happened in the history of the band. Their inability to reconcile these differences kept Deadheads from seeing a tour to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Grateful Dead, and also made the annual celebration honoring Jerry Garcia seem a little flat, as his own bandmates couldn't put aside their differences to take the stage together in his honor. As of now, any future plans are unknown, and are largely contingent on Weir and Lesh making up.
==Bandmembers==
*[[Jerry Garcia]] - lead guitar, vocals (1965 - 1995)
*[[Bob Weir]] - rhythm guitar, vocals (1965 - 1995)
*[[Phil Lesh]] - bass, vocals (1965 - 1995)
*[[Bill Kreutzmann]] - drums (1965 - 1995)
*[[Mickey Hart]] - drums (1967 - 1971, 1975 - 1995)
*[[Ron "Pigpen" McKernan]] - keyboards, vocals, harmonica, percussion (1965 - 1
|
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2939362.stm BBC News report]
==Vocabulary==
:''See the [[Wiktionary:Category:Etruscan language|list of Etruscan words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Etruscan derivations|list of words of Etruscan origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project''
Due to its isolation, no significant certain translations from Etruscan into modern languages have been produced yet, however we can be fairly certain of how the language was pronounced as the Etruscan speakers wrote using a variant of the [[Greek alphabet]].
Latin borrowed a few dozen words from Etruscan, many of them related to culture, like ''elementum'' (letter), ''litterae'' (writing), ''cera'' (wax), ''arena'', etc.
Some of these words can be found in modern languages, especially in [[Romance languages]]. Some English words derived from Latin — e.g. [[people (disambiguation)|people]], [[person]], [[population]] — are considered to be of Etruscan origin.
==Writing system==
The [[Latin alphabet]] that is used in English owes its existence to the Etruscan writing system, which was adopted for Latin in the form of the [[Old Italic alphabet]]. The Etruscan alphabet employs a [[Euboea]]n variant of the [[Greek alphabet]] using the letter [[digamma]] (or "F") and is ultimately of West Semitic origin.
== See also ==
* [[Etruscan civilization]]
* [[Aegean languages]] - Language family to which Etruscan belongs.
* ''[[Liber Linteus]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* ''[[Tabula Cortonensis]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* ''[[Cippus perusinus]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* ''[[Pyrgi Tablets]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* [[Lemnian language]]
* [[Eteocypriot]]
* [[Eteocretan]]
* [[Cortona]] - Ancient Etruscan city (''Curtun'').
==External links==
* [http://etp.classics.umass.edu/ The Etruscan Texts Project] A searchable database of Etruscan texts.
* [http://www.umass.edu/etruscannews Etruscan News Online], the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.
* [http://people.umass.edu/jamesp/fonts.html Etruscan and Early Italic Fonts], for the digital transcription of Etruscan inscriptions.
*[http://ling.cornell.edu/Weiss/CGL_35-Etruscan.pdf Etruscan grammar (pdf)] A detailed explanation of the grammar of the related Etruscan language by Micheal Weiss of the Cornell University.
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20021207170759/http://www.netaxs.com/~salvucci/VTLhome.html The Languages of Ancient Italy]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20021213221136/http://www.netaxs.com/~salvucci/VTLetrvocab.html An Etruscan Glossary]
* [http://etruskisch.de/pgs/vc.htm Etruscan Glossary]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2803/EtruscanGlossary.htm Another Glossary]
* [http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/etrweb/etrmain.htm Etruscans on the Web]: Language links here are divided between 'Mainstream' with the professional linguists, and 'Alternative,' where you can read up on connections between Etruscan and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], or [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]].
*[http://www.geocities.com/hbry The Etruscan Cryptolect]
==References==
* {{cite book
| authorlink = Giuliano Bonfante
| last = Bonfante | first = Giuliano
| coauthors = [[Larissa Bonfante | Bonfante, Larissa]]
| title = The Etruscan Language: an Introduction
| location = Manchester
| publisher = University of Manchester Press
| year = 2002
| id = ISBN 0-7190-5540-7
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[Mario Alinei]]
| title = Etrusco: una forma arcaica di ungherese
| publisher = Bologna: Le edizioni del Mulino
| year = 2003
}}
* {{cite book
| authorlink = Mauro Cristofani
| last = Cristofani | first = Mauro
| coauthors = ''et al''
| title = Gli Etruschi: una nuova immagine
| publisher = Firenze, Giunti Martello
| year = 1984
}}
* {{cite book
| authorlink = Mauro Cristofani
| last = Cristofani | first = Mauro
| title = The Etruscans: A New Investigation (Echoes of the ancient world)
| publisher = Orbis Pub
| year = 1979
| id = ISBN 0856132594
}}
* {{cite book
| authorlink = Helmut Rix
| last = Rix | first = Helmut
| title = Etruskische Texte
| publisher = G. Narr
| year = 1991
| id = ISBN 3823342401
}} 2 vols.
[[Category:Ancient languages]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-Europeans]]
[[Category:Language isolates]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Etruscans]]
[[ast:Llingua etrusca]]
[[da:Etruskisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Etruskische Sprache]]
[[el:Ετρουσκική γλώσσα]]
[[eo:Etruska lingvo]]
[[fi:Etruskin kieli]]
[[fr:Étrusque]]
[[it:Lingua etrusca]]
[[ja:エトルリア語]]
[[kw:Etruskek]]
[[ru:Этрусский язык]]
[[sv:Etruskiska]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Election</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the political process. For the films of the same name, see [[Election (movie)]]. For the [[Theology|theological concept]], see [[Predestination]] and [[Unconditional election]].}}
{{Elections|
image=[[Image:Votingwomen.jpg|200px|Women voting in Bangladesh]]|
caption=}}
An '''election''' is a [[decision making]] process whereby people [[vote]] for preferred political [[politician|candidates]] or [[political party|parties]] to act as representatives in [[government]]. This is the usual mechanism by which a [[democracy]] fills offices in the [[legislature]], and sometimes in the [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[judiciary]], and in [[regional government|regional]] and [[local government]]. This is also typically the case in a wide range of other private and [[business]] [[organization]]s, from [[club]]s to [[voluntary association]]s and [[corporation]]s.
[[Electoral reform]] describes the process of introducing fair and democratic electoral systems where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. [[Psephology]] is the study of results and other [[statistics]] relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results).
==Definitions of democratic elections==
In [[political theory]], the [[authority]] of the [[government]] in democracies derives solely from the consent of the governed. The principal mechanism for translating that consent into governmental authority is the holding of free and fair elections.
[[Image:Hustings20050204 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|240px|left|A pre-election [[hustings]] at the [[Oxford West and Abingdon]] constituency, England.]]
[[Image:ElezioneBrunate.jpg|thumb|right|A poster for the European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists]]
There is a broad consensus as to what kind of elections can be considered free and fair. [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]], scholar and former [[United States]] [[ambassador]] to the [[United Nations]], has offered this definition: "Democratic elections are not merely symbolic....They are competitive, periodic, inclusive, definitive elections in which the chief decision-makers in a government are selected by [[citizenship|citizens]] who enjoy broad freedom to criticize government, to publish their criticism and to present alternatives."
The [[Democracy Watch (International)]] website, further defines fair democratic elections as, "Elections in which great care is taken to prevent any explicit or hidden structural bias towards any one candidate, aside from those beneficial biases that naturally result from an [[electorate]] that is equally well informed about the various assets and liabilities of each candidate". This was more formally stated in 2000 by [[Chief Justice]] [[Murray Gleeson]] of the [[High Court of Australia|Australian High Court]] as "The democratic and lawful means of securing change, if change be necessary, is an expression of the will of an informed electorate."
The apparently simple requirement of an informed electorate is difficult to achieve in modern electorates with thousands of voters, most of whom have no prospects of knowing candidates other than by information published by third parties. The party with the most immediate interest in having structural biases is the government conducting the election. One possible result is the 'show' elections described below.
Some other scholars argue that elections are at most secondary to a functioning democracy. They argue that the [[rule of law]] is more important. An example would be pre-unification [[Hong Kong]], which was ruled by an unelected [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Administrator of the Government|administrator]] but was generally considered to be a free and open society due to its strong legal institutions.
==Characteristics of elections==
===Who can vote===
[[Image:ElezioneMilano.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Campaigners working on posters in Milan, Italy, 2004]]
A crucial issue in elections is the question of [[suffrage]]&mdash;who is allowed to vote&mdash;whether the electorate comprises the entire citizenry or some subset of it. The democracy of ancient Athens did not allow women, children, foreigners and slaves to vote&mdash;thus disenfranchising the majority of the population. Over the last few centuries since elections began to be held there has been a long struggle to expand the franchise to excluded groups.
Originally in the U.S., for example, only white male property holders enjoyed the right to elect and be elected when the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] was signed in 1787. The property qualification disappeared by the early 19th century, and women won the right to vote in 1920. [[African American]]s, however, did not enjoy full voting rights in the southern Un
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e>Hebrew morphology</title>
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<page>
<title>Hebrew grammar</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the grammar of Modern Hebrew. For information on the various historical forms of Hebrew, see [[Hebrew language]].''
'''[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[grammar]]''' is mostly [[analytic language|analytical]], expressing such forms as [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative case|ablative]], and [[accusative case|accusative]] using [[preposition]]al particles rather than [[declension|morphological cases]]. However, inflection does play an important role in the formation of the verbs, some prepositions, and the [[genitive case|genitive]] construct of nouns.
==Word order==
Word order of sentences is somewhat arbitrary, as sentences and clauses can be [[Subject Verb Object|Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)]] or [[Verb Subject Object|Verb-Subject-Object (VSO)]]. In order to keep the object separate from the subject, definite direct objects are marked with the special preposition את ''et'', which has no analog in English. For example, the first sentence of the Hebrew Bible is VSO: ...ברא אלוהים את השמים... ''...bara elohim et ha-shamayim...'' (...created God את the heavens...)
==== Adjectives ====
In Hebrew, adjectives follow nouns, unlike in English, where they precede them. Thus, in the sentence החתול הקטן אכל את הגבינה ''Ha-khatul ha-katan akhal et ha-g'vina'' (The small cat ate the cheese):
{|class="wikitable"
| ''ha-g'vina'' || ''et'' || ''akhal'' || ''ha-katan'' || ''ha-khatul''
|-
| .הַגְּבִינָה || אֶת || אַכַל|| הַקָטָן || הֶחָתוּל
|-
| '''the cheese''' || object marker || '''ate''' || '''the small''' || '''the cat'''
|-
| ''object'' || || ''predicate'' || ''adjective'' || ''subject''
|-
|+ ''The&nbsp;small&nbsp;cat&nbsp;ate&nbsp;the&nbsp;cheese.'' (Read&nbsp;from&nbsp;right&nbsp;to&nbsp;left).
|}
==Verbs==
The Hebrew word for verb is פועל ''po'al'', and as in English, verbs in Hebrew can express both action and status. Hebrew verbs stem from a root (שֹרֶש ''shoresh''), consisting of 3 or 4 consonants, which is modified to bring the verb into different uses. Hebrew verbs can have one of 7 combinations of 4 [[Voice (grammar)|voices]] (active, passive, causative, and reflexive) and three tenses (past, present, and future). Additionally, a verb can be conjugated into an imperative tense and into an infinitive.
===Classification of roots===
A root is classified according to the letters that appear in it. Roots that contain certain letters are conjugated differently.
Roots that contain a ו ''vav'' as the 2nd letters are called hollow roots. The ו ''vav'' rarely appears in any conjugation and it is usually not written as part of the root. These are often treated as 2-letter roots. Examples of hollow roots: שר ''shar'' (sang), גר ''gar'' (lived), דן ''dan'' (discussed), דג ''dag'' (fished).
Roots that contain at least one of the weak letters, י ''yod'', נ ''nun'', ח ''khet'', ע ''ayin'', א ''alef'', and ה ''hei'', are called weak roots. Each weak letter/position pairing results in a slightly different conjugation pattern. The largest group of these are those that end with ה ''hei''. Examples of weak roots: שתה ''shata'' (drank), עלה ''ala'' (went up), ירד ''yarad'' (went down), נפל ''nafal'' (fell).
Roots that do no fit into the other 2 categories are called strong or complete roots.
===Voice: the ''binyan''===
Verb roots can be conjugated according to one of seven forms, בניינים ''binyanim'' (buildings), which generally indicate the [[voice (grammar)|voice]] of the verb. Most roots are only conjugated in two to five of the seven buildings.
{|class="wikitable"
| ''Pa'al'' ||align=right| פָּעַל || simple active
|-
| ''Nif'al'' ||align=right| נִפְעַל || usually, passive or reflexive of ''pa'al''
|-
| ''Pi'el'' ||align=right| פִּעֵל || simple active; often, intensive of ''pa'al''
|-
| ''Pu'al'' ||align=right| פֻּעַל || passive of ''pi'el''
|-
| ''Hif'il'' ||align=right| הִפְעִיל || usually, causative of ''pa'al'' or ''pi'el''
|-
| ''Huf'al'' ||align=right| הֻפְעַל || passive of ''hif'il''
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=right| הִתְפַּעֵל || usually, reflexive or reciprocal of ''pa'al'' or ''pi'el''
|-
|+ The seven verb forms or ''binyanim''.
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! || Active || Passive || Reflexive
|-
| '''Simple'''
| פָּעַל ''pa'al''
| colspan=2 align=center| נִפְעַל ''nif'al''
|-
| '''Intense'''
| פִּעֵל ''pi'el''
| פֻּעַל ''pu'al''
| הִתְפַּעֵל ''hitpa'el''
|-
| '''Causative'''
| הִפְעִיל ''hif'il''
| הֻפְעַל ''huf'al''
| bgcolor=white|
|}
For example, using the root k-t-v (כתב), we might find the forms:
{|class="wikitable"
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pa'al'' || '''katavti''' ||align=right| '''כָּתַּבתִי''' || first-person singular, past tense, active voice: “I wrote”
|-
| ''Nif'al'' || '''nikhtavim''' ||align=right| '''נִכתַּבִים''' || masculine plural, present tense, passive voice: “they are being written”
|-
| ''Hif'il'' || '''hakhtivi''' ||align=right| '''הַכתִּבִי''' || feminine singular, imperative: “dictate!”
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''yitkatev''' ||align=right| '''יִתכַּתֶב''' || third-person masculine singular, future tense: “he will correspond”
|}
There are relationships between these forms, described below. Although they often accurately describe the relationship between the binyanim, there are many exceptions.
==== Intensification: ''pa'al'' to ''pi'el'' ====
''Pa'al'' and ''pi'el'' are both really "simple active" forms and usually mutually exclusive; verbs that can be conjugated into one form cannot usually be conjugated into the other. But of those verbs which can be conjugated into both, the ''pi'el'' form connotes an intensified form of the ''pa'al'' form.
{|class="wikitable"
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pa'al'' || '''shavar''' ||align=right| '''שָׁבַר''' || Break
|-
| ''Pi'el'' || '''shiber''' ||align=right| '''שִׁבֵּר''' || Shatter
|}
==== The interpersonal triangle: ''pi'el'', ''pu'al'', ''hitpa'el'' ====
Often the ''pi'el'', ''pu'al'' and ''hitpa'el'' forms form a triangle of actions taken between two people (or between a person and his or herself). For instance, from the root g-l-kh (גלח):
{|class="wikitable"
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pi'el'' || '''gile'akh''' ||align=right| '''גִלֵחַ'''|| to shave (someone)
|-
| ''Pu'al'' || '''gulakh''' ||align=right| '''גֻלַּח''' || to be shaved (by someone)
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''hitgale'akh''' ||align=right| '''הִתְגַּלֵּחַ''' || to shave (oneself)
|}
==== Causative and co-operative: ''hif'il'', ''hitpa'el'' ====
''Hif'il'' is usually the causative of the ''pa'al'' or ''pi'el'' and the ''hitpa'el'' is usually the reflexive, co-operative or "continuous passive". An example, with k-t-v (כתב):
{|class="wikitable"
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pa'al'' || '''katav''' ||align=right| '''כָּתַב'''|| to write
|-
| ''Nif'al'' || '''nikhtav''' ||align=right| '''נִכְתּב''' || to be written
|-
| ''Hif'il'' || '''hikhtiv''' ||align=right| '''הִכְתּיב''' || to dictate
|-
| ''Huf'al'' || '''hukhtav''' ||align=right| '''הֻכְתּב''' || to be dictated
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''hitkatev''' ||align=right| '''הִתְכַּתֵּב''' || to correspond (with)
|}
''Hitgale'akh'' is an example of reflexive ''hitpa'el'' and ''hitkatev'' is reciprocal ''hitpa'el''. However, there also exists a sort of "continuous passive" '''hitpa'el'''. With the root tz-l-m (צלמ):
{|class="wikitable"
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pi'el'' || '''tzilem''' ||align=right| '''צִלֵּם''' || to photograph
|-
| ''Pu'al'' || '''tzulam''' ||align=right| '''צֻלַּם''' || to be photographed
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''hitz'talem''' ||align=right| '''הִצְטַלֵּם''' || to become photographed
|}
The difference between tzulam and hitz'talem is this. ''Ani m'tzulam'' (אֲנִי מְצֻלָּם) means ''I am photographed'' (there exists a photo of me) while ''ani mitz'talem'' (אֲנִי מִצְטַלֵּם) means ''I am being photographed'' (I am in the act of being photographed).
===Tense===
Once a verb is cast into a certain form, it then undergoes conjugation into one of the three tenses: past, present, and future.
====Present tense====
A verb in the present tense (הוֹוֶה ''hove'') agrees with its subject in gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural), such that each verb has four present-tense forms:
{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2 | Form
! rowspan=2 | Root
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Plural
! rowspan=2 | Translation
|-
! M || F || M || F
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pa'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| שׁוֹמֵר ||align=center| שׁוֹמֶרֶת ||align=center| שׁוֹמְרִים ||align=center| שׁוֹמְרוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Guards
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| shomer ||align=center| shomeret ||align=center| shomrim ||align=center| shomrot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Nif'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| נִשְׁמָר ||align=center| נִשְׁמֶרֶת ||align=center| נִשְׁמָרִים ||align=center| נִשְמָרוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Is guarded
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| nishmar ||align=center| nishmeret ||align=center| ni
|
ypt]]ing information) selected as an official [[Federal Information Processing Standard]] (FIPS) for the [[United States]] in 1976, and which has subsequently enjoyed widespread use internationally. The algorithm was initially controversial, with [[classified information|classified]] design elements, a relatively short [[key length]], and suspicions about a [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) [[backdoor]]. DES consequently came under intense [[academia|academic]] scrutiny, and motivated the modern understanding of [[block cipher]]s and their [[cryptanalysis]].
DES is now considered to be insecure for many applications. This is chiefly due to the 56-bit key size being too small; DES keys have been broken in less than 24 hours. There are also some analytical results which demonstrate theoretical weaknesses in the cipher, although they are infeasible to mount in practice. The algorithm is believed to be practically secure in the form of [[Triple DES]], although there are theoretical attacks. In recent years, the cipher has been superseded by the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES).
In some documentation, a distinction is made between DES as a standard, and the algorithm, which is referred to as the '''DEA''' (the '''Data Encryption Algorithm'''). When spoken, "DES" is either spelled out (''dee-ee-ess'') or pronounced as a single syllable (''dez'').
==History of DES==
The origins of DES go back to the early 1970s. In 1972, after concluding a study on the US government's [[computer security]] needs, the US standards body [[NBS]] (National Bureau of Standards) — now renamed [[NIST]] (National Institute of Standards and Technology) — identified a need for a government-wide standard for encrypting unclassified, sensitive information. Accordingly, on [[15 May]] [[1973]], after consulting with the NSA, NBS solicited proposals for a cipher that would meet rigorous design criteria. None of the submissions, however, turned out to be suitable. A second request was issued on [[27 August]] [[1974]]. This time, [[International Business Machines|IBM]] submitted a candidate which was deemed acceptable, a cipher developed during the period 1973–1974 based on an earlier algorithm, [[Horst Feistel]]'s [[Lucifer (cipher)|Lucifer]] cipher. The team at IBM involved in cipher design and analysis included Feistel, [[Walter Tuchman]], [[Don Coppersmith]], Alan Konheim, Carl Meyer, Mike Matyas, Roy Adler, Edna Grossman, Bill Notz, Lynn Smith, and Bryant Tuckerman.
===NSA's involvement in the design===
On [[17 March]] [[1975]], the proposed DES was published in the ''[[Federal Register]]''. Public comments were requested, and in the following year two open workshops were held to discuss the proposed standard. There was some criticism from various parties, including from [[public-key cryptography]] pioneers [[Martin Hellman]] and [[Whitfield Diffie]], citing a shortened [[key length]] and the mysterious "[[Substitution_box|S-box]]es" as evidence of improper interference from the NSA. The suspicion was that the algorithm had been covertly weakened by the intelligence agency so that they — but no-one else — could easily read encrypted messages. Alan Konheim (one of the designers of DES) commented, "We sent the S-boxes off to Washington. They came back and were all different." The [[United States Senate]] [[Select Committee on Intelligence]] reviewed the NSA's actions to determine whether there had been any improper involvement. In the unclassified summary of their findings, published in 1978, the Committee wrote:
:"In the development of DES, NSA convinced [[IBM]] that a reduced key size was sufficient; indirectly assisted in the development of the S-box structures; and certified that the final DES algorithm was, to the best of their knowledge, free from any statistical or mathematical weakness."
However, it also found that
:"NSA did not tamper with the design of the algorithm in any way. IBM invented and designed the algorithm, made all pertinent decisions regarding it, and concurred that the agreed upon key size was more than adequate for all commercial applications for which the DES was intended."
Another member of the DES team, Walter Tuchman, is quoted as saying, "We developed the DES algorithm entirely within IBM using IBMers. The NSA did not dictate a single wire!"
Some of the suspicions about hidden weaknesses in the S-boxes were allayed in 1990, with the independent discovery and open publication by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir of [[differential cryptanalysis]], a general method for breaking block ciphers. The S-boxes of DES were much more resistant to the attack than if they had been chosen at random, strongly suggesting that IBM knew about the technique back in the 1970s. This was indeed the case—in 1994, Don Coppersmith published the original design criteria for the S-boxes. IBM had discovered differential cryptanalysis in the 1970s and, after securing DES, had been instructed to keep the technique secret by the NSA. Coppersmith explains, "that was because [differential cryptanalysis] can be a very powerful tool, used against many schemes, and there was concern that such information in the public domain could adversely affect national security.". Shamir himself commented, "I would say that, contrary to what some people believe, there is no evidence of tampering with the DES so that the basic design was weakened."
The other criticism—that the key length was too short—was supported by the fact that the reason given by the [[NSA]] for reducing the key length from 64 bits to 56 was that the other 8 bits could serve as [[parity]] bits, which seemed somewhat specious. It is widely believed that NSA's decision was motivated by the possibility that they would be able to [[brute force attack]] a 56 bit key several years before the rest of the world would.
===The algorithm as a standard===
Despite the criticisms, DES was approved as a federal standard in November 1976, and published on [[15 January]] [[1977]] as '''FIPS PUB 46''', authorised for use on all unclassified data. It was subsequently reaffirmed as the standard in [[1983]], [[1988]] (revised as '''FIPS-46-1'''), 1993 ('''FIPS-46-2'''), and again in 1998 ('''FIPS-46-3'''), the latter prescribing "[[Triple DES]]" (see below). On [[26 May]] [[2002]], DES was finally superseded by [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]], the Advanced Encryption Standard, following a public competition (see [[AES process]]). Even [[as of 2004]], however, DES remains in widespread use.
Another theoretical attack, [[linear cryptanalysis]], was published in 1994, but it was a [[brute force attack]] in 1998 that demonstrated that DES could be attacked very practically, and highlighted the need for a replacement algorithm. These and other methods of [[cryptanalysis]] are discussed in more detail later in the article.
The introduction of DES is considered to have been a catalyst for the academic study of cryptography, particularly of methods to crack block ciphers. Bruce Schneier writes:
: ''"Off the record, NSA has characterized DES as one of their biggest mistakes. If they knew the details would be released so that people could write software, they would never have agreed to it. DES did more to galvanize the field of cryptanalysis than anything else. Now there was an algorithm to study: one that the NSA said was secure."''
===Chronology===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%"
! Date
! Year
! Event
|-
| [[15 May]]
| 1973
| NBS publishes a first request for a standard encryption algorithm
|-
| [[27 August]]
| 1974
| NBS publishes a second request for encryption algorithms
|-
| [[17 March]]
| 1975
| DES is published in the ''Federal Register'' for comment
|-
| August
| 1976
| First workshop on DES
|-
| September
| 1976
| Second workshop, discussing mathematical foundation of DES
|-
| November
| 1976
| DES is approved as a standard
|-
| [[15 January]]
| 1977
| DES is published as a FIPS standard FIPS PUB 46
|-
|
| 1983
| DES is reaffirmed for the first time
|-
|
| 1986
| [[Videocipher]] II, a TV satellite scrambling system based upon DES begins use by HBO
|-
| [[22 January]]
| 1988
| DES is reaffirmed for the second time as FIPS 46-1, superseding FIPS PUB 46
|-
|
| 1992
| Biham and Shamir publish the first theoretical attack with less complexity than brute force: [[differential cryptanalysis]]. However, it requires an unrealistic 2<sup>47</sup> [[chosen plaintext]]s (Biham and Shamir, 1992).
|-
| [[30 December|30&nbsp;December]]
| 1993
| DES is reaffirmed for the third time as FIPS 46-2
|-
|
| 1994
| The first experimental cryptanalysis of DES is performed using [[linear cryptanalysis]] (Matsui, 1994).
|-
| June
| 1997
| The [[DESCHALL Project]] breaks a message encrypted with DES for the first time in public.
|-
| July
| 1998
| The [[Electronic_Frontier_Foundation|EFF]]'s [[EFF DES cracker|DES cracker]] (Deep Crack) breaks a DES key in 56 hours.
|-
| January
| 1999
| Together, [[Deep Crack]] and [[distributed.net]] break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes.
|-
| [[25 October]]
| 1999
| DES is reaffirmed for the fourth time as FIPS 46-3, which specifies the preferred use of [[Triple DES]], with single DES permitted only in legacy systems.
|-
| [[26 November|26&nbsp;November]]
| 2001
| The [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] is published in FIPS 197
|-
| [[26 May]]
| 2002
| The AES standard becomes effective
|-
| [[26 July]]
| 2004
| The withdrawal of FIPS 46-3 (and a couple of related standards) is proposed in the ''Federal Register'' [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2004/04-16894.htm]
|-
| [[19 May]]
| 2005
| NIST withdraws FIPS 46-3
|-
|}
==Replacement algorithms==
Concerns about security and the relatively slow operation of DES in [[software]] motivated researchers to propose a variety of alternative [[block cipher]] designs, which started to appear in
|
roup has equal say in the development process except for one person who guides the group through discrepancies. These groups tend to be around 10 people to keep the group manageable. The second form is referred to as "peer programming" or [[pair programming]].
See [[Software engineering#Process and methodology|Process and methodology]] for the different aspects of modern day computer programming.
==See also==
*[[Turing machine]]
*[[Programming language]]
*[[Computer software]]
*[[Programmer]]
*[[Source code]]
*[[Extreme Programming]]
*[[Operating system]]
*[[Programming paradigm]]
*[[Firmware]] / [[Device driver]]
*[[Polyglot (computing)|Polyglot program]]
==Bibliography==
*{{note|Murdocca}} Miles J. Murdocca & Vincent P. Heuring (2000). Principles of Computer Architecture. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-201-43664-7
*{{note|wwwPOCA}} [http://iiusaedu.com/~murdocca/POCA Principles of Computer Architecture] (POCA) &ndash; ARCTools virtual computer available for download to execute referenced code, accessed August 24, 2005
*{{note|TalenAutomata}} J.Glenn Brookshear (1989). Theory of Computation, Formal Languages, Automata, and Complexity. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co.Inc. ISBN 0-8053-0143-7
==External links==
*[http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/program.html Definition of Program @ Webopedia]
*[http://www.Agtivity.com/computer_program.htm Definition of Computer program @ Agtivity]
*[http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=software Definition of Software @ FOLDOC]
[[Category:Programming|*]]
[[Category:Software]]
[[bs:Računarski program]]
[[ca:Programa informàtic]]
[[cs:Program]]
[[de:Computerprogramm]]
[[es:programa de ordenador]]
[[et:Arvutiprogramm]]
[[fa:&#1576;&#1585;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1607; (&#1585;&#1575;&#1740;&#1575;&#1606;&#1607;)]]
[[fi:Tietokoneohjelma]]
[[fr:programme informatique]]
[[id:Program komputer]]
[[io:Programo]]
[[it:programma (informatica)]]
[[ja:&#12503;&#12525;&#12464;&#12521;&#12512; (コンピュータ)]]
[[ko:&#54532;&#47196;&#44536;&#47016;]]
[[lo:ໂປແກມ ຄອມພິວເຕີ]]
[[lv:Datorprogramma]]
[[nl:computerprogramma]]
[[pt:Programa de computador]]
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[[simple:Computer program]]
[[sv:datorprogram]]
[[th:โปรแกรมคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[zh:%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crime</title>
<id>5785</id>
<revision>
<id>42140094</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:10:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
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<minor />
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Crimin}}{{CriminTheo}}
{{OtherUses|the act of Crime}}
A '''crime''' in a nontechnical sense is an act that violates a [[politics|political]] or [[morality|moral]] rule. But in many [[nation]]s, the [[government]]s have discovered that informal sanctions are ineffective to control some types of antisocial behaviour, so the system of [[social control]] has to be formalised. [[Law]]s are designed to regulate human behaviour and the [[state (law)|state]] provides [[remedy|remedies]] and [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] to protect its [[citizen]]s if the laws are broken. But not all breaches of the law are considered crimes, e.g. [[breach of contract|breaches of contract]]. The [[label (sociology)|label]] of "crime" and the accompanying [[social stigma]] are usually reserved for those activities causing more serious loss and damage to the citizens of the state. Its use is intended to reflect a consensus of condemnation for the identified behaviour and, in the event that an accused is [[conviction (law)|convicted]] following a [[trial (law)|trial]] applying principles of [[due process]], to justify the state imposing [[punishment]]. The term is also applied to minor [[regulatory offences]] or [[infraction]]s, e.g. where the [[criminal law]] is used to keep order on the roads.
== Definition of crime in general ==
The systematic study of the causes ([[aetiology]]), prevention, control, and penal responses to crime is called [[criminology]]. For these purposes, the definition of crime depends on the theoretical stance taken. The nature of crime could be viewed from either a legal or [[norm (sociology)|normative]] perspective. A legalistic definition takes as its starting point the [[common law]] or the [[statute|statutory]]/[[codification|codified]] definitions contained in the laws enacted by the [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government. Thus, a crime is any [[culpability|culpable]] action or [[omission (criminal)|omission]] prohibited by law and punished by the state. This is an uncomplicated view: a crime is a crime because the law defines it as such.
A normative definition views crime as [[deviant behavior|deviant behaviour]] that violates prevailing norms, i.e. [[culture|cultural]] standards specifying how humans ought to behave. This approach considers the complex realities surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing [[society|social]], political, [[psychology|psychological]], and [[economics|economic]] conditions may affect the current definitions of crime and the form of the legal, [[law enforcement]], and penal responses made by the state. These [[structuralism|structural]] realities are fluid and often contentious. For example, as cultures change and the political environment shifts, behaviour may be [[criminalisation|criminalised]] or [[decriminalisation|decriminalised]] which will directly affect the [[statistics|statistical]] [[crime rate]]s, determine the allocation of resources for the enforcement of such laws, and influence public opinion. Similarly, changes in the way that crime data is collected and/or calculated may affect the public perceptions of the extent of any given "crime problem". All such adjustments to [[crime statistics]], allied with the experience of people in their everyday lives, shape attitudes on the extent to which law should be used to enforce any particular social norm. There are many ways in which behaviour can be controlled without having to resort to using the criminal law. Indeed, in those cases where there is no clear consensus on the given norm, the use of the criminal law by the group in [[power (sociology)|power]] to prohibit the behaviour of another group may be considered an improper limitation of the second group's [[freedom]], and the ordinary members of society may lose some of their respect for the law in general whether the disputed law is actively enforced or not.
==Why criminalise?==
Criminalisation is intended as a pre-emptive, harm-reduction device, using the threat of punishment as a [[deterrent]] to those proposing to engage in the behaviour causing harm. The state becomes involved because the costs of not criminalising (i.e. allowing the harms to continue unabated) outweigh the costs of criminalising it (i.e. restricting individual [[liberty]] and so minimising harm to others). The process of criminalisation should be controlled by the state because:
*Victims or witnesses of crimes might be deterred from taking any action if they fear retaliation. Even in policed societies, fear may inhibit reporting or co-operation in a trial.
