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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20L.%20Littrow
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Karl Ludwig Edler von Littrow (18 July 1811 – 16 November 1877) was an Austrian astronomer.
Born in Kazan, Russian Empire, he was the son of astronomer Joseph Johann Littrow. He studied mathematics and astronomy at the universities of Vienna and Berlin, receiving his doctorate at the University of Krakow in 1832. In 1842 he succeeded his father as director of the Vienna Observatory. Under his leadership, construction of a new observatory began in Währing in 1872; he died, however, prior to its completion. He was the husband of Auguste von Littrow.
He died in Venice, Italy.
He is the great-great-grandfather of Roman Catholic Cardinal Christoph Schönborn.
Publications
Beitrag zu einer Monographie des Halleyschen Cometen, (1834) – Monograph on Halley's comet.
Verzeichnis geographischer Ortsbestimmungen, (1844) – Directory of geographical localizations.
Die Wunder des Himmels : gemeinverständliche Darstellung des astronomischen Weltbildes, (1854) – The wonders of the heavens; a common understanding of the astronomical world image.
Physische Zusammenkünfte der Planeten, (1859).
He made contributions to a new edition of Johann Samuel Traugott Gehler's Physikalisches wörterbunch.
References
1811 births
1877 deaths
19th-century Austrian astronomers
Edlers of Austria
University of Vienna alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Chemistry%20Olympiad
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The International Chemistry Olympiad (IChO) is an annual academic competition for high school students. It is one of the International Science Olympiads. The first IChO was held in Prague, Czechoslovakia, in 1968. The event has been held every year since then, with the exception of 1971. The delegations that attended the first events were mostly countries of the former Eastern bloc and it was not until 1980, the 12th annual International Chemistry Olympiad, that the event was held outside of the bloc in Austria. Up to 4 students for each national team compete around July in both a theoretical and an experimental sections, with about half of the participants being awarded medals.
About
The International Chemistry Olympiad (IChO) is an annual competition for the world’s most talented chemistry students at the secondary school level. Nations around the world send a team of four students who are tested on their chemistry knowledge and skills in a five-hour laboratory practical exam and a five-hour written theoretical examination that are held on separate days with the practical examination usually being before the theoretical examination. Countries who wish to participate in the IChO must send observers to two consecutive Olympiads before their students can participate in the event. Presently, around 80 countries participate in the International Chemistry Olympiad.
All participants are ranked based on their individual scores and no official team scores are given. Gold medals a
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfine%20structure
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In atomic physics, hyperfine structure is defined by small shifts in otherwise degenerate energy levels and the resulting splittings in those energy levels of atoms, molecules, and ions, due to electromagnetic multipole interaction between the nucleus and electron clouds.
In atoms, hyperfine structure arises from the energy of the nuclear magnetic dipole moment interacting with the magnetic field generated by the electrons and the energy of the nuclear electric quadrupole moment in the electric field gradient due to the distribution of charge within the atom. Molecular hyperfine structure is generally dominated by these two effects, but also includes the energy associated with the interaction between the magnetic moments associated with different magnetic nuclei in a molecule, as well as between the nuclear magnetic moments and the magnetic field generated by the rotation of the molecule.
Hyperfine structure contrasts with fine structure, which results from the interaction between the magnetic moments associated with electron spin and the electrons' orbital angular momentum. Hyperfine structure, with energy shifts typically orders of magnitudes smaller than those of a fine-structure shift, results from the interactions of the nucleus (or nuclei, in molecules) with internally generated electric and magnetic fields.
History
The first theory of atomic hyperfine structure was given in 1930 by Enrico Fermi
for an atom containing a single valence electron with an arbitrary angu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20mathematics%20topics
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Lists of mathematics topics cover a variety of topics related to mathematics. Some of these lists link to hundreds of articles; some link only to a few. The template to the right includes links to alphabetical lists of all mathematical articles. This article brings together the same content organized in a manner better suited for browsing.
Lists cover aspects of basic and advanced mathematics, methodology, mathematical statements, integrals, general concepts, mathematical objects, and reference tables.
They also cover equations named after people, societies, mathematicians, journals, and meta-lists.
The purpose of this list is not similar to that of the Mathematics Subject Classification formulated by the American Mathematical Society. Many mathematics journals ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The subject codes so listed are used by the two major reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. This list has some items that would not fit in such a classification, such as list of exponential topics and list of factorial and binomial topics, which may surprise the reader with the diversity of their coverage.
Basic mathematics
This branch is typically taught in secondary education or in the first year of university.
Outline of arithmetic
Outline of discrete mathematics
List of calculus topics
List of geometry topics
Outline of geometry
List of trigono
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials%20Science%20and%20Engineering
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Materials Science and Engineering may refer to several journals in the field of materials science and engineering:
Materials Science and Engineering A
Materials Science and Engineering B
Materials Science and Engineering C
Materials Science and Engineering R, reviews
Materials science journals
Elsevier academic journals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse%20%28disambiguation%29
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A pulse, in physiology, is the throbbing of arteries resulting from heartbeat.
Pulse, The Pulse or Pulses may also refer to:
Botany
Pulse (legume), any agriculturally significant annual leguminous food crop, such as peas, beans, lentils, and chickpeas
Electronics and physics
Pulse (physics), a single disturbance through a transmission medium
Pulse (signal processing), a brief change from a baseline value
Pulse dialing, of a telephone
Books and publications
Pulse (magazine), a medical professional's magazine
Pulse! (magazine), a music magazine
Pulse (Augustus), a character in the Marvel Comics universe
Pulse (short story collection), a short story collection by Julian Barnes
Pulse, a book by Robert Frenay
The Pulse, the signal transmitted from cell phones that made people go crazy in Stephen King's novel Cell
The Pulse (comics), a Marvel Comics series
Pulse (webtoon), a Lezhin Comics series
Film, television and games
Film
Pulse (1988 film), a horror film starring Cliff De Young
Pulse (1995 film), a video by the band Pink Floyd
Pulse (2001 film) or Kairo, a Japanese horror film directed by Kiyoshi Kurosawa
Octane (film), a 2002 thriller film released in the U.S. as Pulse
Pulse: A Stomp Odyssey, a 2002 short documentary
Pulse (2006 film), an American remake of the 2001 Japanese film
Pulse, a 2010 British TV film directed by James Hawes
Pulse (2017 film), an Australian film
Pulse Films, a film company headquartered in London
Radio
Pulse 1, an independ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse%20%28signal%20processing%29
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A pulse in signal processing is a rapid, transient change in the amplitude of a signal from a baseline value to a higher or lower value, followed by a rapid return to the baseline value.
Pulse shapes
Pulse shapes can arise out of a process called pulse-shaping. Optimum pulse shape depends on the application.
Rectangular pulse
These can be found in pulse waves, square waves, boxcar functions, and rectangular functions. In digital signals the up and down transitions between high and low levels are called the rising edge and the falling edge. In digital systems the detection of these sides or action taken in response is termed edge-triggered, rising or falling depending on which side of rectangular pulse. A digital timing diagram is an example of a well-ordered collection of rectangular pulses.
Nyquist pulse
A Nyquist pulse is one which meets the Nyquist ISI criterion and is important in data transmission. An example of a pulse which meets this condition is the sinc function. The sinc pulse is of some significance in signal-processing theory but cannot be produced by a real generator for reasons of causality.
In 2013, Nyquist pulses were produced in an effort to reduce the size of pulses in optical fibers, which enables them to be packed 10 times more closely together, yielding a corresponding 10-fold increase in bandwidth. The pulses were more than 99 percent perfect and were produced using a simple laser and modulator.
Dirac pulse
A Dirac pulse has the shape of the Di
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioRuby
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BioRuby is a collection of open-source Ruby code, comprising classes for computational molecular biology and bioinformatics. It contains classes for DNA and protein sequence analysis, sequence alignment, biological database parsing, structural biology and other bioinformatics tasks. BioRuby is released under the GNU GPL version 2 or Ruby licence and is one of a number of Bio* projects, designed to reduce code duplication.
In 2011, the BioRuby project introduced the Biogem software plugin system, with two or three new plugins added every month.
BioRuby is managed via the BioRuby website and GitHub repository.
History
BioRuby
The BioRuby project was first started in 2000 by Toshiaki Katayama as a Ruby implementation of similar bioinformatics packages such as BioPerl and BioPython. The initial release of version 0.1 was frequently updated by contributors both informally and at organised “hackathon” events; in June 2005, BioRuby was funded by IPA as an Exploratory Software Project, culminating with the release of version 1.0.0 in February 2006. Between 2009 and 2012, BioRuby was the focus of a number of Google Summer of Code projects to improve the codebase. BioRuby Version 2.0.0 was released in 2019.
Biogem
Biogem provides a set of tools for bioinformaticians who want to code an application or library that uses or extends BioRuby's core library, as well as share the code as a gem on rubygems.org. Any gem published via the Biogem framework is also listed at biogems.info.
T
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluke
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Fluke may refer to:
Biology
Fluke (fish), a species of marine flatfish
Fluke (tail), the lobes of the tail of a cetacean, such as dolphins or whales, ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, and metriorhynchids.
Fluke (flatworm), parasitic flatworms in the class Trematoda
Blood fluke
Liver fluke
Arts and entertainment
Fluke (album), a 1995 album by Canadian rock band Rusty
Fluke (band), a British electronic dance music group
Fluke (film), a 1995 film directed by Carlo Carlei
Fluke (General Hospital), a character in the American television series General Hospital
Fluke (novel), a 1977 novel by English horror writer James Herbert
Fluke, or, I Know Why the Winged Whale Sings, a 2003 novel by Christopher Moore
Fluke Mini-Comics & Zine Festival, a one-day mini-comics, small press, and 'zine festival held annually in Athens, Georgia
People
Emily Fluke, American ice hockey player
Joanne Fluke (born c. 1940), American author
John Fluke (1911–1984), American engineer, Founder & CEO of Fluke Corporation
Louise Fluke (1900–1986), designer of the Flag of Oklahoma
Sandra Fluke (born 1981), attorney, feminist, LGBTQ activist
Gawin Caskey (born 1997), Thai actor, nicknamed Fluke
Natouch Siripongthon (born 1996), Thai actor, nicknamed Fluke
Other uses
Fluke (anchor), blades at the end of an anchor
Fluke (cue sports), an unintentionally fortuitous shot in cue sports such as snooker
Fluke Corporation, a manufacturer of electrical and electronic test equipment
Fluke Ri
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham%20Fraenkel
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Abraham Fraenkel (; February 17, 1891 – October 15, 1965) was a German-born Israeli mathematician. He was an early Zionist and the first Dean of Mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known for his contributions to axiomatic set theory, especially his additions to Ernst Zermelo's axioms, which resulted in the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.
Biography
Abraham Adolf Halevi Fraenkel studied mathematics at the Universities of Munich, Berlin, Marburg and Breslau. After graduating, he lectured at the University of Marburg from 1916, and was promoted to professor in 1922.
In 1919 he married Wilhelmina Malka A. Prins (1892–1983). Due to the severe housing shortage in post-First World war Germany, for a few years the couple lived as subtenants at professor Hensel's place.
After leaving Marburg in 1928, Fraenkel taught at the University of Kiel for a year. He then made the choice of accepting a position at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which had been founded four years earlier, where he spent the rest of his career. He became the first dean of the faculty of mathematics, and for a while served as rector of the university.
Fraenkel was a fervent Zionist and as such was a member of Jewish National Council and the Jewish Assembly of Representatives under the British mandate. He also belonged to the Mizrachi religious wing of Zionism, which promoted Jewish religious education and schools, and which advocated giving the Chief Rabbinate authority over marriage and di
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von%20Neumann%E2%80%93Bernays%E2%80%93G%C3%B6del%20set%20theory
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In the foundations of mathematics, von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG) is an axiomatic set theory that is a conservative extension of Zermelo–Fraenkel–choice set theory (ZFC). NBG introduces the notion of class, which is a collection of sets defined by a formula whose quantifiers range only over sets. NBG can define classes that are larger than sets, such as the class of all sets and the class of all ordinals. Morse–Kelley set theory (MK) allows classes to be defined by formulas whose quantifiers range over classes. NBG is finitely axiomatizable, while ZFC and MK are not.
A key theorem of NBG is the class existence theorem, which states that for every formula whose quantifiers range only over sets, there is a class consisting of the sets satisfying the formula. This class is built by mirroring the step-by-step construction of the formula with classes. Since all set-theoretic formulas are constructed from two kinds of atomic formulas (membership and equality) and finitely many logical symbols, only finitely many axioms are needed to build the classes satisfying them. This is why NBG is finitely axiomatizable. Classes are also used for other constructions, for handling the set-theoretic paradoxes, and for stating the axiom of global choice, which is stronger than ZFC's axiom of choice.
John von Neumann introduced classes into set theory in 1925. The primitive notions of his theory were function and argument. Using these notions, he defined class and set. Paul Bernays r
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semigroupoid
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In mathematics, a semigroupoid (also called semicategory, naked category or precategory) is a partial algebra that satisfies the axioms for a small category, except possibly for the requirement that there be an identity at each object. Semigroupoids generalise semigroups in the same way that small categories generalise monoids and groupoids generalise groups. Semigroupoids have applications in the structural theory of semigroups.
Formally, a semigroupoid consists of:
a set of things called objects.
for every two objects A and B a set Mor(A,B) of things called morphisms from A to B. If f is in Mor(A,B), we write f : A → B.
for every three objects A, B and C a binary operation Mor(A,B) × Mor(B,C) → Mor(A,C) called composition of morphisms. The composition of f : A → B and g : B → C is written as g ∘ f or gf. (Some authors write it as fg.)
such that the following axiom holds:
(associativity) if f : A → B, g : B → C and h : C → D then h ∘ (g ∘ f) = (h ∘ g) ∘ f.
References
Algebraic structures
Category theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiny%20Encryption%20Algorithm
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In cryptography, the Tiny Encryption Algorithm (TEA) is a block cipher notable for its simplicity of description and implementation, typically a few lines of code. It was designed by David Wheeler and Roger Needham of the Cambridge Computer Laboratory; it was first presented at the Fast Software Encryption workshop in Leuven in 1994, and first published in the proceedings of that workshop.
The cipher is not subject to any patents.
Note that this cipher is unrelated to the TETRA Encryption Algorithm.
