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who sang the song thank god it's friday
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Thank God it 's Friday (love & Kisses song) - Wikipedia
"Thank God It 's Friday '' is a 1978 disco song by the studio disco group Love & Kisses, popularized as the theme song of the film by the same name. It was written by European composer and producer Alec R. Costandinos. It peaked at # 1 on Billboard 's Disco charts, # 23 R&B and # 22 Pop.
Over the years some radio stations would play the song at 5: 00 p.m. on Fridays to mark the end of the work week and get its audience pumped - up for the weekend. The song 's catchphrase tantalized listeners with the prospect of love at the discotheque: "Hey / Put a smile on your face / Things are coming your way / Out there somewhere tonight ''.
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where are the glands located in the human body
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List of glands of the human body - wikipedia
This page contains a list of glands of the human body
There are several specialized glands within the human integumentary system that are derived from apocrine or sebaceous gland precursors. There are no specialized variants of eccrine glands.
See List of human endocrine organs and actions
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what is andy's last name in toy story
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List of Toy Story characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from Disney / Pixar 's Toy Story franchise which consists of the animated films Toy Story (1995), Toy Story 2 (1999), and Toy Story 3 (2010) and the animated short films.
Voiced by:
Sheriff Woody Pride is a 1950s old traditional pull string cowboy doll, and Andy 's favorite toy. Appearing in all three Toy Story films, he usually acts as the leader of the gang. His rivalry with Buzz forms the basis of the plot of the first film. In Toy Story 2, he is stolen at a yard sale by a toy collector, causing the other toys to embark on a rescue mission. In Toy Story 3 he and the other toys are shipped to a daycare center.
Voiced by:
Previously known as Tinny and Lunar Larry, Buzz Lightyear is a modern - day "space ranger '' action figure, and wears a green and white space suit with various features such as retractable wings and transparent air helmet, a laser "weapon, '' and various sound effects. In the films, he acts as Woody 's second - in - command. In Toy Story, he begins the series believing he is a real space ranger (the other toys are aware that they are toys) and develops a rivalry with Woody, who resents him for getting more attention as the newcomer. During the film, he comes to realize that he is just a toy, and eventually becomes good friends with Woody. He is extremely loyal to his friends. During his time trapped at Sid 's house, Hannah, Sid 's sister, called Buzz Mrs. Nesbit. In Toy Story 2, Buzz goes to save Woody from Al with Potato Head, Hamm, Rex, and Slink (Slinky Dog) where he gets stuck in the Buzz Lightyear aisle in Al 's Toy Barn by another Buzz and finds out for himself what he was really like. In Toy Story 3, a relationship begins to develop between Buzz and Jessie. He is particularly open with his affection when accidentally switched to "Spanish mode. ''
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Jessie is a cowgirl doll, and part of the Woody 's Round Up gang. Jessie is also Buzz Lightyear 's girlfriend. She first appeared in Toy Story 2 along with Bullseye (her horse) and Stinky Pete. Initially, Jessie was hesitant to join Andy 's friends. After she becomes part of the family, she is very happy (despite that Andy first calls her Bazooka Jane). In Toy Story 3, she was riding Bullseye when Woody fell off the train in Andy 's opening sequence. She argued with Woody on their way to Sunnyside Daycare because of when the others think Andy threw them out. Later in the film, Jessie feels close with Buzz, even when Buzz got switched into Spanish. At the end, Jessie and Buzz danced to the Spanish version of "You 've Got a Friend in Me. '' Jessie also makes a cameo appearance in Monsters, Inc. as one of the toys Boo gives Sulley. Jessie also appears in Pixar 's production of Toy Story of Terror! as the main character that saves the other toys from the toy stealer and seller at the rest stop.
Voiced by:
Hamm is a wisecracking realist piggy bank with a cork in his belly in place of a stopper. He and Mr. Potato Head appear to be best friends, and are often seen playing games, such as Battleship (with Hamm always winning). Out of all the toys, he is shown to have the most knowledge of the outside, often being very familiar with various gadgets that are shown, likely as an homage to Ratzenberger 's famous role of mail carrier and bar know - it - all Cliff Clavin on the sitcom Cheers.
In Toy Story, Hamm interrupts Woody 's staff meeting by alerting the crowd telling them that the birthday guests are arriving at 3: 00. Hamm becomes fascinated with Buzz 's features and ridicules of Woody, along with Potato Head. When Woody inadvertently knocks Buzz off the window, Hamm is one of the many toys who believes that Woody did it intentionally and he turns on him. However, Hamm realizes the truth that Buzz is alive. At the end, Hamm cheers for Potato Head when Molly gets a Mrs. Potato Head for Christmas.
In Toy Story 2, Hamm resents the Al 's Toy Barn chicken mascot. When Woody is stolen, he and Mr. Potato Head organize a crime scene to present Woody 's kidnapping to the other toys. After helping the toys find the Al 's Toy Barn commercial on TV, Hamm goes with Buzz, Slinky, Rex, and Mr. Potato Head on a mission to rescue Woody. In Al 's Toy Barn, Hamm spots a "Bonus Belt '' Buzz, thinking he is Andy 's Buzz, though he comments on the new Buzz 's odd behavior. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he and Mr. Potato Head operate the truck 's levers and knobs and are advised to pull the gear lever to get the truck to move. While reading the truck 's manual, he states "I seriously doubt he 's getting this kinda mileage ''. Eventually, Hamm and the other toys are able to rescue Woody and are able to return home in a stolen baggage carrier.
In Toy Story 3, Hamm is "Evil Dr. Porkchop '' in Andy 's western play opening sequence, appearing in a giant pig - shaped spaceship to rescue One - Eyed Bart and thwart Woody and his gang. Later, when the toys are accidentally thrown out, Hamm is angry, believing that Andy threw them out on purpose. He escapes with the rest of the toys to Sunnyside Daycare, where he is initially happy to be played with, but dismayed as he realizes the toddlers are too rough. Later that night, Hamm and his friends realize that Woody was telling the truth about Andy. When the toys are imprisoned by Lotso and his henchmen, Hamm is shown to be able to play the harmonica. When Woody comes back to rescue the toys from Sunnyside he quotes "Return of the Astro - Nut '' on Buzz being turned back to demo. He helps the toys escape by fighting with Rex to distract Buzz, who has been switched to demo mode by Lotso, so that Jessie can trap him under a plastic container. Hamm and Rex, being the heaviest of the toys, sit on top of the container to prevent Buzz from escaping. When Woody returns with Buzz 's instruction manual to switch him back, Hamm reads the instructions while the others hold Buzz down. When they were about to die in the incinerator, Hamm grabbed the hands of Slinky and Rex. Later, after the toys are rescued from an incinerator - related death at the dump due to Lotso 's selfishness, Hamm, along with Slinky, wants revenge, but Woody talks them both out of it. He is donated along with Andy 's other toys to Bonnie, where he becomes best friends with Buttercup.
In a 2010 advertisement for the United States Postal Service promoting Toy Story 3, Hamm wears a postal worker 's hat while promoting the Priority Mail service; Ratzenberger is best known for his role as mailman Cliff Clavin on the long - running sitcom Cheers. He also makes an appearance in the Toy Story 3 video game as the mayor in Toy Box mode.
Hamm also appears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by:
Rex is an excitable large, green, plastic Tyrannosaurus Rex. Rex suffers from anxiety, an inferiority complex and the concern that he is not scary enough. Rex 's worst fear (after Sid) is that Andy will get another, scarier dinosaur. He is among the largest of Andy 's toys, and is often depicted as the heaviest. He is voiced by Earl Boen in the video games Toy Story 2: Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue (1999) and Toy Story Racer (2001). Although Rex is a toy dinosaur he dislikes confrontation and is sensitive in nature.
In Toy Story, he states that he was manufactured by a smaller company that was purchased in a leveraged buyout by Mattel (coincidentally, real - life Rex toys used to be made by Hasbro, but as of 2009 are indeed made by Mattel). He is first introduced when he moves Woody 's doodle pad, then tries to scare Woody with his roar. When Buzz arrives, Rex is fascinated by his cool features. Later, when Woody knocks Buzz out the window, he reluctantly sides against Woody out of pressure from the other toys. He is, however, a great deal less antagonistic than most of the other toys. He later feels guilty when everyone discovers Woody was telling the truth all along. He gains confidence at the end, saying he could play as the dominant predator if Andy gets a leaf eater.
The beginning of Toy Story 2, he is shown playing the "Buzz Lightyear: Attack on Zurg '' video game, which he loses, much to his frustration. He is responsible for the toys seeing the commercial for Al 's Toy Barn commercial when he accidentally clicks the remote control. When Woody was kidnapped by Al, Rex tried to send a message to the FBI for help, but he did n't know how to write FBI, and later joins Buzz ' team to rescue Woody. Inside Al 's Toy Barn, he excitedly finds a "Buzz Lightyear '' video game strategy guide, which he takes with him. He loses the guide later, but is still able to give Buzz two tips from the guide on defeating Zurg. In a parody of Jurassic Park, he chases a car driven by the toys in Al 's Toy Barn, in which Mr. Potato Head spots his reflection in the rear view mirror. It is Rex 's tail sticking out of Al 's bag that later causes the real Buzz to go after them. When the other Toys, led by Buzz 2 reach Al 's Apartment, the toys use an unwilling Rex as a battering ram to break in against the unlocked grate. When Zurg is about to finish off Buzz 2, he turns away, not bearing to look anymore, but his tail knocks Zurg down the elevator shaft, making him feel overjoyed about finally defeating Zurg for real. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he serves as the navigator and tells Buzz which way to go since he ca n't see out the window while controlling the steering wheel. Eventually, he and the others manage to rescue Woody and return home in a stolen baggage carrier.
In Toy Story 3, he is Woody 's "Dinosaur who Eats Force Field Dogs '' in Andy 's opening western play sequence, where he frightens One - Eyed Bart and his gang with a terrifying roar, but is then overpowered by a flood of monkeys. He is seen to be especially sad about Andy 's lack of attention to the toys, expressing joy when Andy touches him for only a few moments. When the toys are initially left for the garbage pickup, he is ultimately responsible for saving them when they use his tail to rip a hole in the garbage bag. He is initially happy to be at Sunnyside, and is visibly sad when Woody leaves, but becomes dismayed after a rough playtime with the toddlers, commenting "Andy never played with us like that! '' He is imprisoned along with Andy 's other toys by Lotso and his gang. Later, at the garbage dump, Rex is the last to escape the shredder, only barely escaping when he grabs onto a broken fan. He discovers a source of light thinking that it 's daylight, but Woody convinces him that it 's not; it 's the light of the flame from the incinerator. When the toys are finally given to Bonnie, Rex becomes close friends with Trixie the Triceratops.
In an outtake of Toy Story 2, when used as a battering ram, Rex hurt his head when banged against the locked grate. Rex makes an appearance in an outtake of Monsters, Inc. where he waits at the crosswalk with Mike and Sulley in a scene reminiscent of Jurassic Park. Rex is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game. In the movie WALL - E, Rex is seen in the background inside WALL - E 's truck.
Rex reappears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, Partysaurus Rex and in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror!, and Toy Story That Time Forgot.
Voiced by:
Slinky Dog (usually called just Slinky or sometimes Slink) is a toy dachshund with a metal Slinky for a body, who speaks with a southern accent. Slinky 's head, feet, and tail are plastic and he is missing his pull string. Slinky also has a green collar. Slinky Dog is based on Slinky, a pull toy by James Industries, which was popular in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s. With the permission of James Industries, Slinky Dog was partially redesigned for the film by Pixar artist Bud Luckey to make him more appealing as an animated character.
In Toy Story, he likes playing checkers with Woody, usually choosing the red side. Slinky is shown to be the most loyal to Woody and stands up for him when Potato Head complains. Slinky is fascinated by Buzz, along with the rest of the toys, but does not make fun of Woody when Buzz arrives like the others do. When Woody knocks Buzz out of the window, Slinky is one of the few toys who believes it was an accident. Later, when Andy notices Woody is missing, he and Bo Peep are worried about him, in contrast to the others, who are glad he 's gone. Later, he attempts to help when Woody throws a chain of Christmas lights from Sid 's house to Andy 's, but Potato Head stops him. Even Slinky appears to give up on Woody when he pretends Buzz is with him but accidentally reveals his broken arm. He is stretched almost to the point of breaking when helping rescue Woody and Buzz on the moving truck, but is fixed by the end of the film.
At the beginning of Toy Story 2, Slinky is the one who finds Woody 's hat, and joins Buzz, Hamm, Mr. Potato Head and Rex on a mission to rescue Woody from Al McWhiggin. His springy coil is used as a bungee cord when the toys jump from the roof of Andy 's house. When the toys break into Al 's apartment, Slinky uses his spring to hold Jessie and Bullseye back by coiling them up so the toys can safely rescue Woody. After Al packs up Woody and his Roundup gang and heads for the airport, Slinky, stretching down from the elevator ceiling by Buzz, Hamm and Potato Head, reaches for the case that contains Woody, and almost manages to save him, but is thwarted by the Prospector. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he operates the truck 's gas and brake pedals. They manage to reach the airport and use a pet carrier to get inside. When a girl approaches them (mistaking the toys for a puppy), Slinky barks to scare her off to prevent their discovery. After rescuing Woody, they return home with the rest of the group in a stolen baggage carrier. In an outtake, he is seen petting his own hind section and talking to it.
In Toy Story 3, Slinky has a smaller role compared to the previous two films. He is the only original character that had to be re-cast (due to Jim Varney 's death), and was replaced by Blake Clark (with a professional Jim Varney voice) in this film. Slinky is One - Eyed Bart 's "Attack Dog with a Built - in Force Field '' and protects the bad guys with his shield in Andy 's western play sequence. At Sunnyside Daycare, Slinky has been tangled up by the young children. Later that night, Slinky reveals that Woody was telling them the truth about Andy 's intention to store the toys into the attic. Slinky and his friends are imprisoned by Lotso 's gang. He is shown to be the happiest toy to see Woody return, and assists him in subduing the Monkey toy who monitors the security cameras. When the toys reach the dumpster, Slinky stretches himself to create a bridge for the toys to climb across to safety, although they are stopped by Lotso. When the toys end up at the dump, Slinky is the first to be taken up by a magnetic ceiling due to the metallic section (Slinky) of his body. When Lotso betrays the toys and leaves them to be burned up in the incinerator, Slinky is the first to follow Buzz in joining hands in acceptance of their fate. After the toys are rescued by the Squeeze Toy Aliens, he and Hamm are the most vocal about wanting to get revenge on Lotso for leaving them to die before Woody convinces them Lotso is n't worth it. He is eventually donated to Bonnie along with the rest of the toys.
His catchphrase, said in all three movies, is "Golly bob - howdy! ''
Slinky reappears in the short film Hawaiian Vacation, in which he acts as a hotel porter as part of Ken and Barbie 's Hawaiian adventures. He also appears in Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex. He does not speak in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins, silently appearing along with Jessie in one scene.
Voiced by:
Mr. Potato Head (often referred to as simply Potato Head) is a Brooklyn - accented doll based on the real - life toy Mr. Potato Head by Playskool. He is an outspoken and sarcastic potato - shaped toy: his patented design allows him to separate his detachable parts from his body by removing them from the holes on his body. He also has a compartment on his lower back to store extra appendages. He is capable of retaining control over his parts even if they are several meters away from his main body. For example, he can still see if one or both of his detachable eyes are removed, as well as being able to move his hands if they are detached. The same thing applies to his "Mrs. '' counterpart, as she was able to see Andy in his room through her eye left behind. While this attribute is mostly used for comedic effect (i.e. as a running gag, he often finds himself being split or falling apart due to outside forces), it does have its uses, particularly in the second and third films.
In Toy Story, it is hinted that he used to be Andy 's favorite toy years before the events of the film, until he received Woody at the point of kindergarten, and therefore seems to have a strong jealousy towards Andy ` s love for Woody. Then, when Andy gets the Buzz Lightyear action figure for his birthday he becomes fascinated with all of Buzz 's features and ridicules Woody for not having a laser like Buzz as well as Woody 's pull - string. After Buzz is knocked out of the window, Potato Head (perhaps due to his jealously towards Woody, and wanting to reclaim his long lost favorite toy position) blames Woody for kicking him out, thinking that Woody might do the same to him if Andy plays with him more often, and turns the other toys against Woody and leads a mutiny with them. When Woody reveals himself at Sid 's House later, Mr. Potato Head convinces the others to refuse to help him, still assuming that Woody attacked Buzz. But when they are packed up Mr. Potato Head is still unhappy because he is stuck with Rex as a moving buddy and put in a moving truck. Later when Woody catches up with them and tosses RC onto the street to rescue Buzz, Potato Head, still distrusting Woody (and perhaps still eager to reclaim his favorite toy position), orders the other toys to mutiny again, and "toss him overboard '', however, when Bo Peep reveals that "Woody was telling the truth, '' the toys realize their mistake. He decides to reform himself as an apology to Woody by holding Slinky 's tail to help Woody and Buzz back at the truck but gets hit after Slinky 's attempt fails. When Woody tosses RC in the truck, Potato Head gets hit. At the end of the film, he is surprised to hear Molly receiving Mrs. Potato Head for her Christmas present and promptly decides to shave by removing his mustache.
In Toy Story 2, after Al McWhiggin steals Woody, he goes with Buzz, Hamm, Rex, and Slinky to rescue Woody. Later, when they are going to leave, Mrs. Potato Head packs some extra pair of shoes and angry eyes on his back compartment. When the toys cross the street to Al 's Toy Barn, they cause a semi to jackknife, and the chains restraining a large pipe on the semi break, freeing the pipe, which rolls down the street, during which Mr. Potato Head gets one of his feet stuck in a chewing gum and has to pull his foot off the gum before the pipe can crush him. After the toys break into Al 's room using Rex as a battering ram, Potato Head attempts to frighten Jessie by reaching into his back compartment for his angry eyes, but attaches his spare pair of shoes by mistake. When the toys leave the apartment after Al leaves with Woody, Potato Head throws his hat like a frisbee to jam the closing doors, letting the toys pass through. Outside, he is the first to spot an idling Pizza Planet delivery truck nearby. While the toys chase Al in the truck, Potato Head and Hamm operate the truck 's levers and knobs and are advised by three alien toys to pull the truck 's gear lever to get the truck to move. He later saves the alien toys from flying out the window. In the airport, when he sees the luggage area, he gasps and his angry eyes and pair of shoes come out after his compartment opens. He feels annoyed when the aliens repeatedly express their eternal gratefulness towards him, but after the toys return home in a stolen baggage carrier, he reluctantly gives in when his wife wants to adopt the aliens, much to his dismay. In an outtake, he is seen taking a dislike with the Barrel of Monkeys, saying he is "drawing the line at monkeys '' and wants to call his agent.
In Toy Story 3, Potato Head is resentful of the aliens, who still worship him for saving their lives. Potato Head is sad that Andy does n't play with them anymore, and complains all that to Woody. He is frustrated that Andy "threw them away '', when he was actually going to put them in the attic. Again, Potato Head is the toy most doubtful of Woody when he and the other toys are almost thrown away by accident. Potato Head is excited to get played with in Sunnyside. After a rough playtime with the toddlers, he and Mrs. Potato Head 's parts are scattered on the floor, and he gets his parts stuck up a kid 's mouth and nose. Later that night, his wife Mrs. Potato Head through the other eye left in Andy 's bedroom, spots that Andy is looking for his toys, making Mr. Potato Head and the other toys shocked. When Lotso 's dark attitude is revealed, he tries to defend his friends from Lotso, but Big Baby throws him into "The Box '' on Lotso 's orders. When Jessie told Woody she was wrong to leave Andy, Potato Head agrees saying that she was wrong. The toys hatch an escape plan which Potato Head initiates by arguing with and distracting the captors, and he is thrown in the box once again. Only his smaller parts are able to escape, through a small hole. He reassembles onto a floppy tortilla, checks if Lotso is sleeping and then gives the signal. Pecked at by a pigeon, the tortilla falls apart, and Potato Head rejoins the other toys using a cucumber for a body. Bullseye returns his original plastic body to him. The toys manage to escape Sunnyside, and he and the other toys jump onto a garbage truck. Eventually, they end up in a landfill, facing death in the incinerator. However, Potato Head and the toys are saved by his alien children, who he now accepts and declares himself to be eternally grateful, just as the aliens had told him when they met. They eventually return to Andy 's home and get washed. Mr. Potato Head then says his farewell to Woody before Andy comes into the room. Potato Head is donated to Bonnie at the end of the film.
Potato Head reappears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appears in Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot. Mr. Potato Head 's actor, Don Rickles, however died in 2017 so his voice actor is currently unknown for 2019 's upcoming film, Toy Story 4.
He is seen as an Interactive Audio - Animatronic at Toy Story Midway Mania!. It is stated on the Toy Story website that Mr. Potato Head was Andy 's second toy.
Voiced by Estelle Harris (1999 -- present)
Mrs. Potato Head is Mr. Potato Head 's wife and female counterpart. Unlike her husband, Mrs. Potato Head is sweet and not hot - headed or impatient. Although mentioned as one of Molly 's Christmas presents near the end of the first movie, she is not seen until Toy Story 2.
In Toy Story 2, her husband has found her lost earring. Before her husband leaves with Buzz and his troops, she stores his "extra pair of shoes and angry eyes '' into his back compartment. She also warns the toys by saying "Do n't talk to any toy you do n't know! '' She is not seen again until the end of the film. She becomes an adoptive mother of the three Squeeze Toy Aliens that Andy 's toys had found in the Pizza Planet truck, as they will not leave because Mr. Potato Head saved their lives. She is then happily watching Wheezy sing his version of "You 've Got a Friend in Me '' with her husband.
In Toy Story 3, she has a more central role. She is "One - Eyed Betty '', One - Eyed Bart 's wife in the opening sequence. She uses her ninja skills and her nunchuk to herd Woody to the back, and eventually off the train. After One - Eyed Bart and Betty rob tons of gold, they are transported to Dr. Porkchop 's aircraft. At the present time when Andy 's toys all cram themselves in the toy box, Mrs. Potato Head loses one of her eyes. She is one of the toys who believe Andy threw them out on purpose. They are later donated to Sunnyside Daycare. She and her husband experience a rough playtime with the toddlers at the Caterpillar Room. When the toys hear something from the halls, Mrs. Potato Head uses her eye and looks under the door. She at first just sees the dark hall, but then she sees Andy looking for the toys in his room, due to the eye she left behind in Andy 's house. She tells the toys it truly was an accident that they were thrown away. When Lotso is revealed to be evil, Mrs. Potato Head complains about her chewed up pocketbook and yells at him when he calls her "Sweet Potato, '' along with telling him she needs more respect and having over 30 accessories. But Lotso takes off her mouth. Near the end of the film, she is saved from death in an incinerator by her adoptive children, and much to her delight, her husband now accepts them. She recovers her missing eye before she and the toys are donated to Bonnie. Even though she was Molly 's Christmas gift in the first film, the second and third films imply that she is one of Andy 's toys.
Mrs. Potato Head reappears in the theatrical short film Hawaiian Vacation and acts as a tour guide for Ken and Barbie in their Hawaiian adventures. She also reappears in Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.
Vocal effects by Frank Welker (1999 -- present)
Bullseye is a toy horse who was introduced in Toy Story 2. He is the first toy with which Woody interacted in Al 's penthouse. He was very happy to finally see Woody after a long time in storage. Bullseye is shown to loathe fights as he hides in a can when Jessie jumps on Woody. He is also upset at Woody 's intention to abandon the Roundup gang to return to Andy, as Bullseye does not want Woody to leave. When Woody ultimately decides to return to Andy 's room, it is Bullseye 's loyalty that causes Woody to try to get the other toys to join him. At the airport, after Bullseye escapes from Al 's case, Woody and Buzz Lightyear mount Bullseye and gallop across the airfield to rescue Jessie from being sent to Japan. Although Woody gets separated from Buzz, Buzz commandeers Bullseye to follow Woody, as they are seen galloping next to the wheels of the plane Woody and Jessie are on as it heads down the runway. The mission finally ends when Woody and Jessie swing down from the plane and land on Bullseye right behind Buzz, seconds before the plane takes off. After the toys return home, both Bullseye and Jessie become part of Andy 's toys. Bullseye has every letter of Andy 's name printed on the sole of each of his hooves.
Bullseye returns in Toy Story 3 as one of the remaining toys in Andy 's room. He is still Woody 's horse in the opening sequence and saves him when he falls off the train by One - Eyed Betty. Bullseye 's fast speed helps Woody catch the train and rescue the orphans. Bullseye is really sad when Andy would n't play with them anymore. After Andy 's mother thought the bag that the toys were in was trash, Bullseye and the toys manage to safely hide in a recycling bin. The toys are donated to Sunnyside Daycare. At Sunnyside, he proves his loyalty to Woody when he makes clear he wants to stay with him. He only stays when Woody tells him to since Woody does n't want him to be alone in the attic. Bullseye is roughly tumbled over by a screaming toddler with a rolling wheel toy. After the toddler play session, Bullseye is covered with paint and has a blue sticker in his snout, which is removed by Jessie. When Lotso is revealed to be evil, he locks the toys up and shows them Woody 's hat, making Bullseye miss Woody and sad he 's gone. Bullseye is extremely happy when Woody comes back to Sunnyside and gives him back his hat. The toys then plan an escape. Bullseye helps by going through the playground, carrying the aliens on his back. He goes with Woody and is almost caught by Big Baby when Bullseye jumps and accidentally makes an alien fall and squeak. But they hide inside a pail safely. The toys then go to the garbage dump, and Bullseye is the most desperate to escape from the incinerator. They are rescued by the three aliens. At the end, Bullseye is donated to Bonnie, along with the rest of the toys. In Bonnie 's room Bullseye changes the channel of a radio to a Spanish channel causing Buzz and Jessie to dance to the Spanish version of "You 've got a friend in me. ''
Bullseye acts like a dog in many ways. Unlike most of the other toys, Bullseye can not communicate in clear speech but sounds like an actual horse and uses body language to speak. According to a character interview that used to be on the Toy Story website, Bullseye communicated with Jessie while in storage by tapping his hooves to yes or no questions.
Bullseye reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by:
The Squeeze Toy Aliens, also known as Little Green Men (or "LGMs '') in the Buzz Lightyear of Star Command television series, are a series of green, three - eyed squeaky toy aliens. They appear in all three films, and some were among Andy 's toys after the events of Toy Story 2. Similar to Buzz, they think they 're real aliens. Though it is not certain whether they are male or female at first glance, they are identified in the third film by Mr. Potato Head as "(his) boys, '' implying that all three are male.
In Toy Story, Buzz and Woody climb inside a giant rocket - shaped claw game at Pizza Planet. Inside the claw game are hundreds of squeeze toy aliens. When Buzz asks who is in charge, the Little Green Men say "the claw '', which belongs in the machine; the Little Green Men say that the claw will "decide who will go and who will stay ''. Sid spots Buzz inside the claw game and tries to win him. Woody attempts to save Buzz and escape through the claw game 's maintenance hatch, but the Little Green Men stop him and say that they must not fight the claw. Woody, Buzz, and a Little Green Man get taken to Sid 's house. Sid gives the Little Green Man to his dog, Scud, who violently chews it as Woody and Buzz watch in horror. Near the end of the movie, the same Little Green Man is seen to be intact, and it helps Woody try to scare Sid by getting out of Scud 's food bowl and walking like a zombie toward Sid.
In Toy Story 2, a trio of them are hanging above the dashboard in the Pizza Planet truck. Buzz groans when he sees them, remembering them from the claw game in the first film. When the toys are having trouble getting the truck to move, they tell Mr. Potato Head to "use the wand of power '' (the truck 's gear lever), which they mistook for the control lever of the giant claw game. They nearly fall out of the window, due to the sharp turns from Buzz trying to catch Al in his car. Fortunately, Mr. Potato Head saves them. The Little Green Men are thankful and hand him his ear. Throughout the rest of the movie they frequently say "You have saved our lives, we are eternally grateful, '' much to Potato Head 's dismay. The Little Green Men join the quest to save Woody and mistake the entrance to the baggage area for the "Mystic Portal ''. They chase after the luggage with Rex, Hamm, and Potato Head, only to find cameras. Back home, the trio, along with Bullseye and Jessie, end up becoming some of Andy 's toys. They say their gratefulness to Mr. Potato Head, and Mrs. Potato Head is so happy that he saved their lives, so she suggests that they adopt them, with the Little Green Men calling Potato Head "daddy ''.
They reappear in Toy Story 3 as the "henchmen '' under One - Eyed Bart and One - Eyed Betty, and serve as the getaway drivers during the western opening sequence and drive Barbie 's corvette. The car is destroyed by Buzz 's laser and they are transported to Dr. Porkchop 's aircraft. In the present time, the same trio continues to express their gratefulness to Mr. Potato Head. When Andy 's mother mistakes the trash bag containing them as trash, she puts the toys on the curb, but they manage to escape the garbage bag. They are donated to Sunnyside along with the rest of Andy 's toys. In Sunnyside, the Little Green Men find a toy crane, which reminds them of the claw game in Pizza Planet. The Little Green Men get sat on and bounced on during a rough playtime with the toddlers. The toys plan to escape Sunnyside. The Little Green Men have to go through the playground with Woody and ride on Bullseye. They almost get caught by Big Baby because one of the Little Green Men falls off Bullseye and squeaks, but manage to hide inside a pail. Later when Andy 's toys escape, one of the Little Green Men 's feet gets stuck in the lid of the bin at the bottom of the chute, possibly after being pulled by Lotso, who had been thrown in the bin by Big Baby. Woody goes in to help, but after he helps the Little Green Man, Lotso grabs Woody 's feet and pulls him into the bin just as the refuse truck arrives. The toys are collected by the truck and subsequently sent to landfill. The Little Green Men are separated from the others by a bulldozer when they wander off, having spotted a crane. Woody and Mrs. Potato Head yell and try to warn them, but they are presumed to be dead after being crushed by the bulldozer. In the end, however, they are revealed to have avoided the conveyor belt and later rescue everyone from an incinerator with a giant claw crane for which the Potato Heads finally acknowledges them as his children, reciting their repetitive line, "You have saved our lives and we are eternally grateful. '' The trio are later delivered to Bonnie along with Andy 's other toys.
