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of short fiction in the [[1970s]], and won several [[Hugo Award]]s and [[Nebula Award]]s before he started to turn his attention to novels late in the decade. Although much of his work is fantasy or [[horror fiction|horror]], a number of his earlier works are science fiction occurring in a loosely-defined [[future history]].
In the [[1980s]] he turned to work in television and as an editor. On television, he worked on the new ''[[Twilight Zone]]'' series, as well as ''[[Beauty and the Beast (series)|Beauty and the Beast]]''. As an editor, he oversaw the lengthy ''[[Wild Cards]]'' cycle, which took place in a [[shared universe]] in which an alien virus bestowed strange powers or disfigurements on a slice of humanity during [[World War II]], affecting the history of the world thereafter (the premise was inspired by [[comic book]] [[superhero]]es and a [[Superworld]] superhero [[role-playing game]] of which Martin was [[gamemaster]]). Contributors to the [[Wild_Cards|''Wild Cards'']] series included [[Stephen Leigh]], [[Lewis Shiner]], [[Howard Waldrop]], [[Walter Jon Williams]] and [[Roger Zelazny]]. His own contributions to the series often featured Thomas Tudbury, "The Great and Powerful Turtle," a powerful [[psychokinetic]] whose flying "shell" consisted of an armored [[VW Beetle]].
Martin's short story of the same name was adapted into the feature film ''[[Nightflyers]]'' ([[1987]]).
In [[1996]] Martin returned to writing novel-length stories, beginning his lengthy cycle ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' (ostensibly inspired by the [[Wars of the Roses]]), to great critical acclaim. In November of [[2005]], ''[[A Feast for Crows]]'', the fourth book in this series, became ''[[The New York Times]]'' #1 Bestseller and also achieved #1 ranking on ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' bestseller list.
==Themes==
Martin's work is rarely cheerful; critics have described it as "dark" and "cynical." <!-- Grossman reference here --> His first novel, ''[[Dying of the Light]]'', sets the tone for his future work; it is set on a mostly abandoned world that is slowly becoming uninhabitable as it moves away from its sun. This story, and many of Martin's others, have a strong sense of melancholy. His characters are often unhappy, or at least unsatisfied.
His characters are also multi-faceted, each with surprisingly intricate pasts, inspirations, and ambitions. No one is given an unrealistic string of luck, however, so misfortune, injury, and death (and even false death) can befall any character, no matter how attached the reader has become. Some of his characters are [[tragic heroes]], meaning they have traits that inevitably lead to their downfall.
==Fandom==
In addition to writing, Martin is known for his heavy [[convention|science fiction convention]] attendance schedule and his accessibilty to fans. In the early 70's, critic and writer [[Thomas Disch]] identified Martin as a member of the "Labor Day Group", writers who congregated at the annual [[Worldcon]], usually held around [[Labor Day]].
Martin's fan group, the [http://www.bwbfanclub.com Brotherhood without Banners], is known for throwing lavish and raucous parties at the conventions he attends, most notably at [[Worldcon]] and [[Boskone]]. For the last two [[Worldcon]]s running (as of 2005), the party they have thrown has been voted "Best of Worldcon".
The Brotherhood Without Banners is sometimes known among other fans as "George's [[Cult]]", because of their highly enthusiastic and evangelistic nature. It is also remarkable for skewing relatively young, contravening the general "greying" trend of literary [[science fiction fandom]]. According to the BWB website, the organization currently numbers approximately 500 members.
__NOTOC__
==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*''[[Dying of the Light]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Windhaven]]'' ([[1981]], with [[Lisa Tuttle]])
*''[[Fevre Dream]]'' ([[1982]])
*''[[The Armageddon Rag]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Dead Man's Hand (novel)|Dead Man's Hand]]'' ([[1990]], with [[John J. Miller]])
*''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series:
**''[[A Game of Thrones]]'' ([[1996]])
**''[[A Clash of Kings]]'' ([[1999]])
**''[[A Storm of Swords]]'' ([[2000]])
**''[[A Feast for Crows]]'' ([[2005]])
**''[[A Dance with Dragons]]'' (forthcoming)
**''[[The Winds of Winter]]'' (forthcoming)
**''[[A Time for Wolves]]'' (forthcoming)
===Novellas===
*''[[The Hedge Knight]]'' ([[1998]]) - set in the milieu of ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]''
*''[[The Hedge Knight#The Sworn Sword|The Sworn Sword]]'' ([[2003]]) - sequel to ''The Hedge Knight''
===Collections===
*''[[A Song for Lya]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Songs of Stars and Shadows]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Sandkings]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Songs the Dead Men Sing]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Nightflyers]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Tuf Voyaging]]'' ([[1987]], collection of linked stories)
*''[[Portraits of His Children]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[Quartet (George R. R. Martin)|Quartet]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[GRRM: A RRetrospective]]'' ([[2003]])
<!-- the doubled "R" in "RRetrospective is not a typo -->
===[[Wild Cards]] (as editor)===
*''Wild Cards I'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards II: Aces High'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards III: Jokers Wild'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards IV: Aces Abroad'' ([[1988]])
*''Wild Cards V: Down & Dirty'' ([[1988]])
*''Wild Cards VI: Ace in the Hole'' ([[1990]])
*''Wild Cards VII: Dead Man's Hand'' ([[1990]])
*''Wild Cards VIII: One-Eyed Jacks'' ([[1991]])
*''Wild Cards IX: Jokertown Shuffle'' ([[1991]])
*''Wild Cards X: Double Solitaire'' ([[1992]])
*''Wild Cards XI: Dealer's Choice'' ([[1992]])
*''Wild Cards XII: Turn of the Cards'' ([[1993]])
*''Wild Cards: Card Sharks'' ([[1993]])
*''Wild Cards: Marked Cards'' ([[1994]])
*''Wild Cards: Black Trump'' ([[1995]]) (these three books are a trilogy)
*''Wild Cards: Deuces Down'' ([[2002]])
*''Wilds Cards: Death Draws Five'' ([[2006]])
==Awards==
*"A Song for Lya" 1975 [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Novella|Best Novella]]
*"Sandkings" 1980 Hugo Award for [[Hugo Award for Best Novelette|Best Novelette]] and [[Nebula Award]] for [[Nebula Award for Best Novelette|Best Novelette]]
*"The Way of Cross and Dragon" 1980 Hugo Award for Best [[Hugo Award for Best Short Story|Short Story]]
*"Portraits of His Children" 1986 Nebula Award for Best Novelette
*"The Pear-Shaped Man" 1988 [[Bram Stoker Award]] for [[Bram Stoker Award for Best Long Fiction|Long Fiction]]
*"The Skin Trade" 1989 [[World Fantasy Award]] for [[World Fantasy Award for Best Novella|Best Novella]]
*"Blood of the Dragon" 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella
A more complete list of [http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/NomLit85.html#3030 Martin's awards and nominations] can be found at The ''[[Locus (magazine)|Locus]]'' Index to Science Fiction Awards.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
General sites:
*[http://www.georgerrmartin.com/ George R. R. Martin official site]
*[http://www.westeros.org/ Westeros: The 'A Song of Ice and Fire' Domain]
* {{isfdb name|id=George_R._R._Martin|name=George R. R. Martin}}
Forums:
*[http://asoiaf.westeros.org/ A Song of Ice and Fire]
*[http://www.chronicles-network.com/forum/george-r-r-martin/ George R R Martin (UK)]
Interviews:
*[http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/intgrrm.htm Infinity Plus interview]
*[http://www.locusmag.com/2005/Issues/11Martin.html Locus Mag interview]
[[Category:1948 births|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:Living people|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Martin, George R. R. ]]
[[bg:Джордж Р. Р. Мартин]]
[[ca:George R.R. Martin]]
[[cs:George R. R. Martin]]
[[de:George R. R. Martin]]
[[es:George R. R. Martin]]
[[fr:George R. R. Martin]]
[[it:George Raymond Richard Martin]]
[[he:ג'ורג' ר. ר. מרטין]]
[[nl:George R.R. Martin]]
[[ja:G・R・R・マーティン]]
[[pl:George R. R. Martin]]
[[ru:Мартин, Джордж]]
[[sv:George R.R. Martin]]
[[th:จอร์จ อาร์. อาร์. มาร์ติน]]</text>
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<page>
<title>A Song of Ice and Fire</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Song of Ice and Fire''''' ('''ASoIaF''') is an [[epic fantasy]] series of [[novel]]s by [[George R. R. Martin]]. It is the best-known of his works, and has spawned a successful [[A Song of Ice and Fire (card game)|trading card game]], [[ A Game of Thrones (role-playing game)|a Roleplaying Game]] and [[A Game of Thrones (board game)|board game]]. The books are known for a genre-defying willingness to unflinchingly depict [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] and [[feudalism|feudal]] systems, extremely detailed and complex characters, sudden and often violent plot twists, and intricate political intrigue. In a genre where [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] usually takes center stage, this series has a reputation for its limited and subtle use of magic, employing it as an ambiguous and often sinister background force.
==The books==
So far, the series consists of 4 published novels:
* ''[[A Game of Thrones]]'' (1996)
* ''[[A Clash of Kings]]'' (1999)
* ''[[A Storm of Swords]]'' (2000)
* ''[[A Feast for Crows]]'' (2005)
Martin has also published two short stories in the same setting, often called ''Dunk and Egg stories'' after their two protagonists. These stories are set about 90 years before the events in ''A Game of Thrones''.
* ''[[The Hedge Knight]]'' (appeared in ''Legends'', ed. Robert Silverberg, 1998), also adapted as a graphic novel
* ''[[The Sworn Sword]]'' (appeared in ''Legends II'', ed. Robert Silverberg, 2003)
===Related publicati
|
s an orientation <math>1_y</math>. Then, since tan(&theta;) = ly/lx = &theta; + ... we conclude that an angle in the xy plane must have an orientation <math>1_y</math>/<math>1_x</math> = <math>1_z</math>, which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that sin(&theta;) has orientation <math>1_z</math> while cos(&theta;) has orientation <math>1_0</math>. These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form a sin(&theta;) + b cos(&theta;), where a and b are scalars.
The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive a little more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach one sets up the dimensional equation and solves it as far as one can. If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral. This puts it into "normal form". The orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols, arriving at a solution that is more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives. Often the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd.
As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, &theta;, being in the x-y plane will thus have dimension <math>1_z</math> and the range of the projectile ''R'' will be of the form:
:<math>R=g^a\,v^b\,\theta^c</math> which means <math>L\,1_x\sim
\left(\frac{L\,1_y}{T^2}\right)^a\left(\frac{L}{T}\right)^b\,1_z^c</math>
Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield ''a''=-1 and ''b''=2, and orientational homogeneity requires that ''c'' be an odd integer. In fact the required function of theta will be <math>\sin(\theta)\cos(\theta)</math> which is a series of odd powers of <math>\theta</math>.
It is seen that the Taylor series of <math>\sin(\theta)</math> and <math>\cos(\theta)</math> are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like <math>\cos(\theta)+\sin(\theta)</math> and <math>\exp(\theta)</math> are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical.
It should be clear that the multiplication rule used for the orientational symbols is not the same as that for the cross product of two vectors. The cross product of two identical vectors is zero, while the product of two identical orientational symbols are the identity element.
Ultimately, it can be seen that dimensional analysis and the requirement for physical equations to be dimensionally homogeneous reflects the idea that the laws of physics are independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables. That is, F=ma, for example, is true whether the unit system used is SI, English, or cgs, or any other consistent system of units. Orientational analysis and the requirement for physical equations to be orientationally homogeneous reflects the idea that the equations of physics must be independent of the coordinate system used.
==Buckingham π theorem==
The [[Buckingham π theorem]] forms the basis of the central tool of dimensional analysis. This theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving ''n'' variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of ''n''&ndash;''m'' dimensionless parameters, where ''m'' is the number of fundamental dimensions used. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the equation is still unknown.
== See also ==
*[[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]]
*[[Fundamental unit]]
*[[Similitude (model)]]
*[[Buckingham Pi theorem]]
*[[Units conversion by factor-label]]
==References==
*{{cite book
| first = G. I. | last = Barenblatt | authorlink = Grigory Barenblatt
| year = 1996
| title = Scaling, Self-Similarity, and Intermediate Asymptotics
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Boucher
| coauthors = Alves
| year = 1960
| title = Dimensionless Numbers
| journal = Chem. Eng. Progress
| volume = 55 | pages = 55-64
}}
*{{cite book
| first = P. W. | last = Bridgman | authorlink = Percy Williams Bridgman
| year = 1937
| title = Dimensional Analysis | publisher = Yale University Press
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Edgar | last = Buckingham | authorlink = Edgar Buckingham
| year = 1914
| title = On Physically Similar Systems: Illustrations of the Use of Dimensional Analysis
| journal = Phys. Rev.
| volume = 4 | pages = 345
}}
*{{ cite book
| last = Hart | first = George W.
| month = March 1 | year = 1995
| title = Multidimensional Analysis: Algebras and Systems for Science and Engineering
| publisher = Springer-Verlag
| id = ISBN 0387944176
| url = http://www.georgehart.com/research/multanal.html
}}
*{{ cite book
| last = Huntley | first = H. E.
| year = 1967
| title = Dimensional Analysis
| publisher = Dover
| id = LOC 67-17978
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = A. | last = Klinkenberg
| year = 1955
| title = &nbsp;
| journal = Chem. Eng. Science
| volume = 4 | pages = 130-140, 167-177 }}
*{{cite book
| first = H. L. | last = Langhaar
| year = 1951
| title = Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models
| publisher = Wiley
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = L. F. | last = Moody
| year = 1944
| title = Friction Factors for Pipe Flow
| journal = Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.
| volume = 66 | issue = 671
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = N. F. | last = Murphy
| year = 1949
| title = Dimensional Analysis
| journal = Bull. V.P.I.
| volume = 42 | issue = 6
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = J. H. | last = Perry
| coauthors = et. al.
| year = 1944
| title = Standard System of Nomenclature for Chemical Engineering Unit Operations
| journal = Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs.
| volume = 40 | issue = 251
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = G. W. | last = Petty
| year = 2001
| title = Automated computation and consistency checking of physical dimensions and units in scientific programs.
| journal = Software - Practice and Experience
| volume = 31 | pages = 1067-1076
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Alfred W. | last = Porter
| year = 1933
| title = The Method of Dimensions
| publisher = Methuen}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Lord Rayleigh | authorlink = John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
| year = 1915
| title = The Principle of Similitude
| journal = Nature
| volume = 95
| pages = 66-68
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Donald | last = Siano
| year = 1985
| title = Orientational Analysis - A Supplement to Dimensional Analysis - I
| journal = J. Franklin Institute
| issue = 320 | pages = 267
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Donald | last = Siano
| year = 1985
| title = Orientational Analysis, Tensor Analysis and The Group Properties of the SI Supplementary Units - II
| journal = J. Franklin Institute
| issue = 320 | pages = 285
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = I. H. | last = Silberberg | coauthors = McKetta J. J. Jr.
| year = 1953
| title = Learning How to Use Dimensional Analysis
| journal = Petrol. Refiner
| volume = 32 | issue = 4 (p.5), 5(p.147), 6(p.101), 7(p.129) }}
*{{cite journal
| first = E. R. | last = Van Driest
| year = 1946 | month = March
| title = On Dimensional Analysis and the Presentation of Data in Fluid Flow Problems
| journal = J. App. Mech
| volume = 68 | issue = A-34
}}
==External links==
* http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham-a4.pdf
* http://www.knowledgedoor.com/1/Unit_Conversion/Dimensional_Analysis.htm
* http://rain.aos.wisc.edu/~gpetty/physunits.html
[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Procedural knowledge]]
[[Category:Dimensional analysis|*]]
[[ca:Anàlisi dimensional]]
[[de:Dimensionsanalyse]]
[[es:Magnitudes físicas]]
[[fr:Analyse dimensionnelle]]
[[id:Analisis dimensi]]
[[ja:次元解析]]
[[nl:Dimensieanalyse]]
[[pl:Analiza wymiarowa]]
[[sv:Dimensionsanalys]]</text>
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<title>Discrete math</title>
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<title>December 25</title>
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<comment>rv Jesus "birth"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 25]]''' is the 359th day of the year (360th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 6 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[274]] - [[Roman Emperor]] [[Aurelian]] has a temple dedicated to [[Sol Invictus]] on the supposed day of the [[solstice]] and day of rebirth of the [[Sun]].
*[[800]] - Coronation of [[Charlemagne]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]], in [[Rome]].
*[[1066]] - Coronation of [[William the Conqueror]] as king of [[England]], at [[Westminster Abbey]], [[London]].
*[[1223]] - St. [[Francis of Assisi]] assembles the first [[Nativity scene]].
*[[1599]] - The [[city]] of [[Natal, Brazil]] is founded.
*[[1776]] - [[George Washington]] and his [[army]] cross the [[Delaware River]] to attack Britain's [[Hessian]] mercenaries in [[Trenton, New Jersey]].
*[[1818]] - The first performance of "[[Silent Night]]" takes place in the Church of St. Nikolaus i
|
operation. In this case, ''d'' should be chosen as the smallest integer greater than the sum of the input polynomial degrees that is factorizable into small prime factors (e.g. 2, 3, and 5, depending upon the FFT implementation).
==Some discrete Fourier transform pairs ==
In the following table <math>\omega_N</math> stands for <math>\exp(-2\pi i/N)</math>, a primitive ''N-th'' root of unity.
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|+'''Some DFT pairs'''
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_n\equiv\frac{1}{N}\sum_{k=0}^{N-1}X_k \omega_N^{-kn}</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_k\equiv\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}x_n \omega_N^{kn}</math>
! Note
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_n \omega_N^{-nk}</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_{n-k}\,</math>
| rowspan="2"| Shift theorem
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_{n-k}\,</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_k \omega_N^{nk}</math>
|-
| align="center" | <math>x_n \in \mathbf{R}</math>
| align="center" | <math>X_k=X_{N-k}^*\,</math>
| Real DFT
|-
| align="center" | <math>a^n\,</math>
| align="center" | <math>\frac{1-a^N}{1-a\omega_N^k}</math>
|&nbsp;
|-
| align="center" | <math>{N-1 \choose n}\,</math>
| align="center" | <math>(1+\omega_N^k)^{N-1}\,</math>
|&nbsp;
|}
== See also ==
[[A derivation of the discrete Fourier transform|Derivation of the discrete Fourier transform]] The DFT can be derived as the [[continuous Fourier transform]] of infinite periodic sequences of [[Dirac delta function|impulse]]s.
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Brigham | first = E. Oran
| title=The fast Fourier transform and its applications
| location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| year=1988
| id=ISBN 0133075052
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Oppenheim, Alan V.; Schafer, R. W.; and Buck, J. R.
| title = Discrete-time signal processing
| location = Upper Saddle River, N.J.
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 0137549202
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Smith | first = Steven W.
| url = http://www.dspguide.com/pdfbook.htm
| title = The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing
| location = San Diego, Calif.
| publisher = California Technical Publishing
| year=1997
| id=ISBN 0966017633
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Thomas H. | last = Cormen | authorlink = Thomas H. Cormen
| coauthors = [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]
| year = 2001
| title = [[Introduction to Algorithms]]
| edition = Second Edition
| publisher = MIT Press and McGraw-Hill
| id = ISBN 0262032937
| chapter = Chapter 30: Polynomials and the FFT
| pages = pp.822–848
}} esp. section 30.2: The DFT and FFT, pp.830–838.