Properties
TEA operates on two 32-bit unsigned integers (could be derived from a 64-bit data block) and uses a 128-bit key. It has a Feistel structure with a suggested 64 rounds, typically implemented in pairs termed cycles. It has an extremely simple key schedule, mixing all of the key material in exactly the same way for each cycle. Different multiples of a magic constant are used to prevent simple attacks based on the symmetry of the rounds. The magic constant, 2654435769 or 0x9E3779B9 is chosen to be , where is the golden ratio (as a nothing-up-my-sleeve number).
TEA has a few weaknesses. Most notably, it suffers from equivalent keys—each key is equivalent to three others, which means that the effective key size is only 126 bits. As a result, TEA is especially bad as a cryptographic hash function. This weakness led to a method for hacking Microsoft's Xbox game console, where the cipher was used as a hash function. TEA is also susceptible to a related-key attack which r
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locust%20%28disambiguation%29
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Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acridida.
Locust or Locusts may also refer to:
Biology
Insects
Cicadas, often called locusts when they swarm
Magicicada, a genus of cicadas often referred to as "13-year or 17-year locusts"
Plants
Plants of the genus Robinia:
The black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), a leguminous tree with toxic pods
Plants of the genus Gleditsia
The honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), a leguminous tree with pods having a sweet edible pulp
Locust bean, fruit of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua)
African locust bean, fruit of the néré tree (Parkia biglobosa)
Arts and entertainment
Films
Locust (film), a 2015 Russian erotic thriller
Locusts: The 8th Plague, a 2005 horror movie
Locusts (2005 film), a 2005 American television film directed by David Jackson and aired on CBS
Locusts (2019 film), a 2019 Australian independent feature film
The Locusts (film), a 1997 American film starring Vince Vaughn and Kate Capshaw
Music
Locust, an alias of electronic artist Mark Van Hoen from Touch Records
Locust Music, a Chicago-based record label
The Locust, a US noise-rock band from California
The Locust (album)
The Locust (EP)
Ghosts VI: Locusts, an album from the American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails
Locust, a 1997 album from the Swedish hardcore / thrash metal band Mary Beats Jane
Locust, an album from the French metal band Lyzanxia
"Locust", a song by a-ha from their 1993 alb
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence%20%28disambiguation%29
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Independence generally refers to the self-government of a nation, country, or state by its residents and population.
Independence may also refer to:
Mathematics
Algebraic independence
Independence (graph theory), edge-wise non-connectedness
Independence (mathematical logic), logical independence
Independence (probability theory), statistical independence
Linear independence
Films
Independence (1976 film), a docudrama directed by John Huston
Independence (1999 film), an Indian film in Malayalam
Music
Independence (Lulu album), 1993
Independence (Kosheen album), 2012
Naval ships
Independence class (disambiguation), several classes of ships
USS Independence, any of seven US Navy ships
Texan schooner Independence, an 1832 ship in the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution
Places
United States
Independence County, Arkansas
Independence, California, a census-designated place in Inyo County
Independence, Calaveras County, California, an unincorporated community
Independence, Pitkin County, Colorado, a ghost town
Independence, Indiana, an unincorporated community
Independence, Iowa, a city
Independence, Kansas, a city
Independence, Kentucky, a home rule-class city
Independence, Louisiana, a town
Independence, Minnesota, a city in Hennepin County
Independence, St. Louis County, Minnesota, an unincorporated community
Independence, Mississippi, an unincorporated community
Independence, Missouri, a city
Independence, New York, a town
Independence, Ohio, a city in Cuyahoga County
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20van%20Dantzig
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David van Dantzig (September 23, 1900 – July 22, 1959) was a Dutch mathematician, well known for the construction in topology of the dyadic solenoid. He was a member of the Significs Group.
Biography
Born to a Jewish family in Amsterdam in 1900, Van Dantzig started to study Chemistry at the University of Amsterdam in 1917, where Gerrit Mannoury lectured. He received his PhD at the University of Groningen in 1931 with a thesis entitled "" under supervision of Bartel Leendert van der Waerden.
He was appointed professor at the Delft University of Technology in 1938, and at the University of Amsterdam in 1946.
Among his doctoral students were Jan Hemelrijk (1950), Johan Kemperman (1950), David Johannes Stoker (1955), and Constance van Eeden (1958). In Amsterdam he was one of the founders of the Mathematisch Centrum. At the University of Amsterdam he was succeeded by Jan Hemelrijk.
Originally working on topics in differential geometry and topology, after World War II he focused on probability, emphasizing the applicability to statistical hypothesis testing.
In 1949 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
In response to the North Sea flood of 1953, the Dutch Government established the Delta Committee, and asked Van Dantzig to develop a mathematical approach to formulate and solve the economic cost-benefit decision model concerning optimal dike height problems in connection with the Delta Works. The work of the Delta Committee, including the wor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface%20integral
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In mathematics, particularly multivariable calculus, a surface integral is a generalization of multiple integrals to integration over surfaces. It can be thought of as the double integral analogue of the line integral. Given a surface, one may integrate a scalar field (that is, a function of position which returns a scalar as a value) over the surface, or a vector field (that is, a function which returns a vector as value). If a region R is not flat, then it is called a surface as shown in the illustration.
Surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the theories of classical electromagnetism.
Surface integrals of scalar fields
Assume that f is a scalar, vector, or tensor field defined on a surface S.
To find an explicit formula for the surface integral of f over S, we need to parameterize S by defining a system of curvilinear coordinates on S, like the latitude and longitude on a sphere. Let such a parameterization be , where varies in some region in the plane. Then, the surface integral is given by
where the expression between bars on the right-hand side is the magnitude of the cross product of the partial derivatives of , and is known as the surface element (which would, for example, yield a smaller value near the poles of a sphere. where the lines of longitude converge more dramatically, and latitudinal coordinates are more compactly spaced). The surface integral can also be expressed in the equivalent form
where is the determinant of the
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition%20%28disambiguation%29
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A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term.
Definition may also refer to:
Science, mathematics and computing
In computer programming languages, a declaration that reserves memory for a variable or gives the body of a subroutine
Defining equation (physical chemistry), physico-chemical quantities defined in terms of others, in the form of an equation
Dynamical system (definition), description of a mathematical model, determined by a system of coupled differential equations
Circular definition, lexicographic, linguistic and logical aspects
Mathematics:
Intensional definition
Elementary definition
Algebraic definition
Recursive definition
Field of definition
A continuous function
A well-defined function
Music and TV
High-definition television, a television format with higher resolution
Definition (album), a 1992 studio album by American crossover thrash band Dirty Rotten Imbeciles
Definition (TV series), a long-running Canadian game show of the 1970s and 1980s
Definition (Jersey EP), 2001
Definition (Diaura EP), 2019
"Definition" (song), a 1998 song by Black Star
"Definition", a song by Mabel from About Last Night..., 2022
"Definitions" (How I Met Your Mother), a 2009 television episode
Other
#define, a macro in the C programming language
Defined (album), a 2005 operatic pop album
Definitions (Plato), a dictionary of about 185 philosophical terms sometimes included in the corpus of Plato's works
Dogmatic definition, the pronunciation of re
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Fischer%20titration
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In analytical chemistry, Karl Fischer titration is a classic titration method that uses coulometric or volumetric titration to determine trace amounts of water in a sample. It was invented in 1935 by the German chemist Karl Fischer. Today, the titration is done with an automated Karl Fischer titrator.
Chemical principle
The elementary reaction responsible for water quantification in the Karl Fischer titration is oxidation of sulfur dioxide () with iodine:
This elementary reaction consumes exactly one molar equivalent of water vs. iodine. Iodine is added to the solution until it is present in excess, marking the end point of the titration, which can be detected by potentiometry. The reaction is run in an alcohol solution containing a base, which consumes the sulfur trioxide and hydroiodic acid produced.
Coulometric titration
The main compartment of the titration cell contains the anode solution plus the analyte. The anode solution consists of an alcohol (ROH), a base (B), sulfur dioxide () and KI. Typical alcohols that may be used include ethanol, diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, or methanol, sometimes referred to as Karl Fischer grade. A common base is imidazole.
The titration cell also consists of a smaller compartment with a cathode immersed in the anode solution of the main compartment. The two compartments are separated by an ion-permeable membrane.
The Pt anode generates from the KI when current is provided through the electric circuit. The net reaction as shown
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category%20of%20medial%20magmas
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In mathematics, the category of medial magmas, also known as the medial category, and denoted Med, is the category whose objects are medial magmas (that is, sets with a medial binary operation), and whose morphisms are magma homomorphisms (which are equivalent to homomorphisms in the sense of universal algebra).
The category Med has direct products, so the concept of a medial magma object (internal binary operation) makes sense. As a result, Med has all its objects as medial objects, and this characterizes it.
There is an inclusion functor from Set to Med as trivial magmas, with operations being the right projections
(x, y) → y.
An injective endomorphism can be extended to an automorphism of a magma extension—the colimit of the constant sequence of the endomorphism.
See also
Eckmann–Hilton argument
Medial magmas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Furber
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Stephen Byram Furber (born 21 March 1953) is a British computer scientist, mathematician and hardware engineer, currently the ICL Professor of Computer Engineering in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester, UK. After completing his education at the University of Cambridge (BA, MMath, PhD), he spent the 1980s at Acorn Computers, where he was a principal designer of the BBC Micro and the ARM 32-bit RISC microprocessor. , over 100 billion copies of the ARM processor have been manufactured, powering much of the world's mobile computing and embedded systems.
In 1990, he moved to Manchester to lead research into asynchronous systems, low-power electronics and neural engineering, where the Spiking Neural Network Architecture (SpiNNaker) project is delivering a computer incorporating a million ARM processors optimised for computational neuroscience.
Education
Furber was educated at Manchester Grammar School and represented the UK in the International Mathematical Olympiad in Hungary in 1970 winning a bronze medal. He went on to study the Mathematical Tripos as an undergraduate student of St John's College, Cambridge, receiving a Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Master of Mathematics (MMath - Part III of the Mathematical Tripos) degrees. In 1978, he was appointed a Rolls-Royce research fellow in aerodynamics at Emmanuel College, Cambridge and was awarded a PhD in 1980 for research on the fluid dynamics of the Weis-Fogh principle supervised by John Ffowcs Willia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department%20of%20Computer%20Science%2C%20University%20of%20Manchester
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The Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester is the longest established department of Computer Science in the United Kingdom and one of the largest. It is located in the Kilburn Building on the Oxford Road and currently has over 800 students taking a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses and 60 full-time academic staff.
Teaching and study
Undergraduate
The Department currently offers a wide range of undergraduate courses from Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) and Master of Engineering (MEng). These are available as single honours or as joint honours degrees within the themes of Artificial Intelligence, Computer Science, Computer systems engineering, Software engineering, Mathematics, Internet Computing, Business applications and Management. Industrial placements are offered with all undergraduate courses.
Postgraduate
At postgraduate level the department offers taught Master of Science (MSc) degrees, at an advanced level and also through a foundation route. Research degrees, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and Master of Philosophy (MPhil) are available as three and four year programmes through the Doctoral Training Centre in Computer Science, the first of its kind in the UK.
Notable academic staff
Notable academic staff include:
Andy Brass
Jack Dongarra
Steve Furber
Carole Goble
Toby Howard
Norman Paton
Steve Pettifer
Ulrike Sattler
Robert Stevens
Andrei Voronkov
The School is organised into nine dif
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cola%20%28disambiguation%29
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Cola is a type of soft drink.
Cola may also refer to:
Places
Columbia, South Carolina, nicknamed Cola Town
Arts and media
"Cola" (Lana Del Rey song), 2012 song by Lana Del Rey
"Cola" (CamelPhat and Elderbrook song), a 2017 song by CamelPhat and Elderbrook
Cola (band), a Montreal post-punk band
Biology
Cola (moth), a genus of moths of the family Erebidae
Cola (plant), the genus of plants from which the kola nut is harvested
The kola nut
a tight cluster of buds, as in the colas of a female cannabis plant
Technology
Collision On Launch Assessment, an assessment made on the launch of a payload to space that the launch vehicle or spacecraft might collide with other artificial satellites or space debris during the launch and initial deployment
Other uses
Cola (name), a surname and given name
the plural of Colon (rhetoric), a rhetorical figure, or of Colon (punctuation)
Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, Roman Catholic cathedral in Los Angeles, California
Cost-of-living adjustment, adjustment of salaries based on changes in a cost-of-living index
"Piano de cola", Spanish for "grand piano"
COLA - acronym in common use in Australia for open sided shelter. Covered Outdoor Learning Area.
See also
Coke (disambiguation)
Kola (disambiguation)
Koala
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remarkable%20cardinal
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In mathematics, a remarkable cardinal is a certain kind of large cardinal number.
A cardinal κ is called remarkable if for all regular cardinals θ > κ, there exist π, M, λ, σ, N and ρ such that
π : M → Hθ is an elementary embedding
M is countable and transitive
π(λ) = κ
σ : M → N is an elementary embedding with critical point λ
N is countable and transitive
ρ = M ∩ Ord is a regular cardinal in N
σ(λ) > ρ
M = HρN, i.e., M ∈ N and N ⊨ "M is the set of all sets that are hereditarily smaller than ρ"
Equivalently, is remarkable if and only if for every there is such that in some forcing extension , there is an elementary embedding satisfying . Although the definition is similar to one of the definitions of supercompact cardinals, the elementary embedding here only has to exist in , not in .
See also
Hereditarily countable set
References
Large cardinals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal%20graph%20theory
|
Extremal graph theory is a branch of combinatorics, itself an area of mathematics, that lies at the intersection of extremal combinatorics and graph theory. In essence, extremal graph theory studies how global properties of a graph influence local substructure.
Results in extremal graph theory deal with quantitative connections between various graph properties, both global (such as the number of vertices and edges) and local (such as the existence of specific subgraphs), and problems in extremal graph theory can often be formulated as optimization problems: how big or small a parameter of a graph can be, given some constraints that the graph has to satisfy?
A graph that is an optimal solution to such an optimization problem is called an extremal graph, and extremal graphs are important objects of study in extremal graph theory.
Extremal graph theory is closely related to fields such as Ramsey theory, spectral graph theory, computational complexity theory, and additive combinatorics, and frequently employs the probabilistic method.
History
Mantel's Theorem (1907) and Turán's Theorem (1941) were some of the first milestones in the study of extremal graph theory.