The Aliens reappear in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by Jodi Benson -- (1999 -- present)
In Toy Story 2, when the toys discover Barbie dolls in an aisle while searching for Woody, Tour Guide Barbie volunteers to help them. During the end credits she is a cinema usherette and is seen giving out instructions to the audience. After a while she asks if everyone has gone and promptly stops smiling and complains that it hurts her face. She then leaves for her break.
In Toy Story 3, a Barbie appears to be one of the toys that Andy 's sister, Molly, owns. In Sunnyside, she falls in love with Ken, but after Lotso 's minions reset Buzz 's personality, and reveal that they want to sacrifice Andy 's old toys in order to protect themselves, she ingratiates herself with Ken in order to obtain the Buzz Lightyear manual that lets her friends reset Buzz to his original form. When she stands up to Lotso by saying that being treated fairly is better than living under his rule, Ken switches his allegiance to her and her friends. In the end credits of the film, they get back together and change Sunnyside, becoming its co-leaders, after Lotso is defeated.
Barbie appears with Ken in Hawaiian Vacation. They sneak out of the daycare and stowaway in Bonnie 's backpack to go to Hawaii but Ken is disappointed to find out that Bonnie did n't take her backpack on her family vacation. The gang creates their own Hawaiian paradise to cheer Ken and Barbie up. They share their first kiss outside and then get trapped in the snow.
Voiced by R. Lee Ermey (Sarge)
Sarge (also known as Army Sarge and Sergeant) is the gung - ho commander of an army of plastic toy soldiers from Bucket O Soldiers and loosely based on his voice actor 's role as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman in the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket.
In Toy Story, he and the Bucket O ' Soldiers are set in particular positions. They are highly disciplined with a "Leave no man behind '' policy and are masters of reconnaissance. Woody describes them as "professionals. '' The soldiers venture out of Andy 's room with one of Andy 's baby monitors (while the other monitor resides in Andy 's room with Woody operating it) and hide in an indoor plant to report Andy 's birthday presents to the toys and one of his comrades was injured after Mrs. Davis accidentally steps on one of them. They announced the first few presents to the other toys in Andy 's room through the monitors, but did n't get to tell them that Andy got a Buzz Lightyear action figure after Rex accidentally breaks the monitor. However, they were able to warn them that Andy and his friends are coming upstairs upon Woody fixing the monitor. Sarge and his soldiers thought Woody was a murderer when he knocked Buzz off the window, so they "frag '' him and each one of them attack Woody, along with the other toys. In the moving van, the soldiers attack Woody when he pushed RC off the van, making Sarge and the toys think he 's murdering him now. However, Sarge sees that Woody knocking Buzz out the window was an accident, attempts to helps him on the van with the other toys, and is proud to work under Woody once again as shown at the end of the film when they hide in a Christmas tree and Christmas lights with the baby monitor to report to the toys what Andy and Molly are getting for Christmas.
In Toy Story 2, the role of Sarge is very minor. He first orders the soldiers to keep looking for Woody 's hat in the toy box. When Buster was about to come to the room, Sarge and his army held back the door (with help from Rocky) to prevent Buster 's entry, but Buster bursts open the door, causing the soldiers to go flying everywhere. When Woody alerts the toys about the yard sale occurring outside the house, he signals Sarge for an "emergency roll call '' and Sarge orders the toys to line up in a single - file line. At the end, Sarge and his soldiers watch Wheezy sing "You 've Got a Friend in Me. ''
In Toy Story 3, several years after Toy Story 2, only Sarge and two paratroopers are seen. Woody orders Sarge and his men to retrieve Andy 's cellphone. That plan, however, fails, and knowing that Andy is going to get out the garbage bag, Sarge and his last two men leave Andy 's room to find a better life. Buzz believes they are going AWOL, but Sarge claims that their mission is complete, and that when trash bags come out, the Army men are always the first to be thrown away (it 's likely that the rest of the soldiers had either left prior to that day, or were sold in a yard sale). They appear again at the end of the film where they land in Sunnyside, and possibly recognizing Barbie, begin a happy new life under Barbie and Ken 's leadership.
Voiced by:
Bo Peep is a porcelain figurine attached to Molly 's bedside lamp inspired by the heroine of the famed nursery rhyme; a beautiful, sweet - natured shepherdess accompanied by a single figure merged to resemble three sheep, who serves as Woody 's romantic interest of the films. In spite of her status as one of Molly 's toys, like Mrs. Potato Head she may fall under the category of Andy 's toy. In Andy 's games of imaginative play she is used as the damsel - in - distress of the stories, and she is depicted as gentle, ladylike, and kindhearted. In the first film, after Woody 's exclusion from the group when Buzz Lightyear started to attract more attention, she remained loyal to him rather than taunting him because of Buzz 's rise in popularity. After Woody accidentally knocked Buzz out the window, she was one of the only toys who did not antagonize him. She continued to show her attraction to Woody in Toy Story 2, flirting with him while playing a minor role. However, she did not return in Toy Story 3, except in flashback footage, as, over the years, she had apparently been sold, much to Woody 's distress, like a few of the other characters. The particular reason for her disappearance was never disclosed officially, though Woody shows grief over her loss. In August 2015, however, it was revealed that Bo Peep will have a major role in Toy Story 4. The fourth film will focus on her relationship with Woody, along with Woody and Buzz trying to find and bring her back.
RC is Andy 's remote controlled buggy. He has a green body with blue splash decals on the front. RC "speaks '' with revving sounds, although Mr. Potato Head and the other toys can understand him regardless. RC is a playable character in Toy Story Racer.
In Toy Story, RC was fascinated with Buzz 's features. When Woody becomes really jealous, he calls out to Buzz that there is a toy (a magic 8 - ball) trapped underneath the desk. Woody sneaks over to RC, starts him up, and tried to hit Buzz but misses. However, RC hits a board instead, causing thumbtacks on the board to fall and a globe to roll. Buzz falls out a window when the globe hits a red lamp and swings around and hits him. RC says to the other toys that Woody accidentally knocked Buzz out the window. RC then turns on Woody and thinks that he murdered Buzz. When Woody went to the moving van, he got RC out of the box and pushes him into the street and controlled him to rescue Buzz during the moving scene at the end of the film.
After the toys mistakenly think that Woody is trying to get rid of RC, they toss Woody out of the moving truck into the street. RC finds Buzz hiding under the car in the streets and is thrilled to see him alive and well. Buzz controlled RC to catch Woody. Woody switched the remote to turbo mode to catch up with the truck, but RC 's batteries deplete, causing him to slow down and finally stop. When Woody lights the rocket taped onto Buzz 's back, Woody and Buzz hold onto RC as they rocket toward the truck, but the force of the rocket lifts Woody up from RC. Nevertheless, Woody manages to toss RC back into the truck (knocking Mr. Potato Head apart in the process) before he and Buzz go skyrocketing into the air.
In Toy Story 2, RC has a very minor role. He was used when Andy played with his toys. With Buzz riding him, he crashed into Evil Dr. Porkchop and knocked him down. He is not seen again until the end of the film, when he watched Wheezy sing "You 've Got a Friend in Me ''.
RC does not directly appear in Toy Story 3, having seemingly been sold in a yard sale alongside a number of other toys. Instead, he only appears via archival footage.
Voiced by:
Wheezy (also known as Wheezy the Penguin) is a squeeze toy penguin with a red bow tie.
In Toy Story 2, Wheezy is introduced when Woody finds him on the shelf. Wheezy was one of Andy 's favourite toys until one day his squeaker broke. Andy 's mom then put him on the shelf, intending to fix his broken squeaker later, but she forgot about him. He is about to be sold at the yard sale, and in saving him, Woody ends up falling so that he is stuck at the yard sale himself and subsequently stolen by Al. At the end of the film, he gets a new "squeaker '' and sings "You 've Got a Friend in Me, '' the ending theme of the movie. During the outtakes, he describes himself as "not a good catcher '' as he fails to catch Mike 's microphone thus hurting himself several times.
Wheezy does not directly appear in Toy Story 3 as he was sold in a yard sale after Toy Story 2, as mentioned by Woody, but he does appear in footage of Andy as a boy (Toy Story 3). Wheezy appears in the Toy Story 3 video game, where he is voiced by Phil LaMarr in toy box mode along with Bo Peep.
Etch is an Etch A Sketch magic screen by Ohio Art Company. Etch can draw quickly and accurately. Such sketches include guns, portraits of Buzz, Woody and Al, and even semi-complicated maps. This is his form of communication as he is unable to talk.
In Toy Story, Woody compliments Etch 's art by saying that he has the fastest knobs in the west. He was also seen in the background many times, such as during the staff meetings and during Andy 's birthday and Christmas gift opening scenes. He became fascinated with Buzz during the middle of the film when he sketched a portrait of him. Angered by this, Woody erased it. He apparently, like most of the toys, temporarily believes Woody deliberately knocked Buzz out of the window; he helps Mr. Potato Head threaten Woody by sketching a hangman 's noose.
In Toy Story 2, Etch was seen helping Hamm, Mr. Potato Head and the gang to identify Woody 's kidnapper, Al. Later on, when the toys were surfing channels to find the location on how to find Al 's Toy Barn, Etch is seen in the back as he was ready to draw a map for Buzz. Near the end of the movie, sometime before Andy comes back from cowboy camp, Etch, as well as the rest of the toys (then including Jessie, Bullseye, and the Aliens), were aligned to welcome Andy home, with a "Welcome Home, Andy '' sign written on Etch.
Etch was sold in yard sale years after the second Toy Story, was mentioned by Woody, and only appeared in the archive footage of Andy as a kid in Toy Story 3.
Voiced by Jeff Pidgeon
Mr. Spell is based on a popular 1970s Speak & Spell toy by Texas Instruments. He frequently holds or has held seminars on a variety of topics such as "plastic corrosion awareness '' and "what to do if you or part of you is swallowed. '' He also reveals the words he is saying.
When Andy 's friends came to his birthday party, the toys panicked in thinking that they might be replaced with new toys and Mr. Spell, along with basically everyone else aside from Woody, ran to the window in panic to see the size of the presents. Then later, when Andy 's friends were running up to his room, Woody told everyone to go back to their places and the toys began to scatter and Mr. Spell can be seen in the overhead shot running in fright and then again behind Mr. Potato Head.
In Toy Story 2, when Buster finds Woody, Mr. Spell displays 13.5, the amount of time in seconds it has elapsed for Buster to find Woody, setting a new record. Later, after Woody is stolen from a yard sale, Buzz uses Mr. Spell to help Andy 's toys figure out who has stolen Woody.
Mr. Spell does not appear in Toy Story 3. He was sold in a yard sale along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Rocky Gibraltar, Lenny, Snake, Robot, Mr. Shark, Mr. Mike, Roly Poly Clown, See ' n Say, the Troikas, Troll and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
Voiced by:
Rocky Gibraltar, more simply referred to as Rocky, is a figure of a heavyweight wrestler. He is the second strongest toy in Andy 's room, after Buzz Lightyear. In the first movie, he is seen lifting weights (Tinker Toys) with Snake, Troll, Buzz, Mr. Potato Head, and Rex. Rocky lifts the heaviest weights out of all of Andy 's toys. Rocky is silent and plays a minor role in the movies, but he can speak in the Disney Adventures comics and in the Toy Story Animated Storybook and Toy Story Activity Center CD - ROM games from Disney Interactive. In the Activity Center computer game, he can be seen on the top shelf playing cards with Hamm and speaks in third - person, saying, "Rocky needs to work on brain muscles. '' He is one of the toys who turn against Woody, who accidentally knocked Buzz off a window. After Woody throws RC off the moving truck, Rocky, under Mr. Potato Head 's orders, spins Woody in the air and later tosses him off the truck personally. But when the toys realize that Woody 's only use of RC is to help Buzz onto the truck, Bo Peep calls Rocky who then redeems himself by lowering the truck 's ramp for them.
In Toy Story 2, Rocky, along with Sarge 's toy soldiers, tries to hold back the door to prevent Buster from entering, but Buster rams the door open, causing Rocky and the soldiers to go flying. Rocky is also seen holding Wheezy as Wheezy begs Buzz to rescue Woody and when waving Buzz and his rescue squad goodbye as they leave on their mission. At the end of the movie, Rocky is seen enjoying Wheezy 's rendition of "You 've Got a Friend in Me. '' He only appears in the third film via archive footage of Andy as a child.
Rocky 's name and a logo on his championship belt are references to the Rock of Gibraltar. Rocky is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game.
Voiced by Joe Ranft
Lenny (often known as Lenny the Binoculars) is a pair of wind up binoculars. He is used as binoculars by the other toys in various situations and is talkative when he warns the toys what he sees on his watch and has a major role in Toy Story. Lenny does not speak in Toy Story 2, unlike the first film, and his role is more minor; Buzz uses Lenny to keep watch on Woody during the events at the yard sale until Al McWhiggin of Al 's Toy Barn steals Woody. Lenny appears in Toy Story 3 through archive footage from when Andy was young. Lenny was sold, possibly at a yard sale, before the events of Toy Story 3. Lenny is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game.
Voiced by: Jack Angel
Snake is a green and purple jointed rattlesnake toy who is best friends with Robot, as they are often seen together. He has a major role in the first film. He is unable to talk, but he communicates through hissing. When Buzz was accidentally knocked out the window, he sided with Mr. Potato Head against Woody. Later, at the end of the film, he and the other toys try to help Woody, Buzz and RC get back onto the moving van when they realized their mistake.
In Toy Story 2, Snake has a very minor role in the film. He is first seen when Hamm, Mr. Potato Head, Etch and everyone else try to figure out who stole Woody. He is n't seen again until the end of the movie where he watches Wheezy sing "You Got a Friend in Me ''.
He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3 along with Robot, Bo Peep, Etch, Lenny, Mr. Shark and the other toys, but he made two cameos in the home videos at the start of the film.
Voiced by: Jeff Pidgeon
Robot is an educational robot toy from Playskool. Unlike his best pal Snake, he speaks English. He is shown to be good with building blocks. In Toy Story, he stands on his head for Buzz to run on his treads like a treadmill and also repairs his ship. He is also one of the toys who turn against Woody when Buzz was accidentally knocked out the window. He and Rocky later throw Woody out of the moving truck, but then try to help Woody, Buzz and RC when the toys realized that they made a big mistake.
In Toy Story 2, he assists Buzz in the yard sale role call and is n't seen again until later at the end of the film where he watches Wheezy sing "You Got a Friend in Me ''.
Robot does not appear in Toy Story 3. He was sold at yard sale along with Snake and the others, but he made a cameo in the home videos at the beginning of the film.
Voiced by: Jack Angel
Mr. Shark is a blue rubber, squeaky shark toy who appears in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. The back of him is never seen because he spends most of his time in the toy box. In the first film, he steals Woody 's hat and imitates him before he takes his hat back.
In Toy Story 2, he is used as one of the death traps during Andy 's playtime. At the end of the film, he repairs Wheezy by finding him an extra squeaker. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3.
Mr. Mike, also known as Microphone, is a toy tape recorder who helps Woody amplify his voice during staff meetings with his attached microphone. In Toy Story 2, Wheezy uses him as a karaoke machine. He was sold at a yard sale prior to the events of Toy Story 3.
See ' n Say is an educational animal toy that appeared in Toy Story. Whenever he feels strong emotions, his central arrow wheel spins rapidly. This is his form of communication as he is unable to talk and just like Etch, Mr. Spell and Mike, he gets around by waddling on his stand. See ' n say did not appear in Toy Story 2. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3. However, a different See ' n Say was seen when Ken, Twitch, Sparks, Chunk and Stretch were seen gambling inside a vending machine.
Roly Poly Clown is a rocking, chiming clown toy with a painted jacket and hands and a party hat seen in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. While not being able to talk, he mainly communicates through facial expressions. He also must rely on rolling around to get places since he does n't have feet. When not out, Roly Poly Clown resides in the toy box. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Lenny, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Robot, Snake, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Mr. Shark, the Troikas, and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
The Troikas are a set of five non-talking egg - shaped toys that appear in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. They are in the style of the Russian doll with a picture of five animals: a dog (largest), a cat (second largest), a duck (medium), a fish (smallest), and a ladybug (second smallest). They were sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, Troll and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
Troll is a Troll doll with pink hair and a blue bathing suit that appear in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. In the first film it became fascinated with Buzz and is seen lifting weights (Tinker dolls) with Rocky, Rex, Mr. Potatoe Head, Robot and Snake. In Toy Story 2 it is seen alongside with Bo Peep to help for searching Woody 's hat before Andy is about to go to the summer camp. It was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with RC, Bo Peep, her sheep, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, the Troikas and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
The Toddle Tots Fire Truck is a fire truck toy directly taken from the Little Tikes company that appears in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. It is piloted by the Fireman Toddle Tots. It was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with RC, Bo Peep, her sheep, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, the Troikas and Troll.
The Magic 8 - Ball is a magic 8 - ball that appeared in Toy Story, Toy Story 2, and Toy Story 3. Woody asked him if Andy would pick him instead of Buzz Lightyear, but the ball 's reply was "Do n't Count On It! '', and Woody got rid of him.
The Hockey Puck appeared very briefly in Toy Story, right before the toys had a staff meeting. He is not seen at the staff meeting, or anywhere else in the movie.
These characters are the toys owned by Bonnie in Toy Story 3 and the short films.
Voiced by:
Chuckles is a brokenhearted toy clown who was once owned by Daisy (along with Lotso and Big Baby), and is later owned by Bonnie. He is first seen mournfully looking out the kitchen window in Bonnie 's house, where he tells Woody about Lotso 's past, stating that Lotso used to be a good friend. Chuckles explains that he, Lotso, and Big Baby were accidentally left behind on a trip with Daisy 's family, and when they finally made it back to Daisy 's house, both him and Lotso discovered that Lotso had been replaced, which caused Lotso to snap. Chuckles objected when Lotso claimed all three had been replaced, but Lotso silenced him, and lied to Big Baby, saying that Daisy did not love him anymore. After the three found their way to Sunnyside and Lotso took over, running it like a prison, Chuckles was damaged and Bonnie found him and took him home. He still feels sorry for what happened to Lotso, but knows that what Lotso is doing at Sunnyside is wrong. He gives Woody a pendant (which formerly belonged to Big Baby) that says My heart belongs to Daisy, which later leads Big Baby to discover Lotso 's deception and rebel against him. In one of the end credits sequences, Chuckles sees a crayon - drawn picture of him, and Dolly says that "Bonnie really got your smile, '' making Chuckles happy again, for the first time in many years.
Chuckles returns in the short film Hawaiian Vacation and he sings a Hawaiian love song while playing a ukulele when Barbie and Ken get their recreated Hawaiian adventures. He also appears in Small Fry.
Voiced by Bonnie Hunt
Dolly is a soft dress - up rag doll with purple hair, googly - eyes, an orange dress with buttons sewn on, and gently blushing cheeks. She helps Woody get back to Sunnyside Daycare Center with the rest of Andy 's toys. In the Toy Story 3 video game, she is seen as a witch. It 's indicated that she is the leader of Bonnie 's toys.
Dolly appears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by Timothy Dalton
Mr. Pricklepants is a stuffed hedgehog. He wears lederhosen and a Tyrolean hat, and views himself as a thespian. Mr. Pricklepants was made in Germany (although he speaks with an English accent and actor 's diction) and is from the Waldfreunde (Forest Friends) collection of premium imported plush toys. Throughout Toy Story 3, he expresses great interest in theater arts and in the same respect, takes the art of role playing as a child 's toy very seriously. Buttercup refers to him sarcastically as "Baron von Shush '' due to his habit of "shushing '' the other toys when they break character. During the credits, he plays Romeo, with one of the aliens playing Juliet.
Mr. Pricklepants reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appeared in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot.
Voiced by Kristen Schaal
Trixie is a blue toy Triceratops. She chats online with "a dinosaur toy down the street '' who goes by the name "Velocistar237. '' She becomes best friends with Rex during the credits, playing cooperatively on a computer.
Trixie reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appears in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot.
Voiced by Jeff Garlin
Buttercup is a white unicorn with a yellow mane and a pink nose. Despite his appearance, he has a very gruff voice and sarcastic personality. He is the first to introduce himself to Woody when Bonnie brings him home. He later appears at the end of the movie, now very close friends with Hamm.
He also appears in Small Fry, Hawaiian Vacation, and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by
Peas - in - a-Pod are three soft, plush green balls in a green zip - up case that looks like a pea pod. They have the personalities of small children, and their names are Peaty, Peatrice, and Peanelope.
The Peas - in - a-Pod reappear in the short film Hawaiian Vacation. They also appear in Small Fry.
Voiced by Emma Hudak
Angel Kitty is a Christmas ornament that only appears in Toy Story That Time Forgot. A running gag in the film is Angel Kitty giving a moral about Christmas much to other toys ' (mostly Trixie) dismay and joy. She is mostly seen with a trumpet giving morals. She was last seen in Toy Story That Time Forgot giving one last moral and "vanishes ''.
Totoro, the title character from My Neighbor Totoro, who is also the mascot of Studio Ghibli, appears as one of Bonnie 's toys. He is a big plush toy and does not speak at all during the film, nor is he spoken to by anyone by his name. He does however display his famous grin during the credit scenes, and at the end of the film, he is seen juggling the alien triplets, while Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head watch. According to the tie - in book, The Art of Toy Story 3, Totoro 's appearance in the film was intended as a tribute to Hayao Miyazaki, who is a close friend of Pixar executive John Lasseter. In addition to Lasseter 's relationship to Miyazaki, another factor that contributed to Totoro 's appearance was Disney 's role in dubbing Studio Ghibli films for their English - language releases.
The following toys are only seen in the first film.
Combat Carl is a G.I. Joe - type toy character. He first appears as a toy of Sid 's that Sid blows up with an M - 80 explosive in his first scene in Toy Story. Pieces of him are later seen coming to life during Woody 's plan to frighten Sid into altering his behavior near the end of the film.
A different character with the same name appears in Toy Story of Terror!
The Mutant Toys are mutilated toys who live their unhappy lives in the darkest corners of Sid 's room. They are assembled by Sid from mixed pieces of several toys that belong to him and Hannah (hence the baby doll 's parts). They do not speak, though it is revealed they know Morse Code. Woody and Buzz initially think that they are cannibals who are going to eat them, before they learn that the toys are actually friendly and compassionate. They fix Buzz 's broken arm, Janie and the Pterodactyl, and also help Woody implement his plan to save Buzz from Sid. They close in on Sid as Woody tells Sid how much they hate being mutilated, and they all rejoice in victory after Woody frightens Sid away with his own voice. In Toy Story Treats, the Mutant Toys appear in Andy 's house.
Appearing in Toy Story That Time Forgot, these are the toys of Bonnie 's best friend Mason.
Shown in a Buzz Lightyear commercial in Toy Story, this section contains characters from Toy Story 2. Al 's Toy Barn appears in Toy Story 3: The Video Game.
Voiced by:
Stinky Pete, also known as Prospector, is a prospector doll and the primary antagonist of Toy Story 2. He is a toy modeled after a character on the fictional television show, Woody 's Roundup, where the characters consists of Sheriff Woody, Jessie, Stinky Pete, and Bullseye. The Prospector doll seen in the film had never been opened and was still "Mint in the Box '' making him sought after by thousands of collectors.
In contrast to the character on the show, Stinky Pete is quite intelligent, manipulative, and well - spoken and, when he first appears, he seems to be a grandfather figure and mentor. However, he becomes embittered because he has never been sold or played with until Al McWhiggin eventually found him. Stinky Pete makes no secret of his hatred for space toys like Buzz Lightyear, whom he blames for causing the show to be canceled after the launch of Sputnik, causing children all over America to lose their interest in cowboy toys, shifting their interest to space adventures instead.
Years after being purchased, Stinky Pete would spend years in storage while Al bought more toys and advertisements from Woody 's Roundup. After Al had stolen Woody, Stinky Pete and Jessie were excited because now they could go to the Konishi Toy Museum in Japan, where they will be treated with respect. Woody reveals that he has an owner named Andy Davis, which infuriates Jessie and leads the Prospector to become determined to make sure Woody does n't go back to Andy at any cost, despite the fact that he is now aware that Al actually has stolen Woody because he still belongs to Andy.
When Al accidentally rips off Woody 's arm, Stinky Pete secretly leaves his box and he sabotages Woody 's attempt to recover his arm and return to Andy by turning on the TV. He then frames Jessie for this by putting the TV remote near her before returning to his box and pretending that he "does n't know '' how the TV turned on after Woody falls for his trick. He later convinces Woody to wait until his arm is supposed to be fixed in the morning, which is done after Al calls in a cleaner. After Woody 's arm is fixed, Stinky Pete convinces Woody after a story that Jessie tells him about her old owner, that Andy wo n't play with him anymore by the time he goes to college, but in Japan, Woody will be treasured forever. Woody agrees to stay with them instead of going back to Andy, much to Stinky Pete, Jessie and Bullseye 's delight.
However, Woody 's friends arrive during a celebration of going to Japan and they demand that Woody returns to Andy, but Woody angrily refuses, resulting in the toys sadly saying goodbye and leaving without him. However, before leaving, Buzz says an upset goodbye to Woody by saying that he 'll be staying behind glass forever and not being loved again if he chooses to go to Japan, leaving Woody to think over his choice. However, Woody has a change of heart and tells Buzz that he is coming with them, and invites his friends to come with him to Andy 's house. However, Stinky Pete is very angry with Woody for attempting to leave with Jessie and Bullseye back to Andy 's house, and once again he sabotages Woody 's attempt to escape by tightening the bolt to the vent (as well as revealing to the others that he can actually get out of his box whenever he wants) and uses his pick axe to turn off the TV, causing Woody to realize that it was the Prospector who foiled his escape the previous night by turning on the TV and framing Jessie for it. He sees unpopular toys like him and the Roundup Gang doomed to either always ending up in storage or "spending a lifetime on a dime store shelf watching every other toy be sold, '' similar to his fate before Al found him, and does not want Woody, Jessie, and Bullseye to suffer the same fate. He also sees children as destroyers of toys whose ultimate fate will be "spending eternity rotting in some landfill ''. This makes him all the more determined to go to the Tokyo museum and become an exhibit for the rest of his life, unlike Woody and Jessie. When Slinky attempts to get Woody out of Al 's suitcase, Stinky Pete quickly stops them and yanks Woody back in.
When an angry Stinky Pete punches Buzz off the ramp at the airport to prevent Woody 's rescue, Woody confronts and fights Stinky Pete for harming his friend. Stinky Pete manages to overpower him, ripping his right arm in the process. He then attempts to finish Woody off after he refuses to get back in the case as told, assuring him that he will be fixed again in Japan while saying that going home will eventually end up with him being in pieces. The other toys blind and stun Stinky Pete with flash cameras that the toys found after they confused and mistook another green luggage case for Woody 's. Buzz, surviving the fall, captures Stinky Pete and Woody instructs Buzz and the other toys to dump Stinky Pete into a Barbie doll backpack that belongs to a little girl named Amy (voiced by Debi Derryberry), who enjoys decorating her dolls ' faces with tattoos, as punishment and revenge for his betrayal, knowing it will make him learn the true meaning of playtime. Upon learning of Amy 's occupations of decorating her dolls, Stinky Pete starts to weep as he is taken to his new owner 's home. Ironically, this fate is a rectification of a past injustice done to Stinky Pete. Since much of his anger came from never being sold, opened or played with; now he is finally being owned by a child after waiting 50 years.
However, after the film 's release, the film 's website featured interviews with the characters. In Stinky Pete 's interview, he has reformed and said that he has become accustomed to Amy decorating him, as well of being fond of Amy herself.
Despite his appearance, Stinky Pete does not appear in the third film, because he was no longer mentioned, though he seems to accurately predict the events of Toy Story 3 (as what he had said after his defeat started to come true in the film). He asks Woody if Andy will take him to college, and later tells the rest of the toys that children destroy toys, which occurs in the Sunnyside Daycare, and that they will be forgotten and end up in a landfill permanently, where the toys are narrowly rescued from the incinerator after an escape attempt and return to Andy 's. The last part of his prediction did not come true.
According to his box, Stinky Pete had a total of 9 sayings. In one outtake, Stinky Pete is seen talking to two Barbie dolls in the box, promising them a role in the third film. In another outtake, Stinky Pete gives Woody a choice to go back to Andy 's home or stay, until he suffers a bout of flatulence, which he later implies is the reason for his nickname.
Despite the fact that he does not appear in the third film, Stinky Pete does appear in the Toy Box Mode of Toy Story 3: The Video Game.