* {{cite journal
| author = P. Duhamel, B. Piron, and J. M. Etcheto
| title = On computing the inverse DFT
| journal = IEEE Trans. Acoust., Speech and Sig. Processing
| volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 285–286 | year = 1988
}}
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Numerical analysis]]
[[Category:Transforms]]
[[Category:Unitary operators]]
[[de:Diskrete Fourier-Transformation]]
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[[it:Trasformata di Fourier discreta]]
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[[nl:Discrete fouriertransformatie]]
[[pl:Dyskretna transformata Fouriera]]
[[sr:Дискретна Фуријеова трансформација]]
[[zh:离散傅里叶变换]]</text>
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<title>Double Bass</title>
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<title>Dual polyhedron</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dual Cube-Octahedron.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A dual cube-octahedron.]]
In [[geometry]], '''[[polyhedron|polyhedra]]''' are associated into pairs called '''''duals''''', where the [[vertex|vertices]] of one correspond to the [[face (mathematics)|face]]s of the other. The dual of the dual is the original polyhedron. The dual of a polyhedron with equivalent vertices is one with equivalent faces, and of one with equivalent edges is another with equivalent edges. So the regular polyhedra &mdash; the [[Platonic solid]]s and [[Kepler-Poinsot solid|Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra]] &mdash; are arranged into dual pairs.
Duality is usually defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a concentric sphere. Here, each [[vertex]] is associated with a face plane so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, and the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius. In coordinates, for reciprocation about the sphere
:x<sup>2</sup> + y<sup>2</sup> + z<sup>2</sup> = r<sup>2</sup>,
the vertex
:(x<sub>0</sub>, y<sub>0</sub>, z<sub>0</sub>)
is associated with the plane
:x<sub>0</sub>x + y<sub>0</sub>y + z<sub>0</sub>z = r<sup>2</sup>.
The vertices of the dual, then, are the reciprocals of the face planes of the original, and the faces of the dual lie in the reciprocals of the vertices of the original. Also, any two adjacent vertices define an edge, and these will reciprocate to two adjacent faces which intersect to define an edge of the dual. This can be generalized to ''n''-dimensional space, so we can talk about '''dual [[polytope]]s'''. Then the vertices of one polytope correspond to the (''n'' &minus; 1)-dimensional elements, or facets, of the other, and the ''j'' points that define a (''j'' &minus; 1)-dimensional element will correspond to ''j'' hyperplanes that intersect to give a (''n'' &minus; ''j'')-dimensional element. The dual of a [[honeycomb]] can be defined similarly.
Notice that the exact form of the dual will depend on what sphere we reciprocate with respect to, as we move the sphere around the dual form distorts. The center of the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If multiple symmetry axes are present, they will necessarily intersect at a single point, and this is usually taken to be the center. Failing that a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere (one with all edges as tangents) can be used. It can be shown that all convex polyhedra can be distorted into a canonical form where a midsphere exists such that the points where the edges touch it average out to give the center of the sphere, and this form is unique up to congruences.
We can distort a dual polyhedron such that it can no longer be obtained by reciprocating the original ln any sphere - in this case we can say that the two polyhedra are still topologically dual.
It is worth noting that the vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron can be projected to form a [[graph theory|graph]] on the sphere or on a flat plane, and the corresponding graph formed by the dual of this polyhedron is its [[planar graph|dual graph]].
The concept of ''duality'' here is also related to the [[duality (projective geometry)|duality]] in [[projective geometry]], where lines and edges are interchanged; and is in fact a particular version of the same.
If a polyhedron has an element passing through the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will pass through or be at infinity. Since traditional infinite "Euclidean" space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, must be formed by adding the required plane at infinity.
==See also==
*[[Geometric dual]]
==External links==
*[http://www.software3d.com/Stella.html Software for displaying duals]
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
[[category:polyhedra]]
[[Category:Duality theories]]
[[da:Duale polyedre]]
[[es:Politopo dual]]
[[it:Poliedro duale]]
[[pl:Wielościan dualny]]
[[pt:Poliedro dual]]
[[zh:對偶多面體]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Double bass</title>
<id>8816</id>
<revision>
<id>42149706</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:39:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.217.113.183</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Strings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AGK bass1 full.jpg|thumb|right|Side and front views of a modern double bass with a French bow. It measures approximately 2m tall with the endpin extended, as in this photo.]]
The '''double bass''' is the largest and lowest bowed string instrument used in the modern [[orchestra|symphony orchestra]]. It is used extensively in [[European classical music|Western classical music]] as a standard member of the string section of [[orchestra|symphony orchestra]]s and smaller string [[ensemble]]s. In addition to its use in classical music, it has been widely used in other genres such as [[jazz]], [[blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[psychobilly]] and [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]].
== Origin ==
The double bass is often erroneously considered to be a member of the violin family of [[string instrument]]s, even sometimes being referred to as "bass violin." In reality, however, it is generally regarded as the only modern descendant of the [[viola da gamba]] famil
|
present time.
* [[1974]]: "A Fragment Out Of Time" is the first known [[Star Trek]] slash to be published in fanzine. The author was [[Diane Marchant]]. The vignette was published in Grup #3. The language was highly coded and didn't refer to Spock and Kirk by name but rather referred to them as he and him.
* [[1975]]: In "Halkan Council," [[Diane Marchant]] published an essay about [[Star Trek]] [[Kirk/Spock]] slash. The first public discussion of this essay occurred in the [[Star Trek]] letterzine, ""Grup" #4." as a reaction to the essay written by [[Diane Marchant]].
* [[1975]]: Star Trek Lives!, editted and written by [[Jacqueline Lichtenberg]], Sondra Marshak and Joan Winston, was published. This book contained a chapter at the end of the book which examines Star Trek fan fiction and the Kirk/Spock relationship in fan fiction. This book is important because that last chapter helped formed a lot of the modern thought on slash fan fiction communities. Scholars still cite this source today.
* [[1976]]: According to the [[National Library of Australia]], the [[Star Trek Action Committee]] was formed as a Star Trek Club. This Star Trek Club held its first meeting in April. Members included Susan Clarke, Julie Townsend and Edwina Harvey. This fanclub would publish the Star Trek adult fanzine, containing both het and slash, Beyond Antares.
* [[1976]]: In June, "Alternative: Epilog to Orion" is written by G. Downes and published in a fanzine. It was the second piece of Kirk/Spock slash to appear.
* [[1978]]: Thrust was the first [[Star Trek]] anthology fanzine published to contain only [[Kirk/Spock]] slash.
====1980s====
* [[1980]]: Slash was discussed at a panel at Media West.
* [[1980]]: The [[Starsky and Hutch]] community in England veers into the land of slash. This happened when “Forever Autumn” was published in March. According to Langley and K. S. Boyd, this type of content later caused a disruption in the community as members worried about the reaction of the actors, networks and producers to this material if fen were to publish slash zines. They feared that those parties would acquire these materials and begin a crackdown to prevent the proliferation of this material.
* [[1980]] to [[1984]]: The Professionals (a UK spy TV show starring Martin Shaw and Lewis Collins) fan community starts up as a primarily slash based community.
* [[1980]]: [[Led Zeppelin]] fan fiction was circulating in fanzines. The early zines used the names Tris and Alex instead of Jimmy Page and Robert Plant. This material was being circulated with an awareness on the part of the parties involved and was slashy in nature.
* [[1981]]: Slash was being discussed in the [[Star Trek]] fan fiction community, as was to how people preferred to view the Kirk-Spock-Bones relationship. Verba cited a survey which said most people preferred to see that relationship as a friendship.
* [[1984]]: Archives from [[net.startrek]] during that period show that discussion of slash, referenced as K&S instead of the current convention of K/S to refer to the [[Kirk/Spock]] relationship, was happening on the group, along with advertisements for various [[Star Trek]] fanzines.
* [[1985]]: The term, slash, is used for the first time in the fanzine "Not Tonight, Spock."
* [[1986]]: One of the first pieces of femmeslash was published this year. It appeared in the Women’s List 2. The story was a Star Trek story where Saavik went into pon far and started a relationship with a female Romulan physican. The story was written by Ouida Crozier.
* [[1987]]: Based on analysis of Datazine by Verba, slash was beginning to occupy a large part of the Star Trek community. Datazine 48 listed 47 non-Kirk/Spock zines compared to 30 [[Kirk/Spock]] zines. Verba did another analysis Universal Translator. She found 144 non-Kirk/Spock fanzines compared to 58 Kirk/Spock fanzines.
* [[1989]]: In the Eroica fan fiction community, Caged Flight 1: Le Coq d'Or was written by BT. It was slash. Sequels were published in 1992, 1993 and 1994. It was some of the earliest fan fiction written in this community.
====1990s====
* [[1990]]: Slash appeared on-line this year in one of the first references to be found. This reference happened on Usenet in the Star Trek community. The reference was found in rec.arts.startrek’s FAQ.
* [[1993]]: First slash mailing list created, run from a private list-serv on the East Coast. It was called "Virgule" (a reference to the / symbol) and membership was limited to women. It remained active through the 1990s, until more fandom specific slash mailing lists on Egroups and Yahoogroups became popular.
* [[1995]]: Seven slash stories were posted to alt.tv.x-files.creative.
* [[1996]]: On April 16, Michael Demcio's "Rhyme and Reason," premieres as the first Rescue Ranger fan fiction on Usenet. It was the first novel-length Ranger story, and the first story to explore the possibilities of the Chip/Gadget relationship, the first to provide real character development for any of the characters.
* [[1996]]: Bambi was published. This was a slash zine about the Guns N Roses member, Slash.
* [[1996]]: The X-Files fan fiction community begins to become more Mulder/Scully Romance centered and the subgenre being a dominant force in the organization of the community. At the same time that this is happening, the slash component, largely marginalized and kept separate from the bigger archives and alt.tv.x-files.creative, begins to form and grow. On July 31, Brenda Antrim's "Krychek" was the first piece of Mulder/Krycek slash, and between October and December, the Mulder/Krycek Romantics Association and the Mulder/Skinner Slash Society were created. These three events would be very influential in the X-Files slash fan fiction community.
* [[1997]]: In December, slash reaches a critical mass in the X-Files fan fiction community.
* [[1997]]: alt.fan.disney.afternoon discusses the merits of a Chip/Gadget relationship. This discussion leads to bitterness on both sides of the argument.
* [[1998]]: On March 12, Sofie Werkers founded the Rareslash mailing list.
* [[1998]]: On Alt. Startrek. Creative. Erotica. Moderated, related dialogue involves the issue of if slash and het need to be rated differently.
* [[1998]]: The term, chick with a dick, enters fannish usage through the site God Awful Trek Fic. The term, used derogatorily, referred to male characters being written effiminately in male/male pairings in order to put traditional male/female gender roles on the same sex pairing.
* [[1999]]: In September, Least Expected, the first Lord of the Rings slash archive, was founded.
* [[1999]]: On May 19, the Master and Apprentice archive was founded at http://www.sockiipress.org/ma/index.html . Currently, this archive is the largest archive of Obi-Wan/Qui-Gon on the Internet with over 2,400 stories archived. This archive was also important in that it seems to have set the trend of writing stories based on media BEFORE the media hits the public.
* [[1999]]: “Letters over the Sea,” one of the first pieces of slash published to the Internet and one of the more influential stories in the Lord of the Rings slash community, was published. It featured the Sam/Frodo pairing and was written by Gytha and Prembone.
====2000s====
* [[2000]]: ER Realms of Slash was founded.
* [[2000]]: RS-X, the Rare Slash Real Person Fic mailing list, was founded by Sofie Werkes.
* [[2000]]: Citizens Against Bad Slash was around and giving awards in various communities along with promoting dialogue on how to write good slash.
* [[2000]]: Willtara, a mailing list, was founded on January 30 of this year. It was created for the discussion of and posting of fan fiction related to the female/female slash pairing of Willow/Tara.
* [[2000]]: On February 3, the hpslash mailing list was founded.
* [[2000]]: In October, JayJay proposed the idea for the Snape Slash Fleet on the snapeslash mailing list.
* [[2000]]: On November 2, the snapeslash mailing list was created.
* [[2000]]: In December, the Snape Slash Fleet was founded. The Fleet connected seven sites for seven different Snape slash pairings. These sites and their pairings were: Black and Silver: Severus/Malfoys, Slug & Jiggers Apothecary: the Snape/Rareslash Ship site, King of Cups, Knave of Pentacles: Severus/Neville, Moonshadow: Severus/Remus, The Headmaster's Study: Severus/Albus, Thin Line: Severus/Sirius, Walking the Plank: Severus/Harry and The Snape/Weasleys Archive.
* [[2001]]: The Blink 182 slash fan fiction community based at FanFiction. Net was producing early and influential works in the community. Among these works are Advantages of Alcohol, Letters After Death, In my Room, Defying Gravity, and Deafening.
* [[2001]]: On July 28, the BibleSlash mailing list was created.
* [[2001]]: On March 25, the hpslash community was founded on LiveJournal.
* [[2002]]: On June 1, Armchair_slash, a mailing list for Harry/Draco fan fiction discussion, was founded.
* [[2002]]: In November, the harry_potter_slash mailing list was founded. This list saw its volume peak in December of 2004.
* [[2002]]: On December 12, the harrypottermpreg mailing list was founded. This community’s volume peaked around March/April of 2004.
* [[2002]]: On May 15, slashpuppets was founded. It was one of the first, possibly the first, LotR RPS role playing community.
* [[2003]]: XanderZone, a mailing list, was founded on March 17 of this year. It was created for the discussion and posting of Xander related fan fiction. Slash fic was and is not tolerated on the list.
* [[2003]]: In January, the first Harry Potter slash zine was published.
* [[2003]]: On March 17, the LiveJournal community hp_girlslash was founded.
* [[2003]]: A search for “Harry Potter slash” on Google resulted in over 70,000 pages.
* [[2004]]: On February 2, Blink_Slash, a LiveJournal Blink 182 slash community, was founded.
* [[2
|
upbeat, hopeful note with energetic music.
''Ally McBeal'' was hugely successful, but received much criticism from TV critics and [[feminist]]s who found the title character annoying and demeaning to women because of her excessive flightiness, lack of demonstrated legal knowledge, and extreme emotional instability. Flockhart's visible loss of weight by the second season also caused much media speculation.
However, Ally's search for true love struck a chord with young female audiences, and the [[eccentricity (behaviour)|eccentric]] characters around her were developed further, giving the show firm footing.
In the fourth season, [[Robert Downey Jr.]] joined the regular cast as Ally's boyfriend Larry, resurrecting the [[ratings]] of a show that had lost its novelty and thus much of its audience. However, when Downey was forced to leave as his (real life) [[drug addiction]] caused him legal troubles, plus other central cast members such as [[Lucy Liu]] also left, the ratings sank again. Not even guest appearances from [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]] and singer [[Jon Bon Jovi]] and [[Christina Ricci]] in season five were enough to save the show.
The major cast members of the show included:
*[[Calista Flockhart]]- Ally McBeal
*[[Greg Germann]] - Richard Fish
*[[Jane Krakowski]] - Elaine Vassal
*[[Gil Bellows]] - Billy Thomas (1997-2000)
*[[Lisa Nicole Carson]] - Renée Radick (1997-2001)
*[[Courtney Thorne-Smith]] - Georgia Thomas (1997-2000)
*[[Peter MacNicol]] - John Cage
*[[Vonda Shepard]] - Herself
*[[Lucy Liu]] - Ling Woo (1998-2001)
*[[Portia de Rossi]] - Nelle Porter (1998-2002)
*[[Robert Downey Jr.]] - Larry Paul (2000-2001)
*[[James LeGros]] - Mark Albert (2000-2001)
*[[Regina Hall]] - Corretta Lipp (2001-2002)
*[[Josh Hopkins]] - Raymond Milbury (2001-2002)
*[[James Marsden]] - Glenn Foy (2001-2002)
*[[Julianne Nicholson]] - Jenny Shaw (2001-2002)
*[[Barry Humphries]] (as [[Dame Edna Everage]], uncredited) - (2002)
Notable guest stars on the show included comedian [[Tracey Ullman]] as Ally's unusual [[therapy|therapist]], and singers [[Barry White]], [[Al Green (musician)|Al Green]], [[Gordon Sumner|Sting]], [[Tina Turner]], and [[Barry Manilow]] as themselves. Special musical guests included [[KC and the Sunshine Band]], [[Elton John]] and [[Josh Groban]].
Barry White's music was frequently showcased on the show as a sexual stimulant; when one of the characters mentally "heard" the music, other characters would be attracted. This action was often accompanied by dancing and took place in the unisex bathroom.
At the height of its popularity, re-edited half-hour versions of the show ran under the name ''Ally''.
The show is also noted by many for introducing the '[[dancing baby]]' [[computer-generated image]] (CGI) to mainstream American pop culture.
Known for controversial topics, the show was well-known for the infamous Cro-Magnon episode, whereby a well-endowed male model becomes the focus of the Ally's attentions. Some critics have claimed that this [[penis size]] obsessed view of female sexuality is distorted and reflects more of a male point of view, as the show was written by [[David E. Kelley]]. Others have charged that the ridiculing of modestly endowed men is sexist and harmful, contributing to body issues for men similar to that of young women over their weight. On that note as well, the show has been criticized for the "[[Anorexia nervosa|anorexic]]" main character as being a bad role model for girls.
Due to [[music rights]] issues, Ally McBeal has not been made available on DVD in the United States, though it has been available in [[Italy]], [[Japan]] and [[UK]].
==Awards & Nominations==
===Awards Won===
'''[[Emmy Awards]]:'''
* Outstanding Comedy Series (1999)
* Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (2001)
'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:'''
* Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (1998-1999)
* Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998)
* Best Supporting Actor in a TV Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001)
'''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:'''
* Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1999)
* Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001)
===Awards Nominated===
'''[[Emmy Awards]]:'''
* Outstanding Comedy Series (1998)
* Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1998-1999, 2001)
* Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2000)
* Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (1999)
'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:'''
* Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (2000-2002)
* Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]]
* Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series [[Jane Krakowski]] (1999)
'''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:'''
* Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1998, 2000-2001)
* Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998-2001)
* Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (2000)
* Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2001)
==External links==
''*[http://www.salon.com/ent/tv/1997/10/20ally.html Ally McBeal: Woman of the '90s or Retro Airhead]''
[[Category:Ally McBeal]]
[[Category:Comedy-drama television series]]
[[Category:David E. Kelley television programs]]
[[Category:Fox network shows]]
[[Category:Fictional lawyers|McBeal]]
[[ca:Ally McBeal]]
[[de:Ally McBeal]]
[[et:Ally McBeal]]
[[es:Ally McBeal]]
[[fr:Ally McBeal]]
[[gd:Alli Nic a' Bheoil]]
[[it:Ally McBeal]]
[[he:אלי מקביל]]
[[nl:Ally McBeal]]
[[ja:アリーmyラブ]]
[[pt:Ally McBeal]]
[[sk:Ally McBealová]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andreas Capellanus</title>
<id>1949</id>
<revision>
<id>41800134</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:02:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Churchh</username>
<id>391005</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Give little translation excerpt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''André le Chapelain''', in Latin '''Andreas Capellanus''' (''Capellanus'' meaning "chaplain"), was the 12th century author of a treatise entitled ''[[De amore]]'' (''On Love''). The complete title of his three-volume work published ''c.'' 1185 reads ''Liber de arte honeste amandi et reprobatione inhonesti amantis'' (''Book of the Art of Loving Nobly and the Reprobation of Dishonourable Love'', also known as ''The Book of Courtly Love'').