*The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while being indifferent to the more general need for [[deterrence]]: see Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.
*Even if the victims recognise that they are victims, they may not have the resources to investigate and seek legal redress for the injuries suffered: the enforcers formally appointed by the state have the expertise and the resources.
*Victims do not have economies of scale to administer a penal system, let alone collect any fines levied by a court (see Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines). Garoupa & Klerman (2002) warn that a [[rent-seeking]] government's primary motivation is to maximise revenue and so, if offenders have sufficient wealth, a rent-seeking government is more aggressive than a [[social welfare function|social-welfare]]-maximising government in enforcing laws against minor crimes (usually with a fixed penalty such as parking and routine traffic violations), but more lax in enforcing laws against major crimes.
==History ==
The first civilisations had codes of law, containing both civil and penal rules mixed together, though these codes were not always recorded. According to Oppenheim (1964), the first known written codes were produced by the [[Sumerians]], and it was probably their king [[Ur-Nammu]] (who ruled over [[Ur]] in the 21st century BC) who acted as the first legislator, creating a formal system in thirty-two articles. The Sumerians later issued other codes including the "code of Lipit-Istar" (last king of the 3rd dynasty of Ur, Isin - 20th century BC). This code contains some fifty articles and has been reconstructed by the comparison among several sources. Kramer (1971: 4) adds a further element: "The Sumarian was deeply conscious of his personal rights and resented any encroachment on them, whether by his King, his superior, or his equal. No wonder that the Sumerians were the first to compile laws and law codes."
In [[Babylon]], Driver and Mills (1952-55) and Skaist (1994) describe the successive legal codes, including the [[code of Hammurabi]] (one of the richest of ancient times), which reflected society's belief that law was derived from the will of the gods (see [[Babylonian law]]. Many of the states at this time were [[theocracy|theocratic]], and their codes of
|
onal generating units were added through 1961.
Water flowing from Lake Mead through the gradually-narrowing penstocks to the powerhouse reaches a speed of about 85 miles per hour when it reaches the turbines.
The seventeen main [[turbine]]-generator combinations at this powerhouse generate a maximum of [[1 E9 W|2,074]] [[megawatt]]s of hydroelectric power. All hydroelectric plants generate a controlled, variable amount of power as the demand for power varies during a day. In fact, a big advantage of hydroelectric power is the ability to quickly and readily vary the amount of power generated, depending on the load presented at that moment. Steam-driven power plants are not so easily "throttled" because of the amount of thermodynamic inertia contained in their systems.
The dam and powerplant are operated by the [[United States Department of the Interior]]'s [[Bureau of Reclamation]].
== Use for road transport ==
[[Image:Hoover_aerial.png|thumb|250px|right|Aerial shot of Hoover Dam]]
The Hoover Dam also serves as a crossing for [[U.S. Route 93]]. This will change by 2008 when the [[Mike O'Callaghan-Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge]] is completed as part of the larger [[Hoover Dam Bypass]] Project.
The section of U.S. Route 93 that approaches and crosses Hoover Dam is woefully inadequate, especially due to increased vehicle traffic. It is one lane in each direction, has several narrow and dangerous turns, has poor sight distances, and has the occasional rock slide. In the wake of the [[September 11, 2001]] terrorist attacks, truck traffic over the Hoover Dam has been diverted south to a Colorado River crossing near [[Laughlin, Nevada]] in an effort to safeguard the dam from hazardous spills or explosions. The bypass and the bridge are intended to improve travel times, replace the dangerous roadway, and reduce the threat of an attack or a potential accident at the dam site.
==Statistics==
*Construction period: [[April 20]], [[1931]] - [[March 1]], [[1936]]
*Construction cost: $49 million ($676 million adjusted for [[inflation]])
*Deaths attributed to construction: 96[http://www.usbr.gov/dataweb/dams/hoover_fatalities_table.htm]
*Dam height: 726.4 ft ([[1 E2 m|221.4]] [[metre|m]]), 2nd highest dam in the United States.
*Dam thickness: 660 ft (200 m) at its base; 45 ft (15 m) thick at its crest.
*[[Concrete]]: 4.36 million [[cubic yard|yd³]] ([[1 E6 m³|3.33 million]] [[cubic metre|m³]])
*Electric Power produced by the [[Water turbine|water turbines]]: 2,080 megawatts
*Fatalities during construction: 107
*Traffic across the dam: 13,000 to 16,000 people each day, according to the [[Federal Highway Administration]]
*Lake Mead [http://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/faqs/lakefaqs.html statistics]
**area: 157,900 acres (639 km²), backing up 110 miles (177 km) behind the dam.
**volume: 28,537,000 acre feet (35.200 km³) at an elevation of 1,221.4 feet (372.3 m) .
*With 8 to 10 million visitors each year, including visitors to Hoover Dam but not all traffic across the dam, the [[Lake Mead National Recreation Area]] is the 5th busiest [[U.S. National Park|U.S. national park]].
*The large spillway tunnel blasted into the Black Canyon walls for Hoover Dam have only been used twice in the history of the dam. Once was during a planned period in the second half of 1941, for testing the spillways, and the second one was for about six weeks during the summer of 1983, when a snow-melt flood in the Colorado River basin made use of the spillways necessary.
*Usually all the flow of the Colorado River, other than that lost to evaporation in Lake Mead, passes through the water turbines of the Hover Dam powerhouse.
==The naming controversy==
The dam, originally planned for a location in Boulder Canyon, was relocated to Black Canyon for better impoundment, but was still known as the '''Boulder Dam''' project. Work on the project started on [[July 7]], [[1930]]. At the official beginning of the project on [[September 17]], [[1930]], President Hoover's [[Secretary of the Interior]] [[Ray L. Wilbur]], announced that the new dam on the Colorado River would be named Hoover Dam to honor the then President of the United States. Wilbur followed a long-standing tradition of naming important dams after the President who was in office when they were constructed, such as Wilson Dam and Coolidge Dam. Furthermore, Hoover was already campaigning for re-election in the face of the Depression and sought credit for creating jobs. A Congressional Act of [[February 14]], [[1931]], made the name "Hoover Dam" official.
In 1932, Hoover lost his bid for reelection to [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]. When Roosevelt took office on [[March 4]], [[1933]], and he brought [[Harold L. Ickes|Harold Ickes]] with him to replace Ray Lyman Wilbur as Secretary of the Interior. Ickes wasted no time removing Hoover’s name from the Boulder Canyon Project. On May 8, 1933, Ickes issued a memorandum to the Bureau of Reclamation, which was in charge of the dam, stating, "I have your reference to the text for the pamphlet descriptive of the Boulder Canyon Project for use at the Century of Progress Exposition. I would be glad if you will refer to the dam as 'Boulder Dam' in this pamphlet as well as in correspondence and other references to the dam as you may have occasion to make in the future."
Ickes could not "officially" change the name of the dam, as that had been set by Congress, but the effect was the same: all reference to "Hoover" Dam vanished in favor of "Boulder" Dam. Official sources, as well as tourist and other promotional material now read Boulder Dam.
Roosevelt died in 1945 and Harold Ickes retired in 1946. On [[March 4]], [[1947]] California Congressman Jack Anderson submitted House Resolution 140 to "restore" the name Hoover Dam. Anderson’s resolution passed the House on [[March 6]]; a companion resolution passed the Senate on [[April 23]], and on [[April 30]], [[1947]], President [[Harry S. Truman]] signed Public Law 43 which read: "Resolved … that the name of Hoover Dam is hereby restored to the dam on the Colorado River in Black Canyon constructed under the authority of the Boulder Canyon Project Act … . Any law, regulation, document, or record of the United States in which such dam is designated or referred to under the name of Boulder Dam shall be held to refer to such dam under and by the name of Hoover Dam."
==Image gallery==
<center><gallery>
Image:U.S._Highway_93_on_Hoover_Dam.jpeg|U.S. Highway 93 on Hoover Dam
Image:DamTimeZones.jpg|The dam crosses the border between two time zones, the [[Pacific Time Zone]] the [[Mountain Time Zone]]
Image:HooverDamFromAbove.JPG|From above down towards the [[Colorado River]] side
Image:HooverDownstream.jpg|View downstream from top of dam
</gallery></center>
{{Colorado_River_system}}
==Trivia==
The [[hardhat]] was invented, and first used, by the construction workers of the Hoover Dam.
==References==
* Stevens, Joseph E., ''Hoover Dam: An American Adventure,'' University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Hoover Dam|Hoover Dam}}
*[http://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/ Hoover Dam's official website]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~1930s/DISPLAY/hoover/front2.html Hoover Dam: Lonely Lands Made Fruitful]
*[http://www.structurae.de/en/structures/data/s0000136/index.cfm Structurae: Hoover Dam]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/hoover_dam_01.shtml BBC - Hoover Dam, industrial and social history]
*[http://www.sunsetcities.com/hoover-dam.html Hoover Dam page]
*[http://www.citlink.net/~davegun/hdIX.html Dams of the Lower Colorado River - Hoover Dam]
*[http://www.1st100.com/part1/crowe.html Frank Crowe - Builder of Hoover Dam]
*"Boulder Dam" &ndash; [http://www.archive.org/details/BoulderD1931 Part I] and [http://www.archive.org/details/BoulderD1931_2 Parts III and IV], documentary films from the [[Prelinger Archives]] at the [[Internet Archive]].
*Nine [http://www.mazmanian.net/visuals/industrial-fashion.html Unique Images of Hoover Dam] Including Spillways, Underground Areas, Generators, and Transformers
{{geolinks-US-streetscale|36.0161|-114.7372}}
{{geolinks-US-loc|36.0161|-114.7372|Hoover+Dam}}
*[http://services.google.com/earth/kmz/HooverDam.kmz Google Earth view]
[[Category:American architecture]]
[[Category:Arizona landmarks]]
[[Category:Art Deco]]
[[Category:Dams in the United States]]
[[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]]
[[Category:Nevada landmarks]]
[[Category:Reservoirs in the United States]]
[[Category:United States National Historic Landmarks]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Arizona]]
[[cs:Hooverova přehrada]]
[[da:Hoover Dam]]
[[de:Hoover-Staudamm]]
[[fr:Barrage Hoover]]
[[fi:Hooverin pato]]
[[he:סכר הובר]]
[[ja:フーバーダム]]
[[nl:Hoover Dam]]
[[ru:Плотина Гувера]]
[[sv:Hooverdammen]]
[[th:เขื่อนฮูเวอร์]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holger Pedersen</title>
<id>14309</id>
<revision>
<id>19205642</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-20T05:04:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Twthmoses</username>
<id>173821</id>
</contributor>
<comment>made it a disambig page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen ]] - Danish linguist (1867-1953)
* [[Holger Pedersen (astronomer)|Holger Pedersen ]] - Danish astronomer (b.1946), at the [[European Southern Observatory]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adventures of Huckleberry Finn</title>
<id>14311</id>
<revision>
<id>41989654</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:55:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme</username>
<id>146367</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Huck-and-jim-on-raft.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Huckleberry Finn and Jim]]
'''''Adv
|
t;0x0000</td><td colspan=2>0x0000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>YIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0xC0A80164</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>SIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>GIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CHADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00053C04</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x8D590000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 53: DHCP Offer</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 1: 255.255.255.0 subnet mask</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 3: 192.168.1.1 router</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 51: 1 day IP lease time</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 54: 192.168.1.1 DHCP server</td></tr>
</table></td>
===DHCP Request===
The client selects a configuration out of the DHCP Offer packets it has received and broadcasts it on the local subnet. Again, this client requests the 192.168.1.100 address that the server specified.
<td valign="top"><table border="1" cellspacing="0"><caption>DHCPREQUEST</caption>
<tr><td colspan=4>UDP Src=0.0.0.0 sPort=68 Dest=255.255.255.255 dPort=67 </td></tr>
<tr><th>OP</th><th>HTYPE</th><th>HLEN</th><th>HOPS</th></tr>
<tr><td>0x01</td><td>0x01</td><td>0x06</td><td>0x00</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>XID</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x3903F326</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=2>SECS</th><th colspan=2>FLAGS</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=2>0x0000</td><td colspan=2>0x0000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>YIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>SIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>GIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CHADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00053C04</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x8D590000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 53: DHCP Request</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 50: 192.168.1.100 requested</td></tr>
</table></td>
===DHCP Acknowledge===
The server acknowledges the request and sends the acknowledgement to the client. The system as a whole expects the client to configure its network interface with the supplied options.
<td valign="top"><table border="1" cellspacing="0"><caption>DHCPACK</caption>
<tr><td colspan=4>UDP Src=192.168.1.1 sPort=67 Dest=255.255.255.255 dPort=68 </td></tr>
<tr><th>OP</th><th>HTYPE</th><th>HLEN</th><th>HOPS</th></tr>
<tr><td>0x02</td><td>0x01</td><td>0x06</td><td>0x00</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>XID</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x3903F326</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=2>SECS</th><th colspan=2>FLAGS</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=2>0x0000</td><td colspan=2>0x0000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>YIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0xC0A80164</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>SIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>GIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CHADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00053C04</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x8D590000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 53: DHCP ACK</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 1: 255.255.255.0 subnet mask</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 3: 192.168.1.1 router</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 51: 1 day IP lease time</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 54: 192.168.1.1 DHCP server</td></tr>
</table></td>
</tr></table>
===DHCP Inform===
The client sends a request to the DHCP server: either to request more information than the server sent with the original DHCPACK; or to repeat data for a particular application - for example, browsers use ''DHCP Inform'' to obtain web proxy settings via [[Web Proxy Autodiscovery Protocol|WPAD]]. Such queries do not cause the DHCP server to refresh the IP expiry time in its database.
===DHCP Release===
The client sends a request to the DHCP server to release the DHCP and the client unconfigures its IP address. As clients usually do not know when users may unplug them from the network, the protocol does not define the sending of ''DHCP Release'' as mandatory.
==DHCP and firewalls==
[[Firewall (networking) | Firewall]]s usually have to permit DHCP traffic explicitly. Specification of the DHCP client-server protocol describes several cases when packets must have the source address of 0x00000000 or the destination address of 0xffffffff. Anti-[[spoofing attack|spoofing]] policy rules and tight inclusive firewalls often stop such packets. Multi-homed DHCP servers, as well as DHCP servers with multiple IP addresses assigned to a single interface, both require special consideration and further complicate configuration.
To allow DHCP network administrators need to allow several types of packets through the server-side firewall. All DHCP packets travel as UDP datagrams; all client-sent packets sent have source port 68 and destination port 67; all server-sent packets have source port 67 and destination port 68. For example, a server-side firewall should allow the following types of packets:
* Incoming packets from 0.0.0.0 or dhcp-pool to dhcp-ip
* Incoming packets from any address to 255.255.255.255
* Outgoing packets from dhcp-ip to dhcp-pool or 255.255.255.255
where ''dhcp-ip'' represents any address configured on the DHCP server host and ''dhcp-pool'' stands for any address assigned by the DHCP server
===Example in ipfw firewall===
To give an idea of how a configuration would look in production, the following rules for a server-side [[ipfw]] firewall allow DHCP traffic through. Dhcpd operates on interface rl0 and assigns addresses from 192.168.0.0/24 :
pass udp from 0.0.0.0,192.168.0.0/24 68 to me 67 in recv rl0
pass udp from any 68 to 255.255.255.255 67 in recv rl0
pass udp from me 67 to 192.168.0.0/24,255.255.255.255 68 out xmit rl0
==See also==
*[[RARP]]
*[[BOOTP]]
*[[Zeroconf]]
==External links==
*RFC 2131 - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
*RFC 2132 - DHCP Options and BOOTP Vendor Extensions
*[http://www.bind9.net/rfc-dhcp DHCP RFC] - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol RFC's (IETF)
*[http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/DHCP-Security-Part1.html DHCP Server Security] - This article looks at the different types of threats faced by DHCP servers and counter-measures for mitigating these threats.
*RFC 4242 - Information Refresh Time Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6
*[http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/DHCP.pdf DHCP Sequence Diagram] - This sequence diagram covers several scenarios of DHCP operation.
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[cs:DHCP]]
[[da:DHCP]]
[[de:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[et:Dünaamiline hostikonfiguratsiooni protokoll]]
[[el:DHCP]]
[[es:DHCP]]
[[fr:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[it:DHCP]]
[[he:DHCP]]
[[hu:DHCP]]
[[nl:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[ja:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[no:DHCP]]
[[pl:DHCP]]
[[pt:DHCP]]
[[ru:DHCP]]
[[sl:DHCP]]
[[fi:DHCP]]
[[sv:DHCP]]
[[th:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[tr:DHCP]]
[[zh:DHCP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dava Sobel</title>
<id>8623</id>
<revision>
<id>36687476</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T20:35:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yearofthedragon</username>
<id>472</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Spanish translation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dava Sobel''' is a [[writer]] of popular expositions of scientific topics. Her wo
|
General Montgomery and Winston Churchill.
===The Last Viceroy===
[[Image:MountbattenStamp.jpg|thumb|right|Stamp issued by the Government of [[India]] in the memory of Earl Louis Mountbatten]]His experience in the region and in particular his widely-known Labour sympathies led to [[Clement Attlee]] appointing him [[Viceroy of India]] after the war. In his position as Viceroy, Mountbatten oversaw the granting of independence to the Partitioned India as [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] (In subsequent years, pre-Independence India has often been referred to as "British India." Prior to Partition and Independence, "British India" referred to those parts of India which were directly administered by the British, as opposed to those portions of pre-Independence India which were under the control of the Indian Princes.)
He developed a strong relationship with the Indian princes who reposed considerable confidence in him, and on the basis of his relationship with the British monarchy persuaded most of them to accede to the new states of India and Pakistan. This was vitally important in the lead-up to Indian independence, though, of course, ultimately they were betrayed when post-Independence India and Pakistan abolished their prerogatives. The major continuing irritant between India and Pakistan has been over their rival claims to the formerly princely state of Kashmir. As a Hindu, the Maharajah, Hari Singh, chose to accede to India. Nehru himself was a Kashmiri Hindu and had a strong wish to retain Kashmir for India; as has been well-documented, Mountbatten got on extremely well with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], the [[Indian National Congress|Indian Congress]] leader, and not at all with [[Mohammed Ali Jinnah]], the leader of the [[Muslim League|Indian Muslim League]] and champion of the partitioning of India, a factor that complicated the issue.
With his strong friendship with Nehru and amicable relations with Mahatma [[Gandhi]] but inability to work his famous charm on Jinnah, Mountbatten quickly gave up hope of salvaging a unified independent India, becoming resigned to [[Partition]] into a post-Independence Pakistan and Bharath (India). After Independence (midnight of 14/[[15 August]] [[1947]], celebrated on the 14th in Pakistan and the 15th in India) he remained in New Delhi for ten months, serving as the first of independent India's two governors general until June 1948 (the monarchy being abolished in 1950 and the office of governor general of India replaced with a non-executive presidency.) Notwithstanding extremely effective self-promotion during his lifetime as to own his part in Indian independence &mdash; notably in the television series "The Life and Times of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Mountbatten of Burma", produced by his son-in-law Lord Brabourne, and [[Dominic LaPierre]] and [[Larry Collins]]'s rather sensationalised ''[[Freedom at Midnight]]'' (as to which he was the main informant) &mdash; his record is mixed; one view is that he hastened the independence process unduly, forseeing vast disruption and loss of life and not wanting this to occur on the British watch, but thereby actually causing it to occur, especially during the partition of the Punjab but also to a lesser extent, Bengal.
[[John Kenneth Galbraith]], the Canadian-American Harvard economist, who advised governments of India during the 1950s, became an intimate of Nehru and served as the American ambassador from 1961-63, has been a particularly harsh critic of Mountbatten in this regard. The horrific casualties of the partition of the Punjab are luridly described in Collins' and LaPierre's ''Freedom at Midnight'' and more latterly in [[Bapsi Sidwah]]'s novel ''Ice Candy Man'', made into the film ''Earth, 1947''. In all renderings of the appalling carnage that followed the Partition, Lady Mountbatten is universally praised for her heroic efforts in relieving the misery and to this day she remains a heroine of the Partition period in India .
===Career after India===
After India, Mountbatten served in the Mediterranean Fleet and as a staff officer in the Admiralty. He took great personal pride and pleasure in serving as [[First Sea Lord]] and later as [[Chief of the Defence Staff]] for six years ([[1959]]-[[1965]]), which he also took as reparation for the slur on his father who had been forced to resign as First Sea Lord in [[1914]] after being falsely accused of pro-German sympathy.
In 1967 Mountbatten attended a private meeting with press baron and MI5 agent Cecil King, and the Government's chief scientific adviser, Solly Zuckerman. King wanted to stage a coup against the then crisis-striken Labour Government, and urged Mountbatten to become the leader of a Government of national salvation. Mountbatten apparently considered the idea of heading the coup, but Zuckerman pointed out that it was treason, and the idea came to nothing because of Mountbatten's reluctance to act. {{ref|Hansard}}
Mountbatten took great pride in enhancing intercultural understanding and in 1984, with his eldest daughter as the patron, the [http://www.mountbatten.org Mountbatten Internship Programme]was developed to allow young adults the opportunity to enhance their intercultural appreciation and experience by spending time abroad.
A small item in Private Eye magazine regarding drunken naval ratings at Mountbatten's London home, and which alluded to Mountbatten's bisexuality, was widely commented upon. Mountbatten's official biographer wrote that he could find nothing to support the allegation, but several eyewitness accounts supporting Private Eye were later published.
==Marriage and descendants==
===Edwina, Countess Mountbatten===
Mountbatten - known to friends and family as "Dickie" - was married on [[July 18]], [[1922]] to the Hon. [[Edwina Cynthia Annette Ashley]], daughter of Wilfred Ashley, 1st [[Baron Mount Temple]]. She was the favourite grandaughter of the Edwardian magnate, Sir [[Ernest Cassel]]. There followed a glamorous honeymoon tour of America which famously included a visit with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin in Hollywood, Chaplin creating a widely-seen home movie "Nice and Easy," featuring the talents of Fairbanks, Pickford, Chaplin and the Mountbattens. Mountbatten and Edwina remained devoted to each other until her death at age 58 on [[February 21]], [[1960]], in [[Jesselton]], [[North Borneo]] of unknown causes, though as amply documented in the official biography by Philip Ziegler, the marriage had been stormy throughout, with ample adulterous dalliance on both parts. They had two daughters: [[Patricia Mountbatten, 2nd Countess Mountbatten of Burma]] (born on [[February 14]], [[1924]]), and [[Lady Pamela Hicks|Lady Pamela Carmen Louise (Hicks)]] (born on [[April 19]], [[1929]]).
===Passing of titles to Patricia===
Since Mountbatten had no sons, when he was created Viscount on [[August 23]], [[1946]], then Earl and Baron on [[October 28]], [[1947]], the [[Letters Patent]] were drafted such that the titles would pass to the female line. This was at his firm insistence: his relationship with his elder daughter had always been particularly close and it was his special wish that she succeed to the title in her own right. It also acknowledged the regard in which he was held in by the British Royal Family &mdash; although the Sarah Bradford biography of ''King George VI: The Reluctant King'', indicates clearly that the King was not without a degree of droll awareness of his cousin's famous name-dropping as to his Royal connection &mdash; as well as to atone for the disservice done to his father. Thus, on his death in 1979 the titles passed to Patricia as he had wished.
===Mentorship of Prince of Wales===
Mountbatten was a strong influence in the upbringing of his great-nephew, [[Prince Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]], and later as a mentor &mdash; "Honorary Grandfather" and "Honorary Grandson," they fondly called each other according to the Jonathan Dimbleby biography of the Prince, though according to both the Ziegler biography of Mountbatten and the Dimbleby biography of the Prince the results may have been mixed: he from time to time strongly upbraided the Prince for showing tendencies towards the idle pleasure-seeking dilletantism of his precedecessor as Prince of Wales, the Duke of Windsor and sometime King Edward VIII, whom Mountbatten had known well in their youth; but he also encouraged the Prince to enjoy the bachelor life while he could and then to marry a young and inexperienced girl so as to ensure a stable married life. No doubt he was thinking of his own youthful and tumultuous marriage to Edwina; of course the Prince's own marriage to Lady Diana Spencer turned out to be even more tumultuous.
==Death==
On [[27 August]] [[1979]], while holidaying as usual in his summer home in Mullaghmore, [[County Sligo]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]], he was killed by a bomb planted in his boat in [[Donegal Bay]]. The [[Provisional IRA]] admitted responsibility for the bomb. Others killed at the site were:
*[[Doreen Knatchbull, Baroness Brabourne|The Dowager Baroness Brabourne]]: his elder daughter's mother-in-law (aged 83).
*[[Nicholas Knatchbull|The Hon. Nicholas Knatchbull]], his elder daughter's fourth son (aged 14).
*[[Paul Maxwell]]: a local boy working as a crew member (aged 15).
The killing of Mountbatten was accompanied by the deaths of eighteen soldiers, belonging to [[The Parachute Regiment|the Parachute Regiment]], the same day in a bombing at [[Warrenpoint]], [[County Down]]. Mountbatten's assassination was carried out by members of the IRA from the locality, many of whom frequented [[Bundoran]], [[County Donegal]], a holiday town not far from Mullaghmore. The murders were strongly condemned in the [[Republic of Ireland]], The [[President of Ireland]], [[Patrick Hillery]], and the [[Taoiseach]] (Prime Minister
|
on with the verb "to be" (in casual speech, this can be neglected). Languages like Chinese, Irish, Toki Pona, and Welsh do not have words for "yes" or "no". Instead you repeat the main verb of the question in your answer. Shaking your head in affirmation or negation works as expected, though speakers should ensure they are answering negative questions as literally asked – answering in the negative to "You don't like him?" would indicate that you ''do'' like him.
=== [[Shanghainese|Chinese, Shanghainese]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]]) ===
''Note: Chinese characters for Shanghainese are not standardized and are provided for reference only. IPA transcription is for the Middle period of modern Shanghainese (中派上海话), pronunciation of those between 20 and 60 years old.''
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:12px;font-family: Lucida Sans Unicode, Arial"
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Northern Wu
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Lumazi
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Simplified Chinese
|-
|Shanghainese (language):
|Zanheghaewo
|Zanheireiwo
|[{{IPA|z&#593;&#771;.'he.&#614;&#603;.&#614;&#650;}}]
|上海咸话
|-
|Shanghainese (people):
|Zanhegnin
|Zanheinin
|[{{IPA|z&#593;&#771;.'he.ɲɪɲ}}]
|上海人
|-
|I
|ghoo, gnou
|wo, ngu
|[{{IPA|&#614;&#650;}}], [{{IPA|ŋu}}]
|我
|-
|we or I
|álá
|aelae
|[{{IPA|&#592;&#721;.l&#592;&#660;}}]
|阿拉
|-
|he/she
|ji
|yi
|[{{IPA|&#614;i}}]
|伊
|-
|they
|jila
|yila
|[{{IPA|&#614;i.la}}]
|伊拉
|-
|you (sing.)
|non
|non
|[{{IPA|noŋ}}]
|侬
|-
|you (plural)
|na
|na
|[{{IPA|na}}]
|人那
|-
|hello:
|non ho
|non ho
|[{{IPA|noŋ h&#596;}}]
|侬好
|-
|good-bye:
|tsewe
|tzeiwei
|[{{IPA|&#712;tse.&#614;ue}}]
|再会
|-
|thank you:
|ziaja non
|zhaya non
|[{{IPA|ʑ̻ia.ja noŋ}}]
|谢谢侬
|-
|sorry:
|tevéchi
|teivechi
|[{{IPA|te.və&#721;.ʨʰi}}]
|对勿起
|-
|but, however:
|daezu, daezu ne
|deizi, deizi nei
|[{{IPA|d&#603;.zɿ]}}, [{{IPA|d&#603;.zɿ.ne}}]
|但是, 但是呢
|-
|please:
|tshin
|chin
|[{{IPA|ʨʰɪɲ}}]
|请
|-
|that one:
|etsá, itsá
|eitzae, itzae
|[{{IPA|&#712;e.ts&#592;&#660;}}], [{{IPA|i.ts&#592;&#660;}}]
|哎只, 伊只
|-
|there:
|etá, itá
|eitae, itae
|[{{IPA|&#712;e.t&#592;&#660;}}], [{{IPA|i.t&#592;&#660;}}]
|哎耷, 伊耷
|-
|over there:
|emitá, imitá
|eimitae, imitae
|[{{IPA|&#712;e.mi.t&#592;&#660;}}], [{{IPA|i.mi.t&#592;&#660;}}]
|哎米耷, 伊米耷
|-
|here:
|gétá
|getae
|[{{IPA|gə&#721;.t&#592;&#660;}}]
|搿耷
|-
|to have
|jeuté
|youte
|[{{IPA|ɦiɤɯ.tə&#660;}}]
|有得
|-
|to exist, here, present:
|láhe
|laehei
|[{{IPA|l&#592;&#721;.he}}]
|辣海
|-
|now, current:
|jieze
|yizei
|[{{IPA|&#614;i.ze}}]
|现在
|-
|what time is it?:
|jieze citie tson?
|yizei citi tzon?
|[{{IPA|&#614;i.ze ʨi.ti 'tsoŋ}}]
|现在几点钟？
|-
|where:
|ghalitá, sadifan
|ralitae, sadifan
|[{{IPA|&#614;a.&#634;i.t&#592;&#660;}}], [{{IPA|sa.di.f&#x0251;&#x0303;}}]
|何里耷, 啥地方
|-
|what:
|sa
|sa
|[{{IPA|sa}}]
|啥
|-
|who:
|sagnin
|sanin
|[{{IPA|sa.ɲɪɲ}}]
|啥人
|-
|why:
|wesa
|weisa
|[{{IPA|&#614;ue.sa}}]
|为啥
|-
|when:
|sazencuan
|sazenkuan
|[{{IPA|sa.zəɲ.ku&#x0251;&#x0303;}}]
|啥辰光
|-
|how:
|nanen, nana, nanenca
|nanen, nana, nanenka
|[{{IPA|na.nəɲ}}], [{{IPA|na.na}}], [{{IPA|na.nəɲ.ka}}]
|哪能, 哪哪, 哪能家
|-
|how much?:
|cidie a?
|cidi a?
|[{{IPA|ʨi.di 'a}}]
|几钿啊?
|-
|yes:
|eh
|ei
|[{{IPA|&#712;e}}]
|哎
|-
|no:
|m, vézu, mmé, vio
|m, vezi, mme, vio
|[{{IPA|m&#809;}}], [{{IPA|və&#721;.zɿ}}], [{{IPA|m&#809;mə&#660;}}], [{{IPA|vi&#596;}}]
|呒、勿是、呒没
|-
|telephone number:
|diewo ghodeu
|diwo rodou
|[{{IPA|di.&#614;&#650; &#614;&#596;.dɤɯ}}]
|电话号头
|-
|home:
|ólihian
|oelishan
|[{{IPA|o&#721;.&#634;i.ɕia&#x0303;}}]
|屋里向
|-
|Come to our house and play.
|to álá ólihian le bésian.
|to aelae oelishan lei beshan.
|[{{IPA|t&#596; &#592;&#721;.l&#592;&#660; o&#721;.&#634;i.ɕi&#x0251;&#x0303; le bə&#721;.ɕia&#x0303;}}]
|到阿拉屋里向来孛相（白相）！
|-
|Where's the restroom?:
|daseucae lélá ghalitá?
|dasoukei lelae ralitae?
|[{{IPA|da.sɤɯ.k&#x025B; &#634;ə&#721;.&#634;&#592;&#660; &#614;a.&#634;i.t&#592;&#660;}}]
|汏手间勒勒何里耷?
|-
|Have you eaten dinner?:
|javae chícoulé va?
|yavei chiekule va?
|[{{IPA|ɦia.v&#x025B; ʨʰɪ&#721;.ku.lə&#660; va}}]
|夜饭吃过了伐?
|-
|I don't know:
|ghoo véhioté.
|wo veshote.
|[{{IPA|&#614;&#650; və&#721;.ɕi&#596;.tə&#660;}}]
|我勿晓得
|-
|Do you speak English?:
|non Inven weté can va?
|non Inven weite kan va?
|[{{IPA|noŋ &#712;ɪn.vəɲ &#614;ue.tə&#660; ka&#771; va}}]
|侬英文会得讲伐?
|-
|I love you:
|ghoo e non!
|wo ei non.
|[{{IPA|&#614;&#650; e noŋ}}]
|我爱侬！
|-
|I adore you:
|ghoo emó non.
|wo eimoe non.
|[{{IPA|&#614;&#650; e.mo&#660; noŋ}}]
|我爱慕侬
|-
|I like you a lot:
|ghoo lo huoehi non ghé!
|wo lo hueushi non re.
|[{{IPA|&#614;&#650; &#634;&#596; &#712;huø.ɕi noŋ &#614;ə&#660;}}]
|我老欢喜侬个！
|-
|news
|sinven
|shinven
|[{{IPA|ɕɪɲ.vəɲ}}]
|新闻
|-
|dead
|sithélé
|shithele
|[{{IPA|ɕi.tʰə&#721;.lə&#660;}}]
|死脱了
|-
|alive
|wéláhe
|welaehei
|[{{IPA|&#614;uə&#721;.l&#592;&#721;.he}}]
|活辣海
|}
Unlike Mandarin, Shanghainese actually has the direct "yes" (eh/ei) similar to English.
