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1200 The occupiers looted and destroyed much of Poland 's cultural and historical heritage , while persecuting and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite . Most Polish schools were closed , and those that remained open saw their curricula altered significantly .
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1201 Nevertheless , underground organizations and individuals – in particular the Polish Underground State – saved much of Poland 's most valuable cultural treasures , and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible . The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works . Despite severe retribution by the Nazis and Soviets , Polish underground cultural activities , including publications , concerts , live theater , education , and academic research , continued throughout the war .
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1202 = = Background = =
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1203 In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian , Austrian and Russian empires . Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited , although the drawing of boundary lines was , of necessity , a contentious issue . Independent Poland lasted for only 21 years before it was again attacked and divided among foreign powers .
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1204 On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland , initiating World War II in Europe , and on 17 September , pursuant to the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact , Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union . Subsequently Poland was partitioned again – between these two powers – and remained under occupation for most of the war . By 1 October , Germany and the Soviet Union had completely overrun Poland , although the Polish government never formally surrendered , and the Polish Underground State , subordinate to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , was soon formed . On 8 October , Nazi Germany annexed the western areas of pre @-@ war Poland and , in the remainder of the occupied area , established the General Government . The Soviet Union had to temporarily give up the territorial gains it made in 1939 due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union , but permanently re @-@ annexed much of this territory after winning it back in mid @-@ 1944 . Over the course of the war , Poland lost over 20 % of its pre @-@ war population amid an occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic .
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1205 = = Destruction of Polish culture = =
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1206 = = = German occupation = = =
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1207 = = = = Policy = = = =
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1208 Germany 's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war . Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions , but this quickly changed . Immediately following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the Nazi German government implemented the first stages ( the " small plan " ) of Generalplan Ost . The basic policy was outlined by the Berlin Office of Racial Policy in a document titled Concerning the Treatment of the Inhabitants of the Former Polish Territories , from a Racial @-@ Political Standpoint . Slavic people living east of the pre @-@ war German border were to be Germanized , enslaved or eradicated , depending on whether they lived in the territories directly annexed into the German state or in the General Government .
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1209 Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government , Hans Frank , and Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels , at Łódź on 31 October 1939 . Goebbels declared that " The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation " . He and Frank agreed that opportunities for the Poles to experience their culture should be severely restricted : no theaters , cinemas or cabarets ; no access to radio or press ; and no education . Frank suggested that the Poles should periodically be shown films highlighting the achievements of the Third Reich and should eventually be addressed only by megaphone . During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed , as were theaters and many other cultural institutions . The only Polish @-@ language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed , and the arrests of Polish intellectuals began .
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1210 In March 1940 , all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government 's Department of People 's Education and Propaganda ( Abteilung für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda ) , whose name was changed a year later to the " Chief Propaganda Department " ( Hauptabteilung Propaganda ) . Further directives issued in the spring and early summer reflected policies that had been outlined by Frank and Goebbels during the previous autumn . One of the Department 's earliest decrees prohibited the organization of all but the most " primitive " of cultural activities without the Department 's prior approval . Spectacles of " low quality " , including those of an erotic or pornographic nature , were however an exception — those were to be popularized to appease the population and to show the world the " real " Polish culture as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves . German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized " Polish " performances that were specifically designed to be boring or pornographic , and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities . Polish @-@ German cooperation in cultural matters , such as joint public performances , was strictly prohibited . Meanwhile , a compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940 . Then , in October , the printing of new Polish @-@ language books was prohibited ; existing titles were censored , and often confiscated and withdrawn .
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1211 In 1941 , German policy evolved further , calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people , whom the Nazis regarded as " subhumans " ( Untermenschen ) . Within ten to twenty years , the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists . The policy was relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation ( 1943 – 44 ) , in view of German military defeats and the approaching Eastern Front . The Germans hoped that a more lenient cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken the Polish Resistance . Poles were allowed back into those museums that now supported German propaganda and indoctrination , such as the newly created Chopin museum , which emphasized the composer 's invented German roots . Restrictions on education , theater and music performances were eased .