Capellanus is also an important author for our understanding of mediæval education&mdash;a source of much information about the [[trivium]] and [[quadrivium]] of the period.
After becoming popularized by the troubadours of southern France in the 12th Century, the social system of "courtly love" soon spread. Evidence of the influence of courtly love in the culture and literature of most of Western Europe spans centuries.
The unabridged edition of The Art of Courtly Love codified life at Queens Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174 (although Capellanus wrote it most likely several years later) into "one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization." This translation of a work that may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive, preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in English literature.
Andreas Capellanus (Andre the Chaplain) wrote this work at the request of Countess Marie of Troyes, daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine. (As found on the reverse of The Art of Courtly Love, trans. John Jay Parry, 1960)
The work gives a listing of the stages of love which resembles in some ways the modern [[baseball euphemism]]:
:"Throughout all the ages, there have been only four degrees <nowiki>[</nowiki>''gradus''] in love:
:"The first consists in arousing hope;
:"The second in offering kisses;
:"The third in the enjoyment of intimate embraces;
:"The fourth in the abandonment of the entire person."
== External links ==
* [http://icg.harvard.edu/~chaucer/special/authors/andreas/de_amore.html Extracts from Capellanus' De amore]
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/capellanus.html Full text of De Amore, in Latin] at [[The Latin Library]]
[[nl:Andreas Capellanus]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Civil Liberties Union</title>
<id>1950</id>
<revision>
<id>42074850</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:26:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.72.166.118</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aclu.png|right| ]]
The '''American Civil Liberties Union''', or '''ACLU''', is a [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO) whose stated goal is to "defend and preserve the [[individual rights]] and [[liberty|liberties]] guaranteed to every person ... by the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] and [[Law of the United States|laws]] of the [[United States]]." [[Lawsuit]]s brought by the ACLU have been influential in several important developments in [[U.S. constitution]]al law, and according to the annual report has over 500,000 members as of the end of 2005. The ACLU provides [[lawyer]]s and legal expertise in cases where it believes an individual's or group of individuals' rights are being challenged by the government or other citizens. In many cases where it does not provide legal representation, the ACLU submits ''[[amicus curiae]]'' [[brief (law)|brief]]s in support of its positions. The ACLU has never officially supported or opposed a political candidate, and is not aligned with any political party, though it has been harshly critical of various elected officials of both the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and the [[Repub
|
ρα}}||athēra||{{polytonic|ἀθηρ}}-||ather-||gruel||[[atheroma]], [[atherosclerosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀθλητής}}||athlētēs||{{polytonic|αθλητ}}-||athlet-||contestant in the games||[[athlete]], [[athletics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰθήρ}}||aethēr||{{polytonic|αἰθερ}}-||ether-||massless medium||[[ether]], [[ethereal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰγίς}}||aegis||{{polytonic|αἰγισ}}-||aegis-||armour of Zeus||[[aegis (disambiguation)|aegis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Aἴγυπτος}}||Aegyptos||{{polytonic|Αἴγυπτο}}-||Αegypto-||{{polytonic|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}, ''Aegaeou uptiōs'', below the Aegean, according to Strabo||[[Egyptology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰκία}}||aikia||{{polytonic|αἰκ}}-||aic-||torture, suffering||[[aecium]], [[aeciospore]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἳμα}}||haima||{{polytonic|αἳμ}}-||em-<br>hem-<br>haem-||blood||[[anemia]], [[anemic]], [[hemophilia]], [[hemorrhage]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Aἴολος}}||Aeolus||{{polytonic|Aἴολ}}-||Aeol-||Keeper of the Winds ''Gk. Myth''||[[Aeolic]], [[Aeolian]], [[Aeolotropy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰπύς}}||aipus||{{polytonic|αἰπυ}}-||aepy-||high and steep, utter|| [[aepycamelus]], [[aepyorniformes]], [[aepyornis]], [[aepyornises]], [[aepyornithidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσθάνεσθαι}}||aisthanesthai||{{polytonic|αἰσθητ}}-||aesthet-||to perceive, apprehend by the senses||[[aestheticize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσθητικός}}||aisthētikos||{{polytonic|αἰσθη}}-||aesthē-||of sense-perception, sensitive, perceptive||[[aesthetic]], [[aesthetician]], [[aestheticism]], [[aesthete]], [[aesthetics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσχύνω}}||aeschunō||{{polytonic|αἰσχύν}}-||aeschyn-||dishonour, shame||[[aeschynanthus]], [[aeschynite-(Y)|aeschynite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰτία}}||aetia||{{polytonic|αἰτι}}-||aeti-<br>eti-||cause||[[etiology]], [[aetiology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰχμή}}||aikhmē||{{polytonic|αἰχμ}}-||aikhm-||point of a spear||[[Aechmophorus clarki|aechmophorus]], [[Bromeliaceae|aechmea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰών}}||aeōn||{{polytonic|αἰών}}-||eon-||age||[[eon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰώνιος}}||aeōnios||{{polytonic|αἰώνι}}-||aeonι-||lasting for an age||[[aeonium]], [[aeonian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀκαδημία}}||Akadēmia||{{polytonic|Ἀκαδημ}}-||akadēm-||the school where Plato taught,<br>the field of Academos||[[academy]], [[academic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκακία}}||akakia||{{polytonic|ἀκακια}}-||akakia-||harmless||[[List of Acacia species|acacia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκαλύφη}}||akaluphē||{{polytonic|ἀκαλυφ}}-||acalyph-||stinging-nettle||[[acalypha]], [[acalyphoideae]], [[calyphoideae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκανθος}}||akanthos||{{polytonic|ἄκανθ}}-||akanth-||thorn plant||[[acantharea]], [[acanthite]], [[acanthocephala]], [[acanthocercus]], [[acanthodactylus]], [[acanthosaura]], [[acanthous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκάρι}}||akari||{{polytonic|ἀκαρ}}-||akar-||a kind of mite||[[acarid]], [[acariasis]], [[acarology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκαρπος}}||akarpos||{{polytonic|ἀκαρπ}}-||acarp-||not producing fruit, fruitless||[[acarpous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκατάληκτος }}||akatalēktos||{{polytonic|ἀκατάληκτος}}-||acatalekt-||not incomplete, incessant||[[acatalectic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκέφαλος}}||akephalos||{{polytonic|ἀκεφαλ}}-||akephal-||headless||[[acephali]], [[acephaly]], [[Acephalous line|acephalous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκλινής}}||aklinēs||{{polytonic|ἀκλιν}}-||aclin-||unswerving, without inclination||[[aclinic]], [[aclinic line]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκμή}}||akmē||{{polytonic|ἀκ}}-||ac-||highest point<br>facial erruptin||[[acme]]<br>[[acne]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκόλουθος}}||akoluthos||{{polytonic|ἀκόλουθ}}-||akoluth-||follower||[[anacoluthon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκόνη}}||akonē||{{polytonic|ἀκον}}-||akon-||whetstone||[[aconitum]], [[paragon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκούειν}}||akouein||{{polytonic|ἀκουστικ}}-||acoustic-||to hear||[[acoustic guitar]], [[acoustic nerve]], [[acoustic theory]], [[acoustical engineering]], [[acoustics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκρον}}||akron||{{polytonic|ἀκρο}}-||acro-||edge, topmost||[[acrobat]], [[acrocephalus]], [[acrochordidae]], [[acrochordon]], [[acromantula]], [[acronym]], [[acrotomophilia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκροστιχίς}}||akrostikhis||{{polytonic|ἀκροστιχ}}-||acrostic-||headline, end-line||[[acrostic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκτίς}}||aktis||{{polytonic|ἀκτινo}}-||aktino-||ray||[[actinium]], [[actinobacteria]], [[actinodine]], [[actinolite]], [[actinometer]], [[actinomorphous]], [[actinomycetes]], [[actinophryid]], [[actinophryids]], [[actinopteri]], [[actinopterygii]], [[actinozoa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂκτωρ}}||aktor||{{polytonic|ἀκτ}}-||act-||leader, from {{polytonic|ἂγω}}, to lead or carry, to convey, bring [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%233757]<br>altern. from L. actus, (agere, to drive)||[[actor]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλάβαστρος}}||alabastros||{{polytonic|ἀλάβαστρ}}-||alabastr-||a varietiy of mineral||[[alabaster]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλλαντοειδής}}||allantoeidēs||{{polytonic|ἀλλαντο}}-||allanto-||sausage-shaped||[[allantois]], [[allantoid]], [[allantoin]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλεξείν}}||alexein||{{polytonic|ἀλεξ}}-||alex-||to ward off||[[Alexander]], [[alexipharmic]], [[alexipyretic]], [[alexiteric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλευρον}}||aleuron||{{polytonic|ἀλευρο}}-||aleuro-||flour, meal||[[aleurone]], [[aeluromancy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλληγορείν}}||allēgorein||{{polytonic|ἀλληγορ}}-||allēgor-|| to interpret allegorically||[[allegory]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλγος}}||algos||{{polytonic|ἀλγ}}-||alg-||pain||[[nostalgia]], [[arthralgia]], [[cardialgia]], [[cephalalgia]], [[coxalgia]], [[fibromyalgia]], [[hemialgia]], [[metralgia]], [[myalgia]], [[neuralgia]], [[odontalgia]], [[otalgia]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλείφειν}}||aleiphein||{{polytonic|ἀλειφ}}-||aleiphein-||to anoint with oil||[[aliphatic]], [[Aliphatic hydrocarbon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλκιμος}}||alkimos||{{polytonic|ἀλκ}}-||alc-||strong||[[analcite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλκυών}}||alkuōn||{{polytonic|ἀλκυ}}-||halcy-||kingfisher||[[Tree Kingfisher|halcyon]], [[halcyonic]], [[halcyonidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλληλον}}||allēlon||{{polytonic|ἀλληλο}}-||allēlo-||of one another||[[allelomorph]], [[parallelogram]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλλος}}||allos||{{polytonic|ἀλλο}}-||allo-<br>alle-||other, different||[[allocholesterol]], [[allochton]], [[allodium]], [[allodontidae]], [[allogenes]], [[allograft]], [[allography]], [[allolactose]], [[allometry]], [[allomorph]], [[allopath]], [[allopatry]], [[allophony]], [[allopoiesis]], [[allopurinol]], [[allosaur]], [[allotroph]], [[allotropic]], [[allotropy]]<br>[[allergy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅλς}}||hals||{{polytonic|ἁλ}}-||hal-||salt||[[halogen]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλλότροπος}}||allotropos||{{polytonic|ἀλλoτροπ}}-||allotrop-||strange||[[allotropy]], [[allotropes]], [[allotropism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁλύσκειν}}||haluskein||{{polytonic|ἁλυσκ}}-||halluc-||flee from, shun, avoid, escape [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.refembed=2&layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057&layout.refcit=entry%3Da%29luska%2Fzw&doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%231609&layout.reflookup=a%29lu%2Fskw&layout.reflang=greek&layout.refwordcount=1]<br>alt. f. L. hallucinar, to dream, be deceived||[[Peduncular hallucinosis|hallucinosis]], [[hallucinate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλυσσος}}||alyssos||{{polytonic|ἀλυσσ}}-||alyss-||a plant believed to cure rabies||[[alyssum]], [[Alyssa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλφα}}||alpha||{{polytonic|ἄλφα}}-||alpha-||alpha||[[alphabet]], [[alphabetize]], [[alphagram]], [[alphandia]], [[alphanumeric]], [[alpha particle]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλώπηξ}}||alōpēx||{{polytonic|ἀλωπ}}-||alop-||fox||[[alopecia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅλως}}||halōs||{{polytonic|ἁλως}}-||halo-||round shape, the disk of the sun, circular arcade at Delphi||[[halo]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμαζών}}||Amazōn||{{polytonic|Ἀμαζο}}-||Amazo-||female warriors ''Gk. Myth.''||[[Amazons|Amazon]], [[Amazonomachy]], [[Amazonite]], [[Amazonia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμάλακτος}}||amalaktos||{{polytonic|ἀμαλ}}-||amalg-||that cannot be softened||[[amalgam]], [[amalgamation]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμάλθεια}}||Amalthēa||{{polytonic|ἀμάλθει}}-||Amalthe-||the foster-mother of Zeus||[[Amalthea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμανίται}}||amanitai||{{polytonic|ἀμανίτ}}-||amanit-||a kind of fungus||[[amanita]], [[amanitaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμάρανθος}}||amarantos||{{polytonic|ἀμαρανθ}}-||amaranth-||unfading flower||[[amaranth]], [[amaranthaceae]], [[amaranthine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμαρυλλίς}}||amarullis||{{polytonic|ἀμαρυλλ}}-||amarull-||name of a shepherdess ''Gk. Myth.''||[[amaryllis]], [[amaryllidaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμαύρωσις}}||amaurōsis||{{polytonic|ἀμαυρω}}-||amauro-||blacken||[[amaurosis fugax|amaurosis]], [[amaurophilia]], [[amaurobiidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμβλύς}}||amblus||{{polytonic|ἀμβλυ}}-||ambly-||dim||[[amblygonite]], [[amblyopia]], [[amblypoda]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβροτος}}||ambrotos||{{polytonic|ἀμβρο}}-||ambro-||immortal||[[ambrosia]], [[ambrotype]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβυξ}}||ambix||{{polytonic|ἀμβ}}-||amb-||cup||[[alembic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβων}}||ambōn||{{polytonic|ἀμβω}}-||ambo-||raised edge||[[ambo]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμέθυστος}}||amethustos||{{polytonic|ἀμεθυστ}}-||amethyst-||not drunk or intoxicating||[[amethyst]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμετρος}}||ametros||{{polytonic|ἀμετρο}}-||ametro-||without measure ||[[ametropia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμίαντος}}||amiantos||{{polytonic|ἀμιαντ}}-||amiant-||undefiled||[[amianthus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμμος}}||ammos||{{polytonic|ἀμμο}}-||ammo-||sand||[[ammoperdix]], [[ammophila]], [[ammotrechidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνησία}}||amnēsia||{{polytonic|ἀμνησ}}-||amnēs-||oblivion||[[amnesia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνηστία}}||amnēstia||{{polytonic|ἀμνηστ}}-||amnēst-||forgetfulness, amnesty||[[amnesty]], [[amnestic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμμωνιακός}}||ammōniakos||{{polytonic|ἀμμονια}}-||ammōnia-||from Ammōn||[[ammonia]], [[ammoniacal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμμωνίς}}||ammōnis||{{polytonic|ἀμμων}}-||ammon-||horn of Ammōn||[[ammonite]], [[ammonoid]], [[ammonoidea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνός}}||amnos||{{polytonic|ἀμν}}-||amn-||lamb||[[amnion]], [[amniotic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμοιβή}}||amoebē||{{polytonic|ἀμοιβή}}-||amoeb-||change||[[amoeba]]
|
often carried about by a subversive agent such as a [[secret agent|spy]]; or [[loyalty]] to a competing leader or group. Assassination, like companion terms such as [[terrorism]] and [[freedom fighter]], is often considered to be a [[loaded (language)|loaded term]]. However, while few call themselves terrorists, most assassins appear comfortable enough with their deed to describe it as such publicly. ''Targeted killing'' is sometimes preferred by governments, naming a controversial strategy whereby anticipated acts of [[terrorism]] are prevented by assassinating a person deemed to be related to those acts. According to ''The [[American Heritage Dictionary]]'', "To [[murder]] (a prominent person) by surprise attack, as for political reasons."[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=assassination]
==Etymology==
The term ''Assassin'' originally referred to a Muslim [[Order (religious)|order]] known as the [[Hashshashin]]. According to one derivation, the word means "those who use [[hashish]]" ([[cannabis]] resin) in Arabic because, according to Crusader histories, that group used to ingest hashish before carrying out military or assassination operations, in order to be fearless. The group, known as the Nizari [[Ismaili]]s, was a [[Shi'a Islam|Shia]] order who believed in the notion of the hazir [[imam]] and was organized as a secret underground political order, which infiltrated areas under the control of [[Seljuk Turks]]. In 1090 the sect captured a castle called [[Alamut]] in the mountains of Northern [[Iran]]. This sect was said to carry out assassinations of the enemies of the order, or Muslim rulers they believed to be [[piety|impious]]. The earliest known record of the word in [[English language|English]] dates back to 1603, referring to this sect rather than its more general modern sense. Similar words had earlier appeared in [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]].
However, according to another derivation, the word Hashshashin derives from the Arabic word hassas, from the root hassa, meaning "to shoot".
Another version says that the word Hashshashin has the meaning of followers of Hassan, who would have been the order's first leader and founder.
[[Benjamin of Tudela]] provided the first western account of the sect. [[Marco Polo]]'s elaborate account is probably fictionalized in part. He said that recruits were promised [[heaven|Paradise]] in return for dying in action. They were drugged, often with materials such as [[hashish]] (although some suggest [[opium]] and [[wine]] instead, despite all three drugs being condemned by Islamic religious authorities and interpretations of the time) then spirited away to a garden stocked with attractive and compliant women and fountains of wine. At this time, they were awakened and it was explained to them that such was their reward for the deed, convincing them that their leader, [[Hassan-i-Sabah]], could open the gates to Paradise. The name ''assassin'' is derived from either ''hasishin'' for the supposed influence of their attacks and disregard for their own lives in the process, or ''hassansin'' for their leader. All this history, however, is tenuous, as it relies entirely on crusader-authored histories which have been traditionally very unreliable for information about native cultures.
Nowadays it is known that "hashishinnya" was an offensive term used to depict this cult by its Muslim and Mongolian detractors; the extreme zeal of Nizarites and the very cold preparation to murder makes it very unlikely they ever used drugs, while there is evidence that one of the first of Hassan's sons was sentenced to death by his father only for drinking a little wine. Moreover, despite many unlikely legends, they usually died along with their target (a tale tells of a mother being sad knowing her son survived a "mission"). As far as known they only used daggers (no other weapons, poison or whatever fictional records make them use) and it seems that they killed only five westerners during the time of the Crusades.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Link.assassination.attempt.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|An attempt was made to assassinate [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1981. He was shot and injured, and thereafter appeared in public in a custom-built "[[Popemobile]]" featuring [[bulletproof glass]].]] -->
==Definition problems==
[[Image:King Alexander murdered on 9 oktober 1934.jpg|thumb|250px|Assassination of [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] ]]
Unlike some topics, notably terrorism, wherein there is a substantial [[grey area]] and often bitter controversy between which specific instances qualify or even what standards should be used, the "[[common sense]]" classification of assassination stated at the outset of this article seems to stand with few objections. However, this does open larger issues concerning interpretation, notably regarding attempted killings by those with other motives — is it an assassination simply if the person is a major leader or public figure espousing a cause, or only if the assassin's reason for the attack is due to that person's status as a figurehead for a particular issue?