In particular, Turán's theorem would later on become a motivation for the finding of results such as the Erdős–Stone theorem (1946). This result is surprising because it connects the chromatic number with the maximal number of edges in an -free graph. An alternative proof of Erdős–Stone was given in 1975, and uti
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz%20London
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Fritz Wolfgang London (March 7, 1900 – March 30, 1954) was a German born physicist and professor at Duke University. His fundamental contributions to the theories of chemical bonding and of intermolecular forces (London dispersion forces) are today considered classic and are discussed in standard textbooks of physical chemistry. With his brother Heinz London, he made a significant contribution to understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors with the London equations and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry on five separate occasions.
Biography
London was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland) as the son of Franz London (1863-1917). Being a Jew, London lost his position at the University of Berlin after Hitler's Nazi Party passed the 1933 racial laws. He took visiting positions in England and France, and emigrated to the United States in 1939, of which he became a naturalized citizen in 1945. Later in his life, London was a professor at Duke University. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1953. He died from a heart ailment in Durham, North Carolina, in 1954.
Academic achievements
London's early work with Walter Heitler on chemical bonding is now treated in any textbook on physical chemistry. This paper was the first to properly explain the bonding in a homonuclear molecule such as H2. It is no coincidence that the Heitler–London work appeared shortly after the introduction of quantum mechanics by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, because quantum m
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding%20site
|
In biochemistry and molecular biology, a binding site is a region on a macromolecule such as a protein that binds to another molecule with specificity. The binding partner of the macromolecule is often referred to as a ligand. Ligands may include other proteins (resulting in a protein–protein interaction), enzyme substrates, second messengers, hormones, or allosteric modulators. The binding event is often, but not always, accompanied by a conformational change that alters the protein's function. Binding to protein binding sites is most often reversible (transient and non-covalent), but can also be covalent reversible or irreversible.
Function
Binding of a ligand to a binding site on protein often triggers a change in conformation in the protein and results in altered cellular function. Hence binding site on protein are critical parts of signal transduction pathways. Types of ligands include neurotransmitters, toxins, neuropeptides, and steroid hormones. Binding sites incur functional changes in a number of contexts, including enzyme catalysis, molecular pathway signaling, homeostatic regulation, and physiological function. Electric charge, steric shape and geometry of the site selectively allow for highly specific ligands to bind, activating a particular cascade of cellular interactions the protein is responsible for.
Catalysis
Enzymes incur catalysis by binding more strongly to transition states than substrates and products. At the catalytic binding site, several dif
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council%20of%20Science%20Editors
|
The Council of Science Editors (CSE), formerly the Council of Biology Editors (CBE; 1965–2000) and originally the Conference of Biology Editors (CBE; 1957–1965), is a United States-based nonprofit organization that supports editorial practice among scientific writers. In 2008, the CSE adopted the slogan "CSE: Education, Ethics, and Evidence for Editors (E4)".
A volunteer board of directors leads the Council, with the assistance of several committees. CSE is managed by Kellen Company, located in Wheat Ridge, Colorado.
History and organization
The organization was established in 1957 by the National Science Foundation and the American Institute of Biological Sciences as the Conference of Biology Editors (CBE). In 1965, the organization incorporated as the Council of Biology Editors "and soon thereafter expanded membership to include all scientific publishing endeavors from science editors to copy editors." On January 1, 2000, it was renamed the Council of Science Editors.
The membership of CSE comprises editorial professionals, mainly in the United States.
As well as providing services and advice online, CSE holds an annual meeting that includes short courses on topics such as journal editorship, publication management, manuscript editing, and journal metrics.
Publications
CSE publishes a style guide for scientific papers, Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, although CSE style is not as widely used as other scientific styles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Stewart
|
Robert Lee Stewart (born August 13, 1942) is a retired brigadier general of the United States Army and a former NASA astronaut.
Personal
Stewart was born August 13, 1942, in Washington, D.C. He graduated from Hattiesburg High School in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, in 1960. He also received a Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics from the University of Southern Mississippi in 1964, and a Master of Science degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington in 1972. Stewart is married and has two children.
His interests include woodworking, photography, and skiing.
Military career
Stewart entered on active duty with the United States Army in May 1964 and was assigned as an air defense artillery director at the 32nd NORAD Region Headquarters (SAGE), Gunter Air Force Base, Alabama. In July 1966, after completing rotary wing training at Fort Wolters, Texas, and Fort Rucker, Alabama, he was designated an Army Aviator. He flew 1,035 hours of combat time during Vietnam War from August 1966 to 1967, primarily as a fire team leader in the armed helicopter platoon of "A" Company, 101st Aviation Battalion (redesignated 336th Assault Helicopter Company). He was an instructor pilot at the U.S. Army Primary Helicopter School—serving one year in the pre-solo/primary-1 phase of instruction and about 6 months as commander of methods of instruction flight III, training rated aviators to become instructor pilots. He is a graduate of the U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatase
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In biochemistry, a phosphatase is an enzyme that uses water to cleave a phosphoric acid monoester into a phosphate ion and an alcohol. Because a phosphatase enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of its substrate, it is a subcategory of hydrolases. Phosphatase enzymes are essential to many biological functions, because phosphorylation (e.g. by protein kinases) and dephosphorylation (by phosphatases) serve diverse roles in cellular regulation and signaling. Whereas phosphatases remove phosphate groups from molecules, kinases catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups to molecules from ATP. Together, kinases and phosphatases direct a form of post-translational modification that is essential to the cell's regulatory network.
Phosphatase enzymes are not to be confused with phosphorylase enzymes, which catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from hydrogen phosphate to an acceptor. Due to their prevalence in cellular regulation, phosphatases are an area of interest for pharmaceutical research.
Biochemistry
Phosphatases catalyze the hydrolysis of a phosphomonoester, removing a phosphate moiety from the substrate. Water is split in the reaction, with the -OH group attaching to the phosphate ion, and the H+ protonating the hydroxyl group of the other product. The net result of the reaction is the destruction of a phosphomonoester and the creation of both a phosphate ion and a molecule with a free hydroxyl group.
Phosphatases are able to dephosphorylate seemingly different sites on th
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heckler%20%26%20Koch%20G11
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The Heckler & Koch G11 is a non-production prototype assault rifle developed from the late 1960s–1980s by Gesellschaft für Hülsenlose Gewehrsysteme (GSHG) (German for "Association for Caseless Rifle Systems"), a conglomeration of companies headed by firearm manufacturer Heckler & Koch (mechanical engineering and weapon design), Dynamit Nobel (propellant composition and projectile design), and Hensoldt Wetzlar (target identification and optic systems). The rifle is noted for its use of caseless ammunition.
It was primarily a project of West Germany, though it was of significance to the other NATO countries as well. In particular, versions of the G11 were included in the U.S. Advanced Combat Rifle program.
In 1990, H&K finished the development of the G11, intended for the Bundeswehr and other NATO partners. Although the weapon was a technical success, it never entered full production due to the political changes of German reunification and lack of procurement contract. Only 1000 units were ever produced, some of which made their way into the hands of the Bundeswehr. Ultimately, the German armed forces replaced the G3 with the G36.
History and development
Development began around 1967 when NATO launched the idea of adopting a second standard small-caliber ammunition. Three competitors were then nominated: one American, another Belgian, and finally the German Heckler & Koch. NATO quickly lost interest in caseless ammunition but the West German Government held on. During 1968–
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Hurt%20%28astronomer%29
|
Robert L. Hurt is a member of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) at the California Institute of Technology. He holds a Ph.D. in physics from University of California, Los Angeles.
Hurt produced the first published artist concepts of the Trans-Neptunian object 90377 Sedna, from data obtained by the Spitzer Space Telescope. His work has been used by NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Since 2006, Hurt has hosted a video podcast called The Hidden Universe and often speaks on the subject of using new media to communicate science and astronomy. He is a frequent guest on mainstream science programs as well.
Hurt is also a member of the American Astronomical Society and the Sigma Pi Sigma society.
External links
Hurt's page at IPAC
The Hidden Universe
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American physicists
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathcounts
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Mathcounts, stylized as MATHCOUNTS, is a non-profit organization that provides grades 6-8 extracurricular mathematics programs in all U.S. states, plus the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam and U.S. Virgin Islands. Its mission is to provide engaging math programs for middle school students of all ability levels to build confidence and improve attitudes about math and problem solving.
Mathcounts also provides numerous math resources for schools and the general public.
Topics covered include geometry, counting, probability, number theory, and algebra.
History
Mathcounts was started in 1983 by the National Society of Professional Engineers, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, and CNA Insurance to increase middle school interest in mathematics. The first national-level competition was held in 1984. The Mathcounts Competition Series spread quickly in middle schools, and today it is the best-known middle school mathematics competition. In 2007 Mathcounts launched the National Math Club as a non-competitive alternative to the Competition Series. In 2011 Mathcounts launched the Math Video Challenge Program, which was discontinued in 2023.
2020 was the only year since 1984 in which a national competition was not held, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The "MATHCOUNTS Week" event featuring problems from the 2020 State Competition was held on the Art of Problem Solving website as a replacement. The 2021 National Competition was held online.
Current sponsors include
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfaffian
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In mathematics, the determinant of an m×m skew-symmetric matrix can always be written as the square of a polynomial in the matrix entries, a polynomial with integer coefficients that only depends on m. When m is odd, the polynomial is zero. When m=2n is even, it is a nonzero polynomial of degree n, and is unique up to multiplication by ±1. The convention on skew-symmetric tridiagonal matrices, given below in the examples, then determines one specific polynomial, called the Pfaffian polynomial. The value of this polynomial, when applied to the entries of a skew-symmetric matrix, is called the Pfaffian of that matrix. The term Pfaffian was introduced by who indirectly named them after Johann Friedrich Pfaff.
Explicitly, for a skew-symmetric matrix ,
which was first proved by , who cites Jacobi for introducing these polynomials in work on Pfaffian systems of differential equations. Cayley obtains this relation by specialising a more general result on matrices which deviate from skew symmetry only in the first row and the first column. The determinant of such a matrix is the product of the Pfaffians of the two matrices obtained by first setting in the original matrix the upper left entry to zero and then copying, respectively, the negative transpose of the first row to the first column and the negative transpose of the first column to the first row. This is proved by induction by expanding the determinant on minors and employing the recursion formula below.
Examples
(3
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20value%20of%20coal
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The energy value of coal, or fuel content, is the amount of potential energy coal contains that can be converted into heat. This value can be calculated and compared with different grades of coal and other combustible materials, which produce different amounts of heat according to their grade.
While chemistry provides ways of calculating the heating value of a certain amount of a substance, there is a difference between this theoretical value and its application to real coal. The grade of a sample of coal does not precisely define its chemical composition, so calculating the coal's actual usefulness as a fuel requires determining its proximate and ultimate analysis (see "Chemical Composition" below).
Chemical composition
Chemical composition of the coal is defined in terms of its proximate and ultimate (elemental) analyses. The parameters of proximate analysis are moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed carbon. Elemental or ultimate analysis encompasses the quantitative determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen within the coal. Additionally, specific physical and mechanical properties of coal and particular carbonization properties
The calorific value Q of coal [kJ/kg] is the heat liberated by its complete combustion with oxygen. Q is a complex function of the elemental composition of the coal. Q can be determined experimentally using calorimeters. Dulong suggests the following approximate formula for Q when the oxygen content is less than 10%:
Q
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20dicto%20and%20de%20re
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De dicto and de re are two phrases used to mark a distinction in intensional statements, associated with the intensional operators in many such statements. The distinction is used regularly in metaphysics and in philosophy of language.
The literal translation of the phrase de dicto is "about what is said", whereas de re translates as "about the thing". The original meaning of the Latin locutions may help to elucidate the living meaning of the phrases, in the distinctions they mark. The distinction can be understood by examples of intensional contexts of which three are considered here: a context of thought, a context of desire, and a context of modality.
Context of thought
There are two possible interpretations of the sentence "Peter believes someone is out to get him". On one interpretation, 'someone' is unspecific and Peter suffers a general paranoia; he believes that it is true that a person is out to get him, but does not necessarily have any beliefs about who this person may be. What Peter believes is that the predication 'someone is out to get Peter' is satisfied. This is the de dicto interpretation.
On the de re interpretation, 'someone' is specific, picking out some particular individual. There is some person Peter has in mind, and Peter believes that person is out to get him.
In the context of thought, the distinction helps us explain how people can hold seemingly self-contradictory beliefs. Say Lois Lane believes Clark Kent is weaker than Superman. Since
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Bamberg
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The University of Bamberg () in Bamberg, Germany, specializes in the humanities, cultural studies, social sciences, economics, and applied computer science.
Campus
The university is partly housed in historical buildings in Bamberg's Old Town. These include the former Jesuit college (Theology), the former Hochzeitshaus (History), the old slaughterhouse (Earth Science), and the former fire station (Oriental Studies). The departments of Languages and Literature are partly housed in buildings which once belonged to the Kaiser-Heinrich High School.
The Social Sciences and Economics department, which accommodates a large proportion of the students, are in Feldkirchenstrasse. The former ERBA cotton mill, on an island in the Regnitz, has been acquired to create student apartments in the red-brick building, as well as in an adjoining new 14,000m2 building.
Organization
The university today has four faculties:
Faculty of Humanities
Faculty of Social Sciences, Economics and Business Administration
Faculty of Human Sciences and Education
Faculty of Information Systems and Applied Computer Science
An agreement between Bavaria and the Vatican saw the faculty of Catholic Theology restructured as an institute which places a greater emphasis on teacher training. In 2005, the Social Work course transferred to Coburg University of Applied Sciences.
Academics
Disciplines
Language-based area studies, including Oriental Studies and Slavonic Studies
Medieval Studies; Archaeology (Prehistor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XTEA
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In cryptography, XTEA (eXtended TEA) is a block cipher designed to correct weaknesses in TEA. The cipher's designers were David Wheeler and Roger Needham of the Cambridge Computer Laboratory, and the algorithm was presented in an unpublished technical report in 1997 (Needham and Wheeler, 1997). It is not subject to any patents.
Like TEA, XTEA is a 64-bit block Feistel cipher with a 128-bit key and a suggested 64 rounds. Several differences from TEA are apparent, including a somewhat more complex key-schedule and a rearrangement of the shifts, XORs, and additions.