=== [[Taiwanese (linguistics)|Chinese, Min Nan / Taiwanese]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]]) ===
''The Han characters provided below are for reference only. They are not necessarily standard.''
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Characters
! align=left | Romanization
! align=left | Remarks
|-
| Min Nan || 閩南語 || Bân-lâm-gú
|-
| Taiwanese || 臺灣話 ||Tâi-oân-oē
|-
| Hokkien || 福建話 || Hok4-kien3-oa7
|-
| hello || 食飽未 ||{{IPA|Chia̍h pá boeh}}? ||(literally, ''Have you eaten yet?'' Note: This greeting came about at a time when most of Taiwan was in poverty, so to say that one has had enough to eat would be to imply that the person is "doing well".)
|-
| goodbye || 平安 ||pêng-an || (literally, ''Peace'', can also be used as a greeting; primarily Christian usage.)
|-
| please || 拜託 ||pài-thok
|-
| thank you || 勞力 || ló·-la̍t
|-
| that one || 彼個 ||hit-ê
|-
| how much? || 若濟 ||goā choē?
|-
| yes || 是 ||sī
|-
| no || 唔是 ||{{IPA|m̄-sī}}
|-
| sorry || 失禮 || sit-le ||
|-
| embarrassed || 歹勢 ||pháiⁿ-sè || (often used in response when offered/given something by a host)
|-
| I don't understand what is said || 我聽無 ||Goá thiaⁿ bô
|-
| where's the bathroom? || 便所佇叨 || Piān-só• tī toh?
|-
| cheers! || 呼乾啦! || Hō• ta lah! || (literally, ''Let it [the cup/glass] be dry [empty]!'')
|-
| do you speak English? || 你咁講英語? || Lí kám kóng Eng-g&uacute;?
|}
== [[Croatian language|Croatian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
|-
|-
| Croatian || '''hrvatski'''
|-
| hello || '''bog''' (''bok''), '''dobar dan'''
|-
| good-bye || '''doviđenja'''
|-
| please || '''molim'''
|-
| thank you || '''hvala'''
|-
| that one || '''to''', '''taj'''
|-
| how much || '''koliko?'''
|-
| English || '''engleski'''
|-
| yes || '''da'''
|-
| no || '''ne'''
|-
| generic toast || '''Uzdravlje!''' (to your health), ''Živjeli!''' (cheers)
|-
| I don't understand || '''Ne razumijem'''
|-
| Where is the bathroom || '''Gdje je zahod?'''
|-
| Do you speak English || '''Govorite li engleski?'''
|}
== [[Czech language|Czech]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Remarks
|-
| Czech || ''Česky'' || CHEHskee || {{IPA|/'ʧɛski/}}
|-
| Czech republic || ''Česká republika'' || CHEHskah REHpublikah ||
|-
| hello || ''dobrý den'' || DObree den || {{IPA|/'dobriː dɛn/}} || Literal translation: Good day
|-
| good-bye || ''na shledanou'' || na sKHLEdanow || {{IPA|/na 'sxlɛdanou/}} || Literal translation: Until we see each other again
|-
| please || ''prosím'' || PROseem || {{IPA|/'prosiːm/}} || Literal translation: I beg
|-
| thank you || ''děkuji vám'' || DYEkooyi vam || {{IPA|/'ɟɛkuji vaːm/}}
|-
| that one || ''tamten'' || tamten || {{IPA|/tamten/}}
|-
| how much? || ''kolik'' || KOlik || {{IPA|/'kolik/}}
|-
| English || ''anglicky'' || anglytskee || {{IPA|/angliʦki/}}
|-
| yes || ''ano'' || ||{{IPA|/ɑno/}} || Sometimes shortened to ''no'' (!)
|-
| no || ''ne'' || || {{IPA|/ne/}}
|-
| sorry || ''promiňte'' || || {{IPA|/promiɲte/}} || Literal translation: Forgive
|-
| generic toast || ''Na zdraví'' || || {{IPA|/na zdraviː/}} || Literal translation: To health
|-
| I don't understand || ''Nerozumím'' || || {{IPA|/nɛrozumiːm/}}
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || ''Kde je toaleta?'' || || {{IPA|/gdɛ jɛ toaleta/}}
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''Mluvíte anglicky?'' || || {{IPA|/mluviːtɛ angliʦki/}}
|-
| I don't speak Czech || ''Nemluvím česky'' || || {{IPA|/nɛmluviːm 'ʧɛski/}}
|-
| Do you speak Czech? || ''Mluvíte česky?'' || || {{IPA|/mluviːtɛ 'ʧɛski/}}
|-
| Where can I find a restaurant? || ''Kde najdu restauraci?'' || || {{IPA|/gdɛ najdu rɛstauraʦi/}}
|-
| Where is the nearest hospital? || ''Kde je nejbližší nemocnice?'' || || {{IPA|/gdɛ jɛ nejbliʃiː nɛmoʦniʦɛ/}}
|}
== [[Danish language|Danish]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|-
|Danish ||''dansk'' ||{{audio|Da-dansk.ogg|dansk}}
|-
|hello ||''hej'' ||{{audio|Da-hej.ogg|hi}}
|-
|good-bye ||''farvel'' ||{{audio|Da-farvel.ogg|fah-vel}}
|-
|please || || ||<sup>1</sup> (Be understood. A matter of course, if not ''{{audio|Da-vær-så-venlig.ogg|Vær så venlig}}'')
|-
|thank you ||''tak'' ||{{audio|Da-tak.ogg|tack}}
|-
|that one ||''de
|
ext>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epinephrine</title>
<id>10250</id>
<revision>
<id>41872272</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:12:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mkot390</username>
<id>1010021</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Actions in the body */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Deftones' album; see [[Adrenaline (album)]].''
<!-- {{PubChemRow|838}}
{{PubChem|838}} -->
'''Epinephrine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]), also ''epinephrin'' (both pronounced ep-i-NEF-rin), or '''adrenaline''' ([[British Approved Name|BAN]]) is a [[hormone]] and a [[neurotransmitter]]. The [[Latin]] roots ''ad-''+''renes'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] roots ''epi-''+''nephros'' both literally mean "on/to the [[kidney]]" (referring to the [[adrenal gland]], which secretes epinephrine). Epinephrine is sometimes shortened to '''epi''' in medical [[jargon]].
Epinephrine is a [[catecholamine]], a sympathomimetic monoamine derived from the [[amino acid]]s [[phenylalanine]] and [[tyrosine]]. Its '''[[ATC code]]''' is C01CA24.
[[William Horatio Bates|William Bates]] reported in the New York Medical Journal in May 1886 the discovery of a substance produced by the suprarenal gland. Epinephrine was isolated and identified in [[1895]] by [[Napoleon Cybulski]], [[Poland|Polish]] [[physiology|physiologist]]. The discovery was repeated in [[1897]] by [[John Jacob Abel]]. [[Jokichi Takamine]] discovered the same hormone in [[1900]], without knowing about the previous discovery; but, in later years, counterevidence is shown from the experiment note that Kaminaka leaves that the Takamine team is the discoverer of first adrenaline. It was first artificially synthesized in [[1904]] by [[Friedrich Stolz]].
==Actions in the body==
Epinephrine plays a central role in the short-term [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] reaction&mdash;the physiological response to threatening or exciting conditions (see [[fight-or-flight response]]). It is secreted by the [[adrenal gland|adrenal medulla]]. When released into the bloodstream, epinephrine binds to multiple [[receptors]] and has numerous effects throughout the body. It increases [[heart rate]] and [[stroke volume]], dilates the [[pupil]]s, and constricts [[arterioles]] in the skin and gut while dilating arterioles in leg muscles. It elevates the blood sugar level by increasing [[hydrolysis]] of [[glycogen]] to [[glucose]] in the liver, and at the same time begins the breakdown of [[lipids]] in fat cells. Epinephrine has a suppressive effect on the adaptive immune system.
Epinephrine is used as a [[medication|drug]] to promote peripheral vascular [[hemodynamics|resistance]] via alpha-stimulated [[vasoconstriction]] in [[cardiac arrest]] and other cardiac disrhythmias resulting in diminished or absent cardiac output, such that blood is shunted to the body's core. This beneficial action comes with a significant negative consequence, increased cardiac irritability, which may lead to additional complications immediately following an otherwise successful resuscitation. Alternatives to this treatment include [[vasopressin]], a powerful [[antidiuretic]] which also promotes peripheral vascular resistance leading to blood shunting via vasoconstriction, but without the attendant increase to myocardial irritability.
Because of its suppressive effect on the adaptive immune system, epinephrine is used to treat [[anaphylaxis]] and [[sepsis]]. Allergy patients undergoing [[immunotherapy]] can get an epinephrine rinse before the allergen extract is administered, thus reducing the immune response to the administered allergen. It is also used as a [[bronchodilator]] for [[asthma]] if specific [[beta-2-adrenergic agonist]]s are unavailable or ineffective. Adverse reactions to epinephrine include palpitations, [[tachycardia]], anxiety, headache, tremor, [[hypertension]], and acute [[pulmonary edema]].
A [[pheochromocytoma]] is a tumor of the adrenal gland (or, rarely, the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system), which secretes excessive amounts of [[catecholamine]]s, usually epinephrine.
==Pharmacology==
Epinephrine's actions are mediated through [[adrenergic receptor]]s (sometimes referred to as adrenoceptors).
It binds to α<sub>1</sub> receptors of [[liver]] cells, which activate inositol-phospholipid signaling pathway, signaling the phosphorylation of [[insulin]], leading to reduced ability of insulin to bind to its receptors.
Epinephrine also activates β-adrenergic receptors of the liver and muscle cells, thereby activating the [[adenylate cyclase]] signaling pathway, which will in turn increase [[glycogenolysis]]. Specifically, β<sub>2</sub> receptors exist on many blood vessels. Activation of the adenylate cyclase pathway on this tissue causes inhibition of [[myosin light chain kinase]] which, in turn, relaxes the smooth muscle cells of the blood vessel walls to bring about vasodilation.
==See also==
*[[EpiPen]]
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Adrenaline junkie]]
*[[Catechol-O-methyl transferase]]
==Terminology==
Although widely referred to as "adrenaline" outside of the US, and the [[Laity|Lay public]] worldwide, the [[United_States_Approved_Name|USAN]] and [[International_Nonproprietary_Name|INN]] for this chemical is "epinephrine" because "adrenaline" bore too much similarity to the Parke, Davis & Co trademark "adrenelin" (without the "e") which was registered in the US.
The [[British_Approved_Name|BAN]] and [[European_Pharmacopoeia|EP]] term for this chemical is "adrenaline", and is indeed now one of the only differences between the INN and BAN systems of names.
==References==
*Aronson JK (2000). "[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/320/7233/506 Where name and image meet]" - the argument for "adrenaline". ''British Medical Journal'' '''320''', 506-9.
{{Phenethylamines}}
{{Template:Hormones}}
[[Category:Aromatic compounds]]
[[Category:Catecholamines]]
[[Category:Neurotransmitters]]
[[Category:Bronchodilators]]
[[bg:Адреналин]]
[[da:Adrenalin]]
[[de:Adrenalin]]
[[es:Adrenalina]]
[[eo:Adrenalino]]
[[fr:Adrénaline]]
[[io:Adrenalino]]
[[he:אדרנלין]]
[[lt:Adrenalinas]]
[[hu:Epinefrin]]
[[nl:Adrenaline]]
[[ja:アドレナリン]]
[[no:Adrenalin]]
[[pl:Adrenalina]]
[[pt:Adrenalina]]
[[ru:Адреналин]]
[[sk:Epinefrín]]
[[sl:Adrenalin]]
[[fi:Adrenaliini]]
[[sv:Adrenalin]]
[[tr:Adrenalin]]
[[uk:Адреналін]]
[[zh:肾上腺素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EDSAC</title>
<id>10251</id>
<revision>
<id>40067512</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:15:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page Binary ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EDSAC (10).jpg|thumb|200px|EDSAC]]
'''EDSAC''' ''('''E'''lectronic '''D'''elay '''S'''torage '''A'''utomatic '''C'''alculator)'' was an early [[United Kingdom|British]] [[computer]] (one of the first computers to be created). The machine, having been inspired by [[John von Neumann]]'s seminal [[EDVAC]] report, was constructed by [[Maurice Wilkes]] and his team at the [[University of Cambridge]] [[University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory|Mathematical Laboratory]] in [[England]].
EDSAC was the world's first ''practical'' [[stored program]] electronic computer, although not the first stored program computer (that honor goes to the [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]]).
The project was supported by J. Lyons & Co. Ltd., a British firm, who were rewarded with the first commercially applied computer, [[LEO I]], based on the EDSAC design. EDSAC ran its first programs on [[May 6]], [[1949]], calculating a table of squares{{ref|first-prog}} and a list of prime numbers.
==Technical overview==
===Physical components===
As soon as EDSAC was constructed, it immediately began serving the University's research needs. None of its components were experimental. It used [[delay line memory|mercury delay line]]s for memory, and derated [[vacuum tube]]s for logic. Input was via 5-hole [[punched tape]] and output was via a [[teleprinter]].
Initially registers were limited to an [[accumulator]] and a multiplier register. In 1953, [[David Wheeler]], returning from a stay at the [[University of Illinois]], designed an [[index register]] as an extension to the original EDSAC hardware.
===Memory and instructions===
The EDSAC's memory consisted of 1024 locations, though only 512 locations were initially implemented. Each contained 18 bits, but the first bit was unavailable due to timing restrictions, so only 17 bits were used. An instruction consisted of a five-bit instruction code (designed to be represented by a mnemonic letter, so that the Add instruction, for example, used the bit pattern for the letter A), eleven bits for a memory address (although with 1024 words, only 10 bits were needed), and one bit (for certain instruction) to control whether the instruction operated on a number contained in one word or two.
Internally, the EDSAC used [[twos complement]], [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers. These were either 17-bit (one word) or 35-bit (two words) long. Unusually, the [[Multiplication ALU|multiplier]] was designed to treat numbers as [[fixed-point]] fractions in the range -1 &le; ''x'' &lt; 1, ie the binary point was immediately to the right of the sign. The [[accumulator]] could hold 71-bits, including the sign, allowing two long (35-bit) numbers to be multiplied without losing any precision.
The instructions available were: add, subtract, multiply, collate{{ref|collate}}, shift left, shift right, load multiplier register, store (and optionally clear) accumulator, conditional skip, read input
|
cent research has suggested that estimates of the Cornish speaking population prior to the rebellion may have been low, making the decline even more drastic.
Early Modern Cornish was the subject of a study by the Welsh linguist [[Edward Llwyd|Edward Lhuyd]] in [[1700]], and differs from the mediaeval language in having a simpler structure and grammar. By this time the language was already arguably in decline from its earlier heyday, and the situation worsened over the course of the next century. It is often claimed that the last [[first language|native speaker]] of Cornish was the [[Mousehole]] resident [[Dolly Pentreath]], who died in [[1777]]. Notwithstanding her supposed last words, "Me ne vidn cewsel Sawznek!" ("I don't want to speak English!"), she spoke at least some English as well as Cornish. The last known [[monoglottism|monoglot]] Cornish speaker is believed to have been [[Chesten Marchant]], who died in [[1676]] at [[Gwithian, Cornwall, England|Gwithian]]. It does, however, appear to be true that Dolly Pentreath spoke Cornish fluently and may have been one of the last to do so before the revival of the language in the [[20th century]]. There is evidence that Cornish continued, albeit in limited usage by a handful of speakers, throughout the [[19th century]] and into the early [[20th century]]. In [[1875]] six speakers all in their sixties were discovered; some claim that [[John Davey]] who died in [[1890]] should be considered the last traditional speaker. Fishermen were counting fish in the Cornish language into the [[1940s]]. It has been suggested by Cornish linguist Richard Gendall that some dialects of [[English language|English]] spoken in Cornwall (especially the dialect of West Penwith, where traditional Cornish was last spoken) display strong lexical and prosodic influences from the Cornish language that almost certainly go back several centuries.
===Revival===
The first successful attempt to [[Language revival|revive]] Cornish was largely the work of [[Henry Jenner]] and [[Robert Morton Nance]] in the early part of the twentieth century. This system was called '''Unified Cornish''' (''Kernewek Unyes'') and was based mainly on Middle Cornish (the language of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries &mdash; a high point for Cornish literature), with a standardised spelling and an extended vocabulary based largely on native sources, enriched by [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]]. For many years, this was ''the'' modern Cornish language, and some people still use it today.
Shortcomings in Unified Cornish had to do in part with the stiff and archaising literary style Nance had employed, and in part with a realisation that Nance's phonology lacked some distinctions which must have obtained in traditional Cornish. In the 1970s, Tim Saunders raised a number of issues of communicative efficiency, but his initiative had no influence and later developments are entirely independent.
In the early 1980s, [[Richard Gendall]], who had worked with Nance, published a new system based on the meagre prose works of [[Nicholas Boson]] and [[John Boson]]. This system, called '''Modern Cornish''' (''Curnoack Nowedga'') by its proponents, differs from Unified Cornish in using the English-based orthographies of the 17th and 18th centuries, though there are also differences of vocabulary and grammar. Gendall was not the first to perceive that the Unified Cornish standard did have some serious deficiencies, but his anglicised spelling was particularly unpopular, and his frequent revisions discouraged potential supporters. This school's vituperative polemics alienated most of the Cornish-speaking community, and by now it has imploded.
In 1986 [[Ken George]] developed a revised orthography (and phonology) for Revived Cornish, which became known as '''Kernewek Kemmyn''' (lit. ''Common Cornish''). It was subsequently adopted by [[Kesva an Taves Kernewek|the Cornish Language Board]] as their preferred system. It retained a Middle Cornish base but made the spelling more systematic by applying phonemic orthographic theory, and for the first time set out clear rules relating spelling to pronunciation. The revised system was taken up enthusiastically by the majority of Cornish speakers and learners, and was especially welcomed by teachers. Nevertheless, a minority chose to continue using Unified Cornish. Despite later criticism by [[Nicholas Williams]] (see below), Kernewek Kemmyn has retained the support of perhaps 80% of active Cornish speakers. ([http://www.gosw.gov.uk/gosw/culturehome/heritage/cornish/ McKinnon Report, 2000], Table 3.2).
In 1995 [[Nicholas Williams]] proposed an alternative revision of Unified Cornish known as '''Unified Cornish Revised''' or '''UCR''' (''Kernowek Unys Amendys''). This version adapted the spelling to fit a phonology reconstructed on the basis of Dr. Williams' theories, while keeping as close as possible to the orthographic practices of the medieval scribes. In common with Kernewek Kemmyn, it makes full use of Tudor and Late Cornish prose materials unavailable to Nance. Williams published his ''English-Cornish Dictionary'' in this orthography in 2000. Like the other orthographies, UCR also has its adherents and its detractors. It has not, however, attracted more than a handful of supporters.
In practice these different written forms do not prevent Cornish-speakers from communicating with each other effectively. Cornish has been successfully revived as a viable language for communication. Nevertheless there is still much scope for improving the standard and accuracy of the spoken language. The language is spoken mainly with the older generations, but is currently being taught at some cornish primary schools
==Current status==
In the [[20th century]] a conscious effort was made to revive Cornish as a language for everyday use in speech and writing (see below for further details about the dialects of modern Cornish).
It is estimated that there are now approximately 3,500 speakers of Cornish (about 0.7% of the Cornish population) and 300-400 fluent speakers (about 0.07%). It is estimated that in excess of 5,000 more have some knowledge of basic phrases or could understand basic sentences. A few people under the age of 30 have been brought up speaking it. Cornish exists in place names, and a knowledge of the language helps the understanding of old place names. Many Cornish names are adopted for children, pets, houses and boats. There is now an amount of Cornish literature, in which poetry is the most important genre, particularly in oral form or as song.
[[Cornwall County Council]] has, as policy, a commitment to support the language, and recently passed a motion supporting it being specified within the European charter for regional or minority languages.
There are regular periodicals solely in the language such as the monthly ''An Gannas'', ''An Gowsva'', and ''An Garrick''. Radio Cornwall and Pirate FM have regular news broadcasts in Cornish, and sometimes have other programmes and features for learners and enthusiasts. Local newspapers such as the ''[[The Western Morning News|Western Morning News]]'' regularly have articles in Cornish, and newspapers such as ''The Packet'', ''The West Briton'' and ''The Cornishman'' also support the movement.
The language has financial sponsorship from many sources, including the [[Millennium Commission]]. Increasingly, churches have notices in Cornish and English. The take-up of the language is now becoming so widespread that language organisations are finding it difficult to keep up with demand. These organisations include (in alphabetical order) [[Agan Tavas]] (Our Language), the Cornish sub-group of the [[European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages]], [[Gorseth Kernow]], [[Kesva an Taves Kernewek]] (the Cornish Language Board), [[Kowethas an Yeth Kernewek]] (the Cornish Language Fellowship), and [[Teere ha Tavas]] (Land and Language). One organisation, [[Dalleth]], promoted the language to pre-school children. There are many popular ceremonies, some ancient, some modern, which use the language or are entirely in the language.
===Culture===
:''See [[Cornish literature]]''
[[Cornwall]] has many other cultural events associated with the language, including the international [[Celtic film festival]], hosted in [[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]] in [[1997]], with the programme in Cornish, English and French. There have been many films, some televised, made entirely, or significantly, in the language. Some shops, such as Gwynn ha Du, in the town of [[Liskeard]], sell books written in Cornish. Many companies use Cornish names. The overnight physician's service in Cornwall is now called ''Kernowdoc''. Cornish is taught in some schools; it was previously taught at degree level in the [[University of Wales]], though the only existing courses in the language at University level are as part of a course in Cornish Studies at the [[University of Exeter]], or as part of the distance-learning [[Welsh language | Welsh]] degree from the [[University of Wales, Lampeter]].
The Cornish language has been recognised as a minority language by the UK government under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. This follows years of pressure by interest groups such as [[Mebyon Kernow]] and Kesva an Taves Kernewek.
The first complete edition of the New Testament in Cornish, [[Nicholas Williams]]' translation of the ''Testament Noweth agan Arluth ha Savyour Jesu Cryst'', was published at [[Easter]] 2002 by Spyrys a Gernow (ISBN 0-9535975-4-7); it uses Unified Cornish Revised orthography. The translation was made from the Greek text, and incorporated John Tregear's existing translations with slight revisions.
In August [[2004]], Kesva an Taves Kernewek published its edition of the New Testament in Cornish (ISBN 1-902917-33-2), translated by Keith Syed and Ray Edwards; it uses Kernewek Kemmyn orthogra
|
completed it), discovered after his death by his daughter, edited and with commentary by her.
* Her image can be seen on the [[Microsoft]] product authenticity [[hologram]] stickers.
== See also ==
* [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine]]
* [[Women in computing]]
* [[Ada programming language]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/lovelace.html Ada Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing (SDSC Women in Science)]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Lovelace}}
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20010710002229/http://vms.www.uwplatt.edu/~wise/lovelace/lovelace.html WISE Project biography] ([[Internet Archive|archive]] link, was [[Dead link|dead]])
*[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/ada-lovelace.html A page of (mostly broken) links to biographies, etc]
*[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html Ada Lovelace's ''Notes'' and ''The Ladies Diary'']
*[http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/review/reviewArticles/31240.html Ada &amp; the Analytical Engine]
*[http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/~dirk/ada-belgium/pictures.html Ada Picture Gallery includes freely copyable pictures of Ada]
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html Full text of translation of "Sketch of the Analytical Engine" by L. F. Menabrea with Ada's notes and extensive commentary]
*[http://www.techtv.com/news/culture/story/0,24195,3316503,00.html An article on the Ada controversy], and [http://www.techtv.com/news/culture/jump/0,24196,3316508,00.html Was Ada really the first programmer?]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/?010305crbo_Holt_Books_C Jim Holt's "The Ada Perplex," from the New Yorker]
*[http://www.scottlan.edu/lriddle/women/love.htm A brief biography of Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace with links to other resources related to Ada]
* [http://www.hucknall-parish-church.org.uk/ada.htm Hucknall Parish Church, Ada's final resting place]
[[Category:1815 births|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:1852 deaths|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:British mathematicians|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:Women mathematicians|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:British scientists|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:Women computer scientists|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:British women|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[cs:Augusta Ada King]]
[[da:Ada Lovelace]]
[[de:Ada Lovelace]]
[[es:Ada Lovelace]]
[[fa:ایدا لاولیس]]
[[fr:Ada Lovelace]]
[[gl:Ada Augusta Lovelace]]
[[hr:Ada Lovelace]]
[[it:Ada Lovelace]]
[[he:עדה לאבלייס]]
[[nl:Ada Lovelace]]
[[ja:エイダ・ラブレス]]
[[no:Ada Byron Lovelace]]
[[pl:Ada Lovelace]]
[[pt:Ada Lovelace]]
[[ru:Лавлейс, Ада]]
[[fi:Ada Lovelace]]
[[sv:Ada Lovelace]]
[[th:เอดา ไบรอน]]
[[vi:Ada Lovelace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AmbientCalculiOnline</title>
<id>975</id>
<revision>
<id>15899485</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-24T01:17:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.49.30.34</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambient calculus</title>
<id>978</id>
<revision>
<id>33143179</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T17:54:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Allan McInnes</username>
<id>647621</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Informal description */ sectioning</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Computer science|computer science]], the '''ambient calculus''' is a [[Process calculi|process calculus]] devised by [[Luca Cardelli]]
and [[Andrew D. Gordon]] in [[1998]], and used to describe and theorise about [[concurrent systems]] that include ''mobility''. Here ''mobility'' means both computation carried out on mobile devices (''i.e.'' networks that have a dynamic topology), and mobile computation (''i.e.'' executable code that is able to move around the network). The ambient calculus provides a unified framework for modeling both kinds of mobility {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. It is used to model interactions in such [[concurrent systems]] as the [[Internet]].
Since its inception, the ambient calculus has grown into a family of closely related [http://xdguan.freezope.org/wiki/AmbientCalculiOnline ''ambient calculi''].
== Informal description ==
===Ambients===
The fundamental primitive of the ambient calculus is the ''ambient''. An ambient is informally defined as a ''bounded'' place in which computation can occur. The notion of boundaries is considered key to representing mobility, since a boundary defines a contained computational agent that can be moved in its entirety {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. Examples of ambients include:
* a web page (bounded by a file)
* a virtual address space (bounded by an addressing range)
* a Unix file system (bounded within a physical volume)
* a single data object (bounded by “self”)
* a laptop (bounded by its case and data ports)
The key properties of ambients within the Ambient calculus are:
* Ambients have names, which are used to control access to the ambient
* Ambients can be nested inside other ambients (representing, for example, administrative domains)
* Ambients can be moved as a whole
===Operations===
Computation is represented as the crossing of boundaries, ''i.e.'' the movement of ambients. There are three basic operations (or capabilities) on ambients {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}:
* <math>in\;m.P</math> instructs the surrounding ambient to enter some sibling ambient <math>m</math>, and then proceed as <math>P</math>
* <math>out\;m.P</math> instructs the surrounding ambient to exit its parent ambient <math>m</math>
* <math>open\;m.P</math> instructs the surrounding ambient to dissolve the boundary of an ambient <math>m</math> located at the same level
The Ambient calculus provides a reduction semantics that formally defines what the results of these operations are.
Communication ''within'' (''i.e.'' local to) an ambient is anonymous and asynchronous. Output actions release names or capabilities into the surrounding ambient. Input actions capture a value from the ambient, and bind it to a variable. ''Non-local'' I/O can be represented in terms of these local communications actions by a variety of means. One approach is to use mobile “messenger” agents that carry a message from one ambient to another (using the capabilities described above). Another approach is to emulate channel-based communications by modeling a channel in terms of ambients and operations on those ambients {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. The three basic ambient primitives, namely '''in''', '''out''', and '''open''' are expressive enough to simulate name-passing channels in the [[Pi-calculus|&pi;-calculus]].
== Criticisms ==
Some people believe that the synchronous nature of the three ambient actions ('''in''', '''out''', and '''open''') may make it difficult to adopt the ambient calculus as the programming language core for mobile and [[distributed computing]]. A counter-argument to this criticism is that the ambient calculus is not intended to act as a language core, but rather to provide general capabilities for formally modelling and analyzing complex concurrent systems that may consist of components written in a variety of languages.
== See also ==
* [[process calculi]]
* [[programming language]]
* [[theoretical computer science]]
* [[lambda calculus]]
* [[type theory]]
==External links==
*[http://xdguan.freezope.org/wiki/AmbientCalculiOnline Collection of online resources for ambient calculi]
*[http://www.luca.demon.co.uk/Ambit/Ambit.html Mobile Computational Ambients] by Luca Cardelli
== References ==
* {{note_label|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}} Cardelli, L. and Gordon, A. D. 1998: ''Mobile Ambients'', Proceedings of the First international Conference on Foundations of Software Science and Computation Structure (March 28 - April 04, 1998). M. Nivat, Ed. Lecture Notes In Computer Science, vol. 1378. Springer-Verlag, London, 140-155.
{{comp-sci-stub}}
[[Category:Process calculi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August Derleth</title>
<id>980</id>
<revision>
<id>36184803</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T05:49:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jdcooper</username>
<id>202051</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|List of works by August Derleth}}
'''August William Derleth''' ([[February 24]] [[1909]] &ndash; [[July 4]] [[1971]]) was an American writer and anthologist. The son of William Julius Derleth and his wife Rose Louise Volk, he resided in [[Sauk City, Wisconsin]].
At the age of 16, he sold his first story to ''[[Weird Tales]]'' magazine. Derleth wrote all throughout his four years at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] and received a [[Bachelor's Degree|B.A.]] in 1930. During this time he served briefly as [[editor]] of ''[[Mystic Magazine]]''.
In the mid-1930s he organised a Ranger's Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local [[Board of Education]], served as a parole officer, organised a local Men&rsquo;s Club and a [[Parent-Teacher Association|parent-teacher association]]. He also lectured in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin.
Derleth was a contemporary and friend of [[H. P. Lovecraft]] &mdash; when Lovecraft wrote about "le Comte d'Erlette" in [[List of Works by H. P. Lovecraft|his fiction]] it was in homage to Derleth. After Lovecraft's death he took a number of that author's unfinished stories and rewrote or finished them for publication in ''Weird Tales'' and later in book form. In the process, he invented the term [[Cthulhu Mythos]] to describe the invented [[mythology]] that seemed to lie behind much of Lovecraft's fiction. Derleth codified the Mythos to bring it more in line with hi
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lieving they are illegal under the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] and/or thwart peace efforts. However, most Israelis do not view the building of houses and stores in [[Israeli settlement]]s as an act of war, and believe that disputes over land do not justify violent resistance or terrorism, but that there should be politically negotiated solutions. This view is rejected by Palestinians and many outside Israel, as Israel's leadership continues to build settlements on land they contend to be Palestinian, an activity that is roundly condemned by much of the world except Israel and usually the [[United States]].
Israel's supporters argue that the Fourth Geneva Convention does not technically apply to the territories, since they have no "High Contracting Party", and claim that the Convention in any event only applied to forcible transfers of populations into or out of captured territories. However, a conference of High Contracting Parties in 2001 stated that the Convention did apply in the territories.
===Palestinian and other Arab views===
''There is not a single "Palestinian view"; there are many different Palestinian views, which differ widely.''
====Illegitimacy or illegality of Israel====
=====A state based on outdated claims=====
=====Israel and international law=====
:''See also [[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]''.
Palestinians claim they have [[International law]] on their side.