Notable instances in which this definitive problem might come into effect include the attempt on the life of [[United States President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] by [[John Hinckley]], who was determined subsequently to have serious psychological problems and publicly stated his intent was to get the attention of actress [[Jodie Foster]] rather than make any political statement. The killing of former [[The Beatles|Beatle]] [[John Lennon]] would raise the same problem — despite Lennon's outspokenness on many liberal political issues, his killer does not seem to have been more than an unstable [[Fan (aficionado)|fan]]. The use of the term "assassination" to describe Lennon's murder is a matter of some additional debate, since Lennon was primarily an entertainer, not a political figure, and it could be argued that describing his killing as an assassination is no more appropriate than, for example, using the term to describe the murders of singers [[Selena Quintanilla]] or [[Marvin Gaye]]. In another example, although [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theorists]] suggest the apparent suicide of [[Marilyn Monroe]] might have been a politically motivated murder, the term "assassination" is rarely, if ever, used in this context. The attempt on the life of President [[Gerald Ford]] by a member of [[Charles Manson]]'s [[cult]] could be the same; while it might perhaps be considered part and parcel of the anti-government, neo-fascist ideology to which Manson and his group adhered, [[Lynette Fromme|Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme]], the assassin, was not widely considered legally competent in her judgment at the time (although she was later tried and convicted). Should these cases be classified as attempted assassinations? The issue is further complicated by the fact that while Lennon was likely as outspoken politically as Reagan and Ford, and certainly as famous, Reagan and Ford were elected officials at the time, possibly requiring different criteria for Lennon's case.
One can take one of three positions (note that this consideration is of necessity strictly based upon language, not law): that the killing of someone ''only for political, moral, or ideological reasons'' constitutes an assassination (hence neither Reagan nor Lennon were the victims of assassins' attacks, while Ford was), that the killing of someone ''serving in politics or public office'' counts (thus Reagan's and Ford's attackers were would-be assassins, while Lennon's killer was not), or that anyone ''with a significant level of political involvement'' would be an assassination victim in the event of their murder (in which case all three instances would be assassinations or attempts).
While it must be acknowledged that attempting to read a person's thoughts is both imperfect and somewhat antithetical to the nature of such an issue, for the purposes of this article, the first, most conservative definition is taken. Although it is likely that the second is the most popular, the first is technically the most correct, and the third is generally considered to be too general in application. Therefore, all assassinations or attempts mentioned in the article will strictly follow the guidelines outlined at the outset to prevent confusion.
== Assassinations in history ==
==== Ancient history ====
Some would argue that assassination is one of the oldest tools of [[power politics]], dating back to the earliest governments of the world.
Towards the end of the [[Warring States Period]] (3rd century BC) in China, the state [[Qin]] rose to hegemony over other states. The Prince of the state Yan felt the threat and sought to remove the Qin king (later [[Qin Shi Huang]]) and sent [[Jing Ke]] for the mission. The assassination attempt was foiled and Jing Ke was killed on the spot.
[[Philip II of Macedon]], the father of [[Alexander the Great]], can be viewed as a victim of assassination. It is a fact, however, that by the fall of the Roman Republic assassination had become a commonly-accepted tool towards the end not only of improving one's own position, but to influence policy — the killing of Gaius [[Julius Caesar]] being a notable example, though many [[Emperors of Rome|Emperors]] met such an end. In whatever case, there seems to have not been a good deal of moral indignation at the practice amongst the political circles of the time, save, naturally, by the affected.
As the [[Middle Ages]] came about from the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], the moral and ethical dimensions of what was before a simple political tool began to take shape. Although in that period intentional [[regicide]] was an extremely rare occurrence, the situation changed dramatically with the [[Renaissance]] when the ideas of ''tyrannomachy'' (i.e. killing o
|
pursue it first near to home and then in a series of exotic locations. This template was to be followed in many subsequent campaigns, including ''Fungi from Yuggoth'' (later known as ''Curse of Cthulhu'' and ''Day of the Beast''), ''Spawn of Azathoth'', and the most famous, ''Masks of Nyarlathotep''. Many of these seem closer in tone to the pulp adventures of ''[[Indiana Jones]]'' than H. P. Lovecraft, but they are nonetheless beloved by many gamers.
===Lovecraft Country===
{{main|Lovecraft Country}}
''Lovecraft Country'' was a line of supplements for ''Call of Cthulhu'' released in 1990. These supplements were overseen by [[Keith Herber]] and provided backgrounds and adventures set in Lovecraft's fictional towns of [[Arkham]], [[Kingsport (Lovecraft)|Kingsport]], [[Innsmouth]], [[Dunwich (H. P. Lovecraft)|Dunwich]], and their environs. The intent was to give investigators a common base, as well as to center the action on well-drawn characters with clear motivations. With the departure of Herber, Chaosium's line ended.
===Mythos===
[[Mythos]] was a [[collectible card game]] based on the Cthulhu Mythos that Chaosium produced and marketed during the mid-Nineties. While generally praised for its fast gameplay and unique mechanics, it ultimately failed to gain a very large market presence. It bears mention because its eventual failure brought the company to hard times that affected its ability to produce material for Call of Cthulhu. A second Call of Cthulhu collectible card game is currently being produced by Fantasy Flight Games.
===Recent history===
In the last eight years, since the collapse of the Mythos CCG, the release of CoC books has been very sporadic with up to a year between releases. Chaosium struggled with near bankruptcy for many years before finally starting their upward climb again. [[2005]] was their best year for many years with ten releases for the game and many more scheduled for release in the near future.
Chaosium has recently taken to marketing "monographs" - short books by individual writers with editing and layout provided out-of-house - directly to the consumer. This allows the company to gauge market response to possible new works, though the long-term effects of this program remain uncertain.
==Licensees==
Chaosium has licensed other publishers to create supplements, including [[Delta Green]] by [[Pagan Publishing]]. Other licensees have included [[Theater of the Mind Enterprises]], [[Triad Entertainment]], [[Games Workshop]], [[Fantasy Flight Games]], and [[Grenadier Models]].
==d20 Call of Cthulhu==
In 2001, a stand-alone version of Call of Cthulhu was released by [[Wizards of the Coast]], for the [[d20 system]]. Intended to preserve the feeling of the original game, the conversion of the game rules were supposed to make the game easier to play, a claim many doubt. The d20 system also made it possible to use ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' characters in Call of Cthulhu, as well as to introduce the Cthulhu Mythos into ''Dungeons & Dragons'' games. The game's reception was mixed, with some rejecting it outright and others liking or even loving the d20 version, including some who enjoyed the original.
The d20 version of the game is not supported by either Wizards or Chaosium at this time. The reasons for this are unclear, though lack of revenue may be the cause.
== See also ==
* ''[[Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth]]'' video game
==External links==
* [http://www.chaosium.com Chaosium]
* [http://www.yog-sothoth.com/ Yog-Sothoth] &mdash; [[Horror fiction|Horror]] [[role-playing games|roleplaying]] in the worlds of H.P. Lovecraft
* [http://yog-sothoth.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=31 Call of Cthulhu Products Database] &mdash; A mostly-complete listing of all products produced for the game
[[Category:Basic Role-Playing System]]
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos]]
[[Category:d20 System]]
[[Category:Horror role-playing games]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]
[[de:Call of Cthulhu (Spiel)]]
[[es:La Llamada de Cthulhu (juego de rol)]]
[[fr:L'Appel de Cthulhu (jeu de rôle)]]
[[it:Il richiamo di Cthulhu (gioco di ruolo)]]
[[pl:Zew Cthulhu (gra fabularna)]]
[[sv:Call of Cthulhu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constellations</title>
<id>5723</id>
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<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constellation]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cape Breton Island</title>
<id>5724</id>
<revision>
<id>40056165</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:37:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.22.69.25</ip>
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<comment>Typo: missing " )" after "present day peninsular Nova Scotia and New Brusnwick"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float:right; width: 202px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;">[[Image:Map of Nova Scotia highlighting Cape Breton Island.png]]</div>
[[Image:Cape breton island.png|thumb|200px|Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada]]
'''Cape Breton Island''' ([[French language|French]]: ''île du Cap-Breton'', [[Scottish Gaelic]]: ''Eilean Cheap Breatuinn'', [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]]: ''U'namakika'', simply: ''Cape Breton'') is an [[island]] on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast of [[North America]]. Its name likely derives from the term "Breton", referring to [[Brittany]] and the [[Basque]] region of [[France]] near [[Bayonne]].
Cape Breton Island is part of the province of [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], although physically separated from the [[peninsula|peninsular]] Nova Scotian [[mainland]] by the [[Strait of Canso]]. The island is located east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western [[coast]]s fronting on the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]]; its western coast also forming the eastern limits of the [[Northumberland Strait]]. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean; its eastern coast also forming the western limits of the [[Cabot Strait]]. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the [[highlands]] of its northern cape. A saltwater estuary, [[Bras d'Or Lake]], dominates the centre of the island.
The population of Cape Breton Island as of the [[2001]] census numbers approximately 147,454 "Cape Bretoners"; this is approximately 16% of the provincial population. Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 7% since the previous census in [[1996]]. Approximately 75% of the island's population is located in the [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton Regional Municipality]] (CBRM) which takes in all of [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton County]] and is commonly termed "Industrial Cape Breton", given the history of [[coal]] mining and steel manufacturing in this area.
==History==
* [[Industrial history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Settlement history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Military history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Political history of Cape Breton Island]]
Cape Breton Island's first residents were likely [[Archaic stage|Maritime Archaic Indians]], ancestors of the [[Mi'kmaq]] Nation, who later inhabited the island at the time of European discovery. [[Giovanni Caboto]] (John Cabot) reportedly visited the island in [[1497]] to become the first [[Renaissance|Renaissance Europe]]an explorer to visit present-day Canada. However, historians are unclear as to whether Caboto first visited [[Newfoundland]] or Cape Breton Island. This discovery is commemorated by [[Cape Breton]]'s [[Cabot Trail]].
The island saw active settlement by [[France]] with the island being included in the colony of [[Acadia]]. A French [[garrison]] was established in the central eastern part at [[St. Ann's, Nova Scotia|Ste-Ann]] in the early [[18th century]] before relocating to a much larger fortification at [[Fortress Louisbourg|Louisbourg]] so as to improve defences at the entrance to the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and defend France's fishing fleet on the [[Grand Banks]]. The French named the island "Île Royale." It remained part of [[New France|colonial France]] until it was ceded to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] under the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1763]]. Britain merged the island with its adjacent colony of Nova Scotia (present day peninsular Nova Scotia and [[New Brunswick]]).
Some of the first British-sanctioned settlers to the island following the [[Seven Years' War]] were [[Ireland|Irish]], although upon settlement, they merged with local French communities to form a culture both rich in music and tradition. From [[1763]] to [[1784]] the island was administratively part of the colony of [[Nova Scotia]] and governed from [[Halifax Regional Muncipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]].
In [[1784]], Britain split the colony of Nova Scotia into three separate colonies: New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island, and present-day peninsular Nova Scotia, in addition to the adjacent colonies of [[Prince Edward Island]] and [[Newfoundland]]. The colony of Cape Breton Island had its capital at [[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] on its namesake harbour fronting on Spanish Bay and the [[Cabot Strait]]. Its first Lieutenant-Governor was [[Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres]] (1784&ndash;1787) and his successor was [[William Macarmick]] (1787).
An order forbidding the granting of land in Cape Breton, issued in 1763, was removed in 1784. The mineral rights to the island were given over to the Crown by an order-in-council. The British government had intended that the Crown take over the operation of the mines when Cape Breton was made a colony, but this was never done, probably because of the rehabilitation cost of the mines.
|
atalan]] [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1900]] to [[1914]]. It is one of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]].
The Park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site. The idea of Count [[Eusebio de Guell]]. It was inspired by British developments, hence the original English name ''Park''. It has been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground, although the stations are at a certain distance, by the regular buses, or best by the tourist buses. While the Park is free, Gaudí's house &mdash; containing furniture that he designed &mdash; can be visited at a cost.
[[image:Park Guell Terrace.JPG|left|thumb|[[Gaudí]]'s mosaic work on the main terrace]]
The design of the Park is clearly the work of an architect and Gaudí's unique style is also easily distinguishable. Wavy, lava-like shapes, at places tree-like or in form of Doric columns or stalactites, sometimes lavishly decorated with ornaments of [[trencadís|broken ceramic fragments, a Catalan technique]]. The landscaping of the Park is largely in tune with the natural terrain; steep slopes and cliffs have been allowed to remain, with winding paths, cuttings and grottoes adding to the natural feel.
Although it sounds unlikely, the place is skillfully designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings, though very original and remarkable, are relatively inconspicuous, considering other buildings designed by Gaudí. They have fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles. The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a [[sea serpent]]. Gaudí used a naked man, sitting in clay, to design the bench. The curves form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere.
The large cross at the Park's high-point offers the most complete view of Barcelona. It is possible to view the main city in panaroma, with the [[Sagrada Familia]] and the [[Montjuïc]] area visible at a distance.
==External links==
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.414048,2.150187&spn=0.003677,0.007522&t=k Park Güell at Google Maps]
*[http://www.gardenvisit.com/ge/guel.htm Parque Guell Barcelona - Gardens Guide]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-park-guell/index.html Park Güell Photo Gallery]
{{commons|Parc Güell|Parc Güell}}
[[Category:Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:Parks in Spain|Guell]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]]
[[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]]
[[ca:Parc Güell]]
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[[es:Parque Güell]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Casa Milà</title>
<id>1325</id>
<revision>
<id>38981191</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:46:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jahsonic</username>
<id>5720</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Casamila.jpg|right|thumb|Casa Milà, Barcelona.]]
[[Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|thumb|Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|[[Parabola|Parabolic]] or [[catenary]] [[arch]]es under the terrace of Casa Milà.]]
'''Casa Milà''', better known as '''La Pedrera''' (Catalan for 'The Quarry'), is a building designed by the Catalan [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1905]] to [[1907]]. It is located at 92, Passeig de Gràcia ('passeig' is Catalan for promenade or avenue) in the ''[[Eixample]]'' district of [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. It was built for Roger Segimon de Milà. It is one of the UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites]].
The building does not have any straight lines. Most people consider it magnificent and overwhelming -- some say it is like waves of lava or a sand-dune. This building seems to break our understanding of conventional [[architecture]]. The most astonishing part is the roof with an almost lunar appearance and dreamlike landscape.
The building can be considered more of a sculpture than a regular building. Critics remark on its detachment from usefulness, but others consider it to be art. The Barcelonese of the time considered it ugly, hence the "quarry" nickname, but today it is a landmark of Barcelona.
Casa Milà was a predecessor of some buildings with a similar [[biomorphism|biomorphic]] appearance:
* the 1921 [[Einstein Tower]] in [[Potsdam]], designed by [[Erich Mendelsohn]]
* [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] in [[New York]], designed by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]
* [[Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut]], [[Ronchamp]], [[France]], designed by [[Le Corbusier]]
* the [[Hundertwasserhaus]] and other words by Austrian architect [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]]
* Disney Concert Hall in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], by [[Frank Gehry]]
Free exhibitions are often held on the first floor, which also provides some opportunity to see the interior design. There is a charge of €7 for entrance to the apartments and roof.
==Casa Milà in the media==
* A scene in ''[[Professione: reporter]]'', a film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, was filmed on the building's roof.
[[Image:Casa_Mila_roof.jpg|right|thumb|Stylized stairway entrances on the roof]]
==See also==
* [[List of buildings]]
* [[List of museums]]
<!-- [[Image:Model Gaudi Pedrera Kunsthal mei 2005.jpg|left|thumb|Scale model of a floor with apartments]] -->
==External links==
* [http://www.lapedreraeducacio.org/ La Pedrera Educació]
* [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/barcelona/lapedrera-casamila/ Photographs of Casa Mila / La Pedrera]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-pedrera/index.html Photos of La Pedrera]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]]
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[[sv:Casa Milà]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antiparticle</title>
<id>1327</id>
<revision>
<id>41809972</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:16:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.42.113.233</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Experiment */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Antimatter}}
Corresponding to each kind of [[particle physics|particle]], there is an associated '''antiparticle''' with the same [[mass]] and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. Some particles, such as the [[photon]], are identical to their antiparticle; such particles must have no [[electric charge]], but not all charge-neutral particles are of this kind. The laws of nature were thought to be symmetric between particles and antiparticles until [[CP violation]] experiments found that [[time-reversal symmetry]] is violated in nature. The observed excess of [[baryon]]s over anti-baryons in the universe is one of the primary [[Unsolved problems in physics|unsolved problems]] in [[cosmology]].
Particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other if they are in appropriate [[quantum state]]s. They can also be produced in various processes. These processes are used in today's [[particle accelerator]]s to create new particles and to test theories of [[particle physics]]. High energy processes in nature can create antiparticles. These are visible in [[cosmic ray]]s and in certain [[nuclear reaction]]s. The word [[antimatter]] properly refers to (elementary) antiparticles, composite antiparticles made with them (such as [[antihydrogen]]) and to larger assemblies of either.
== History ==
=== Experiment ===
In [[1932]], soon after the prediction of [[positron]]s by [[Paul Dirac]], [[Carl D. Anderson]] found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a [[cloud chamber]]&mdash; a [[particle detector]] in which moving [[electron]]s (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas. The [[electric charge]]-to-[[mass]] ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the curling of its cloud-chamber track in a [[magnetic field]]. Originally, positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction.
The antiproton and antineutron were found by [[Emilio Segrè]] and [[Owen Chamberlain]] in [[1955]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. Since then the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerator experiments. In recent years, complete atoms of [[antimatter]] have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps.
=== Hole theory ===
<blockquote>
... the development of quantum field theory made the interpretation of antiparticles as holes unnecessary, even though unfortunately it lingers on in many textbooks.
&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; [[Steven Weinberg]] in ''The quantum theory of fields'', Vol I, p 14, ISBN 0521550017
</blockquote>
Solutions of the [[Dirac equation]] contained negative energy quantum states. As a result, an electron could always radiate energy and fall into a negative energy state. Even worse, it could keep radiating infinite amount of energy because there were infinitely negative energy states available. To prevent this unphysical situation from happening, Dirac proposed that a "sea" of negative-energy electrons fills the universe, already occupying all of the lower energy states so that, due to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] no other electron could fall into them. Sometimes, however, one of these negative energy particles could be lifted out of this [[Dirac sea]] to become a positive energy particle. But when lifted out, it would leave behind a ''hole'' in the sea which would act exactly like a positive energy electron with a reversed charge. These he interpreted as the [[proton]], and called his paper of 1930 ''A theory of electrons
|
:30, [[WBUR]] [[Boston]], [[NPR]] news, aired [[July 25]], [[2005]]</ref>
===Foreign policy===
[[Image:Clinton_Blair.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton embraces British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]].]]
[[Image:Clinton and jiang.jpg|right|thumb|[[Jiang Zemin]] and Bill Clinton.]]
[[Image:Clinton Yeltsin sax.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton plays the saxophone presented to him by Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] at a private dinner in Russia, January 13, 1994]]
Clinton deployed the U.S. military several times under hostile circumstances. In 1993, U.S. troops, initially deployed to [[Somalia]] by the Bush administration, fought the [[Battle of Mogadishu]] which attempted to capture local warlord [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid]]. The administration withdrew U.S. troops after suffering 18 casualties (19 according to the film ''Black Hawk Down'') and 73 wounded in the battle. In 1994, Clinton sent U.S. troops into [[Haiti]] to restore [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] as president, ending a period of intense violence. Aristide, who had been elected, had been ousted in a coup just seven months into his term in 1991. Clinton also committed troops twice in the former-[[Yugoslavia]] to stop ethnic violence, most notably in [[Kosovo War|Kosovo]]. In addition, Clinton launched military strikes on Iraq several times to punish violations of [[UN]] sanctions and an attempt to have former President George H. W. Bush assassinated. Clinton did not intervene militarily to end the [[Rwandan genocide]], a decision he later regarded as a "personal failure".