Implementations
This standard C source code, adapted from the reference code released into the public domain by David Wheeler and Roger Needham, encrypts and decrypts using XTEA:
#include <stdint.h>
/* take 64 bits of data in v[0] and v[1] and 128 bits of key[0] - key[3] */
void encipher(unsigned int num_rounds, uint32_t v[2], uint32_t const key[4]) {
unsigned int i;
uint32_t v0=v[0], v1=v[1], sum=0, delta=0x9E3779B9;
for (i=0; i < num_rounds; i++) {
v0 += (((v1 << 4) ^ (v1 >> 5)) + v1) ^ (sum + key[sum & 3]);
sum += delta;
v1 += (((v0 << 4) ^ (v0 >> 5)) + v0) ^ (sum + key[(sum>>11) & 3]);
}
v[0]=v0; v[1]=v1;
}
void decipher(unsigned int num_rounds, uint32_t v[2], uint32_t const key[4]) {
unsigned int i;
uint32_t v0=v[0], v1=v[1], delta=0x9E3779B9, sum=delta*num_rounds;
for (i=0; i < num_rounds; i++) {
v1 -= (((v0 << 4) ^ (v0 >> 5)) + v0) ^ (sum + k
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codebook
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A codebook is a type of document used for gathering and storing cryptography codes. Originally, codebooks were often literally books, but today "codebook" is a byword for the complete record of a series of codes, regardless of physical format.
Cryptography
In cryptography, a codebook is a document used for implementing a code. A codebook contains a lookup table for coding and decoding; each word or phrase has one or more strings which replace it. To decipher messages written in code, corresponding copies of the codebook must be available at either end. The distribution and physical security of codebooks presents a special difficulty in the use of codes compared to the secret information used in ciphers, the key, which is typically much shorter.
The United States National Security Agency documents sometimes use codebook to refer to block ciphers; compare their use of combiner-type algorithm to refer to stream ciphers.
Codebooks come in two forms, one-part or two-part:
In one-part codes, the plaintext words and phrases and the corresponding code words are in the same alphabetical order. They are organized similar to a standard dictionary. Such codes are half the size of two-part codes but are more vulnerable since an attacker who recovers some code word meanings can often infer the meaning of nearby code words. One-part codes may be used simply to shorten messages for transmission or have their security enhanced with superencryption methods, such as adding a secret number
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Astonishing%20Hypothesis
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The Astonishing Hypothesis is a 1994 book by scientist Francis Crick about consciousness. Crick, one of the co-discoverers of the molecular structure of DNA, later became a theorist for neurobiology and the study of the brain. The Astonishing Hypothesis is mostly concerned with establishing a basis for scientific study of consciousness; however, Crick places the study of consciousness within a larger social context. Human consciousness according to Crick is central to human existence and so scientists find themselves approaching topics traditionally left to philosophy and religion.
Synopsis
The Astonishing Hypothesis posits that "a person's mental activities are entirely due to the behavior of nerve cells, glial cells, and the atoms, ions, and molecules that make them up and influence them." Crick claims that scientific study of the brain during the 20th century led to acceptance of consciousness, free will, and the human soul as subjects for scientific investigation.
Rather than attempting to cover all the aspects of consciousness (self-awareness, thought, imagination, perception, etc.), Crick focuses on the primate visual system and breaks down the prerequisites for conscious experience into several broad subconditions, including some sort of short-term memory and attention mechanism. The book then delves into a brief overview of many neuroscientific topics, ranging from a survey of how neurons function to a description of basic neural circuits and their artificial equiva
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralization%20%28chemistry%29
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In chemistry, neutralization or neutralisation (see spelling differences) is a chemical reaction in which acid and a base react with an equivalent quantity of each other. In a reaction in water, neutralization results in there being no excess of hydrogen or hydroxide ions present in the solution. The pH of the neutralized solution depends on the acid strength of the reactants.
Meaning of "neutralization"
In the context of a chemical reaction the term neutralization is used for a reaction between an acid and a base or alkali. Historically, this reaction was represented as
acid + base (alkali) → salt + water
For example:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
The statement is still valid as long as it is understood that in an aqueous solution the substances involved are subject to dissociation, which changes the ionization state of the substances. The arrow sign, →, is used because the reaction is complete, that is, neutralization is a quantitative reaction. A more general definition is based on Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.
AH + B → A + BH
Electrical charges are omitted from generic expressions such as this, as each species A, AH, B, or BH may or may not carry an electrical charge. Neutralization of sulfuric acid provides a specific example. Two partial neutralization reactions are possible in this instance.
H2SO4 + OH− → + H2O
+ OH− → + H2O
Overall: H2SO4 + 2 OH− → + 2 H2O
After an acid AH has been neutralized there are no molecules of the acid (or hydrogen ions produced by
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Bateman
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Harry Bateman FRS (29 May 1882 – 21 January 1946) was an English mathematician with a specialty in differential equations of mathematical physics. With Ebenezer Cunningham, he expanded the views of spacetime symmetry of Lorentz and Poincare to a more expansive conformal group of spacetime leaving Maxwell's equations invariant. Moving to the US, he obtained a Ph.D. in geometry with Frank Morley and became a professor of mathematics at California Institute of Technology. There he taught fluid dynamics to students going into aerodynamics with Theodore von Karman. Bateman made a broad survey of applied differential equations in his Gibbs Lecture in 1943 titled, "The control of an elastic fluid".
Biography
Bateman was born in Manchester, England, on 29 May 1882. He first gained an interest in mathematics during his time at Manchester Grammar School. In his final year, he won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. Bateman studied with coach Robert Alfred Herman to prepare for the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos. He distinguished himself in 1903 as Senior Wrangler (tied with P.E. Marrack) and by winning the Smith's Prize (1905).
His first paper, "The determination of curves satisfying given conditions", was published when he was still an undergraduate student. He studied in Göttingen and Paris, and taught at the University of Liverpool and University of Manchester. After moving to the US in 1910, he taught at Bryn Mawr College and then Johns Hopkins University. There, working
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Wilhelm%20Schott
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Heinrich Wilhelm Schott (7 January 1794 – 5 March 1865) was an Austrian botanist. He is known for his extensive work on aroids (Araceae).
Biography
Schott was born on 7 January 1794 in Brno, Moravia. He studied botany, agriculture and chemistry at the University of Vienna, where he was a pupil of Joseph Franz von Jacquin (1766–1839). He was a participant in the Austrian Brazil Expedition from 1817 to 1821. In 1828 he was appointed Hofgärtner (royal gardener) in Vienna, later serving as director of the Imperial Gardens at Schönbrunn Palace (1845). In 1852 he was in charge of transforming part of palace gardens in the fashion of an English garden. He also enriched the Viennese court gardens with his collections from Brazil. He was also interested in Alpine flora, and was responsible for development of the alpinum at Belvedere Palace in Vienna.
In 2008, botanists P.C.Boyce & S.Y.Wong published Schottarum, a genus of flowering plants from Borneo belonging to the family Araceae. Then they published Schottariella, a monotypic genus of flowering plants from Borneo belonging to the family Araceae, both genera were named in honour of Heinrich Wilhelm Schott.
Schott died on 5 March 1865 at Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, at the age of 71.
Publications
Meletemata botanica (with Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher), 1832
Rutaceae. Fragmenta botanica, 1834
Genera filicum, 1834–1836
Aroideae, 1853–1857
Analecta botanica (with Theodor Kotschy and Carl Fredrik Nyman), 1854
Synopsis Aroidearum,
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent%20synapse
|
In neuroscience, a silent synapse is an excitatory glutamatergic synapse whose postsynaptic membrane contains NMDA-type glutamate receptors but no AMPA-type glutamate receptors. These synapses are named "silent" because normal AMPA receptor-mediated signaling is not present, rendering the synapse inactive under typical conditions. Silent synapses are typically considered to be immature glutamatergic synapses. As the brain matures, the relative number of silent synapses decreases. However, recent research on hippocampal silent synapses shows that while they may indeed be a developmental landmark in the formation of a synapse, that synapses can be "silenced" by activity, even once they have acquired AMPA receptors. Thus, silence may be a state that synapses can visit many times during their lifetimes.
Synaptic transmission
Normal transmission across a glutamatergic synapse relies on the neurotransmitter glutamate, the glutamate-specific AMPA receptor (AMPAR), and calcium ions. Calcium ion entry into the presynaptic terminal causes the presynaptic release of glutamate, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft, binding to glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. There are four subtypes of glutamate receptors: AMPA receptors (AMPARs) (formerly known as quisqualate receptors), NMDA receptors (NMDARs), kainate receptors, and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Most research has been focused on the AMPARs and the NMDARs. When glutamate binds to AMPARs located on th
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depolarization
|
In biology, depolarization or hypopolarization is a change within a cell, during which the cell undergoes a shift in electric charge distribution, resulting in less negative charge inside the cell compared to the outside. Depolarization is essential to the function of many cells, communication between cells, and the overall physiology of an organism.
Most cells in higher organisms maintain an internal environment that is negatively charged relative to the cell's exterior. This difference in charge is called the cell's membrane potential. In the process of depolarization, the negative internal charge of the cell temporarily becomes more positive (less negative). This shift from a negative to a more positive membrane potential occurs during several processes, including an action potential. During an action potential, the depolarization is so large that the potential difference across the cell membrane briefly reverses polarity, with the inside of the cell becoming positively charged.
The change in charge typically occurs due to an influx of sodium ions into a cell, although it can be mediated by an influx of any kind of cation or efflux of any kind of anion. The opposite of a depolarization is called a hyperpolarization.
Usage of the term "depolarization" in biology differs from its use in physics, where it refers to situations in which any form of polarity (i.e. the presence of any electrical charge, whether positive or negative) changes to a value of zero.
Depolarization
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department%20of%20Computer%20Science%20and%20Technology%2C%20University%20of%20Cambridge
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The Department of Computer Science and Technology, formerly the Computer Laboratory, is the computer science department of the University of Cambridge. it employed 56 faculty members, 45 support staff, 105 research staff, and about 205 research students. The current Head of Department is Professor Ann Copestake.
History
The department was founded as the Mathematical Laboratory under the leadership of John Lennard-Jones on 14 May 1937, though it did not get properly established until after World War II. The new laboratory was housed in the North Wing of the former Anatomy School, on the New Museums Site. Upon its foundation, it was intended "to provide a computing service for general use, and to be a centre for the development of computational techniques in the University". The Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science was the world's first postgraduate taught course in computing, starting in 1953.
In October 1946, work began under Maurice Wilkes on EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), which subsequently became the world's first fully operational and practical stored program computer when it ran its first program on 6 May 1949. It inspired the world's first business computer, LEO. It was replaced by EDSAC 2, the first microcoded and bitsliced computer, in 1958.
In 1961, David Hartley developed Autocode, one of the first high-level programming languages, for EDSAC 2. Also in that year, proposals for Titan, based on the Ferranti Atlas machine, were developed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBD
|
MBD or MBd may refer to:
Man bites dog (journalism), a shortened version of an aphorism in journalism
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, a probability distribution in physics and chemistry
Megabaud (MBd), equal to one million baud, symbol rate in telecommunications
Member Board of Directors
Metabolic bone disease
Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 2 a protein which bind the DNA on its methyl-CpG
Microsoft Business Division, responsible for making Microsoft Office
Minimal brain dysfunction or minimal brain damage, obsolete terms for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia and other learning disabilities
Model-based definition, a method of using 3D CAD information to provide product specifications
Model-based design, a mathematical and visual method of addressing problems associated with designing complex control, signal processing and communication systems
Mordechai Ben David, a Jewish singer and recording artist
Motherboard, a computer component
Multibody dynamics
Murder by Death (band), an indie rock band
My Brightest Diamond, chamber rock band of Shara Worden
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wietse%20Venema
|
Wietse Zweitze Venema (born 1951) is a Dutch programmer and physicist best known for writing the Postfix email system. He also wrote TCP Wrapper and collaborated with Dan Farmer to produce the computer security tools SATAN and The Coroner's Toolkit.
Biography
He studied physics at the University of Groningen, continuing there to get a PhD in 1984 with the dissertation Left-right symmetry in nuclear beta decay. He spent 12 years at Eindhoven University as a systems architect in the Mathematics and Computer Science department, and spent part of this time writing tools for Electronic Data Interchange. Since emigrating to the U.S. in 1996 and until 2015, he has been working for the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in New York State. On March 24, 2015, he announced he was leaving IBM for Google.
Awards
Awards Venema has received for his work:
Security Summit Hall of Fame Award (July 1998)
SAGE Outstanding Achievement Award (November 1999)
NLUUG Award (November 2000)
Sendmail Milter Innovation Award (November 2006)
The 2008 Free Software Foundation Award for the Advancement of Free Software (March 2009)
ISSA Hall of Fame Award (October 2012)
References
External links
Dutch computer scientists
20th-century Dutch physicists
1951 births
Living people
American computer scientists
People associated with computer security
Dutch emigrants to the United States
Google employees
Academic staff of the Eindhoven University of Technology
University of Groningen alumni
21st-ce
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20astrology
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Medical astrology (traditionally known as iatromathematics) is an ancient applied branch of astrology based mostly on melothesia (Gr. μελοθεσία), the association of various parts of the body, diseases, and drugs with the nature of the sun, moon, planets, and the twelve astrological signs. The underlying basis for medical astrology, astrology itself, is considered to be a pseudoscience as there is no scientific basis for its core beliefs.
List of works
Medical astrology was mentioned by Marcus Manilius (1st century AD) in his epic poem (8000 verses) Astronomica.
Ficino, Marsilio, Three Books on Life (1489) [De vita libri tre] translated by Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clark, Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, State University of New York at Binghamton and The Rneaissance Society of America (1989.)
Lilly, William, Christian Astrology (1647)
Culpepper, Nicholas, Astrological Judgement of Diseases from the Decumbiture of the Sick (1655)
Saunders, Richard, The Astrological Judgment and Practice of Physick (1677)
Cornell, H.L., M.D., The Encyclopaedia of Medical Astrology (1933), Astrology Classics [Abington, MD, 2010.]
References
Bibliography
Astrology by type
Traditional medicine
History of ancient medicine
History of astrology
Pseudoscience
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitro
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Nitro may refer to:
Chemistry
Nitrogen, a chemical element and a gas except at very low temperatures, with which many compounds are formed:
Nitro compound, an organic compound containing one or more nitro functional groups, -NO2
Nitroalkene, a functional group combining the functionality of an alkene and nitro group
Nitrocellulose, or cellulose nitrate, an extremely flammable chemical compound
Nitroglycerin, or glyceryl trinitrate, an explosive chemical compound
Nitromethane, a simple organic nitro compound with the formula
Nitro fuel, a fuel containing nitromethane and methanol
Nitro engine, an engine powered with nitro fuel used in some radio-controlled model cars, aircraft etc.