[[1947_UN_Partition_Plan|UN General Assembly Resolution 181]] orders that "Independent Arab and Jewish States...shall come into existence in Palestine". Israeli founding father and author of Resolution 181 [[Abba Eban]] claimed that Israel "tear[s] up its own birth certificate" when it ignores UN resolutions.[http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=231659&contrassID=3&subContrassID=0&sbSubContrassID=0]
Palestinians hold that Israel disregards the following UN resolutions/International Law provisions:
[[UN General Assembly Resolution 194]] calls for "the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property" not naming either [[Palestinian refugees]] or [[Jewish refugees]]. Palestinians hold that this resolution should allow for the [[Palestinian exodus]] to return to their homes in Israel. Israel has blocked the return of these refugees and confiscated their land as "absentee".
[[UN Security Council Resolution 242]], adopted after the [[Six-Day War]], emphasizes "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war and the need to work for a just and lasting peace in which every State in the area can live in security," and calls for "withdrawal of Israel armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict" and for the recognition of the "sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force". These territories occupied included the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Golan Heights]], [[West Bank]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. The [[Palestinian Authority]] intends eventually to establish a state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Israel maintains control of the West Bank and maritime/aerospace control of the Gaza Strip.
The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] forbids an occupying power from confiscating occupied land and transferring its own population to that territory.<!--Over 88% of Israel proper is composed of land confiscated from Palestinian land owners.
:''Of the entire area of the state of Israel only about 300,000-400,000 dunums ... are state domain which the Israeli government took over from the mandatory regime [2 %]. The JNF and private Jewish owners possess under two million dunum [10 %]. Almost all the rest [i.e 88 % of the 20,225,000 dunums within the 1949 armistice lines] belongs at law to Arab owners, many of whom have left the country. (Jewish National Fund, Jewish Villages in Israel, p.xxi, quoted in Lehn and Davis, The Jewish National Fund)--><!--That's not found in the Fourth Geneva Convention, nor is it an argument made by Palestinians. It's a claim apparently made in a JNF document. Furthermore, it is a dubious claim, since other statistics and sources explicitly contradict it.-->
[[UN Security Council Resolution 446]] declares that the [[Israeli settlement]]s in the occupied Palestinian territories are illegal.[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/ba123cded3ea84a5852560e50077c2dc?OpenDocument]
====Issues of democracy and fairness====
=====Historical treatment of Jews in the Arab world=====
Many [[Muslim]]s and contemporary western Historians assert that [[Jew]]s were treated [[Islam and Judaism |better]] by Muslims than by other rulers who [[Persecution of Jews|persecuted]] them. One pertinent example is the mass expulsion of Jews from [[Spain]] after the fall of their last refuge there, the Muslim kingdom of [[Granada]] in 1492. This resulted in the [[Jew#Jews and Migrations|migration]] of Jews (especially those fleeing the [[Spanish Inquisition]]) to the [http://www.mersina.com/lib/turkish_jews/history/life.htm Ottoman Empire], including the present-day region of Israel and surrounding areas. Authoritative works summarizing Jewish treatment within Muslim lands written by Jews have concluded that although occasional violent persecution did occur, it was not systemic nor continuous and substantially better than treatment by Christians in the pre-modern era. (Lewis, 1984)
=====The creation of Israel as a cause of conflict=====
Supporters of this viewpoint regard historically good relations with much of the Middle East as having been shattered by the creation of Israel. They cite the example of [[Mizrahi Jews]], who had long been living in large measure peacefully among Arabs and Muslims, but who left after the establishment of the state of Israel for a variety of reasons (depending on the country), including Muslim hostility because of the new state. Some point out as well that during the times of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], Muslim countries were prominent in accepting Jewish refugees.
Opponents of this viewpoint, including some Mizrahi Jews themselves, see this as one-sided at best. They point to the persecutions of the Jews of North Africa in the 12th century under the [[Almohades]], the slaughter of thousands of Jews in [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] in 1465 (after the Jewish deputy vizier Harun (Aaron), who had imposed heavy taxes on the population on behalf of the vizier, was accused of treating a Muslim woman "offensively"), [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf15.html#c] and to similar massacres in [[Libya]], [[Algiers]], and [[Marrakesh]] in the 18th and 19th centuries (Morris, 2001). They also point to waves of synagogue destructions and forced conversions throughout the Arab world from the 11th to 19th centuries, and to the fact that, by the 19th century, most Jews of North Africa were forced to live in ''[[mellah]]s'' or [[ghettos]], and were subject to a number of restrictions and humiliations.
=====Jewish immigration as a cause of conflict=====
Some Arabs maintain that there is nothing wrong with Jewish immigration into Palestine, in itself, any more than there is with Jewish immigration into any other part of the world. But in their view the [[Zionist]] immigrants arriving in Palestine from the late 1800s on did so in course of a plan to take it over and establish a Jewish majority state, in some cases by force; they consider this to be colonization of Palestinians' land, made possible not by Palestinian [[self-determination]], or even consent, but by British (and to a lesser extent Turkish) fiat. This process led to what they regard as an expulsion by Zionists of the majority of the indigenous Palestinian population in 1948, and continues today with Israel's ongoing expansion of settlements. Palestinians also decry what they see as the inherent inequity of long-standing Israeli laws on immigration where, according to Israel's Law of Return, a Jew born in, say Stockholm, may immigrate to Israel and gain automatic citizenship and elect to live anywhere he chooses, including [[East Jerusalem]], whereas a Palestinian born and raised in Jerusalem and forced to leave as a refugee of war may not return to his home.
The detractors of this argument regard the existence of a Jewish minority in the [[Land of Israel]] throughout the past two millennia, and the [[Jerusalem|importance of Jerusalem and the Land of Israel in Judaism]], as giving Jews a right to go there that trumps Palestinians' objections. They also claim international approval for their immigration, noting that both the [[League of Nations]]'s 1922 [[Palestine Mandate]] and the 1947 [[UN Partition Plan]] supported the establishment of a [[Jewish National Homeland]] in the region, and view the Arab leadership's former rejection of any partition as an attempt to deny the Jews their right of [[self-determination]]. They claim that a national homeland for Jews would have protected them from persecution. [[General Zionism|Mainstream Zionists]] have argued that the land could support a greater population density without major population displacement.
=====Israeli treatment of minorities=====
Palestinians feel that the Jewish state of Israel was established under conditions that were deeply unfair to them. Some Palestinians do not oppose a Jewish state as such, but all Palestinians feel that it should not have been established at their expense. They argue that after World War II - and, indeed, after World War I - the world allowed a state for Jewish people in Palestine to be established without much concern for the exist
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radise"
* "[[Feliz Navidad|Felicidad]]"
* "We Kill The World (Don't Kill The World)"
* "Going Back West"
* "Jambo Hakuna Matata"
* "Exodus"
* "Kalimba De Luna"
* "Happy Song"
* "Young Free and Single"
* "My Cherie Amour"
* "Bang Bang Lulu"
* "Boney M Megamix"
==See also==
*[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top-selling music artists chart
== External links ==
* [http://www.diezi.com/boneym/ Boney M - Nightflight to Venus with Boney M]
* [http://listen.to/boneym Boonoonoonoos - The Magic of Boney M]
* [http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/boneym discussion group for Boney M fans]
* [http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/frankfarian discussion group for Frank Farian]
* [http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/lizmitchell discussion group for Liz Mitchell]
[[Category:Disco groups]]
[[Category:Popular musical groups]]
[[Category:German musical groups]]
[[af:Boney M]]
[[de:Boney M]]
[[es:Boney M]]
[[eo:Boney M]]
[[fr:Boney M]]
[[nl:Boney M]]
[[pl:Boney M]]
[[pt:Boney M]]
[[ru:Boney M]]
[[sv:Boney M]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Britain</title>
<id>3745</id>
<revision>
<id>41048625</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:49:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shimgray</username>
<id>126457</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.188.254.82|195.188.254.82]] ([[User talk:195.188.254.82|talk]]) to last version by Zzuuzz</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For an explanation of terms such as [[Great Britain]], [[British]], [[United Kingdom]], [[England]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], see [[British Isles (terminology)]]''.
The word '''Britain''' is an informal term used to refer to;
* the island of [[Great Britain]] which consists of the nations of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]].
* the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] (the "United Kingdom" or the "UK"),
* sometimes the [[Roman Britain|Roman province called "Britain" or "Britannia"]]
The word '''British''' generally means belonging to or associated with Britain in one of the first two senses above (i.e. the United Kingdom or the island of Great Britain). However, the term has a range of related usages, as described in this article.
Etymologically, these words are closely related to ''[[Brittany]]'', the name of the western French peninsula, and its adjective ''Breton''.
==Earliest attested references==
*''Pretaniké; Pretanikai nesoi'' (Pretanic isles) - [[325 BC]]
*''Britannia'' - [[55 BC]] ([[Julius Caesar]], [[Roman invasion of Britain]])
*''Breten'' - 855 (''Old English Chronicle'', introduction)
*''Brittisc'' - 855 ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]])
*''Grate Briteigne'' - 1548 ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]])
*''British isles'' - 1550 (in [[Latin]]; map of [[Sebastian Munster]] cited in [[British Isles]] article)
==Etymology==
The etymology of the name ''Britain'' is thought to derive from a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] word, ''Pritani'', "painted people/men", a reference to the inhabitants of the islands' use of body-paint and tattoos. If this is true, there is an interesting parallel with the name ''Pict'', connected with a Latin word of the same meaning. The modern [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name for Britain is ''[[Prydain]]''. The Q-Celtic form was Cruithin, showing that the Common Celtic singular form was qr[ui]tanos. The root is presumably that of the modern Gaelic/Irish word cruth 'shape, form'.
It has also been postulated that ''Britain'' may derive from the Celtic goddess Brigid; the form of the word, however, is against this postulation.
In [[325 BC]] the [[Greece|Greek]] explorer [[Pytheas| Pytheas of Massalia]] visited a group of islands which he called ''Pretaniké'', the principal ones being Albionon ([[Albion]]) and Ierne ([[Erin]]). The records of this visit date from much more recent times, so there is room for these details to be disputed, but it does seem to attest pre-Roman use of the name by Celtic-speaking inhabitants of the islands - or the names used by the Phoenecians Pytheas went with.
The Roman geographer Ptolemy called the larger island Megale Brettania (Great Britain), and the smaller island Micra Bretannia (Little Britain) although some consider it to be derived from the French distinction between Great Britain and Brittany.
==Britain and Brittany==
The original reference seems to have been to the territory in which the [[Brythonic languages]] were spoken, which more or less coincided with the Roman province of Britannia, an area equivalent to modern England, Wales and southern Scotland. In the Early Middle Ages speakers of a Brythonic language which later evolved into [[Brittany|Breton]] migrated from Cornwall to [[Armorica]], Western France, possibly because of pressure from Saxon invasions. This is why different forms of the same name apply to insular Britain and continental Brittany. In [[French language|French]] the similarity is even more obvious: ''Bretagne'' and ''Grande Bretagne''.
[[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] used the names ''Britannia minor'' to refer to the Armorican region and ''Britannia major'' for the island. The element ''great'' in the term ''Great Britain'' thus simply means large, to make the distinction from Brittany.
==Historical evolution of the term 'Britain'==
The kingdoms established on the island of Great Britain were perceived to be dominant over the whole [[archipelago]], which thus came to be known as the ''[[British Isles]]''. During the reign of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]], the queen's astrologer and alchemist, [[John Dee]], wrote mystical volumes predicting a British Empire and using the terms ''Great Britain'' and ''Britannia''. After Elizabeth's death in 1603 the kingdoms shared one King, [[James I of England|James VI of Scotland and I of England]]. On [[20 October]] [[1604]] he proclaimed himself "King of Great Brittaine" (thus including [[Wales]] and also avoiding the cumbersome title "King of England and Scotland"). This title was eventually adopted formally in 1707 when the ''[[Kingdom of Great Britain]]'' was formed.
Politically, then, '''British''' has been used to described someone or something from the United Kingdom, in its various forms, since 1707. Briton or Brit are also used colloquially in this form, though the use of Briton here is incorrect.
Since its formation, the kingdom was enlarged in 1801 by the addition of the island of [[Ireland]] - already ruled by the British monarchy - to become the ''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]'', and was then reduced in 1922 by the independence of the [[Irish Free State]], now the [[Republic of Ireland]]. The name of the kingdom changed accordingly, in 1927 becoming ''[[United Kingdom|The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]''.
British was also used to describe members of nations that formed part of the [[British Empire]]. This use now, however, could be seen as justifying the [[colonialism|colonial]] era, even if only applied historically.
==Modern use of the terms 'British' and 'Britain'==
'Britain' then, is now commonly used to refer to the modern United Kingdom. Though considered inaccurate by some - due to the location of the United Kingdom across islands other than Great Britain - it is generally considered acceptable. For example, this page [http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page39.asp] on the [[10 Downing Street]] website refers to 'Britain's' 51 [[Prime Ministers]]; this [[BBC]] news article [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4713676.stm] refers to 'Britain's' chances in the [[2012 Olympics]].
The modern use of the term 'British' is as an adjective to describe someone or something from the United Kingdom. It is officially used as the term to describe the nationality of a citizen of the United Kingdom. [[Irish republicanism|Irish Nationalists]] may reject this term as offensive, as it is used to describe people from [[Northern Ireland]]. Many people from England, Scotland and Wales also dislike the term, preferring to define themselves as natives of their own particular country.
It is also frequently used to describe residents of the United Kingdom's [[British Overseas Territory|current colonies]]. This may still offend some people, though since the [[British Overseas Territories Act 2002]] all residents of the United Kingdom's remaining colonies have been eligible for British citizenship, making the term more apt.
British occurs in the legal term [[British Islands]] . This was coined to describe all of the islands of the [[British Isles]], excluding those that form part of the [[Republic of Ireland]], when they act together as a political whole.
[[geography|Geographically]], the term can be used in various ways:
*To describe someone from the island of [[Great Britain]]
*In the term [[British Isles]], the traditional term for the entire [[archipelago]] of islands that lie off the north west coast of [[France]], of which Great Britain and Ireland are the two biggest. Note that this is not intended to imply that all of these islands are part of the United Kingdom, for many of them are part of the Republic of Ireland. However, confusion caused by this term can lead to offence.
*The term has historically been used to describe someone or something from the British Isles. Due to the above mentioned potential for offence, this rarely happens today. For example the [[British Lions]] a rugby team which draws players from the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland has been renamed the [[British and Irish Lions]].
*Sometimes ''British'' applies to an area or territory currently or formerly governed by or a dependent territory of the [[United Kingdom]], for example the [[British Virgin Islands]
|
Council]]
<tr><td align = center colspan = 2>[[Canadian Senate|Senators]] </td></tr><tr><td align = center colspan = 2>[[Daniel Hays]], [[Elaine McCoy]]
</tr></td>|
MPs=[[Diane Ablonczy]], [[Rob Anders]], [[Art Hanger]], [[Stephen Harper]], [[Jason Kenney]], [[Deepak Obhrai]], [[Jim Prentice]], [[Lee Richardson]]|
MLAs=[[Cindy Ady]], [[Moe Amery]], [[Neil Brown]], [[Wayne Cao]], [[Harvey Cenaiko]], [[Harry B. Chase]], [[Alana DeLong]], [[Heather Forsyth]], [[Yvonne Fritz]], [[Denis Herard]], [[Art Johnston]], [[Ralph Klein]], [[Ron Liepert]], [[Richard Magnus]], [[Gary Mar]], [[Greg Melchin]], [[Hung Pham]], [[Dave Rodney]], [[Shiraz Shariff]], [[Ron Stevens]], [[David Swann]], [[Dave Taylor (politician)|Dave Taylor]], [[Len Webber]]|
website=[http://www.calgary.ca City of Calgary]|
Census Year=2001|
Extra references=|
}}
'''Calgary''' is a [[city]] in the [[province]] of [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]. It is situated in the south of the province, in a region of foothills and high plains, approximately 80 km east of the front ranges of the [[Canadian Rockies]]. As of [[2005]], the estimated metropolitan population ([[Census Metropolitan Area|CMA]]) was 1,060,300 (see [[Calgary Region]]). Calgary is the largest city in Alberta and the third largest city (proper), [[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada|by population]], in Canada. It serves as the hub of the fifth largest [[Census Metropolitan Area]] in the country. It is located within the relatively densely populated "[[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]]"[http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Highlights/Page9/Page9d_e.cfm]. It is the largest Canadian metropolitan area west of [[Toronto]] and east of [[Vancouver]]. A resident of Calgary is known as a Calgarian.
Calgary is well-known as a destination for winter sports and [[ecotourism]] with a number of major mountain resorts near the city and metropolitan area. Calgary's economy is largely centred on the petroleum industry (see [[oilpatch]]), with agriculture, tourism, and the high-tech industries contributing to the city's rapid economic growth. Calgary now has the second highest concentration of head offices in Canada. Calgary also holds many major annual festivals, including the [[Calgary Stampede]], the Folk Music Festival, the Summerstock Festival, the Lilac Festival, and the second largest Caribbean festival in the country (Carifest). Calgary was the first Canadian city to host [[Winter Olympic Games|The Olympic Winter Games]] (1988).
==History==
===First settlement===
[[Image:1875Mounties.jpg|thumb|left|North West Mounted Police post, 1875]]Before the Calgary area was settled by Europeans, it was the domain of the [[Blackfoot]] people whose presence has been traced back at least 11,000 years. In 1787 cartographer [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] spent the winter with a band of [[Peigan]] Indians encamped along the Bow River. He was the first recorded European to visit the area. By [[1860]] settlers began arriving to eat buffalo.
The first recorded settler in Calgary was rancher [[Sam Livingston]] in the early [[1870s]], and in [[1875]] the site became a post of the [[North West Mounted Police]] (now the [[RCMP]]). Originally named Fort Brisebois, after NWMP officer [[Éphrem-A Brisebois]], it was renamed [[Fort Calgary]] in [[1876]] because of questionable conduct on the part of that officer. The NWMP detachment was assigned to protect the western plains from [[United States|US]] whiskey traders. Fort Calgary was named by [[James Macleod|Colonel James Macleod]] after [[Calgary, Mull|Calgary]] (''Cala-ghearraidh'', ''Beach of the pasture'') on the [[Isle of Mull]], [[Scotland]]. When the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] reached the area and a rail station was constructed, Calgary began to grow into an important commercial and agricultural centre. The [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] headquarters are located in Calgary today. Calgary was officially incorporated as a town in [[1884]] and elected its first mayor, [[George Murdoch]]. In [[1894]], Calgary became the first city in what was then, the [[Northwest Territories]].
===The oil boom===
Oil was first discovered in [[Alberta]] in 1914, but it didn't become a significant industry in the province until the 1960s when huge reserves of it were discovered. Calgary quickly found itself at the centre of the ensuing oil boom. The city's economy grew when oil prices increased with the [[Arab Oil Embargo]] of 1973. The population increased by 244,000 in the sixteen years between 1971 (403,000) and 1987 (647,000). During this time, [[List of Calgary's 10 tallest skyscrapers|skyscrapers]] were constructed at a pace seen by few cities anywhere. The relatively low-rise [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] quickly became dense with tall buildings: a trend that continues to this day.
Calgary's economy was so closely tied to the oil industry that the city's boom peaked with the average annual price of oil in 1981.
[http://inflationdata.com/inflation/Inflation_Rate/Historical_Oil_Prices_Table.asp]
The subsequent drop in oil prices and the introduction of [[National Energy Program]], were cited by industry as reasons for a collapse in the oil industry, and consequently the overall Calgary economy.
The NEP was cancelled in the mid-1980s by the [[Brian Mulroney]] federal government. Continued low oil prices, however, prevented a full recovery until the 1990s.
===Recent history===
[[Image:Downtown_Calgary.jpg |thumb|200px|left|[[Downtown Calgary]], 2003]]
With the energy sector employing a huge number of Calgarians, the fallout from the economic slump of the early 1980s was understandably significant. The unemployment rate soared. By the end of the decade, however, the economy was in recovery. Calgary quickly realized that it could not afford to put so much emphasis on oil and gas, and the city has since become much more diverse, both economically and culturally. The period during this recession marked Calgary's transition from a mid-sized and relatively nondescript prairie city into a major cosmopolitan and diverse centre. This transition culminated in February of 1988, when the city hosted the [[XV Olympic Winter Games]]. The success of these games essentially put the city on the world stage.
The economy in Calgary and [[Alberta]] is now booming, and the city of over a million people is still among the fastest growing in the country. In fact, Calgary is now second only to [[Toronto]] for its concentration of corporate head offices and boasts a higher GDP per capita than any other major Canadian city. While the oil and gas industry and agriculture still comprise a huge part of the economy, the city has invested a great deal into other areas. Tourism is perhaps one of the fastest growing industries in the city. Over 4.5 million people now visit the city on an annual basis for its many festivals and attractions, as well as the [[Calgary Stampede]]. The nearby mountain resort towns of [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Lake Louise, Alberta|Lake Louise]], and [[Canmore, Alberta|Canmore]] are also becoming increasingly popular with tourists, and are bringing people into Calgary as a result. Other modern industries include light manufacturing, high-tech, film, transportation, and services. The city has also ranked high in quality of life surveys.
In 2004, the [[Calgary Flames]] of the [[National Hockey League]] won the Western Conference championship, only to lose to the Tampa Bay Lightning in Game 7 of the [[Stanley Cup]] Finals.
==Geography==
[[Image:69_Calgary.jpg |thumb|right|Calgary in 1969]]
Calgary is located within the foothills of the [[Rocky Mountains]] and is relatively hilly as a result. Calgary's elevation is approximately 1048 metres (3440 feet) above sea level downtown, and 1139 metres (3736 feet) at the airport. The city proper covers a land area of 721 km<sup>2</sup> (as of 2001). There are two major rivers that run through the city. The [[Bow River]] is the largest and flows from the west to the south. The [[Elbow River]] flows northwards from the south until it converges with the Bow River near [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]]. Since the climate of the region is generally dry, dense vegetation occurs ''naturally'' only in the river valleys and within [[Fish Creek Provincial Park]], the largest urban park in Canada.
The city is quite large in physical area, consisting of an inner city surrounded by various communities of decreasing density. Unlike most cities with a sizable metropolitan area, most of Calgary's suburbs are incorporated into the city proper, with the notable exceptions of the city of [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]] to the north, [[Cochrane, Alberta|Cochrane]] to the northwest, [[Strathmore, Alberta|Strathmore]] to the east, and the sprawling Springbank district to the west. Though it is not technically within Calgary's metropolitan area, the town of [[Okotoks, Alberta|Okotoks]] is only a short distance to the south and is considered a suburb as well. The [[Calgary Region|Calgary Economic Region]] includes slightly more area that the [[Census Metropolitan Area|CMA]] and has a population of 1,146,900.
Because of the growth of the city, its southwest borders are now immediately adjacent to the [[Tsuu T'ina|Tsuu T&#8217;ina]] (Sarcee) Nation Native Indian reserve. Recent residential developments in the deep southwest of the city have created a need for a major roadway heading into the interior of the city, but because of complications in negotiations with the Sarcee about the construction, the much-needed construction has not yet begun.
===Calgary's neighbourhoods===
{{main|List of Neighbourhoods in Calgary}}
The [[Downtown Calgary|downtown ''region'']] of the city consists of five neighbourhoods: [[Eau Claire, Calgary|Eau Claire]] (including the Festival District), the Downtown West End, the [[Downtown Calgary|Downtown Commercial Core]], [[Chinatown, Calgary|Chinatown]], and the [
|
ame unbeaten streak in the title run-in. Chelsea's points total of 52 for that season remains the lowest to have secured the English League title since the [[First World War]]. That same season saw the club complete a unique quadruple, with the reserve, 'A' and junior sides also winning their respective leagues.
Winning the Championship should have ensured that Chelsea became the first [[England|English]] participants in the inaugural [[Champions League|European Champions' Cup]] competition to be staged the following season. Indeed, they were drawn to face [[Swedish Champions (football)|Swedish champions]] [[Djurgårdens IF Fotboll|Djurgårdens]] in the first round. However, Chelsea were denied by the intervention of the [[The Football League|Football League]] and the [[The Football Association|F.A.]], many of whose leading members were opposed to the idea and felt that primacy should be given to domestic competitions, so the club were persuaded to withdraw. {{ref|euro}}
Chelsea were unable to build on their title success, however, and there followed a succession of uninspiring mid-table finishes, the one major bright spot in this period being the emergence of the ultra-prolific goalscorer [[Jimmy Greaves]]. This run culminated in [[relegation]] from the First Division in [[1962]] and the departure of Drake, who was replaced by 33-year-old player-coach [[Tommy Docherty]].
===Blue is the Colour (1963-72)===
The swinging 1960s ushered in an era that saw football and inimitable style merge in the heart of London; with the fashionable [[Chelsea, London|King's Road]] at the heart of the swagger. A 60s Chelsea that oozed charisma and class ultimately failed to match its swagger with on-field triumphs, and endured several near-misses. In his first season as manager Docherty led Chelsea to promotion with a new, youthful team which included [[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron 'Chopper' Harris]], [[Peter Bonetti]], [[Bobby Tambling]], [[Eddie McCreadie]] and [[Terry Venables]]. Chelsea finished a credible 5th in their first season back in the top-flight, and in the next narrowly missed out on a domestic "treble", being denied by a poor run of form in the title run-in and defeat in the [[FA Cup]] semi-finals, though the [[League Cup]] was secured with a two-legged win against [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] (the club's first League Cup). This was followed by an [[FA Cup]] final loss to [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham]] in [[1967]]. Docherty left shortly after that defeat, and was replaced by [[Dave Sexton]].
The early [[1970s]] saw a great Chelsea team which is still fondly remembered (not least because it was a couple of decades before its achievements were matched at the club): it featured the likes of [[Peter Osgood]], [[Alan Hudson]], [[Ian Hutchinson]] and [[Charlie Cooke (footballer)|Charlie Cooke]]. In [[1970]] Chelsea ran out [[FA Cup Final 1970|FA Cup winners]] (beating [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds]] 2-1 in a pulsating final replay at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]]). A UEFA [[Cup Winners' Cup]] triumph was added to the haul the following year with a replayed win over [[Real Madrid]] in [[Athens]]&mdash;Chelsea's first European honour. The club also reached a second League Cup final in [[1972]], though it lost out to [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]].
===Troubled Times (1975-89)===
But there was no further success in that decade, as the discipline of the team degenerated and an over-ambitious redevelopment of the stadium (which only got as far as the pioneering East Stand, which retains its place even in the modern stadium) threatened the financial stability of the club. Further problems were caused by a fearsome reputation for violence amongst a section of the supporters (the boundary between passion and [[hooliganism]] being dangerously narrow in those days) and the club started to fall apart both on and off the field.
The financial problems exacerbated the club's other difficulties (several key players had fallen out with Sexton and been [[transfer (football)|transferred]]) and a spiral of decline began. Star players were sold off, the team was [[relegation|relegated]], and the [[Fee simple|freehold]] of the stadium site was sold off to property developers, which was to create serious problems in the years to come.
As always, however, Chelsea retained its high profile; and its widespread base of supporters, many of them very hard core, saw it through what proved to be the very difficult years of the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. However, although relegated to the Second Division twice, it never fell further (although it came dangerously close). A succession of managers came and went (including several ex-players) but all were hamstrung by the club's financial troubles. The stability of the team appeared to have finally been secured by manager [[John Neal (footballer)|John Neal]] who, having seen Chelsea avoid relegation to the [[Football League Third Division|Third Division]] in the final home game of the [[1982-83 in English football|1982-83]] season, put together an inexpensive yet impressive side.
Chelsea was, at the nadir of its fortunes, acquired from the Mears family interests by [[Ken Bates]] for the princely sum of £1, and Bates proved to be a real fighter as the new chairman, although his opponents included supporters (who did not take kindly to his suggestion of [[Electric fence|electrified fences]] to keep them off the pitch) as well as the property developers who now owned the freehold. In [[1992]], Bates finally outmanoeuvred the latter and reunited the freehold with the Club, by seeing the property developers go bust and doing a deal with their banks.
In the meantime, Chelsea, having spent the early part of the decade in the Second Division, were promoted as champions in [[1984]] under Neal (who retired a year later due to ill-health), achieved two consecutive top six finishes in the First Division (with an impressive team which included the likes of [[Kerry Dixon]], [[Pat Nevin]] and [[David Speedie]]), were relegated in [[1988]] and finally won promotion to the First Division as Second Division champions again in [[1989]] with 99 points. This time, the club managed to stay in the top flight, where it has remained ever since.
===The 1990s: back on track===
Chelsea had an impressive return to the First Division in 1989-90. Manager [[Bobby Campbell (footballer)|Bobby Campbell]] guided a squad of mostly unremarkable players to a creditable fifth place in the final table. Although the ban on [[England|English]] clubs in European football was lifted that year, Chelsea missed out on a [[UEFA Cup]] place because the only English place in the competition that year went to runners-up [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]. Campbell resigned a year later and he was replaced by [[Ian Porterfield]], who helped Chelsea finish high enough in 1991-92 to qualify for the first-ever season of the [[FA Premier League|Premier League]]. He quit halfway through the season and was replaced on a caretaker basis by former Chelsea hero [[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]], who guided Chelsea to an 11th place finish. Webb was replaced at the end of the season by 35-year-old former England midfielder [[Glenn Hoddle]], who had just won promotion to the Premiership as player-manager of [[Swindon Town F.C.|Swindon Town]].
Hoddle's first season as manager saw Chelsea's league form dip slightly, but they reached the FA Cup final - and, although they lost 4-0 to Manchester United (who were awarded two penalties), this was sufficient to qualify Chelsea to compete in [[Europe]] for the 1994-95 Cup Winners Cup (since Manchester United had independently qualified for the Champions League). They reached the semi-finals of the competition and went out by one goal to eventual winners [[Real Zaragoza]].
Chelsea now had a decent squad with several top class players, the most significant of which was inspirational [[captain (football)|captain]] [[Dennis Wise]]. But chairman Ken Bates and director [[Matthew Harding]] were making millions of pounds available for the club to spend on players, and two world-famous players were signed in the summer of 1995 - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[legend]] [[Ruud Gullit]] (free transfer from [[U.C. Sampdoria|Sampdoria]]) and Manchester United's high-scoring striker [[Mark Hughes]] (£1.5million). Hoddle guided Chelsea to another 11th place finish in [[FA Premier League 1995-96|1995-96]] and then quit to become manager of the [[England national football team|England team]].
Gullit was appointed player-manager for the 1996-97 season, and had an impressive first season in management by winning the FA Cup and finishing sixth in the Premiership. The [[FA Cup Final 1997|2-0]] victory over [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] ended Chelsea's 26-year wait for a major trophy, and was a happy end to a season which had looked to be dominated by sadness after the death in October of director and financial benefactor Matthew Harding in a [[helicopter]] crash.
Gullit was suddenly sacked in February 1998 with Chelsea set for a top-five Premiership finish, and in the semi-finals of two cup competitions. Another [[player-manager]] was appointed - 33-year-old Italian striker [[Gianluca Vialli]]. Vialli began his management career in style with victory in the Cup Winners Cup and the League Cup. He also guided Chelsea to a third-place finish in the 1998-99 Premiership campaign, high enough for a first-ever appearance in the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]]. Vialli also guided Chelsea to another FA Cup victory and a trip to the Champions League quarter-finals in the [[Spring]] of 2000. By now, Chelsea had a top-notch multi-national squad which included the likes of [[Italy|Italian]] striker [[Gianfranco Zola]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]] goalkeeper [[Ed de Goey]], [[Uruguay|Uruguayan]] midfielder [[Gustavo Poyet]], Italian midfielder [[Roberto di Matteo]], [[Franc
|
d [[Levi's]], Fincher soon discovered that the slightly expanded format of music videos was an even better place to try things out.
==Propaganda Films==
With his sights set on a directing career, he along with [[Steve Golin]], [[Sigurjón Sighvatson]] and [[Dominic Sena]] founded the talent management and advertising and video-production company ''[[Propaganda Films]]'' in 1986, which would soon become the biggest player in the field of advertising and music videos. Directors such as [[David Kellogg]], [[Michael Bay]], [[Antoine Fuqua]], [[Neil LaBute]], [[Spike Jonze]], Andrew Douglas, Stephane Sednaoui, [[Mark Romanek]], Malcolm Venville, [[Michel Gondry]], [[Zack Snyder]], [[Gore Verbinski]], and [[Alex Proyas]] among others honed their talents at ''Propaganda'' before moving on to feature films. The company shut down in 2001 after key members left. The same year, Fincher, Golin, and Kellogg, among others, formed the talent management and advertising and music production company ''Anonymous Content''.