According to the DVD commentary, the Pixar team had deliberated for a while what the proper comeuppance for the Prospector would be before it was decided for him to be placed in a Barbie bag with a face - painted Barbie.
Voiced by Tim Allen
When searching for Woody at Al 's Toy Barn, Buzz comes across the Buzz Lightyear aisle, causing him to stare in awe. While looking around, Buzz notices that there is a display case labeled "New Utility Belt. '' Buzz then climbs up the display case to find a newer Buzz Lightyear with a Utility Belt. When Buzz tries to take the belt, the newer Buzz (who thinks he is a real Space Ranger, similar to Andy 's Buzz in the original film) springs to life and grabs him, believing him to be an AWOL Space Ranger. Buzz finds himself wondering out loud if he was this deluded, which Utility Belt Buzz mistakes for talking back and threatens to use his laser on him. Buzz tries to prove to him that he is not an actual Space Ranger by showing him that his laser is actually a light bulb. This does n't work however and Utility Belt Buzz jumps out of the way and tells him that he could 've killed him. Buzz then decides that he 's had enough and tries to leave, only for Utility Belt Buzz to jump out and attack him. After trapping Buzz in a box similar to the one he came in, he is mistaken for the original Buzz by the gang. When Rex mentions that he knows how to defeat Emperor Zurg -- having recently acquired a walkthrough guide for the Buzz Lightyear video game that he 's been stuck on, Utility Belt Buzz quickly decides to tag along thinking that the toys are trying to find Zurg. While the gang search Al 's Toy Barn and through the vents of Al 's apartment with Utility Belt Buzz, they become increasingly suspicious of his cocky attitude ("I 'm Buzz Lightyear! I 'm always sure! '') and strange actions (such as thinking that he is flying up the elevator shift and is unaware that he 's standing on the elevator, which is helping him fly) until they are finally reunited with Andy 's Buzz, who defuses his counterpart 's confusion by claiming that the situation is a ' Code 546 ' (Precisely what this involves is unknown, but it prompted Utility Belt Buzz to refer to Woody as "Your Majesty '').
Heading to the elevator on the way down, they encounter a savage Emperor Zurg toy and Utility Belt Buzz engages him in battle. When Utility Belt Buzz claims Zurg killed his father, Zurg responds he is his father, causing Utility Belt Buzz to scream in dismay (a parody of The Empire Strikes Back). Rex defeats Zurg by accident, sending him falling off the elevator to his apparent doom by knocking him off - balance with his tail when he turns away as Zurg prepares to shoot Utility Belt Buzz, upsetting him. He is last seen playing catch with his "father, '' the Zurg toy, whose attitude towards Utility Belt Buzz has changed after the fall.
Voiced by:
Evil Emperor Zurg is a space villain action figure and Buzz Lightyear 's archenemy. He has red evil eyes with neon gritting teeth, silver horns on his head, a purple tunic with a black cape on it and his weapon, a gun (which has a power control that, as a homage to This is Spinal Tap, goes to 11). In some cases, he does not have a gun but a hand like the one on his other arm.
In the first film, Zurg is a referenced character, and does not appear at all. However, Zurg is first seen in the opening sequence of the second film when Buzz is trying to take his main power away from him (Zurg 's main power is from an AA battery which is actually revealed to be a hologram). In the ensuing battle, Zurg vaporizes the top half of Buzz Lightyear 's body with his gun, killing him. The sequence then cuts showing that the opening sequence was actually a video game played by Rex.
As the story progresses, a Zurg toy in Al 's Toy Barn bursts out from its box and follows Andy 's Buzz Lightyear, who is on the way to rescue Woody from Al McWhiggin. Zurg is deluded, similar to Andy 's Buzz in the first film. In the second film, another copy of Buzz Lightyear, deluded in the same way as Andy 's Buzz in the first film, escapes from Al 's Toy Barn and battles with Zurg on top of an elevator. In a reference to the relationship of Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader, the principal hero and villain respectively of the original Star Wars trilogy, Evil Emperor Zurg claims he is in fact the father of Buzz, in an almost word - for - word parody of the scene in The Empire Strikes Back. As Zurg attempts to finish off Buzz at point - blank range, Rex accidentally hits Zurg with his large tail and sends him falling down the elevator shaft. The second Buzz looks down the shaft in despair, thinking he has lost his father, while Rex is excited that he has finally managed to defeat Zurg in real life. Near the end of the film, Zurg is seen to have survived his fall with a bent horn and is now playing catch with the second Buzz. He supposedly bumped his head so hard that he forgot he was Buzz Lightyear 's worst enemy. In the novelisation, however, Zurg is killed by the fall, and Buzz finds him and takes him back to Al 's Toy Barn to bury him.
Zurg is mentioned in the third film by Buzz in his bad guy character after Lotso resets him to Demo mode. Zurg appears briefly during a sequence in the end credits, where he is donated to Sunnyside Daycare center and greeted by the resident toys.
Zurg also appears as in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and its direct - to - video movie Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins. Zurg says he is Lightyear 's father during a fight in order to shock Lightyear, before regaining the advantage during the fight and then denying the truth of that previous claim. Whether or not this is actually true, Buzz definitely does not know who his father is. This version of Zurg is also severely lightened up, going from the movie 's Darth Vader-esque version to a far less intimidating one; in the TV series Zurg is a flamboyant villain who is just as much a comic relief character as he is a formidable opponent, similar to Skeletor. This Zurg is known for videotaping Buzz 's speeches, maintaining a troll doll collection, and various other comedic habits. He is shown to have a bit of a British accent throughout the series. It is revealed in the first episode that there is a Nana Zurg, but she is never seen at all (although he claims that she 's "plenty evil ''). Zurg would appear to be a cyborg of some description, also much like Darth Vader. However, it has also been discussed amongst fans that his "cybernetic '' traits could also very well be because of advanced technology. There is yet to be a clear answer. In the TV series, he is the warlord - like ruler of an evil empire and is in command of an army of Hornet robots, as well of a minion workforce consisting of Grubs and Brainpods. The seat of which is the hellish Planet Z (standing for Xrghthung). In various media surrounding the film, his planet is said to be called Xrghthung. However, because this is unpronounceable in the TV series it is changed to simply "Z. '' It is unknown whether Zurg rules over any other worlds, but, if he does, they have not been revealed. Planet Z evidently possesses vast resources and forces enabling Zurg to be a serious threat to the Galactic Alliance. Despite being frequently gullible and bungling, Zurg is evidently highly intelligent, able to concoct sound military tactics and Machiavellian evil schemes. Additionally, he occasionally references stereotypes of typical evil villains and intentionally violates them, showing how aware he is of his similarity to them. For example, when designing a vast prison on Planet Z, he declines building an execution arena, for it simply "gives the captives more time to get away. '' When he was designing a schematic for a new base, he expressly forbade for air vents that allow "hero - sized objects '' into the control room. "And, may I remind you, no giant trash compactor! When heroes fall in, they always have enough time to figure a way out. Make it -- an incinerator! ''
Despite his camp nature, he is just as fearsome and ruthless as his movie counterpart. Zurg is frequently mentioned to be the most evil villain in the galaxy and appears to possess authority over all other villains. In fact, he would appear to be a physical manifestation of pure evil. He is particularly proud of this and frequently brags of how "evil '' he is. He is a parody of Darth Vader on Star Wars, Darkseid on DC Comics, Ming the Merciless on Flash Gordon, Megatron on Transformers, Doctor Doom on Marvel Comics as well as The Six Million Dollar Man.
Zurg appears as a playable character in Toy Story 3: The Video Game on the PlayStation 3 in Toy Box Mode after completing several missions. He also has a convertible (the ZurgsMobile) that matches his personality. His mini counterpart is featured in the short Small Fry.
Zurg appears in the 2015 live - action Disney movie, Tomorrowland.
Voiced by Jodi Benson
Tour Guide Barbie is a Barbie doll initially from Al 's Toy Barn in Toy Story 2. When Hamm, Slinky Dog, Rex and Mr. Potato Head come upon the Barbie aisle at Al 's Toy Barn while searching for Woody, Tour Guide Barbie hops into the toy car they are driving. She gives the toys a tour in the toy barn and helps them locate Buzz Lightyear (they actually find a different, ' limited - edition ' Buzz). After the outtakes of the film, Tour Guide Barbie waves goodbye to the audience until her face hurts from smiling. She then leaves for a break.
These characters live at Sunnyside Daycare Centre. All appear in Toy Story 3 only.
Voiced by Ned Beatty
Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear (Lotso for short) is a plush, hot pink teddy bear with a big plum nose, a sweet strawberry scent and a southern accent, who uses a wooden toy mallet as an assistive cane (although he is still able to walk even without it). He is the self - proclaimed leader of the toys at the Sunnyside Daycare Center. He initially acts like a kind - hearted and wise caretaker, but is eventually revealed to be a ruthless prison warden, although his backstory makes him more of a tragic villain.
In Toy Story 3, he welcomes Andy 's toys to Sunnyside and assigns them to the Caterpillar Room. Woody tries to escape from Sunnyside so he could go back to Andy, but is instead found and taken by a little girl named Bonnie. Woody learns from Chuckles, one of Bonnie 's toys, that Lotso was once owned and loved by a girl named Daisy, having become Daisy 's favorite toy when she obtained it for Christmas. Lotso became friends with Chuckles and Big Baby. One day, Daisy and her family had a picnic in the countryside. When she fell asleep, her parents drove her home, inadvertently leaving the toys behind. Not wanting to give up, Lotso led his two friends on a long trek back to Daisy 's house, only to discover that Daisy had gotten another Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear. Lotso became embittered and convinced Big Baby that they had been replaced, leaving Daisy 's home with Chuckles. Lotso eventually discovered Sunnyside Daycare Center and turned it into an internment camp for toys. Big Baby took on the role of Lotso 's enforcer, while Chuckles was broken, and was discovered by Bonnie and taken home.
Meanwhile, Lotso realizes that Buzz is actually requesting a transfer of himself and the rest of Andy 's toys to the Butterfly Room. Thinking of Buzz to be useful to him, Lotso only approves the transfer to him. When Buzz refuses Lotso 's offer to stay in the Caterpillar Room, Lotso reverses Buzz to demo mode and manipulates him into imprisoning Andy 's other toys.
When Woody and Andy 's toys attempt to flee from the daycare center. Lotso catches the group and once again offers them to stay at Sunnyside when a garbage truck arrives, but the toys refuse and Lotso instructs Stretch to push the toys into the dumpster. Woody argues with Lotso over his wrongdoings and reveals to him what he knows about Daisy and tosses Daisy 's ownership tag to him; Lotso destroys it and says that toys are supposed to be discarded. His henchmen then turn on him and Big Baby throws him into the dumpster. As the toys attempt to flee, a vengeful Lotso pulls Woody into the dumpster just as the truck collects it to get the other toys to be sent to the dump.
At the landfill, the toys end up on a conveyor belt leading to a shredder. Finding Lotso stuck under a large golf bag, Woody and Buzz rescue him and escape the shredder, only to realize that it leads to an incinerator. As they are about to reach the incinerator, Lotso sees an emergency stop button, and with Woody and Buzz 's help, manages to reach it. However, instead of pushing the button, he chooses to leave them behind, as he is still evil and selfish on the inside and still believes that all toys are meant to be at the dump. When Woody and the toys are rescued by the aliens, Hamm and Slinky want to get back at Lotso for leaving them to die, but Woody talks them out of it, claiming that "he 's not worth it '' and that the dump is the right place for him. Lotso (who is unaware the Andy 's toys are still alive) is eventually found by a garbage man who recalls that he once had a Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear as a child, and straps Lotso to the grill of a garbage truck with three other toys before driving away.
Lotso was intended to be in the first film (originally for a sequel to Tin Toy), but the technology to design the fur to the proper consistency had yet to exist until Monsters, Inc. in 2001, so he was saved for the third film. However, an early version of Lotso can be seen in the first film when Woody says "Everybody hear me? Up on the shelf, can you hear me? Great! '' and can be seen in the second film during the first Al 's Toy Barn Commercial.
Test audiences who had sympathized with Lotso for his backstory had wanted him to push the button in the incinerator scene to redeem himself. However, according to the DVD commentary, director Lee Unkrich explained that Lotso not pushing the button to save the toys was intended for the audience to really care about the characters after three films of getting to know them when it looked like it was the end for them in the incinerator. The Pixar team took note of the people 's concerns and made Lotso to be an outright, selfish liar.
Lotso also makes a cameo appearance in Pixar 's 2009 movie Up in a little girl 's room in the city where Mr. Fredricksen 's house goes by in the bottom left corner in the shadow of the bed.
Ned Beatty was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Villain for his performance as Lotso, and Pixar and he received widespread praise for the character 's back story and Beatty 's performance. IGN named Lotso the best villain of the summer of 2010.
Voiced by Michael Keaton
Ken is a smooth - talking doll who falls in love with Barbie. He first appears wearing light blue pleated and cuffed shorts, and a tucked - in leopard - print shirt with short sleeves. His accessories include matching ascot, sensible loafers and a fashion - forward gold belt. He lives in Ken 's Dreamhouse, a big yellow doll house with three stories, a large wardrobe room, and an elevator. Barbie originally breaks up with Ken when she finds him, Lotso, his other henchmen, and a reset Buzz Lightyear locking up her friends and discovering their ulterior motive. Piqued, Ken orders her locked up as well.
However, as part of a plan to escape, she pretends to forgive Ken, gaining access to his dream house. Barbie then ties Ken hostage to try to get him to reveal how to reset Buzz back to normal. As a provocation, she entangles him in an ironing board and rips his clothing apart. Ken reveals the truth after she begins to sabotage his prized Nehru jacket. He is not seen again until Lotso has the toys cornered at the dumpster, where he is the first to turn on Lotso. Ken comes to Barbie 's help by trying to stop Lotso, having realized Barbie through her understanding of civics. Lotso tells Ken "there 's 100,000,000 just like her '', but Ken insists that for him, there is no one else like her, and wins back her affections.
In the end credits of the film, he and Barbie are seen greeting new toys at Sunnyside as Barbie becomes his girlfriend again, and with Lotso gone, they both take charge of the Sunnyside toys as the new leaders. He resembles a real doll from 1988 called Animal Lovin ' Ken. Due to being called a "girl 's toy, '' it is often joked about his femininity: such as his large selection and obsession with clothes, him wearing Barbie 's scarf, his rather feminine boxer - shorts, Bookworm not being suspicious seeing who he believed being Ken (Barbie in a spacesuit outfit) in high heels, as well as at the end Buzz believing Barbie wrote them the fancy note, only to discover Ken 's signature at the end.
Ken, along with Barbie, appears in the theatrical short, Hawaiian Vacation, in which the two embark on a journey to Hawaii, but ends up in Bonnie 's room, where Woody and the other toys reenact various Hawaiian scenes.
Voiced by Woody Smith (2010 -- present)
Big Baby is a Bitty Baby doll with a lazy eye who carries around a bottle and is adorned with childlike scribbling that resembles ferocious tattoos. He normally does not speak, instead communicating through baby sounds, with the exception of one spoken line after the toys escape Sunnyside. Big Baby was once one of Daisy 's toys before he, Lotso, and Chuckles were lost at a rest area. After returning home, Lotso lied to Big Baby, claiming that Daisy replaced and no longer loved them. They eventually took over Sunnyside Daycare, where Big Baby became Lotso 's third - in - command. Eventually, Woody reveals to Lotso that Daisy still cared about them and gives Big Baby his pendant, sparking his memory of his former owner, whom he called "Mama ''. Lotso derides Big Baby for his attachment to Daisy and smashes the pendant with his mallet. Big Baby turns against Lotso and throws him in the dumpster (a parody of a scene from Return of the Jedi), blows him a raspberry, and helps Woody and his friends escape Sunnyside.
In the credits, Big Baby is much happier at Sunnyside under Barbie and Ken 's care, and even wears gold diapers to match their outfits at a party at the daycare.
The baby who provided the voice for Big Baby is named "Woody, '' according to Lee Unkrich 's Twitter account, and the film 's credits confirm it as being Woody Smith (listed under Additional voices).
Voiced by John Cygan
Twitch is a green "insectaloid warrior '' action figure with a bug 's head, orange eyes with ferocious chomping mandibles, wings, and two muscular arms. He is one of the toy thugs working for Lotso. He helps to reprogram Buzz, and later apprehends Andy 's other toys. He keeps a search light working in the playground. He and Sparks "break '' the Chatter telephone before he is convinced of Lotso 's evil by Woody and Ken. Because of how Lotso abused Big Baby, Twitch turns on Lotso, along with the other gang members. During the credits, he is seen living in a happier Sunnyside and is shown taking a turn to endure playtime with the young children in the Caterpillar Room, switching with Chunk so he can rest.
Twitch is reminiscent of the 1980s "He - Man and the Masters of the Universe '' toy line, and other similar lines.
Voiced by Whoopi Goldberg
Stretch is a toy rubber octopus with sticky suckers on her eight long arms and a glittery, purple body. She is the sole female member of Lotso 's gang, and at first welcomes the toys, but later helps capture them with her elastic tentacles. With her cohorts, she later catches Woody and his friends, and was eager to push them into the dumpster, should they not admit defeat. However, Stretch was also seen to be the first toy to doubt Lotso 's leadership and motives, as she was seen to visibly cringe at Lotso 's true character being revealed. After Lotso destroys Big Baby 's locket, he angrily orders Stretch to push Woody and his friends into the dumpster, which Stretch is now reluctant to do, causing Lotso to reveal his true feelings about all toys. Eventually, Lotso is thrown into the dumpster by Big Baby for his lies and treachery, and Stretch immediately leaves the area, shocked at what had happened but relieved. In the credits, she welcomes new toys happily without Lotso and is later seen sneaking a message to Woody and the gang in Bonnie 's backpack. She is based on a purple Wacky WallWalker toy from the 1980s.
Voiced by Jack Angel
Chunk is an orange muscular rock monster toy. He has two red eyes when fierce, blue eyes when he 's friendly, huge fists, and a face that you can change by rolling it up or down to a different facial expression or pressing a button at the top of his head. He welcomes the toys to Sunnyside, but later helps Lotso and Buzz imprison them. He is then convinced of Lotso 's deception when he abuses Big Baby, and is seen helping Woody and his friends climb to safety. In the credits, he is seen taking the abuse of the younger children, later taking a rest while Twitch takes his place. He is based on the short lived Rock Lords toyline.
Chunk has a very low level of intelligence: During a gambling scene, he describes Buzz as "He ai n't the sharpest knife in the... place... where they... keep the knives ''. He enjoys teasing Ken during the gambling scene since he called him a "girl 's toy. ''
Voiced by Jan Rabson
Sparks is a robot toy at Sunnyside Daycare. He has shown to be both blunt and sarcastic. Sparks ' retro design has flashing red LED eyes and a blaster cavity in his chest that spits out real sparks when he 's rolling around on his wheels, but is completely safe for children. He sports telescoping arms with working pincers and he can also elevate his body to make himself taller. He starts out as one of Lotso 's henchmen, but in the dumpster scene, when Ken states that Lotso put all of the toys in Sunnyside Daycare into a pyramid and placed himself on the top, he and Twitch (and likely Chunk as well) start to doubt Lotso 's leadership as both of them look at each other. Both of them are also in shock when Lotso shows his true colors and pokes Big Baby angrily in the stomach. They also witness Big Baby who retaliates by throwing Lotso into the dumpster, and he and the rest of his fellow henchmen let Andy 's toys escape. In the end, he and the rest of Lotso 's former henchmen reform for the better and become nicer.
Sparks has only one line, when he points out Chunk 's low intelligence, he says, "Neither are you, Chunk '' after Chunk gives his opinion on Buzz.
Voiced by Teddy Newton
Chatter Telephone is a character based on the real - life toy of the same name. He can only speak when his receiver is lifted from its cradle. He lives in the Caterpillar Room. He is the oldest toy at Sunnyside, and becomes an ally to Woody. When Woody returns to Sunnyside, he immediately says that coming back was a mistake because Lotso had rigged his security after he left and that the best action would be to just lay low. He reluctantly gives him instructions on how to escape Sunnyside. For this, he is later brutally beaten and broken for helping Woody and his group escape, and eventually rats Woody out when convinced that Woody and the other toys had already escaped, but are caught just before they can do so. He sadly apologizes to Woody who fortunately shows sympathy for the broken toy. In the credits, he has been repaired and now lives a happier life there at Sunnyside Daycare without Lotso, having been invited into the Butterfly Room. When Woody talked to him, he called him Ol ' Timer.
Voiced by Richard Kind
The Bookworm is a green toy worm with a built - in flashlight who wears glasses. He is a genius who loves reading books. He keeps a library of instruction manuals in a closet at Sunnyside, and gives Lotso the instruction manual for Buzz Lightyear. He later gives the same manual to Barbie (who he thinks is Ken since she is disguised in his spacesuit outfit). It is unknown if he is in allegiance with Lotso but is most likely not, since he is never seen with him very often. In the credits, he is happy without Lotso, and is seen using his flashlight to light a disco ball during a party at Sunnyside. He is based on the Glo Worm toys from the 1980s. He only has two lines in the film.
The cymbal - banging monkey is a monkey toy based on the Musical Jolly Chimp toy from the 1960s. he monitors the Sunnyside Daycare security cameras at night, and can alert Lotso and the gang of any toys attempting to escape by screeching into a microphone to broadcast over the intercom. Chatter Telephone tells Woody that he must get rid of the monkey before he and his friends can escape. Woody and Slinky manage to succeed in taking him down by wrapping him up in Scotch Tape and shutting him in a filing cabinet. In the credits, he is seen in a much happier situation, gently playing his clash cymbals while wearing star - shaped sunglasses.
The following toy characters were seen in other Toy Story projects:
Appearing in Small Fry, the Discarded Fun Meal Toys are toys that were discarded by children and have formed a support group in a storage room at Poultry Palace. Buzz Lightyear came across them at the time when he was replaced by the Fun Meal Toy version of Buzz. Among the Fun Meal Toys are:
A set of toys who were stolen from their owners during their stay at the Sleep Well roadside motel by Manager Ron 's pet iguana, Mr. Jones, so that Ron could sell them online. They appear in Toy Story of Terror!, where they are held along with Bonnie 's toys while Ron auctions them off on the Internet. They eventually escape with help from Jessie, and depart the Sleep Well on a mail truck.
Voiced by:
Andrew "Andy '' Davis Jr. is the owner of Woody, Buzz and the other toys in each of the three films. He lived with his mother and sister Molly, but left to go to college when he was 17. However, his father is never seen or mentioned in the films. Toy Story 2 implies that Woody might be a hand - me - down toy, and when introducing the 2009 set of Toy Story collectibles, John Lasseter said "We always imagined he was a hand - me - down to Andy from his father. ''
In Toy Story, Andy receives a Buzz Lightyear action figure for his 6th birthday party. Tension erupts between Buzz and Woody, who has always prided himself on being Andy 's favorite. Andy initially spends much more time with his new toy, but still has a special place in his heart for Woody. Thus, he becomes concerned when both toys go missing for a time, fearing they would be lost during his family 's move to a new house.
In Toy Story 2, Andy is only seen in the beginning and for a short while in the ending. During his appearances, it is clear that he still loves his toys very much. At the end of the film, Andy is pleased to have five new toys -- Jessie, Bullseye, and the three Squeeze Toy Aliens -- added into his collection. He marks them, as he has all his toys, with his name on the soles of their feet, or in Bullseye 's case, one letter of his name on each hoof.
In Toy Story 3, Andy is 17 and preparing to go off to college, intending to put most of his toys in the attic except for Woody, whom he initially plans to take with him. While he apparently has not played with his toys for some years and has given many of them away, he is still resistant to his mother 's suggestion to either donate or sell his remaining toys, referring to them as "junk '' (which the toys believe is what he truly thinks). When they go missing, however, he becomes upset and confused when he can not find them. Before he goes to college, Woody secretly puts the address of Bonnie (the young daughter of a family friend) on the box with the toys in it, causing Andy to come around to the idea of donating them. He passes them on to young Bonnie, who he realizes will look after his childhood playthings and gives them each their own introduction, stating the qualities that make each of them special. When Bonnie finds Woody in the box as well, Andy shows great reluctance to pass on his favorite toy, but ultimately relents, allowing the toys to stay together in an environment where they will be loved and played with. He spends time with Bonnie and the toys one last time before departing for college, and is noticeably sad when Bonnie has Woody "wave '' to him. He then responds with a quiet "Thanks, guys ''.
According to Toy Story producer Ralph Guggenheim in a December 1995 Animation Magazine article, John Lasseter and the story team for Toy Story reviewed the names of Pixar employees ' children, looking for the right name for Woody 's owner. Davis was ultimately named after and based on Andy Luckey, the son of legendary animator Bud Luckey, Pixar 's fifth employee and the creator of Woody. Luckey has declined to publicly comment on the connection.
In the DVD feature for Toy Story 3 on the voice cast, the Pixar crew remark that they were n't sure if Morris would want to do it or would sound right, and were ecstatic when they heard his voice on an answering machine, Morris was perfect for teenage Andy.
Voiced by Emily Hahn
Bonnie Anderson appears in Toy Story 3 as one of the children who goes to Sunnyside Daycare. She becomes the owner of Woody, Buzz and the other toys at the end of the film. Although she has an active imagination and boisterous manner when playing with her toys, she is shy and withdrawn when she is around adults, but she quickly warms up to Andy, when he donates his toys to her. She finds Woody, who was trying to escape Sunnyside, takes him home, and plays with him. Woody is impressed by what he sees at her house and ultimately gets himself (and all of Andy 's other toys) donated to her. Andy briefly plays with her after handing over his toys, and tells her he needs someone "very special '' to take care of them for him.
In the short film Hawaiian Vacation, Bonnie goes on a vacation to Hawaii and leaves Barbie and Ken in her room.
Voiced by:
Molly Davis is Andy 's younger sister, seen as an infant in the first film, a toddler in the second film, and as a preteen in the third film. Andy uses her crib as the town jail during playtime at the beginning of the first film, implying they are sharing a room. When the family moves later in the film, Andy and Molly get separate rooms, though Molly has plans to move into Andy 's presumably larger room once he leaves for college. In the first film, she slobbers on Mr. Potato Head and throws him from the crib, causing his parts to scatter and earning her the nickname "Princess Drool '' from him. At the end of the film, she receives a Mrs. Potato Head toy for Christmas. In Toy Story 3, she also owned a Barbie doll, which she donates to the daycare center as she was less interested in dolls and toys by that time and is now a preteen.
Voiced by Laurie Metcalf (1995 -- present)
Mrs. Davis is Andy and Molly 's single mother. In the first film, she has brown hair and ties it in a ponytail. In the other two films, her physical appearance is noticeably different and instead of brown, she has blonde hair and leaves it down. Though presented as a loving mother to Andy and Molly, Mrs. Davis is actually a major (though indirect) threat to the toys, as she frequently asks Andy to throw out the toys he no longer wants. Mrs. Davis ' actions regarding the toys sets the plot in motion in all three films, though they are not malicious. In the first film, she purchases a Buzz Lightyear toy for Andy on his birthday, prompting the rivalry between Buzz and Woody which leads to them being lost and forced to find their way home. In the second film, she puts Wheezy up for sale at a yard sale (due to a broken squeaker), prompting Woody 's rescue attempt where he is subsequently stolen by Al. In the third film, she orders Andy to clean out his room before going to college and mistakenly throws away the bag of toys Andy was putting in the attic, causing them to be donated to a daycare center. Despite this, in the second film, she is overly protective of Woody, describing him as an old family toy. At the end of the third film, she breaks down and weeps at the departure of her first son, but Andy reassures her that she will always be with him even if they are apart. This moment between mother and son plays a major factor in Woody deciding to have Andy donate his toys to Bonnie, thus giving them a new lease on their lives.
Some 2014 articles explore the possibility that Mrs. Davis is Jessie 's original owner, Emily from her flashback memories. The evidence cited references the flashbacks of Jessie and Emily from Toy Story 2. The flashback sequence shows Emily as a child in the 1960s, which is when she would have been a child. The sequence also shows that the cowboy hat that Emily had is very similar to Andy 's hat but with an additional white lace area, and Emily 's hair was brown, just like Mrs. Davis 's hair in the first film.
Voiced by Erik von Detten
Sid Phillips is Andy 's neighbor until Andy moves, but it is unknown if he and Andy know each other. Sid is known for torturing and destroying toys. Many of his toys are either destroyed, have missing pieces, or replaced with parts from other toys, even Sid "torturing '' Woody by burning his forehead with a magnifying glass. He is also shown tormenting his sister and destroying her toys by certain methods such as exploding, burning, and decapitating them. He also enjoys skateboarding, and his shirt depicts the logo for Zero Skateboards. The toys mention that he was consistently kicked out of summer camp; and in the audio commentary on the tenth anniversary DVD, the directors mention that he is a bully but also the "most creative character in the movie ''. It is also implied that he does not have the best home life. His parents do not make any major appearances: his mother 's voice is only heard briefly several times in the film, and his father is only seen briefly asleep on a chair in front of the TV in the living room.
He also seems to be the only human depicted in the film to observe toys actually coming to life. At the end of the first film, Woody and Sid 's mutant toys decide to rescue Buzz by scaring Sid, which causes him to become very frightened of toys. The last straw is Woody coming alive and telling him to take good care of his toys or else. This causes Sid to panic and run back into his house screaming, and then to his room when his sister scares him with her toy doll.