People
Danny Lee Clark (born 1964), known as "Nitro" on the original American Gladiators television show
John Morrison (wrestler) (born 1979), professional wrestler formerly known as Johnny Nitro
Nitro (rapper) (born 1993), Italian rapper
Nitro (wrestler) (born 1966), Mexican professional wrestler
Places
Giant, Richmond, California, formerly named Nitro
Nitro, West Virginia, United States
Arts and entertainment
Nitro (Adlabs Imagica), a roller coaster at the Imagicaa theme park in Khopoli, India
Nitro (film), a Canadian action film released in 2007
Nitro (Six Flags Great Adventure), a mega roller coaster at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson Township, New Jersey, United States
Fictional characters
Nitro (comics), a Marvel Comics supervillain
Nitro Norimaki, a character from the Dr. Slump fra
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20number
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In quantum physics and chemistry, quantum numbers describe values of conserved quantities in the dynamics of a quantum system. Quantum numbers correspond to eigenvalues of operators that commute with the Hamiltonian—quantities that can be known with precision at the same time as the system's energy—and their corresponding eigenspaces. Together, a specification of all of the quantum numbers of a quantum system fully characterize a basis state of the system, and can in principle be measured together.
An important aspect of quantum mechanics is the quantization of many observable quantities of interest. In particular, this leads to quantum numbers that take values in discrete sets of integers or half-integers; although they could approach infinity in some cases. This distinguishes quantum mechanics from classical mechanics where the values that characterize the system such as mass, charge, or momentum, all range continuously. Quantum numbers often describe specifically the energy levels of electrons in atoms, but other possibilities include angular momentum, spin, etc. An important family is flavour quantum numbers – internal quantum numbers which determine the type of a particle and its interactions with other particles through the fundamental forces. Any quantum system can have one or more quantum numbers; it is thus difficult to list all possible quantum numbers.
Quantum numbers needed for a given system
The tally of quantum numbers varies from system to system and has
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camellia%20%28cipher%29
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In cryptography, Camellia is a symmetric key block cipher with a block size of 128 bits and key sizes of 128, 192 and 256 bits. It was jointly developed by Mitsubishi Electric and NTT of Japan. The cipher has been approved for use by the ISO/IEC, the European Union's NESSIE project and the Japanese CRYPTREC project. The cipher has security levels and processing abilities comparable to the Advanced Encryption Standard.
The cipher was designed to be suitable for both software and hardware implementations, from low-cost smart cards to high-speed network systems. It is part of the Transport Layer Security (TLS) cryptographic protocol designed to provide communications security over a computer network such as the Internet.
The cipher was named for the flower Camellia japonica, which is known for being long-lived as well as because the cipher was developed in Japan.
Design
Camellia is a Feistel cipher with either 18 rounds (when using 128-bit keys) or 24 rounds (when using 192- or 256-bit keys). Every six rounds, a logical transformation layer is applied: the so-called "FL-function" or its inverse. Camellia uses four 8×8-bit S-boxes with input and output affine transformations and logical operations. The cipher also uses input and output key whitening. The diffusion layer uses a linear transformation based on a matrix with a branch number of 5.
Security analysis
Camellia is considered a modern, safe cipher. Even using the smaller key size option (128 bits), it's considered in
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%20quantum%20number
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In quantum mechanics, the principal quantum number (symbolized n) is one of four quantum numbers assigned to each electron in an atom to describe that electron's state. Its values are natural numbers (from 1) making it a discrete variable.
Apart from the principal quantum number, the other quantum numbers for bound electrons are the azimuthal quantum number ℓ, the magnetic quantum number ml, and the spin quantum number s.
Overview and history
As n increases, the electron is also at a higher energy and is, therefore, less tightly bound to the nucleus. For higher n the electron is farther from the nucleus, on average. For each value of n there are n accepted ℓ (azimuthal) values ranging from 0 to n − 1 inclusively, hence higher-n electron states are more numerous. Accounting for two states of spin, each n-shell can accommodate up to 2n2 electrons.
In a simplistic one-electron model described below, the total energy of an electron is a negative inverse quadratic function of the principal quantum number n, leading to degenerate energy levels for each n > 1. In more complex systems—those having forces other than the nucleus–electron Coulomb force—these levels split. For multielectron atoms this splitting results in "subshells" parametrized by ℓ. Description of energy levels based on n alone gradually becomes inadequate for atomic numbers starting from 5 (boron) and fails completely on potassium (Z = 19) and afterwards.
The principal quantum number was first created for use in
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Wheeler%20%28computer%20scientist%29
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David John Wheeler FRS (9 February 1927 – 13 December 2004) was a computer scientist and professor of computer science at the University of Cambridge.
Education
Wheeler was born in Birmingham, England, the second of the three children of (Agnes) Marjorie, née Gudgeon, and Arthur Wheeler, a press tool maker, engineer, and proprietor of a small shopfitting firm. He was educated at a local primary school in Birmingham and then went on to King Edward VI Camp Hill School after winning a scholarship in 1938. His education was disrupted by World War II, and he completed his sixth form studies at Hanley High School. In 1945 he gained a scholarship to study the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1948. He was awarded the world's first PhD in computer science in 1951.
Career
Wheeler's contributions to the field included work on the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) in the 1950s and the Burrows–Wheeler transform (published 1994). Along with Maurice Wilkes and Stanley Gill, he is credited with the invention around 1951 of the subroutine (which they referred to as the closed subroutine), and gave the first explanation of how to design software libraries; as a result, the jump to subroutine instruction was often called a Wheeler Jump. Wilkes published a paper in 1953 discussing relative addressing to facilitate the use of subroutines. (However, Turing had discussed subroutines in a paper of 1945 on design proposals for the NPL A
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity
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Similarity may refer to:
In mathematics and computing
Similarity (geometry), the property of sharing the same shape
Matrix similarity, a relation between matrices
Similarity measure, a function that quantifies the similarity of two objects
Cosine similarity, which uses the angle between vectors
String metric, also called string similarity
Semantic similarity, in computational linguistics
In linguistics
Lexical similarity
Semantic similarity
In signal processing
Similarity between two different signals is also important in the field of signal processing. Below are some common methods for calculating similarity.
For instance, let's consider two signals represented as and , where and .
Maximum error (ME)
Measuring the maximum magnitude of the difference between two signals. Maximum error is useful for assessing the worst-case scenario of prediction accuracy
Mean squared error (MSE)
Measuring the average squared difference between two signals. Unlike the maximum error, mean squared error takes into account the overall magnitude and spread of errors, offering a comprehensive assessment of the difference between the two signals.
Normalized mean square error (NMSE)
NMSE is an extension of MSE. It is calculated by normalizing the MSE with the signal power, enabling fair comparisons across different datasets and scales.
Root-mean-square deviation (RMSE)
RMSE is derived from MSE by taking the square root of the MSE. It downscale the MSE, providing a more interpretabl
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuthal%20quantum%20number
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In quantum mechanics, the azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital. The azimuthal quantum number is the second of a set of quantum numbers that describe the unique quantum state of an electron (the others being the principal quantum number , the magnetic quantum number , and the spin quantum number ). It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number, subsidiary quantum number, or second quantum number, and is symbolized as (pronounced ell).
Derivation
Connected with the energy states of the atom's electrons are four quantum numbers: n, ℓ, mℓ, and ms. These specify the complete, unique quantum state of a single electron in an atom, and make up its wavefunction or orbital. When solving to obtain the wave function, the Schrödinger equation reduces to three equations that lead to the first three quantum numbers. Therefore, the equations for the first three quantum numbers are all interrelated. The azimuthal quantum number arose in the solution of the polar part of the wave equation as shown below , reliant on the spherical coordinate system, which generally works best with models having some glimpse of spherical symmetry.
An atomic electron's angular momentum, , is related to its quantum number by the following equation:
where is the reduced Planck's constant, is the orbital angular momentum operator and is the wavefunctio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seki%20Takakazu
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, also known as , was a Japanese mathematician and author of the Edo period.
Seki laid foundations for the subsequent development of Japanese mathematics, known as wasan. He has been described as "Japan's Newton".
He created a new algebraic notation system and, motivated by astronomical computations, did work on infinitesimal calculus and Diophantine equations. Although he was a contemporary of German polymath mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and British polymath physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton, Seki's work was independent. His successors later developed a school dominant in Japanese mathematics until the end of the Edo period.
While it is not clear how much of the achievements of wasan are Seki's, since many of them appear only in writings of his pupils, some of the results parallel or anticipate those discovered in Europe. For example, he is credited with the discovery of Bernoulli numbers. The resultant and determinant (the first in 1683, the complete version no later than 1710) are attributed to him.
Seki also calculated the value of pi correct to the 10th decimal place, having used what is now called the Aitken's delta-squared process, rediscovered later by Alexander Aitken.
Seki has been influenced by Japanese mathematics books such as the Jinkōki.
Biography
Not much is known about Seki's personal life. His birthplace has been indicated as either Fujioka in Gunma Prefecture, or Edo. His birth date ranges from 1635 to 1643.
He was born to
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheila%20Greibach
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Sheila Adele Greibach (born 6 October 1939 in New York City) is a researcher in formal languages in computing, automata, compiler theory and computer science. She is an Emeritus Professor of Computer Science at the University of California, Los Angeles, and notable work include working with Seymour Ginsburg and Michael A. Harrison in context-sensitive parsing using the stack automaton model.
Besides establishing the normal form (Greibach normal form) for context-free grammars, in 1965, she also investigated properties
of W-grammars, pushdown automata, and decidability problems.
Early career
Greibach earned an A.B. degree (summa cum laude) in Linguistics and Applied Mathematics from Radcliffe College in 1960, and two years after achieved an A.M. degree. In 1963, she was awarded a PhD at Harvard University, advised by Anthony Oettinger with a PhD thesis entitled "Inverses of Phrase Structure Generators".
She continued to work at Harvard at the Division of Engineering and Applied Physics until 1969 when she moved to UCLA, where she has been a professor until present (as of March 2014).
Work and contributions
Among her students were Ronald V. Book and Michael J. Fischer.
The following list indicates some of her work. The top portion of the list is from the ACM Digital Library and the remainder from the FOCS Bibliography by David M. Jones.
From ACM Digital Library
"Jump PDA's, deterministic context-free languages, principal AFDLs and polynomial time recognition (Extended A
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration%20curve
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In analytical chemistry, a calibration curve, also known as a standard curve, is a general method for determining the concentration of a substance in an unknown sample by comparing the unknown to a set of standard samples of known concentration. A calibration curve is one approach to the problem of instrument calibration; other standard approaches may mix the standard into the unknown, giving an internal standard. The calibration curve is a plot of how the instrumental response, the so-called analytical signal, changes with the concentration of the analyte (the substance to be measured).
General use
In more general use, a calibration curve is a curve or table for a measuring instrument which measures some parameter indirectly, giving values for the desired quantity as a function of values of sensor output. For example, a calibration curve can be made for a particular pressure transducer to determine applied pressure from transducer output (a voltage). Such a curve is typically used when an instrument uses a sensor whose calibration varies from one sample to another, or changes with time or use; if sensor output is consistent the instrument would be marked directly in terms of the measured unit.
Method
The operator prepares a series of standards across a range of concentrations near the expected concentration of analyte in the unknown. The concentrations of the standards must lie within the working range of the technique (instrumentation) they are using. Analyzing each of t
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clonogenic%20assay
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A clonogenic assay is a cell biology technique for studying the effectiveness of specific agents on the survival and proliferation of cells. It is frequently used in cancer research laboratories to determine the effect of drugs or radiation on proliferating tumor cells as well as for titration of Cell-killing Particles (CKPs) in virus stocks. It was first developed by T.T. Puck and Philip I. Marcus at the University of Colorado in 1955.
Although this technique can provide accurate results, the assay is time-consuming to set up and analyze and can only provide data on tumor cells that can grow in culture. The word "clonogenic" refers to the fact that these cells are clones of one another.
Procedure
The experiment involves three major steps:
The treatment is applied to a sample of cells.
The cells are "plated" in a tissue culture vessel and allowed to grow.
The colonies produced are fixed, stained, and counted.
At the conclusion of the experiment, the percentage of cells that survived the treatment is measured. A graphical representation of survival versus drug concentration or dose of ionizing radiation is called a cell survival curve.
For Cell-killing Particle assays, the surviving fraction of cells is used to approximate the Poisson Distribution of virus particles amongst cells and therefore determine the number of CKPs encountered by each cell.
Any type of cell could be used in an experiment, but since the goal of these experiments in oncological research is the di
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20%28biology%29
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In biology, a type is a particular specimen (or in some cases a group of specimens) of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally associated. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralizes the defining features of that particular taxon. In older usage (pre-1900 in botany), a type was a taxon rather than a specimen.
A taxon is a scientifically named grouping of organisms with other like organisms, a set that includes some organisms and excludes others, based on a detailed published description (for example a species description) and on the provision of type material, which is usually available to scientists for examination in a major museum research collection, or similar institution.
Type specimen
According to a precise set of rules laid down in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), the scientific name of every taxon is almost always based on one particular specimen, or in some cases specimens. Types are of great significance to biologists, especially to taxonomists. Types are usually physical specimens that are kept in a museum or herbarium research collection, but failing that, an image of an individual of that taxon has sometimes been designated as a type. Describing species and appointing type specimens is part of scientific nomenclature and alpha taxonomy.
When identifying material, a scientist attempts to apply a tax
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscalculia
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Dyscalculia () is a disability resulting in difficulty learning or comprehending arithmetic, such as difficulty in understanding numbers, learning how to manipulate numbers, performing mathematical calculations, and learning facts in mathematics. It is sometimes colloquially referred to as "math dyslexia", though this analogy is misleading as they are distinct syndromes.
Dyscalculia is associated with dysfunction in the region around the intraparietal sulcus and potentially also the frontal lobe. Dyscalculia does not reflect a general deficit in cognitive abilities or difficulties with time, measurement, and spatial reasoning. Estimates of the prevalence of dyscalculia range between 3 and 6% of the population. In 2015 it was established that 11% of children with dyscalculia also have ADHD. Dyscalculia has also been associated with Turner syndrome and people who have spina bifida.