==Music Videos==
Fincher directed big-budget [[music video]]s for artists such as [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] (including "Express Yourself" and "Vogue"), [[George Michael]], [[Aerosmith]], [[the Rolling Stones]] (including "Love Is Strong"), [[Nine Inch Nails]], [[the Wallflowers]] and [[A Perfect Circle]], as well as [[television commercial|commercial]]s. Like a number of other music video directors, he then moved into film.
==Features==
===''Alien³''===
Fincher's debut was ''[[Alien³]]'' ([[1992]]), which was then the most expensive picture ever made by a first-time director. Unfortunately the film was not a pleasant experience for Fincher, having had a difficult time with the people at [[20th Century Fox]], who built sets without a finished script and made production a nightmare. While it received an Oscar nomination for special effects, the film was not well received by critics or movie goers. Depressed and disillusioned, Fincher retreated back into the world of commercial and music video directing earning a [[Grammy]] for the [[Rolling Stones]]'s "Love Is Strong" (1994) fearing that he would never work in film again.
===''Se7en''===
Fate finally came knocking on Fincher's door with [[Andrew Kevin Walker]]'s screenplay for a grisly detective story titled ''[[Seven (movie)|Se7en]]'' (1995). Relentlessly grim and oozing with rancid cynicism, Fincher pulled no punches delivering an extraordinarily gripping, unrelenting story of a serial killer murdering his victims according to the seven deadly sins. The movie rocketed past the $100 million mark turning Fincher from Hollywood's favorite whipping boy to arguably the town's hottest director. The film's success was even more remarkable for the fact that it strayed so far from the escapist fare that typically primes a film for mainstream commercial standing.
===''The Game''===
Next came the dark adventure film, ''[[The Game (film)|The Game]]'' (1997), a nightmarish, [[Twilight Zone]]-style thriller which projected the same sense of suffocating enclosure and mounting despair as had ''Se7en''. The film boasted almost as much feel-bad cynicism as ''Se7en'', but failed to get the warm reception enjoyed by its predecessor.
===''Fight Club''===
The relative disappointment of ''[[The Game (film)|The Game]]'', however, did little to dim the excitement that accompanied Fincher's next project, ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'', a screen adaptation of [[Chuck Palahniuk]]'s novel of the [[Fight Club|same name]]. Featuring a sterling cast that included [[Edward Norton]], [[Helena Bonham Carter]], and ''Se7en'' collaborator [[Brad Pitt]], the 1999 film was easily one of the most publicized of the year but was an early disappointment at the box-office and received with mixed reviews. Fueled in equal measure by stylistic audacity and the spirit of disenfranchised machismo, ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'' the film was panned by most critics (called ''Macho porn'' by [[Roger Ebert]]) and alienated audiences leading to its box office failure.
However many critics and audiences later had a change of heart and the film appeared on many best of the year lists and soon developed an enormous following. Entertainment Weekly, which had originally given the film a negative grade of D, later ranked the DVD #1 on its list of "The Top 50 DVDs You Need To Own." The DVD market, which was experiencing rapid growth at the time, caused Fight Club to not only break even, but actually become profitable. It now has one of the biggest cult followings in recent memory.
===''Panic Room''===
In 2002 he followed up with the thriller ''[[Panic Room]]'', which introduced some innovative uses of [[computer graphics]]. While a stunning technical achievement with a good gross at the box office, the film was not as well recieved as ''Se7en'', ''Fight Club'' or ''The Game''.
==The Future==
===Zodiac===
''[[Zodiac (film)|Zodiac]]'' is an adaptation of Robert Graysmith's books about the hunt for [[Zodiac killer]], the film stars [[Jake Gyllenhaal]], [[Robert Downey Jr.]] and [[Mark Ruffalo]].
===Benjamin Button===
The fantasy film, ''[[Benjamin Button]]'' is an adaptation of [[F Scott Fitzgerald]]'s short story ''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button''. The film will reunite Fincher with [[Brad Pitt]].
===Torso===
Fincher is also attached to direct an adaptation of [[Brian Michael Bendis]]' [[graphic novel]] ''[[Torso (film)|Torso]]''.
==Filmography==
===Theatrical films===
*''[[Alien³]]'' (1992)
*''[[Seven (movie)|Se7en]]'' (1995)
*''[[The Game (film)|The Game]]'' (1997)
*''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'' (1999)
*''[[Panic Room]]'' (2002)
*''[[Zodiac (film)|Zodiac]]'' (2006) (filming)
*''[[Benjamin Button]]'' (2007) (pre-production)
*''[[Torso (film)|Torso]]'' (tba)
===Music videos===
* "Shame," [[The Motels]] (1985)
* "All The Love," [[The Outfield]] (1986)
* "Everytime You Cry," The Outfield (1986)
* "One Simple Thing," [[The Stabilizers]] (1986)
* "She Comes On," [[Wire Train]] (1987)
* "Endless Nights," [[Eddie Money]] (1987)
* "Downtown Train," [[Patti Smyth]] (1987)
* "Johnny B," [[The Hooters]] (1987)
* "Storybook Story," [[Mark Knopfler]] (1987)
* "No Surrender," [[The Outfield]] (1987)
* "Don't Tell Me The Time," [[Martha Davis]] (1987)
* "Heart of Gold," [[Johnny Hates Jazz]] (1988)
* "[[Englishman in New York]]," [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] (1988)
* "Shattered Dreams" (second version), Johnny Hates Jazz (1988)
* "Get Rhythm," [[Ry Cooper]] (1988)
* "[[Roll With It]]," [[Steve Winwood]] (1988)
* "The Way That You Love Me" (first version), [[Paula Abdul]] (1988)
* "Holding On," Steve Winwood (1988)
* "[[Bamboleo]]" (second version), [[Gypsy Kings]] (1989)
* "[[Straight Up (song)|Straight Up]]," Paula Abdul (1989)
* "Real Love," [[Jody Watley]] (1989)
* "Bamboleo" (third version, Gypsy Kings (1989)
* "She's A Mystery To Me," [[Roy Orbison]] (1989)
* "[[Forever Your Girl (song)|Forever Your Girl]]," Paula Abdul (1989)
* "[[Express Yourself]]," [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] (1989)
* "The End Of The Innocence," [[Don Henley]] (1989)
* "Cold Hearted," Paula Abdul (1989)
* "Oh Father," Madonna (1989)
* "Janie's Got A Gun," [[Aerosmith]] (1989)
* "[[Vogue (song)|Vogue]]," Madonna (1990)
* "Cradle of Love," [[Billy Idol]] (1990)
* "[[L.A. Woman]]," Billy Idol (1990)
* "[[Freedom '90]]," [[George Michael]] (1990)
* "Bad Girl," Madonna (1993)
* "Who Is It?" (second version), [[Michael Jackson]] (1993)
* "Love Is Strong," [[The Rolling Stones]] (1994)
* "6th Avenue Heartache," [[The Wallflowers]] (1996)
* "Judith," [[A Perfect Circle]] (2000)
* "Only," [[Nine Inch Nails]] (2005)
==See also==
*[[List of directors]]
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=000399|name=David Fincher}}
*[http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=2:89783 David Fincher] at the [[All Movie Guide]]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/fincher.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
* Music Videos & Commercials at [http://www.anonymouscontent.com anonymous content]
*[http://www.24liesasecond.com/site2/index.php?page=2&task=index_onearticle.php&Column_Id=72 Love Costs: Rescuing Se7en from Nihilism] essay at 24 Lies A Second
[[Category:1962 births|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:American film directors|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:Music video directors|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:People from Colorado|Fincher, David]]
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[[Category:Living people|Fincher, David]]
[[bg:Дейвид Финчър]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of decades</title>
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<revision>
<id>41871771</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:07:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>*drew</username>
<id>91902</id>
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<minor />
<comment>+id:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term, see [[decade (disambiguation)]].''
This is a list of '''decades''' which have articles with more information about them. See also [[centuries]] and [[history]].
During the [[20th Century]] and continuing today it became popular to look at that century's decades as historical entities in themselves. Particular trends, styl
|
, [[Australia]] and [[South America]].
The majority of mainstream scientists reject the possibility of the creature's existence, and consider the stories of Bigfoot to be a combination of unsubstantiated folklore and hoax.
==Description==
Individuals claiming to have seen Bigfoot generally give a description with some common elements: a 7 to 10 feet (2 to 3 [[meter]]) tall, [[ape]]- or human-like bipedal creature, broad-shouldered and of a strong build. Aside from the face, the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet, the creature's body is said to be covered with short shaggy fur that is usually said to be black or dark brown in color, though rust, reddish, sandy or silver fur are occasionally reported.
Reports sometimes describe large eyes (Green 1978:16), a pronounced brow [http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/usaweb/factfile/Unique-facts-USA15.htm], and a large, low-set forehead [http://www.lloydpye.com/flash/8-Hominoids.swf] that is alternately reported as crested or rounded.
Large human-like footprints attributed to this creature gave rise to the name "Bigfoot". Ecologist [[Robert Michael Pyle]] describes them as follows: "Tracks commonly measure fifteen to twenty inches or more in length. They have five toes, a double-muscle ball, and a wide arch." (Pyle, 3)
Foul odors, reminiscent of [[feces]], [[sewage]], [[carrion]] (rotten meat/ dead animals) or strong body odor are believed by some to likely be associated with Bigfoot. [http://paranormal.about.com/od/bigfootsasquatch/a/aa112204.htm]
What some people believe to be Sasquatch vocalizations have been described as high-pitched shrieks or whistles, and in others as low-pitched, [[guttural]] grunting or squealing. [http://www.oregonbigfoot.com/sounds.php] However, there is no widely accepted evidence demonstrating a link between such sounds and the alleged creature.
Most alleged sightings have been at night, leading to speculation among proponents that the creatures, if they exist, could be [[nocturnal]].
Opinions even exist about this theoretical creature's diet. In the opinion of Bigfoot researcher and anthropologist [[Grover Krantz]], "[t]he kinds of food that are consumed by sasquatches are reported by many observers; how many of these reports are accurate is a matter of diverse opinion." (Krantz, 159) He also adds, "In general I would describe the sasquatch as [[omnivore|omnivorous]]. It is probably mainly a [[vegetarian]] and what might be described as an 'opportunistic [[carnivore]]'" (''ibid'', 160-161). It should be noted, however, that Krantz's acceptance of the creature's existance is solely his opinion.
==Bigfoot phenomenon==
Bigfoot is one of the more famous creatures in [[cryptozoology]]. Cryptozoologist [[John Green]] has postulated that Bigfoot is a worldwide phenomenon (Green 1978:16).
Many who consider the creature's existence a possibility claim that accounts of large, hairy, ape-like or "wild man" creatures (or reports of inexplicably large, human-like footprints) from the Pacific Northwest date as far back as the late 18th century. Some researchers have argued that these earlier accounts are consistent with more contemporary Bigfoot reports, while critics doubt their authenticity and question the accuracy of interpreting older reports through modern preconceptions. Skeptics also question the authenticity of these earlier reports in general, as many of them were not documented before the 1950s.
The earliest unambiguous reports of gigantic ape-like creatures in the Pacific northwest date from 1924, after a series of alleged encounters at a location in [[Washington]] later dubbed [[Ape Canyon]], as related in ''[[The Oregonian]]'' [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/faq.html] As noted in "[[Etymology]]" below, similar reports appear in the mainstream press dating back at least to the 1920s.
The phenomenon reached widespread recognition in 1958 when enormous footprints were reported in [[Humboldt County, California]].
Mainstream scientists have found existing physical Bigfoot evidence and sightings unpersuasive; generally, science dismisses the phenomenon as the product of the misidentification of common animals, mythology or [[folklore]]. For instance, [[northern Europe]]'s former belief in [[troll]]s has been suggested to be similar to Bigfoot legends. Less charitable scientists have argued that many (or most) sightings are simply hoaxes.
Many academics and professionals contend that further study is a waste of time, but others argue that though current [[scientific method|evidence]] may be lacking, new data should be evaluated objectively as it arises. Others (including an active [[subculture]] composed primarily of amateurs) continue research and consider the existence of Bigfoot a possibility.
==Etymology==
The words "Bigfoot" and "Sasquatch" are often used interchangeably, though they have different origins worth noting. The term "Sasquatches" sometimes refers to the unknown beings collectively, whereas "Bigfoot" is often used to refer to an individual creature. Usually, in the plural, "Bigfoot creatures" is more acceptable.
===Bigfoot===
The late [[Smithsonian]] primatologist [[John Napier (primatologist)|John Napier]] noted that "the term Bigfoot has been in colloquial use since the early 1920's [sic] to describe large, unaccountable human-like footprints in the Pacific northwest" (Napier, 74). However, according to [[Loren Coleman]] and [[Jerome Clark]], Andrew Genzoli deserves credit for the first formal use of the word on October 5, 1958 (Coleman and Clark, 39-40). Genzoli was a columnist and editor at the ''Humbolt Times'', and that day's front page story showed Jerry Crew, a bulldozer operator on a road-building crew, holding an enormous [[plaster cast]] of a footprint. The text began, "While the tracks of old Big Foot [sic] have been in evidence for some time...," before detailing the worker's claims to have discovered an enormous footprint at an isolated work site [http://www.n2.net/prey/bigfoot/stories/rocky.htm]. Genzoli's story was picked up by the [[Associated Press]] and garnered international attention, culminating several years later into what anthropologist Grover Krantz characterized as "sasquatch mania" (Krantz, 5).
It is worth noting that Crew was overseen by Wilbur L. Wallace, brother of [[Raymond L. Wallace]], who both later claimed to have collected conclusive evidence of Bigfoot's existence and to have hoaxed substantial amounts of it. Wallace was poorly regarded by many who took the subject seriously. Napier wrote, "I do not feel impressed with Mr. Wallace's story" regarding having over 15,000 feet of film showing Bigfoot (Napier, 89).
===Sasquatch===
The term "Sasquatch" was coined in the 1920s by J.W. Burns, a school teacher at a [[British Columbia]]n [[Chehalis (tribe)|Chehalis]] reservation. Burns collected [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] accounts regarding large, hairy creatures said to live in the wild. Loren Coleman and Jerome Clark wrote that Burns's "Native American informants called these beasts by various names, including 'sokqueatl' and 'soss-q'tal'" (Coleman and Clark, p. 215). Burns noted the [[phonetically]] similar names for the creatures and decided to invent one term for them all. That name, Sasquatch, happens to be similar to the word for the beast in the Chehalis dialect of [[Halkemeylem]], ''sesqac'' (''c=ts''). Interestingly, proponents note, Chehalis is in the area where historic Bigfoot sightings are densest, and is generally considered to be, if anywhere is, "Sasquatch territory." The Sasquatch is, in fact, a local clan totem and the band is nonchalant about the creature's existence, except to say that the creature is camera-shy and would rather be left alone.
Over time, Burns's [[neologism]] came to be used by others, primarily in the Pacific Northwest. In 1929, ''[[Maclean's]]'' published one of Burns's articles, "Introducing British Columbia's Hairy Giants," which included the word "Sasquatch" in describing the enormous creatures.
After widespread publicity surrounding the 1958's Bigfoot reports from Humbolt County, California, researchers began searching old newspapers and documents for similar accounts, thus rediscovering and popularizing Burns's term.
To some ears, "Sasquatch" has a less sensationalistic association than does "Bigfoot," and is consequently more popular among researchers who strive for legitimacy.
==Evidence==
===Eyewitness reports===
Some cryptozoologists have argued that the most persuasive [[circumstantial evidence]] for Bigfoot's existence is the high number (possibly thousands) of credible eyewitness reports from individuals, who claim to have clearly seen creatures that they describe as large, bipedal and ape-like.
The majority of Sasquatch reports are generated from areas having low human population densities, but many do originate from parks near major cities, such as [[Portland, Oregon]] [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/weishaus/Bigfoot/para-8b.htm], [[Washington, D.C.]] [http://home.hamptonroads.com/stories/story.cfm?story=82385&ran=127779], and [[Baltimore, Maryland]] [http://www.gcbro.com/mddb1.htm]. In addition, most sightings are near rivers, creeks or lakes, and from areas where annual rainfall exceeds twenty inches (500 mm). Researchers point out that these common factors indicate patterns of a living species occupying an [[ecological niche]], as opposed to hoaxed sightings [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/news/talesofbf.html]. The late Grover Krantz noted these same points and offered a detailed proposal for Sasquatch [[ecology]] and social behavior (Krantz, 158-171).
Critics suggest people may have mistaken bears for Bigfoot, as sightings are near habitats of [
|
ok into the information retrieval community by supplying the infrastructure that was needed for such a huge evaluation of text retrieval methodologies.
Web [[search engine]]s such as [[Google]] and [[Lycos]] are amongst the most visible applications of information retrieval research.
== Performance measures ==
There are various ways to measure how well the retrieved information matches the intended information:
=== Precision ===
The proportion of [[Relevance (information retrieval)|relevant]] documents to all the documents retrieved:
:''P = (number of relevant documents retrieved) / (number of documents retrieved)''
In [[binary classification]], precision is analogous to [[positive predictive value]].
Precision can also be evaluated at a given cut-off rank, denoted ''P@n'', instead of all retrieved documents.
=== Recall ===
The proportion of relevant documents that are retrieved, out of all relevant documents available:
:''R = (number of relevant documents retrieved) / (number of relevant documents)''
In binary classification, recall is called [[sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]].
=== F-measure ===
The weighted [[harmonic mean]] of precision and recall, the traditional F-measure is:
:<math>F = 2 \times \mathrm{precision} \times \mathrm{recall} / (\mathrm{precision} + \mathrm{recall}).\,</math>
This is also known as the <math>F_1</math> measure, because recall and precision are evenly weighted.
The general formula is:
:<math>F_N = (1 + N^2) \times \mathrm{precision} \times \mathrm{recall} / ((N^2 \times \mathrm{precision}) + \mathrm{recall}).\,</math>
Two other commonly used F measures are the <math>F_{0.5}</math> measure, which weights precision twice as much as recall, and the <math>F_2</math> measure, which weights recall twice as much as precision.
=== Mean average precision ===
Over a set of queries, find the mean of the average precisions, where Average Precision is the average of the precision after each relevant document is retrieved.
Where ''r'' is the rank, ''N'' the number retrieved, ''rel()'' a binary function on the relevance of a given rank, and ''P()'' precision at a given cut-off rank:
:<math> \operatorname{Ave}P = \frac{\sum_{r=1}^N (P(r) \times \mathrm{rel}(r))}{\mbox{number of relevant documents}} \!</math> <!-- It /should/ be P@r instead of P(r), but couldn't find the right way to do that -->
This method emphasizes returning more relevant documents earlier.
== Model types ==
[[Image:Information-Retrieval-Models.png|thumb|500px|classification of IR-models (translated from [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsr%C3%BCckgewinnung#Klassifikation_von_Modellen_zur_Repr.C3.A4sentation_nat.C3.BCrlichsprachlicher_Dokumente German entry], original source [http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/engbuchmid?isbn=0514&lng=eng&id= Dominik Kuropka])]]
For a successful IR, it is necessary to represent the documents in some way. There are a number of models for this purpose. They can be classified according to two dimensions like shown in the left figure: the mathematical basis and the properties of the model. (translated from [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsr%C3%BCckgewinnung#Klassifikation_von_Modellen_zur_Repr.C3.A4sentation_nat.C3.BCrlichsprachlicher_Dokumente German entry], original source [http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/engbuchmid?isbn=0514&lng=eng&id= Dominik Kuropka])
=== 1. dimension: mathematical basis ===
* ''Set-theoretic Models'' represent documents by sets. Similarities are usually derived from set-theoretic operations on those sets. Common models are:
** [[Standard Boolean model]]
** [[Extended Boolean model]]
** [[fuzzy retrieval]]
* ''Algebraic Models'' represent documents and queries usually as vectors, matrices or tuples. Those vectors, matrices or tuples are transformed by the use of a finite number of algebraic operations to a one-dimensional similarity measurement.
** [[Vector space model]]
** [[Generalized vector space model]]
** [[Topic-based vector space model]]
** [[Extended Boolean model]]
** Enhanced topic-based vector space model
** Latent semantic indexing aka [[latent semantic analysis]]
* ''Probabilistic Models'' treat the process of document retrieval as a multistage random experiment. Similarities are thus represented as probabilities. Probabilistic theorems like the [[Bayes'_theorem]] are often used in these models.
** [[Binary independence retrieval]]
** Uncertain inference
** [[Language model]]s
** [[Divergence from randomness models]]
=== 2. dimension: properties of the model ===
* ''Models without term-interdependencies'' treat different terms/words as not interdependent. This fact is usually represented in vector space models by the orthogonality assumption of term vectors or in probabilistic models by an independency assumption for term veriables.
* ''Models with immanent term interdependencies'' allow a representation of interdependencies between terms. However the degree of the interdependency between two terms is defined by the model itself. It is usually directly or indirectly derived (e.g. by dimensional reduction) from the co-occurrence of those terms in the whole set of documents.
* ''Models with transcendent term interdependencies'' allow a representation of interdependencies between terms, but they do not allege how the interdependency between two terms is defined. They relay an an external source for the degree of interdependency between two terms. (For example a human or sophisticated algorithms.)
== Open source information retrieval systems ==
* [http://www.galaxquery.com/galatex/ GalaTex] XQuery Full-Text Search (XML query text search)
* [http://www.htdig.org/ ht://dig] Open source web crawling software
* [http://www.ihop-net.org/UniPub/iHOP/ iHOP] Information retrieval system for the biomedical domain
* [http://www.cs.uni.edu/~okane/source/ISR/isr.html Information Storage and Retrieval Using Mumps](Online GPL Text)
* [http://www.lemurproject.org/ Lemur] Language Modelling IR Toolkit
* [http://lucene.apache.org/java/docs/ Lucene] Apache Jakarta project
* [http://www.nzdl.org/html/mg.html MG full-text retrieval system] Now maintained by the [[Greenstone Digital Library Software]] Project
* [ftp://ftp.cs.cornell.edu/pub/smart/ SMART] Early IR engine from Cornell University
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk/terrier Terrier] Information Retrieval Platform
* [http://www.wumpus-search.org/ Wumpus] multi-user information retrieval system
* [http://www.xapian.org/ Xapian] Open source IR platform based on Muscat
* [http://www.indexdata.dk/zebra/ Zebra] GPL structured text/XML/MARC boolean search IR engine supporting Z39.50 and Web Services
* [http://www.seg.rmit.edu.au/zettair/ Zettair]
== Major information retrieval research groups ==
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk Glasgow Information Retrieval Group]
* [http://ciir.cs.umass.edu/ Center for Intelligent Information Retrieval]
* [http://www.ir.iit.edu/ IIT Information Retrieval Lab]
* [http://research.microsoft.com/ir/ Information Retrieval at Microsoft Research Cambridge]
* [http://www.dcs.vein.hu/CIR/ CIR Centre for Information Retrieval]
* [http://iis.ist.psu.edu/ PSU Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory]
== Major figures in information retrieval ==
* [[Calvin Mooers]]
* [[Eugene Garfield]]
* [[Gerard Salton]]
* [[W. Bruce Croft]]
* [[Karen Spärck Jones]]
* [[C. J. van Rijsbergen]]
* [[Stephen E. Robertson]]
* [[S. Dominich]]
Awards in this field: [[Tony Kent Strix award]]
== ACM SIGIR Gerard Salton Award==
; 1983 - [[Gerard Salton]], [[Cornell University]] : "About the future of automatic information retrieval"
; 1988 - [[Karen Sparck Jones]], [[University of Cambridge]] : "A look back and a look forward"
; 1991 - [[Cyril Cleverdon]], [[Cranfield Institute of Technology]] : "The significance of the Cranfield tests on index languages"
; 1994 - [[William S. Cooper]], [[University of California, Berkeley]] : "The formalism of probability theory in IR: a foundation or an encumbrance?"
; 1997 - [[Tefko Saracevic]], [[Rutgers University]] : "Users lost: reflections on the past, future, and limits of information science"
; 2000 - [[Stephen E. Robertson]], [[City University London]] : "On theoretical argument in information retrieval"
; 2003 - [[W. Bruce Croft]], [[University of Massachusetts, Amherst]] : "Information retrieval and computer science: an evolving relationship"
== See also ==
* [[Controlled vocabulary]]
* [[Cross-language information retrieval]]
* [[Digital libraries]]
* [[Document classification]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
* [[Free text search]]
* [[Geographic information system]]
* [[Information extraction]]
* [[Information science]]
* [[Knowledge visualization]]
* [[Search engines]]
* [[Spoken document retrieval]]
* [[tf-idf]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.acm.org/sigir/ ACM SIGIR: Information Retrieval Special Interest Group]
* [http://irsg.bcs.org/ BCS IRSG: British Computer Society - Information Retrieval Specialist Group]
* [http://www-db.stanford.edu/~backrub/google.html The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine]
* [http://trec.nist.gov Text Retrieval Conference (TREC)]
* [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/Keith/Preface.html Information Retrieval] (online book) by [[C. J. van Rijsbergen]]
* [http://www.civr2004.org/ International Conference on Image and Video retrieval, July 21-23, 2004]
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk/wiki Glasgow Information Retrieval Group Wiki]
* [http://www.irccyn.ec-nantes.fr/mlschool/mlss03/slides03/slides_mlss03_tutorial.pdf An introduction to IR]
* [http://www.innovationsinsearch.com/ Innovations in Search Conference, September 27-29, 2005]
* [http://www.hsl.creighton.edu/hsl/Searching/Recall-Precision.html Measuring Search Effectiveness]
* [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~gabr/resources/resources.html Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing]
|
onsin newspaper. [http://www.wisinfo.com/newsherald/mnhlocal/280839343001272.shtml Digital or print?] ''Marshfield News Herald'', June 28, 2004: "And a mass assembly of expert Uncle Joe's can actually forge an informative, albeit imperfect bond, such as found on wikipedia.com, a free encyclopedia that allows anyone to contribute."
===July===
*'''[http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/07/07/0740232&mode=thread&tid=126&tid=188&tid=95 Wikipedia Hits 300,000 Articles]''' slashdot.org, July 7, 2004. "The English Wikipedia has 90.1 million words across 300,000 articles, compared to Britannica's 55 million words across 85,000 articles."
**Note - I submitted this. [[User:Raul654|&rarr;Raul654]] 18:39, Jul 13, 2004 (UTC)
* '''[http://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2004/07/12/one_great_source____if_you_can_trust_it/ One great source -- if you can trust it]''' Boston Globe, July 12, 2004 (Boston.com). "The world's biggest encyclopedia resides on the Internet, and anyone can use it for free. It's called Wikipedia."
* '''[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/181656_msftnotebook12.html?source=rss Microsoft Notebook: Encyclopedia editor finds his 'Holy Grail' with Encarta]''' seattlepi.com, July 12, 2004. "The Web itself is another source of competition. With free online information sources becoming more pervasive and comprehensive, Encarta could face an increasingly tougher task in appealing to consumers. One competitor is Wikipedia, a free online encyclopedia with articles and information compiled by volunteer contributors."
* '''[http://www.voanews.com/article.cfm?objectID=87D7CF64-ACF7-40F7-8CBF67F74E5081CE 'Open-Content' Web Encyclopedia Encourages User Interactivity]''' [[Voice of America]], July 15, 2004. "Encyclopedias have been around in one form or another for thousands of years. But in recent years competitors have emerged to challenge the traditional printed encyclopedia. First there were versions on compact disks and now they're online. While there may be lots of encyclopedias on the Internet, perhaps one of the most unusual is Wikipedia."
* '''How the South African revolution destroyed its children''' The Sunday Times Culture magazine (London), July 18, 2004. Footer: "Read on..." websites: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid Good entry on interactive encyclopedia.
* '''[http://www.suntimes.com/output/worktech/cst-fin-andy20.html Web encyclopedia lets readers cut through to basics]''' Chicago Sun-Times, July 20, 2004. "Fortunately, the same community (i.e., humans) that ruined the Web is revolutionizing the encyclopedia, with the development of a free, community-based, ever-evolving reference work called the Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org)." Specifically mentions the [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] article and how the writer contributed to it.
* '''[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,7947-1187423,00.html Wikipedia]''' The Times (London), July 20, 2004. "If you still have any old Britannicas clogging your bookshelves, it is time finally to haul them off to Oxfam. Wikipedia, the world's fastest-growing English-language encyclopedia, has just published its 300,000th lucid entry, eclipsing Britannica by a factor of three. It is a scholarly, thorough work of reference that costs nothing to consult apart from an internet connection. Best of all, entries are endlessly updated to keep them relevant, errors are gladly corrected within minutes, and - unlike its stuffier predecessors - it respects the specialist knowledge of you, its user."
*'''[http://www.slate.com/id/2104087/ Art Mobs: Can an online crowd create a poem, a novel, or a painting?]''' Slate.com, July 22, 2004. "Mobs have been getting unusually good press these days. . . Now there's evidence they may even be creative. A few weeks ago, Wikipedia&mdash;an "open content" encyclopedia where anybody can write or edit an entry&mdash;produced its 300,000th article. At 90.1 million words, Wikipedia is larger than any other English-language encyclopedia, including the latest edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which has only 85,000 articles and 55 million words."
*'''[http://www.chron.com/cs/CDA/ssistory.mpl/memo/2695812 Wiki watch. Pi day. Revolution rock.]''' Houston Chronicle, July 22, 2004. "Protest is in the air today, but why not ease into it? Life's too short, and so am I. Besides, I just, very belatedly, encountered the concept of wiki. As opposed to tiki, there are no palms or torches associated with wiki. Wiki involves open, free-form, anarchistic editing of Web sites etc. And here I've used online Wikipedia dozens of times without thinking about what the name might mean. Here's an insanely wonderful story about creation by "mobs." "
*'''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FG22Ad04.html A blogger's tale: The Stainless Steel Mouse]''' Asia Times Online, July 22, 2004. Article about blogging in China also mentions Wikipedia ("The Internet is also supporting an informal group of Chinese volunteers at work building an impressive online encyclopedia called Chinese Wikipedia to create a free source of information for Chinese Internet users.") and discusses the blocking of Wikipedia in China in June.
* '''Surfing the Net with kids''' Boston Globe, July 23, 2004 (not online). Recommends Wikipedia's [[Ronald Reagan]] article, citing it as a good educational resource: "I like this detailed, illustrated Reagan biography from Wikipedia because the hyperlinks to other Wikipedia articles make it easy to learn more about Reaganomics, the Cold War, the Strategic Defense Initiative (dubbed "Star Wars" by opponents), and other related topics. Wikipedia is an open-content project with encyclopedia articles contributed and edited by anyone who wants to. As part of this group editorial process, at least one reader disputed the neutrality of this Reagan biography. What do you think? Does this Wikipedia article show an obvious bias?"
* '''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/07/23/wiki_fiddlers_big_book/ Wiki-fiddlers defend Clever Big Book]''' The Register, July 23, 2004. "Wiki-fiddlers* may be accused of many things, but having a robust sense of humor is not one of them. In the week that colleague Ashlee Vance pointed out a few failings in the archive that isn't an archive, we took a pop at the encyclopedia that isn't an encyclopedia. Our jibe that the Wikipedia is the world's most useless encyclopedia drew precisely two angry responses. But both illustrate the condition perfectly." -- ''features two angry letters from [[Wikipedia:Wikipedian|Wikipedian]]s''.
*'''[http://news.ft.com/servlet/ContentServer?pagename=FT.com/StoryFT/FullStory&c=StoryFT&cid=1087374027304 Web of words challenges traditional encyclopedias]''' Financial Times, July 28, 2004. "If you thought open source was only about software, think again. The English-language version of Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia produced by a worldwide community of volunteers, has reached 300,000 articles - three times as many as the Encyclopedia Britannica."
*'''[http://interviews.slashdot.org/interviews/04/07/28/1351230.shtml?tid=146&tid=95&tid=11 Slashdot interview with Jimbo], July 28, 2004.
* '''Wiki May Alter How Employees Work Together''' ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', July 29, 2004, p. B1. (available online with subscriber access). "The prospects of moving wikis into the office are good, especially since they are already working well in nonwork situations such as the well-known Wikipedia. This free online encyclopedia, compiled since early 2001 by volunteer writers, now has hundreds of thousands of entries, making it bigger than any other encyclopedia." WSJ, p. B2, Column 6.
* July 28th, 2004 Small article about the existence of the Thai wikipedia in the database section of the Bangkok post
===August===
*'''[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/computing/personaltech/20040802-9999-mz1b2abpcs.html Learning the AB-PCs]''' San Diego Union-Tribune, August 3, 2004. In article about student computer use, educational technology professor says of his 16-year-old, "If he wants to know something, he just goes to Dictionary.com or Wikipedia.org."