In 1994, Clinton negotiated and signed the Nuclear Accords with [[North Korea]]. The underlying concern was that North Korea was developing [[nuclear weapon]]s technology under the guise of a nuclear power plant. In exchange for assistance with energy needs, North Korea agreed to abandon all ambitions for acquiring nuclear weapons. However, by the mid 1990s defectors from North Korea, along with reports from the [[IAEA]], indicated that North Korea was violating both the Nuclear Accords and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In [[December 2002]], North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors from its Yongbyon nuclear facility, and announced (privately in 2003 and publicly in 2005), that they possessed nuclear weapons.
In November, 1995, Clinton committed troops to the Balkans saying the mission would be “precisely defined with clear realistic goals” that could be achieved in a “definite period of time". Clinton assured Americans the mission would take about one year. In October 1996, shortly before Clinton's reelection, the Clinton Administration denied any change in the plans to withdraw troops in December, 1996. However, shortly after reelection, Clinton announced troops would stay longer. Troops ultimately stayed in Bosnia for nine years. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,176728,00.html Should Congress Investigate Misleading Prewar Intelligence?] - Timothy Lynch, [[FOX]], [[November 25]], [[2005]]</ref>
On [[February 17]] [[1998]], Clinton gave a speech signaling the danger of rogue nations providing weapons of mass destruction to terrorist organizations with global reach. Clinton specifically pointed to Saddam Hussein's Iraq. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/02/17/transcripts/clinton.iraq/ Text Of Clinton Statement On Iraq] - transcript of Clinton speech on [[February 18]], [[1998]], retrieved from [[CNN]], [[February 25]], [[2006]]</ref> In August 1998 UN weapons inspectors left Iraq, leading to [[Operation Desert Fox]] in December.
During Clinton's tenure, [[Al-Qaeda]] began to emerge as a major terrorist threat. In 1998, the group [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|bombed]] the American embassies in [[Tanzania]] and [[Kenya]]. In retaliation, Clinton ordered [[Operation Infinite Reach]], which involved [[cruise missile]] strikes on terrorist camps in [[Kandahar]], [[Afghanistan]] and a suspected chemical weapons facility in [[Khartoum]], [[Sudan]] that was believed to be tied to bin Laden. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/US/9808/20/us.strikes.01/ U.S. missiles pound targets in Afghanistan, Sudan] - [[CNN]], [[August 20]], [[1998]]</ref> Clinton also gave orders authorizing the arrest or, if need be, assassination of Al-Qaeda leader [[Osama bin Laden]]. At the end of his term, in late 2000, the terrorists struck again with the [[USS Cole bombing]]. By this time, Clinton has stated he regarded Al-Qaeda as the foremost threat to national security. <ref> [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/20/politics/20PANE.html?hp=&pagewanted=print&position= Clinton Aides Plan to Tell Panel of Warning Bush Team on Qaeda] - Phlip Shenon, ''[[New York Times]]'', [[March 20]], [[2004]] ([http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0320-07.htm Alternative copy], no registration required) </ref> In the wake of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the independent investigating commission was critical of Clinton for focusing more on diplomatic than military means to eliminate the bin Laden threat. <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A18972-2004Mar23.html 9/11 Panel Critical of Clinton, Bush] - Dan Eggen and John Mintz, ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[March 24]], [[2004]]</ref>
Some critics argue that the American attacks in [[Kosovo War#Criticism of the Case for War|Kosovo]], Somalia, Bosnia, Sudan, and Afghanistan violated international law. <ref>[http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/International_War_Crimes/ClintonWarCriminal_Herman.html Clinton Is The WorId's Leading Active War Criminal] - Edward S. Herman, [[Z Magazine]], December 1999 </ref> <ref>[http://agitprop.org.au/stopnato/19990607clintoncriminal.php The other war criminal -- Bill Clinton] - Alexander Cockburn, [[San Jose Mercury]], [[June 3]], [[1999]]</ref> <ref>[http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=14713 Clinton's dirty little war] - Joseph Farah, WorldNetDaily, [[April 5]], [[1999]] </ref>
After his presidency, Clinton identified his proudest foreign policy accomplishments as mediating peace talks between Israel and the PLO, resulting in the [[Oslo Accords]] (1993). Subsequent events, including the collapse of the [[2000 Camp David Summit]] and the commencement of the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]], resulted in the Oslo Accords being widely discredited within Israel and in various Palestinian factions by 2004.
Clinton identified his major foreign policy failure as lack of response to the 1994 [[genocide]] in [[Rwanda]]. Along with the United Nations, the Clinton administration initially did not publicly acknowledge that genocide was occurring.
===Impeachment and controversies===
{{main|Impeachment of Bill Clinton}}
In 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Senate on two impeachment charges brought by the U.S. House of Representatives: perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony about his relationship to [[Monica Lewinsky]] during a sexual harassment lawsuit brought by former Arkansas-state employee [[Paula Jones]]. The obstruction charge was based on his actions during the subsequent investigation of that testimony. On [[February 12]], the Senate concluded a 21-day trial with the vote on both counts falling short of the Constitutional requirement of a two-thirds majority to convict and remove an office holder. The final vote was party-line, with none of the 45 Democratic Senators voting for conviction on either charge. On the perjury charge 55 senators voted to acquit and 45 voted to convict; on the obstruction charge the Senate voted 50-50. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/02/12/impeachment/ Clinton acquitted; president apologizes again] - [[CNN]], [[February 12]], [[1999]]</ref> Clinton, like the only other president to be impeached, [[Andrew Johnson]], served the remainder of his term.
The day before leaving office, Clinton agreed to a five-year suspension of his Arkansas law license as part of an agreement with the independent counsel to end the investigation. Based on this suspension, Clinton was also automatically suspended from the United States Supreme Court bar, from which he chose to resign. [17][18] Clinton's resignation was mostly symbolic, as he had never practiced before the Supreme Court and was not expected to in the future. Clinton also was assessed a $90 000 fine by federal judge Susan Webber Wright for contempt of court. The Paula Jones lawsuit was settled out of court for $850 000.
In addition to impeachment and the [[Whitewater scandal]], the Clinton White House was the subject of many other controversies.
The [[White House travel office controversy]] involved allegations of impropriety in the firing of civil service staffers. The [[White House personnel file controversy]] involved improper access by security officials to FBI files on White House personnel, without first asking for the individuals' permission. The [[Bill Clinton pardons controversy]] involved a grant of clemency to [[FALN]] bombers in 1999 and pardons to his [[Roger Clinton, Jr.|brother]], tax-evading billionaire [[Marc Rich]] and others in 2001 (see [[List of people pardoned by Bill Clinton]]).
[[Image:Clinton-riady-huang.jpg|left|thumb| President Clinton with convicted felons John Huang (center) and James Riady (right) in the Oval Office]]The [[1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal|"Chinagate"]] controversy involved allegations of improper campaign contributions to President Clinton's legal defense fund and the Democratic National Committee, by individuals such as John Huang, James Riady, and Maria Hsia, et al. Allegedly, the ultimate source of this money was the Chinese government. Seventeen donors and fund-raisers were convicted of felonies due to the affair.
In March, 1998 [[Kathleen Willey]], a White House aide, alleged that Clinton had sexually assaulted her. Also in 1998, [[Juanita Broaddrick]] alleged that Clinton had raped her in 1978. No charges were
|
[Arizona]] in [[November 2004]], the traffic jams on [[Interstate 10]] were so severe that the Arizona Department of Public Safety had to close the nearest off-ramp to the store just to spread out the traffic among other nearby off-ramps.
IKEA's most popular store in [[Brent Park]], [[London]] frequently has traffic jams on the weekends.
A new store opened in [[Edmonton, London|Edmonton]], North London at midnight on [[10 February]] [[2005]]. It attracted over 6,000 visitors due to huge opening discounts in the first three opening hours and resulted in a number of casualties as people were crushed in the rush to get into the store. The store was closed after only 30 minutes (due to the large number of customers, there were inadequate security staff and police). The store was re-opened at 5pm on [[11 February]][[2005]] with no additional incident. One of IKEA's newest stores opened on [[1 March]] [[2006]] in [[West Sacramento, California|West Sacramento]] without any injuries. Showing a responsibility to the community, IKEA built its store right next to the nearest highway onramp.
In Saudi Arabia [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3618190.stm three people were crushed to death] in September 2004 when IKEA offered a limited number of $150 vouchers for free.
Minding the above problems, the store at [[Atlantic Station]] in [[Atlanta]] opened on [[29 June]] [[2005]] with 20 off-duty police officers directing traffic. That store is its first in the [[Southeastern United States|Southeast U.S.]], its third-largest in [[North America]], and the only one to serve [[grits]]. The first person in line had been there a week.
The [[Stoughton, Massachusetts|Stoughton]], [[Massachusetts]] store opened on [[9 November]] [[2005]]. Nearby highways were at a standstill; approaching the store from less than 1 mile took upwards of an hour. IKEA employees indicated that on the first Saturday of operation, the Stoughton store would have sales of $1-1.2M. Over 300,000 visitors were expected on the first weekend of operation.
IKEA was vetoed planning permission for a further store in England in 2004 (to be based in [[Stockport]] in [[Greater Manchester]]) by the [[Office of the Deputy Prime Minister]]. It applied for [[judicial review]] but lost in 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/4278539.stm] [http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/news/s/125/125859_fury_as_prescott_blocks_ikea_store.html] In January 2006 it announced plans to create 10 extra smaller outlets, to be based in city centres. The first of these will be in [[Coventry]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4598068.stm]
== Store format ==
Newer IKEA stores are usually very large blue boxes with few windows. They are often designed around a mandatory "one-way" layout which forces consumers to traverse nearly all parts of the store before reaching the [[cashier]] or [[Point of sale#Traditional stores|check-out stands]]. The sequence involves going through furniture showrooms (showroom) and housewares (market-hall) first, then the warehouse where one collects flatpacks for products seen in the showrooms, and then the cashier.
This design is intended to make customers encounter products which they might not have thought to look for, but has the disadvantage of inconveniencing consumers who already know what they want to buy and just want to return to the warehouse area.
Recently, in some stores, shortcuts have been introduced between various sections, making travel time through the store much shorter if necessary. However, though they may be indicated on store maps, these shortcuts are often not obvious so an inexperienced IKEA shopper is likely to overlook them and travel through the whole layout of the store. In addition, the shortcuts are heavily criticized for not being long enough for convenience.
Whilst the original design involved the warehouse on the lower level and the showroom and markethall on the upper, some stores are single-level bungalow-style stores while many U.S. stores place the showroom upstairs and the marketplace and warehouse both downstairs. Some stores<!-- Most U.S. stores? --> operate separate additional warehouses for the larger or less popular flatpacks to keep the size of the customer warehouse down (and therefore less daunting) and allow more stock to be kept on-site at any given time. Unfortunately, this occasionally results in customers being unable to find the goods they paid for at the cashier without direction from staff and the impression of [[Queue area|queueing]] twice (once at the cashier, once at the external warehouse). However, there are few complaints about being able to collect goods quicker from the customer warehouses.
Many stores include [[restaurant]]s serving typically [[Swedish cuisine|Swedish food]], and beverages such as [[lingonberry]] juice. The restaurant area is usually the one place in the store where there are large windows. Outside of Sweden, these restaurants are sometimes complemented by mini-shops selling Swedish-made, Swedish-style groceries. As would be expected with IKEA, you can buy IKEA's specialities, such as [[Meatball|Swedish meatballs]], in parts (i.e. the ingredients) at these stores and assemble it (that is, simple, straightforward food preparation) at home.
Most IKEA stores also offer an "as-is" area at the end of the warehouse just prior to the cashiers. Returned, damaged and formerly showcased products which are not in "as new" condition are displayed here, and sold with a discount, but also with a "no-returns" policy.
In Hong Kong, where shop space is limited and costly, IKEA has opened four outlets across the country, which are actually part of conveniently located shopping malls. They are relatively tiny, compared to common "large blue box" store design, yet most of them are still in the "one-way" layout. However, the newest outlet in [[Telford Plaza]] does not follow this template, and the three independent floors can be accessed freely from each. Following IKEA tradition, though, the only cashier is located on the lowest floor.
== Corporate structure ==
Despite IKEA's Swedish roots, the owner/franchiser of the IKEA concept is a Dutch company, Inter IKEA Systems BV. The operator/franchisee of the majority of the stores worldwide is a separate entity, the IKEA Group, a private group of companies owned by a Dutch charitable foundation.
Of the 202 IKEA stores in 32 countries, 180 are run by the IKEA Group. The remaining 22 are run by franchisees outside of the IKEA Group.[http://www.ikea-group.ikea.com/about_ikea/organized.html]
INGKA Holding BV is the ultimate parent company for all IKEA Group companies, including the industrial group [[Swedwood]]. [[INGKA Holding BV]] is wholly owned by [[Stichting INGKA Foundation]], which is a foundation registered in the [[Netherlands]].
This complicated structure is seen by some as an attempt to avoid Sweden's high taxation at the time. Another reason could be to make it difficult to acquire IKEA.
== Criticisms ==
Some criticisms of IKEA:
*IKEA has [http://www.metropolismag.com/html/content_0203/ob/ob05_0203.html demolished historic buildings], in at least one case for a [http://www.nydailynews.com/boroughs/story/267758p-229361c.html parking lot].
*In the 1990s, there were several complaints arising from IKEA's [[United Kingdom|British]] television [[advertising campaign]]s:
**“Stop being so English”: In which a “Swedish [[psychologist]]” claims the British are uptight due to their taste in “English” furniture. (complaints were dismissed). [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=143.html]
**An advertisement where a [[Management consulting|management consultant]] suggests how much more furniture a company could buy, if it fired an office worker. (complaints were dismisssed but IKEA voluntarily withdrew the advert) [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=10.html]
** A campaign under the slogan, "Just pack up, ship out, find a place of your own. And for all your new things, you know where to come. Make a fresh start," got complaints that it was trivializing [[Legal separation|marriage breakups]] and showing a homosexual relationship. (complaints were dismissed) [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=288.html]
**An advertisement in which a boss tells members of his staff to smell each other's [[armpit]]s.
As a side note, the IKEA furniture line was satirized in the movie [[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]].
==Diversity==
IKEA was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 by ''[[Working Mothers]]'' magazine.
== Design reform ==
As pointed out by circuit lecturer [[Will Novosedlik]], IKEA embodies the principles of [[design reform]] begun by [[William Morris]] and [[John Ruskin]]. "Socialistic" in nature, IKEA attempts to elevate public taste by providing quality goods at affordable prices.
== IKEA's debut in each country ==
<!-- Source: http://franchisor.ikea.com/showContent.asp?swfId=facts3 -->
* 1958 [[Sweden]] &mdash; [[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]]
* 1963 [[Norway]] &mdash; [[Asker]] ([[Nesbru]])
* 1969 [[Denmark]] &mdash; [[Copenhagen]] ([[Ballerup]])
* 1973 [[Switzerland]] &mdash; [[Zürich]] ([[Spreitenbach]])
* 1974 [[Germany]] &mdash; [[Munich]] ([[Eching]])
* 1975 [[Australia]] &mdash; [[Sydney]] ([[Artarmon, New South Wales|Artarmon]])
<!-- The IKEA site spells Artarmon "Artamon", I'm asuming that Artarmon, NSW is correct -->
* 1975 [[Hong Kong]] &mdash; [[Kowloon]] ([[Tsim Sha Tsui]])
* 1976 [[Canada]] &mdash; [[Vancouver]] ([[Richmond, British Co
|
ther was and how he should take the weapons back to him. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.
When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeas, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Aegeas kill Theseus by asking him to capture the [[Marathonian Bull]], but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him but at the last second, Aegeas recognized the sandals, shield and sword and knocked the wine glass out of Theseus' hand. Father and son were reunited.
While visiting in Athens, King [[Minos]]' son, [[Androgeus]], managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during a feast. Out of jealousy, Aegeus killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every year to [[Crete]] to be fed to the [[Minotaur]], a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.
Aegeus had told Theseus, before he left, to put up the white sails when he left Crete, if he had been successful in killing the Minotaur. Theseus forgot (deliberately, according to some accounts) and Aegeus jumped into the sea when he saw the black sails coming into Athens, in the mistaken belief that his son had been slain, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Henceforth, this sea was known as the [[Aegean Sea]].
See also:
[[Apollodorus]]. [[Bibliotheke]]; [[Catullus]], LXIV; [[Plutarch]]. [[Theseus]].
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[[fr:Égée (mythologie)]]
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[[pt:Egeu (mitologia)]]
[[sl:Egej]]
[[tr:Egeus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aegina</title>
<id>2627</id>
<revision>
<id>41991820</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:14:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flauto Dolce</username>
<id>30706</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the island. For the [[Greek mythology|Greek mythological]] figure, see [[Aegina (mythology)]]. For the asteroid, see [[91 Aegina]]. The word also refers to the main town on the island of Aegina.''
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{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="float:right; empty-cells:show; margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:0,5em; background:#FFDEAD;"
<!--! Seal
! Map
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!
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! align="center" | [[Image:AiginaGreece.png]]
! align="center" | [[Image:GreecedotonAigina.png]]
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! align="center" colspan="2" | Statistics
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| [[Prefectures of Greece|Prefecture]] || [[Attica]]
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| [[Metropolitan Area]]: || [[Athens]] (Piraeus)
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| Prefectural sect: || [[Piraeus]]
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| [[Provinces of Greece|Province]]: || Aigina (106 km²)
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| Location: || {{coor dms|37|44|44|N|23|25|39|E|region:GR}}
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| Area:<br>-Total<br>-Water<br>-Rank||<br>110 km²<br><!-- km²<br>[[List of municipalities of Greece by area|Rank xxth]]-->
<!--|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Dwellings: ||-->
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| Population: ([[2001]])<br>&nbsp;- Total<br>&nbsp;- Density¹<br>&nbsp;- Rank||<br>&nbsp;11,639<br><br>&nbsp;151.13/km</small><br>
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Elevation:<br>&nbsp;-lowest:<br>&nbsp;-centre:<!--<br>&nbsp;-highest:-->||<br>sea level<br>19 m(centre)<br>532 m
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| [[List of postal codes in Greece|Postal code]]: || 180 10
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| [[Area codes in Greece|Area/distance code]]: || 11-30-[[Greece dialing code 22970|210]] (030-22970)<br>
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[YPES|Municipal code]]: || 4003
|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[License plates in Greece|Car designation]]: || <code>Y</code> (prev.)<br><code>Z</code> pres.
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| 3-letter abbreviation: || EGP
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| Name of inhabitants: || Aeginian ''sing.''<br>-s ''pl.''