Sid does not appear in the second film, although he is mentioned once by Buzz during the toys ' mission to rescue Woody from the greedy toy collector Al McWhiggin. Sid also appears in the four - issue Monsters, Inc. comic mini-series produced by Boom! Comics.
In the third film, Sid (now an adult) makes brief appearances in two scenes once again voiced by Erik von Detten. He is shown to be a garbageman with a small beard, recognizable by his characteristic T - shirt. His only dialogue in this movie involves humming guitar riffs, and he is depicted listening to heavy metal music through a pair of large headphones.
Voiced by Sarah Freeman
Hannah Phillips is Sid 's sweet - natured, younger sister who appears a few times in the first film. In Toy Story, Hannah has adjusted to her toys being mutilated by Sid. Most of her dolls either have different heads or altered body parts, and at the end of the film she finds enjoyment in scaring her brother after he has been horrified by Woody and the other toys. She spends most of the time during the movie playing with her altered dolls.
Voiced by Wayne Knight
Al McWhiggin -- nicknamed "The Chicken Man '' by Andy 's toys -- is the owner of a chain of local toy stores and also an obsessive collector of all things related to the old Woody 's Roundup TV series. He steals Woody from a yard sale held by Andy 's mother in hopes of selling him to a toy museum in Tokyo, Japan. He is unscrupulously obsessive, overweight, very impatient, and lazy, as he complains of having to "drive all the way to work on a Saturday '', despite his apartment only being across the street from the store. He is partially inspired by his voice actor Wayne Knight; during the production of Toy Story 2, Knight had a goatee like Al in the movie. Cartoonist and animator Scott Shaw has also been acknowledged as another model and inspiration for Al, while the film 's director John Lasseter said that Al is inspired by himself.
Al is the owner of a large toy store called "Al 's Toy Barn ''. The store is mentioned in the first Toy Story in an advertisement for Buzz Lightyear toys, but Al did not appear. He is first seen in Toy Story 2 during an advertisement on TV in which he is dressed up in a chicken suit of which Hamm remarks "I despise that chicken '' after turning off the TV. He later is seen trying to buy Woody in a yard sale held by Andy 's mom. After Andy 's mother refuses to hand over the doll and locks him in a box, Al steals Woody with the intent of selling him, along with the rest of his collection of Woody 's Roundup toys and memorabilia, to a Japanese toy museum for a large sum of money. Andy 's toys arrived at his apartment to rescue Woody but Stinky Pete 's interference allow Al to leave for the airport with the Roundup Gang. Andy 's toys follow him there on a stolen pizza planet truck. (In the original script, Andy 's toys steal Al 's car and Al steals the pizza planet truck and gives chase) As Al 's plane is about to fly off to Japan with the Roundup Gang packed in the luggage, Andy 's toys are able to save Woody, Jessie and Bullseye, getting Jessie off of the plane at the last second, while the Prospector is placed in a little girl 's backpack for his betrayal. During his latest commercial soon after, Al is unable to control himself from hysterically sobbing over his losses as a result, which Hamm responded to by saying "Well, I guess crime does n't pay. ''
Al was originally conceived to appear in the first Toy Story film, but was cut in the final screenplay. However, Al 's Toy Barn makes an appearance in the first film during a television advertisement for Buzz Lightyear toys.
Al 's last name was revealed on the nameplate on his office desk; also, when he is done taking pictures, he answers his cellphone and Mr. Konishi can be heard saying his full name. According to Disney Adventures magazine, Al was not permitted to play with his toys when he was a kid, which led to his toy - collecting niche. It is implied that Al 's full name is actually Carl McWhiggin since Mr. Konishi is heard calling him that on the phone.
His car 's license plate reads LZTYBRN, which is "Al 's Toy Barn '' (minus the vowel letters). It is also the actual license plate of Ash Brannon, co-director of Toy Story 2, according to the Toy Story 2: Special Edition commentary.
Voiced by Lori Alan
Mrs. Anderson is the mother of Bonnie. She wears purple glasses. In Toy Story 3, she is the receptionist at Sunnyside Daycare. When Andy comes to return his toys to Bonnie, Mrs. Anderson is amazed to see a grown - up college student donating his childhood toys to her daughter. During the credits scene, she carries another box of donation toys into the Butterfly Room at Sunnyside that contains Emperor Zurg.
In Toy Story of Terror, she and Bonnie are driving in the countryside at nighttime when the car tire punctures. In the morning, the curtain behind the manager 's desk fell down revealing all her missing toys. Mrs. Anderson calls the police to arrest the manager who stole the toys.
Voiced by Jonathan Harris
Geri, an elderly specialist in toy restoration and repair with a fully loaded toy repair kit, comes to Al 's apartment in Toy Story 2 to fix Woody up in preparation for his trip to Japan. He insists that Al let him take his time with the work and views it as more than a simple job, asserting, "You ca n't rush art. ''
Geri previously appeared in Pixar 's 1997 short, Geri 's Game, where he plays a chess game against himself. In that short, he is voiced by Bob Peterson. One of the drawers in his carrying case contains chess pieces, a reference to the short.
Emily was the name of Jessie 's former owner and is mentioned by her in the second film. She appears in a flashback musical sequence while "When She Loved Me '' by Sarah McLachlan is played. During this sequence, Jessie tells Woody of her first experience with an owner who was Emily and why she resented being a child 's toy. As a young child she was a fan of the Wild West and horses, along with the Woody 's Roundup TV show, apparent through her love of Jessie. As she became a teenager, her interest began to shift towards makeup, pop culture of the time and gossip with her friends which led to Jessie being neglected then thrown away through a donation box. She is mentioned by Jessie for the second time in the third film, when she fears of being thrown away by Andy, saying "I should 've seen this coming! It 's Emily all over again! ''.
Daisy is a little girl who appears in flashbacks in Toy Story 3. She owned Lotso, Big Baby and Chuckles in the beginning, but accidentally left them behind at a rest area along the road. In order to pacify her, Daisy 's parents bought her another Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear rather than finding Lotso and the rest of her toys, which made Lotso think he had been replaced and forgotten about, and changed him into a sinister, ruthless toy.
Voiced by Stephen Tobolowsky
Ron is the greedy manager of the Sleep Well Motel, appearing in Toy Story of Terror. He has a habit of stealing toys from customers in his motel and selling them on the Internet, with the help from his pet iguana, Mr. Jones. When Bonnie and her mother went to Sleep Well after their car got a flat tire, Mr. Jones steals a number of Bonnie 's toys, including Woody, Buzz, and Jessie. Ron then takes pictures of the toys and puts them on his bidding sale, awaiting buyers. Jessie manages to trick Mr. Jones into tearing off the curtain, revealing the toys ' location and Ron 's scheme to Bonnie and her mother, who then calls the police.
Two police officers later arrive to question Ron, who attempts to escape by stealing their car but is forced to flee on foot after immediately crashing it into the motel sign. The police officers initiate a manhunt for him.
Voiced by R.C. Cope
Mason is Bonnie 's best friend, and a post-Christmas playdate between the pair serves as the setting for Toy Story That Time Forgot. Mason receives an entire Battlesaurs collection for Christmas but is distracted from them by a new video game system. However, due to Trixie and Reptillus ' efforts he abandons the video game and plays with his new toys. He is later shown to write his name on his toys in similar fashion to Andy and Bonnie.
Voiced by Frank Welker
Scud is Sid 's aggressive Bull Terrier. His viciousness is first demonstrated when Sid sets a Squeeze Toy Alien on his nose and commands him to maul it mercilessly. Scud serves as an obstacle for Woody and Buzz as they try to escape Sid 's house. First, as Woody tries to run off when Sid leaves the bedroom door open he encounters Scud sleeping and accidentally wakes him, forcing him and Buzz to hide. When Sid takes Buzz to the backyard to blow him up with a rocket, Woody tries to save him but Scud traps him in Sid 's room. The mutant toys help Woody distract Scud so they can rescue Buzz. Scud later spots Woody and Buzz trying to escape on the moving van and pursues them, but is eluded when he runs after them into the middle of a traffic intersection and is trapped by the cars as they crash while trying to avoid him.
Voiced by Frank Welker
Buster is Andy 's pet dachshund, whom he receives at the end of Toy Story. Buster appears in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3. In Toy Story 2, he is depicted as being very energetic. Buster is considered to be nice to the toys in Andy 's room and is the only one in Andy 's house who knows that the toys are alive, and is fiercely loyal to Woody, obeying all commands given to him by Woody: when Wheezy is taken by Andy 's mother to be sold at a yard sale, Woody is able to command Buster to carry him down to the yard sale so he can rescue Wheezy. However, he does not respond to commands from Andy whatsoever. Slinky is also able to communicate with him due to the fact they are both dogs. At the beginning of Toy Story 2, Buster finds Woody in a record of 13.5 seconds.
In Toy Story 3, Buster is now older and looks very aged, with mixed brown and gray fur, a gray - white snout, overweight, and too old to help Woody save the other toys (in a direct parody of the rescue scene from Toy Story 2), although he remains nice and loyal to them. He tends to fall asleep as well.
Crazy Critters are a bunch of 2 - dimensional animal puppets from the Woody 's Roundup show including an armadillo, bat, bear, beaver, bird, deer, vulture, bear cub, porcupine, flying squirrel, rabbit, skunk, snake, fox, raccoon, tortoise and bobcat. They come quickly when Jessie calls them, with the tortoise falling slightly behind the others. Woody understands them in the Woody 's Roundup show. The Crazy Critters make cameo appearances as prizes determined by the score of players in Toy Story Midway Mania!, and in the Toy Story 2 video game on the Nintendo 64.
Voiced by Dee Bradley Baker
Mr. Jones is an iguana appearing in Toy Story of Terror!, owned by the manager of Sleep Well Motel, Ron. He is loyal to his master and is trained to secretly steal toys from customers so that his master can sell the toys off the Internet. During the majority of the special, he is seen snatching most of Bonnie 's toys away in a flash through the air shafts and ventilation systems. Eventually, he accidentally swallowed Mr. Potato Head 's left arm and Combat Carl 's right hand. However, he is forced to regurgitate them out after Jessie tricks him into ripping off the curtain, revealing Ron 's scheme to Bonnie and her mother. It is unknown what happens to him afterwards, although it is implied that he will be sent to Animal Control.
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who votes for speaker of the house of representatives
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Speaker of the United States House of Representatives - wikipedia
The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives. The office was established in 1789 by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution. The Speaker is the political and parliamentary leader of the House of Representatives, and is simultaneously the House 's presiding officer, de facto leader of the body 's majority party, and the institution 's administrative head. Speakers also perform various other administrative and procedural functions. Given these several roles and responsibilities, the Speaker usually does not personally preside over debates. That duty is instead delegated to members of the House from the majority party. Neither does the Speaker regularly participate in floor debates nor vote.
The Constitution does not require the Speaker to be an elected member of the House of Representatives, although every Speaker thus far has been. The Speaker is second in the United States presidential line of succession, after the Vice President and ahead of the President pro tempore of the Senate.
The current House Speaker is Congressman Paul Ryan from Wisconsin. He was elected to the office on October 29, 2015, and is the 54th person to serve as Speaker. On April 11, 2018, Ryan announced he will not seek re-election in the 2018 mid-terms, and will also relinquish the office of Speaker when his term ends in 2019.
The House of Representatives elects the Speaker of the House on the first day of every new Congress and in the event of the death, resignation or removal from the Chair of an incumbent Speaker. The Clerk of the House of Representatives requests nominations: there are normally two, one from each major party (each party having previously met to decide on its nominee). The Clerk then calls the roll of the Representatives, each Representative indicating the surname of the candidate the Representative is supporting. Representatives are not restricted to voting for one of the nominated candidates and may vote for any person, even for someone who is not a member of the House at all. They may also abstain by voting "present ''.
Although no rule exists, based on tradition and practice from the earliest days of the nation, to be elected speaker a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, i.e. excluding those who abstain. If no candidate wins such a majority, then the roll call is repeated until a speaker is elected. The last time repeated votes were required was in 1923, when the Speaker was elected on the ninth ballot.
The new Speaker is then sworn in by the Dean of the United States House of Representatives, the chamber 's longest - serving member.
In modern practice, the Speaker is chosen by the majority party from among its senior leaders either when a vacancy in the office arrives or when the majority party changes. Previous Speakers have been minority leaders (when the majority party changes, as they are already the House party leader, and as the minority leader are usually their party 's nominee for Speaker), or majority leaders (upon departure of the current Speaker in the majority party), assuming that the party leadership hierarchy is followed. In the past, other candidates have included chairpersons of influential standing committees.
So far, the Democrats have always elevated their minority leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority control of the House. However, Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern. In 1919, Republicans bypassed James Robert Mann, R - IL, who had been Minority Leader for eight years, and elected a backbencher representative, Frederick H. Gillett, R - MA, to be Speaker. Mann had "angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor, '' and was also a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon (R - IL18) who had been Speaker from 1903 to 1911, and was still in the House. Many members "suspected that he (Mann) would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker. '' More recently, although Robert H. Michel was Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained control of the House in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had little or no involvement in the campaign, including the "Contract with America '', which was unveiled six weeks before Election Day. Michel opted not to seek re-election because he had been isolated in the caucus by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich and other younger and more aggressive Representatives.
It is expected that members of the House vote for their party 's candidate. If they do not, they usually vote for someone else in their party or vote "present ''. Those who vote for the other party 's candidate often face serious consequences, up to and including the loss of seniority. The last instance where a representative voted for the other party 's candidate was in 2000, when Democrat Jim Traficant of Ohio voted for Republican Dennis Hastert. In response, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority and he lost all of his committee posts.
If the Speaker 's party loses control of the House in an election, and if the Speaker and Majority Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively. As the minority party has historically had one less leadership position after losing the Speaker 's chair, there may be a contest for the remaining leadership positions; upon losing control of the House after the 2010 election, the Democrats created the position of Assistant Democratic Leader in order to prevent such a contest. Most Speakers whose party has lost control of the House have not returned to the party leadership (Tom Foley lost his seat, Dennis Hastert returned to the backbenches and resigned from the House in late 2007). However, Speakers Joseph William Martin, Jr. and Sam Rayburn did seek the post of Minority Leader in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Nancy Pelosi is the most recent example of an outgoing Speaker who was elected Minority Leader, after the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 elections.
The first Speaker was Frederick Muhlenberg: he was elected as a Pro-Administration candidate to the 1st Congress, an Anti-Administration candidate to the 2nd and 3rd Congresses, and a Republican candidate to the 4th Congress, according to the Biographical Directory of Congress, though Oswald Seidensticker wrote that he was elected as a Federalist for the first four Congresses.
The position of Speaker started to gain its partisan role and its power in legislative development under Henry Clay (1811 -- 1814, 1815 -- 1820, and 1823 -- 1825). In contrast to many of his predecessors, Clay participated in several debates, and used his influence to procure the passage of measures he supported -- for instance, the declaration of the War of 1812, and various laws relating to Clay 's "American System '' economic plan. Furthermore, when no candidate received an Electoral College majority in the 1824 presidential election causing the President to be elected by the House, Speaker Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams instead of Andrew Jackson, thereby ensuring Adams ' victory. Following Clay 's retirement in 1825, the power of the speakership once again began to decline, despite speakership elections becoming increasingly bitter. As the Civil War approached, several sectional factions nominated their own candidates, often making it difficult for any candidate to attain a majority. In 1855 and again in 1859, for example, the contest for Speaker lasted for two months before the House achieved a result. During this time, Speakers tended to have very short tenures. For example, from 1839 to 1863 there were eleven Speakers, only one of whom served for more than one term. To date, James K. Polk is the only Speaker of the House later elected President of the United States.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the office of Speaker began to develop into a very powerful one. At the time, one of the most important sources of the Speaker 's power was his position as Chairman of the Committee on Rules, which, after the reorganization of the committee system in 1880, became one of the most powerful standing committees of the House. Furthermore, several Speakers became leading figures in their political parties; examples include Democrats Samuel J. Randall, John Griffin Carlisle, and Charles F. Crisp, and Republicans James G. Blaine, Thomas Brackett Reed, and Joseph Gurney Cannon.
The power of the Speaker was greatly augmented during the tenure of the Republican Thomas Brackett Reed (1889 -- 1891, 1895 -- 1899). "Czar Reed '', as he was called by his opponents, sought to end the obstruction of bills by the minority, in particular by countering the tactic known as the "disappearing quorum ''. By refusing to vote on a motion, the minority could ensure that a quorum would not be achieved, and that the result would be invalid. Reed, however, declared that members who were in the chamber but refused to vote would still count for the purposes of determining a quorum. Through these and other rulings, Reed ensured that the Democrats could not block the Republican agenda.
The speakership reached its apogee during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (1903 -- 1911). Cannon exercised extraordinary control over the legislative process. He determined the agenda of the House, appointed the members of all committees, chose committee chairmen, headed the Rules Committee, and determined which committee heard each bill. He vigorously used his powers to ensure that Republican proposals were passed by the House. In 1910, however, Democrats and several dissatisfied Republicans joined together to strip Cannon of many of his powers, including the ability to name committee members and his chairmanship of the Rules Committee. Fifteen years later, Speaker Nicholas Longworth restored much, but not all, of the lost influence of the position.
One of the most influential Speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn. Rayburn was the longest - serving Speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Rayburn 's successor, Democrat John W. McCormack (served 1962 -- 1971), was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert. The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the Speaker was granted the authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the Speaker.
Albert 's successor, Democrat Tip O'Neill, was a prominent Speaker because of his public opposition to the policies of President Ronald Reagan. O'Neill is the longest continually serving Speaker, from 1977 through 1987. He challenged Reagan on domestic programs and on defense expenditures. Republicans made O'Neill the target of their election campaigns in 1980 and 1982 but Democrats managed to retain their majorities in both years.
The roles of the parties reversed in 1994 when, after spending forty years in the minority, the Republicans regained control of the House with the "Contract with America '', an idea spearheaded by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich. Speaker Gingrich would regularly clash with Democratic President Bill Clinton, leading to the United States federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996, in which Clinton was largely seen to have prevailed. Gingrich 's hold on the leadership was weakened significantly by that and several other controversies, and he faced a caucus revolt in 1997. After the Republicans lost House seats in 1998 (although retaining a majority) he did not stand for a third term as Speaker. His successor, Dennis Hastert, had been chosen as a compromise candidate, since the other Republicans in the leadership were more controversial. Hastert played a much less prominent role than other contemporary Speakers, being overshadowed by House Majority Leader Tom DeLay and President George W. Bush. The Republicans came out of the 2000 elections with a further reduced majority but made small gains in 2002 and 2004. The periods of 2001 -- 2002 and 2003 -- 2007 were the first times since 1953 -- 1955 that there was single - party Republican leadership in Washington, interrupted from 2001 -- 2003 as Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become independent and caucused with Senate Democrats to give them a 51 - 49 majority.
In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democrats won a majority in the House. Nancy Pelosi became Speaker when the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, making her the first female to hold the office. With the election of Barack Obama as President and Democratic gains in both houses of Congress, Pelosi became the first Speaker since Tom Foley to hold the office during single - party Democratic leadership in Washington. During the 111th Congress, Pelosi was the driving force behind several of Obama 's major initiatives that proved controversial, and the Republicans campaigned against the Democrats ' legislation by staging a "Fire Pelosi '' bus tour and regained control of the House in the 2010 midterm elections. House Minority Leader John Boehner was elected as Speaker.
Historically, there have been several controversial elections to the speakership, such as the contest of 1839. In that case, even though the 26th United States Congress convened on December 2, the House could not begin the speakership election until December 14 because of an election dispute in New Jersey known as the "Broad Seal War ''. Two rival delegations, one Whig and the other Democrat, had been certified as elected by different branches of the New Jersey government. The problem was compounded by the fact that the result of the dispute would determine whether the Whigs or the Democrats held the majority. Neither party agreed to permit a speakership election with the opposite party 's delegation participating. Finally, it was agreed to exclude both delegations from the election and a Speaker was finally chosen on December 17.
Another, more prolonged fight occurred in 1855 in the 34th United States Congress. The old Whig Party had collapsed but no single party had emerged to replace it. Candidates opposing the Democrats had run under a bewildering variety of labels, including Whig, Republican, American (Know Nothing), and simply "Opposition ''. By the time Congress actually met in December 1855, most of the northerners were concentrated together as Republicans, while most of the southerners and a few northerners used the American or Know Nothing label. Opponents of the Democrats held a majority in House, with the party makeup of the 234 Representatives being 83 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Know Nothings (primarily southern oppositionists). The Democratic minority nominated William Alexander Richardson of Illinois as Speaker, but because of sectional distrust, the various oppositionists were unable to agree on a single candidate for Speaker. The Republicans supported Nathaniel Prentiss Banks of Massachusetts, who had been elected as a Know Nothing but was now largely identified with the Republicans. The southern Know Nothings supported first Humphrey Marshall of Kentucky, and then Henry M. Fuller of Pennsylvania. The voting went on for almost two months with no candidate able to secure a majority, until it was finally agreed to elect the Speaker by plurality vote, and Banks was elected. The House found itself in a similar dilemma when the 36th Congress met in December 1859. Although the Republicans held a plurality, the Republican candidate, John Sherman, was unacceptable to southern oppositionists due to his anti-slavery views, and once again the House was unable to elect a Speaker for several months. After Democrats allied with southern oppositionists to nearly elect the North Carolina oppositionist William N.H. Smith, Sherman finally withdrew in favor of compromise candidate William Pennington of New Jersey, a former Whig of unclear partisan loyalties, who was finally elected Speaker at the end of January 1860.
The last speakership elections in which the House had to vote more than once occurred in the 65th and 72nd United States Congress. In 1917, neither the Republican nor the Democratic candidate could attain a majority because three members of the Progressive Party and other individual members of other parties voted for their own party. The Republicans had a plurality in the House but James "Champ '' Clark remained Speaker of the House because of the support of the Progressive Party members. In 1931, both the Republicans and the Democrats had 217 members with the Minnesota Farmer - Labor Party having one member who served as the deciding vote. The Farmer - Labor Party eventually voted for the Democrats ' candidate for Speaker, John Nance Garner, who later became Vice President under Franklin Roosevelt.
In 1997, several Republican congressional leaders tried to force Speaker Newt Gingrich to resign. However, Gingrich refused since that would have required a new election for Speaker, which could have led to Democrats along with dissenting Republicans voting for Democrat Dick Gephardt (then Minority Leader) as Speaker. After the 1998 midterm elections where the Republicans lost seats, Gingrich did not stand for re-election. The next two figures in the House Republican leadership hierarchy, Majority Leader Richard Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay, chose not to run for the office. The chairman of the House Appropriations Committee, Bob Livingston, declared his bid for the speakership, which was unopposed, making him Speaker - designate. It was then revealed, by Livingston himself, who had been publicly critical of President Bill Clinton 's perjury during his sexual harassment trial, that he had engaged in an extramarital affair. He opted to resign from the House, despite being urged to stay on by House Democratic leader Gephardt. Subsequently, chief deputy whip Dennis Hastert was selected as Speaker. The Republicans retained their majorities in the 2000, 2002, and 2004 elections.
The Democrats won a majority of seats in the 2006 midterm elections. On November 16, 2006, Nancy Pelosi, who was then Minority Leader, was selected as Speaker - designate by House Democrats. When the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, she was elected as the 52nd Speaker by a vote of 233 - 202, becoming the first woman elected Speaker of the House. Pelosi remained Speaker through the 111th Congress. For the 112th Congress, Republican John Boehner was unanimously designated Speaker - designate by House Republicans and was elected the 53rd Speaker of the House. As a show of dissent, nineteen Democratic representatives voted for Democrats other than Pelosi, who had been chosen as House Minority Leader and the Democrats ' candidate for Speaker.
The Constitution does not spell out the political role of the Speaker. As the office has developed historically, however, it has taken on a clearly partisan cast, very different from the speakership of most Westminster - style legislatures, such as the Speaker of the British House of Commons, which is meant to be scrupulously non-partisan. The Speaker in the United States, by tradition, is the head of the majority party in the House of Representatives, outranking the Majority Leader. However, despite having the right to vote, the Speaker usually does not participate in debate and rarely votes.
The Speaker is responsible for ensuring that the House passes legislation supported by the majority party. In pursuing this goal, the Speaker may use their power to determine when each bill reaches the floor. They also chair the majority party 's steering committee in the House. While the Speaker is the functioning head of the House majority party, the same is not true of the President pro tempore of the Senate, whose office is primarily ceremonial and honorary.
When the Speaker and the President belong to the same party, the Speaker tends to play the role in a more ceremonial light, as seen when Dennis Hastert played a very low - key role during the presidency of fellow Republican George W. Bush. Nevertheless, when the Speaker and the President belong to the same party, there are also times that the Speaker plays a much larger role, and the Speaker is tasked, e.g., with pushing through the agenda of the majority party, often at the expense of the minority opposition. This can be seen, most of all, in the speakership of Democratic - Republican Henry Clay, who personally ensured the presidential victory of fellow Democratic - Republican John Quincy Adams. Democrat Sam Rayburn was a key player in the passing of New Deal legislation under the presidency of fellow Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (under Theodore Roosevelt) was particularly infamous for his marginalization of the minority Democrats and centralizing of authority to the speakership. In more recent times, Speaker Nancy Pelosi played a role in continuing the push for health care reform during the presidency of fellow Democrat Barack Obama. The Republicans campaigned against Pelosi and the Democrats ' legislation with their "Fire Pelosi '' bus tour.
On the other hand, when the Speaker and the President belong to opposite parties, the public role and influence of the Speaker tend to increase. As the highest - ranking member of the opposition party (and de facto Leader of the Opposition), the Speaker is normally the chief public opponent of the President 's agenda. In this scenario, the Speaker is known for undercutting the President 's agenda by blocking measures by the minority party or rejecting bills by the Senate. One famous instance came in the form of Thomas Brackett Reed (under Grover Cleveland), a Speaker notorious for his successful attempt to force the Democrats to vote on measures where the Republicans had clear majorities, which ensured that Cleveland 's Democrats were in no position to challenge the Republicans in the House. Joseph Cannon was particularly unique in that he led the conservative "Old Guard '' wing of the Republican Party, while his President -- Theodore Roosevelt -- was of the more progressive clique, and more than just marginalizing the Democrats, Cannon used his power to punish the dissidents in his party and obstruct the progressive wing of the Republican Party.
More modern examples include Tip O'Neill, who was a vocal opponent of President Ronald Reagan 's economic and defense policies; Newt Gingrich, who fought a bitter battle with President Bill Clinton for control of domestic policy; Nancy Pelosi, who argued with President George W. Bush over the Iraq War; and John Boehner, who clashed with President Barack Obama over budget issues and health care.
As presiding officer of the House of Representatives, the Speaker holds a variety of powers over the House and is ceremonially the highest - ranking legislative official in the US government. The Speaker may delegate his powers to a member of the House to act as Speaker pro tempore and preside over the House in the Speaker 's absence; when this has occurred the delegation has always been to a member of the same party. During important debates, the Speaker pro tempore is ordinarily a senior member of the majority party who may be chosen for his skill in presiding. At other times, more junior members may be assigned to preside to give them experience with the rules and procedures of the House. The Speaker may also designate, with approval of the House, a Speaker pro tempore for special purposes, such as designating a Representative whose district is near Washington, D.C. to sign enrolled bills during long recesses.
Under the Rules of the House, the Speaker, "as soon as practicable after the election of the Speaker and whenever appropriate thereafter, '' must deliver to the Clerk of the House a confidential list of Members who are designated to act as Speaker in the case of a vacancy or physical inability of the Speaker to perform their duties.
On the floor of the House, the presiding officer is always addressed as "Mister Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker, '' even if it is a Speaker pro tempore, and not the Speaker themselves. When the House resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole, the Speaker designates a member to preside over the Committee as the Chairman, who is addressed as "Mister Chairman '' or "Madam Chairwoman. '' To speak, members must seek the presiding officer 's recognition. The presiding officer also rules on all points of order but such rulings may be appealed to the whole House. The Speaker is responsible for maintaining decorum in the House and may order the Sergeant - at - Arms to enforce House rules.
The Speaker 's powers and duties extend beyond presiding in the chamber. In particular, the Speaker has great influence over the committee process. The Speaker selects nine of the thirteen members of the powerful Committee on Rules, subject to the approval of the entire majority party. The leadership of the minority party chooses the remaining four members. Furthermore, the Speaker appoints all members of select committees and conference committees. Moreover, when a bill is introduced, the Speaker determines which committee will consider it. As a member of the House, the Speaker is entitled to participate in debate and to vote but, by custom, only does so in exceptional circumstances. Ordinarily, the Speaker votes only when the Speaker 's vote would be decisive or on matters of great importance, such as constitutional amendments or major legislation.
Because joint sessions and joint meetings of Congress are held in the House chamber, the Speaker presides over joint sessions to hear addresses by the President, and joint meetings to hear addresses from foreign leaders or other invited guests. However, the Twelfth Amendment and 3 U.S.C. § 15 require that the President of the Senate preside over joint sessions of Congress assembled to count electoral votes and to certify the results of a presidential election.
The Speaker is also responsible for overseeing the officers of the House: the Clerk, the Sergeant - at - Arms, the Chief Administrative Officer, and the Chaplain. The Speaker can dismiss any of these officers. The Speaker appoints the House Historian and the General Counsel and, jointly with the Majority and Minority Leaders, appoints the House Inspector General.