Mathematical disabilities can occur as the result of some types of brain injury, in which case the term acalculia is used instead of dyscalculia, which is of innate, genetic or developmental origin.
Signs and symptoms
The earliest appearance of dyscalculia is typically a deficit in subitizing, the ability to know, from a brief glance and without counting, how many objects there are in a small group. Children as young as five can subitize six objects, especially while looking at the dots on the sides of dice. However, children with dyscalculia can subitize fewer objects and even when correct take
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numb
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Numb may refer to:
Biology and healthcare
NUMB (gene), a human gene
Numbness, having deficient physical sensation
Numb, having deficient sensation (psychology)
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
Groups
Numb (band), a Canadian industrial band
Northwestern University Wildcat Marching Band, or NUMB
Albums
Numb (Hammerbox album), 1993
Numb (Linea 77 album), 2003
The Numb E.P., a 1996 EP by Baboon
Numb, a 2022 album by Lewis Taylor
Songs
"Numb" (August Alsina song), 2013
"Numb" (Hayden James song), 2017
"Numb" (Holly McNarland song), 1997
"Numb" (Honey Ryder song), 2008
"Numb" (Linkin Park song), 2003
"Numb" (Marshmello and Khalid song), 2022
"Numb" (Pet Shop Boys song), 2006
"Numb" (Portishead song), 1994
"Numb" (Rihanna song), 2012
"Numb" (U2 song), 1993
"Numb" (Usher song), 2012
"Numb" (Veridia song), 2018
"Numb", a song by The Airborne Toxic Event
"Numb", a song by David Archuleta
"Numb", a song by Jaira Burns
"Numb", a song by Gary Clark Jr. from the album Blak and Blu
"Numb", a song by Pink from the album Missundaztood
"Numb", a song by 21 Savage from the album Issa Album
"Numb", a song by Archive from the album You All Look the Same to Me
"Numb", a song by Disturbed from the album The Sickness
"Numb", a song by Drowning Pool from the album Desensitized
"Numb", a song by Erika Costell
"Numb", a song by Marina and the Diamonds from the album The Family Jewels
"Numb", a song by Nick Jonas from his self-titled album
"Numb", a song by
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat%27s%20eye
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Cat's eye and other variations may refer to:
Nature
Cat's Eye Nebula, a planetary nebula
Biology
Cat's eye, the visual organ of a cat; see cat senses
Cat eye snail (Turbo castanea), or other species from the genus Turbo
Cat's eye snail (Lunella smaragdus), a sea snail endemic to New Zealand
Cat eye syndrome, a symptom of 'trisomy 22'
Mineralogy and gemology
Cymophane, sometimes called "cat's eye"; a variety of the mineral chrysoberyl
Cat's eye effect, or chatoyancy, the reflective property of certain gems
Arts and entertainment
Literature
Cat's Eye (novel), a 1988 novel by Margaret Atwood
Catseye (novel), a 1961 science fiction novel by Andre Norton
Catseye (comics), Sharon Smith, a character from Marvel Comics
Cat's Eye (manga), a 1981 Japanese manga about three cat burglar sisters
Film and TV
Cat's Eye (1985 film), a film based on works by Stephen King
Cat's Eye (1997 film), a live-action feature film based on the manga and anime
C.A.T.S. Eyes, a UK television series
"Cat's Eyes", a Series C episode of the television series QI (2005)
Music
Cat's Eyes (band), a UK alternative pop duo
"Cat's Eye" (song), a 1983 song by Anri, later covered by MAX
Products
Cat eye glasses, a style of horn-rimmed glasses designed for women
Cat's eye (toy), a kind of toy marble
Cat's Eye (cocktail), a gin-based cocktail
Cat's eye (road), a type of road marker using retroreflectors
Cat eye tube, an electron tube used as a visual indicator
Other uses
CatEye Inc., a J
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%27s%20Kittens%20and%20the%20Search%20for%20Reality
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Schrödinger's Kittens and the Search for Reality is a 1995 book by John Gribbin, in which the author attempts to explain the mysteries of modern quantum mechanics in a popular-scientific way. It is a sequel to his earlier book, In Search of Schrödinger's Cat (1984).
In his epilogue, Gribbin touches on what were then the most recent developments of string theory, and introduces the transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics as the new "mythology" of our time. His argument does not refute the theory, but demonstrates how all theories can be true and mythological (depending on one's perspective).
1995 non-fiction books
Books by John Gribbin
English-language books
Popular physics books
Kittens and the Search for Reality
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality%20%28electricity%20and%20magnetism%29
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In physics, the electromagnetic dual concept is based on the idea that, in the static case, electromagnetism has two separate facets: electric fields and magnetic fields. Expressions in one of these will have a directly analogous, or dual, expression in the other. The reason for this can ultimately be traced to special relativity, where applying the Lorentz transformation to the electric field will transform it into a magnetic field. These are special cases of duality in mathematics.
The electric field () is the dual of the magnetic field ().
The electric displacement field () is the dual of the magnetic flux density ().
Faraday's law of induction is the dual of Ampère's circuital law.
Gauss's law for electric field is the dual of Gauss's law for magnetism.
The electric potential is the dual of the magnetic potential.
Permittivity is the dual of permeability.
Electrostriction is the dual of magnetostriction.
Piezoelectricity is the dual of piezomagnetism.
Ferroelectricity is the dual of ferromagnetism.
An electrostatic motor is the dual of a magnetic motor;
Electrets are the dual of permanent magnets;
The Faraday effect is the dual of the Kerr effect;
The Aharonov–Casher effect is the dual to the Aharonov–Bohm effect;
The hypothetical magnetic monopole is the dual of electric charge.
See also
Maxwell's equations
Duality (electrical circuits)
List of dualities
Electromagnetism
Duality theories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20bond
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A triple bond in chemistry is a chemical bond between two atoms involving six bonding electrons instead of the usual two in a covalent single bond. Triple bonds are stronger than the equivalent single bonds or double bonds, with a bond order of three. The most common triple bond is in a nitrogen N2 molecule; the second most common is that between two carbon atoms, which can be found in alkynes. Other functional groups containing a triple bond are cyanides and isocyanides. Some diatomic molecules, such as dinitrogen and carbon monoxide, are also triple bonded. In skeletal formulae the triple bond is drawn as three parallel lines (≡) between the two connected atoms.
Bonding
The types of bonding can be explained in terms of orbital hybridization. In the case of acetylene each carbon atom has two sp-orbitals and two p-orbitals. The two sp-orbitals are linear with 180° angles and occupy the x-axis (cartesian coordinate system). The p-orbitals are perpendicular on the y-axis and the z-axis. When the carbon atoms approach each other, the sp orbitals overlap to form an sp-sp sigma bond. At the same time the pz-orbitals approach and together they form a pz-pz pi-bond. Likewise, the other pair of py-orbitals form a py-py pi-bond. The result is formation of one sigma bond and two pi bonds.
In the bent bond model, the triple bond can also formed by the overlapping of three sp3 lobes without the need to invoke a pi-bond.
Triple bonds between elements heavier than oxygen
Many element
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Williamson
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David Keith Williamson (born 24 February 1942) is an Australian playwright. He has also written screenplays and teleplays.
Early life
David Williamson was born in Melbourne, Victoria, on 24 February 1942, and was brought up in Bairnsdale. He initially studied mechanical engineering at the University of Melbourne from 1960, but left and graduated from Monash University with a Bachelor of Engineering degree in 1965. His early forays into the theatre were as an actor and writer of skits for the Engineers' Revue at Melbourne University's Union Theatre at lunchtime during the early 1960s, and as a satirical sketch writer for Monash University student reviews and the Emerald Hill Theatre Company.
After a brief stint as design engineer for GM Holden, Williamson became a lecturer in mechanical engineering and thermodynamics at Swinburne University of Technology (then Swinburne Technical College) in 1966 while studying social psychology as a postgraduate part-time at the University of Melbourne. He completed a Master of Arts in Psychology in 1970, and then completed further postgraduate research in social psychology. Williamson later lectured in social psychology at Swinburne, where he remained until 1972.
Career
Williamson first turned to writing and performing in plays in 1967 with La Mama Theatre Company and the Pram Factory, and rose to prominence in the early 1970s, with works such as Don's Party (later turned into a 1976 film), a comic drama set during the 1969 federal ele
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreal
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Hyperreal may refer to:
Hyperreal numbers, an extension of the real numbers in mathematics that are used in non-standard analysis
Hyperreal.org, a rave culture website based in San Francisco, US
Hyperreality, a term used in semiotics and postmodern philosophy
Hyperrealism (visual arts), a school of painting
Hyperreal (The Shamen song), 1990
Hyperreal (Flume song)", 2017
"Hyperreal", a song by My Ticket Home
"Hyper Real", a song by Negativland from Dispepsi
See also
Hypernumber
Superreal number
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral%20graph%20theory
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In mathematics, spectral graph theory is the study of the properties of a graph in relationship to the characteristic polynomial, eigenvalues, and eigenvectors of matrices associated with the graph, such as its adjacency matrix or Laplacian matrix.
The adjacency matrix of a simple undirected graph is a real symmetric matrix and is therefore orthogonally diagonalizable; its eigenvalues are real algebraic integers.
While the adjacency matrix depends on the vertex labeling, its spectrum is a graph invariant, although not a complete one.
Spectral graph theory is also concerned with graph parameters that are defined via multiplicities of eigenvalues of matrices associated to the graph, such as the Colin de Verdière number.
Cospectral graphs
Two graphs are called cospectral or isospectral if the adjacency matrices of the graphs are isospectral, that is, if the adjacency matrices have equal multisets of eigenvalues.
Cospectral graphs need not be isomorphic, but isomorphic graphs are always cospectral.
Graphs determined by their spectrum
A graph is said to be determined by its spectrum if any other graph with the same spectrum as is isomorphic to .
Some first examples of families of graphs that are determined by their spectrum include:
The complete graphs.
The finite starlike trees.
Cospectral mates
A pair of graphs are said to be cospectral mates if they have the same spectrum, but are non-isomorphic.
The smallest pair of cospectral mates is {K1,4, C4 ∪ K1}, comprisin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20multivariable%20calculus%20topics
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This is a list of multivariable calculus topics. See also multivariable calculus, vector calculus, list of real analysis topics, list of calculus topics.
Closed and exact differential forms
Contact (mathematics)
Contour integral
Contour line
Critical point (mathematics)
Curl (mathematics)
Current (mathematics)
Curvature
Curvilinear coordinates
Del
Differential form
Differential operator
Directional derivative
Divergence
Divergence theorem
Double integral
Equipotential surface
Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions
Exterior derivative
Flux
Frenet–Serret formulas
Gauss's law
Gradient
Green's theorem
Green's identities
Harmonic function
Helmholtz decomposition
Hessian matrix
Hodge star operator
Inverse function theorem
Irrotational vector field
Isoperimetry
Jacobian matrix
Lagrange multiplier
Lamellar vector field
Laplacian
Laplacian vector field
Level set
Line integral
Matrix calculus
Mixed derivatives
Monkey saddle
Multiple integral
Newtonian potential
Parametric equation
Parametric surface
Partial derivative
Partial differential equation
Potential
Real coordinate space
Saddle point
Scalar field
Solenoidal vector field
Stokes' theorem
Submersion
Surface integral
Symmetry of second derivatives
Taylor's theorem
Total derivative
Vector field
Vector operator
Vector potential
list
Mathematics-related lists
Outlines of mathematics and logic
Outlines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exothermic%20reaction
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In thermochemistry, an exothermic reaction is a "reaction for which the overall standard enthalpy change ΔH⚬ is negative." Exothermic reactions usually release heat. The term is often confused with exergonic reaction, which IUPAC defines as "... a reaction for which the overall standard Gibbs energy change ΔG⚬ is negative." A strongly exothermic reaction will usually also be exergonic because ΔH⚬ makes a major contribution to ΔG⚬. Most of the spectacular chemical reactions that are demonstrated in classrooms are exothermic and exergonic. The opposite is an endothermic reaction, which usually takes up heat and is driven by an entropy increase in the system.
Examples
Examples are numerous: combustion, the thermite reaction, combining strong acids and bases, polymerizations. As an example in everyday life, hand warmers make use of the oxidation of iron to achieve an exothermic reaction:
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 ΔH⚬ = - 1648 kJ/mol
A particularly important class of exothermic reactions is combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel, e.g. the burning of natural gas:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O ΔH⚬ = - 890 kJ/mol
These sample reactions are strongly exothermic.
Uncontrolled exothermic reactions, those leading to fires and explosions, are wasteful because it is difficult to capture the released energy. Nature effects combustion reactions under highly controlled conditions, avoiding fires and explosions, in aerobic respiration so as to capture the released energy,
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSH
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MSH may refer to:
Biology and medicine
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a hormone produced in the pituitary gland, and related to skin pigmentation
DNA mismatch repair genes:
MSH2
MSH3
MSH4
MSH5
MSH6
Multiple system atrophy
Mycothiol, an unusual thiol that is found in Actinobacteria
Computing
Microsoft Surface Hub
Monad Shell (msh), a former name for the Microsoft Windows PowerShell
Places
Maharashtra state highway, India
Markham Stouffville Hospital, Ontario, Canada
RAFO Masirah airport, Oman (IATA: MSH)
Mississippi State Hospital, US
Mossley Hill railway station, England
Mount St. Helens, volcano in Washington, US
Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada
Other uses
Maison des Sciences de L'Homme, a research foundation in Paris, France
Management Sciences for Health, a non-profit
Marvel Super Heroes (disambiguation), in entertainment
Masikoro language, spoken in Madagascar (ISO 639: msh)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Chemistry%20Council
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American Chemistry Council (ACC), known as the Manufacturing Chemists' Association at its founding in 1872 then as the Chemical Manufacturers' Association (from 1978 until 2000), is an industry trade association for American chemical companies, based in Washington, D.C.
Activities
The mission of the American Chemistry Council is to promote the interests of corporations of the chemical industry. The trade group represents U.S. chemical companies as well as the plastics and chlorine industries, formerly known as the American Plastics Council, the Center for the Polyurethanes Industry and the Chlorine Chemistry Council.
ACC implemented the Responsible Care program in 1988. At least 52 countries have implemented this initiative. It is managed at a global level by the International Council of Chemical Associations. Participation in the program is a mandatory for all ACC members.