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1212 Given that the Second Polish Republic was a multicultural state , German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups , fueling tension between Poles and Jews , and between Poles and Ukrainians . In Łódź , the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero , Tadeusz Kościuszko , and filmed them committing the act . Soon afterward , the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish bystanders , portraying them in propaganda releases as a " vengeful mob . " This divisive policy was reflected in the Germans ' decision to destroy Polish education , while at the same time , showing relative tolerance toward the Ukrainian school system . As the high @-@ ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained , " We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian , he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and conversely , the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole . "
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1213 = = = = Plunder = = = =
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1214 In 1939 , as the occupation regime was being established , the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property . Countless art objects were looted and taken to Germany , in line with a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion . The looting was supervised by experts of the SS @-@ Ahnenerbe , Einsatzgruppen units , who were responsible for art , and by experts of Haupttreuhandstelle Ost , who were responsible for more mundane objects . Notable items plundered by the Nazis included the Altar of Veit Stoss and paintings by Raphael , Rembrandt , Leonardo da Vinci , Canaletto and Bacciarelli . Most of the important art pieces had been " secured " by the Nazis within six months of September 1939 ; by the end of 1942 , German officials estimated that " over 90 % " of the art previously in Poland was in their possession . Some art was shipped to German museums , such as the planned Führermuseum in Linz , while other art became the private property of Nazi officials . Over 516 @,@ 000 individual art pieces were taken , including 2 @,@ 800 paintings by European painters ; 11 @,@ 000 works by Polish painters ; 1 @,@ 400 sculptures , 75 @,@ 000 manuscripts , 25 @,@ 000 maps , and 90 @,@ 000 books ( including over 20 @,@ 000 printed before 1800 ) ; as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value . Even exotic animals were taken from the zoos .
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1215 = = = = Destruction = = = =
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1216 Many places of learning and culture — universities , schools , libraries , museums , theaters and cinemas — were either closed or designated as " Nur für Deutsche " ( For Germans Only ) . Twenty @-@ five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war . According to one estimate , by war 's end 43 % of the infrastructure of Poland 's educational and research institutions and 14 % of its museums had been destroyed . According to another , only 105 of pre @-@ war Poland 's 175 museums survived the war , and just 33 of these institutions were able to reopen . Of pre @-@ war Poland 's 603 scientific institutions , about half were totally destroyed , and only a few survived the war relatively intact .
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1217 Many university professors , as well as teachers , lawyers , artists , writers , priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps , during operations such as AB @-@ Aktion . This particular campaign resulted in the infamous Sonderaktion Krakau and the massacre of Lwów professors . During World War II Poland lost 39 % to 45 % of its physicians and dentists , 26 % to 57 % of its lawyers , 15 % to 30 % of its teachers , 30 % to 40 % of its scientists and university professors , and 18 % to 28 % of its clergy . The Jewish intelligentsia was exterminated altogether . The reasoning behind this policy was clearly articulated by a Nazi gauleiter : " In my district , [ any Pole who ] shows signs of intelligence will be shot . "
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1218 As part of their program to suppress Polish culture , the German Nazis attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland , with a particular emphasis on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland , Poles were restricted , or even forbidden , from attending religious services . At the same time , church property was confiscated , prohibitions were placed on using the Polish language in religious services , organizations affiliated with the Catholic Church were abolished , and it was forbidden to perform certain religious songs — or to read passages of the Bible — in public . The worst conditions were found in the Reichsgau Wartheland , which the Nazis treated as a laboratory for their anti @-@ religious policies . Polish clergy and religious leaders figured prominently among portions of the intelligentsia that were targeted for extermination .