The Speaker is second in the presidential line of succession, immediately after the Vice President, under the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. The Speaker is followed in the line of succession by the President pro tempore of the Senate and by the heads of federal executive departments.
To date, the implementation of the Presidential Succession Act has never been necessary and no Speaker has ever acted as President. Implementation of the law almost became necessary in 1973 after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew. At the time, many believed that President Richard Nixon would resign because of the Watergate scandal, allowing Speaker Carl Albert to succeed to the Presidency. However, before he resigned, Nixon appointed Gerald Ford as Vice President in accordance with the Twenty - fifth Amendment. Nevertheless, the United States government takes the Speaker 's place in the line of succession seriously enough that, for example, following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Speakers used military jets to fly back and forth to their districts and for other travel until Speaker Boehner discontinued the practice in 2011. The Speaker of the House is one of the officers to whom declarations of presidential inability or ability to resume the Presidency must be addressed under the Twenty - fifth Amendment.
To be elected as Speaker, a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, excluding those who abstain. The most recent election for the post of Speaker of the United States House of Representatives took place on January 3, 2017, during the opening day of the 115th United States Congress. The incumbent speaker, Paul Ryan, was re-elected.
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jackys only happy when shes up on the stage
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Jacky 's Only Happy When She 's up on the Stage - wikipedia
"Jacky 's Only Happy When She 's Up on the Stage '' is a song by English singer - songwriter Morrissey. It was produced by Joe Chiccarelli. The song was released via BMG Rights Management on 17 November 2017 as the second single from Morrissey 's eleventh solo studio album, Low in High School (2017). A 7 '' vinyl single was released on 8 December 2017, featuring an Elvis Presley cover on the B - side.
The cover features a 1983 photo by Miron Zownir.
It reached number one on the UK Vinyl Singles Chart, where it remained for two weeks, including the Christmas number one week of 2017. When Morrissey performed the song on a BBC television show, he changed the lyrics "exit, exit '' to "Brexit, exit ''.
The video was directed by Robert Hales and features Morrissey and his band doing a dance routine.
Digital download
7 '' vinyl
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seeing candy crush when i close my eyes
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Tetris effect - wikipedia
The Tetris effect (also known as Tetris Syndrome) occurs when people devote so much time and attention to an activity that it begins to pattern their thoughts, mental images, and dreams. It takes its name from the video game Tetris.
People who played Tetris for a prolonged amount of time could find themselves thinking about ways different shapes in the real world can fit together, such as the boxes on a supermarket shelf, the buildings on a street, or hallucinating pieces being generated and falling into place on an invisible layout. In this sense, the Tetris effect is a form of habit. They might also dream about falling tetrominos when drifting off to sleep or see images of falling tetrominos at the edges of their visual fields or when they close their eyes. In this sense, the Tetris effect is a form of hypnagogic imagery.
The Tetris effect can occur with other video games. It has also been known to occur with non-video games, such as the illusion of curved lines after doing a jigsaw puzzle, or the involuntary mental visualisation of Rubik 's Cube algorithms common amongst speedcubers.
On a perceptual level, sea legs are a kind of Tetris effect. A person newly on land after spending long periods at sea may sense illusory rocking motion, having become accustomed to the constant work of adjusting to the boat making such movements (see "Illusions of self - motion '' and "Mal de debarquement ''). The poem "Boots '' by Rudyard Kipling describes the effect, resulting from repetitive visual experience during a route march:
' Tai n't -- so -- bad -- by -- day because o ' company,
But -- night -- brings -- long -- strings -- o ' forty thousand million Boots -- boots -- boots -- boots -- movin ' up an ' down again.
On the mental level, computer programming has resulted in dreams about coding. Mathematicians have reported dreaming of numbers or equations, for example Srinivasa Ramanujan, or Friedrich Engels who remarked "last week in a dream I gave a chap my shirt - buttons to differentiate, and he ran off with them ''.
Stickgold et al. (2000) have proposed that Tetris imagery is a separate form of memory, likely related to procedural memory. This is from their research in which they showed that people with anterograde amnesia, unable to form new declarative memories, reported dreaming of falling shapes after playing Tetris during the day, despite not being able to remember playing the game at all.
A study, conducted by Lynn Okagaki and Peter Frensch in 1994, showed that participants who played Tetris for twelve 30 - minute sessions (with no previous experience of the game) did much better than the control group in both the paper - pencil test version of spatial skills as well as the computerized version. The conclusions drawn from this experiments were that video games such as Tetris had a positive effect on three areas of spatial skills including mental rotation, spatial perception and spatial visualization in those who played for a prolonged period continuously.
In 2009, the BioMed Central (BMC) study about the Tetris effect used an MRI to scan the brains of subjects. The experiment tested about two groups of people, which are the group who played Tetris for 30 minutes a day and the other one who did n't play at all. The researchers found, by using the MRI images, that the gray matter of the subjects who played this game had thickened, compared to the people who had never played it. The result proves that this game is responsible for physical cognitive development, which also improves things like memory capacity. Tetris has been found to act upon this flexibility of brain matter by thickening it. According to the BMC study, it appears to link gray matter plasticity to the brain efficiency, but there is no substantial research making these claims has been published at this time. It can be assumed that playing Tetris affects the brain in the healthy way, such as allowing your brain to operate more efficiently.
Another 2009 Oxford study suggests that playing Tetris - like video games may help prevent the development of traumatic memories. If the video game treatment is played soon after the traumatic event, the preoccupation with Tetris shapes is enough to prevent the mental recitation of traumatic images, thereby decreasing the accuracy, intensity, and frequency of traumatic reminders. "We suggest it specifically interferes with the way sensory memories are laid down in the period after trauma and thus reduces the number of flashbacks that are experienced afterwards, '' summarizes Dr. Emily Holmes, who led the study.
The earliest known reference to the term appears in Jeffrey Goldsmith 's article, "This is Your Brain on Tetris '', published in Wired in May 1994:
No home was sweet without a Game Boy in 1990. That year, I stayed "for a week '' with a friend in Tokyo, and Tetris enslaved my brain. At night, geometric shapes fell in the darkness as I lay on loaned tatami floor space. Days, I sat on a lavender suede sofa and played Tetris furiously. During rare jaunts from the house, I visually fit cars and trees and people together. (...)
The Tetris effect is a biochemical, reductionistic metaphor, if you will, for curiosity, invention, the creative urge. To fit shapes together is to organize, to build, to make deals, to fix, to understand, to fold sheets. All of our mental activities are analogous, each as potentially addictive as the next.
The term was rediscovered by Earling (1996), citing a use of the term by Garth Kidd in February, 1996. Kidd described "after - images of the game for up to days afterwards '' and "a tendency to identify everything in the world as being made of four squares and attempt to determine ' where it fits in ' ''. Kidd attributed the origin of the term to computer - game players from Adelaide, Australia. An early description of the general phenomenon appears in Neil Gaiman 's science fiction poem "Virus '' (1987) in Digital Dreams. The ending of The Witness resembles the Tetris effect, where the unnamed protagonist is brainwashed by Jonathan Blow and is no longer capable of thinking about anything but the game 's puzzles.
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when were afro-american and africana studies programs founded in colleges and universities
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African - American Studies - wikipedia
African - American Studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of the history, culture, and politics of Black Americans. Taken broadly, the field studies not only the cultures of people of African descent in the United States, but the cultures of the entire African diaspora but it has been defined in different ways. The field includes scholars of African - American literature, history, politics, religion and religious studies, sociology, and many other disciplines within the humanities and social sciences.
Intensive academic efforts to reconstruct African - American history began in the late 19th century (W.E.B. Du Bois, The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1896). Among the pioneers in the first half of the 20th century were Carter G. Woodson, Herbert Aptheker, Melville Herskovits, and Lorenzo Dow Turner.
Programs and departments of African - American studies were first created in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of inter-ethnic student and faculty activism at many universities, sparked by a five - month strike for black studies at San Francisco State. In February 1968, San Francisco State hired sociologist Nathan Hare to coordinate the first black studies program and write a proposal for the first Department of Black Studies; the department was created in September 1968 and gained official status at the end of the five - months strike in the spring of 1969. The creation of programs and departments in Black studies was a common demand of protests and sit - ins by minority students and their allies, who felt that their cultures and interests were underserved by the traditional academic structures.
Black studies is a systematic way of studying black people in the world -- such as their history, culture, sociology, and religion. It is a study of the black experience and the effect of society on them and their effect within society. This study can serve to eradicate many racial stereotypes. Black Studies implements: history, family structure, social and economic pressures, stereotypes, and gender relationships.
In the United States the 1960s is rightfully known as the "Turbulent Sixties ''. During this time period the nation experienced great social unrest, as citizens challenged the social order in radical ways. Many movements took place in the United States during this time period, including: women 's rights movement, labor rights movement, and the civil rights movement.
The students at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) were witnesses to the Civil Rights Movement, and by 1964 they were thrust into activism. On October 1, 1964, Jack Weinberg, a former graduate student, was sitting at a table where the Congress of Racial Equality was distributing literature encouraging students to protest against institutional racism. Police asked Weinberg to produce his ID to confirm that he was a student, but he refused to do so and was therefore arrested. In support of Weinberg 3,000 students surrounded the police vehicle, and even used the car as a podium from where they spoke about their right to engage in political protest on campus. This impromptu demonstration was the first of many protests, culminating in the institutionalization of African - American Studies.
Two months later students at UC Berkeley organized sit - in at the Sproul Hall Administration building to protest an unfair rule which prohibited all political clubs from fundraising, excluding the democrat and republican clubs. Police arrested 800 students. Students a "Freedom of Speech Movement '' and Mario Savio became its poetic leader, stating that "freedom of speech was something that represents the very dignity of what a human is... '' The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), a well - connected and organized club, hosted a conference entitled "Black Power and its Challenges ''. Black leaders who were directly tied to then ongoing civil rights movements spoke to a predominantly white audience about their respective goals and challenges. These leaders included Stokely Carmichael of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and James Bevel of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).
Educational conferences like that of SDS forced the university to take some measures to correct the most obvious racial issue on campus -- the sparse black student population. In 1966 the school held its first official racial and ethnic survey, it which it was discovered that the "American Negro '' represented 1.02 % of the university population. In 1968 the university instituted its Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) facilitated the increased minority student enrollment, and offered financial aid to minority students with high potential. By 1970 there were 1,400 EOP students. As the minority student population increased tension between activists clubs and minorities rose, because minority wanted the reigns of the movement that affected them directly. One student asserted that it was "backward to educate white people about Black Power when many black people are still uneducated on the matter. '' The members of the Afro - American Student Union (AASU) proposed an academic department called "Black Studies '' in April 1968. "We demand a program of "Black Studies, '' a program that will be of and for black people. We demand to be educated realistically and that no form of education which attempts to lie to us, or otherwise miss - educate us will be accepted. ''
AASU members asserted that "The young people of America are the inheritors of what is undoubtedly one of the most challenging, and threatening set of social circumstances that has ever fallen upon a generation of young people in history... '' AASU used these claims to gain ground on their proposal to create a black studies department. Nathan Hare, a sociology professor at San Francisco State University, created what was known as the "A Conceptual Proposal for Black Studies '' and AASU used Hare 's framework to create a set of criteria. A Black Studies Program was implemented by UC Berkeley administration on January 13, 1969. In 1969, St. Clair Drake was named the first chair of the degree granting, Program in African and Afro - American Studies at Stanford University. Many Black Studies Programs and departments and programs around the nation were created in subsequent years.
At University of California, Santa Barbara, similarly, student activism led to the establishment of a Black Studies department, amidst great targeting and discrimination of student leaders of color on the University of California campuses. In the fall of 1968, black students from UCSB joined the national civil rights movement to end racial segregation and exclusion of Black history and studies from college campuses. Triggered by the insensitivity of the administration and general campus life, they occupied North Hall and presented the administration with a set of demands. Such efforts led to the eventual creation of the Black Studies department and the Center for Black Studies.
Similar activism was happening outside of California. At Yale University, a committee headed by political scientist Robert Dahl recommended establishing an undergraduate major in African - American culture, one of the first such at an American university.
When Ernie Davis from Syracuse University became the first African American to win the Heisman trophy in College football, it renewed debates about race in college campuses in the country. Inspired by the Davis win, civil rights movement and nationwide student activism, in 1969 Black and White students led by the Student African American Society (SAS) at Syracuse University marched in front of the building at Newhouse and demanded Black studies be taught at Syracuse. It existed as an independent, underfunded non-degree offering program from 1971 until 1979. In 1979 the program became the Department of African American Studies, offering degrees within the College of Arts and Sciences.
One of the major setbacks with Black Studies / African - American Studies Programs or departments is that there is a lack of financial resources available to student and faculty. Many universities and colleges around the country provided Black Studies programs with small budgets and therefore it is difficult for the department to purchase materials and hire staff. Because the budget allocated to Black Studies is limited some faculty are jointly appointed therefore, causing faculty to leave their home disciplines to teach a discipline of which they may not be familiar. Budgetary issues make it difficult for Black Studies Programs and departments to function, and promote themselves.
Some critics claim that racism perpetrated by many administrators hinders the institutionalization of Black Studies at major universities. As with the case of UC Berkeley most of the Black Studies programs across the country were instituted because of the urging and demanding of black students to create the program. In many instances black students also called for the increased enrollment of black students and offer financial assistance to these students. Also seen in the case of UC Berkeley is the constant demand to have such a program, but place the power of control in the hands of black people. The idea was that black studies could not be "realistic '' if it was not taught by someone who was not accustomed to the black experience. On many campuses directors of black studies have little to no autonomy -- they do not have the power to hire or grant tenure to faculty. On many campuses an overall lack of respect for the discipline has caused instability for the students and for the program.
In the past thirty years there has been a steady decline of Black studies scholars.
African - American studies scholars have often explored the unique experiences of black boys / men. This line of research dates back to W.E.B. Dubois in his analysis of black male training in his book Souls of Black Folk. Though African - American studies as its own discipline has been in decline, its perpetuation as a sub-discipline in various social science fields (e.g., education, sociology, cultural anthropology, urban studies) has risen. This rise has coincided with the emergence of men 's studies (also referred to as masculine studies). Since the early 1980s increasing interest in Black males among scholars and policy makers has resulted in a marked rise in the sub-discipline Black Male Studies. Today, numerous books, research articles, conferences, foundations, research centers and institutes, academic journals, initiatives, and scholarly collectives emphasize or focus entirely on the status of Black boys and men in society.
Non-African - American specific:
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where is in the hall of the mountain king used
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Grieg 's music in popular culture - wikipedia
The music of the Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg has been used extensively in media, music education, and popular music.
For the 150th anniversary of his birth, Norway organized a huge celebration, "Grieg in the Schools '', which included programs for children from pre-school to secondary school in 1993. The programs were repeated in 1996 in Germany, and called "Grieg in der Schule '', in which over a thousand students participated. There were Grieg observances in 39 countries, from Mexico to Moscow.
Further celebrations of Grieg and his music were held in 2007, the 100th anniversary of his death. Bosnia and Herzegovina held a large - scale celebration, featuring Peer Gynt and the Piano Concerto in a public concert for children and adults. The July 2007 Australasian Piano Pedagogy Conference featured Grieg 's works.
The Bergen University College, and later, the University of Bergen both named their tertiary music departments "Griegakademiet '', in honor of Grieg.
In 1960 Duke Ellington recorded a jazz interpretation of "Peer Gynt '' in his Swinging Suites by Edward E. and Edward G. album. A struggle ensued in Norway between the Grieg Foundation and its supporters, who found the recordings offensive to Norwegian culture, and Norwegian supporters of Ellington. Ellington 's versions were withdrawn from distribution in the country until 1967, when Grieg 's copyrights expired.
Possibly, the first jazz rendition of "In the hall of the mountain king '' was made by Alvino Rey (and His Orchestra) in 1941. Rey recorded also a version of "Anitra 's Dance ''. American Bass Trombonist George Roberts recorded a jazz rendition of the song, playing the melody on his bass trombone. It appeared in his 1959 album "Meet Mr. Roberts '' as the first song, entitled "In The Hall of the Mountain King ''.
Nero & the Gladiators had a No. 48 hit on the British charts in 1961.
A heavy rock version of the song appears on the album "Big Brother & the Holding Company: Live in San Francisco 1966 '' by the American rock band Big Brother and the Holding Company, although it was actually recorded at television station KQED in San Francisco on April 25, 1967.
British rock band The Who recorded another performance of "Hall of the Mountain King '' in 1967. This version went unreleased until 1995, when it appeared as a bonus track on a CD reissue of The Who Sell Out. Tucson Weekly has called this cover a "Who - freakout arrangement '' One reviewer calls The Who 's version the "weirdest of these '' covers on the CD, and says it is "a rendition of the corresponding extract from Grieg 's Peer Gynt suite... (yet) it hardly sounds like Grieg here, anyway... '' Another says that "the main function of the composition is to evoke thoughts of (naturally) King Crimson and (unnaturally) Pink Floyd, because in parts it sounds exactly like ' Interstellar Overdrive '. ''
Electric Light Orchestra recorded a 6: 37 long version of "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' in 1973 as the concluding selection of their album On the Third Day and performed it with Great Balls of Fire in 1974 for their live album The Night the Light Went On in Long Beach.
Progressive metal band Savatage 's song "Prelude to Madness '' is an arrangement of Grieg 's "In the Hall of the Mountain King ''. It is included on their 1985 album Hall of the Mountain King which also includes a song of the same name which, however, is an original composition.
The music of Foetus 's song "Enter the Exterminator '' from his 1985 album Nail is based on Grieg 's "In the Hall of the Mountain King ''.
Dutch symphonic metal band Epica performed a rendition of "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' with the Extended Reményi Ede Chamber Orchestra at the Miskolc Opera Festival for their 2009 live album The Classical Conspiracy.
British rock band Marillion included the main melody of "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' in a live version of "Margaret '' found on the b - side of the Garden Party single, and also on the b - sides compilation album B'Sides Themselves. The song was recorded at Edinburgh Playhouse, April 7, 1983.
K - Pop band SF9 include the main melody of "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' in their song "Jungle Game '' from the album "Burning Sensation ''.
Power metal / Progressive metal band Kamelot based a song called ' Forever ' on the melody of Solveigs ' Song. This is also mentioned by their now previous singer Roy Khan, who is also Norwegian, on their live DVD ' One Cold Winters Night '
D.W. Griffith 's The Birth of a Nation (1915) used the song to build up to the Union attack on Atlanta. The song had by that time already been used in film scores, whether for Ibsen 's play or other works; yet the popularity of Griffith 's film helped to establish it in American popular imagination.
"In the Hall of the Mountain King '' plays a major plot point in Fritz Lang 's early sound film M. Peter Lorre 's character of child killer Hans Beckert whistles the tune whenever he is overcome with the urge to commit murder. However, Lorre himself could not whistle -- it is actually Lang who is heard. The film was one of the first to use a leitmotif, associating "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' with the Lorre character. Later in the film, the mere sound of the song lets the audience know that he is nearby, off - screen. This association of a musical theme with a particular character or situation, a technique borrowed from opera, became a staple in film.
In the 1993 animated series Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog, "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' is sampled as part of the show 's opening theme alongside "Flight of the Bumblebee '' and the theme from the original Sonic the Hedgehog video game. The tune also serves as a leitmotif for antagonists Scratch and Grounder.
In 2004, Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers had "Petey 's King of France, '' sung to the tune.
The song was used to title an episode of Mad Men, where the protagonist Donald Draper flashes back to the time spent with Anna Draper, the widow of his superior officer against whom he had committed identity theft. When Dick, young Don, is in California he pays her a visit where she is teaching a piano lesson. The boy is playing Grieg 's piece, to which Dick comments the song is scary.
An electronic cover was arranged, programmed and performed by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross for David Fincher 's 2010 film The Social Network. The music plays over a scene of competitive rowing, as the Winklevoss twins lose to another team. This loss, as well as several other events, lead the twins to decide to take legal action against Mark Zuckerberg for Facebook.
The song is used during the early mining scene in "The Snow Queen 2 '' (2014), to accompany Orm 's accidents with overloaded mining cars. Orm makes up lyrics for the first few bars: "There once lived a lucky troll who was loved by every soul. ''
"Hair Up '' is a trap version of this song used in Trolls (film).
In the final challenge of the 2016 video game The Witness, the song is utilized to make the player feel a sense of urgency.
The 1983 video game Mountain King uses the theme as background music throughout.
It is later given an 8 - bit remix with Beethoven 's 9th Symphony, the fourth movement in particular, in Just Dance 2018. with the title In The Hall Of The Pixel King
In the safety demonstration animation that states the illegality of smoking in the CRH (China Railway High - Speed) the "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' from the Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 is applied as the background music to accompany a smoker 's behaviors before attempting smoking and while smoking, followed by the emergency brake of the train and finally the crying smoker under arrest by 2 policemen.
British theme park Alton Towers uses the piece in TV commercials, and as a soundtrack for various locations around the park.
Many people first heard "Morning '' and "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' when it was used in Warner Brothers cartoons featured in The Bugs Bunny Show in the 60s.
Jay and the Americans recorded a rock and roll cover song known as Dawning, in 1962.
"Morning '' was later used in the 1973 film Soylent Green as the music selected by Edward G. Robinson 's character to listen to as he lay dying.
In 1998, The Simpsons episode "Bart Carny '' paid homage to its use in older cartoons in a sequence where a cheeseburger unwraps in the early sunlight.
Later in the same year, German musical project In - Mood feat. Juliette sampled the theme for their song "Ocean of Light. ''
It is also used as the opening theme music in PopCap Games ' video game Peggle, accompanying the animation of a rising sun.
The main melody of "The Death of Åse '' is used in the song "Thokk '' by the black metal band Pensées Nocturnes and in the song "Dolls and Ravens '' by the doom metal band Consummatum Est. "Solveigs ' Song, '' and "The Death of Åse '' were both included in the soundtrack of Terrence Malick 's 2015 film "Knight of Cups. ''
The motion picture The First Legion used Grieg 's Piano Sonata in E minor as a way to introduce a Jesuit priest 's prayer. The priest, Father Fulton, plays the sonata as a way of connecting himself to the other Jesuits, when "forced to revise their standards of belief after experiencing first a makeshift and later a ' real ' miracle. ''
The folk song "Brothers, Sing On! '' (EG 170 - in the original Norwegian "Sangerhilsen '') was written by Grieg with lyrics by Sigv. Skavlan, with English language lyrics by Herbert Dalmas and / or Howard McKinney. The Mohawk - Hudson Male Chorus Association (MHMCA) presented a massed concert, with 90 male singers, at the historic Troy Savings Bank Music Hall on May 3, 2008, entitled "Brothers, Sing On! '', with the titular song, which was also adopted as the organization 's theme song in 1974. They had previously performed the same song in the same venue in 2002.
The University of Northern Iowa has gone so far as to name its web site and to start every concert with this song:
What if all men, everywhere in the world, could get together and sing? If there was just one song that could be sung, in a true spirit of peace and brotherhood, "Brothers, Sing On! '' by Edvard Grieg would be it. "Brothers, Sing On! '' is the timeless gem in many men 's choral repertoire. It has been called the ' international anthem ' of men 's choral singing. For nearly 50 years, "Brothers, Sing On! '' has been the mainstay of our Glee Club 's repertoire. We have sung it from the top of Mount Vesuvius; a glacier in the Tyrolean Alps; the ancient castles and underground slate mines of Wales; the deck of a ship on the tossing Irish Sea; the Coliseum in Rome, and a great many places in between. We salute the many excellent men 's choirs throughout the world, especially the collegiate men 's glee clubs, those ' wandering troubadours ' whom we hope will inspire future generations of singers.
The musical Song of Norway, based very loosely on Grieg 's life and using his music, was created in 1944 by Robert Wright and George Forrest and a film version was released in 1970. The 1957 made - for - TV movie musical The Pied Piper of Hamelin uses Grieg 's music almost exclusively, with "In the Hall of the Mountain King '' being the melody that the Piper (Van Johnson) plays to rid the town of rats.
Eric Morecambe famously played "all the right notes, just not necessarily in the right order '' of Grieg 's Piano Concerto in a sketch on the 1971 Morecambe and Wise Christmas special that featured Andre Previn.
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the term bicameral used to describe the us legislature means that congress
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United States Congress - wikipedia
535 voting members
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the Federal government of the United States. The legislature consists of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members representing Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Washington, D.C. in addition to its 435 voting members. Although they can not vote, these members can sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation.
The members of the House of Representatives serve two - year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a "district ''. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators. Currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at - large in their state for a six - year term, with terms staggered, so every two years approximately one - third of the Senate is up for election.
To be eligible for election, a candidate must be aged at least 25 (House) or 30 (Senate), have been a citizen of the United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent.
The Congress was created by the Constitution of the United States and first met in 1789, replacing in its legislative function the Congress of the Confederation. Although not legally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party and only rarely to a third party or as independents.
Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. '' The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process -- legislation can not be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue - raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two - thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.
The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3, 2017, and will end on January 3, 2019. The Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd - numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen.
Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom '' and insisted it was a "driving force in American government '' and a "remarkably resilient institution ''. Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy '', according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America 's historical imagination ''. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress:
Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government 's most representative body... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day.
Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American south and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more minorities and women although both groups are still underrepresented, according to one view. While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so - called intermediary institutions such as political parties, civic associations, interest groups, and the mass media.
The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state 's at - large representation to the federal government by senators.
Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent.
The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration.
Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia, the current seat of the federal government.
The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the thirteen British Colonies in North America. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, referring to the new nation as the "United States of America ''. The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty. and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.
Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two -- chamber or bicameral congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two - chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government -- executive, legislative, and judicial -- had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.
Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s -- 1820s), the partisan era (1830s -- 1900s), the committee era (1910s -- 1960s), and the contemporary era (1970s -- today).
Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced, surprising the Constitution 's Founding Fathers of the United States. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790 -- 91 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton; it soon became the Democratic - Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Democrat Party and began the era of the First Party System. Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties in 1800. John Marshall, 4th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation.
These years were marked by growth in the power of political parties. The watershed event was the Civil War which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority, but weakened the power of states rights. The Gilded Age (1877 -- 1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress as well as calls for reform; sometimes reformers would attack lobbyists as corrupting politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectively controlled by a half dozen men.
A system of seniority -- in which long - time Members of Congress gained more and more power -- encouraged politicians of both parties to serve for long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s.
Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments). Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution 's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.
The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather than being initiated by Congress. The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed the Conservative Coalition. Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II. Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both houses of Congress until 1994.
Congress enacted Johnson 's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped '' relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman. Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education. Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as the 2002 McCain - Feingold act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs '' instead "legitimized PACs '' since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates ''. From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special - interest PACs including ones for lawyers, electricians, and real estate brokers. From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash '' from PACs.
From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico 's Resident Commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam. 1978 saw an additional delegate for American Samoa, and another for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands began in 2009. These six Members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they can not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives.
In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress 's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions ''. Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty - second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as being unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility ''. In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60 % of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress '' including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the US economy '' because of its brinksmanship, "down - to - the - wire budget and debt crises '' and "indiscriminate spending cuts '', resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5 % in October 2013.
Article I of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ''. There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress 's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress 's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm ''. Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.
The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress 's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills.
Congress has an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950, President Truman described the American response as a "police action ''. According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents (had) ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times. '' In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congress 's war power) began after World War II. '' Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history. ''
Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of Congress 's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress 's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair, critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal, allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So - called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch, '' according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators including the American Bar Association have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters. ''
The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress 's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C., the federal district and national capital and the U.S. territories of Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by Congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures.
Each territory and Washington, D.C. elect a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout Congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. '' They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard.
Washington, D.C. citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories.
Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government:
To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other -- balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights... No one part of government dominates the other.
The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.
The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush. However, in recent years, Congress has restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless, the Presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill - suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis.
The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. '' Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two - thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.
The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate. '' It confirms most presidential nominees but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two - thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm - twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama 's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president 's nomination of a vice president.
In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison, holding, however, that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however, the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers. Alexander Hamilton, for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78. Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might or could have said. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations.
Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, compel individuals to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate by issuing subpoenas. Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats.
Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority.
The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form ''.
Congress is split into two chambers -- House and Senate -- and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests.
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade - offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member 's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs.
Committees write legislation. While procedures such as the House discharge petition process can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms. Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.
At the start of each two - year session the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party 's leader. In the Senate, the Vice President is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the President pro tempore. Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate 's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there 's a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In both the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber.
The Library of Congress was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill, but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio - Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia; a large book storage facility located at Ft. Meade, Maryland; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burned by a British raiding party during the War of 1812, but the library 's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the Library 's missions is to serve the Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages.
The Congressional Research Service provides detailed, up - to - date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House 's think tank '' and has a staff of about 900 employees.
The Congressional Budget Office or CBO is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress.
It was created as an independent nonpartisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President 's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate 's Appropriations Committee. The Speaker of the House and the Senate 's President pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO Director for a four - year term.
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients ' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007, there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington. They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested.
Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties known as bipartisanship and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president 's State of the Union address. The constitutionally - mandated report, normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain 's Speech from the Throne, was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except when counting presidential electoral votes when the Vice President (acting as the President of the Senate) presides.
Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal is usually in one of these forms:
Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. It 's assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience '' and sometimes take a year or more. Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' While the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it has power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.
Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent '' for noncontroversial matters. House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before becoming a law. Members sometimes use experts such as Walter Oleszek, a senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service, to learn about proper procedures.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so - called clean bill with a new number. Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.
A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. '' Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits. If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails.
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members known as a quorum be present before doing business in each house. However, the rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Since representatives and senators who are present rarely demand quorum calls, debate often continues despite the lack of a majority.
Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye '' or "no '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote if demanded by one - fifth of the members present. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll - call voting, in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when their name is announced. In the Senate, the vice president may cast the tie - breaking vote if present.
The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions -- yea indicated by green and nay by red. One member can not cast a proxy vote for another. Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with their objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing -- neither signing nor vetoing the bill -- and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund - raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters.
Nevertheless, incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. They raise more money because donors expect incumbents to win, they give their funds to them rather than challengers, and donations are vital for winning elections. One critic compared being elected to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering. After each ten - year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, causing some critics to accuse them of being a privileged class. Academics such as Princeton 's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering. Both senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges called franking privileges.
In 1971, the cost of running for congress in Utah was $70,000 but costs have climbed. The biggest expense is television ads. Today 's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever - increasing hours raising money for their re-election. ''
Nevertheless, the Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters. '' Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens.
Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president 's coattails ''), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive.
Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising, which smears an opponent 's character without focusing on the issues. Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick. '' However, these ads sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, and concentrating publicity efforts in the members ' home districts.
Prominent Founding Fathers writing in The Federalist Papers felt that elections were essential to liberty, and that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured. '' In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63 % in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25 % with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize. '' Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution... its place in the political process is not threatened... it is rich in resources '' and that most members behave ethically. They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend '' and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics '' that further undermines Congress 's reputation with the public:
The rough - and - tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public 's confidence in government generally... the legislative process is easy to dislike -- it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self - serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public 's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution 's low ratings in opinion polls. -- Smith, Roberts & Wielen
An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch.
Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in the Gallup confidence poll with only 9 % having "a great deal '' or "quite a lot '' of confidence in their legislators. Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress 's approval rating among Americans at 10 % or below three times. Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5 % in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed ' nonessential government ' shut down.
When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming. Critics such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states. '' However, others argue that the Connecticut compromise was deliberately intended by the Framers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, and contend that the result works well on balance.
A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents. Constituents request assistance with problems. Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections and can make a difference in close races. Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style.
One way to categorize lawmakers, according to political scientist Richard Fenno, is by their general motivation:
Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege, including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. The term arrest has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, however, are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose.
The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. '' Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress.
Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress. Each member has the power to cite individuals for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation -- the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court, an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.
The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run - up to an election by those in close races. Indeed, some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers.
From 1789 to 1815, members of Congress received only a daily payment of $6 while in session. Members received an annual salary of $1,500 per year from 1815 to 1817, then a per diem salary of $8 from 1818 to 1855; since then they have received an annual salary, first pegged in 1855 at $3,000. In 1907, salaries were raised to $7,500 per year, the equivalent of $173,000 in 2010. In 2006, members of Congress received a yearly salary of $165,200. Congressional leaders were paid $183,500 per year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives earns $212,100 annually. The salary of the President pro tempore for 2006 was $183,500, equal to that of the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate. Privileges include having an office and paid staff. In 2008, non-officer members of Congress earned $169,300 annually. Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income of $45,113 for men and $35,102 for women. Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government. Another criticism is that members of Congress have access to free or low - cost medical care in the Washington D.C. area. The petition, "Remove health - care subsidies for Members of Congress and their families '', has already gathered over 1,076,000 signatures on the website Change.org. Lipton, Eric (January 9, 2014). "Half of Congress Members Are Millionaires, Report Says ''. The New York Times. Retrieved January 11, 2014. < / ref > Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on lucrative careers as lobbyists after serving -- -- that Congress was a "Farm League for K Street '' -- -- instead of on public service.
Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants ' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like Federal employees, members contribute one - third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two - thirds.
The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Members of Congress make fact - finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, the Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300 - per - night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. Lawmakers respond that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington '' and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations.
1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807)
11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827)
21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847)
31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867)
41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887)
51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907)
61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927)
71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947)
81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967)
91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987)
101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007)
111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 23 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88972 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88972; - 77.00889
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the time interval that began with the formation of earth is called
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Geologic time scale - wikipedia
The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that relates geological strata (stratigraphy) to time. It is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events that have occurred during Earth 's history. The table of geologic time spans, presented here, agree with the nomenclature, dates and standard color codes set forth by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).
The primary defined divisions of time are eons, in sequence the Hadean, the Archean, the Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic. The first three of these can be referred to collectively as the Precambrian supereon. Eons are divided into eras, which are in turn divided into periods, epochs and ages.
The following four timelines show the geologic time scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. Therefore, the second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, and the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline.
Corresponding to eons, eras, periods, epochs and ages, the terms "eonothem '', "erathem '', "system '', "series '', "stage '' are used to refer to the layers of rock that belong to these stretches of geologic time in Earth 's history.
Geologists qualify these units as "early '', "mid '', and "late '' when referring to time, and "lower '', "middle '', and "upper '' when referring to the corresponding rocks. For example, the lower Jurassic Series in chronostratigraphy corresponds to the early Jurassic Epoch in geochronology. The adjectives are capitalized when the subdivision is formally recognized, and lower case when not; thus "early Miocene '' but "Early Jurassic. ''
Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The geology or deep time of Earth 's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time spans, which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic eon), are defined by their absolute age.
Geologic units from the same time but different parts of the world often look different and contain different fossils, so the same time - span was historically given different names in different locales. For example, in North America, the Lower Cambrian is called the Waucoban series that is then subdivided into zones based on succession of trilobites. In East Asia and Siberia, the same unit is split into Alexian, Atdabanian, and Botomian stages. A key aspect of the work of the International Commission on Stratigraphy is to reconcile this conflicting terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world.
Some other planets and moons in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own histories, for example, Venus, Mars and the Earth 's Moon. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the gas giants, do not preserve their history in a comparable manner. Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth 's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing, and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still debated.
In Ancient Greece, Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) observed that fossils of seashells in rocks resembled those found on beaches -- he inferred that the fossils in rocks were formed by living animals, and he reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. Leonardo da Vinci (1452 -- 1519) concurred with Aristotle 's interpretation that fossils represented the remains of ancient life.
The 11th - century Persian geologist Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died 1037) and the 13th - century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (died 1280) extended Aristotle 's explanation into a theory of a petrifying fluid. Avicenna also first proposed one of the principles underlying geologic time scales, the law of superposition of strata, while discussing the origins of mountains in The Book of Healing (1027). The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095) also recognized the concept of "deep time ''.
In the late 17th century Nicholas Steno (1638 -- 1686) pronounced the principles underlying geologic (geological) time scales. Steno argued that rock layers (or strata) were laid down in succession, and that each represents a "slice '' of time. He also formulated the law of superposition, which states that any given stratum is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it. While Steno 's principles were simple, applying them proved challenging. Over the course of the 18th century geologists realized that:
The Neptunist theories popular at this time (expounded by Abraham Werner (1749 -- 1817) in the late 18th century) proposed that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. A major shift in thinking came when James Hutton presented his Theory of the Earth; or, an Investigation of the Laws Observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land Upon the Globe before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March and April 1785. John McPhee asserts that "as things appear from the perspective of the 20th century, James Hutton in those readings became the founder of modern geology ''. Hutton proposed that the interior of Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory, known as "Plutonism '', stood in contrast to the "Neptunist '' flood - oriented theory.
The first serious attempts to formulate a geologic time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made in the late 18th century. The most influential of those early attempts (championed by Werner, among others) divided the rocks of Earth 's crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a "Tertiary Period '' as well as of "Tertiary Rocks. '' Indeed, "Tertiary '' (now Paleogene and Neogene) remained in use as the name of a geological period well into the 20th century and "Quaternary '' remains in formal use as the name of the current period.
The identification of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brongniart in the early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more precisely. It also enabled them to correlate strata across national (or even continental) boundaries. If two strata (however distant in space or different in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time. Detailed studies between 1820 and 1850 of the strata and fossils of Europe produced the sequence of geologic periods still used today.
Early work on developing the geologic time scale was dominated by British geologists, and the names of the geologic periods reflect that dominance. The "Cambrian '', (the classical name for Wales) and the "Ordovician '', and "Silurian '', named after ancient Welsh tribes, were periods defined using stratigraphic sequences from Wales. The "Devonian '' was named for the English county of Devon, and the name "Carboniferous '' was an adaptation of "the Coal Measures '', the old British geologists ' term for the same set of strata. The "Permian '' was named after Perm, Russia, because it was defined using strata in that region by Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison. However, some periods were defined by geologists from other countries. The "Triassic '' was named in 1834 by a German geologist Friedrich Von Alberti from the three distinct layers (Latin trias meaning triad) -- red beds, capped by chalk, followed by black shales -- that are found throughout Germany and Northwest Europe, called the ' Trias '. The "Jurassic '' was named by a French geologist Alexandre Brongniart for the extensive marine limestone exposures of the Jura Mountains. The "Cretaceous '' (from Latin creta meaning ' chalk ') as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822, using strata in the Paris basin and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates) found in Western Europe.
British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs. In 1841 John Phillips published the first global geologic time scale based on the types of fossils found in each era. Phillips ' scale helped standardize the use of terms like Paleozoic ("old life '') which he extended to cover a larger period than it had in previous usage, and Mesozoic ("middle life '') which he invented.
When William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell first recognized that rock strata represented successive time periods, time scales could be estimated only very imprecisely since estimates of rates of change were uncertain. While creationists had been proposing dates of around six or seven thousand years for the age of Earth based on the Bible, early geologists were suggesting millions of years for geologic periods, and some were even suggesting a virtually infinite age for Earth. Geologists and paleontologists constructed the geologic table based on the relative positions of different strata and fossils, and estimated the time scales based on studying rates of various kinds of weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and lithification. Until the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 and the development of its geological applications through radiometric dating during the first half of the 20th century, the ages of various rock strata and the age of Earth were the subject of considerable debate.
The first geologic time scale that included absolute dates was published in 1913 by the British geologist Arthur Holmes. He greatly furthered the newly created discipline of geochronology and published the world - renowned book The Age of the Earth in which he estimated Earth 's age to be at least 1.6 billion years.
In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the International Commission on Stratigraphy) began to define global references known as GSSP (Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points) for geologic periods and faunal stages. The commission 's most recent work is described in the 2004 geologic time scale of Gradstein et al. A UML model for how the timescale is structured, relating it to the GSSP, is also available.
The term "Anthropocene '' is used informally by popular culture and a growing number of scientists to describe the current epoch in which we are living. The term was coined by Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000 to describe the current time, in which humans have had an enormous impact on the environment. It has evolved to describe an "epoch '' starting some time in the past and on the whole defined by anthropogenic carbon emissions and production and consumption of plastic goods that are left in the ground.
Critics of this term say that the term should not be used because it is difficult, if not nearly impossible, to define a specific time when humans started influencing the rock strata -- defining the start of an epoch. Others say that humans have not even started to leave their biggest impact on Earth, and therefore the Anthropocene has not even started yet.
as of September 2015, the ICS has not officially approved the term. The Anthropocene Working Group met in Oslo in April 2016 to consolidate evidence supporting the argument for the Anthropocene as a true geologic epoch. Evidence was evaluated and the group voted to recommend "Anthropocene '' as the new geological age in August 2016. Should the International Commission on Stratigraphy approve the recommendation, the proposal to adopt the term will have to be ratified by the International Union of Geological Sciences before its formal adoption as part of the geologic time scale.
The following table summarizes the major events and characteristics of the periods of time making up the geologic time scale. This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the most ancient at the bottom. The height of each table entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time.
The content of the table is based on the current official geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy, with the epoch names altered to the early / late format from lower / upper as recommended by the ICS when dealing with chronostratigraphy.
A service providing a Resource Description Framework / Web Ontology Language representation of the timescale is available through the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service and at a SPARQL end - point.
chrons: Subatlantic Subboreal Atlantic Boreal Preboreal
The ICS 's Geologic Time Scale 2012 book which includes the new approved time scale also displays a proposal to substantially revise the Precambrian time scale to reflect important events such as the formation of the Earth or the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span. (See also Period (geology) # Structure.)
Shown to scale:
Compare with the current official timeline, not shown to scale:
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Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus - wikipedia
The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus or Shelter Object (Ukrainian: Об'єкт "Укриття '') is a massive steel and concrete structure covering the nuclear reactor No. 4 building of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. It was designed to limit radioactive contamination of the environment following the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, by encasing the most dangerous area and protecting it from climate exposure. It is located within a large restricted area known as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. The original Russian name is "Obyekt Ukrytiye '' (Объект "Укрытие ''), which means "sheltering '' or "covering '', as opposed to sarcophagus. The sarcophagus locked in 200 tons of radioactive corium, 30 tons of highly contaminated dust and 16 tons of uranium and plutonium.
In 1996, it was deemed impossible to repair the inside of the sarcophagus as radiation levels were estimated to be as high as 10,000 röntgens per hour (normal background radiation in cities is usually around 20 -- 50 microröntgens per hour, and a lethal dose is 500 röntgens over 5 hours). A decision to replace the sarcophagus with the New Safe Confinement was taken, and a project to reconstruct the enclosure has since been completed.
The design of the sarcophagus started on May 20, 1986, 24 days after the disaster. Subsequent construction lasted for 206 days, from June to late November of the same year. The first task before construction started was to build a cooling slab under the reactor to prevent the hot nuclear fuel from burning a hole in the base. Coal miners were called up to dig the necessary tunnel below the reactor and by June 24, 1986 four hundred coal miners had dug the 168 - metre (551 ft) long tunnel. When the building became overly radioactive, it became impossible to directly screw down the nuts and bolts or apply any direct welding to the sarcophagus, so this work was done by robots. The seams of the sarcophagus, however, were not properly sealed.
The entire construction process consisted of eight stages: clearing and concreting of territory around reactor unit 4, erection of initial reinforced concrete protective walls around the perimeter, construction of separation walls between units 3 and 4, cascade wall construction, covering of the turbine hall, mounting of a high - rise buttress wall, erection of supports and installation of a reactor compartment covering and finally the installation of a ventilation system.
More than 7005400000000000000 ♠ 400 000 m of concrete and 7,300 tonnes of metal framework were used during the erection of the sarcophagus. The building ultimately enclosed 7005740000000000000 ♠ 740 000 m of heavily contaminated debris inside, together with contaminated soil. On October 11, 1986 the Soviet Governmental Commission accepted a report entitled "Conclusion on Reliability and Durability of a Covering Constructions and Radiation Safety of Chernobyl NPP Unit 4 Reactor Compartment ''. The sarcophagus has over 60 bore holes to allow observation of the interior of the core. In many places the structure was designed to have ventilation shafts to allow some convection inside. Filtration systems have been put in place so that no radioactive material will escape through these holes.
The present shelter is constructed on top of the ruins of the reactor building. The two "Mammoth Beams '' that support the roof of the shelter rest partly on the structurally unsound west wall of the reactor building that was damaged by the accident. The western end of the shelter roof is supported by a wall at a point designated axis 50. This wall is reinforced concrete and was cracked by the accident.
The DSSS is a yellow steel object that has been placed next to the wrecked reactor; it is 63 meters (207 ft) tall and has a series of cantilevers that extend through the western buttress wall, and is intended to stabilize the sarcophagus. This was done because if the wall of the reactor building or the roof of the shelter were to collapse, then large amounts of radioactive dust and particles would be released directly into the atmosphere, resulting in a large new release of radioactivity into the environment. In December 2006 the "Designed Stabilisation Steel Structure '' (DSSS) was extended until 50 % of the roof load (about 400 tons) was transferred from the axis 50 wall to the DSSS.
A further threat to the shelter is the concrete slab that formed the "Upper Biological Shield '' (UBS), situated above the reactor prior to the accident. This concrete slab was thrown upwards by the explosion in the reactor core and now rests at approximately 15 ° from vertical. The position of the upper bioshield is considered inherently unsafe, as only debris supports it in its nearly upright position. A collapse of the bioshield would further exacerbate the dust conditions in the shelter, possibly spreading some quantity of radioactive materials out of the shelter, and could damage the shelter itself. The UBS is a circle 15 meters in diameter, weighing 1000 tons and consisting of 2000 cubes, each located above a fuel channel. The shield, called Pyatachok (meaning "pig 's nose '') before the disaster, was afterwards named Component "E '' and nicknamed "Elena ''; the twisted fuel bundles still attached to it are called "Elena 's hair. ''
On December 22, 1988, Soviet scientists announced that the sarcophagus would only last 20 -- 30 years before requiring restorative maintenance work. In 1998, with the help of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, a conservation programme was completed which included securing the roof beams from collapsing. Nonetheless, the rain - induced corrosion of supporting beams still threatens the sarcophagus ' integrity. It was revealed that the water is leaking through the sarcophagus via holes in its roof, becoming radioactively contaminated, and then seeping through the reactor 's floor into the soil.
A new containment device will allow the sarcophagus to be dismantled and radioactive material to be removed. The New Safe Confinement was expected to replace the existing sarcophagus in 2015. However, delays and a € 100 million funding gap caused a yearlong delay, before being moved into place in November 2016.
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When Did Your Heart Go Missing? - Wikipedia
"When Did Your Heart Go Missing? '' is the lead single from Los Angeles band Rooney from their second album Calling the World. It is their most successful single to date.
At the beginning of the music video, lead singer Robert Carmine 's mother actress Talia Shire has a cameo. The video was directed by Benny Boom.
The song was used in the second episode of Gossip Girl. It was also used in the movie Nancy Drew.
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en aasai machan tamil full movie free download
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En Aasai Machan - Wikipedia
En Aasai Machan is a 1994 Tamil language drama film directed by R. Sundarrajan. The film features Vijayakanth, Murali, Revathi and Ranjitha in lead roles. The film, produced by Tamil Fathima, had musical score by Deva and was released on 26 August 1994. It was also dubbed in Telegu as Jamindaru Theerpu.
Subramani (Murali), the college leader, falls in love with Meenakshi (Ranjitha), but she requests him to complete her challenges to accept his love. Subramani succeeds her challenges, and when she asks him to kiss her in public, he is arrested by a police officer (Radha Ravi). Aruchami (Vijayakanth), Subramani 's brother, the respected village chief, lives with Thayamma (Revathi).
In the past, Subramani 's mother died during Subramani 's childbirth. Aruchami and Thayamma got engaged when they were children. They stayed unmarried to take care of Subramani.
Subramani is later released from jail. Meenakshi 's uncle (Kazan Khan) wants to marry her, and he then beats up Aruchami. Later, Thayamma decides to work in Meenakshi 's house to spy on her. Meenakshi admits to Thayamma that she is in love with Subramani. Meenakshi 's uncle agrees for Meenakshi and Subramani 's marriage. Finally, Subramani and Meenakshi get married, but they discover that Thayamma has died.
It is revealed that on the day before, Meenakshi 's uncle humiliated Aruchami to take revenge, and Aruchami accepted it for his brother 's marriage. Unable to bear this torture, Thayamma dies watching him. The film ends with Aruchami marrying Thayamma before carrying her dead body off to perform her last rites.
Tamil Nadu State Film Awards 1994
Cinema Express Awards 1994
The film score and the soundtrack were composed by film composer Deva. The soundtrack, released in 1994, features 7 tracks with lyrics written by Vaali, Gangai Amaran and Kalidasan.
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what are the seven gifts of the holy spirit given in confirmation
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Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit - wikipedia
The Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit is an enumeration of seven spiritual gifts originating from patristic authors, later elaborated by five intellectual virtues and four other groups of ethical characteristics. They are: wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord.
The seven gifts are found in the Book of Isaiah 11: 1 - 2, where the Biblical passage refers to the characteristics of a Messianic figure understood by Christians to be Jesus Christ empowered by the "Spirit of the Lord ''.
In the Hebrew Masoretic text the "Spirit of the Lord '' is described with six characteristics (wisdom, understanding, counsel, might, knowledge, fear of the Lord), and then the last characteristic (fear of the Lord) is mentioned a second time.
In the Greek Septuagint the first mention of the fear of the Lord is translated as "spirit of (...) godliness '' (πνεῦμα (...) εὐσεβείας).
The seven Latin terms are then:
The Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit is one of several works in Christian devotional literature which follow a scheme of seven. Others include the seven petitions of the Lord 's Prayer, the beatitudes, the seven last words from the cross, the seven deadly sins, and the seven virtues.
The seven gifts were often represented as doves in medieval texts and especially figure in depictions of the Tree of Jesse which shows the Genealogy of Jesus. For Saint Thomas Aquinas, the dove signifies by its properties each gift of the Holy Spirit.
Although the New Testament does not refer to Isaiah 11: 1 - 2 regarding these gifts, Roman Catholicism teaches that initiates receive them at Baptism, and that they are strengthened at Confirmation, so that one can proclaim the truths of the faith:
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, these gifts "... complete and perfect the virtues of those who receive them. ''
In Summa Theologiae I. II, q. 68, a1, Saint Thomas Aquinas says that four of these gifts (wisdom, understanding, knowledge, and counsel) direct the intellect, while the other three gifts (fortitude, piety, and fear of the Lord) direct the will toward God.
In some respects, the gifts are similar to the virtues, but a key distinction is that the virtues operate under the impetus of human reason (prompted by grace), whereas the gifts operate under the impetus of the Holy Spirit; the former can be used when one wishes, but the latter operate only when the Holy Spirit wishes. In the case of Fortitude, the gift has, in Latin and English, the same name as a virtue, which it is related to but from which it must be distinguished.
In Summa Theologiae II. II, Thomas Aquinas asserts the following correspondences between the seven Capital Virtues and the seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit:
To the virtue of temperance, no Gift is directly assigned; but the gift of fear can be taken as such, since fear drives somebody to restrict himself from forbidden pleasures.
The Rev. Brian Shanley contrasts the gifts to the virtues this way: "What the gifts do over and above the theological virtues (which they presuppose) is dispose the agent to the special promptings of the Holy Spirit in actively exercising the life of the virtues; the gifts are necessary for the perfect operations of the virtues, especially in the face of our human weakness and in difficult situations. ''
Saint Augustine drew a connection between the gifts of the Holy Spirit and the Beatitudes (Matt. 5: 3 - 12).
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rickaby, John (1909). "Fortitude ''. In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 6. New York: Robert Appleton.
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who has served as the ambassador of india to the united nations
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Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations - wikipedia
The Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations is India 's foremost diplomatic representative to the United Nations (UN). The permanent Representative (UN ambassador) is the head of a diplomatic mission to the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City.
The current Permanent Representative of India is Syed Akbaruddin, who was appointed in January 2016.
This is a list of Indian Permanent Representative to the United Nations.
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who blows up the german panzer tank on the bridge at the end of the movie
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Battleground (film) - wikipedia
Battleground is a 1949 American war film that follows a company in the 327th Glider Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division as they cope with the Siege of Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge in World War II. It stars Van Johnson, John Hodiak, Ricardo Montalban and George Murphy, and features James Whitmore. It was directed by William Wellman from a script by Robert Pirosh.
The film is notable for portraying American soldiers as vulnerable and human. While they remain steadfast and courageous, each soldier has at least one moment in the film when he seriously considers running away, schemes to get sent back from the front line, slacks off, or complains about the situation he is in. Battleground is considered to be the first significant American film about World War II to be made and released after the end of the war.
In mid-December 1944 Pvt. Jim Layton (Marshall Thompson) and his buddy Pvt. William J. Hooper (Scotty Beckett) are fresh replacements assigned to separate companies in the 327th Glider Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division. As a newcomer Layton receives a chilly welcome from his squad. PFC Holley (Van Johnson) returns to the company after recuperating from a wound sustained from fighting in the Netherlands.
Instead of going on leave in Paris, the squad is trucked back to the front to help stop a surprise German breakthrough in the Ardennes. They stop that night in the town of Bastogne. The platoon is put up for the night in the apartment of a local young woman, Denise (Denise Darcel), with whom Holley hopes to fraternize. Jarvess (John Hodiak) is informed by Denise that she is taking care of two orphaned French girls. Jarvess later goes on guard in the village, where he runs into a group of battle weary soldiers. The soldiers inform Jarvess that they are making a "strategic withdrawal ''. The next morning, led by Platoon Sgt. Kinnie (James Whitmore), the men are ordered to dig in on the outskirts of town. Just as they are nearly done, they are ordered to a new location and have to dig in again.
Holley, Layton and Kippton (Douglas Fowley) stand guard that night at a roadblock. A patrol of German soldiers, disguised as American soldiers, infiltrates their position and later blows up a nearby bridge. In the morning the squad awakes to a heavy winter storm. Roderigues (Ricardo Montalbán), a Latino from Los Angeles, is delighted by the novelty of snow, but his foxhole mate Pop Stazak (George Murphy), awaiting a "dependency discharge '' that will send him home, is unimpressed. Layton goes over to see his friend Hooper, only to find that he had been killed hours before, and that no one in his company knew his name.
Kinnie informs the squad about the infiltration and sends out a patrol -- Holley, Roderigues and Jarvess to move through the woods. Just before they start out, the platoon is shelled by German artillery, causing Bettis (Richard Jaeckel) to panic and desert. During the barrage Layton reminds his squad leader, Sgt. Wolowicz (Bruce Cowling), of his name and finds for the first time that he has been accepted as a part of the squad. Holley 's patrol briefly skirmishes with the infiltrators. Roderigues is wounded by machine - gun fire from an enemy tank. He is unable to walk, so Holley hastily conceals him under a disabled jeep half - buried in snow, promising to return for him. Unfortunately, by the time they can get back to him, Roderigues has died due to the exposure of the elements (freezing to death).
Wolowicz, who has been wounded by shellfire, and a sick Cpl. Standiferd (Don Taylor) are sent back to a field hospital. Not too long after, Doc (Thomas E. Breen) informs the 2nd Squad that the field hospital had been captured. Holley is appointed the new squad leader, and partnered with Layton, while Pop Stazak is paired with Hansan (Herbert Anderson). When Pop 's discharge comes in they find out from Kippton that the 101st is surrounded forcing Pop to stay with the men.
Moved again and again, 3rd Platoon is attacked at dawn. Sgt. Garby from another squad (James Arness) is killed by machine gun fire. Hansan demonstrates bravery by crawling out of his foxhole and being the first to fire on the Germans. Just when it appears that the platoon will be overrun, Hansan is wounded and Holley loses his nerve and runs away. Layton follows Holley. Ashamed of his cowardice, Holley leads a flanking counterattack that defeats the German attack. The platoon leader, Lt. Teiss (Brett King), announces that he will recommend Hansan for a Silver Star. Jarvess 's foxhole partner, country boy Abner Spudler (Jerome Courtland), is killed while trying to put on his wet boots.
After they get Hanson to the aid station, the squad runs into Bettis, who is doing K.P. duty in the rear and gives them a hot meal. Holley discovers that Layton is a quick learner, finding him being entertained by Denise. Later, while on guard duty, they encounter a party of Germans who have come under a flag of truce to offer Brig. Gen. McAuliffe (Ian MacDonald) surrender terms, resulting in his famous reply of "Nuts! '' to the puzzled Germans.
In the bitter, foggy weather, the squad is short of supplies -- supply transport aircraft are grounded. Several men attend impromptu outdoor Christmas services held by a chaplain (Leon Ames). That night the Luftwaffe bombs Bastogne. Denise is killed. Bettis, slowed by his fear of going back to the lines, is killed by a collapsing house. The "walking wounded '', including Hansan and mess sergeant he befriended (George Chandler), are recalled up to duty for a last - ditch defense of the town.
As the platoon is down to its last few rounds of ammunition, the weather clears, allowing the Allied fighters to attack the Germans and C - 47 transports to drop supplies, enabling the 101st to hold. Afterward, the siege lifted, Kinnie leads the survivors of the platoon toward the rear for a well - earned rest. As they move out, they spot a relief column of clean, well - equipped soldiers marching toward Bastogne. Kinnie begins calling "Jody cadence '' and the veterans pull themselves together, proudly chanting the refrain as they pass the other GIs.
Battleground was originally an RKO property, which was called "Prelude to Love '' to hide its subject matter, but was shelved when production head Dore Schary resigned, despite $100,000 having been put into the property to that point. When Schary went to MGM, he purchased the rights to the script from RKO, over the objections of Louis B. Mayer, who believed that the public was tired of war films. At MGM, Robert Taylor and Keenan Wynn were reported to be penciled in for the film, along with Van Johnson and John Hodiak, and the project was budgeted at $2 million. Wellman put the cast through some military training with Robert Taylor, a former navy officer dropping out for not feeling the role was right for him. He was replaced by Van Johnson.
Robert Pirosh had based the script on his own experiences during the Battle of the Bulge, although he did not serve with the 101st Airborne. Many of the incidents in the film were based on actual events, including the rejection of a German demand for surrender on December 22, 1944, with the one word response "Nuts! '' by Brig. Gen. Anthony McAuliffe. Twenty veterans of the 101st were hired to train the actors and appeared in the film as extras. Lt Col Harry Kinnard, who had been the 101st 's deputy divisional commander at Bastogne, was the film 's technical advisor.
The film was in production from April 5 to June 3, 1949, with location shooting in northern California, Oregon and Washington state. Fort Lewis, Washington was used for the tank sequence showing the relief of the 101st Airborne by Patton 's Third Army. Shooting took 20 days less than was scheduled, due in part to innovative measures taken by Schary such as processing film as it was shot, then dubbing and cutting it so that scenes could be previewed within two days of being shot. The film came in almost $100,000 under budget.