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| Address of administration: || 1 Christou Lada St..<br>Aigina 180 10
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| Website: || [http://www.aigina.gr www.aigina.gr]
<!--|---- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
! colspan="2" | Politics
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| [[Mayor]]: ||-->
|}
'''Aegina ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αίγινα ''Egina''), one of the [[Greek islands|Saronic Islands]] of [[Greece]] in the [[Saronic Gulf]], 31 miles (50 km) from [[Athens]]. [[Tradition]] derives the name from Aegina, the mother of [[Aeacus]], who was born in and ruled the island. In shape Aegina is triangular, eight miles (13 km) long from northwest to southeast, and six miles (15 km) broad, with an area of about 41 square miles (106 km²). Two thirds of Aegina constitute an extinct volcano. The northern and western side consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some [[cotton]], vines, [[almond]]s, olives and [[fig]]s, but the most characteristic crop of today (1990s) Aegina is the [[pistachio]]. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side. From the absence of marshes the climate is the most healthy in Greece.
The island forms part of the modern Uomos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance. The capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants. [[Capo d'Istria]] (1776-1831) had a large building erected intended for a barracks, which was subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school. The museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the collection was transferred to [[Athens]] in [[1834]]. A statue in the principal square comemorates him.
== Antiquities ==
[[Image:Glypto aegina.JPG|thumb|[[Athena]] from the east pediment of the Aphaea temple in Aegina]]
The archaeological interest of Aegina is centred in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner of the island. Excavations were made on its site in [[1811]] by Baron [[Haller von Hallerstein]] and the English architect C. R. Cockerell, who discovered a considerable number of the sculptures from the pediment, which was bought in [[1812]] by the crown prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the [[Glyptothek]] at [[Munich]] after the figures had been restored by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]]. His restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering.
Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the figures. That according to which they were set up at Munich was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a fallen warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the composition; the corners were filled with fallen warriors. In [[1901]] Professor [[Adolf Furtwängler]] began a more systematic excavation of the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments in Munich, have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality. According to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions, into a series of groups of two or three figures each.
A figure of Athena still occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set farther forward than in the old reconstruction. On each side of this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other figures also &ndash; the bowmen especially &ndash; face towards the angles, and so give more variety to the composition. The western pediment, which is more conservative in type, represents the earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to episodes in the Trojan war. There are also remains of a third pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but never placed on the temple. For the character of the sculptures see [[Greek Art]]. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable for the unsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the [[cella]] into the [[opisthodomus]]. This opisthodomus was completely fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine). It was disputed in earlier times whether
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cal language of the [[Christian]] minority.
Beginning from around [[2700 BC]], Egyptians used [[pictogram]]s to represent [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]] -- both [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] vocalizations (see [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Hieroglyph: Script]]). By [[2000 BC]], 26 [[pictogram]]s were being used to represent 24 (known) main [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]]. The world's [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|oldest known alphabet]] (c. [[1800 BC]]) is only an [[abjad]] system and was derived from these [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|uniliteral signs]] as well as other [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s.
The hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the [[4th century]] AD. Attempts to decipher it began after the [[15th century]] (see ''[[Hieroglyphica]]'').
===Literature===
* c. [[19th century BC|1800 BC]]: [[The Story of Sinuhe|Story of Sinuhe]]
* c. 1800 BC: [[Ipuwer papyrus]]
* c. [[16th century BC|1600 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]]
* c. 1180 BC: [[Papyrus Harris I]]
* c. [[11th century BC|1000 BC]]: [[Story of Wenamun]]
==Culture==
{{see also|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
The Egyptian religions, embodied in [[Egyptian mythology]], were a succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, as early as [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] times and all the way until the coming of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] in the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] era. These were conducted by Egyptian [[priest]]s or [[magician]]s, but the use of [[magic and religion|magic]] and [[spell (paranormal)|spell]]s is questioned.
Every animal portrayed and worshipped in ancient Egyptian art, writing and religion is indigenous to [[Africa]], all the way from the [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] until the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] eras, over 3000 years. The [[Dromedary]], [[Domestication|domesticated]] first in [[Arabia]], first appears in Egypt (and North Africa) beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE.
The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the [[arts of the ancient world]]. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. [[Ancient Egyptian art]] in general is characterized by the idea of order.
Evidence of [[Mummy#Mummies in other civilizations|mummies]] and [[Pyramid#Structures|pyramids outside ancient Egypt]] indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other [[prehistory|prehistoric]] cultures, transmitted in one way over the [[Silk Road]]. Ancient Egypt's [[Foreign contacts of Ancient Egypt|foreign contacts]] included [[Nubia]] and [[Punt]] to the south, the [[Aegean]] and [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greece]] to the north, the [[Levant]] and other regions in the [[Near East]] to the east, and also [[Libya]] to the west.
Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually [[Symbolism|symbolic]].
==Ancient achievements==
[[image:Egypte louvre 316.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Louvre Museum]] antiquity]]
See [[Predynastic Egypt]] for inventions and other significant achievements in the [[Civilization#Sahara Region|Sahara region]] before the [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt|Protodynastic Period]].
The art and science of [[engineering]] was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as [[surveying]]). These skills were used to outline [[pyramid]] bases. The [[Egyptian pyramids]] took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. [[Cement|Hydraulic Cement]] was first invented by the Egyptians. The [[Al Fayyum]] [[Irrigation]] (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|twelfth dynasty]] using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the [[First dynasty of Egypt|First dynasty]] or before, the Egyptians [[Mining|mined]] [[turquoise]] in [[Sinai Peninsula]].
The earliest evidence (circa [[1600 BC]]) of traditional [[empiricism]] is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith]] and [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers papyri]]. The roots of the [[Scientific method#History|Scientific method]] may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known [[alphabet]], [[decimal system]] {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}} and complex [[Timeline of mathematics|mathematical formularizations]], in the form of the [[Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri]]. An awareness of the [[golden ratio]] seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the [[Egyptian pyramids]].
The art of glass making is of very ancient origin with the Egyptians, as is evident from the glass jars, figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing. These illustrations representing smiths blowing
their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. Therefore it can be concluded that glass-blowing is apparently of Egyptian origin.
===Timeline===
''(All dates are approximate.)''
====Predynastic====
''See main article and timeline: [[Predynastic Egypt]].''
* [[3500 BC]]: [[Senet]], world's oldest (confirmed) [[board game]]
* [[3500 BC]]: [[Faience]], world's earliest known earthenware
====Dynastic====
[[Image:Pyramide_Kheops.JPG|thumb|200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza]].]]
[[Image:Egyptian Glass.jpg|thumb|200px|Egypt was first to create glass objects. {{3d_glasses}}]]
* [[33rd century BC|3300 BC]]: [[Bronze]] works (see [[Bronze Age#Near East Bronze Age|Bronze Age]])
* [[3200 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s fully developed (see [[First dynasty of Egypt]])
* [[3200 BC]]: [[Narmer Palette]], world's earliest known [[historical document]]
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Decimal|Decimal system]], {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}}, world's earliest (confirmed) use
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Wine cellar]]s, world's earliest known {{ref|www.touregypt.net.361}}
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Mining]], [[Sinai Peninsula#History|Sinai Peninsula]]
* [[3100 BC|3050 BC]]: [[Shipbuilding]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], {{ref|xoomer.virgilio.it.362}}
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Export]]s from [[Nile]] to [[Israel]]: [[wine]] (see [[Narmer]])
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Copper]] [[plumbing]] (see [[Copper#History|Copper: History]])
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Papyrus]], world's earliest known [[paper]]
* [[3000 BC]]: [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|Medical Institutions]]
* [[2900 BC]]: possible [[steel]]: [[carbon]]-containing [[iron]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.363}}
* [[2700 BC]]: [[Surgery#History of surgery|Surgery]], world's earliest known
* [[2700 BC]]: precision [[Surveying#Origins|Surveying]]
* [[2700 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Uniliteral signs]], forming basis of world's [[History of alphabets|earliest known alphabet]]
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Sphinx]], still today the world's largest single-stone [[statue]]
* [[2600 BC|2600s]]&ndash;[[2500 BC]]: [[Shipping]] expeditions: [[Sneferu|King Sneferu]] and [[Sahure#History|Pharaoh Sahure]]. See also {{ref|www.msichicago.org.364}}, {{ref|www.touregypt.net.365}}.
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Barge]] transportation, stone blocks (see [[Egyptian pyramids#Construction techniques|Egyptian pyramids: Construction]])
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Pyramid of Djoser]], world's earliest known large-scale stone building
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Menkaure's Pyramid]] & [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known works of carved [[granite]]
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid [[granite]] work
* [[2600 BC|2580 BC]]: [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], the [[World's tallest structures|world's tallest structure]] until [[1300|AD 1300]]
* [[2500 BC]]: [[Beekeeping]], {{ref|www.vftn.org.366}}
* [[2400 BC]]: [[Egyptian calendar|Astronomical Calendar]], used even in the [[Middle Ages]] for its [[mathematics|mathematical]] regularity
* [[2200 BC]]: [[Beer]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.367}}
* [[1900 BC|1860 BC]]: possible [[Suez Canal|Nile-Red Sea Canal]] ([[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt]])
* [[1800 BC]]: [[History of the alphabet|Alphabet]], world's oldest known
* [[1800 BC]]: [[Timeline of mathematics|Berlin Mathematical Papyrus]], {{ref|www.math.buffalo.edu.368}}, 2nd order [[algebraic equations]]
* [[1800 BC]]: [[Moscow Papyrus|Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]], generalized formula for volume of [[frustum]]
* [[1650s BC|1650 BC]]: [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]]: [[geometry]], [[cotangent]] analogue, [[algebraic equations]], [[arithmetic series]], [[geometric series]]
* [[1600 BC]]: [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], medical tradition traces as far back as c. [[3000 BC]]
* [[1550s BC|1550 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers Medical Papyrus]], traditional [[empiricism]]; world's earliest known documented [[tumors]] (see [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|History of medicine]])
* [[1500 BC]]: [[Glass|Glass-making]], world's earliest known
* [[1250s BC|1258 BC]]: [[Peace treaty]], world's earliest known (see [[Ramesses II#Life|Ramesses II]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.369}})
* [[1160s BC|1160 BC]]: [[Turin papyrus]], world's earliest known [[geology|geologic]] and [[topographic]] map
* [[1000 BC]]: [[Tar|Petroleum tar]] used in [[Mummy|mummification]]{{ref|www.geotimes.org.feb05}} <!-- world's earliest known use of petroleum???? need documentation -->
* [[500s BC|5th]]&ndash;[[400s BC|4th century BC]] (or perhaps earlier): battle games ''petteia'' and ''seega''; possible precursors to [[Chess]] (see [[Origins of chess]])
====Other====
** c.[[2500 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]]
** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Ipuwer papyrus]]
** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Papyrus Harris I]]
** c.[[1400 BC]]: [[Tulli Papyrus]]
** c.[[1300 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Brugsch Papyrus]]
** Unknown date: [[Rollin Papyrus]]
<!-- shouldn't this section just
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decades. However, their construction is more expensive than more common forms.
====Terms used for automobile battery power ratings====
: see [[Car battery]]
===Battery explosion===
Under extreme conditions, certain types of batteries can explode. A battery explosion is usually caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery (such as the recharging of a non-rechargeable battery or shorting a car battery).
With car batteries, explosions are most likely to occur when a short circuit generates very large currents. A short circuit malfunction in a battery placed in parallel with other batteries ("jumped") can cause its neighbour to discharge its maximum current into the faulty cell, leading to overheating and possible explosion. In addition, car batteries liberate hydrogen when they are overcharged (because of [[electrolysis]] of the water in the electrolyte). Normally the amount of overcharging is very small and so is the amount of explosive gas developed, and the gas dissipates quickly. However, when "jumping" a car battery, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which could be ignited by a spark nearby (for example, when removing the jumper cables).
When a non-rechargeable battery is recharged at a high rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the walls of the battery, leading to pressure build-up and a possible explosion. In extreme cases, the battery acid may spray violently from the casing of the battery and cause injury.
Additionally, disposing of a battery in fire may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case of the battery.
Overcharging, which is charging a battery beyond its electrical capacity, can also lead to a battery explosion, leakage, or irreversible damage to the battery. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.
==Common battery types==
===Rechargeable and disposable batteries===
[[image:batteries.jpg|framed|Various batteries(clockwise from bottom left): two 9-volt, two "AA", one "D", a cordless phone battery, a camcorder battery, a 2-meter handheld ham radio battery, and a button battery, one "C" and two "AAA" plus, a U.S. quarter, for scale]]
From a user's viewpoint, at least, batteries can be generally divided into two main types&mdash;'''[[rechargeable battery|rechargeable]]''' and '''non-rechargeable''' (disposable). Each is in wide usage.
Disposable batteries, also called '''primary cells''', are intended to be used once, until the chemical changes that induce the electrical current supply are complete, at which point the battery is discarded. These are most commonly used in smaller, portable devices with either low current drain, only used intermittently, or used well away from an alternative power source. Primary cells can be recharged with varying degrees of success using a specialised charging technique called [[periodic current reversal]] which is a form of biased AC (i.e. alternating current with a DC offset) However battery manufacturers don't recommend attempting to recharge primary cells (cynics claim this is for commercial motives) and claim that conventional DC charging of primary cells can present dangers of leakage, overheating and even explosion.
By contrast, rechargeable batteries or '''secondary cells''' can be re-charged after they have been drained. This is done by applying externally supplied electrical current which causes the chemical changes that occur in use to be reversed. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery still in modern usage is the "wet cell" [[lead-acid battery]]. This battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well-ventilated to deal with the explosive [[hydrogen]] gas which is vented by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.
A common form of lead-acid battery is the modern [[car battery]]. This can deliver about 10,000 [[watt]]s of power for a short period, and has a peak current output that varies from 450 to 1100 [[ampere]]s. The battery's electrolyte includes [[sulfuric acid]], which can cause serious injury if splashed on the skin or eyes.
A more expensive type of lead-acid battery called a '''gel battery''' (or "gel cell") contains a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage. More portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units and are therefore useful in appliances like [[mobile phone]]s and [[laptop]]s. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include [[nickel-cadmium battery|nickel-cadmium]] (NiCd), [[nickel metal hydride battery|nickel metal hydride]] (NiMH), and [[lithium ion battery|lithium-ion]] (Li-Ion) cells.
====Disposable====
Non-rechargeable - sometimes called "primary cells".
* [[Zinc-carbon battery]] - low cost - used in light drain applications
* [[Zinc-chloride battery]] - similar to zinc carbon but slightly longer life
* [[Alkaline battery]] - alkaline/manganese "long life" batteries widely used in both light drain and heavy drain applications
* [[Silver-oxide battery]] - commonly used in hearing aids
* [[Lithium battery]] - commonly used in digital cameras. Sometimes used in watches and computer clocks. Very long life (up to seven years in wristwatches) and capable of delivering high currents but expensive
* [[Mercury battery]] - commonly used in digital watches
* [[Zinc-air battery]] - commonly used in hearing aids
====Rechargeable ====
Also known as secondary batteries or accumulators.
* [[Lead-acid battery]] - commonly used in vehicles, alarm systems and [[uninterruptible power supply|uninterruptible power supplies]]. Used to be used as a "A" or "wet" battery in valve/[[vacuum tube]] radio sets.
** [[Absorbed glass mat]]
** [[Gel battery]]
* [[Lithium ion battery]]
* [[Lithium ion polymer battery]]
* [[NaS battery]]
* [[Nickel metal hydride battery]]
* [[Nickel-cadmium battery]] - used in many domestic applications but being superseded by Li-Ion and Ni-MH types
* [[Sodium-metal chloride battery]]
* [[Nickel-zinc battery]]
===Homemade cells===
Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes into a [[Lemon battery|lemon]], potato, glass of soft drink, etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. [[As of 2005]], "two-potato clocks" are widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, etc.) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock. Homemade cells of this kind are of no real practical use, because they produce far less current&mdash;and cost far more per unit of energy generated&mdash;than commercial cells, due to the need for frequent replacement of the fruit or vegetable.
===Traction batteries===
Traction batteries (secondary batteries or accumulators) are designed to provide power to move a vehicle, such as an electric car or tow motor. A major design consideration is power to weight ratio since the vehicle must carry the battery. To prevent spilling, the electrolyte in traction batteries is gelled. The electrolyte may also be embedded in a glass wool which is wound so that the cells have a round cross-sectional area ([[Absorbed Glass Mat|AGM-type]]).
The following types are also in use[http://www.madkatz.com/ev/battery.html]:
* Zebra NiNaCl (or NaNiCl) battery operating at 270 °C requiring cooling in case of temperature excursions
* NiZn battery (higher cell voltage 1.6 V and thus 25% increased specific energy, very short lifespan)
[[Lithium_ion_battery|Lithium-ion batteries]] are now pushing out NiMh-technology in the sector while for low investment costs the lead-acid technology remains in the leading role[http://www.e-mobile.ch/pdf/2005/Subat_WP5-006.pdf].
See also: [[Battery pack]]
===Flow batteries===
[[Flow Battery|Flow batteries]] are a special class of battery where additional quantities of [[electrolyte]] are stored outside the main power cell of the battery, and circulated through it by pumps or by movement. Flow batteries can have extremely large capacities and are used in marine applications and are gaining populatity in [[grid energy storage]] applications.
==Common battery sizes==
Disposable cells and some rechargeable cells come in a number of standard sizes, so the same battery type can be used in a wide variety of appliances. Some of the major types used in portable appliances include the A-series ([[A battery|A]], [[AA battery|AA]], [[AAA battery|AAA]], [[AAAA battery|AAAA]]), [[B battery|B]], [[C battery|C]], [[D battery|D]], [[F battery|F]], [[G battery|G]], [[J battery|J]], and [[N battery|N]], [[3R12 battery|3R12]], [[4R25 battery|4R25]] and variants, [[PP3 battery|PP3]] and [[PP9 battery|PP9]], and the lantern [[996 battery|996]] and [[PC926 battery|PC926]]. These and less common types are included in the list of battery sizes appearing in the following section (the list can be opened as a [[List of battery sizes|separate page]] as well).
A good cross-reference of different manufacturer's battery and cell designations can be found here [http://www.gpina.com/consumer/primary/button.htm] and here [http://batterywholesale.com/lithium_cross.html].
{{:List of battery sizes}}
==History==
There is s
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of electric double basses were developed. Even though these instruments had electric pickups, they were still variants of the double bass, because they were unfretted and played vertically. The Audiovox Manufacturing Company in [[Seattle, Washington]] had an upright solidbody electric bass on the market by February 1935, designed by Paul Tutmarc, a musician, instrument maker, and amplifier designer.
Subsequently, Paul Tutmarc developed a guitar-style electric bass instrument that was fretted and designed to be held and played horizontally. Audiovox's sales catalogue of 1935-6 listed what is probably the world’s first fretted, solid body electric bass that is designed to be played horizontally - the Model #736 Electric Bass Fiddle. The change to a "guitar" form made the instrument easier to hold and transport; the addition of guitar-style frets enabled bassists to play in tune more easily (which also made the new electric bass easier to learn).
The first mass-produced electric bass was developed by innovator and manufacturer [[Leo Fender]] in the early 1950s. Fender trained as an [[accountant]] and was a self-taught electrical engineer who started repairing radios and built public address (P.A.) systems before getting into the electronics and amplification of electric instruments. Ironically, Leo Fender could not even play guitar or bass: by his own admission, "not a note."
The [[Fender Precision Bass]] was first offered in 1951. Named for the exact intonation a player could achieve with its fretted neck, the Precision Bass was equipped with a single piece, four-pole pickup, and a simple, uncontoured 'slab' body design. In 1954 the body was contoured with beveled edges for comfort. In 1957, the pickup was changed to a single "split pickup" (staggered) design. The pickguard also underwent a radical change, as did the headstock.