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1219 To forestall the rise of a new generation of educated Poles , German officials decreed that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler wrote , in a memorandum of May 1940 : " The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic , nothing above the number 500 ; how to write one 's name ; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans .... I do not regard a knowledge of reading as desirable . " Hans Frank echoed him : " The Poles do not need universities or secondary schools ; the Polish lands are to be converted into an intellectual desert . " The situation was particularly dire in the former Polish territories beyond the General Government , which had been annexed to the Third Reich . The specific policy varied from territory to territory , but in general , there was no Polish @-@ language education at all . German policy constituted a crash @-@ Germanization of the populace . Polish teachers were dismissed , and some were invited to attend " orientation " meetings with the new administration , where they were either summarily arrested or executed on the spot . Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools , while others were sent to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid laborers , usually on German @-@ run farms ; speaking Polish brought severe punishment . It was expected that Polish children would begin to work once they finished their primary education at age 12 to 15 . In the eastern territories not included in the General Government ( Bezirk Bialystok , Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine ) many primary schools were closed , and most education was conducted in non @-@ Polish languages such as Ukrainian , Belorussian , and Lithuanian . In the Bezirk Bialystok region , for example , 86 % of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation , and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93 % .
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1220 The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government , though by the end of 1940 , only 30 % of prewar schools were operational , and only 28 % of prewar Polish children attended them . A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows :
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1221 Pupils sit crammed together without necessary materials , and often without skilled teaching staff . Moreover , the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel . Of twenty @-@ thirty spacious school buildings which Kraków had before 1939 , today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day , pupils have to study in several shifts . Under such circumstances , the school day , which normally lasts five hours , is reduced to one hour .
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1222 In the General Government , the remaining schools were subjugated to the German educational system , and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down . All universities and most secondary schools were closed , if not immediately after the invasion , then by mid @-@ 1940 . By late 1940 , no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school remained in operation , and they offered nothing beyond the elementary trade and technical training required for the Nazi economy . Primary schooling was to last for seven years , but the classes in the final two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week . There was no money for heating of the schools in winter . Classes and schools were to be merged , Polish teachers dismissed , and the resulting savings used to sponsor the creation of schools for children of the German minority or to create barracks for German troops . No new Polish teachers were to be trained . The educational curriculum was censored ; subjects such as literature , history and geography were removed . Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed . The new educational aims for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was hopeless , and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans . This was accomplished through deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools , police inspections of student belongings , mass arrests of students and teachers , and the use of students as forced laborers , often by transporting them to Germany as seasonal workers .
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1223 The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland ; nearly all of the wooden synagogues there were destroyed . Moreover , the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland .
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1224 Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany , where the sale of Polish books was forbidden . The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries , but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes . The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943 ; even Polish prayer books were confiscated . Soon after the occupation began , most libraries were closed ; in Kraków , about 80 % of the libraries were closed immediately , while the remainder saw their collections decimated by censors . The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections , including the Sejm and Senate Library , the Przedziecki Estate Library , the Zamoyski Estate Library , the Central Military Library , and the Rapperswil Collection . In 1941 , the last remaining Polish public library in the German @-@ occupied territories was closed in Warsaw . During the war , Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes , or 30 % of their collections . More than 80 % of these losses were the direct result of purges rather than wartime conflict . Overall , it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state @-@ owned libraries and institutions perished during the war .
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1225 Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated . The war on the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places . Persons who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and even physically assaulted . The Germanization of place names prevailed . Many treasures of Polish culture – including memorials , plaques and monuments to national heroes ( e.g. , Kraków 's Adam Mickiewicz monument ) – were destroyed . In Toruń , all Polish monuments and plaques were torn down . Dozens of monuments were destroyed throughout Poland . The Nazis planned to level entire cities .
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1226 = = = = Censorship and propaganda = = = =
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1227 The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and anticommunist novels .
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1228 Censorship at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . Banned literature included maps , atlases and English- and French @-@ language publications , including dictionaries . Several non @-@ public indexes of prohibited books were created , and over 1 @,@ 500 Polish writers were declared " dangerous to the German state and culture " . The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki , Stanisław Wyspiański , Bolesław Prus , Stefan Żeromski , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Władysław Reymont , Stanisław Wyspiański , Julian Tuwim , Kornel Makuszyński , Leopold Staff , Eliza Orzeszkowa and Maria Konopnicka . Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment . Door @-@ to @-@ door sale of books was banned , and bookstores — which required a license to operate — were either emptied out or closed .