Battleground received a number of premieres before its general release. A private showing for President Harry S. Truman was arranged even before the premiere in Washington D.C. on November 9, 1949, which was attended by McAuliffe, who commanded the 101st during the siege. Two days later, the film premiered in New York City, and then on December 1 in Los Angeles. The film 's general American release was on January 20, 1950.
Battleground was MGM 's largest grossing film in five years. According to studio records it earned $4,722,000 in the US and Canada and $1,547,000 elsewhere resulting in a profit of $2,388,000, making it the studio 's most profitable picture of the year. It was rated by Photoplay as the best picture of the year.
MGM released a similar film in 1951, Go for Broke!, also starring Van Johnson and directed by Pirosh.
Battleground won two Academy Awards: for Best Cinematography, Black - and - White (Paul C. Vogel) and for Best Writing, Story and Screenplay (Robert Pirosh). It was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Director (William A. Wellman), Best Film Editing (John D. Dunning), and Best Actor in a Supporting Role (James Whitmore). James Whitmore won a 1950 Golden Globe Award as Best Supporting Actor, and Robert Pirosh 's script won Best Screenplay. Pirosh was also nominated for a Writers Guild Award for Best Written American Drama.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Although the film is a fictionalized version of the siege of Bastogne, it is highly accurate with one major exception. There were no Germans disguised as Americans around Bastogne. Operation Greif, as it was known, only operated in front of the 6th SS Panzer Army, many miles to the north. However the scene depicting the quizzing of each other by G.I.s to verify their identity as Americans did occur across the battlefield after rumors of the operation became widely known.
A minor inaccuracy is that, at the time of the Battle of Bastogne, the 327th Glider Infantry Regiment did not have an Item Company. When the airborne divisions were conceived early in World War II, the Army 's senior commanders decided that the glider regiments would have only two battalions each. The first battalion would be made up of Able, Baker, Charlie, and Dog Companies, while the second would have Easy, Fox, George, and How Companies. When by 1944 it became evident that these two - battalion regiments were not suited to combat operations, certain glider regiments were broken up and their battalions attached to others. The 327th was assigned the First Battalion of the 401st Glider Infantry Regiment, getting "doubles '' on Able, Baker, Charlie, and Dog Companies. Thus "the 2nd Squad, 3rd Platoon of Item Company, 327th Glider Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, '' did not exist at the time of the Ardennes campaign. The producers did not want to have someone complain that he was in Item Company during the fighting around Bastogne, and that no such thing happened.
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Marshall Islands - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 9 ° N 168 ° E / 9 ° N 168 ° E / 9; 168
The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshallese: Aolepān Aorōkin M̧ajeļ), is an island country and a United States associated state near the equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the International Date Line. Geographically, the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia. The country 's population of 53,158 people (at the 2011 Census) is spread out over 29 coral atolls, comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets.
The islands share maritime boundaries with the Federated States of Micronesia to the west, Wake Island to the north, Kiribati to the southeast, and Nauru to the south. About 27,797 of the islanders (at the 2011 Census) live on Majuro, which contains the capital. Data from the United Nations indicates an estimated population in 2016 of 53,066. In 2016, 73.3 % of the population were defined as being "urban ''. The UN also indicates a population density of 295 per km (765 people per mi) and its projected 2020 population is 53,263.
Micronesian colonists reached the Marshall Islands using canoes circa 2nd millennium BC, with interisland navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. They eventually settled here. Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s, starting with Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese at the service of Spain, Juan Sebastián Elcano and Miguel de Saavedra. Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar reported sighting an atoll in August 1526. Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed. The islands derive their name from British explorer John Marshall, who visited in 1788. The islands were historically known by the inhabitants as "jolet jen Anij '' (Gifts from God).
Spain claimed the islands in 1592, and the European powers recognized its sovereignty over the islands in 1874. They had been part of the Spanish East Indies formally since 1528. Later, Spain sold some of the islands to the German Empire in 1885, and they became part of German New Guinea that year, run by the trading companies doing business in the islands, particularly the Jaluit Company. In World War I the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands, which in 1920, the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Pacific Mandate. During World War II, the United States took control of the islands in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in 1944. Nuclear testing began in 1946 and concluded in 1958.
The US government formed the Congress of Micronesia in 1965, a plan for increased self - governance of Pacific islands. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1979 provided independence to the Marshall Islands, whose constitution and president (Amata Kabua) were formally recognized by the US. Full sovereignty or Self - government was achieved in a Compact of Free Association with the United States. Marshall Islands has been a United Nations member state since 1991. Politically, the Marshall Islands is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, with the US providing defense, subsidies, and access to U.S. - based agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission and the United States Postal Service. With few natural resources, the islands ' wealth is based on a service economy, as well as some fishing and agriculture; aid from the United States represents a large percentage of the islands ' gross domestic product. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency.
The majority of the citizens of the Republic of Marshall Islands, formed in 1982, are of Marshallese descent, though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States, China, Philippines, and other Pacific islands. The two official languages are Marshallese, which is a member of the Malayo - Polynesian languages, and English. Almost the entire population of the islands practices some religion, with three - quarters of the country either following the United Church of Christ -- Congregational in the Marshall Islands (UCCCMI) or the Assemblies of God.
Evidence suggests that around 3,000 years ago successive waves of human migrants from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific populating its many small islands. The Marshall Islands were settled by Micronesians in the 2nd millennium BC. Little is known of the islands ' early history. Early settlers traveled between the islands by canoe using traditional stick charts.
The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1526, and the archipelago came to be known as "Los Pintados '' ("The Painted (Ones) '', possibly referring to the autochthonous people first found there), "Las Hermanas '' ("The Sisters '') and "Los Jardines '' ("The Gardens '') within the Spanish Empire, first falling within the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, to then be administered directly by Madrid (through the General Captaincy of Manila in the still - Spanish Philippines) upon the independence of Latin America and the dissolution of New Spain starting in 1821.
They were only formally possessed by Spain for much of their colonial history, and were generally considered part of the "Carolines '' (present - day Federated State of Micronesia, Palau, and the US Territories of Marianas and Guam, as well as the Marshall Islands themselves), or alternatively the "Nuevas Filipinas '' ("New Philippines ''). The islands were mostly left to their own affairs except for short - lived religious missions (documented in 1668 and 1731) during the 16th and 17th centuries. They were largely ignored by European powers except for cartographic demarcation treaties between the Iberian Empires (Portugal and Castilian Spain) in 1529, 1750 and 1777. The archipelago corresponding to the present - day country was independently named by Krusenstern, after British explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet), and started establishing German and British trading posts, not formally contested by Spain.
The Marshall Islands were formally claimed by Spain in 1874 through its capital in the East Indies, Manila, marking the start of several strategic moves by the Second Reich during the 1870s and 80s to annex them (claiming them to be "by chance unoccupied ''). This policy would culminate in a tense naval episode in 1885, which did not degenerate into a conflict due to the poor readiness of Spain 's naval forces and the unwillingness for open military action from the German side.
Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain reached an agreement with Germany in 1885: the 1885 Hispano - German Protocol of Rome. This accord established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit (Joló) and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade. Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration, rendered tacitly effective by the wording in the 1885 Protocol, which demarcated an area subject to Spanish sovereignty (0 - 11oN, 133 - 164oE) omitting the Eastern Carolines, that is, the Marshall and Gilbert archipelagos, where most of the German trading posts were located. The disputes were rendered moot after the selling of the whole Caroline archipelago to Germany 13 years later.
At the beginning of World War I, Japan assumed control of the Marshall Islands. The Japanese headquarters was established at the German center of administration, Jaluit. On January 31, 1944 American forces landed on Kwajalein atoll and U.S. Marines and Army troops later took control of the islands from the Japanese on February 3, following intense fighting on Kwajalein and Enewetak atolls. In 1947, the United States, as the occupying power, entered into an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer much of Micronesia, including the Marshall Islands, as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
From 1946 to 1958, it served as the Pacific Proving Grounds for the United States and was the site of 67 nuclear tests on various atolls. The world 's first hydrogen bomb, codenamed "Mike '', was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1, (local date) in 1952, by the United States.
Nuclear testing began in 1946 on Bikini Atoll after residents were evacuated. Over the years, 67 weapon tests were conducted, including the 15 - megaton Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test, which produced significant fallout in the region. The testing concluded in 1958. Over the years, just one of over 60 islands was cleaned by the US government, and the inhabitants are still waiting for the 2 billion dollars in compensation assessed by the Nuclear Claims Tribunal. Many of the islanders and their descendants still live in exile, as the islands remain contaminated with high levels of radiation.
A significant radar installation was constructed on Kwajalein atoll.
On May 1, 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts.
There have been a number of local and national elections since the Republic of the Marshall Islands was founded. The United Democratic Party, running on a reform platform, won the 1999 parliamentary election, taking control of the presidency and cabinet.
The islands signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1986. Trusteeship was ended under United Nations Security Council Resolution 683 of December 22, 1990. Until 1999 the islanders received US $ 180M for continued American use of Kwajalein atoll, US $250 M in compensation for nuclear testing, and US $600 M in other payments under the compact.
Despite the constitution, the government was largely controlled by Iroij. It was not until 1999, following political corruption allegations, that the aristocratic government was overthrown, with Imata Kabua replaced by the commoner Kessai Note.
The Marshall Islands sit atop ancient submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia, north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the disputed U.S. territory of Wake Island, to which it also lays claim. The atolls and islands form two groups: the Ratak (sunrise) and the Ralik (sunset). The two island chains lie approximately parallel to one another, running northwest to southeast, comprising about 750,000 square miles (1,900,000 km) of ocean but only about 70 square miles (180 km) of land mass. Each includes 15 to 18 islands and atolls. The country consists of a total of 29 atolls and five isolated islands situated in about 180,000 square miles (470,000 km) of the Pacific. The largest atoll with a land area of 6 square miles (16 km) is Kwajalein. It surrounds a 655 - square - mile (1,700 km) lagoon.
Twenty - four of the atolls and islands are inhabited. Atolls are uninhabited due to poor living conditions, lack of rain, or nuclear contamination. The uninhabited atolls are:
The average altitude above sea level for the entire country is 7 feet (2.1 m).
In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly 2,000,000 square kilometers (772,000 sq mi) of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary. This is the world 's largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2,700,000 to 4,600,000 square kilometers (1,042,000 to 1,776,000 sq mi). In protected waters, all shark fishing is banned and all by - catch must be released. However, some have questioned the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone.
The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island. While Wake has been administered by the United States since 1899, the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Enen - kio.
The climate has a dry season from December to April and a wet season from May to November. Many Pacific typhoons begin as tropical storms in the Marshall Islands region, and grow stronger as they move west toward the Mariana Islands and the Philippines.
Due to its very low elevation, the Marshall Islands are threatened by the potential effects of sea level rise. According to the president of Nauru, the Marshall Islands are the most endangered nation in the world due to flooding from climate change.
Population has outstripped the supply of freshwater, usually from rainfall. The northern atolls get 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rainfall annually; the southern atolls about twice that. The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains.
Crabs include hermit crabs, and coconut crabs.
Most birds found in the Marshall Islands, with the exception of those few introduced by man, are either sea birds or a migratory species. There are about 70 species of birds, including 31 seabirds. 15 of these species actually nest locally. Sea birds include the black noddy and the white tern. The only land bird is the house sparrow, introduced by man.
There are about 300 species of fish, 250 of which are reef fish.
Historical population figures are unknown. In 1862, the population was estimated at about 10,000. In 1960, the entire population was about 15,000. In the 2011 Census, the number of island residents was 53,158. Over two - thirds of the population live in the capital, Majuro and Ebeye, the secondary urban center, located in Kwajalein Atoll. This excludes many who have relocated elsewhere, primarily to the United States. The Compact of Free Association allows them to freely relocate to the United States and obtain work there. A large concentration of about 4,300 Marshall Islanders have relocated to Springdale, Arkansas, the largest population concentration of natives outside their island home.
Most of the residents are Marshallese, who are of Micronesian origin and migrated from Asia several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry, mainly Japanese. About one - half of the nation 's population lives on Majuro, the capital, and Ebeye, a densely populated island. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development. Life on the outer atolls is generally traditional.
The official languages of the Marshall Islands are English and Marshallese. Both languages are widely spoken.
Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ -- Congregational in the Marshall Islands, with 51.5 % of the population; the Assemblies of God, 24.2 %; the Roman Catholic Church, 8.4 %; and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (Mormons), 8.3 %. Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God Part Two), 2.2 %; Baptist, 1.0 %; Seventh - day Adventists, 0.9 %; Full Gospel, 0.7 %; and the Baha'i Faith, 0.6 %. Persons without any religious affiliation account for a very small percentage of the population. There is also a small community of Ahmadiyya Muslims based in Majuro, with the first mosque opening in the capital in September 2012.
A 2007 -- 2008 study revealed that the rate of type 2 diabetes is among the highest in the world; 28 % over the age of 15; 50 % over 35. Approximately 75 % of women, and 50 % of men are overweight or obese. This is mostly due to the adoption of an unhealthy diet and lack of exercise. About 50 % of all surgeries performed on the island are amputations due to complications from diabetes. There are no facilities for renal dialysis.
According to a report by the BBC, life expectancy is 67 years for men and 71 years for women.
The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary - presidential system as set forth in its Constitution. Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage (for all citizens above 18), with each of the twenty - four constituencies (see below) electing one or more representatives (senators) to the lower house of RMI 's unicameral legislature, the Nitijela. (Majuro, the capital atoll, elects five senators.) The President, who is head of state as well as head of government, is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs.
In January 2016, senator Hilda Heine was elected by Parliament as the first female president of the Marshall Islands; previous president Casten Nemra lost office after serving two weeks in a vote of no confidence.
Legislative power lies with the Nitijela. The upper house of Parliament, called the Council of Iroij, is an advisory body comprising twelve tribal chiefs. The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet, which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela. The twenty - four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are currently four political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon̄ Kein Ad (AKA), United People 's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am (KEA) and United Democratic Party (UDP). Rule is shared by the AKA and the UDP. The following senators are in the legislative body:
The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U.S. sole responsibility for international defense of the Marshall Islands. It gives islanders the right to emigrate to the United States and to work there.
The Marshall Islands was admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council 's recommendation on August 9, 1991, in Resolution 704 and the General Assembly 's approval on September 17, 1991, in Resolution 46 / 3. In international politics within the United Nations, the Marshall Islands has often voted consistently with the United States with respect to General Assembly resolutions.
On April 28, 2015, the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Island - flagged MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz. The ship had been chartered by Germany 's Rickmers Ship Management, which stated that the ship contained no special cargo and no military weapons. The ship was reported to be under the control of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard according to the Pentagon. Tensions escallated in the region due to the intensifying of Saudi - led coalition attacks in Yemen. The Pentagon reported that the destroyer USS Farragut and a maritime reconnaissance aircraft were dispatched upon receiving a distress call from the ship Tigris and it was also reported that all 34 crew members were detained. US defense officials have said that they would review U.S. defense obligations to the Government of the Marshall Islands in the wake of recent events and also condemned the shots fired at the bridge as "inappropriate ''. It was reported in May 2015 that Tehran would release the ship after it paid a penalty.
Since 1991 the Republic of Marshall Islands Sea Patrol, a division of Marshall Islands Police, has operated the 160 ton patrol vessel RMIS Lomor. The Lomor is one of 22 Pacific Forum patrol vessels Australia provided to smaller nations in the Pacific Forum. While some other nations ' missions for their vessels include sovereignty, protection, the terms of the Compact of Free Association restrict the Lomor to civilian missions, like fishery protection and search and rescue.
Although the ancient skills are now in decline, the Marshallese were once able navigators, using the stars and stick - and - shell charts.
Other sports -
The Marshall Islands have a small club league, including Koober as the most successful club. I tournament was held by Play Soccer Make Peace. There is a small Football Association on the island of Majuro. The sport of Football in it 's growth is new to the Marshall Islands. The Marshall Islands does not have a national football team presently. The Marshall Islands is the only sovereign country in the world that does not have a record of a national football match.
Softball and Baseball is held under one sports federation in the Marshall Islands. The President is Jeimata Nokko Kabua. Both sports are growing at a fast pace with hundreds of Marshallese people behind the Marshall Islands Baseball / Softball Federation. The Marshall Islands achieved a silver medal in the Micronesian Games in 2012, as well as medals in the SPG Games.
The islands have few natural resources, and their imports far exceed exports. According to the CIA, the value of exports in 2013 was approximately $53.7 million while estimated imports were $133.7 million. Agricultural products include coconuts, tomatoes, melons, taro, breadfruit, fruits, pigs and chickens. Industry is made of the production of copra and craft items, tuna processing and tourism. The GDP in 2016 was an estimated $180 million, with a real growth rate of 1.7 %. The GDP per capita was $3,300.
The International Monetary Fund reported in mid-2016 that the economy of the Republic had expanded by about 0.5 percent in the Fiscal Year 2015 thanks to an improved fisheries sector. A surplus of 3 % of GDP was recorded "owing to record - high fishing license fees. Growth is expected to rise to about 1.5 percent and inflation to about 0.5 percent in FY2016, as the effects of the drought in earlier 2016 are offset by the resumption of infrastructure projects. ''
In 2018, the Republic of Marshall Islands passed the Sovereign Currency Act, which made it the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender; the currency is called the "sovereign ''.
The Marshall Islands plays a vital role in the international shipping industry as a flag of convenience for commercial vessels. The Marshallese registry began operations in 1990, and is managed through a joint venture with International Registries, Inc., a US - based corporation that has offices in major shipping centers worldwide. As of 2017, the Marshallese ship registry was the second largest in the world, after that of Panama.
Unlike some flag countries, there is no requirement that a Marshallese flag vessel be owned by a Marshallese individual or corporation. Following the 2015 seizure of the MV Maersk Tigris, the United States announced that its treaty obligation to defend the Marshall Islands did not extend to foreign - owned Marshallese flag vessels at sea.
As a result of ship - to - ship transfers by Marshallese flag tanker vessels, the Marshall Islands have statistically been one of the largest importers of crude oil from the United States, despite the fact that the islands have no oil refining capacity.
In 2007, the Marshall Islands joined the International Labour Organization, which means its labour laws will comply with international benchmarks. This may impact business conditions in the islands.
The income tax has two brackets, with rates of 8 % and 12 %. The corporate tax is 3 % of revenue.
United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy. Under terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association, the U.S. is committed to provide US $57.7 million per year in assistance to the Marshall Islands (RMI) through 2013, and then US $62.7 million through 2023, at which time a trust fund, made up of U.S. and RMI contributions, will begin perpetual annual payouts.
The United States Army maintains the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll. Marshallese land owners receive rent for the base.
Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms. The most important commercial crops is Copra followed by coconut, breadfruit, pandanus, banana, taro and arrowroot. The livestock consists primarily of pigs and chickens.
Small - scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra.
Majuro is the world 's busiest tuna transshipment port in the world, with 704 transshipments totaling 444,393 tons in 2015. Majuro is also a tuna processing center; the Pan Pacific Foods plant exports processed tuna to a number of countries, primarily the United States under the Bumble Bee brand. Fishing license fees, primarily for tuna, provide noteworthy income for the government.
In 1999, a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees, mostly women. But the plant closed in 2005 after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks, a process that requires half as many employees. Operating costs exceeded revenue, and the plant 's owners tried to partner with the government to prevent closure. But government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help. After the plant closed, it was taken over by the government, which had been the guarantor of a $2 million loan to the business.
On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry (of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of Majuro) said power authorities, private companies, and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific 's tropical islands. Copra, the meat of the coconut, yields coconut oil (1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts). In 2009, a 57 kW solar power plant was installed, the largest in the Pacific at the time, including New Zealand. It is estimated that 330 kW of solar and 450 kW of wind power would be required to make the College of the Marshall Islands energy self - sufficient. Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), a government entity, provides the islands with electricity. In 2008, 420 solar home systems of 200 Wp each were installed on Ailinglaplap Atoll, sufficient for limited electricity use.
The Ministry of Education is the education agency of the islands. Marshall Islands Public School System operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands.
In the 1994 - 1995 school year the country had 103 elementary schools and 13 secondary schools. There were 27 private elementary schools and 1 private high school. Christian groups operated most of the private schools.
Historically the Marshallese population was taught in English first with Marshallese instruction coming later, but this was reversed in the 1990s to keep the islands ' cultural heritage and so children could write in Marshallese. Now English language instruction begins in grade 3. Christine McMurray and Roy Smith wrote in Diseases of Globalization: Socioeconomic Transition and Health that this could potentially weaken the children 's English skills.
There are two tertiary institutions operating in the Marshall Islands, the College of the Marshall Islands and the University of the South Pacific.
The Marshall Islands are served by the Marshall Islands International Airport in Majuro, the Bucholz Army Airfield in Kwajalein, and other small airports and airstrips.
Airlines include United Airlines, Our Airline, Air Marshall Islands, and Asia Pacific Airlines.
The Marshall Islands have several AM and FM radio stations. AM stations are 1098 5 kW V7AB Majuro (Radio Marshalls, national coverage) and 1224 AFN Kwajalein (both public radio) as well as 1557 Micronesia Heatwave. The FM stations are 97.9 V7AD Majuro, V7AA 96.3 FM Uliga and 104.1 V7AA Majuro (Baptist religious). BBC World is broadcast on 98.5 FM Majuro. The most recent station is Power 103.5 which started broadcasting in 2016.
AFRTS stations include 99.9 AFN Kwajalein (country), 101.1 AFN (adult rock) and 102.1 AFN (hot AC).
There is one broadcast television station, MBC - TV operated by the state. Cable TV is available. On cable TV, most programs are shown two weeks later than in North America but news in real time can be viewed on CNN, CNBC and BBC. American Forces Radio and Television also provides TV service to Kwajalein Atoll.
The Marshall Islands National Telecommunications Authority (NTA) provides telephone, cable TV (MHTV), FAX, cellular and Internet services. The Authority is a private corporation with significant ownership by the national government.
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when is season 5 of steven universe coming out
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List of Steven Universe episodes - Wikipedia
Steven Universe is an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar for Cartoon Network. The series revolves around Steven Universe (voiced by Zach Callison), who protects his hometown of Beach City alongside Garnet (voiced by Estelle), Amethyst (voiced by Michaela Dietz) and Pearl (voiced by Deedee Magno), three magical alien guardians known as the Crystal Gems. The series was renewed for a fourth and fifth season in March 2016.
As of May 29, 2017, 128 regular 11 - minute episodes of Steven Universe have aired over the course of the series, plus two special double - length 22 - minute episodes. Episodes have variously been broadcast once a week (most recently on Friday nights), or in blocks of five new episodes in the course of a week, which are marketed as "Stevenbombs '', the latest of which aired from May 8 -- 11, 2017.
The following lists are ordered according to the list on the official website of the series, which reflects the intended watching order of the creators. While similar to the original broadcast order, three episodes from the first season were not broadcast until the second season.
The supervising director for this season is Ian Jones - Quartey.
All six digital shorts combined make up one full production code of season 2 (1031 - 058).
All five of these shorts combined make up one full production code of season 4.
Depending on the customer 's region, Steven Universe is available through various video on demand services such as Hulu, Google Play, iTunes, Amazon Video, and Microsoft Movies & TV.
Episodes on the Steven Universe DVDs are not in original broadcast order. In the table below, the episodes are listed in the order they appear on the DVD, and are numbered according to the order in which they were originally broadcast. A new Steven Universe DVD titled "The Return '' was announced to be released on June 7, 2016, as well as having cover art shown. The Australian company, Madman Entertainment, has released both a Blu - ray and DVD collection of Season 1 in Region 4, however, the series has yet to see any Blu - ray releases in the North American market.
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where did nobel prize winners go to college
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List of Nobel laureates by University affiliation - wikipedia
This list of Nobel laureates by university affiliation shows the university affiliations of individual winners of the Nobel Prize and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences since 1901 (total 892 individual laureates). This list does not include organizations which were awarded the Nobel prize (as of 2017, 24 such organizations) or any individuals affiliated with those organizations. However, an individual laureate who received the Nobel prize while working at a research organization formally affiliated with or operated by a university is counted as an affiliate of that university. Universities are listed in descending order according to the number of affiliates, while only the top 50 universities are shown explicitly with their rankings.
The university affiliations in this list are all formal / official academic affiliations (e.g., official employment, degree program), which fall into three categories: 1) Graduate and Attendee, 2) Long - term Academic Staff, and 3) Temporary Academic Staff. Graduates are defined as those who hold Bachelor 's, Master 's, PhD, or equivalent degrees from a university, while attendees are those who formally enrolled in a degree - program at a university for at least one day but did not complete the program or obtain a degree (thus, honorary degrees, summer attendees, exchange students, and auditors are generally excluded). The category of "Long - term Academic Staff '' mostly consists of tenure / tenure - track and equivalent academic positions, while that of "Temporary Academic Staff '' mostly consists of lecturers (without tenure), postdoctoral researchers, visiting professors / scholars (visitors), and equivalent academic positions.
Further explanations on "visitors '' under "Temporary Academic Staff '' are presented as follows. 1) All informal / personal visits are excluded from the list; 2) all employment - based visiting positions, which carry teaching / research duties, are included as affiliations in the list; 3) as for award - based visiting positions, this list takes a conservative view, which includes the positions as affiliations only if the awardees are required to assume employment - level duties (teaching / research) or the awardees classify the visiting positions as "employment / appointment '' in their Curriculum Vita or reliable websites. To be specific, some award - based visiting professorships / lectureships such as the "Morris Loeb Lecturer (short - term) '', "Lee Historical Lecturer '' and "Charles Eliot Norton Professor '' in Harvard University are awards / honors / recognition without duty requirement instead of an actual affiliation with the university. In particular, giving public lectures or seminars is not a form of duties. On the other hand, positive examples include "Morris Loeb Long - term Lecturer '' at Harvard University and "Visiting Miller Professorship '' at UC Berkeley. Finally, summer employees and visitors are generally excluded from the list since summer terms are not included in academic school years, and non-academic positions (e.g., advisory committee, administrative staff, etc) are also excluded.
In this list, the number following a person 's name is the year he / she received the prize; in particular, a number with asterisk (*) means the person received the award while he / she was working at the institution containing that asterisk. A laureate with his / her name underlined implies that this person has already been counted for a same institution in some previous category. If a person had multiple positions under one category, only the position with highest rank is considered.
Each institution practices different methods for counting affiliates, from generous counting to conservative. Within this list, the University Counts are thus shown as comparison, which are published by the universities themselves. The federal University of London is counted by its individual constituent colleges in this table. The University of California is also counted here by its individual campuses. Finally, this list, together with the List of Fields Medal winners by university affiliation and the List of Turing Award laureates by university affiliation, presents the university affiliation (with similar criteria) of people who have won highest honors in fundamental academic disciplines.
Legend: (Ph.) Physics, (Ch.) Chemistry, (PM) Physiology or Medicine, (Li.) Literature, (Pe.) Peace, (Ec.) Economics.
2) Award - based "Morris Loeb Lecturer '' (short - term), "Lee Historical Lecturer '' and "Charles Eliot Norton Professor '' are not affiliates with Harvard University.
3) Harvard 's University Count is not exhaustive and only presents a selection of Nobel laureates. It also includes Henry Cadbury, who represented the American Friends Service Committee to receive the 1947 Nobel peace prize, and the Nobel - Peace - Prize (1985) winning International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War. They are both excluded from the following list.
2) Affiliates with the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology before 1963 are included in this list.
3) The "Overseas Fellowship '' at Cambridge does not offer stipend and it does not require employment - level duty. Gérard Debreu and Wole Soyinka are thus excluded from the list according to the counting crieria.
2) Affiliates of Argonne National Laboratory (since 1946) and Fermilab (since 2007) are included in the list.
3) Affiliates of Marine Biological Laboratory starting 1 July 2013 are included in the list (e.g., Eric Betzig was a lecturer from 1 to 10 May 2013, and is thus not included).
4) Affiliates of Cowles Foundation for Research in Economics by 1955 are included in the list.
2) Award - based "Ingeborg Rennert Professors '' are not affiliates with Columbia University. For instance, Elie Wiesel was an Ingeborg Rennert Professor of Judaic Studies at Barnard College, and is thus not included.
3) The University Count of Columbia does not include attendees (two in total), two professors (Martin Karplus and James E. Rothman), three visiting professors (Daniel C. Tsui, Emilio Segrè, Hans Albrecht Bethe, and William Shockley), and Barnard College affiliates & Nobel Peace Prize winners who were temporary academic staff (five in total).
2) Affiliates of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory before 1959 are included in the following list.
2) Paul Greengard, Christopher Sims and Richard Thaler are included in the following list but not the University Count.
2) Affiliates with Hoover Institution are included in the list.
3) The criteria used in University Count of Stanford is fully described in Stanford 's official website.
2) Affiliates of Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) are included in the following list.
3) There were a number of Nobel laureates who visited Caltech upon the invitation of Robert Millikan during 1920s and 1930s. Most of these laureates were simply giving public lectures / seminars at Caltech and thus are excluded from the list. A few exceptions including Albert Einstein and Hendrik Lorentz are included below.