This 1957 design has remained as the standard electric bass, and is still widely available. Another industry standard, the similar, but more highly-engineered [[Jazz Bass|Fender Jazz Bass]], was introduced in 1960. These designs have become so ubiquitous that pickups based on the ones found on the Precision and Jazz basses are often referred to as "P" or "J", respectively. (Fender also produced a six-string bass, the [[Fender VI]], in the 1960s, although it was tuned higher than a modern six-string bass.)
Following Fender's lead, other companies such as [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]], [[Danelectro]], and many others started to produce their own version of the electric bass. Some, like the Rickenbacker 4000 series, became identified with a particular style of music. [[Rickenbacker]]s were pioneered by [[Paul McCartney]], [[John Entwistle]], [[Chris Squire]], [[Geddy Lee]], and other [[progressive rock]] bassists.
In 1971 [[Alembic Inc|Alembic]] established the template for what would subsequently be known as "high end" electric bass. Key design elements included active electronics, premium woods, and multi-laminate neck-through-body construction. Other innovations by Alembic included the world’s first graphite neck bass and one of the early production 5-string bass with a low "B" string, both in 1976. Another manufacturer, Fodera, also began producing an electric bass with a low "B" string in the mid-1970s. In collaboration with the highly-respected bassist [[Anthony Jackson]], Fodera developed a new six-string electric bass.
Early uses of the electric bass saw bassists doubling the double bass part or replacing the upright bass entirely with their new, more portable and easily amplified instrument. By the 1960s, the electric bass had replaced the upright bass in most forms of popular music-although country music and jazz were an exception to this trend. The switch to electric bass moved bassists more into the foreground of a band, in two senses. From an aural perspective, electric bass tone can often "cut through" a live mix better. As well, electric basses can be amplified to very high levels without the problem of feedback "howls" that can plague upright bass players trying to amplify their instruments. From a visual point of view, the switch to the electric bass allowed bassists much more freedom of movement on stage. The double bass sits on an endpin, and stands vertically, and players typically play in a single location for the duration of a song. However, the electric bass is smaller, and is held up with a strap, which allows the electric bassist to move about on the stage while playing, and get closer to other musicians or the audience.
The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of rock and country music. The rockabilly revival led by the chart-topping Stray Cats made upright basses "hip" again. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Popular bands such as the Canadian group Barenaked Ladies decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass. A trend for "[[MTV Unplugged|unplugged]]" performances further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and [[acoustic bass guitar]]s. Even in the early 2000s, the upright bass continued its comeback, with punk/"[[psychobilly ]]" groups such as [[Tiger Army ]], [[The Living End]] and the HellRazors using the upright bass.
Innovations and refinements to electric bass equipment continue through to the present day.
== Design considerations ==
The distinctive 4-string Fender Precision bass or copies by other manufacturers remains the most popular choice in many styles of music. Major musical groups from the 1950s to today in genres varying from blues to punk continue to use the iconic Fender-style bass. In some genres, such as traditional blues or country, departing from this de facto standard is uncommon.
However, in many musical settings, musicians have embraced the wide variety of different electric bass designs, which include a huge variety of options for the body, neck, pickups, and other features. Musicians have become open minded towards the new technologies and approaches to musical instrument design that have developed for the electric bass. As well, instruments handmade by highly-skilled masters of the craft of [[lutherie]] (guitar-making) are becoming an increasingly popular choice for professional and highly-skilled amateur bassists. These developments have given the modern bass player a wide range of choices when choosing an instrument. Design options include:
=== Body ===
Bodies are typically made of wood although other materials such as [[graphite]] (for example, some of the [[Steinberger]] designs) have also been used. A wide variety of woods are suitable - the most common include [[alder]], [[mahogany]] and [[ash_tree|ash]]. The choice of body material and shape can have a significant impact on the [[timbre]] of the completed instrument as well as [[aesthetic]] considerations. Other design considerations include:
* A wide range of colored or clear lacquer, wax and oil finishes exploiting the amazing variety of natural wood forms
* Various flat and carved industrial designs for different types of both traditional and exotic woods, large percentage of [[luthier]]-produced unique instruments (affecting weight, balance and aesthetics)
* Headed and headless (with tuning done at the bridge) designs
* Several artificial materials developed especially for instrument building, most notable being [[luthite]]
* Unique production techniques for artificial materials, including die-casting for cost-effective complex body shapes
One further variable is the solidity of the body. Most basses have solid bodies but variations include chambers for increased resonance or to reduce weight. Basses are also built with entirely hollow bodies. Many of these have enough volume for unamplified performance in a small venue. Hollow-bodied basses are discussed in more detail in the article on [[acoustic bass guitar]]s.
=== Number of strings (and tuning)===
[[ Image:Notesonbass.jpg|thumb|550px|Note positions on a right-handed 4-string bass]]
The standard design electric bass has four strings, tuned E, A, D, G (with the fundamental frequency of the E string set at 41.3 Hz, the same as the lowest string on the double bass). Modern variants include:
* Five strings (normally B, E, A, D, G but sometimes E, A, D, G, C)
* Six strings (B, E, A, D, G, C or B, E, A, D, G, B—although E, A, D, G, B, E has also been used). Six string basses are not very popular, but some noted bass players do use them, such as [[New Order]]'s [[Peter Hook]] and [[Dream Theater]]'s [[John Myung]]. Basses with seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven and even twelve (untripled) strings are also available (see also [[extended-range bass]]).
* Double and triple courses of strings (e.g., an 8-string bass would be strung Ee, Aa, Dd, Gg, while a 12-string bass might be tuned Eee Aaa Ddd Ggg, with standard pitch strings augmented by two strings an octave higher), which are found in 8-, 10-, and 12-string varieties (doubled versions of 4, 5, and 6 string basses)
* Tenor bass: A, D, G, C
* Piccolo bass: e, a, d, g (an octave higher than standard bass tuning—-the same as the bottom four strings of a guitar)
* Sub contra bass : C#, F#, B, E (C# being at 18 Hz and the E string being the same as the E string found on standard basses)
* [[Detuner]]s, commonly called [[Hipshot]]s, allow one or more strings to be easily adjusted while playing (most commonly used to give the option of dropping the E string down to D on a four string bass). This type of tuning peg is descended from the [[Scruggs peg]], used on [[banjo]]s.
=== Pickups ===
[[Image:Bassguitarpickup
|
to give the body a possibility of becoming soil again.
Rarer forms of disposal of the dead include [[excarnation]], where the corpse is exposed to the elements. This was done by some groups of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]; it is still practiced by [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]]s in [[Bombay]], where the [[Towers of Silence]] allow [[vulture]]s and other carrion eating [[bird]]s to dispose of the corpses. It is also practiced by some Tibetan Buddhist monks where it is sometimes called "sky burial".
[[Cannibalism]] is also practiced post-mortem in some countries. The practice has been linked to the spread of a [[prion]] disease called [[kuru (disease)|kuru]].
[[Mummy|Mummification]] is the drying of bodies to preserve them. The most famous practitioners of mummification were ancient Egyptians: many nobles and high-ranked bureaucrats of the old Egyptian kingdom had their corpses [[Embalming|embalmed]] and stored in luxurious [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] inside their funeral mausoleum or, in the case of some [[Pharaoh|Pharaons]], [[pyramid]].
==Control by the decedent of the details of the funeral==
In [[law]] in the United States, the deceased have surprisingly little say in the manner in which their funerals can be conducted. The law generally holds that the funeral rituals are for the benefit of the survivors, rather than to express the personal whims and tastes of the decedent.
The decedent may, in most U.S. jurisdictions, provide instructions as to his funeral by means of a [[Will (law)|Last Will and Testament]]. These instructions can be given some legal effect if [[bequest]]s are made contingent on the [[heir]]s carrying them out, with alternative gifts if they are not followed. This assumes, of course, that the decedent has enough of an estate to make the heirs pause before doing something that will invoke the alternate bequest. To be effective, the will must be easily available, and some notion of what it provides must be known to the decedent's survivors.
[[image:funeral.name.tribute.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A name tribute (MUM) at a funeral in England.]]
Some people dislike the clutter and display of flowers at funerals, and feel that there is an unseemly competition in the number and size of the floral arrangements sent. Many [[newspaper]]s refuse to print an [[obituary]] that requests that flowers not be sent; to do so would be to offend the florists' industry. Many obituaries, however, contain notices regarding "memorial gifts" to a [[charity]]. It is usually understood in these situations that a gift to the charity made in memory of the decedent relieves the donor of the social duty of sending flowers.
==Anatomical gifts==
Another way of avoiding some of the rituals and costs of a traditional funeral is for the decedent to donate some or all of her or his body to a [[medical school]] or similar institution for the purpose of instruction in [[anatomy]], or for similar purposes. Students of [[medicine]] and [[osteopathy]] frequently study anatomy from donated cadavers; they are also useful in [[forensic]] research.
Making an anatomical gift is a separate transaction from being an [[organ donor]], in which any useful organs are removed from the unembalmed cadaver for [[medicine|medical]] [[transplant]]. Under a [[Uniform Act]] in force in most jurisdictions of the United States, being an organ donor is a simple process that can often be accomplished when a [[driver's license]] is renewed.
There are some medical conditions, such as [[amputation]]s, or various [[surgery|surgeries]], that can make the cadaver unsuitable for these purposes. Conversely, the bodies of people who had certain medical conditions are useful for research into those conditions. All US medical schools rely on the generosity of "anatomical donors" for the teaching of anatomy. Typically the remains are cremated once the students have completed their anatomy classes, and many medical schools now hold a memorial service at that time as well.
==See also==
*[[State funeral]]
*[[Mourning]]
*[[Bereavement in Judaism]]
*[[Requiem]]
*[[Funeral (album)]]
*[[Museum of funeral customs|Museum of Funeral Customs]]
==External links==
*[http://www.funeralmuseum.org/index.html Museum of Funeral Customs homepage]
*[http://www.amc.edu/Academic/anatomical_gift_program/anatomical_gift_program-medica.htm List of anatomical gift contacts] from [[Albany Medical School]]
*[http://www.genealogytoday.com/guide/funeral_cards.html Finding Funeral Cards Online for your Genealogy]
[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Ceremonies]]
[[es:Sepultura]]
[[fr:Rite funéraire]]
[[it:Funerale]]
[[he:הלוויה]]
[[nl:Begrafenis]]
[[ja:葬儀]]
[[pl:Pogrzeb]]
[[pt:Funeral]]
[[ru:Похороны]]
[[simple:Funeral]]
[[fi:Hautajaiset]]
[[zh:葬礼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FAA (disambiguation)</title>
<id>11183</id>
<revision>
<id>35175747</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T19:13:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SNIyer12</username>
<id>224762</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FAA (other uses)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 11</title>
<id>11184</id>
<revision>
<id>41514459</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:49:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=11}}
|}
'''[[February 11]]''' is the 42nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 323 days remaining, 324 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[660 BC]] - Traditional founding date of [[Japan]] by [[Emperor Jimmu]].
* [[731]] - [[Pope Gregory II|Gregory II]] ends his reign as [[Pope]].
* [[824]] - [[Pope Paschal I|Paschal I]] ends his reign as [[Pope]].
* [[1531]] - [[Henry VIII of England]] recognized as supreme head of the [[Church of England]].
* [[1752]] - [[Pennsylvania Hospital]], 1st hospital in the [[United States]], opens.
* [[1790]] - [[Religious Society of Friends]] petitions [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for abolition of [[slavery]].
* [[1794]] - First session of [[United States Senate]] open to the public.
* [[1808]] - [[Anthracite]] coal first burned as fuel, experimentally.
* [[1809]] - [[Robert Fulton]] patents the [[steamboat]]
* [[1812]] - [[Massachusetts]] governor [[Elbridge Gerry]] [[gerrymandering|gerrymanders]] for the first time.
* [[1814]] - [[Norway]]'s independence is proclaimed, marking the ultimate end of the [[Kalmar Union]].
* [[1826]] - [[University College London]] is founded under the name ''[[University of London]]''.
* [[1837]] - [[American Physiological Society]] organizes in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
* [[1840]] - [[Gaetano Donizetti]]'s opera [[La Fille du Régiment]] receives its first performance in [[Paris]].
* [[1843]] - [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera [[I Lombardi]] receives its first performance in [[Milan]].
* [[1855]] - [[Kassa Hailu]] is crowned [[Tewodros II]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]], by [[Abuna Salama III]] in a ceremony at the church of [[Derasge Maryam]].
* [[1858]] - The [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] reputedly appears to Saint [[Bernadette Soubirous]] of [[Lourdes]].
* [[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States House of Representatives]] unanimously passes a resolution guaranteeing noninterference with [[slavery]] in any state.
* [[1873]] - King [[Amadeus I of Spain]] abdicates.
* [[1889]] - [[Meiji constitution]] of [[Japan]] adopted; 1st [[Diet of Japan]] convenes in [[1890]].
* [[1895]] - The lowest ever [[United Kingdom|UK]] temperature of -27.2°C was recorded at [[Braemar]] in [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]]. This record was equalled on [[10 January]],[[1982]] .
* [[1902]] - Police assault [[universal suffrage]] demonstrators in [[Brussels]].
* [[1903]] - [[Anton Bruckner]]'s [[9th Symphony]] receives its first performance in [[Vienna]].
* [[1905]] - [[Pope Pius X]] publishes the encyclical ''[[Vehementer nos]]''.
* [[1908]] - [[Australia]] regain [[the Ashes]] with a 308 run cricket victory over [[England]].
* [[1916]] - [[Emma Goldman]] arrested for lecturing on [[birth control]].
* [[1919]] - [[Reichspräsident|Friedrich Ebert]] ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]), elected [[President of Germany]].
* [[1922]] - [[Navy]] [[USS Michigan (BB-27)]] Decomisioned.
* [[1928]] - [[1928 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[St. Moritz]], [[Switzerland]].
* [[1929]] - [[Italy]] and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] sign the [[Lateran Treaty]].
* [[1937]] - A sit-down strike ends when [[General Motors]] recognizes the [[United Auto Workers Union]].
* [[1938]] - [[BBC One|BBC Television]] produces the world's first ever [[science fiction television]] programme, an adaptation of a section of the [[Karel Capek]] play ''[[R.U.R.]]'' (The play which coined the term "[[robot]]").
* [[1941]] - First Gold record presented to [[Glenn Miller]] for "[[Chattanooga Choo Choo]]".
* [[1943]] - General [[Dwight Eisenhower]] selected to command the [[allies|allied]] armies in [[Europe]].
* [[1945]] - [[Yalta Conference]] ends.
* [[1948]] - [[John Costello]] succeeds [[Eamon de Valera|Éamon de Valera]] as [[Taoiseach]] of [[Ireland]].
* [[1953]] - [[President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower]] refuses clemency appeal for [[Ethel and Julius Rosenberg]].
* 1953 - The [[Soviet Union]] breaks off diplomatic relations with [[Israel]].
* [[1961]] - Trial of [[Adolf Eichmann]] begins in [[Jerusalem]].
* [[1963]] - [[The Beatles]] tape 10 tracks for their first album, including "[[Please, Please Me]]".
* [[1964]] - At the [[Washington, DC]] [[Coliseum]], [[The Beatles]] have their 1st live appearance in the [[United States]].
* 1964 - [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Turk
|
==Architecture==
[[Image:Bank of china night.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Bank of China Tower]] at dusk.]]
{{main|Architecture of Hong Kong}}
Due to the [[creative destruction]] so endemic to Hong Kong over the past 50 years, few historical buildings remain in Hong Kong. Instead the city has become a centre for [[modern architecture]], especially in and around [[Central and Western district|Central]]. The tall business buildings of Central comprise the skyline along the coast of the [[Victoria Harbour]], which is one of Hong Kong's famous tourist attractions. In [[Kowloon]], which once included the anarchistic settlement called the [[Kowloon Walled City]], strict height restrictions were in force until [[Kai Tak Airport]] closed in 1998, but these restrictions have now been lifted, and several new skyscrapers in Kowloon are being planned.
Hong Kong's best-known building is arguably [[I. M. Pei|Ieoh Ming Pei]]'s [[Bank of China Tower]], completed in 1990 and now Hong Kong's third tallest skyscraper. The building attracted heated controversy from the start, as its sharp angles were said to cast negative [[feng shui]] energy into the heart of Hong Kong. Predating the Bank of China Tower, another well-known structure is the [[HSBC Hong Kong headquarters building|HSBC Headquarters Building]], finished in 1985. This building is featured on many of [[Hong Kong banknotes|Hong Kong's banknote]]s. It was built on the site of Hong Kong's first skyscraper, which was finished in 1935 and was the subject of a bitter heritage [[Architectural conservation|conservation]] struggle in the late 1970s.
One of the largest construction projects in Hong Kong and the world was the new [[Hong Kong International Airport]] on [[Chek Lap Kok]] near [[Lantau]], a huge land reclamation project linked to the centre of Hong Kong by the [[Lantau Link]], which features three new major [[bridge]]s: the world's [[List of largest suspension bridges|sixth largest]] [[suspension bridge]], [[Tsing Ma Bridge|Tsing Ma]], the world's longest [[cable-stayed bridge]] carrying both road and railway traffic, [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge|Kap Shui Mun]], and the world's first major 4-span cable-stayed bridge, [[Ting Kau Bridge|Ting Kau]].
==Transport==
[[Image:Hong Kong Airport Inside.JPG|thumb|250px||right|Departure hall at [[Hong Kong International Airport]].]]
[[Image:HongKongBuses.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Single and double-decker buses [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus]], [[New World First Bus]] at [[Wan Chai Pier]] bus terminus.]]
{{main|Transport in Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong has a highly developed and sophisticated [[transport]] network, encompassing both [[public transport|public]] and private transport. The [[Octopus card]] stored value [[smart card]] payment system can be used to pay for fares on almost all railways, buses and ferries in Hong Kong. All [[parking meter]]s in Hong Kong only accept payment by Octopus card, and Octopus card payment can be made at various carparks.
Hong Kong Island is dominated by steep, hilly terrain, which required the development of unusual methods of transport up and down the slopes. In [[Central and Western district]] there is an extensive system of [[escalator|escalators]] and [[moving sidewalk|moving sidewalks]], including the longest outdoor covered elevator system in the world, the [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator|Mid-levels Escalator]].
Hong Kong has several different modes of public rail transport. The two [[metro]] systems for the city are the [[MTR]] and [[KCR]] (KCR also operates a [[light rail]] system in northwest New Territories), which are operated by the [[MTR Corporation Limited]] and the [[Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation]] respectively. The [[Hong Kong Tramways|tramway system]] covers the northern parts of Hong Kong Island and is the only [[tram]] system in the world run exclusively with [[double decker]]s.
Five separate companies operate franchised public [[bus]] services in Hong Kong. Double-decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong in 1949. They are now used almost exclusively in Hong Kong just as in [[Dublin]], [[London]] and [[Singapore]]. However, single-decker buses remain in use for routes with lower demand or roads with lower carrying capacity and are used exclusively in South Lantau. Most normal franchised bus routes in Hong Kong operate until 1am in the morning. [[Public light bus|Public light buses]] run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas where standard bus lines cannot reach or do not reach as frequently, quickly, or directly. [[Taxicab|Taxi]]s are also widely used throughout Hong Kong. 99% of taxis in Hong Kong run on liquefied petroleum gas, the rest are still diesel operated.