It has a political action committee that gives money to members of the Congress of the United States.
ACC launched a $35 million "essential2" public relations campaign in 2005. "essential2" attempted to improve the industry's image by emphasizing the importance of chemical industry products – especially plastics – to everyday life, and by using the term "American Chemistry" rather than "chemical industry". ACC later shifted to a more directed lobbying and policy-shaping effort, including taking legal action against federal efforts to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from industry.
Sometime in 2008, A
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avempace
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Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyà ibn aṣ-Ṣā’igh at-Tūjībī ibn Bājja (), best known by his Latinised name Avempace (; – 1138), was an Andalusi polymath, whose writings include works regarding astronomy, physics, and music, as well as philosophy, medicine, botany, and poetry.
He was the author of the Kitāb an-Nabāt ("The Book of Plants"), a popular work on botany, which defined the sex of plants. His philosophical theories influenced the work of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Albertus Magnus. Most of his writings and books were not completed (or well-organized) due to his early death. He had a vast knowledge of medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. His main contribution to Islamic philosophy was his idea on soul phenomenology, which was never completed.
Avempace was, in his time, not only a prominent figure of philosophy but also of music and poetry.<ref>D. M. Dunlop, "The Dīwān Attributed to Ibn Bājjah (Avempace)", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London Vol. 14, No. 3, Studies Presented to Vladimir Minorsky by His Colleagues and Friends (1952), pp. 463</ref> His diwan (Arabic: collection of poetry) was rediscovered in 1951. Though many of his works have not survived, his theories in astronomy and physics were preserved by Moses Maimonides and Averroes respectively, and influenced later astronomers and physicists in the Islamic civilization and Renaissance Europe, including Galileo Galilei.
Avempace wrote one of the first (argued by some to be the
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mathematical%20topics%20in%20quantum%20theory
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This is a list of mathematical topics in quantum theory, by Wikipedia page. See also list of functional analysis topics, list of Lie group topics, list of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions.
Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics
bra–ket notation
canonical commutation relation
complete set of commuting observables
Heisenberg picture
Hilbert space
Interaction picture
Measurement in quantum mechanics
quantum field theory
quantum logic
quantum operation
Schrödinger picture
semiclassical
statistical ensemble
wavefunction
wave–particle duality
Wightman axioms
WKB approximation
Schrödinger equation
quantum mechanics, matrix mechanics, Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)
particle in a box
particle in a ring
particle in a spherically symmetric potential
quantum harmonic oscillator
hydrogen atom
ring wave guide
particle in a one-dimensional lattice (periodic potential)
Fock symmetry in theory of hydrogen
Symmetry
identical particles
angular momentum
angular momentum operator
rotational invariance
rotational symmetry
rotation operator
translational symmetry
Lorentz symmetry
Parity transformation
Noether's theorem
Noether charge
Spin (physics)
isospin
Aman matrices
scale invariance
spontaneous symmetry breaking
supersymmetry breaking
Quantum states
quantum number
Pauli exclusion principle
quantum indeterminacy
uncertainty principle
wavefunction collapse
zero-point energy
bound state
coherent state
squeezed c
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation%20solving
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In mathematics, to solve an equation is to find its solutions, which are the values (numbers, functions, sets, etc.) that fulfill the condition stated by the equation, consisting generally of two expressions related by an equals sign. When seeking a solution, one or more variables are designated as unknowns. A solution is an assignment of values to the unknown variables that makes the equality in the equation true. In other words, a solution is a value or a collection of values (one for each unknown) such that, when substituted for the unknowns, the equation becomes an equality.
A solution of an equation is often called a root of the equation, particularly but not only for polynomial equations. The set of all solutions of an equation is its solution set.
An equation may be solved either numerically or symbolically. Solving an equation numerically means that only numbers are admitted as solutions. Solving an equation symbolically means that expressions can be used for representing the solutions.
For example, the equation is solved for the unknown by the expression , because substituting for in the equation results in , a true statement. It is also possible to take the variable to be the unknown, and then the equation is solved by . Or and can both be treated as unknowns, and then there are many solutions to the equation; a symbolic solution is , where the variable may take any value. Instantiating a symbolic solution with specific numbers gives a numerical solution;
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex%20multiplication
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In mathematics, complex multiplication (CM) is the theory of elliptic curves E that have an endomorphism ring larger than the integers. Put another way, it contains the theory of elliptic functions with extra symmetries, such as are visible when the period lattice is the Gaussian integer lattice or Eisenstein integer lattice.
It has an aspect belonging to the theory of special functions, because such elliptic functions, or abelian functions of several complex variables, are then 'very special' functions satisfying extra identities and taking explicitly calculable special values at particular points. It has also turned out to be a central theme in algebraic number theory, allowing some features of the theory of cyclotomic fields to be carried over to wider areas of application. David Hilbert is said to have remarked that the theory of complex multiplication of elliptic curves was not only the most beautiful part of mathematics but of all science.
There is also the higher-dimensional complex multiplication theory of abelian varieties A having enough endomorphisms in a certain precise sense, roughly that the action on the tangent space at the identity element of A is a direct sum of one-dimensional modules.
Example of the imaginary quadratic field extension
Consider an imaginary quadratic field .
An elliptic function is said to have complex multiplication if there is an algebraic relation between and for all in .
Conversely, Kronecker conjectured – in what became known
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional%20freezing
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Fractional freezing is a process used in process engineering and chemistry to separate substances with different melting points. It can be done by partial melting of a solid, for example in zone refining of silicon or metals, or by partial crystallization of a liquid, as in freeze distillation, also called normal freezing or progressive freezing. The initial sample is thus fractionated (separated into fractions).
Partial crystallization can also be achieved by adding a dilute solvent to the mixture, and cooling and concentrating the mixture by evaporating the solvent, a process called solution crystallization. Fractional freezing is generally used to produce ultra-pure solids, or to concentrate heat-sensitive liquids.
Freeze distillation
Freeze distillation is a misnomer, because it is not distillation but rather a process of enriching a solution by partially freezing it and removing frozen material that is poorer in the dissolved material than is the liquid portion left behind. Such enrichment parallels enrichment by true distillation, where the evaporated and re-condensed portion is richer than the liquid portion left behind.
Ethanol and liquid water are completely miscible, but ethanol is practically insoluble in water ice. That means almost pure water ice can be precipitated from a lean ethanol-water mixture by cooling it sufficiently. The precipitation of water ice from the mixture enriches ethanol in the remaining liquid phase. The two phases can then be separated b
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mathematical%20topics%20in%20classical%20mechanics
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This is a list of mathematical topics in classical mechanics, by Wikipedia page. See also list of variational topics, correspondence principle.
Newtonian physics
Newton's laws of motion
Inertia,
Kinematics, rigid body
Momentum, kinetic energy
Parallelogram of force
Circular motion
Rotational speed
Angular speed
Angular momentum
torque
angular acceleration
moment of inertia
parallel axes rule
perpendicular axes rule
stretch rule
centripetal force, centrifugal force, Reactive centrifugal force
Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector
Euler's disk
elastic potential energy
Mechanical equilibrium
D'Alembert's principle
Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)
Frame of reference
Inertial frame of reference
Galilean transformation
Principle of relativity
Conservation laws
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
Conservation of angular momentum
Conservation of energy
Potential energy
Conservative force
Conservation of mass
Law of universal gravitation
Projectile motion
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
Escape velocity
Potential well
Weightlessness
Lagrangian point
N-body problem
Kolmogorov-Arnold-Moser theorem
Virial theorem
Gravitational binding energy
Speed of gravity
Newtonian limit
Hill sphere
Roche lobe
Roche limit
Hamiltonian mechanics
Phase space
Symplectic manifold
Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)
Poisson bracket
Poisson algebra
Poisson manifold
Antibracket algebra
Hamiltonian constraint
Moment map
Contact geometry
Analysis of flows
Nambu mechanics
Lagrangian
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Maryland%20Center%20for%20Environmental%20Science
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With 1925 origins as a research station on Solomons Island, the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science (UMCES) is the only scientific research center within the University System of Maryland. In 1973 it became the Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies and in 1997 it assumed its current name.
The center provides a unified focus for environmental research and education in Maryland, United States, with special attention to problems of the Chesapeake Bay, and includes climate research. Research programs are undertaken across the US and globally. Its educational opportunities include graduate studies and undergraduate research internships. The center has about 60 faculty and 110 graduate students. Dr. Donald Boesch served as the institution's president from 1990 until 2017, and has been succeeded by Dr. Peter Goodwin.
UMCES programs are conducted at five constituent research locations:
Appalachian Laboratory (Frostburg, Maryland)
Chesapeake Biological Laboratory (Solomons, Maryland)
Horn Point Laboratory (Cambridge, Maryland)
Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology (Baltimore, Maryland)
Maryland Sea Grant College (College Park, Maryland)
The Center also administers the Integration and Application Network, which provides scientific data, reports and visualization tools for researchers, students and the general public.
References
External links
Chesapeake Research Consortium
Center for Environmental Science
Cambridge, Maryland
Schools in D
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusion%20and%20diffusion
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In cryptography, confusion and diffusion are two properties of the operation of a secure cipher identified by Claude Shannon in his 1945 classified report A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography. These properties, when present, work together to thwart the application of statistics and other methods of cryptanalysis.
Confusion in a symmetric cipher is obscuring the local correlation between the input (plaintext) and output (ciphertext) by varying the application of the key to the data, while diffusion is hiding the plaintext statistics by spreading it over a larger area of ciphertext. Although ciphers can be confusion-only (substitution cipher, one-time pad) or diffusion-only (transposition cipher), any "reasonable" block cipher uses both confusion and diffusion. These concepts are also important in the design of cryptographic hash functions and pseudorandom number generators, where decorrelation of the generated values is the main feature, diffusion (and its avalanche effect) is also applicable to non-cryptographic hash functions.
Definition
Confusion
Confusion means that each binary digit (bit) of the ciphertext should depend on several parts of the key, obscuring the connections between the two.
The property of confusion hides the relationship between the ciphertext and the key.
This property makes it difficult to find the key from the ciphertext and if a single bit in a key is changed, the calculation of most or all of the bits in the ciphertext will be affected.
Co
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSF
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CSF may refer to:
Biology and medicine
Cerebrospinal fluid, clear colorless bodily fluid found in the brain and spine
Colony-stimulating factor, secreted glycoproteins
Macrophage colony-stimulating factor, "CSF-1"
Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, "CSF-2"
Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, "CSF-3"
Cancer slope factor, estimate the risk of cancer
Classical swine fever, contagious disease of pigs
Contrast sensitivity function, relationship of contrast threshold vs angular frequency for an observer
Military
Central Security Forces (CSF), an Egyptian paramilitary force
Comprehensive Soldier Fitness
Coalition Support Fund, US military aid to countries
Thomson-CSF of Thales Group
Education
California Scholarship Federation
California State University, Fullerton, a university in Southern California
Collège de la Sainte Famille, a Jesuit school in Cairo, Egypt
Colorado Shakespeare Festival, a Shakespeare Festival each summer at the University of Colorado at Boulder
College of Santa Fe, a private art centric college in Santa Fe New Mexico
Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique, a public school board in British Columbia, Canada
Christian Student Fellowship, a Christian campus ministry at the University of Kentucky in Lexington, Kentucky
Curriculum and Standards Framework
Computing
Connected Services Framework, a service aggregation SOA platform from Microsoft
NIST Cybersecurity Framework
Sport
CONMEBOL or CSF (Confederaci
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescence
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Thermoluminescence is a form of luminescence that is exhibited by certain crystalline materials, such as some minerals, when previously absorbed energy from electromagnetic radiation or other ionizing radiation is re-emitted as light upon heating of the material. The phenomenon is distinct from that of black-body radiation.
Physics
High energy radiation creates electronic excited states in crystalline materials. In some materials, these states are trapped, or arrested, for extended periods of time by localized defects, or imperfections, in the lattice interrupting the normal intermolecular or inter-atomic interactions in the crystal lattice. Quantum-mechanically, these states are stationary states which have no formal time dependence; however, they are not stable energetically, as vacuum fluctuations are always "prodding" these states. Heating the material enables the trapped states to interact with phonons, i.e. lattice vibrations, to rapidly decay into lower-energy states, causing the emission of photons in the process.
Use in dating
The amount of luminescence is proportional to the original dose of radiation received. In thermoluminescence dating, this can be used to date buried objects that have been heated in the past, since the ionizing dose received from radioactive elements in the soil or from cosmic rays is proportional to age. This phenomenon has been applied in the thermoluminescent dosimeter, a device to measure the radiation dose received by a chip of suitable
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20up
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Power up may refer to:
Power-up, a video gaming term
FIRST Power Up, the 2018 FIRST Robotics Competition game
POWER UP, an American nonprofit organization
"Power Up" (song), a 2018 song by Red Velvet from their EP Summer Magic
Power Up (album), 2020 studio album by AC/DC
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon%20physics
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Cartoon physics or animation physics are terms for a jocular system of laws of physics (and biology) that supersedes the normal laws, used in animation for humorous effect.
Many of the most famous American animated films, particularly those from Warner Bros. and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios, indirectly developed a relatively consistent set of such "laws" which have become de rigueur in comic animation. They usually involve things behaving in accordance with how they appear to the cartoon characters, or what the characters expect, rather than how they objectively are. In one common example, when a cartoon character runs off a cliff, gravity has no effect until the character notices.
In words attributed to Art Babbitt, an animator with the Walt Disney Studios: "Animation follows the laws of physics—unless it is funnier otherwise."
Examples
Specific reference to cartoon physics extends back at least to June 1980, when an article "O'Donnell's Laws of Cartoon Motion" appeared in Esquire. A version printed in V.18 No. 7 p. 12, 1994 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in its journal helped spread the word among the technical crowd, which has expanded and refined the idea.
O'Donnell's examples include:
Any body suspended in space will remain suspended in space until made aware of its situation. A character steps off a cliff but remains in midair until looking down, then the familiar principle of 32 feet per second takes over.
A body passing through solid
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum
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Serum may refer to:
Biology and pharmacology
Serum (blood), plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed
Antiserum, blood serum with specific antibodies for passive immunity
Serous fluid, any clear bodily fluid
Other uses
Gary Serum (born 1956), American baseball player
Serum, a software synthesizer VST created by Steve Duda
See also
Sera (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lineweaver%E2%80%93Burk%20plot
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In biochemistry, the Lineweaver–Burk plot (or double reciprocal plot) is a graphical representation of the Michaelis–Menten equation of enzyme kinetics, described by Hans Lineweaver and Dean Burk in 1934.