*'''[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20040804/CABOOKS04/TPBusiness/General How to gain power at work in the future: Give it away]''' The Globe and Mail, August 4, 2004. Review of Thomas Malone's book ''The Future of Work''. "The Wikipedia on-line encyclopedia allows anybody to contribute to it, with no centralized quality control. 'Its success so far shows that amazingly loose hierarchies can create impressively large and complex results,' Prof. Malone says."
*'''[http://chiptalk.com/linkpage.htm The world's largest encyclopedia]''' August 6, 2004. Wikipedia was discussed on ''Chip Talk'', a one-minute [[Dave Ross]] radio feature about technology which is aired several times during the day on news stations across the United States. The URL was given on air and posted on the Chip Talk website.
*'''The thinker's new best friend ; As the internet overtakes the encyclopedia, the editor of a new dictionary asks if this is the end for the multi-volume reference book''' London Evening Standard, August 9, 2004 (not online). Jonathon Green, author of the ''Cassell Dictionary of Slang'', reviews Wikipedia's content: "I checked out "[[slang]]" and was impressed. A solid overview, with references to cant (underworld slang), rhyming slang, Polari (camp and theatrical), and even French butcher's slang Louchebem (of which I was ignorant). All these topics are covered, some with a specimen vocabulary-and every article offers links within Wikipedia and elsewhere on the net."
*'''[http://www.syracuse.com/news/poststandard/index.ssf?/base/news-0/1092128190206490.xml Doc corrects r
|
who were both inspired by the events of the [[Napoleonic Era]] in which they lived.
Carl von Clauswitz was also a man of great intellect, and did participate in actual military campaigns, but without the drive to make himself emperor of his nation and attempt to conquer the world. Instead, he was a person of thought and an instructor of the next generations at the ''[[Kriegsakademie]]'', and he was interested in the examination of war. He undertook to write a careful philosophical and systematic examination of war in all aspects, as he saw it and taught it, and the result was his principle work, [[On War]], the West's premier work on the [[Philosophy of War]]. His examination was so careful and considered that it was only partially completed before his death.
Jomini was a direct contemporary rival of Clausewitz in post Napoleonic interpretation of Napoleonic warfare. Jomini's treatises, consisting of geometric diagrams and formula like statements, were initally more popular than Clausewitz' philosophies, but as time has shown, Jomini's works have faded into history and are now nearly forgotten while Clausewitz continues to be applicable (even in the nuclear age) to stir controversy and debate. As [[Lynn Montross]] indicated in [[War Through the Ages]], "This outcome...may be explained by the fact the Jomini produced a system of war, Clausewitz a philosophy. The one has been outdated by new weapons, the other still influences the strategy behind those weapons."
It is an arguable point whether one could equate Clauswitz with the ancient [[China|Chinese]] war philosopher and instructor, [[Sun Tzu]] or whether one could equate [[On War]] with [[The Art of War]], but the two together are generally acknowledged as being the greatest military philosophers in history and the greatest written works of military philosophy. What Clauswitz accomplished was the introduction of systematic philosophical thought into Western military instruction and operational planning.
==Principal ideas==
''Vom Kriege'' (''[[On War]]'') is a compilation of his observations following the Napoleonic Wars.
Clausewitz used a [[dialectical]] method to construct his argument, leading to frequent modern misinterpretation. As described by Christopher Bassford, professor of strategy at the [[National War College]]:
<blockquote>One of the main sources of confusion about Clausewitz's approach lies in his dialectical method of presentation. For example, Clausewitz's famous line that "War is merely a continuation of politics," while accurate as far as it goes, was not intended as a statement of fact. It is the antithesis in a dialectical argument whose thesis is the point—made earlier in the analysis—that "war is nothing but a duel [or wrestling match, a better translation of the German Zweikampf] on a larger scale." His synthesis, which resolves the deficiencies of these two bold statements, says that war is neither "nothing but" an act of brute force nor "merely" a rational act of politics or policy. This synthesis lies in his "fascinating trinity" [wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit]: a dynamic, inherently unstable interaction of the forces of violent emotion, chance, and rational calculation.[http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/CWZSUMM/CWORKHOL.htm]</blockquote>
Among these confusions has been that Clausewitz was the origin of the concept of [[total war]] as used in 1940s' Third Reich Propaganda. Clausewitz, however, did not coin the phrase as an [[Gerard Walsh]] ideologic ideal, but as an inevitable part of the equations underlying his theories: War, as any struggle or competition, cannot be waged in a limited way, as the rules of competition will force the opponents to go to their utmost possibilities and devote all means they have to victory.
Similarly, his statement "War is merely the continuation of policy by other means," is perhaps his most oft-quoted and even more often missed point. It has been intepreted by some as the idea that [[war]] is only the "strong arm" of [[diplomacy]], utilized when more peaceful means of persuasion are not sufficient; and by others, that military should only serve the politic and not end in itself. That Clausewitz did not in fact consider war to be merely a continuation of politics is revealed by his statement that societies often engaged in war contrary to their own ideals, for the sake of self-interest.
==Influence==
Despite his death before completing ''On War'', Clausewitz' ideas have been widely influential in [[military theory]]. Later Prussian and German generals such as [[Helmuth von Moltke the Elder|Helmuth Graf von Moltke]] were clearly influenced by Clausewitz as they developed the concepts of [[total war]]. The idea that actual war includes "friction" which deranges, to a greater or lesser degree, all prior arrangements, has become common currency in other fields as well (e.g. business strategy).
Some claim that [[nuclear proliferation]] has started the decline of the prevalence of Clausewitzian ideas after dominating the world throughout the [[20th century]].{{ref|nuclear}} When nuclear weapons were developed, state-based conventional armies simultaneously perfected their purpose (to destroy a mirror image of themselves) and made themselves obsolete. No two [[nuclear power]]s have ever fought, nor are they likely to. If they did, there would be no survivor. Thus, the beginning of the 21st century found many instances of state armies trying in vain to suppress [[terrorism]], bloody feuds, raids and other intra/supra-state conflict.
The phrase ''fog of war'' was first used by Clausewitz in reference to how chaotic warfare can seem while one is immersed within it. {{ref|fog_of_war}}. The term [[Center of gravity (military)|Center of gravity]], still used by today's military planners, was also first used by Clausewitz, and represents the source from which an opponent derives its strength.
== Name ==
Clausewitz's Christian name is sometimes given in non-German sources as ''Carl Philipp Gottlieb'', ''Carl Maria'', or misspelled ''Karl'' due to reliance on mistaken source material, conflations with his wife's name, Marie, or mistaken assumptions about German orthography. ''Carl Philipp Gottfried'' appears on Clausewitz's tombstone and is thus most likely to be the correct version. The tombstone reads:
:Hier ruht in Gott
:Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz
:koenigl. General-Major u. Inspecteur der Artillerie
:geboren 1 Juni 1780
:gestorben 16&nbsp;Nov 1831
Which translates as:
:Here rests with God
:Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz
:In the royal service, Major General and Inspector of Artillery
:Born [[1 June]] [[1780]]
:Died [[16 November]] [[1831]]
==Notes==
#{{Note|nuclear}} {{cite journal | author = Sheppard, John E. Jr | title = On War: Is Clausewitz Still Relevant? | journal = Parameters | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | date = September 1990 | pages = pp.85–99 }}
#{{Note|fog_of_war}} {{cite book | last = Berkun | first = Scott | title = The Art of Project Management | id = ISBN 0596007868 }}
#{{Note|name}} Bassford, Christopher, [http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/FAQs.html#Name ''FAQs''] at ''The Clausewitz Homepage''
#{{Note|Tombstone}} Bassford, Christopher, [http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/TombSite.html ''Clausewitz's Tomb''] at ''The Clausewitz Homepage''
==Bibliography==
* [[Wikisource:On War]] [[1874]]
==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{cite book | author=Clausewitz, Karl Von | others = edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. | title=On War | location = Princeton | publisher = Princeton University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0691056579 }}
* Clausewitz, Carl von. Col. J. J. Graham, translator. ''Vom Kriege''. ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1946 On War &mdash; Volume 1]'', [[Project Gutenberg]] eBook.
==See also==
* [[Famous military writers]]
* [[Total war]]
* [[Philosophy of war]]
==External links==
* [http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/CWZBASE.htm Clausewitz homepage], large amounts of information.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Carl+von+Clausewitz | name=Carl von Clausewitz}}
[[Category:1780 births|Clausewitz, Carl von]]
[[Category:1831 deaths|Clausewitz, Carl von]]
[[Category:Military writers|Clausewitz, Carl von]]
[[Category:German nobility|Clausewitz, Carl von]]
[[Category:German generals|Clausewitz, Carl von]]
[[da:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[de:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[es:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[fr:Carl von Clausewitz]]
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[[it:Carl Von Clausewitz]]
[[he:קרל פון קלאוזביץ]]
[[nl:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[ja:カール・フォン・クラウゼヴィッツ]]
[[no:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[pl:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[pt:Karl von Clausewitz]]
[[ru:Клаузевиц, Карл]]
[[sk:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[sl:Karl von Clausewitz]]
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[[sv:Carl von Clausewitz]]
[[tr:Clausewitz]]
[[zh:卡尔·冯·克劳塞维茨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common lisp</title>
<id>6067</id>
<revision>
<id>15904232</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-24T16:57:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eloquence</username>
<id>52</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Common Lisp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common Lisp</title>
<id>6068</id>
<revision>
<id>41756405</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:52:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.185.55.253</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed Xanalys to LispWorks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Common Lisp''', commonly abbreviated '''CL''', is a dialect of the [[Lisp programming language]], standardised by ANSI X3.226-1994. Developed to standardize the divergent variants of Lisp which predated it, it is not an implementation but rather a language specification to which most Lisp implementations conform.
Common Lisp is a general-purpose programming language,
|
quot;center">22-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.17</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1960 in baseball|1960]]</td>
<td>[[Vern Law]]</td>
<td>[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] (NL)</td>
<td align="center">20-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.08</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1961 in baseball|1961]]</td>
<td>[[Whitey Ford]]</td>
<td>[[New York Yankees]] (AL)</td>
<td align="center">25-4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1962 in baseball|1962]]</td>
<td>[[Don Drysdale]]</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)</td>
<td align="center">25-9</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">2.84</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1963 in baseball|1963]]</td>
<td>[[Sandy Koufax]]*</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)</td>
<td align="center">25-5</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.88</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1964 in baseball|1964]]</td>
<td>[[Dean Chance]]</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]] (AL)</td>
<td align="center">20-9</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1.65</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1965 in baseball|1965]]</td>
<td>[[Sandy Koufax]]*</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)</td>
<td align="center">26-8</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">2.04</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1966 in baseball|1966]]</td>
<td>[[Sandy Koufax]]*</td>
<td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)</td>
<td align="center">27-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.73</td>
</tr>
</table>
=== American League (1967-present) ===
<table border="0" cellspacing="3" cellpadding="3" width="550">
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<th align=left>Year</th><th align=left>Pitcher</th><th align=left>Team</th>
<th>Record</th><th>Saves</th><th>ERA</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1967 in baseball|1967]]</td>
<td>[[Jim Lonborg]]</td>
<td>[[Boston Red Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">22-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.16</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1968 in baseball|1968]]</td>
<td>[[Denny McLain]]*</td>
<td>[[Detroit Tigers]]</td>
<td align="center">31-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.96</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1969 in baseball|1969]]</td>
<td>[[Mike Cuellar]]<br>[[Denny McLain]]</td>
<td>[[Baltimore Orioles]]<br>[[Detroit Tigers]]</td>
<td align="center">23-11<br>24-9</td><td align="center">0<br>0</td><td align="center">2.38<br>2.80</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1970 in baseball|1970]]</td>
<td>[[Jim Perry (baseball)|Jim Perry]]</td>
<td>[[Minnesota Twins]]</td>
<td align="center">24-12</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.04</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1971 in baseball|1971]]</td>
<td>[[Vida Blue]]</td>
<td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td>
<td align="center">24-8</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.82</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1972 in baseball|1972]]</td>
<td>[[Gaylord Perry]]</td>
<td>[[Cleveland Indians]]</td>
<td align="center">24-16</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1.92</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1973 in baseball|1973]]</td>
<td>[[Jim Palmer]]</td>
<td>[[Baltimore Orioles]]</td>
<td align="center">22-9</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">2.40</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1974 in baseball|1974]]</td>
<td>[[Catfish Hunter]]</td>
<td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td>
<td align="center">25-12</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.49</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1975 in baseball|1975]]</td>
<td>[[Jim Palmer]]</td>
<td>[[Baltimore Orioles]]</td>
<td align="center">23-11</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">2.09</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1976]]</td>
<td>[[Jim Palmer]]</td>
<td>[[Baltimore Orioles]]</td>
<td align="center">22-13</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.51</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1977 in baseball|1977]]</td>
<td>[[Sparky Lyle]]</td>
<td>[[New York Yankees]]</td>
<td align="center">13-5</td><td align="center">26</td><td align="center">2.17</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1978 in baseball|1978]]</td>
<td>[[Ron Guidry]]*</td>
<td>[[New York Yankees]]</td>
<td align="center">25-3</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1.74</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1979 in baseball|1979]]</td>
<td>[[Mike Flanagan (baseball player)|Mike Flanagan]]</td>
<td>[[Baltimore Orioles]]</td>
<td align="center">23-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.08</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1980 in baseball|1980]]</td>
<td>[[Steve Stone (baseball player)|Steve Stone]]</td>
<td>[[Baltimore Orioles]]</td>
<td align="center">25-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.23</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1981 in baseball|1981]]</td>
<td>[[Rollie Fingers]]</td>
<td>[[Milwaukee Brewers]]</td>
<td align="center">6-3</td><td align="center">28</td><td align="center">1.04</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1982 in baseball|1982]]</td>
<td>[[Pete Vuckovich]]</td>
<td>[[Milwaukee Brewers]]</td>
<td align="center">18-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.34</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1983 in baseball|1983]]</td>
<td>[[La Marr Hoyt]]</td>
<td>[[Chicago White Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">24-10</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3.66</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1984 in baseball|1984]]</td>
<td>[[Willie Hernandez]]</td>
<td>[[Detroit Tigers]]</td>
<td align="center">9-3</td><td align="center">32</td><td align="center">1.92</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1985 in baseball|1985]]</td>
<td>[[Bret Saberhagen]]</td>
<td>[[Kansas City Royals]]</td>
<td align="center">20-6</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.87</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1986 in baseball|1986]]</td>
<td>[[Roger Clemens]]*</td>
<td>[[Boston Red Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">24-4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[1987 in baseball|1987]]</td>
<td>[[Roger Clemens]]</td>
<td>[[Boston Red Sox]]</td>
<td align="center">20-9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.97</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #e3e3e3;">
<td>[[1988 in baseball|1988]]</td>
<td>[[Frank Viola]]</td>
<td>[[Minnesota Twins]]</td>
<td align="center">24-7</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">2.64</td>
</tr>
|
e, California]].
Walsh attended [[San Jose State University]] in [[San Jose, California]], and his first coaching appointment was with [[Washington High School (Fremont)|Washington High School]] in [[Fremont, California]].
He entered the professional coaching ranks with the expansion [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in [[1968 NFL season|1968]], serving under [[Paul Brown]] for seven seasons as one of the architects of the team's offense.
When Brown retired following the [[1975 NFL season|1975]] season and appointed Bill Johnson as his successor, Walsh resigned and served as an assistant coach for [[Tommy Prothro]] with the [[San Diego Chargers]] in [[1976 NFL season|1976]].
Walsh then moved for the first of two tenures as head football coach at [[Stanford University|Stanford]], from [[1977 in sports|1977]] to [[1978 in sports|1978]].
In [[1979 NFL season|1979]], Walsh was appointed head coach of the San Francisco 49ers, and under him the 49ers won [[Super Bowl]] championships in [[1981 NFL season|1981]], [[1984 NFL season|1984]] and [[1988 NFL season|1988]]. Walsh served as 49ers head coach for twelve years and during his tenure he and his coaching staff perfected the style of play known popularly as the [[West Coast offense]].
He was responsible for drafting [[Joe Montana]], [[Ronnie Lott]], [[Charles Haley]], and [[Jerry Rice]]. Walsh's successes with the 49ers were rewarded when he was elected to the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame|Professional Football Hall of Fame]] in [[1993 in sports|1993]].
The [[1981 NFL season|1981]] season saw Walsh lead the 49ers to a championship and marked the team's return from the bottom of the NFL. While the 49ers were accused in the late [[1980s]] of trying to 'buy' championships, Walsh's 1981 team won the [[Super Bowl XVI|Super Bowl]] with the lowest payroll in the league. Important in that season were two wins each over the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]] and the [[Dallas Cowboys]]. The Rams had dominated the series with the 49ers up to that point in time, and the 49ers two wins over the Rams in 1981 marked the beginning of a long run of dominance for the 49ers in the series that lasted until the late [[1990s]].
In 1981 the 49ers blew out the Cowboys in the regular season. On ''[[Monday Night Football]]'' that week, the 49ers win was not included in the halftime highlights. Walsh felt that this was because the Cowboys were scheduled to play the Rams the next week in a rare Sunday night game and that showing the highlights of the 49ers win would potentially hurt the game's ratings. Walsh used this as a motivating factor for his team.
The 49ers faced the Cowboys again that same season in the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] title game. The game was very close, and in the fourth quarter Walsh called a series of running plays as the 49ers marched down the field against the Cowboys defense, which had been expecting the 49ers to mainly pass. The 49ers came from behind to win the game, propelling Walsh to his first Super Bowl. Walsh and the 49ers defeated [[Cincinnati Bengals|Cincinnati]] in the title game, which was played in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]. Walsh would later write that the 49ers two wins over the Rams showed a shift of power in their division, while the wins over the Cowboys showed a shift of power in the conference.
Among great football luminaries, perhaps none have had the same lasting impact or impeccable record. He is known as an offensive mastermind and his dramatic turnaround of the 49ers in the 1980s established the franchise as latter-day football's symbol of continual dominance and success. While he steered the team to just 3 Super Bowls, Walsh's hand-picked successor [[George Seifert]] took the reins to Walsh's team, riding his coattails to the tune of two more Super Bowl wins.
Many of his assistant coaches went on to be successful coaches in their own right, including Seifert, [[Mike Holmgren]], [[Mike Shanahan]], [[Ray Rhodes]], and [[Dennis Green]]. These coaches in turn have their own disciples who have utilized Walsh's West Coast system, making it the offensive system of choice for more than half of today's NFL squads.
After leaving the coaching ranks to work as a broadcaster for [[NFL on NBC|NBC]], Walsh returned to Stanford from 1992-94 to once again serve as head coach for the school.
Walsh would also return to the 49ers, serving as Vice President and General Manager from [[1999 NFL season|1999]] to [[2001 NFL season |2001]] and was a special consultant to the team for three years afterwards. In [[2004 in sports|2004]], Walsh was appointed as special assistant to the athletic director at Stanford. In [[2005]], after then-athlete director [[Ted Leland]] stepped down to take a position at the [[University of the Pacific]], Walsh was named interim athletic director.
Bill Walsh is also the author of several books, is active as a motivational speaker, and taught classes at the [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]| before=Class of 1992| years=Class of 1993| after=Class of 1994}}
{{succession box | title=[[San Francisco 49ers|San Francisco 49ers Head Coaches]] | before=[[Fred O'Conner]] | years=1979&ndash;1988 | after=[[George Seifert]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1931 births|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:People from the San Francisco Bay Area|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:American sports announcers|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:The NFL on NBC|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:American football executives|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:American writers|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Pro Football Hall of Fame|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Cincinnati Bengals coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:San Diego Chargers coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Stanford Cardinal football coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Cal Bears football coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:San Jose State Spartans football coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Oakland Raiders coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:San Francisco 49ers coaches|Walsh, Bill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Box-cutter knives</title>
<id>4167</id>
<revision>
<id>15902459</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-20T01:49:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[utility knife]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Utility knife</title>
<id>4168</id>
<revision>
<id>40096547</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T02:39:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.94.21.132|65.94.21.132]] ([[User talk:65.94.21.132|Talk]]) to last version by Tawker</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:aaknife2.jpg|thumb|right|Disassembled, blade partly retracted]]
[[image:aaknife1.jpg|thumb|right|Utility knife]]
A '''utility knife''' or '''box cutter''' is a common [[tool]] used in various trades and crafts for a variety of purposes.
Such a [[knife]] generally consists of a simple and cheap holder, typically flat, approximately one inch (25 mm) wide and three to four inches (75 to 100 mm) long, and typically made of either metal or plastic. Some use standard [[razor]] blades, others specialised double-ended blades as in the illustration. The user can manually adjust how far the blade extends from the handle, so that for example the knife can be used to cut the tape sealing a package without damaging the contents of the package. When the blade becomes dull, it can be quickly reversed or switched for a new one. Spare blades are often stored in the hollow knife handle, and can be accessed by removing a screw and opening the handle.
This type of tool is known in [[British English]], [[Australian English]] and [[New Zealand English]] as a '''Stanley knife''', after one of the first manufacturers to create this kind of implement. The genuine [[Stanley Works|Stanley]] knife has a cast-metal body, and comes both in retractable versions and in fixed blade versions which allow no depth adjustment. Fixed blade versions are widely used for handcrafts. The blades for a utility knife come in both double and single ended versions, and are interchangeable with many but not all of the later copies. Specialised blades also exist for cutting string, linoleum and other purposes. Spare or used blades may be stored in the handle.
[[image:aaknife3.jpg|thumb|right|Segmented blade type]]
Another style is one in which a handle, usually of [[plastic]], contains a long, segmented blade which slides out from it. As the endmost edge becomes dull, it can be snapped off from the rest of the blade, exposing the next section which is sharp and ready for use. When all the individual segments are used, it is thrown away or a replacement blade is inserted. This kind often comes in bright colors like orange, blue and yellow.
A style that is often used for the cutting of boxes consists of a simple sleeve around a rectangular handle into which ordinary razor blades can be inserted. The sleeve slides up and down on the handle, holding the blade in place during use and covering the blade when not in use.
==Utility knives as weapons==
Though such knives are not usually considered [[weapon]]s, it was suggested by certain [[United States]] government officials that "box-cutter knives" were used in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] against that country. However, the exact design of these knives is unclear. See [[Airport security repercussions due to the September 11, 2001 attacks]] for further discussion.
They have also been used by minor criminals in muggings, and some schools ban their possession on school grounds; a campaign against the sale of box-cutter knives to young people was instigated in [[New Y
|
' is also a slang term for the diatonic [[harmonica]]: see [[blues harp]]. See also [[Jew's harp]].''
The '''harp''' is a [[stringed instrument|chordophone]] which has its strings positioned perpendicular to the [[soundboard]]. All harps have a neck, [[resonator]] and [[strings (music)|strings]]. Some, known as ''frame harps'', also have a forepillar; those lacking the forepillar are referred to ''open harps''. Harp strings can be made of [[nylon]] (sometimes [[copper]]-wound), [[gut]] (more commonly used than nylon), or [[wire]].
Various types of harps are found in [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], and a few parts of [[Asia]]. In antiquity harps and the closely related [[lyra]]s were very prominent in nearly all musical cultures, but they lost popularity in the early 19<sup>th</sup> century in Western music, being mainly played by women or as a minor ensemble member. There was no harp-exclusive museum until the North Italian harp building firm of Victor Salvi started one in 2005.
The [[aeolian harp]] (wind harp) and [[autoharp]] are technically not harps because their strings are not perpendicular to the soundboard.
[[image:Harp.png|right|thumb|A traditional folk harp and modern concert harp. ''Public domain image from Websters Dictionary 1911.'']]
==Origins of the harp==
[[Image:Egyptian_harp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]]ian harp on display in a [[United Kingdom|UK]] museum.]]
The harp's origins may lie in the sound of a plucked hunter's [[bow (weapon)|bow]] string. The oldest documented references to the harp are from [[4000 BC]] in [[Egypt]] (see [[Music of Egypt]]) and [[30th century BC|3000 BC]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. While the harp is mentioned in most translations of the [[Bible]], [[King David]] being the most prominent musician, the Biblical "harp" was actually a [[kinnor]], a type of [[lyre]] with 10 strings. Harps also appear in ancient epics, and in Egyptian wall paintings. This kind of harp, now known as the folk harp, continued to evolve in many different cultures all over the world. It may have developed independently in some places.
The lever harp came about in the second half of the 17<sup>th</sup> century to enable key changes while playing. The player manually turned a hook or lever against an individual string to raise the string's pitch by a [[semitone]]. In the 1700s, a link mechanism was developed connecting these hooks with pedals, leading to the invention of the single-action pedal harp. Later, a second row of hooks was installed along the neck to allow for the double-action pedal harp, capable of raising the pitch of a string by either one or two semitones. With this final enhancement, the modern concert harp was born.
The European harp tradition seems to have originated in ancient Ireland over a thousand years ago. In [[Irish mythology]], a magical harp, [[Daurdabla]] is possessed by [[The Dagda]].
==Types of harps, harp-playing and harp-building==
===Playing style of the European-derived harp===
[[Image:Bishapur zan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sassanid]] mosaic excavated at [[Bishapur]] depicting player and a harp. Artifact is kept at The [[Louvre]].]]
[[Image:Harp-Sassanid.png|thumb|Women playing [[harp]] while the [[Sassanid]] king is hunting, [[Taq-e Bostan]], Iran.]]
Most European-derived harps have a single row of strings with strings for each note of the C Major [[Scale (music)|scale]] (over several [[octave]]s). Harpists can tell which strings they are playing because all F strings are black or blue and all C strings are red or orange. The instrument rests between the knees of the harpist and along their right shoulder. The Welsh triple harp and early Irish and Scottish harps, however, are traditionally placed on the left shoulder. The first four fingers of each hand are used to pluck the strings; the pinky fingers are too short and cannot reach the correct position without distorting the position of the other fingers, although on some folk harps with light tension, closely spaced strings, they may occasionally be used. Plucking with varying degrees of force creates [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]]. Depending on finger position, different tones can be produced: a fleshy pluck (near the middle of the first finger joint) will make a warm tone, while a pluck near the end of the finger will make a loud, bright sound.
===The pedal/concert harp===
The '''pedal harp''', or '''concert harp''', is large and technically modern, designed for classical music and played solo, as part of chamber ensembles, and in symphony orchestras. It typically has six and a half octaves (about 47 strings), weighs about 80lb (36 kg), is approximately 6 ft (1.8 m) high, has a depth of 4 ft (1.2 m), and is 21.5 in (55 cm) wide at the bass end of the soundboard. The notes range from three octaves below middle C to three and a half octaves above, usually ending on G. The tension of the strings on the sound board is roughly equal to a ton (10 [[kilonewton]]s). The lowest strings are made of copper or steel-wound nylon, the middle strings of gut, and the highest of nylon.
The pedal harp uses the mechanical action of [[pedal|pedals]] to change the [[pitch (music)|pitch]]es of the strings. There are seven pedals, one for each note, and each pedal is attached to a rod or cable within the column of the harp, which then connects with a mechanism within the neck. When a pedal is moved with the foot, small discs at the top of the harp rotate. The discs are studded with two pegs that pinch the string as they turn, shortening the vibrating length of the string. The pedal has three positions. In the top position no pegs are in contact with the string and all notes are [[flat]]. In the middle position the top wheel pinches the string, resulting in a natural. In the bottom position another wheel is turned, shortening the string again to create a [[sharp]]. This mechanism is called the double-action pedal system, invented by [[Sebastien Erard|Sébastien Erard]] in [[1810]]. Earlier pedal harps had a single-action mechanism that allowed strings to play sharpened notes.
[[Lyon and Healy]], [[Camac]], and other manufacturers also make electric pedal harps. The '''[[electric harp]]''' is a concert harp, with microphone pickups at the base of each string and an amplifier. The electric harp is a little heavier than an acoustic harp, but looks the same.
===Folk harps/lever harps===
[[Image:Harpist playing.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A street musician in [[Quebec City]] plays the lever harp]]
The '''folk harp''' is small to medium-sized and designed for traditional music, usually played solo or with small groups. It is dominant in the Irish and Scottish culture, and is known for its celtic music. The folk harp ranges in size from two octaves to six octaves, and use levers or blades to change pitch. The most common form has 34 strings: two octaves below middle C and two and a half above (ending on A). The strings are commonly made of nylon, gut, or wrapped metal, and are plucked with the fingers using a similar technique to that of the pedal harp. Harps with levers installed have a lever at the top of each string; when it is raised, it shortens the string so its pitch is raised a semitone, resulting in a sharp if the string was a natural, or a natural if the string was a flat. Lever harps are often tuned to the key of E-flat. Using this scheme, the major keys of E-flat, B-flat, F, C, G, D, A, and E can be reached by changing lever positions, rather than re-tuning any strings. Many smaller folk harps are tuned in C or F, and may have no levers, or levers on the F and C strings only, allowing a narrower range of keys. Blades and hooks perform the same function as levers, but use a different mechanism. The most common type of lever is the Loveland lever
[[Image:lovelandharplever.jpg|right|thumb|Here is an example of a Loveland lever]]
Amplified (electro-acoustic) and solid body [[electric harp|electric lever harps]] are produced by some harpmakers.
=== Wire-strung harps (''clarsach'' or ''clairseach'') ===
[[Image:maedoc.jpg|left|thumb|Maedoc book-cover, Ireland, circa 1050 AD]]
The [[Gaels|Gaelic]] wire-strung harp is called a ''clarsach'' in Scotland or a ''clairseach'' in Ireland. The origins go back at least the first millennium. From the 8<sup>th</sup> to 10<sup>th</sup> centuries we have several stone carvings of harps, many of which are simple triangular shapes, generally with straight pillars, straight string arms or necks, and soundboxes. There is much conjecture about the origins of the harp here, there is stone carving evidence that supports the theory that the harp was present Gaelic/[[Picts|Pictish]] Scotland well before the 9<sup>th</sup> century. Historically the carvings were made in the period after the establishment of the Gaelic kingdom of [[Dalriada]], and so, despite the lack of direct evidence, many still argue for an Irish influence. However, there are only thirteen depictions of any triangular chordophone from pre-11<sup>th</sup> century Europe, and all thirteen of them come from Scotland.{{ref|thirteen}} Moreover, the earliest Gaelic word for a harp is in fact [[Cruithne (people)|Cruit]], a word which strongly suggests a Pictish provenance for the instrument.
The harp played by the Gaels between the 11<sup>th</sup> and 19<sup>th</sup> centuries was certainly wire-strung. The [[Irish]] [[Maedoc Book Shrine]] dates from the 11<sup>th</sup> century, and clearly shows a harper with a triangular framed harp including a "T-Section" in the pillar (or ''Lamhchrann'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) indicating the bracing that would have been required to withstand the tension of a wire-strung harp. During this period, the Irish language word ''clairseach'' described a wire-strung harp with a massive carved soundbox
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r 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Marsh won the contest primarily because he was better funded through a relationship with the [[US Geological Survey]]. Unfortunately, many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods; for example, their diggers often used [[dynamite]] to unearth bones (a method modern paleontologists would find sacrilegious). Despite the pair's unrefined methods, their contributions to paleontology were vast; Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, for a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York]], while Marsh's is on display at the [[Peabody Museum of Natural History]] at [[Yale University]].{{ref|batofbones}}
Since 1897, the search for dinosaur fossils has extended to every continent, including [[Antarctica]]. The first Antarctic dinosaur to be discovered, the [[nodosaur]]id ''[[Ankylosaurus]]'', was found on [[Ross Island]] in 1986, although it was 1994 before an Antarctic species, the ''[[Cryolophosaurus ellioti]]'', was formally named and described in a scientific journal.
Current dinosaur "hot spots" include southern South America (especially [[Argentina]]) and [[China]]. China in particular has produced many exceptional [[feathered dinosaur]] specimens due to the unique geology of its dinosaur beds, as well as an ancient arid climate particularly conducive to [[fossil]]ization.
==In popular culture==
[[Image:Pink_dino.jpg|right|thumb|190px|Pink dinosaur at [[Vernal, Utah]].]]
By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured people's imagination and become an enduring part of human popular culture. Dinosaur exhibitions, parks and museum exhibits around the world both cater to and reinforce the public's interest. The popular preoccupation with dinosaurs is also reflected in a broad array of [[fiction|fictional]] and [[non-fiction|non-fictional]] works.
Notable examples of older fictional works featuring dinosaurs include [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s book ''[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]]''; the 1933 film ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]''; and ''[[Godzilla]]''. The (imaginary) depiction of humans and dinosaurs living together has been a recurring theme in fiction. Films which famously portrayed this idea include ''[[The Valley of Gwangi]]'' (1969) and ''[[One Million Years BC]]'' (1966). [[Ray Harryhausen]] brought the dinosaurs to life in both films using models and [[stop motion]] [[animation]]. Older films and literature generally depict dinosaurs as sluggish, unintelligent, lizard-like creatures.