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1229 Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Germans . Such a thorough destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history . The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press that was disseminated by the German occupation administration . Cinemas , now under the control of the German propaganda machine , saw their programming dominated by Nazi German movies , which were preceded by propaganda newsreels . The few Polish films permitted to be shown ( about 20 % of the total programming ) were edited to eliminate references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers . Several propaganda films were shot in Polish , although no Polish films were shown after 1943 . As all profits from Polish cinemas were officially directed toward German war production , attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground ; a famous underground slogan declared : " Tylko świnie siedzą w kinie " ( " Only pigs attend the movies " ) . A similar situation faced theaters , which were forbidden by the Germans to produce " serious " spectacles . Indeed , a number of propaganda pieces were created for theater stages . Hence , theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground . In addition , actors were discouraged from performing in them and warned that they would be labeled as collaborators if they failed to comply . Ironically , restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos , given that the Germans wished to distract ghetto inhabitants and prevent them from grasping their eventual fate .
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1230 Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Numerous musical performances were permitted in cafes and churches , and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas . Visual artists , including painters and sculptors , were compelled to register with the German government ; but their work was generally tolerated by the underground , unless it conveyed propagandist themes . Shuttered museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes .
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1231 The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at fostering anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes .
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1232 = = = Soviet occupation = = =
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1233 After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " Kresy " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,@ 612 sq mi ) and a population of 13 @.@ 299 million . Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of obliterating Poland 's political and cultural life , so that Poland would , according to historian Niall Ferguson , " cease to exist not merely as a place , but also as an idea " .
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1234 The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule . More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many to Gulag concentration camps , for years or decades . Others died , including over 20 @,@ 000 military officers who perished in the Katyn massacres .
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1235 The Soviets quickly Sovietized the annexed lands , introducing compulsory collectivization . They proceeded to confiscate , nationalize and redistribute private and state @-@ owned Polish property . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as " enemies of the people " . In line with Soviet anti @-@ religious policy , churches and religious organizations were persecuted . On 10 February 1940 , the NKVD unleashed a campaign of terror against " anti @-@ Soviet " elements in occupied Poland . The Soviets ' targets included persons who often traveled abroad , persons involved in overseas correspondence , Esperantists , philatelists , Red Cross workers , refugees , smugglers , priests and members of religious congregations , the nobility , landowners , wealthy merchants , bankers , industrialists , and hotel and restaurant owners . Stalin , like Hitler , worked to eliminate Polish society .
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1236 The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . The name " Poland " was banned . Polish monuments were torn down . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian directors . Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching . Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities , and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian . Polish @-@ language books were burned even in the primary schools . Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools , and many were arrested . Classes were held in Belorussian , Lithuanian and Ukrainian , with a new pro @-@ Soviet curriculum . As Polish @-@ Canadian historian Piotr Wróbel noted , citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear , majority of scholars believe that " In the Soviet occupation zone , conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans . " In September 1939 , many Polish Jews had fled east ; after some months of living under Soviet rule , some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland .
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1237 All publications and media were subjected to censorship . The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radio station . Polish cultural activities in Minsk and Wilno were less organized . These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities , which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government .
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1238 The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of Russification . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . This policy was , however , reversed at times — first before the elections in October 1939 ; and later , after the German conquest of France . In November 1940 , the Poles of Lwów observed the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz 's death . Soon , however , Stalin decided to re @-@ implement the Russification policies . He reversed his decision again , however , when a need arose for Polish @-@ language pro @-@ Soviet propaganda following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ; as a result Stalin permitted the creation of Polish forces in the East and later decided to create a Communist People 's Republic of Poland .