Most ferry services are provided by licensed ferry operators, which serve [[Islands of Hong Kong|outlying islands]], new towns, and inner-[[Victoria Harbour]]. The two routes operated by the [[Star Ferry]], operating for over 100 years, are franchised. Additionally, 78 "[[kai-to]]" ferries are licensed to serve remote coastal settlements.
Hong Kong has one active [[international airport]], known as [[Hong Kong International Airport]] located at [[Chek Lap Kok]]. This replaced the famous airport of the same name at [[Kai Tak International Airport|Kai Tak]] in 1998. After dreadful delays in the cargo systems in the first few months, the airport now serves as a transport hub for [[Southeast Asia]], and as the hub for [[Cathay Pacific Airways]], [[Dragonair (airline)|Dragonair]], [[Air Hong Kong]] and [[Hong Kong Express]]. Additionally, both Hong Kong International Airport and [[Cathay Pacific Airways]] have been voted best in the world, in the airport and airline criteria respectively, by [[Skytrax]] from 2001 to 2005. [[Hong Kong International Airport]] serves more than 36 million passengers in the year 2004.
Access to the airport includes 'Airport Express', 'CityFlyers' and 'Airbuses', These services connect the airport to the rest of Hong Kong. The Airport Express zooms passengers to [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] on Hong Kong Island in just 23 minutes. Recent opening of [[Sunny Bay (MTR)|Sunny Bay Station]] of the [[MTR]] allows easy access to the Disneyland Resort.
==Military==
[[Image:Hkgarrison.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The [[PLA Hong Kong Garrison|Hong Kong Garrison]] of the [[People's Liberation Army]] entering Hong Kong for the first time in 1997.]]
{{main|Military of Hong Kong}}
The PRC [[Central People's Government]] (CPG) assumed sovereignty over Hong Kong on [[1 July]] [[1997]] and stationed a [[garrison]] of the [[PLA Hong Kong Garrison|People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) to manage its defence affairs. Although the garrison has no military significance, the stationing of the PLA troops in the region is a significant symbol of the PRC government's resumption of sovereignty over Hong Kong.
According to the [[Basic Law]], military forces stationed in Hong Kong shall not interfere with local affairs; Hong Kong government shall remain responsible for the maintenance of public order. The Hong Kong Garrison, composed of [[army|ground]], [[navy|naval]], and [[air force]]s, is under the command of the Chinese [[Central Military Commission]]. The garrison subsequently opened the barracks on [[Stonecutters Island]] and [[Stanley, Hong Kong|Chek Chu]] to the public to promote understanding and trust between the troops and residents.
Under British rule, ethnic Chinese Hongkongers were allowed to join the [[British Forces Overseas Hong Kong|British defence forces]]. However, since the handover in 1997, they were no longer allowed to join the PLA.
==International rankings==
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], not ranked out of 62 countries
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2005] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 1st out of 155 countries, for 11 years in a row.
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 2nd out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715 Third annual worldwide press freedom index (2004)], ranked 34th out of 167 countries
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], not ranked out of 110 countries
* [[Skyline]]: [http://www.emporis.com/en/bu/sk/st/sr/], ranked 1st out of all cities of the world
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 18th out of 111 countries
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], ranked 16th out of 146 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/ Human Development Index 2004], ranked 23rd out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking], ranked 21st out of 104 countries
==References==
* ''A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong''. Frank Welsh. Kodansha America. [[1 October]] [[1993]]. 624 pages. ISBN 1568360029.
* ''Hong Kong's History: State and Society Under Colonial Rule (Asia's Transformations)''. Tak-Wing Ngo. Routledge. [[1 August]] [[1999]]. 205 pages. ISBN 0415208688.
* ''The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, Arts, Identity''. Poshek Fu, David Deser. [[Cambridge University Press]]. [[25 March]] [[2002]]. 346 pages. ISBN 0521776023.
* ''A Modern History of Hong Kong''. Steve Tsang. I. B. Tauris. [[14 May]] [[2004]]. 356 pages. ISBN 1860641849.
* ''An Outline History of Hong Kong''. Liu Shuyong.
|
1916 to include elliptical orbits, using a quantization of [[generalized momentum]].
The ad hoc Bohr-Sommerfeld model was extremely difficult to use, but it made impressive predictions in agreement with certain spectral properties. However, the model was unable to explain multielectron atoms, predict [[transition rate]]s or describe [[fine structure|fine]] and [[hyperfine structure]]. In 1925, [[Erwin Schrödinger]] developed a full theory of quantum mechanics, described by the [[Schrödinger equation]]. Together with [[Wolfgang Pauli]]'s [[Pauli exclusion principle|exclusion principle]], this allowed study of atoms with great precision when digital computers became available. Even today, these theories are used in the [[Hartree-Fock]] [[quantum chemistry|quantum chemical]] method to determine the energy levels of atoms. Further refinements of quantum theory such as the [[Dirac equation]] and [[quantum field theory]] made smaller impacts on the theory of atoms.
Another model of historical interest, proposed by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1916, had [[cubical atom]]s with electrons statically held at the corners. The cubes could share edges or faces to form chemical bonds. This model was created to account for chemical phenomena such as bonding, rather than physical phenomena such as atomic spectra.
==See also==
* [[Atomism]]
* [[Basic quantum mechanics]]
* [[Chemical bond]]
* [[Exotic atom]]
* [[Infinite divisibility]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Radioactive isotope]]
* [[Superatom]]
* [[Super-heavy atom]]
* [[Transuranium element]]
==References==
* Kenneth S. Krane, ''Introductory Nuclear Physics'' (1987)
== External links ==
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm How Atoms Work]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics_Atom:The_Atom Wikibooks FHSST Physics Atom:The Atom]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Atomic_structure Wikibooks Atomic structure]
{{composite}}
[[Category:Atoms| ]]
[[af:Atoom]]
[[ar:ذرة (علوم)]]
[[an:Atomo]]
[[ast:Átomu]]
[[bg:Атом]]
[[bs:Atom]]
[[br:Atom]]
[[ca:Àtom]]
[[cs:Atom]]
[[da:Atom]]
[[de:Atom]]
[[et:Aatom]]
[[es:Átomo]]
[[eo:Atomo]]
[[fa:اتم]]
[[fr:Atome]]
[[gl:Átomo]]
[[ko:원자]]
[[hr:Atom]]
[[io:Atomo]]
[[id:Atom]]
[[ia:Atomo]]
[[is:Frumeind]]
[[it:Teoria atomica]]
[[he:אטום]]
[[kn:ಅಣು]]
[[ka:ატომი]]
[[la:Atomus]]
[[lv:Atoms]]
[[lt:Atomas]]
[[hu:Atom]]
[[mk:Атом]]
[[ms:Atom]]
[[nl:Atoom]]
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[[ja:原子]]
[[no:Atom]]
[[nn:Atom]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arable land</title>
<id>903</id>
<revision>
<id>41774993</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:37:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rjgibb</username>
<id>868299</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:040719_172_dorset_marnhull.jpg|thumb|220px|Modern arable agriculture typically uses large [[field (agriculture)|fields]] like this one in [[Dorset]], [[England]].]]
In [[geography]], '''arable land''' (from [[Latin]] ''arare'', to [[plough]] ) is a form of [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[land use]], meaning [[land (economics)|land]] that can be (and is) used for growing [[agriculture|crops]]. [[David Ricardo]] incorporated the idea of arable land into [[economic]] [[theory]].
Of the earth's 57 million square miles (148,000,000&nbsp;km&sup2;) of land, more than 12 million square miles (31,000,000&nbsp;km&sup2;) are arable.
Most of the arable land on earth is around the largest rivers on earth. Some examples are: the [[Nile]] River, the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] Rivers, the [[Yellow River]], the [[Amazon River]], the [[Ganges]] and the [[Rhine]] River. These rivers flood regularly, overspilling their banks. When the flood is over, the rivers recede, leaving behind rich [[silt]]. This silt is excellent fertilizer for [[crops]]. Even if the land is overfarmed, and all the [[nutrient]]s are depleted from the soil, the land renews its fertility when the next flood comes. Rivers and streams can make desert land arable.
==Unarable land==
On unarable land, farming is nearly impossible unless more advanced methods of [[agriculture]] are used. Unarable land usually has no source of fresh water, and is often too hot (desert), too cold (arctic), too rocky, too mountainous, too salty, too rainy, too snowy, or too cloudy. Clouds block the sunlight plants need for [[photosynthesis]] (making sunlight into food). The plants starve without light. [[Starvation]] and [[nomad]]ism often exist on unarable land. Unarable land is sometimes called 'wastes', 'badlands', 'worthless' or 'no man's land'.
Sometimes, unarable land can be turned into arable land. New arable land makes more food, and can prevent [[starvation]], saving lives. This also makes the country more [[self-sufficient]] and politically independent, because the country doesn't have to buy food from other countries. Making unarable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aquaducts, [[desalination]] plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, [[hydroponic]]s, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, [[pesticide]]s, [[reverse osmosis]] water processors, [[mylar]] insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas.
Some examples of infertile '''unarable''' land being turned into fertile '''arable''' land are:
* Aran Island: This island off the west coast of Ireland, (not to be confused with the [[Isle of Arran]] in [[Scotland]]'s [[Firth of Clyde]]), was unarable because it was too rocky. The people covered the island with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. This made it arable. Today, they grow crops there.
* [[Israel]]: Israel was mostly unarable desert until [[desalination]] plants were built on the coast. The plants turn salt water into fresh water for farming, drinking, and washing. They created their own large fresh water source.
Some examples of fertile '''arable''' land being turned into infertile '''unarable''' land are:
* Droughts like the '[[dust bowl]]' of the [[Great Depression]] in the U.S. turned farmland into desert.
* [[Rainforest]] Deforestation: The fertile tropical forests turn into infertile desert land.
* [[Roman Republic|Roman]]s' destruction of [[Carthage]]: At the end of the [[Punic War]]s, the victorious Romans sowed the earth with salt, to symbolize total victory. The Roman symbol meant that Carthage would never grow back - their civilization ended. Crops won't generally grow in salty soil. This is why salt water from the ocean can't be used to water crops.
* Each year more arable land is lost to desertification and [[erosion]] from human industrial activities. Irrigation of farm land also increases the [[sodium]], [[calcium]], and [[magnesium]] in the soil. This process steadily concentrates salt in the ground, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.
* [[Urban sprawl]]: In the United States, about 2.2 million acres (8,900 km²) of land was added to urban areas between 1992 and 2002, much of it farm land now paved.
== See also ==
*[[List of environment topics]]
==External links==
*[http://pages.prodigy.net/jhonig/bignum/qland2.html Surface Area of the Earth]
*[http://www.cnie.org/pop/conserving/landuse.htm Conserving Land: Population and Sustainable Food Production]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aluminium</title>
<id>904</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42089447</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:30:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UkPaolo</username>
<id>269651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.144.119.56|66.144.119.56]] ([[User talk:66.144.119.56|talk]]) to last version by Spaully</comment>
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[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px|United States]] [[August 30]] [[2002]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25px|Australia]] [[March 6]] [[2003]]<br>
[[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|25px|Italy]] [[May 5]] [[2003]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px|United Kingdom]] [[June 26]] [[2003]] <br>
[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|25px|Argentina]] [[July 1]] [[2003]] <br>
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{{nihongo|'''''Cowboy Bebop'''''|カウボーイビバップ|Kaubōi Bibappu}} (1998) is an [[anime]] television series and motion picture that follows a band of American-stylized [[Bounty hunter|bounty hunters]] thrown together by circumstance and necessity, but each with passionately disparate private agendas. Each episode tells the story of how the group tracks down wanted criminals in a futuristic setting while dealing with personal issues that arise by location, people they meet, or misgivings about the [[morality]] of the subject of their bounty. While every episode, or the movie, stands on its own, the back-stories of the characters and their growing intimacy together make the whole much greater than the sum of its parts.
''Cowboy Bebop'' was popular in [[Japan]] and became one of the biggest adult [[anime]] hits ever in the [[United States]], opening the genre to an audience that previously considered anything but live action to be juvenile. The unflinching adult themes of the show, along with the cool [[jazz]] tracks and [[political]] undertones became a favorite of many Americans tuning into [[Cartoon Network]]'s new late-night "[[Adult Swim]]". Pirated copies of the Japanese Cowboy Bebop movie, [[Knockin' on Heaven's Door]], became available in 2002 dubbed with rough translations. By 2003, [[Sony]] Pictures released it to theatres, and eventually [[DVD]], an official version of the movie using the voices of the original English-speaking actors. Two ''Cowboy Bebop'' [[manga]] comic books were created based on the TV show, and a [[Playstation 2]] [[video game]] is due in the [[United States]] in March of 2006. (See also [[Cowboy Bebop#Licensing, authors, and publishers|Licensing, authors, and publishers]])
Cowboy Bebop is widely respected for its multiple layers and deep characters, combined with a very free-flowing feel to the story itself (heavily influenced by American culture, especially the [[jazz]] movements of the 1940s, hence "[[bebop]]") and a large number of well-choreographed action fighting sequences (from space battles to [[martial arts]] hand-to-hand combat).
== Longevity ==
''Cowboy Bebop'' has remained a longtime favorite of [[anime]] fans in both [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]. A recent poll in the magazine ''[[Newtype (magazine)|Newtype]]'' asked the notoriously fickle [[Japanese people|Japanese]] audience to rank the "Top 20 Anime Titles of All Time"; ''Cowboy Bebop'' placed at number eight on a list that includes classics of the genre like ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'' and ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]''.
In the U.S., CN has dropped ''Cowboy Bebop'' from its [[Adult Swim]] line-up several times only to return it later due to its popularity. The network has also rotated ''Cowboy Bebop'' out of its anime lineup periodically in order to show other anime features such as ''[[Read or Die]]'' and ''[[Blue Gender]]''. ''Cowboy Bebop'' is usually rotated out for a quarter of a year and then returned to the lineup due to its long-running success and high appeal among anime fans of all age groups. Critics of the series see it as preventing other series from airing on the Adult Swim block, one of the few widely-broadcast North American venues for anime.
== History of ''Bebop'' ==
''Cowboy Bebop'' almost did not make it on Japanese broadcast television due to its (relatively) graphic depictions of violence. The show had an aborted first run beginning on April 3, 1998 and running until June 19, 1998 on [[TV Tokyo]], broadcasting only episodes 2, 3, 7-15 and 18. Later that year, the series was shown in its entirety beginning on October 23 and running until April 23, 1999 on the satellite network [[WOWOW]]. ''Cowboy Bebop'' was popular enough that a movie, ''[[Cowboy Bebop: The Movie|Cowboy Bebop: Tengoku no Tobira]]'' (''Knockin' on Heaven's Door''), was commissioned and released in Japan in 2001 and later released in the United States as ''Cowboy Bebop: The Movie'' in 2003.
[[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The crew of the ''Bebop''. From left to right: Spike, Jet, Ed, Faye, and Ein.]] In 2001, ''Cowboy Bebop'' became the first anime title to be shown as part of the U.S. [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Adult Swim]] block of programming. At the time, it was quite a risk for the fledgling networks as a more "adult" anime had never been broadcast in such a mainstream venue before. However, it turned out to be a rousing success, continuing to be broadcast regularly until present. The success of ''Cowboy Bebop'' paved the way for Cartoon Network's embrace of mature anime, including ''[[InuYasha]]'', ''[[Lupin III|Lupin the Third]]'', ''[[Trigun]]'', ''[[Blue Gender]]'', ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'', ''[[FLCL]]'', ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'', and [[Wolf's Rain]]''.
In the [[United Kingdom]], ''Cowboy Bebop'' was first broadcast in 2003 as one of the highlights of the ill-fated 'cartoon network for adults', [[CNX]].
In [[France]] ''Cowboy Bebop'' was broadcast during summer 2000 on [[Canal+]].
[[Bandai]] released a ''Cowboy Bebop'' shooter in [[Japan]] for the [[PlayStation]] in 1998 . A [[PlayStation 2]] ''Cowboy Bebop'' video game has been released in [[Japan]] already and the [[Region One]] version is set for release in North America during the first quarter of 2006. [http://www.bandaigames.com/games/cb.html]
In 2005, seven years after its original Japanese broadcast, ''Bebop'' was finally licensed and released in the European market by [[Beez]], an extension of [[Bandai Entertainment]].
== Plot ==
{{details|List of Bountyheads in Cowboy Bebop}}
In the year 2071, the crew of the spaceship ''Bebop'' travel the [[solar system]] trying to apprehend bounties. In the slang of the era, "cowboys" are bounty hunters, hence the name of the series. Each member of the ''Bebop'' crew contributes their own unique abilities to help catch bounties. Most episodes revolve around a bounty; however the real focus of the show concerns the pasts of each character, which unravel and connect as the series progresses.
Arguably, the main plotline focuses on Spike Spiegel, a former member of the 'Red Dragon' crime syndicate who is haunted by a past love triangle between his former syndicate partner, Vicious, and a mysterious woman named Julia.
The series also focuses on the histories of the other ''Bebop'' crew members: Jet Black, a former ISSP officer on the Jovian moon [[Ganymede]]; Faye Valentine, an indebted gambler recently awakened from cryogenic slumber; Edward, a genius child computer [[hacker]]; and Ein, a revolutionary "Data Dog" capable of countless amazing acts, including hacking at twice the speed of an expert hacker.
== Background ==
In the year 2021, a series of ring-shaped [[hyperspace]] gateways were constructed across the solar system, allowing for easy [[interplanetary travel]]. Unfortunately, the gate network contained a fatal instability that was ignored by the contractors who built the system. The instability grew until a gateway near Earth exploded, releasing a powerful burst of energy that cracked the Moon. In a disaster referred to as "the Gate Incident", meteoric debris from the Moon destroyed much of Earth's surface, killing billions. People mostly live underground, as debris continues to rain down on the planet daily, although a sizeable number of people refuse to leave or simply can't afford to. Most, however, left Earth after the Gate Incident and spread out across the solar system, living in colonies on [[Venus (planet)|Venus]], [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], some habitable [[asteroid]]s, and the [[Galilean moon|Galilean moons of Jupiter]].
It is interesting to note that the total population for the Solar System of 2071 is only about 1.3 billion. Assuming that the population of Earth in 2021 was greater than 6 billion (as on present-day Earth), the explosion of the gate was the worst disaster to ever befall humankind — at least 4.7 billion lives were lost.
Some of the colonies are more hospitable than others, but all planets and moons seen in the series except for Mars are [[terraformed]]. This situation points to the soft sci-fi nature of the series, since Mars is often considered the most easily terraformable planet, while terraforming the others within the next century is considered an almost impossible undertaking.
The domed craters of Mars are a great place to live, for those who can afford it. The poor can live on Venus, although the unlucky may be blinded or killed by Venus sickness. Rough [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] is a dreary and cold moon (with the city of Blue Crow having an all male population), [[Io (moon)|Io]] is toxic and volcanic, while [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] is almost completely surrounded by water and known for its fishing industry. [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s largest moon, is a barren desert world which has been at war since the 2060s. There is even a Solar System Penitentiary on [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]].
Most importantly to the general plot of the series, sometime after the advent of space travel, the [[bounty system]] of the Old West was reinstated by the government to help curb growing crime levels. Vigilantes are encouraged to capture bounties and return them (alive and relatively unharmed) to th
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