More recently, the portrayal of dinosaurs in works intended for popular consumption has tended to better reflect a more nuanced modern scientific understanding of the animals. In particular, the development and refinement of [[computer-generated imagery]] has led to a revolution in the depiction of dinosaurs on film. Perhaps the most prominent example of CGI dinosaurs remains the film ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', directed by [[Stephen Spielberg]] and featuring special effects by [[Industrial Light and Magic|ILM]]. The success of ''Jurassic Park'' and its two sequels, ''[[The Lost World: Jurassic Park]]'' and ''[[Jurassic Park III]]'', demonstrates the continued popularity of dinosaurs. The falling cost of computer-generated effects has also recently allowed the production of documentaries for television; the award-winning 1999 [[BBC]] series ''[[Walking with Dinosaurs]]'' is a notable example.
[[Image:Ad microsoft dinosaur.png|190px|left|thumb|An "office dinosaur" is depicted as hopelessly behind the times in a 2005 [[Microsoft]] ad.]]Dinosaurs are often [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphized]] in fiction. In works intended for young children, they are imbued with friendly, even loving personalities. Examples of this trend include the 1970s show ''[[Land of the Lost]]'', the 1980s' ''[[Dino-Riders]]'', the 1990s' ''[[Dinosaurs (TV series)|Dinosaurs]]'' and ''[[Barney & Friends]]''.
[[cartoon|Cartoons]], [[comic book]]s and [[comic strip]]s also regularly depict dinosaurs. The cartoon ''[[The Flintstones]]'' showcased a [[stone age]] family living with dinosaurs (though in reality humans did not appear until tens of millions of years after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs). Comic strips such as ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'' and ''[[The Far Side]]'' often featured dinosaur-oriented content. The [[comic book|comics]] entitled [[Dinosaurs for Hire]] portrayed anthropomorphic dinosaurs in a very unusual way; the comic's trio of gun-toting, trigger-happy dinos were notable for their "Who's Extinct?" [[t-shirt]]s and their love of [[Kojak|"Kojak"]].
Many [[computer games|computer]] and [[console game]]s have also featured dinosaurs as characters. The ''Jurassic Park'' films inspired multiple computer games (see [[Jurassic Park (video game)|''Jurassic Park'' video games]]). ''[[Crash Bandicoot: Warped]]'', ''[[Ape Escape]]'', the ''[[Turok: Dinosaur Hunter|Turok]]'' series, and even ''[[Zoo Tycoon]]'' have involved dinosaurs in their storylines.
Because dinosaurs were a highly successful, imposing group of creatures that abruptly and completely became extinct, they are often evoked in [[metaphor]]. People, styles and ideas that are perceived to be out of date and on the wane are often referred to as "dinosaurs". For example, members of the [[punk rock|punk]] movement derided the "[[progressive rock|progressive]]" bands that preceded them as "dinosaur groups".
==Religious views==
Various religious groups have views about dinosaurs that differ from those that are generally accepted as fact by scientists. While many mainstream scientists respect these views as [[faith]] positions, they argue that religiously-inspired interpretations of dinosaurs do not withstand serious [[Scientific method|scientific scrutiny]]. See the following articles for specific examples and further context:
* [[Religious perspectives on dinosaurs]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Old Earth creationism]]
* [[Young Earth creationism]]
* [[Religion and science]]
==See also==
*[[Fossil]]s
*[[List of dinosaurs]]
*[[List of dinosaur classifications]]
*[[Prehistoric life]]
*[[Prehistoric reptile]]s
==Notes and references==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
#{{note|reptilia}} From the classical standpoint, reptiles included all the amniotes except birds and mammals. Thus reptiles were defined as the set of animals that includes crocodiles, alligators, tuatara, lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians and turtles, grouped together as the class Reptilia. However, many taxonomists have begun to insist that taxa should be monophyletic, that is, groups should include all descendants of a particular form. The reptiles as defined here would be paraphyletic, since they exclude both birds and mammals, although these also developed from the original reptile. Thus, some cladists redefine Reptilia as a monophyletic group, including both the classic reptiles as well as the birds and perhaps the mammals (depending on ideas about their relationships). Others abandon it as a formal taxon altogether, dividing it into several different classes.
#{{note|softtissue}}Dal Sasso, C. and Signore, M. (1998). Exceptional soft-tissue preservation in a theropod dinosaur from Italy. ''Nature'' 292:383-387. [http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/misc/scipionyx.html See commentary on the article]
#{{note|trextissue}}Schweitzer, M.H., Wittmeyer, J.L. and Horner, J.R. (2005). Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex. ''Science'' 307:1952 - 1955. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4379577.stm See commentary on the article]
#{{note|joined}}Evans, J. (1998). ''Ultimate Visual Dictionary - 1998 Edition''. Dorling Kindersley Books. 66-69. ISBN 1871854008.
#{{note|avesize1}}[http://dml.cmnh.org/1998May/msg00048.html Dinosaur size varied in different periods] Working hypothesis for body size.
#{{note|avesize2}}[http://microlnx.com/dinosaurs/Giantism.html Origin of Dinosaurs and Mammals - Erickson] Soruce of Erickson quote.
#{{note|sauropodtracks}}Day, J.J. and Upchurch, P. (2002). Sauropod Trackways, Evolution, and Behavior. ''Science'' 296:1659. [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/05/0529_020529_sauropods.html See commentary on the article]
#{{note|maiasaura}}Lessem, D. and Glut, D.F. (1993). ''The Dinosaur Society's Dinosaur Encyclopedia''. Random House Inc. ISBN 0679417702. [http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/faq/dino-faqs/pdq76.html See commentary on the article]
#{{note|babytyrannosaur}}[http://www.browningmontana.com/dinosaurs.html Juvenile Tyrannosaur] A juvenile [[Tyrannosaur]] skeleton was found.
#{{note|oviraptor}}[http://search.eb.com/dinosaurs/dinosaurs/BRa.html Oviraptor nesting] [[Oviraptor]] nests or [[Protoceratops]]?
#{{note|familytracks}}[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3255494.stm Dinosaur family tracks] Footprints show maternal instinct after leaving the nest.
#{{note|raptorceratopsfossil}}[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/fightingdinos/ex-fd.html Joined forever in death] The discovery of two [[fossil]] dinosaurs entangled together proved many theories.
#{{note|cannibaldino}}[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1219_021219_dinocannibal.html Cannibalistic Dinosaur] The mystery of a dinosaur [[cannibal]].
#{{note|dinocannibalism}}Rogers, R.R., Krause, D.W. and Rogers, K.C. (2003). Cannibalism in the Madagascan dinosaur Majungatholus atopus. ''Nature'' 422:515-518.[http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/pr0336.htm See commentary on the article].
#{{note|gaitdinospeed}}[http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Tracks/Report7/Speed.html Gait and Dinosaur speed] Gait and his formula on estimating a dinosaur's speed.
#{{note|speedcalculator}}[http://www.
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nimadvert]]s upon his manners; and although it ... punishes, it is to bring him to [[Salvation#Roman Catholicism|salvation]], by forewarning him of his future doom. If it succeeds, reconciliation and restoration to communion are ready to be given. ... Hence, though [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical discipline]] does not allow us to be on familiar and intimate terms with excommunicated persons, still we ought to strive by all possible means to bring them to a better mind, and recover them to the fellowship and unity of the Church: as the [[Apostle Paul|apostle]] also says, "Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother" ([[2 Thessalonians]] 3: 15). If this humanity be not observed in private as well as public, the danger is, that our discipline shall degenerate into destruction.
Some [[Reformed churches]] today do not make use of excommunication (or church discipline in its lesser forms), though it is often still required by their constitutions.
=== Roman Catholic Church ===
Excommunication is the most serious ecclesiastical penalty for [[Roman Catholic]]s. While a person excommunicated is not damned by the Church, the person is barred from participating in its communal life. The outward sign of this loss of community involves barring the person from participating in [[liturgy]], i.e., receiving the [[Eucharist]] or the other [[Sacrament]]s. Certain other rights and privileges normally resulting from membership in the church are revoked, such as holding ecclesiastical [[office]]. Excommunication is intended to be only temporary, a "medicinal" procedure intended to guide the offender toward repentance. In the [[Roman Catholic Church]] excommunication is usually terminated by [[repentance]], [[confession]], and absolution. Offenses which incur excommunication must be absolved by a local [[ordinary]] ([[bishop]] or [[vicar general]]) or a priest whom the local ordinary designates.
The Roman Catholic Church has an extensive history of the uses of excommunication, especially during the [[Middle Ages]]. Popes and archbishops used excommunication as a weapon against high ranking officials and kings who fell out of favor with the Catholic Church. Perceived abuse of this power, along with some other factors, led to the rise of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. With the rise of the idea of separation of church and state excommunication no longer has any civil effect.
''([[List of people excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church|Excommunications(List)]])''
==== Automatic excommunication ====
There are a few offenses for which Latin Rite Roman Catholics are automatically excommunicated (the Latin term is ''Latæ Sententiæ''):
# [[Apostasy]],
# [[Heresy]],
# [[Schism]],
# Desecration of the [[Eucharist]],
# Physical force against the [[Pope]],
# Attempted sacramental absolution of a partner in [[adultery]],
# [[Holy Orders|Ordination]] of a [[bishop]] without a Papal mandate (e.g. all bishops in the government-run Chinese Patriotic Church),
# For non-electors present in the [[conclave]], revelation of the details of the conclave,
# [[Simony|Simoniacal]] provision of the Papal office,
# Violation of the sacramental seal of [[confession]] by a priest or bishop, and
# Procurement of a completed [[abortion]].
Unless the local ordinary or an ecclesiastical court [[fact (law)|finds]] that the offense in question occurred, the obligation to observe an automatic excommunication lies solely on the excommunicated (Can. 1331 &sect;1). Thus, even though an automatic excommunicant is forbidden to exercise any ecclesiastical offices, the excommunicant still retains the offices and all such acts are still valid acts under the law unless there has been a trial and finding of fact. Once this occurs, all subsequent acts become void and all offices lost (Can. 1331 &sect;2).
The removal of the excommunication incurred by offenses 4 through 8 is reserved to the [[Holy See]], either personally by the Pope or through the [[Apostolic Penitentiary]].
Some ecclesiastical offenses incur an automatic [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]], which for a lay person is virtually equivalent to excommunication. See that article for details.
===[[Amish]]===
{{pov}}
Jakob Ammann, founder of the Amish, believed that excommunication, should be regularly and systematically practiced among the Swiss Anabaptists as it was in the north and as it was outlined in the Dordrecht Confession to which they were supposed to adhere to (Hostetler, 1993 : 33, 35). Most more moderate Amish groups have become less strict in recent years in their application of excommunication as a discipline (Hostetler, 1993: 86). This has lead to splits in several communities, an example of which is the Swartzedruber Amish who split from the main body of Old Order Amish because of the latter's practice of lifting the ban from members who later join other churches. In general, the Amish will excommunicate baptised members for failure to abide by their Ordnung as it is interpreted by the local Bishop if certain repeat violations of the Ordnung occur.
Excommunication results in [[shunning]], the severity of which depends on many factors, such as the family, the local community as well as the type of Amish. Some Amish communities cease shunning after one year if the person joins another church later on, especially if it is another Mennonite church, even if that church is much more liberal (Hostetler, 1993: 86). The relatively well-known Ruth Irene Garrett attempted unsuccessfully to have her ban lifted with membership in a Lutheran Church (Garrett, 2003: 122-128).
Amish shunning can be quite severe, especially if people rely on business with Amish clients. Some feel that they must move away from their families, especially those who were baptised young and leave the church while still living with their parents at the time of their excommunication (Hostetler, 1993: 86). Among certain groups, there are ways around shunning. For example, a shunned person is not permitted to eat at the same table as a church member, however it is not unheard of for two tables to be set beside each other with a tablecloth overtop in order to abide by the shunning rule while at the same time eat with the person shunned (see [[Amish]]).
===[[Mennonites]]===
{{pov}}
[[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]] Mennonites also known as Holdeman Mennonites excommunicate for failure to have 'the right spirit' among other things.
Among most [[Old Order Mennonite]] congregations an Old Order member who disobeys the church Ordnung must meet with the leaders of the church. If a church regulation is broken a second time there is a confession in the church. Those who refuse to confess are excommunicated (Scott, 1996:59). However upon later confession, the church member will no longer be excommunicated. An excommunicated member is placed under the ban which entails (what exactly?). This person is not banned from eating with their family (Scott, 1996:59). However, depending on the reaction of the individual families, sometimes the [[shunning ]] can damage relationships. Excommunicated persons can still have business dealings with church members and can maintain sexual relations with a marriage partner who may still be a church member (Scott, 1996:59).
[[Stauffer Mennonites]] (700 members worldwide in 1990) have a stricter attitude (than who?) towards an excommunicated member (which is what?). (Scott, 1996:93).
Reformed Mennonites (400 members worldwide in 1994 (Scott, 1996:111)), a Mennonite group which the mother of Milton Hershey belonged. The Reformed Mennonites [[shun]] excommunicated members (Scott, 1996:108). Reformed Mennonites are one particular Mennonite Church which believes that they are the "One True Church" and members are not permitted to attend services with other denominations (Scott, 1996: 107).
[[David Martin Mennonites]] (ca. 400 members worldwide (Scott, 1996:67)) of Waterloo County, Ontario are an Old Order breakaway group that has sought to apply a strict excommunication. David Martin Mennonites try to keep an absolute minimal contact with other groups. (Scott, 1996:67). David Martin Mennonites have been known to even [[shun]] the children of baptised members who are excommunicated
Mainstream and progessive [[Mennonites]] continue to use excommunication as is evidenced by the recent excommunication of certain churches recently from certain conferences. For the largest Mennonite bodies, excommunication results in the inability of the excommunicated to participate in communion. By the time the Mennonites first came to America nearly the totality of Mennonites no longer followed Menno Simons's practice of social shunning and banned members were only removed from communion (MacMaster, 1985: 194).
In most Mennonite churches the most severe sanction that is usually applied to a member is loss of church membership. Such a sanction is applied only in severe cases. A conference (group of churches) may also impose excommunication in extreme cases, effectively denying membership of all churches in the conference. The sanction was used relatively frequently in early Mennonite history, and was used by some Mennonite groups against other Mennonite groups in the past. However in recent times they have been very rare. Some groups inposed excommunication on people who joined the military (a defiance of core Mennonite beliefs) during the twentieth century.
At the church level such a sanction is rare and is carried out only after many attempts at reconciliation and on someone who is flagrantly and repeatedly violating standards of behavior that the church expects. Occasionally excommunication is also carried against those who repeatedly question ''the church's behavior'' and/or who genuinely differ with the church's theology as well, although in almost all cases the dissenter will leave the church before any discipline need be invoked. I
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*[[Malaysia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Maldives]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations.
*[[Mali]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations (the "HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS" section was split and added into the History, Demographics, and Economy pages as seemed appropriate)
*[[Malta]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Marshall Islands]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Mauritania]] -- bits added under History and Politics
*[[Mauritius]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Mexico]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Communications, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations. quite a bit on U.S.-Mexican relations left out.
*[[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Moldova]] -- bits added uner Geography, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Monaco]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Mongolia (country)|Mongolia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Morocco]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Mozambique]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Namibia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Nepal]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[The Netherlands]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations, Drugs policy page
*[[New Zealand]] -- bits added under History, Politics, , Demographics, Economy, Foreign relations; also added bits re: nuclear testing from ''U.S.-New Zealand relations'' page to the foreign relations here
*[[Nicaragua]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Niger]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Nigeria]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[North Korea]] -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations; quite a bit of info about U.S.-North Korean relations left unadded for lack of knowledge enough to render it NPOV
*[[Norway]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Oman]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Foreign relations
*[[Pakistan]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Palau]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Foreign relations
*[[Panama]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Papua New Guinea]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics; some but not all of the "Foreign relations" section added (parts of it seem too U.S.-centric, and maybe I should have added less of it than I did. I don't want to bias the 'pedia any more than it's biased already by being written predominately by people from the U.S.)
*[[Paraguay]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Peru]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations; part of the ''Demographics'' section broken off into the waiting (empty) page [[Culture of Peru]]
*[[Philippines]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Poland]] -- bits added under Politics, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations; bits under '''History''' left unadded; I see there's been a lot of controversy around this page. [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2875.htm The U.S. Department of State has a writeup of Poland's history] available to any
|
ng to tradition the English won a decisive victory despite being outnumbered, new research contests that claim.
==The campaign==
[[Henry V of England|Henry V]] had invaded France for several reasons. He hoped that by fighting a popular foreign war he would strengthen his position at home. He wanted to improve his financial position by gaining lands in France which would secure him revenue. He also wanted to take nobles prisoner who would either pay ransoms or extort money from the French King in exchange for returning home. The latter tactic is a version of "[[Danegeld]]", which English kings had successfully employed before. Evidence also suggests that several lords in the region of Normandy promised him their lands when they died, but the King of France confiscated their lands instead.
Henry's army landed in northern France on [[13 August]] [[1415]], and besieged the port of [[Harfleur]]. The [[siege of Harfleur]] took longer than expected. The town surrendered on [[22 September]], and the English army did not leave until [[8 October]]. The campaign season was coming to an end, and the English Army had suffered many casualties through disease. Henry decided to move his army to the port of [[Calais]], the only English [[stronghold]] in northern France, where they could re-equip over winter for the campaign season of 1416.
During the siege, the French had been able to call up a large [[feudal]] army which d'Albret deployed skilfully between Harfleur and Calais, mirroring the English manoeuvres along the river Somme, thus preventing them from reaching Calais without a major confrontation. The end result was that d'Albret managed to force Henry into fighting a battle that, given the state of his army, he would have preferred to avoid.
The catastrophic defeat that the French suffered at the ''Battle of Agincourt'' allowed Henry to fulfill all his campaign objectives. He was recognised by the French in the [[treaty of Troyes|Treaty of]] [[Troyes]] ([[1420]]) as regent and heir to the French throne. This was cemented by his marriage to [[Catherine of Valois]], the daughter of King Charles VI.
Henry V did not live to inherit the throne of France. In [[1422]], while securing his position against further French opposition, he died of [[dysentery]] at the age 34, two months before the death of Charles VI. He was succeeded by his young son, [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], during whose reign the English were expelled from all of France except Calais by French military successes, encouraged by [[Joan of Arc]], under the new French king, [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]].
==The Battle==
The battle was fought in the [[defile]] formed by the wood of [[Azincourt|Agincourt]] and that of [[Tramecourt]], at the northern exit of which the army under d'Albret, Constable of France, had placed itself so as to bar the way to [[Calais]]. The night of [[24 October]] was spent by the two armies on the ground, and the English had but little shelter from the heavy rain which fell. Early on the 25th, Henry deployed his army (800 men-at-arms, 5,000 archers). It is probable that the usual three "battles" were drawn up in line, each with its archers on the flanks and the dismounted men-at-arms in the centre. The English knights were clad in sturdy iron helmets and short-sleeved chain-mail tunics beneath studded leather vests, and were placed shoulder to shoulder four deep. The English archers being thrown forward in wedge-shaped salients with spikes in the ground to cause a horse charge to veer off, almost exactly as at the [[Battle of Crécy]]. Many English archers were naked below the waist due to the continuing dysentery of the march, and the English last meal was four days previous (naked and half-starved was the English condition), and once in formation the archers were not allowed to leave and had to relieve themselves right where they stood.
The French were arrayed in three great lines called "battles" with knights in each packed with 40 men deep. On each French flank were the mounted men-at-arms, including 12 princes of royal blood, while the center contained dismounted men-at-arms. Altogether, there were roughly 24,000 Frenchmen ready to destroy 5,800 Englishmen.
An important factor in the battle was the terrain, which was very muddy from recent rains. This deep mud favored the English force because, once knocked to the ground, the heavily armored French knights could not stand back up, eliminating the French knights as an effective force of arms. The mud was deep enough that more than one knight suffocated after being knocked into it. The deep mud also served to prevent the French artillery from taking part in the battle. The French crossbowmen were, as usual, relegated to the rear of the knights and men-at-arms. French accounts state that prior to the battle Henry V gave a speech reassuring his nobles that if the French prevailed the English nobles would be spared death &ndash; being captured and ransomed instead. However, the common soldier would have no such luck and therefore he told them they had better fight for their lives.
[[Image:AgincourtMap.jpg|right|map]]
For three hours after sunrise there was no fighting; then Henry, finding that the French would not advance, moved his army further into the defile. The archers dug-in pointed wooden stakes called palings, at an angle, to ward off cavalry charges, and opened the engagement with flights of arrows. It should be noted that these palings were an innovation. At [[Battle of Crécy|Crécy]] and [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Poitiers]], two other similar battles between the French and the English, the archers had not had them.
The French force was not an army but a group of knights who came together at the request of Charles VI. They were undisciplined and careless of the lessons of Crécy and Poitiers, and were quickly stung into action. The French mounted men [[Charge (warfare)|charged]], only to be driven back in confusion. The constable himself headed the leading line of dismounted men-at-arms, but weighed down by their [[armour]] and sinking deep into the mud with every step, they struggled to reach and engage the English men-at-arms. Wallowing in the mud, they were easy targets for the Welsh bowmen. However, for a time the fighting was severe. The thin line of the defenders was pushed back and King Henry was almost beaten to the ground. But at this moment the archers, using hatchets, swords and other weapons, penetrated the gaps in the now disordered French, who could not cope with their unarmoured assailants, and were slaughtered or taken prisoner. The second line of the French came on, only to be engulfed in the mêlée. Its leaders, like those of the first line, were killed or captured, and the commanders of the third line sought and found their death in the battle, while their men rode off to safety.
The only success for the French was a sally from Agincourt castle behind the lines. Ysambart D'Agincourt seized the King's baggage. Thinking his rear was under attack, Henry ordered the slaughter of the captives, (who could easily have armed themselves with the weapons strewn about the field). The nobles and senior officers, wishing to maintain their ability to ransom the captives, refused the task and the job fell to the common soldiers. Henry's actions may have been savage, but if the captives were to arm themselves, his army would have been crushed between the French forces and the prisoners.
In the morning Henry came back to the battlefield and killed any wounded French who had survived the night in the open. All the nobility had already been taken away and any commoners left on the field were too badly injured to survive without medical care. Total English losses were put at thirteen men-at-arms (including [[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York]], a grandson of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]) and about 100 of the foot soldiers. The French lost 5,000 of noble birth killed, including the constable, three dukes, five counts and 90 barons (see below); 1000 more were taken prisoner, amongst them the [[Charles, duc d'Orléans|Duke of Orléans]] (the famous poet Charles d'Orléans) and [[Jean Le Maingre]], marshall of France.
===Notable casualties===
*[[Antoine, Duke of Brabant|Antoine of Burgundy]], [[Duke of Brabant|Duke of Brabant and Limburg]] (b. 1384)
*[[Philip II, Count of Nevers|Philip of Burgundy]], [[Count of Nevers]] and [[Counts and dukes of Rethel|Rethel]] (b. 1389)
*[[Charles d'Albret|Charles I d'Albret]], [[Count of Dreux]], the [[Constable of France]]
*John II, Count of Bethune (b. 1359)
*[[John I of Alençon|John I, Duke of Alençon]] (b. 1385)
*[[Frederick of Lorraine|Frederick of Lorraine, Count of Vaudemont]] (b. 1371)
*Robert, Count of Marles and Soissons
*[[Edward III, Duke of Bar]] (the [[Duchy of Bar]] lost its independence as a consequence of his death)
*John VI, Count of Roucy
*[[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York]] (b. 1373)
===Sir Peers Legh===
When [[Sir]] [[Peers Legh]] was wounded in the Battle of Agincourt his Mastiff stood over him and protected him for many hours through the battle. Although, Legh later died, the Mastiff returned to Legh's home and was the foundation of the [[Lyme Hall Mastiffs]]. Five centuries later this [[Pedigree (dog)|pedigree]] figured prominently in founding the modern [[English Mastiff]] breed.
==Modern re-assessment of Agincourt==
===Were archers as effective as traditionally thought?===
Recent experiments at Agincourt and elsewhere suggest that the English archers may have inflicted less damage than traditionally assumed on the heavily armoured French [[knight]]s and [[men-at-arms]], because of the recent adoption of steel (rather than iron) armour. <!-- And if someone could add specific citations for these experiments, it would be appreciated. -->
A series of tests carried out for a television programme ('Battlefield Detectives') about Agincourt had li
|
vered from her death. In the same year he was appointed professor of mathematics at the ''[[lycée]]'' of Lyon.
==Contributions to physics and further studies==
[[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]]'s recommendation obtained for him the Lyon appointment, and afterwards ([[1804]]) a subordinate position in the polytechnic school at Paris, where he was appointed professor of mathematics in 1809. Here he continued to pursue his scientific research and his diverse studies with unabated diligence. He was admitted as a member of the Institute in [[1814]].
Ampère's fame mainly rests on the service that he rendered to science in establishing the relations between electricity and magnetism, and in developing the science of electromagnetism, or, as he called it, electrodynamics. On [[September 11]], [[1820]] he heard of [[Hans Christian Ørsted|H. C. Ørsted's]] discovery that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current. Only a week later, on [[September 18]], he presented a paper to the Academy containing a far more complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena.
==Legacy and final days==
The whole field thus opened up he explored with characteristic industry and care, and developed a mathematical theory which not only explained the electromagnetic phenomena already observed but also predicted many new ones.
He died at [[Marseille]] and is buried in the [[Cimetière de Montmartre]], Paris. The great amiability and childlike simplicity of Ampère's character are well brought out in his ''Journal et correspondance'' (Paris, [[1872]]). Forty-five years later, mathematicians recognized him.
==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
* [http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr www.ampere.cnrs.fr - Ampere and the history of electricity], (Correspondence, bibliography, experiments, simulations, etc., edited by CNRS, France)
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Ampere}}
[[Category:1775 births|Ampere, Andre Marie]]
[[Category:1836 deaths|Ampere, Andre Marie]]
[[Category:Electrostatics|Ampère, André-Marie]]
[[Category:French physicists|Ampère, André-Marie]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Ampère, André-Marie]]
[[bn:আঁদ্রে মারি এম্পিয়ার]]
[[ca:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[de:André Marie Ampère]]
[[es:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[eo:André Marie AMPÈRE]]
[[fr:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[fy:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[gl:André Marie Ampère]]
[[ko:앙드레 마리 앙페르]]
[[hr:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[io:André Marie Ampère]]
[[is:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[it:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[he:אנדרה מרי אמפר]]
[[hu:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[nl:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[ja:アンドレ・マリー・アンペール]]
[[nn:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[pl:André Marie Ampère]]
[[pt:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[ro:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[ru:Ампер, Андре Мари]]
[[sk:André Marie Ampère]]
[[sl:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[fi:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[sv:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[vi:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[uk:Ампер Анре Марі]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amoeba</title>
<id>1364</id>
<revision>
<id>42144735</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bk0</username>
<id>65294</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* ''Amoeba'' in popular culture */ non-notable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternate meanings: [[Amoeboid]], [[Amoebozoa]]''
:''For the operating system, see [[Amoeba distributed operating system]]. For the record store, see [[Amoeba Music]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = ''Amoeba''
| image = Chaos diffluens.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''[[Amoeba proteus]]''
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = [[Amoebozoa]]
| familia = [[Amoebidae]]
| genus = '''''Amoeba'''''
| genus_authority = Bery de St. Vincent 1822
}}
'''''Amoeba''''' (also spelled '''''ameba''''') is a genus of [[protozoa]] that moves by means of temporary projections called [[pseudopods]], and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. The word amoeba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now grouped as the [[Amoebozoa]], or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise termed [[amoeboid]]s. See those pages for further information.
''Amoeba'' itself is found in freshwater, typically on decaying vegetation from streams, but is not especially common in nature. However, because of the ease with which they may be obtained and kept in the lab, they are common objects of study, both as representative protozoa and to demonstrate cell structure and function. The cells have several lobose pseudopods, with one large tubular pseudopod at the anterior and several secondary ones branching to the sides. The most famous species, ''A. proteus'', is 700-800 &mu;m in length, but many others are much smaller. Each has a single [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], and a simple contractile [[vacuole]] which maintains its [[osmosis|osmotic]] pressure, as its most recognizable features.
Early naturalists referred to ''Amoeba'' as the [[Proteus]] [[animalcule]], after a Greek god who could change his shape. The name "amibe" was given to it by Bery St. Vincent, from the Greek ''amoibe'', meaning change.
A good method of collecting amoeba is to lower a jar upside down until it is just above the sediment surface. Then slowly let air escape so the top layer will be sucked into the jar. Try not to allow deeper sediment get sucked in. You can slowly move the jar when tilting it so you collect from a larger area. If no amoeba are found, one can try introducing some rice grains into the jar and waiting for them to start to rot. The bacteria eating the rice will be eaten by the amoeba, thus increasing the population and making them easier to find.
==''Amoeba'' in popular culture==
* The North American writer [[Tom Robbins]] states, in the [[preface]] to his book [[Even Cowgirls Get the Blues]], that amoebas are [[cool]] because they [[reproduce]] by [[binary fission]], so the first amoeba is still alive to this day.
* In the [[1984]] computer game [[Boulder Dash]], Rockford, the main character, is chased all the time by a constantly-growing amoeba.
* In certain places of [[Brazil]], the term amoeba (in its [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] form: ''ameba'') is used as a [[derogatory]] [[slang]] for "slow, [[obtuse]] person".
==External links==
* [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Biology_Cell_biology_Introduction_Cell_size Wikibooks: compare size of cells]
* [http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0803647.html Amoeba info]
[[Category:Protista]][[Category:Amoeboids]][[Category:Amoebozoa]]
[[bg:Амеба]]
[[da:Amøbe]]
[[de:Amöbe]]
[[es:Ameba]]
[[fr:Amibe]]
[[it:Ameba]]
[[he:אמבה]]
[[lt:Amebos]]
[[nl:Amoebe]]
[[ja:アメーバ]]
[[pl:Ameba]]
[[pt:Ameba]]
[[sr:Амеба]]
[[fi:Ameebat]]
[[sv:Amöbor]]
[[th:อะมีบา]]
[[uk:Амеба]]
[[zh:變形蟲]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ammonia</title>
<id>1365</id>
<revision>
<id>41786249</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:13:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Itub</username>
<id>426390</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;"
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Ammonia_lone_electron_pair.PNG|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Ammonia3D.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}} 3D representation]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Ammonia<br/>Azane (''see text'')
|-
| Trivial names
| Spirit of hartshorn<br/>Nitrosil<br/>Vaporole
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| NH<sub>3</sub>
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 17.03 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colourless gas with <br>strong pungent odor
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [7664-41-7]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| .6813 g/L, gas
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| 54 g/100 ml
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| -78.27 °C (195.42 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| -33.49 °C (240.74 K)
|-
| [[Base dissociation constant|Basicity]] (p''K''<sub>b</sub>)
| 4.75
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''<sub>a</sub>)
| ''approx.'' 34
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Thermodynamic data
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|Std enthalpy of<br/>formation]] Δ<sub>f</sub>''H''°<sub>gas</sub>
| -45.92 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard molar entropy|Standard molar<br/>entropy]] ''S''°<sub>gas</sub>
| 192.77 J·K<sup>&minus;1</sup>·mol<sup>&minus;1</sup>
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards <!-- INDEX n° 007-001-00-5, 007-001-01-2 -->
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| [[#Safety precautions|''Conc. dependent.<br/>See text'']]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| [[#Safety precautions|''Conc. dependent<br/>See text'']]
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S1/2}}, {{S16}}, {{S36/37/39}},<br/>{{S45}}, {{S61}}
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h3.png]][[Image:nfpa_f1.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and<br/>properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε<sub>r</sub>'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic<br/>data]]
| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Regulatory data|Regulatory data]]
| [[Fla
|
me (which means depths) in reference to the deep water off the coast. Spaniard [[Hernán Cortés]] arrived in 1524. Some local tribes and nations continued to fight the Spanish invaders through the late 1530s; one native defender, [[Lempira]], was leader of the [[Lenca]] people, and is now considered a national hero whom the currency is named after. As the Spanish began founding settlements along the coast Honduras came under the control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The cities of [[Comayagua]] and [[Tegucigalpa]] developed as early mining centers.