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1239 Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . They included Jerzy Borejsza , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz Brandys , Janina Broniewska , Jan Brzoza , Teodor Bujnicki , Leon Chwistek , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina Górska , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stefan Jędrychowski , Stanisław Jerzy Lec , Tadeusz Łopalewski , Juliusz Kleiner , Jan Kott , Jalu Kurek , Karol Kuryluk , Leopold Lewin , Anatol Mikułko , Jerzy Pański , Leon Pasternak , Julian Przyboś , Jerzy Putrament , Jerzy Rawicz , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz Słobodnik , Włodzimierz Sokorski , Elżbieta Szemplińska , Anatol Stern , Julian Stryjkowski , Lucjan Szenwald , Leopold Tyrmand , Wanda Wasilewska , Stanisław Wasilewski , Adam Ważyk , Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer .
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1240 Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet persuasions and instead published underground : Jadwiga Czechowiczówna , Jerzy Hordyński , Jadwiga Gamska @-@ Łempicka , Herminia Naglerowa , Beata Obertyńska , Ostap Ortwin , Tadeusz Peiper , Teodor Parnicki , Juliusz Petry . Some writers , such as Władysław Broniewski , after collaborating with the Soviets for a few months , joined the anti @-@ Soviet opposition . Similarly , Aleksander Wat , initially sympathetic to communism , was arrested by the Soviet NKVD secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan .
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1241 = = Underground culture = =
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1242 = = = Patrons = = =
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1243 Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław Lorentz ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social Welfare ( under Jan Stanisław Jankowski and , later , Stefan Mateja ) and a Department for Elimination of the Effects of War ( under Antoni Olszewski and Bronisław Domosławski ) , became underground patrons of Polish culture . These Departments oversaw efforts to save from looting and destruction works of art in state and private collections ( most notably , the giant paintings by Jan Matejko that were concealed throughout the war ) . They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and their publications and to support their families . Thus , they sponsored the underground publication ( bibuła ) of works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and of 10 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish primary @-@ school primer and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork ( which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities ) . Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions , theater performances and concerts .
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1244 Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish aristocrats , who likewise supported artists and safeguarded Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and a former politician , Janusz Radziwiłł ) . Some private publishers , including Stefan Kamieński , Zbigniew Mitzner and the Ossolineum publishing house , paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war .
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1245 = = = Education = = =
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1246 In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska , TON ) was created as early as in October 1939 . Other organizations were created locally ; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON , working closely with the Underground 's State Department of Culture and Education , which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by Czesław Wycech , creator of the TON . Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues . By 1942 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 students took part in underground primary education ; in 1944 , its secondary school system covered 100 @,@ 000 people , and university level courses were attended by about 10 @,@ 000 students ( for comparison , the pre @-@ war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30 @,@ 000 for the 1938 / 1939 year ) . More than 90 @,@ 000 secondary @-@ school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6 @,@ 000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government ( centered on the cities of Warsaw , Kraków , Radom and Lublin ) . Overall , in that period in the General Government , one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations ; the number rose to about 70 % for children old enough to attend secondary school . It is estimated that in some rural areas , the educational coverage was actually improved ( most likely as courses were being organized in some cases by teachers escaped or deported from the cities ) . Compared to pre @-@ war classes , the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable , as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos ; there was , however , underground Jewish education in the ghettos , often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON . Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance .
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1247 In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doctoral ones and 16 habilitations . Jagiellonian University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees , employed over 100 professors and teachers , and served more than 1 @,@ 000 students per year . Throughout Poland , many other universities and institutions of higher education ( of music , theater , arts , and others ) continued their classes throughout the war . Even some academic research was carried out ( for example , by Władysław Tatarkiewicz , a leading Polish philosopher , and Zenon Klemensiewicz , a linguist ) . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State , enabling them to continue their research .
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1248 The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably prioritizing resources to dealing with the armed resistance . For the most part , closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans . In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools , particularly rural ones , was difficult , due to lack of manpower , transportation , and the activities of the Polish resistance . Some schools semi @-@ openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities . Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a " mortal enemy " of the German states , they could not all be disposed of immediately . It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories , as it hindered the process of Germanization ; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence to a concentration camp .
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39.518409729003906 216 WikiText2
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