The double reciprocal plot distorts the error structure of the data, and is therefore not the most accurate tool for the determination of enzyme kinetic parameters. While the Lineweaver–Burk plot has historically been used for evaluation of the parameters, together with the alternative linear forms of the Michaelis–Menten equation such as the Hanes–Woolf plot or Eadie–Hofstee plot, all linearized forms of the Michaelis–Menten equation should be avoided to calculate the kinetic parameters. Properly weighted non-linear regression methods are significantly more accurate and have become generally accessible with the universal availability of desktop computers.
Definitions
The Lineweaver–Burk plot derives from a transformation of the Michaelis–Menten equation,
in which the rate is a function of the substrate concentration and two parameters , the limiting rate, and , the Michaelis constant. Taking reciprocals of both sides of this equation it becomes as follows:
Thus plotting against generates a straight line with ordinate intercept , abscissa intercept and slope .
Applications
When used for determining the type of enzyme inhibition, the Lineweaver–Burk plot can distinguish between competitive, pure non-competitive and uncompetitive inhibitors. The various modes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie%20Orgel
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Leslie Eleazer Orgel FRS (12 January 1927 – 27 October 2007) was a British chemist. He is known for his theories on the origin of life.
Biography
Leslie Orgel was born in London, England, on . He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in chemistry with first-class honours from the University of Oxford in 1948. In 1951 he was elected a Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford and in 1953 was awarded his PhD in chemistry.
Orgel started his career as a theoretical inorganic chemist and continued his studies in this field at Oxford, the California Institute of Technology , and the University of Chicago.
Together with Sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, and Beryl M. Oughton he was one of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of DNA, constructed by Francis Crick and James Watson, at the time he and the other scientists were working at Oxford University's Chemistry Department. According to the late Dr. Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick; Orgel himself also worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.
In 1955 he joined the chemistry department at Cambridge University. There he did work in transition metal chemistry and ligand field theory, published several peer-reviewed journal articles, and wr
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91-Aminobutyric%20acid
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α-Aminobutyric acid (AABA), also known as homoalanine in biochemistry, is a non-proteinogenic alpha amino acid with chemical formula C4H9NO2. The straight two carbon side chain is one carbon longer than alanine, hence the prefix homo-.
Homoalanine is biosynthesised by transaminating oxobutyrate, a metabolite in isoleucine biosynthesis. It is used by nonribosomal peptide synthases. One example of a nonribosomal peptide containing homoalanine is ophthalmic acid, which was first isolated from calf lens.
α-Aminobutyric acid is one of the three isomers of aminobutyric acid. The two other are the neurotransmitter γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and β-Aminobutyric acid (BABA) which is known for inducing plant disease resistance.
The conjugate base of α-aminobutyric acid is the carboxylate α-aminobutyrate.
References
Alpha-Amino acids
GABA analogues
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Giessen
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University of Giessen, official name Justus Liebig University Giessen (), is a large public research university in Giessen, Hesse, Germany. It is one of the oldest institutions of higher education in the German-speaking world. It is named after its most famous faculty member, Justus von Liebig, the founder of modern agricultural chemistry and inventor of artificial fertiliser. It covers the areas of arts/humanities, business, dentistry, economics, law, medicine, science, social sciences and veterinary medicine. Its university hospital, which has two sites, Giessen and Marburg (the latter of which is the teaching hospital of the University of Marburg), is the only private university hospital in Germany.
History
The University of Giessen is among the oldest institutions of higher educations in the German-speaking world. It was founded in 1607 as a Lutheran university in the city of Giessen in Hesse-Darmstadt because the all-Hessian Landesuniversität (the nearby University of Marburg (Philipps-Universität Marburg) in Marburg, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel)) had become Reformed (that is, Calvinist). Louis V, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, whence the university got its original name "Ludoviciana", founded his own institution of higher education in Giessen, which as a Lutheran institution had the primary function of ensuring the education of pastors and civil servants. Endowed with a charter issued by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, on 19 May 1607, the university was allowed to proc
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror%20matter
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In physics, mirror matter, also called shadow matter or Alice matter, is a hypothetical counterpart to ordinary matter.
Overview
Modern physics deals with three basic types of spatial symmetry: reflection, rotation, and translation. The known elementary particles respect rotation and translation symmetry but do not respect mirror reflection symmetry (also called P-symmetry or parity). Of the four fundamental interactions—electromagnetism, the strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravity—only the weak interaction breaks parity.
Parity violation in weak interactions was first postulated by Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang in 1956 as a solution to the τ-θ puzzle. In consultation with the experimental physicist Chien-Shiung Wu a number of possibilities were proposed to test whether the weak interaction was in fact invariant under parity. One of the group's suggestions involved monitoring the decay of Cobalt-60, to determine whether the electrons it emitted were radiated isotopically, like the two gamma rays. Wu performed this experiment in at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. after nine months of work. Contrary to most expectations, in December of 1956 she and her team observed anisotropic electron radiation, proving that the weak interactions of the known particles violate parity.
However, parity symmetry can be restored as a fundamental symmetry of nature if the particle content is enlarged so that every particle has a mirror partner. The theory i
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced%20ring
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In ring theory, a branch of mathematics, a ring is called a reduced ring if it has no non-zero nilpotent elements. Equivalently, a ring is reduced if it has no non-zero elements with square zero, that is, x2 = 0 implies x = 0. A commutative algebra over a commutative ring is called a reduced algebra if its underlying ring is reduced.
The nilpotent elements of a commutative ring R form an ideal of R, called the nilradical of R; therefore a commutative ring is reduced if and only if its nilradical is zero. Moreover, a commutative ring is reduced if and only if the only element contained in all prime ideals is zero.
A quotient ring R/I is reduced if and only if I is a radical ideal.
Let be nilradical of any commutative ring . There is a natural functor of category of commutative rings into category of reduced rings and it is left adjoint to the inclusion functor of into . The bijection is induced from the universal property of quotient rings.
Let D be the set of all zero-divisors in a reduced ring R. Then D is the union of all minimal prime ideals.
Over a Noetherian ring R, we say a finitely generated module M has locally constant rank if is a locally constant (or equivalently continuous) function on Spec R. Then R is reduced if and only if every finitely generated module of locally constant rank is projective.
Examples and non-examples
Subrings, products, and localizations of reduced rings are again reduced rings.
The ring of integers Z is a reduced ring. Ever
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%20in%20science
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The year 1953 involved numerous significant events in science and technology, including the first description of the DNA double helix, the discovery of neutrinos, and the release of the first polio vaccine.
Biology
April 25 – Francis Crick and James D. Watson of U.K. Medical Research Council's Unit for Research on the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems at the Cavendish Laboratory in the University of Cambridge publish "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" in the British journal Nature. Their work is often ranked as one of the most dramatic biological discoveries of the 20th century, because of the structural beauty and functional logic of the DNA double helix. In 1962, they will share the Nobel Prize in Medicine with Maurice Wilkins, who publishes X-ray crystallography results for DNA in the same issue of Nature in 1953. The third related article published at the same time is by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling, on "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate".
Chemistry
May 15 – Stanley Miller publishes results from the Miller-Urey experiment in the journal Science. These surprise many chemists, by showing that organic molecules present in living organisms can form easily from simple inorganic chemicals.
Rudolph Pariser, Robert G. Parr and John Pople publish their computational quantum chemistry theory for approximating molecular orbitals.
Date unknown - Ziegler–Natta catalyst invented by Karl Ziegler and Giul
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20%28chemistry%29
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Products are the species formed from chemical reactions. During a chemical reaction, reactants are transformed into products after passing through a high energy transition state. This process results in the consumption of the reactants. It can be a spontaneous reaction or mediated by catalysts which lower the energy of the transition state, and by solvents which provide the chemical environment necessary for the reaction to take place. When represented in chemical equations, products are by convention drawn on the right-hand side, even in the case of reversible reactions. The properties of products such as their energies help determine several characteristics of a chemical reaction, such as whether the reaction is exergonic or endergonic. Additionally, the properties of a product can make it easier to extract and purify following a chemical reaction, especially if the product has a different state of matter than the reactants.
Spontaneous reaction
Where R is reactant and P is product.
Catalysed reaction
Where R is reactant, P is product and C is catalyst.
Much of chemistry research is focused on the synthesis and characterization of beneficial products, as well as the detection and removal of undesirable products. Synthetic chemists can be subdivided into research chemists who design new chemicals and pioneer new methods for synthesizing chemicals, as well as process chemists who scale up chemical production and make it safer, more environmentally sustainable, and more e
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subobject
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In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a subobject is, roughly speaking, an object that sits inside another object in the same category. The notion is a generalization of concepts such as subsets from set theory, subgroups from group theory, and subspaces from topology. Since the detailed structure of objects is immaterial in category theory, the definition of subobject relies on a morphism that describes how one object sits inside another, rather than relying on the use of elements.
The dual concept to a subobject is a . This generalizes concepts such as quotient sets, quotient groups, quotient spaces, quotient graphs, etc.
Definitions
An appropriate categorical definition of "subobject" may vary with context, depending on the goal. One common definition is as follows.
In detail, let be an object of some category. Given two monomorphisms
with codomain , we define an equivalence relation by if there exists an isomorphism with .
Equivalently, we write if factors through —that is, if there exists such that . The binary relation defined by
is an equivalence relation on the monomorphisms with codomain , and the corresponding equivalence classes of these monomorphisms are the subobjects of .
The relation ≤ induces a partial order on the collection of subobjects of .
The collection of subobjects of an object may in fact be a proper class; this means that the discussion given is somewhat loose. If the subobject-collection of every object is a set, the categ
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Winters
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Robert Henry Winters, (August 18, 1910 – October 10, 1969) was a Canadian politician, and businessman.
Life and career
Born in Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, the son of a fishing captain, Winters went to Mount Allison University in New Brunswick, and then to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to complete his degree in electrical engineering. He worked for Northern Electric before joining the army in World War II, eventually becoming a lieutenant-colonel. He was first elected to the House of Commons in the 1945 general election as a Liberal for the riding of Queens—Lunenburg in Nova Scotia. Winters was appointed to Cabinet in 1948, and served as minister of public works, among other portfolios, under Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent.
Defeated along with the St. Laurent government in the 1957 election, Winters entered the corporate world, becoming a chief executive officer at a series of companies. He was hired as a special advisor to the Newfoundland government to help negotiate the Churchill Falls deal, for which he became highly popular in that province.
He was persuaded to return to politics by Lester Pearson, and won the Toronto seat of York West in the 1965 election, becoming minister of trade and commerce in Pearson's government. He was seen as close to the business community and far more fiscally conservative than Walter L. Gordon. He originally announced that he would not seek to replace the retiring Pearson, but changed his mind and ran to succeed Pearson at the 1
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley%20Lower%20Extremity%20Exoskeleton
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The Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) is a robotic device that attaches to the lower body. Its purpose is to complement the user's strength by adding extra force to the user's lower extremity bodily movements. The BLEEX was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and developed by the Berkeley Robotics and Human Engineering Laboratory, a unit within the University of California, Berkeley Department of Mechanical Engineering. DARPA provided the initial $50 million of start-up funds in 2001.
Design
The BLEEX has four hydraulically actuated joints: two at the hip, one at the knee, and one at the ankle. The BLEEX is energetically autonomous, meaning it has an on-board power supply.
Development later moved to Lockheed Martin, where the device became known as the Human Universal Load Carrier, or HULC.
Performance
The BLEEX consumes 1143 watts of hydraulic power during ground-level walking along with another 200 watts of electrical power for electronics. It can support a load of while walking at , and can walk at up to without any load.
References
Robots of the United States
Robotic exoskeletons
2003 robots
University of California, Berkeley
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frattini%20subgroup
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In mathematics, particularly in group theory, the Frattini subgroup of a group is the intersection of all maximal subgroups of . For the case that has no maximal subgroups, for example the trivial group {e} or a Prüfer group, it is defined by . It is analogous to the Jacobson radical in the theory of rings, and intuitively can be thought of as the subgroup of "small elements" (see the "non-generator" characterization below). It is named after Giovanni Frattini, who defined the concept in a paper published in 1885.
Some facts
is equal to the set of all non-generators or non-generating elements of . A non-generating element of is an element that can always be removed from a generating set; that is, an element a of such that whenever is a generating set of containing a, is also a generating set of .
is always a characteristic subgroup of ; in particular, it is always a normal subgroup of .
If is finite, then is nilpotent.
If is a finite p-group, then . Thus the Frattini subgroup is the smallest (with respect to inclusion) normal subgroup N such that the quotient group is an elementary abelian group, i.e., isomorphic to a direct sum of cyclic groups of order p. Moreover, if the quotient group (also called the Frattini quotient of ) has order , then k is the smallest number of generators for (that is, the smallest cardinality of a generating set for ). In particular a finite p-group is cyclic if and only if its Frattini quotient is cyclic (of order p). A finit
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9%20duality
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In mathematics, the Poincaré duality theorem, named after Henri Poincaré, is a basic result on the structure of the homology and cohomology groups of manifolds. It states that if M is an n-dimensional oriented closed manifold (compact and without boundary), then the kth cohomology group of M is isomorphic to the th homology group of M, for all integers k
Poincaré duality holds for any coefficient ring, so long as one has taken an orientation with respect to that coefficient ring; in particular, since every manifold has a unique orientation mod 2, Poincaré duality holds mod 2 without any assumption of orientation.
History
A form of Poincaré duality was first stated, without proof, by Henri Poincaré in 1893. It was stated in terms of Betti numbers: The kth and th Betti numbers of a closed (i.e., compact and without boundary) orientable n-manifold are equal. The cohomology concept was at that time about 40 years from being clarified. In his 1895 paper Analysis Situs, Poincaré tried to prove the theorem using topological intersection theory, which he had invented. Criticism of his work by Poul Heegaard led him to realize that his proof was seriously flawed. In the first two complements to Analysis Situs, Poincaré gave a new proof in terms of dual triangulations.
Poincaré duality did not take on its modern form until the advent of cohomology in the 1930s, when Eduard Čech and Hassler Whitney invented the cup and cap products and formulated Poincaré duality in these new ter
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