==Independence==
Honduras, along with the other Central American provinces, gained independence from Spain in 1821; it then briefly was annexed to the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed [[United States of Central America|United Provinces of Central America]]. Before long social and economic differences between Honduras and its regional neighbors exacerbated harsh partisan strife among its leaders, bringing about the federation's collapse in 1838-[[1839|39]]. General [[Francisco Morazán]], a Honduran national hero, led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation. Restoring Central American unity remained the officially stated chief aim of Honduran foreign policy until after [[World War I]].
In 1888 a projected railroad line from the Caribbean coast to the capital, [[Tegucigalpa]], ran out of money when it reached [[San Pedro Sula]], resulting in its growth into the nation's main industrial center and second largest city.
Since independence, Honduras has had 300 internal rebellions, [[civil wars]], and changes of government -- more than half occurring during the 20th century. Traditionally lacking both an economic infrastructure and social and political integration, Honduras's agriculturally based economy came to be dominated by [[United States]] companies, notably [[United Fruit Company]] and [[Standard Fruit Company]], which established vast banana plantations along the north coast. The economic dominance and political influence of these companies was so great from the late 19th until the mid 20th century that it coined the term [[banana republic]]. During the relatively stable years of the [[Great Depression]], authoritarian General [[Tiburcio Carías Andino]] controlled Honduras. His ties to dictators in neighboring countries and to U.S. banana companies helped him maintain power until 1948. By then, provincial military leaders had begun to gain control of the two major parties, the [[National Party of Honduras]] (PNH) and the [[Liberal Party of Honduras]] (PLH).
==From military to civilian rule==
In October 1955, after a general strike by banana workers on the north coast in 1954, young military reformists staged a coup that installed a provisional junta. The [[death penalty]] was abolished in 1956, though the last person to be executed was in 1940 (The current PNH presidential candidate [[Porfirio "Pepe" Lobo]] wants to bring it back). There were constituent assembly elections in 1957 which appointed [[Ramon Villeda Morales]] as [[President of Honduras|President]], and itself becoming a [[Congress of Honduras|national Congress]] with a 6-year term. The PLH ruled during 1957-63. The military began to become a professional institution independent of politics, with the newly created military academy graduating its first class in 1960. In October 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup. These officers exiled PLH members and governed under General [[Oswaldo López Arellano]] until 1970.
In July 1969 Honduras was invaded by [[El Salvador]] in the short [[Football war]]. Tensions in the aftermath of the conflict remain.
A civilian president for the PNH, [[Ramón Ernesto Cruz Uclés]], took power briefly in 1970 until in December 1972 López staged another coup. This time round he adopted more progressive policies, including land reform.
López's successors continued armed forces modernization programs, building army and security forces, and concentrating on Honduran air force superiority over its neighbors. During the governments of General [[Juan Alberto Melgar Castro]] (1975-78) and General [[Policarpo Paz García]] (1978-83) that Honduras built most of its physical infrastructure and electricity and terrestrial telecommunications systems, both of which are state monopolies. The country experienced its economic growth during this period, with greater international demand for its products and the increased availability of foreign commercial capital.
=== The 1980s ===
In 1979 the country return to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of [[Roberto Suazo Córdova]] assumed power.
Between 1979 and 1985, under [[John Negroponte]]'s appointment as U.S. diplomat from 1981 to 1985, U.S. military and economic aid to Honduras jumped from $31 million to $282 million. Honduras agreed in exchange to become a base for an estimated 15,000 [[Nicaragua]]n [[Contras]], providing logistical and intelligence support, and joining the U.S. military in joint maneuvers. Negroponte himself supervised the construction of the El Aguacate air base where Contras were trained (they also used [[Lepaterique]], where Argentinian ''[[Batallón de Inteligencia 601]]'' was training Contras). Battalion 3-16, a special intelligence unit involved in the assassination of hundreds of people, including U.S. missionaries, was trained by the [[CIA]] and the [[Argentine]] military.John Negroponte, currently[[United States Director of National Intelligence|Director of National Intelligence]], was later accused by the Honduras Commission on Human Rights of human rights violations. In August 2001, 185 corpses, including two Americans, were discovered at the Aguacate base. Between 1979 and 1985, U.S. [[development aid]] fell from 80% of the total to 6%.
In May 1982, a nun, Sister Laetitia Bordes, who had worked for ten years in [[El Salvador]], went on a fact-finding delegation to Honduras to investigate the whereabouts of thirty Salvadoran nuns and women of faith who fled to Honduras in 1981 after Archbishop [[Óscar Romero]]'s assassination. Negroponte claimed the embassy knew nothing about the nuns. However, in a 1996 interview with ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', Negroponte's predecessor, Jack Binns, said that a group of Salvadorans, among whom were the women Bordes had been looking for, were captured on [[April 22]], [[1981]], and savagely tortured by the DNI, the Honduran Secret Police, and then later thrown out of helicopters alive.
In 1995, ''The Baltimore Sun'' published an extensive investigation of U.S. activities in Honduras.
Speaking of Negroponte and other senior U.S. officials, an ex-Honduran congressman, Efraín Díaz, was quoted as saying:
:''Their attitude was one of tolerance and silence. They needed Honduras to loan its territory more than they were concerned about innocent people being killed.
The ''Sun's'' investigation found that the CIA and U.S. embassy knew of numerous abuses but continued to support Battalion 3-16 and ensured that the embassy's annual human rights report did not contain the full story.
Substantial evidence subsequently emerged to support the contention that Negroponte was aware that serious violations of human rights were carried out by the Honduran government, with the support of the CIA, if perhaps not with its direct approval. [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Christopher Dodd]] of Connecticut, on [[September 14]], 2001, as reported in the ''Congressional Record'', aired his suspicions on the occasion of Negroponte's nomination to the position of UN ambassador:
:''Based upon the Committee's review of State Department and CIA documents, it would seem that Ambassador Negroponte knew far more about government perpetuated human rights abuses than he chose to share with the committee in 1989 or in Embassy contributions at the time to annual State Department Human Rights reports.'' [http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2001_cr/s091401.html]
Among other evidence, Dodd cited a cable sent by Negroponte in 1985 that made it clear that Negroponte was aware of the threat of "future human rights abuses" by "secret operating cells" left over by General Alvarez after his deposition in 1984.
In April 2005, as the Senate confirmation hearings for the National Intelligence post took place, hundreds of documents were released by the State Department in response to a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|FOIA]] request by the ''[[Washington Post]]''. The documents, cables that Negroponte sent to Washington while serving as ambassador to Honduras, indicated that he played a more active role than previously known in managing the US covert war against the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinistas]]. According to ''Post'', the image of Negroponte that emerges from the cables is that of an
:''exceptionally energetic, action-oriented ambassador whose anti-communist convictions led him to play down human rights abuses in Honduras, the most reliable U.S. ally in the region. There is little in the documents the State Department has released so far to support his assertion that he used "quiet diplomacy" to persuade the Honduran authorities to investigate the most egregious violations, including the mysterious disappearance of dozens of government opponents. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A44944-2005Apr11.html]
The ''[[New York Times]]'' wrote that the documents revealed
:''a tough cold warrior who enthusiastically carried out President Ronald Reagan's strategy. They show he sent admiring reports to Washington about the Honduran military chief, who was blamed for human rights violations, warned that peace talks with the Nicaraguan regime might be a dangerous "Trojan h
|
sur Afrika. &ndash;respondis la serpento.
:&ndash;Ha !... Kad esas nulu sur Tero ?
:&ndash;To esas la dezerto, e nulu esas sur la dezerti. Tero esas tre granda &ndash;dicis la serpento.
:La princeto sideskis sur stono e levis lua okuli a la cielo.
:&ndash;Me questionas a me &ndash;lu dicis- ka la steli intence brilas por ke uladie singlu povez trovar sua stelo. Videz mea planeto, olu esas exakte super ni... ma tre fore !
:&ndash;Olu esas bela planeto &ndash;dicis la serpento-. Por quo vu venis adhike ?
:&ndash;Esas chagreneto inter floro e me &ndash;dicis la princeto.
:&ndash;Ha ! &ndash;dicis la serpento.
:E la du permanis silence.
:&ndash;Ube esas la personi ? &ndash;klamis fine la princeto-. Onu esas kelke sola sur la dezerto...
:&ndash;Inter la personi onu anke esas sola &ndash;dicis la serpento.
:La princeto regardis la serpento longatempe.
:&ndash;Vu esas stranja animalo ! &ndash;dicis la princeto-. Vu esas tam tenua kam fingro...
:&ndash;Yes, ma me esas plu potenta kam fingro di rejo &ndash;dicis la serpento.
:La princeto ridetis.
:&ndash;Me ne kredas ke vu esas tre potenta, mem vu ne havas pedi... nek vu povas voyajar...
:&ndash;Me povas transportar vu plu fore kam navo -dicis la serpento.
:Ed olu spulis la maleolo di la princeto, same kam ora braceleto.
:&ndash;Ta quan me tushas retroiras a la tero deube lu venis. Ma vu esas pura e vu venas de stelo...
:La princeto nulon respondis.
:&ndash;Me kompatas vu, qua esas tante sola sur ta harda granita Tero. Me povas helpar vu se vu sentas nostalgio a vua planeto. Me povas...
:&ndash;Ho ! &ndash;dicis la princeto-. Me bone komprenis, ma pro quo vu sempre parolas enigmatoze ?
:&ndash;Me solvas omna enigmati &ndash;dicis la serpento.
:E la du permanis silence.
:'''Averto lektenda'''
:La verko '''La princeto''' licencesas sub '''Creative Commons License''', http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/legalcode
:Autoro.- Fernando Tejón, krayono@yahoo.es
:Ret-pagino.- http://es.geocities.com/idohispania/laprinceto/laprinceto.html
=== The Lord's Prayer ===
([[Media:Padrenuestro.ogg|listen]])
:Patro nia, qua esas en la cielo,
:tua nomo santigesez;
:tua regno advenez;
:tua volo facesez quale en la cielo
:tale anke sur la tero.
:Donez a ni cadie l'omnadiala pano,
:e pardonez a ni nia ofensi,
:quale anke ni pardonas a nia ofensanti,
:e ne duktez ni aden la tento,
:ma liberigez ni del malajo.
== Literature and publications ==
[[Image:Anne Frank in Ido.PNG|right|thumb|280px|Extract from [[The Diary of Anne Frank]] in Ido from the journal ''Adavane!'', published by the Spanish Ido Society.]]
Ido has a number of publications that can be subscribed to or downloaded for free in most cases. The majority of Ido publications are composed mostly of material on various subjects, with a few pages within on the status of the movement and news on upcoming gatherings. ''Kuriero Internaciona'' is a magazine produced in France every few months with a range of topics. ''Adavane!'' is a magazine produced by the Spanish Ido Society every two months that has a range of topics, as well as a few dozen pages of work translated from other languages. ''Progreso'' is the official organ of the Ido movement and has been around since the inception of the movement in 1908. Other sites can be found with various stories, fables or proverbs along with a few books of the Bible translated into Ido on a smaller scale. The site ''publikaji'' has a few podcasts in Ido along with various songs and other recorded material.
The online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]] includes an [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido-language edition] (known in Ido as ''Wikipedio''); [[as of January 2006]], it has over 13,000 articles.
== Recent International Ido Conventions ==
*'''2005:''' [[Toulouse]], [[France]], 13 participants from 4 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Francia/Idorenkontro2005/ Raporto])
*'''2004:''' [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]], 17 participants from 9 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Ukrainia/Idorenkontro2004/ Raporto])
*'''2003:''' Grossbothen, [[Germany]], Participants from 6 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Germania/Idokonfero2003/ido.htm Raporto])
*'''2002:''' [[Kraków]], [[Poland]], 14 participants from 6 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Polonia/krakow2002.htm Raporto])
*'''2001:''' [[Nürnberg]], Germany, 14 participants from 5 countries ([http://www.nefkom.net/frank.kasper/konf2001.htm Raporto])
*'''1998:''' Białobrzegi, Poland, 15 participants from 6 countries
*'''1997:''' Bakkum (mun. [[Castricum]]), [[Netherlands]], 19 participants from 7 countries<br>
*'''1995:''' Elsnigk, Germany
*'''1991:''' [[Ostend]], [[Belgium]], 21 participants
*'''1980:''' [[Namur (city)|Namur]], Belgium, 35 participants
*'''1960:''' [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]], ca. 50 participants
== References and notes ==
#L. Couturat, L. Leau. ''Delegation pour l'adoption d'une Langue auxiliare internationale'' (15-[[24 October]] [[1907]]). Coulommiers: Imprimerie Paul Brodard, 1907
#{{note|Harlow}}Harlow, Don. ''How to Build a Language'', chapter 3.
#{{note|dyer}}L. H. Dyer. "The Problem of an International Auxiliary Language and its Solution in Ido", pp. 101-124 [http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Rue/8009/idolinguo/101_121.htm], 1923.
#{{note|ido-movado}} ''Ido-movado''. (2005, novembro 15). Vikipedio, La Libera Enciklopedio. Retrieved 19:04, novembro 28, 2005 from http://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ido-movado&oldid=321224.
#{{note|changes}} Chandler, James. ''Changes in Ido since 1922'', from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/changes.html
#{{note|Jesperson}} Jespersen, Otto. ''History of our Language (Ido)'' from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html - 1912. Translated from the original Ido available at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/OJhist.html
#{{note|eventoj}} Eventoj, no. 103, ISSN 01215-959 X. ''Ci'' estas senvalora balasto'' (Ci is useless ballast). 1996. Available at http://www.eventoj.hu/arkivo/eve-103.htm
#{{note|neologismo}} ''Lexiko di nova vorti'' (lexicon of new words), available at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/nova.html
==External links==
{{Interwiki|code=io}}
{{Wikibookspar||Ido}}
===Overview and answers to common questions===
* [http://idolinguo.org.uk/ International Language Ido]
===History and opinions on Ido===
* [http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/ido.htm Langmaker.com about Ido]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html Otto Jespersen's history of Ido]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/PALih.html Another history of Ido]
* [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/Historio/raporto.LK.1908.html Emile Boirac's "Report to the World Esperanto Congress, 1908"] about his experiences as part of the Delegation's Committee
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/truth.html Léopold Leau's "The Truth About the Delegation in 1907"], a rebuttal of criticisms made about the events of the Delegation, based on his own experiences as a member of the Delegation
* [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/chap03.html#ido "How to Build a Language", the section about Ido], and [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/conlang1a.html "Ido: The Beginning"] by Don Harlow
* [http://www.kafejo.com/lingvoj/auxlangs/ido Ido-Pagino da Ailanto] - Discussion about Ido, links to websites, organizations, mailing lists, courses, dictionaries, grammars, etc.
* [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/aido.html Blueprints for Babel: Ido] - Commentary and grammatical summary of Ido, with glossary and links
===Pages in Ido and places to learn the language===
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/idolisto/ 'Idolisto' on Yahoo! Groups] and a [[:io:Ido en la reto#Diskuto|list of forums]] in other languages and for more specialized themes
* [http://io.wiktionary.org Ido Wiktionary]
* [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/kgd.pdf Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido] (PDF), [http://ido.view.net.au/kgd/ in HTML], [http://ido.narod.ru/linguo/kgd/tabelo-di-kontenajo.htm again in HTML]
* "Ido for All", a course for English speakers, can be found [http://www.geocities.com/bebsonido/ here] and [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Sparta/6367/ here]. A partial translation into French can be found [http://www.ido-vivo.info/Francaidokurso/ here]. MP3 files for lessons 1 - 7 can be found [http://www.iolairweb.co.uk/ido/idoforall.htm here].
* MP3 files can also be found at [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/radioidia.html Radio Idia Internaciona]. Many podcasts feature content from the magazine [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/adavane.html Adavane!].
* A much larger list of sites in Ido and about Ido in 33 other languages can be found on the [[:io:Ido en la reto|Ido Wikipedia]].
* [http://ekofin.blogspot.com Ekofin], a blog in Ido dealing with economics and finance. Also a fourth-year disertation on the [http://www2.vo.lu/homepages/spw/ido/bankala_relati.pdf influence of relationship banking on competition in the banking sector] in Ido by the same author
* [http://www.davidmann.us/idoforumi/viewtopic.php?t=65 Dyer Dictionary Transcription Project] - a project to transcribe the entire Dyer Ido-English/English-Ido Dictionary online, with 470 of 800 pages completed
{{Ido}}
[[Category:Ido]]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Esperantido]]
{{Link FA|it}}
{{featured article}}
[[af:Ido]]
[[als:Ido]]
[[ast:Ido]]
[[bg:Идо]]
[[be:Іда]]
[[ca:Ido]]
[[cs:Ido]]
[[da:Ido]]
[[de:Ido]]
[[et:Ido]]
[[es:Ido]]
[[eo:Ido (lingvo)]]
[[eu:Ido]]
[[fa:ایدو]]
[[fr:Ido]]
[[fy:Ido]]
[[ga:Ido]]
[[gl:Ido]]
[[ko:이도]]
[[hr:Ido]]
[[io:Ido]]
[[id:Bahasa Ido]]
[[ia:Ido]]
[[is:Ido]]
[[it:Ido]]
[[sw:Kiido]]
[[ku:Ido]]
[[la:Ido]]
[[lt:Ido]]
[[lb:Ido]]
[[li:Ido]]
[[hu:Ido nyelv]]
[[mt:Lingwa Ido]]
[[ms:Bahasa Ido]]
[[nl:Ido (kunsttaal)]]
[[nds:Ido]]
[[ja:イド語]]
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[
|
portion of the invading foreign troops. A number of [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Kabila has begun implementing reforms. Much economic activity lies outside the GDP data.
With relative peace in the country during [[2003]], the DRC aims to increase its exports of [[electricity]] to [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]] to 500 [[megawatt]]s from 210 megawatts (mostly from the [[Inga dam]]). Electricity distribution in the DRC is licensed to a [[Zambia|Zambian]] company, [[CEC]].
==See also==
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
== References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cg.html CIA World Factbook]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:African Union member economies|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
[[Category:WTO members|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
[[Category:Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[fr:Économie de la République démocratique du Congo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
<id>8026</id>
<revision>
<id>39375488</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:27:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
Despite President [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]'s claims that his was a [[transitional government]] leading to a new [[constitution]] and full elections by April [[1999]], these elections have not [[as of 2004]] been held, and a [[1998]] draft constitution has not been finalized. All executive, legislative, and military powers are vested in the president. The judiciary is independent, with the president having the power to dismiss or appoint. The president is head of a 26-member cabinet dominated by the [[Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo]] (ADFL).
After some successes at improving internal security and lowering the [[inflation rate]] over his first year, Kabila was unable to control insurgent activities by various armed groups. Activities by [[Hutu]] ex-FAR/[[Interahamwe]], [[Mai-Mai]] soldiers, and a February [[1998]] mutiny by [[Tutsi]] [[Banyamulenge]] destabilized the regime. In addition, Kabila's pledges to democratize the government over time contrasted with the reality of banned political parties and increasingly centralized power. Criticism of Kabila's government grew both domestically and within the international community.
In an attempt to stabilize the country and consolidate his control after his [[1997]] victory in the [[First Congo War]], President Kabila in August [[1998]] expelled the [[Rwanda]]n troops remaining in DRC . This prompted army mutinies in Kinshasa and the Kivu provinces in the east. Although the Kinshasa mutiny was put down, the mutiny in the Kivus continued and mushroomed into a drive to topple the government, now called the [[Second Congo War]]. Opposing the Kabila government were factions of the [[Rally for Congolese Democracy]] (RCD), [[Rwanda]], and [[Uganda]]. The Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), another rebel group, emerged later. Defending the Kabila government were the former Rwandan army (ex-FAR)/Interahamwe militia, [[Angola]], [[Namibia]], [[Chad]], [[Zimbabwe]], and the Congolese army (FAC).
A cease-fire was signed on [[10 July]] [[1999]] by the DROC, [[Zimbabwe]], [[Angola]], [[Uganda]], [[Namibia]], [[Rwanda]], and Congolese armed rebel groups, but sporadic fighting continued. Kabila was assassinated on [[16 January]] [[2001]] and his son [[Joseph Kabila]] was named head of state ten days later. In October [[2002]], the new president was successful in getting occupying Rwandan forces to withdraw from eastern Congo; two months later, an agreement was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and set up a government of national unity, though final peace remains elusive.
'''Principal Government Officials'''<br>
President: [[Joseph Kabila]]
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
Democratic Republic of the Congo
<br>''conventional short form:''
none
<br>''local long form:''
Republique Democratique du Congo
<br>''local short form:''
none
<br>''former:''
[[Belgian Congo]], <nowiki>Congo/Leopoldville, Congo/Kinshasa,</nowiki> [[Zaire]]
<br>''abbreviation:''
DROC
'''Data code:'''
CD
'''Government type:'''
dictatorship; presumably undergoing a transition to representative government
'''Capital:'''
[[Kinshasa]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and one city* (ville); [[Bandundu]], [[Bas-Congo]], [[Equateur]], [[Kasai-Occidental]], [[Kasai-Oriental]], [[Katanga]], Kinshasa*, [[Maniema]], [[Nord-Kivu]], [[Orientale]], [[Sud-Kivu]]
'''Independence:'''
[[30 June]] 1960 (from [[Belgium]])
'''National holiday:'''
anniversary of independence from Belgium, [[30 June]] ([[1960]])
'''Constitution:'''
[[24 June]] [[1967]], amended August [[1974]], revised [[15 February]] [[1978]], amended April [[1990]]; transitional constitution promulgated in April [[1994]]; in November [[1998]], a draft constitution was approved by former President [[Laurent Kabila]] but it was not ratified by a national referendum; one outcome of the ongoing inter-Congolese dialogue is to be a new constitution
'''Legal system:'''
based on Belgian civil law system and tribal law; has not accepted compulsory [[ICJ]] jurisdiction
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal and compulsory
'''Executive branch:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
President [[Joseph Kabila]] (since [[26 January]] [[2001]]); note - following the assassination of his father, [[Laurent-Desire Kabila]], on [[16 January]] [[2001]], Joseph Kabila succeeded to the presidency; the president is both the chief of state and head of government
<br>''head of government:''
President [[Joseph Kabila]] (since [[26 January]] [[2001]]); note - following the assassination of his father, [[Laurent-Desire Kabila]], on [[16 January]] [[2001]], Joseph Kabila succeeded to the presidency; the president is both the chief of state and head of government
<br>''cabinet:''
National Executive Council, appointed by the president
<br>''elections:''
before Laurent Desire Kabila seized power, the president was elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held [[29 July]] [[1984]] (next was scheduled to be held in May [[1997]]); formerly, there was also a prime minister elected by the High Council of the Republic; note - the term of the former government expired in [[1991]], elections were not held, and former President [[Mobutu]] continued in office until his government was militarily defeated by Kabila on [[17 May]] [[1997]]
<br>''note:''
Marshal Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga was president from [[24 November]] [[1965]] until forced into exile on [[16 May]] [[1997]] when his government was overthrown militarily by Laurent Desire Kabila; Kabila immediately assumed governing authority and pledged to hold elections by April 1999, but, in December 1998, announced that elections would be postponed until all foreign military forces attempting to topple the government had withdrawn from the country; Kabila was assassinated in January 2001 and was succeeded by his son Joseph Kabila.
'''Legislative branch:'''
a 300-member Transitional Constituent Assembly established in August [[2000]]
elections: NA; members of the Transitional Constituent Assembly were appointed by former President Laurent-Desire Kabila
Now a appointed National Assembly and Senate exist.
<br>''elections:''
the country's first multi-party presidential and legislative elections had been scheduled for May [[1997]] but were not held; instead Laurent Kabila overthrew the Mobutu government and seized control of the country
'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
'''Political parties and elections'''
{{Main|Political parties in the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
{{DR Congo National Assembly}}
{{DRC Senate}}
'''International organization participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[CEEAC]], [[CEPGL]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-19]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OPCW]] (signatory), [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Southern African Development Community|SADC]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]] [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
'''Flag description:'''
light blue with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center and a columnar arrangement of six small yellow five-pointed stars along the hoist side
:''See also :'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[fr:Politique de la République démocratique du Congo]]
[[ln:Politiki bya Kɔ́ngɔ-Kinshasa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
<id>8027</id>
<revision>
<id>28147817</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T22:07:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
<id>7580</id>
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|
Edition'' featured a new weapon, the expander, created by augmenting the shrink ray with a microwave dish. Contrary to the miniaturization effect the shrink ray had on enemies, the expander caused them to inflate and explode instead.
Aside from weapons, Duke's inventory also included a series of items that could be picked up during play. A portable medkit allowed players to heal themselves whenever they chose to. [[Steroid]]s sped up player movement making transit through hostile territory easier (additionally, they rendered the player immune to the effects of the Shrink Ray, especially useful in multiplayer mode). [[Infra-red]] goggles allowed players to see enemies in the dark. The "HoloDuke" device would project a [[hologram]] of Duke that could be used to distract enemies. Protective boots allowed the player to cross dangerously hot or toxic terrain. Where progress required more aquatic legwork, an [[aqualung]] allowed the player to take longer trips away from air. Perhaps most impressively, a [[jet pack]] allowed the player to range fully in 3D, often to reach carefully hidden weapons caches or extra health, although typically jet pack availability was restricted to avoid making levels too easy.
===Monsters===
The game features a wide range of monsters, some of which are ''[[bona fide]]'' [[extraterrestial life|aliens]], others [[mutant|mutated]] humans (the [[LAPD]] has been "turned" into pigs, with [[Lard|LARD]] wittily emblazoned on their uniforms). As usual for a first-person shooter, Duke encounters a large number of lesser foes, and a small number of [[boss (video games)|boss]] enemies (usually at the end of chapters). Like Duke, these enemies have access to a wide range of weapons and equipment (some weaker enemies have jet packs). In keeping with the general tone of the game, Duke's enemies frequently experience humourous deaths, or engage in amusing, everyday activities (e.g. using the toilet).
See also the main article on [[Duke Nukem 3D monsters]].
===Multiplayer===
Fans may have happy memories of Duke Nukem 3D's network gaming maps. In particular, ''fort'' was the pick of the community maps especially for 2 or 4 player mode.
The game can be played either in Death Match with or without monsters or in co-operative mode versus the monsters, a feature ever less frequent in newer first-person shooter games.
==Criticism and Controversy==
The game has been heavily attacked by some critics, who allege that it promotes [[pornography]] and [[murder]]. For example, [[Media Watch]] wrote that:
:"Duke Nukem 3D moves the 'shooter' through pornography stores, where Duke can use XXX sex posters for target practice. Duke throws cash at a prostituted woman telling her to 'Shake it, Baby' his gun ever ready. In Duke Nukem bonus points are awarded for the murder of these mostly prostituted and partially nude women. Duke blows up stained glass windows in an empty church or goes to strip clubs where Japanese women lower their [[kimono]]s exposing their breasts. Duke is encouraged to kill defenseless, often bound women." [http://www.mediawatch.com/wordpress/?p=13]
While some of this criticism is exaggerated (e.g. players do not receive points for killing women, and are usually attacked for doing so), the extreme depiction of women in ''Duke Nukem 3D'' is notable. George Broussard, the president of [[3D Realms]], defends the game, noting its success and arguing that consumers obviously do not find the content abusive or immoral. However, success with some consumers is clearly not evidence that ''Duke Nukem 3D'' is more widely acceptable. Significantly, virtually all of the women that appear in the game are either strippers, prostitutes, cheerleaders or alien prisoners (although a few of the following franchise sequels changed this, with Duke fighting alongside strong female characters). This treatment of women is extreme even by the standards of video games. It could be viewed as [[irony|ironic]] and over-the-top [[parody|send-up]] of [[Hollywood#Hollywood and the motion picture industry|Hollywood]] [[action movie|action-film]] [[stereotype]]s; but, unsurprisingly, it causes offence.
As a result of a gunman's rampage through a movie theatre in [[Brazil]], ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was banned in that country along with ''[[Quake]]'' and ''[[Doom]]'' and several other violent first-person shooters, due to ''Duke Nukem 3D'''s opening level "Hollywood Holocaust" (Episode 1, Mission 1) where Duke inevitably gets into a firefight with aliens inside a cinema. Unlike ''[[Carmageddon]]'' (which was banned in Brazil too) this didn't prevent the game from being published in a computer magazine.'' Quake'' was still found in a "Best Seller" package years later and Doom's Collectors Edition and ''[[Doom 3]]'', as ''[[Quake III Arena]]'' and other shooters are still found and sold legally in Brazil.
Years later there would be a similar controversy about the ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' series distributed by [[Take-Two Interactive]]. Coincidentally, Take-Two Interactive is the prospective distributor for ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'', the sequel to ''Duke Nukem 3D''.
==Official Addons==
===Plutonium PAK/Atomic Edition===
The Atomic Edition of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was released in late 1996, and contained the original 3 episode game as well as a new eleven-level fourth episode. The Plutonium PAK was also released as an upgrade package to convert the original release of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' (v1.3d) to the new Atomic Edition (v1.4, later patched to v1.5).
The Atomic Edition introduced three enemies: the Protector Drone, the Pig Cop Tank, and a new boss known as The Queen. It also included a new weapon, the Microwave Expander.
The Atomic Edition also saw several improvements to the scripting language of the game, allowing the game's active [[modding]] community to create new enemies and items without overwriting the pre-existing ones.
===EDuke===
Following the release of the ''[[Doom]]'' source code in 1997, many of those in the modding community began wishing for a similar source code release from 3D Realms. The last major game to make use of the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' source code was ''[[WW2GI]]'' in 1999. It's programmer, Matthew Saettler, expanded greatly upon the scripting language used by modders to change many aspects of the game.
Saettler let it be known that he was willing to expand further upon ''WW2GI'''s scripting language, and shortly thereafter agreed to make his enhancements available for ''Duke Nukem 3D'' with the permission of 3D Realms.
Shortly thereafter, 3D Realms approved the project. Saettler was the sole programmer, working with several mod authors to beta-test the new addition that would carry the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' version numbering to v2.0 and be titled EDuke.
EDuke was released as a patch for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000, and included a demo mod made by several beta testers. The demo included new sector-based effects, sprite-based elevators, ladders, a bouncing particle fountain, a personal teleporter, and a more sophisticated translucent water effect.
==Unofficial Addons==
===Commercial Addons===
Although ''Plutonium Pak'' is the only official add-on pack, some companies have marketed their own add-on packs for ''Duke Nukem 3D''. Four well-known add-on packs are ''Duke Caribbean'', ''Duke it Out in D.C.'', ''Duke Nuclear Winter'', and ''Duke Xtreme''.
''Duke Caribbean'': This game supposedly takes place after ''Duke Nukem 3D''. Duke relaxes on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own "vacation". This add-on pack has often been praised by players.
''Duke it Out in D.C.'': Duke Nukem has been called out to rescue [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]] from an abduction.
''Duke Nuclear Winter'': The aliens have taken over the [[North Pole]], and kidnapped [[Santa Claus]]. Duke Nukem must fight the aliens to rescue him. Although this add-on has been praised for its [[Christmas]] theme, it has still been criticized for unoriginality and poor level design.
''Duke Xtreme'': This add-on pack contains around 50 levels and many utilities for ''Duke Nukem 3D''. This pack has often been criticized for its many software bugs.
===Modifications===
Many mods/total conversions of Duke Nukem 3D have appeared on the Internet, including Jesse Petrilla's [[controversial]] conversions ''Quest for Al-Qa'eda: The Hunt for Bin Laden'' and ''Quest for Hussein'', in which the player is a U.S. Marine who must single-handedly dispose of [[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Saddam Hussein]], respectively.
Duke Nukem 3D's graphic [[Game engine|engine]] was an evolutionary step from the engine used for ''Doom''. While the levels were still defined as 2D maps, the capabilities of [[Ken Silverman|Ken Silverman's]] [[Build engine]] allowed more complex levels than Doom. Since Duke Nukem 3D was still not a fully 3D engine, it was considered to be a [[2.5D]] game. Although the era of true 3D games had begun with ''[[Descent (computer game)|Descent]]'' in [[1995]], it would not be until ''Quake'' was released later in [[1996]] that a true 3D engine would be used for an FPS.
==Source code ports==
The [[source code]] to the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' v1.5 executable, which used the ''[[Build engine]]'', was released under the [[GPL]] on [[April 1]], [[2003]]. However, the game content still remains the sole property of 3D Realms. The game was quickly ported by enthusiasts to modern OSes, including [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Linux]] and [[Mac OS X]]. [[As of 2005]], these ports gave the game a second life in multiplayer games through the Internet and a growing community is still actively playing.
===Standard Ports===
The first ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port was the icculus.org port. It was a cross-platform port that allowed the game to be played on Linux, Windows, BeOS, Solaris, OSX, and FreeBSD. The icculus.org codebase
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