4) The award - based "Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Visiting Scholar '' and "Gordon Moore Distinguished Scholar '' do not officially require employment - level duties (teaching / research). The following laureates are thus excluded from the list as Fairchild visiting scholar according to the criteria described in the lead: John Polanyi, Karl Barry Sharpless, Nicolaas Bloembergen, Richard R. Schrock, Yuan T. Lee. Others are included for they classify the positions as employment / appointment.
2) The University Count merely counts winners from 1934 to 2006.
2) Members of Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities are not included in the list, for the organization has no affiliation with the university.
21st
21st
2) Affiliates with Francis Crick Institute (UKCMRI) are included in this list.
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2) Randy Schekman is included in the following list but not the University Count.
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2) Thomas J. Sargent is included in the following list but not the University list.
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2) Although Joseph Brodsky had close ties with the city of Saint Petersburg, there is no evidence that he was formally affiliated with the university at any time.
The following list includes many university homepages listing Nobel Prize laureates affiliated to the respective university. Please note that the method of counting differs from university to university. Often, graduates are not included, and sometimes, researchers and faculty appointments after the award are not counted. Please consider that some of the pages are not up to date.
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what is bastille day and why is it important in france
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Bastille Day - wikipedia
Bastille Day is the common name given in English - speaking countries / lands to the French National Day, which is celebrated on the 14th of July each year. In France, it is formally called la Fête nationale (French pronunciation: (la fɛt nasjɔnal); The National Celebration) and commonly and legally le 14 juillet (French pronunciation: (lə katɔʁz (ə) ʒɥijɛ); the 14th of July).
The French National Day commemorates the first anniversary of Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, a turning point of the French Revolution, as well as the Fête de la Fédération which celebrated the unity of the French people on 14 July 1790. Celebrations are held throughout France. The oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe is held on the morning of 14 July, on the Champs - Élysées in Paris in front of the President of the Republic, along with other French officials and foreign guests.
On 19 May 1789, Louis XVI invited the Estates - General (les États - généraux) to air their grievances. Of the three estates in France, the deputies of the Third Estate (le Tiers État), representing the common people, decided to break away from the two others - the Catholic clergy (clergé, Roman Catholicism being the state religion at that time) and the nobility (noblesse). The Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath (le serment du Jeu de paume, 20 June 1789), swearing not to separate until a constitution had been established. They were gradually joined by sympathising delegates of the other estates; Louis XVI started to recognise the validity of their concerns on 27 June. The assembly renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante) on 9 July.
Jacques Necker, the finance minister, who was sympathetic to the Third Estate, was dismissed on 11 July. The people of Paris then stormed the Bastille, fearful that they and their representatives would be attacked by the royal army or by foreign regiments of mercenaries in the king 's service, and seeking to gain ammunition and gunpowder for the general populace. The Bastille was a fortress - prison in Paris which had often held people jailed on the basis of lettres de cachet (literally "signet letters ''), arbitrary royal indictments that could not be appealed and did not indicate the reason for the imprisonment. The Bastille held a large cache of ammunition and gunpowder, and was also known for holding political prisoners whose writings had displeased the royal government, and was thus a symbol of the absolutism of the monarchy. As it happened, at the time of the attack in July 1789 there were only seven inmates, none of great political significance.
The crowd was eventually reinforced by mutinous Gardes Françaises ("French Guards ''), whose usual role was to protect public buildings. They proved a fair match for the fort 's defenders, and Governor de Launay, the commander of the Bastille, capitulated and opened the gates to avoid a mutual massacre. However, possibly because of a misunderstanding, fighting resumed. According to the official documents, about 200 attackers and just one defender died in the initial fighting, but in the aftermath, de Launay and seven other defenders were killed, as was Jacques de Flesselles, the prévôt des marchands ("provost of the merchants ''), the elected head of the city 's guilds, who under the feudal monarchy also had the competences of a present - day mayor.
Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, late in the evening of 4 August, after a very stormy session of the Assemblée Constituante, feudalism was abolished. On 26 August, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen) was proclaimed (Homme with an uppercase h meaning "human '', while homme with a lowercase h means "man '').
The Fête de la Fédération on 14 July 1790 was a celebration of the unity of the French nation during the French Revolution. The aim of this celebration, one year after the Storming of the Bastille, was to symbolise peace. The event took place on the Champ de Mars, which was at the time far outside Paris. The place had been transformed on a voluntary basis by the population of Paris, in what was recalled as the Journée des brouettes ("Wheelbarrow Day '').
A mass was celebrated by Talleyrand, bishop of Autun. The popular General Lafayette, as captain of the National Guard of Paris and a confidant of the king, took his oath to the constitution, followed by King Louis XVI. After the end of the official celebration, the day ended in a huge four - day popular feast and people celebrated with fireworks, as well as fine wine and running nude through the streets in order to display their great freedom.
On 30 June 1878, a feast was officially arranged in Paris to honour the French Republic (the event was commemorated in a painting by Claude Monet). On 14 July 1879, there was another feast, with a semi-official aspect. The day 's events included a reception in the Chamber of Deputies, organised and presided over by Léon Gambetta, a military review at Longchamp, and a Republican Feast in the Pré Catelan. All through France, Le Figaro wrote, "people feasted much to honour the storming of the Bastille ''.
On 21 May 1880, Benjamin Raspail proposed a law to have "the Republic choose the 14 July as a yearly national holiday ''. The Assembly voted in favour of the proposal on 21 May and 8 June. The Senate approved it on 27 and 29 June, favouring 14 July against 4 August (which would have commemorated the end of the feudal system on 4 August 1789). The law was made official on 6 July 1880, and the Ministry of the Interior recommended to Prefects that the day should be "celebrated with all the brilliance that the local resources allow ''. Indeed, the celebrations of the new holiday in 1880 were particularly magnificent.
In the debate leading up to the adoption of the holiday, Henri Martin, chairman of the French Senate, addressed that chamber on 29 June 1880:
Do not forget that behind this 14 July, where victory of the new era over the ancien régime was bought by fighting, do not forget that after the day of 14 July 1789, there was the day of 14 July 1790... This (latter) day can not be blamed for having shed a drop of blood, for having divided the country. It was the consecration of the unity of France... If some of you might have scruples against the first 14 July, they certainly hold none against the second. Whatever difference which might part us, something hovers over them, it is the great images of national unity, which we all desire, for which we would all stand, willing to die if necessary.
The Bastille Day Military Parade is the French military parade that has been held on the morning of 14 July each year in Paris since 1880. While previously held elsewhere within or near the capital city, since 1918 it has been held on the Champs - Élysées, with the participation of the Allies as represented in the Versailles Peace Conference, and with the exception of the period of German occupation from 1940 to 1944 (when the ceremony took place in London under the command of General Charles de Gaulle). The parade passes down the Champs - Élysées from the Arc de Triomphe to the Place de la Concorde, where the President of the French Republic, his government and foreign ambassadors to France stand. This is a popular event in France, broadcast on French TV, and is the oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe. In some years, invited detachments of foreign troops take part in the parade and foreign statesmen attend as guests.
Smaller military parades are held in French garrison towns, including Toulon and Belfort, with local troops.
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who is the first president of bharatiya janata party
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List of presidents of the Bharatiya Janata party - wikipedia
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is one of two major parties in the Indian political system, along with the Indian National Congress. As of 2018, it is the country 's largest political party in terms of representation in the national parliament and state assemblies. According to the party, in 2015 it had over 100 million members. The BJP is a right - wing party, and its policy has historically reflected Hindu nationalist positions. It has close ideological and organisational ties to the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a right - wing Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation.
The BJP 's origins lie in the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, formed in 1951 by Syama Prasad Mukherjee. In 1977, the Jana Sangh merged with several other parties to form the Janata Party, which dissolved three years later, after which the members of the erstwhile Jana Sangh reconvened to form the BJP. The party won only two seats in the 1984 Indian parliamentary election, but grew in strength on the back of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement, which was agitating to build a temple to the Hindu deity Rama at the site of the Babri mosque. The National Democratic Alliance, led by the BJP, has held power in India on four occasions, including short - lived governments after elections in 1996 and 1998, a full five - year term between 1999 and 2003, and the current Indian government, which has held power since 2014.
The President of the BJP is the highest authority within the party, and fills a number of roles, including chairing meetings of the National Executive of the party and appointing the presidents of party subsidiaries, such its youth wing and farmer 's wing. Any candidate for the presidency needs to have been a member of the party for at least 15 years. The President is nominally elected by an electoral college composed of members drawn from the party 's National and State councils, but in practice is a consensus choice of senior members of the party. The term of the President is three years long, and individuals may not serve more than two consecutive terms. The President usually does not also hold a post within a government, and party chiefs have resigned the position to assume posts in Cabinet.
After the party 's foundation in 1980, Atal Bihari Vajpayee became its first president. He later became the Prime Minister of India, the only BJP President to serve in that position to date. In 1986, Lal Krishna Advani was sworn in as the party president and has been the longest serving president over three different periods. A total of ten people have served as the president of the BJP, including Rajnath Singh who has also served two terms. Amit Shah became the party president on 9 July 2014, and is incumbent as of June 2018.
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who said who dat say who dat when i say who dat
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Who Dat? - Wikipedia
Who dat? is an African American vernacular English pronunciation of the standard form question "who is that? '' and is from that an English catchphrase originating from New Orleans. First generally referenced in poetry, the phrase was a common dialogue element between the performers and crowd at traveling minstrel shows in the region. Eventually, the phrase became used in US cinematic productions for two decades, including TV and movies. In World War II, the phrase became known as a source of entertainment for American soldiers.
More recently, the phrase "Who dat? '' has become a chant of team support. It is most widely used by fans of the New Orleans Saints, an American football team. The entire chant is: "Who dat? Who dat? Who dat say dey gon na beat dem Saints? '' "Who dat '' may also be used as a noun, describing a Saints fan.
The earliest documented use of the phrase can be found in a July 30, 1852 New Orleans Daily Picayune article.
The chant of "Who Dat? '' originated in minstrel shows and vaudeville acts of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was taken up by jazz and big band performers in the 1920s and ' 30s.
Early references to "Who Dat? '' can be found in the 19th Century in the poetry of Paul Laurence Dunbar, first in his poem "When Malindy Sings '' and later in his lyrics to the song "Who Dat Say Chicken in dis Crowd, '' a featured song in Clorindy: The Origin of the Cakewalk, an "operetta '' by Dunbar and Will Marion Cook that was first presented as part of E.E. Rice 's 1898 show "Summer Nights ''. A common tag line in the days of Negro minstrel shows was: "Who dat? '' answered by "Who dat say who dat? '' Many different blackfaced gags played off that opening. Vaudeville performer Mantan Moreland was known for the routine. Another example is "Swing Wedding '', a 1930s Harman - Ising cartoon musical, which caricatured Fats Waller, Cab Calloway, Bill "Bojangles '' Robinson, Ethel Waters, and the Mills Brothers as frogs in a swamp performing minstrel show jokes and jazz tunes. The frogs repeatedly used the phrase "who dat? ''
In the swing era, "who dat '' chants back and forth between the band and the band leader or between the audience and the band were extemporaneous. That is, there was no one specific set of words except for the two magic ones.
"Who Dat? '' lyrics from 1937:
Who dat up there who 's dat down there
Who dat up there who dat well down there Who 's dat up there, sayin ' who 's dat down there When I see you up there well who 's dat down there
Who dat inside who 's dat outside Who 's dat inside who dat well outside Who 's dat inside, singin ' who 's dat outside When I see up there well who 's dat out there
Button up your lip there big boy Stop answerin ' back Give you a tip there big boy Announce yourself jack
Who dat up there who 's dat down there Who dat up there who dat, well down there Who 's dat up there, singin ' who 's dat down there When I see you up there you bum Well who 's dat down there
Who dat
Staged minstrel skits featured frightened African American characters saying "who dat '' when they encountered a ghost, or someone imitating a ghost. Then, the "who dat '' -- "who dat say who dat '' skit would play itself out. This skit was done frequently in short reels from the 1930s to 1950s and in some early TV shows too. Even the Marx Brothers had a "who dat '' routine, which they included in their film A Day at the Races. "Who Dat Man? Why It 's Gabriel! '' Often, a ghost was called a "who dat. '' Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer 's animated character Bosko once had such an encounter in a 1938 toon called "Lil Ol Bosko in Bagdad. '' In 1941 Butterfly McQueen infamously delivered what African American film historian Donald Bogle described as what "might be the most demeaning line ever uttered by a black in the movies '' when she said, "Who dat say who dat when I say who dat? '' in the movie Affectionately Yours.
"Who Dat? '' became a familiar joke with soldiers during World War II.
Back in WWII, U.S. fighter squadron pilots would often fly under radio silence. But things get lonely up there in the cockpit, so after a while there 'd be a crackle of static as someone keyed his mike. Then a disembodied voice would reply, "Who dat? '' An answer would come, "Who dat say who dat? '' And another, "Who dat say who dat when ah say who dat? '' After a few rounds of this, the squadron commander would grab his microphone and yell, "Cut it out, you guys! '' A few moments of silence. Then... "Who dat? ''
"Who Dat '' became part of a chant for fans cheering on their favorite team. It has been debated exactly where it started, but some claim it began with Southern University Jaguars fans either in the late 1960s or early 1970s and went "Who dat talkin ' ' bout beatin ' dem Jags? '' Another claim is that it was connected with St. Augustine High School, a historically African - American all - boys Catholic high school in New Orleans, and yet another is that the cheer originated at Patterson High School in Patterson, Louisiana (home of Saints running back Dalton Hilliard). In the late 1970s fans at Alcorn State University and Louisiana State University picked up on the cheer. Fans of professional wrestler Junkyard Dog, a star on the Mid-South Wrestling circuit from 1979 to 1984 who frequently appeared in events at the Louisiana Superdome and Municipal Auditorium in New Orleans, had a similar chant: "Who dat think they gon na beat that Dog ''.
Its earliest known documented link specifically to the Saints organization was actually a December 9, 1972 New Orleans Times -- Picayune newspaper column reference to a player from an opposing team, Carl Garrett of the New England Patriots.
By 1983 the cheer had become so popular among fans that the New Orleans Saints organization officially adopted it during the tenure of coach Bum Phillips, and Aaron Neville (along with local musicians Sal and Steve Monistere and Carlo Nuccio) recorded a version of "When the Saints Go Marching In '' that incorporated the chant of "Who dat say dey gon na beat dem Saints '' (performed by a group of Saints players). The song quickly became a major local hit, due in part to the support of sportscaster Ron Swoboda and the fact that Saints fans had been using the chant for some time.
Meanwhile, in about 1981 Cincinnati Bengals fans and players had started with their similar "Who Dey '' cheer ("Who Dey think gon na beat them Bengals? ''). In a 2006 article, Toni Monkovic, a New York Times writer, speculated that the 1981 popularity of the Bengals ' "Who Dey '' may have led Saints fans to expand their use of "Who Dat '', from the "small number, and possibly a very small number '' of Saints fans using it in the late 1970s to the much wider use of the chant in 1983. Monkovic noted that the fan bases of the two teams continue to disagree about this, and that ultimately the evidence is unclear. However, this speculation seems unlikely to be accurate as the "Who Dat '' chant was so common at nearby LSU months before Cincinnati 's 1981 Super Bowl run that a song called "Who Dat '' had been written (in March 1981) to the tune of Frankie Smith 's "Double Dutch Bus '' and played regularly on local radio, in conjunction with the LSU men 's basketball team 's Final Four run.
After the Saints won the NFC Championship Game on January 24, 2010, against the Minnesota Vikings in the Superdome, fans from all across New Orleans, including fans who were exiting the game, started a Mardi Gras - style "Who Dat '' on Bourbon Street with modified lyrics, chanting, "Who Dat, Who Dat, Who Dat in the Super Bowl! '' in reference to the Saints advancing to the Super Bowl for the first time ever in their 43 - year history. In Super Bowl XLIV, on February 7, 2010, the Saints beat the Indianapolis Colts 31 - 17. "Drew Dat '' has occasionally been used in honor of quarterback Drew Brees.
In recent years the phrase "Who Dat Nation '' has become a popular term for the entire community of Saints fans. According to Bobby Hebert, formerly a Saints quarterback and currently a sports commentator in New Orleans, the term "Who Dat Nation '' originated after a highly anticipated 2006 game between the Saints and the favored Dallas Cowboys, which the Saints won; after the game, listeners from a wide geographic range called into Hebert 's radio show on WWL (AM), and Hebert commented, "Man, there 's a whole Who Dat Nation out there. ''
In January 2010, the NFL sent cease and desist letters to several Louisiana T - shirt shop owners ordering them to cease producing T - shirts bearing the phrase "Who dat ''. According to some recipients of these letters, the NFL was claiming to own the trademark to the term "Who dat '', and that unlicensed T - shirts bearing the phrase would cause confusion among fans of the Saints about the official status of the merchandise. On January 27 one company tweeted about their whodat tee shirt cease and desist order from the NFL, and NewOrleans.com and Huffington Post interviewed the Monisteres about the NFL 's claims in relation to their company Who Dat?, Inc. The next day, the brothers released a statement claiming rights to the phrase to NewOrleans.com, which they registered in 1983 after recording the version of "When the Saints Go Marching In '' that incorporated the chant. The Monistere 's record is listed as inactive, meaning that it was not renewed upon expiration. The Saints organization, through their company The New Orleans Louisiana Saints Limited Partnership, also registered the mark "Who Dat '' in 1988 when used in conjunction with "fleur - de-lis design '', but later the Saints released their claim of ownership to WhoDat, Inc., asserting that they owned the phrase.
The NFL 's action also provoked responses from U.S. Senator David Vitter and Congressman Charlie Melancon of Louisiana, among others. Vitter sent a formal letter to NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell criticizing the NFL 's attempt to claim ownership of the chant, informing Goodell he would be printing T - shirts using the phrase, and daring the NFL to sue him. It was later reported that the NFL had responded to Vitter 's letter, stating that it was only seeking to prevent unauthorized uses of "Who Dat? '' together with other identifying marks of the Saints.
Louisiana Attorney General Buddy Caldwell called the NFL and had a conversation about the ownership of the "Who Dat '' slogan and of the fleur - de-lis. Caldwell said the bottom line from the legal back - and - forth with the league is that the NFL "is conceding it has no exclusive rights to the fleur - de-lis and no exclusive rights to ' Who Dat ' and offshoots of ' Who Dat, ' and no exclusive rights to the colors black and gold. '' Caldwell said his office was drafting a document to be signed by the state and the NFL outlining what is and is not allowable.
On March 4, 2010, the Monisteres ' company, Who Dat? Inc., filed suit in federal court against the Saints, NFL Properties, and the state of Louisiana, alleging improper interference with their business interests. The suit alleges: in 1987 the New Orleans Saints were granted a license by Who Dat?, Inc. to use the Who Dat phrase; in that agreement, the Saints agreed that the mark was original and that Monistere was the first use owner of the trademark; the Saints also agreed to never challenge Monistere 's ownership of the mark or aid any one else in doing so; and the Saints were to also help protect the mark from infringement by others on behalf of the licensors (Who Dat?, Inc.). Who Dat? Inc. subsequently amended their complaint to name several local retailers as defendants, most notably Fleurty Girl, and the matter was set for initial hearing in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana on November 10, 2010.
In January 2012, it was reported that the NFL and the Monisteres had agreed to dismiss their claims against each other and to cooperate in the production of "co-branded merchandise ''. The lawsuit continued as to some of the other defendants, pending hearing of their motions to dismiss the case. In October 2012 it was reported that the remaining parties had settled the case on confidential terms. According to one attorney and restaurant owner who had been a party to the case, "The net effect of the settlement is that nobody owns Who Dat ''.
In 2008, New Orleans based artist Lil Wayne referenced the chant in his hit single "A Milli '' where he raps Who dat say dey gon na beat Lil Wayne even though he is a Green Bay Packers fan.
In 2009, New Orleans based artist K. Gates recorded "Black and Gold (Who Dat) '' based on Ying Yang Twins ' "Halftime (Get Crunk) ''.
"Who dat '' is also used in the song "Holla Back '' by New Orleans - based rapper Juvenile: "They want a pimp to give them some money, but I do n't do that. But baby I 'm a Saints fan that 's why I say who dat. ''
"Who Dat '' is the name of the 8th single from 2008 The Recession by Young Jeezy. They say who dat?
JT Money has a 1999 single called "Who Dat ''. The song was a hit, but was likely not intended to have any relation to the Saints or Vaudeville.
In 2009, New Orleans rapper Birdman chants a "Who Dat ''. in the Single Wasted (Remix) by Gucci Mane featuring Birdman, Jadakiss and Lil Wayne.
In 2010, rapper J. Cole recorded a song called "Who Dat ''.
In 2010, New Orleans native, Ashley Forrestier released "Who Dat (Going to the Super Bowl) '' celebrating the New Orleans Saints 31 - 28 Overtime Win over the Minnesota Vikings in the 2009 - 10 NFC Championship Game.
In 2012, New Orleans based rapper G - Eazy, in collaboration with artists Mod Sun and Meta, released the song "Rappin ' A $ $ Rappers '' in which G - Eazy raps "livin ' in New Orleans where dem people holla ' Who Dat ' ''.
Australian hip - hop artist Iggy Azalea has employed the refrain in several songs, including "Fancy '' and "Leave It '', drawing criticism from some who perceive an appropriation of Southern Black culture.
A deepwater oil and gas field in the Gulf of Mexico, discovered in 2007, was named "Who Dat '' by its developer, LLOG Exploration Co., based in New Orleans. The field, encompassing Mississippi Canyon Blocks 503, 504 and 547 in about 3,000 feet of water, began production in 2011.
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st mary's college of engineering and technology deshmukhi
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St. Mary 's College of Engineering and Technology - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 12 ° 59 ′ 29 '' N 80 ° 14 ′ 01 '' E / 12.99151 ° N 80.23362 ° E / 12.99151; 80.23362
St. Mary 's College of Engineering and Technology (SMCET) is a technical institute located in Hyderabad, India. In 2010 the All India Council for Technical Education approved collaboration between the St. Mary 's College and Marist College to allow students in India to earn a US - recognized MS degree. The college applied for "deemed university '' status in 2009 but this status was abolished.
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who won the mens olympic figure skating 2018
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Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics -- Men 's singles - wikipedia
The men 's single figure skating competition of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held on 16 and 17 February 2018 at the Gangneung Ice Arena in Gangneung, South Korea. The short program was held on 16 February and the free skating was held on 17 February.
This medal event was the 1000th medal event in the history of the Winter Olympic Games.
With his victory at the 2018 Winter Olympics, Yuzuru Hanyu became the first male figure skater to win two consecutive gold medals after Dick Button, who did so in 1952. Fellow countryman Shoma Uno won the silver medal, and Spain 's Javier Fernández won the bronze medal. Fernández won Spain 's first figure skating medal and fourth medal at the Winter Olympics.
After the short program, Hanyu, Fernández, Uno, and Jin Boyang were first, second, third, and fourth respectively. Nathan Chen, originally one of the favorites for the podium, skated an uncharacteristically poor short program that placed him at 17th, but fought back to win the free skating with a score of 215.08 -- 8.91 points above the second place free skating by Hanyu. He ended up fifth overall. In the free program, Jin Boyang overtook Chen by less than a point overall, and placed fourth.
In the victory ceremony, the medals were presented by Tsunekazu Takeda, member of the International Olympic Committee, accompanied by Alexander Lakernik, ISU Figure Skating Vice President.
Vincent Zhou landed the first quadruple lutz at the Olympics. Nathan Chen became the first to ever land six quads, five clean. He also landed the first quadruple flip at the Olympics. With these jumps he holds the new record for highest free skating technical score. For complete list of figure skating records, see list of highest scores in figure skating.
A total of 30 skaters qualified to compete for the event, with each country allowed to only enter a maximum of three. 24 quotas were handed out during the 2017 World Figure Skating Championships and the remaining six were given out at the 2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy. Each country decided the entry of its teams, and athletes winning the quota were not necessarily granted the right to compete. All athletes competing must have met the minimum total elements score, which does not include component scores. For the short program this was 25.00 and the free skating 45.00.
All times are (UTC + 9).
The short program was held on 16 February 2018.
The free skating was held on 17 February 2018.
The skaters were ranked according to their overall score.
TP - Total points; SP - Short program; FS - Free skating
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does jay z own the nets basketball team
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Jay - Z - wikipedia
Shawn Corey Carter (born December 4, 1969), known professionally as JAY - Z, is an American rapper and businessman. He is one of the best - selling musicians of all time, having sold more than 50 million albums and 75 million singles worldwide, while receiving 21 Grammy Awards for his music. MTV ranked him the "Greatest MC of all time '' in 2006. Rolling Stone ranked three of his albums -- Reasonable Doubt (1996), The Blueprint (2001), and The Black Album (2003) -- among The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. In 2018, Forbes estimated his net worth at $900 million, making him the richest hip hop artist in the U.S.
As an artist, Jay - Z holds the record for most number one albums by a solo artist on the US Billboard 200 with 14. He has also had four number ones on the Billboard Hot 100, one ("Empire State of Mind '') as lead artist. In 2009, he was ranked the tenth-most successful artist of the 2000s by Billboard as well as the fifth top solo male artist and fourth top rapper behind Eminem, Nelly, and 50 Cent. He was also ranked the 88th - greatest artist of all time by Rolling Stone.
Jay - Z owns the New York 40 / 40 Club sports bar, and is the co-creator of the clothing line Rocawear. He is the former president of Def Jam Recordings, co-founder of Roc - A-Fella Records, and the founder of the entertainment company Roc Nation. He also founded the sports agency Roc Nation Sports and is a certified NBA and MLB sports agent.
Jay - Z married singer Beyoncé in 2008. As a couple, they have an estimated combined net worth of $1.16 billion.
Shawn Carter was born in Brooklyn, New York and was raised in Marcy Houses, a housing project in Brooklyn 's Bedford - Stuyvesant neighborhood. After their father, Adnis Reeves, abandoned the family, Shawn and his three siblings were raised by their mother, Gloria Carter. Reeves would later meet and reconcile with Jay - Z before dying in 2003. Jay - Z claims in his lyrics that in 1982 at age 12, he shot his older brother in the shoulder for stealing his jewelry. Along with future rapper AZ, Carter attended Eli Whitney High School in Brooklyn until it was closed down. He then attended the nearby George Westinghouse Career and Technical Education High School with future rappers The Notorious B.I.G. and Busta Rhymes, followed by a stint at Trenton Central High School in Trenton, New Jersey, though he did not graduate. According to his interviews and lyrics, during this period he sold crack cocaine and was shot at three times.
According to his mother, Carter used to wake up his siblings at night banging out drum patterns on the kitchen table. She bought him a boom box for his birthday, sparking his interest in music. He began freestyling and writing lyrics. Known as "Jazzy '' around the neighborhood, Carter later adopted the showbiz / stage name "Jay - Z '' in homage to his mentor Jaz - O. (He would drop the hyphen in 2013, and add it back in 2017.)
Jay - Z can be briefly heard on several of Jaz - O 's early recordings in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including "The Originators '' and "Hawaiian Sophie. '' Jay - Z became embroiled in several battles with rapper LL Cool J in the early 1990s. He first became known to a wide audience on the posse cut "Show and Prove '' on the 1994 Big Daddy Kane album Daddy 's Home. Jay - Z has been referred to as Big Daddy Kane 's hype man during this period, although Kane explains that he did n't fill the traditional hype man role, and was instead "basically ma (king) cameo appearances on stage. When I would leave the stage to go change outfits, I would bring out Jay - Z and Positive K and let them freestyle until I came back to the stage. '' The young Jay - Z appeared on a popular song by Big L, "Da Graveyard '', and on Mic Geronimo 's "Time to Build '', which also featured early appearances by DMX and Ja Rule in 1995. His first official rap single was called "In My Lifetime '', for which he released a music video. An unreleased music video was also produced for the B - side "I Ca n't Get with That. ''
With no major label to give him a record deal, Jay - Z sold CDs out of his car and, with Damon Dash and Kareem Biggs, created Roc - A-Fella Records as an independent label in 1995. After striking a distribution deal with Priority, Jay - Z released his 1996 debut album Reasonable Doubt with beats from acclaimed producers such as DJ Premier and Super DJ Clark Kent and an appearance by The Notorious B.I.G.. The album reached number 23 on the Billboard 200, and was generally favored by critics. This album would later be included in Rolling Stone 's "500 Greatest Albums of All Time '' as No. 248 and eventually reach platinum status.
After reaching a new distribution deal with Def Jam in 1997, Jay - Z released his follow - up In My Lifetime, Vol. 1. Produced by Sean "Puff Daddy '' Combs, it sold better than his previous effort. Jay - Z later explained that the album was made during one of the worst periods of his life when he was reeling from the death of his close friend, The Notorious B.I.G. The album was a personal revelation for Jay - Z as he told the stories of his difficult upbringing. The album 's glossy production stood as a contrast to his first release, and some dedicated fans felt he had "sold out. '' However, the album did feature some beats from producers who had worked with him on Reasonable Doubt, namely DJ Premier and Ski. Like its predecessor, In My Lifetime, Vol. 1 earned platinum status in the United States.
In 1998, Jay - Z released Vol. 2... Hard Knock Life which spawned the biggest hit of his career at the time, "Hard Knock Life (Ghetto Anthem) ''. He relied more on flow and wordplay, and he continued with his penchant for mining beats from the popular producers of the day such as Swizz Beatz, an upstart in - house producer for Ruff Ryders, and Timbaland. Other producers included DJ Premier, Erick Sermon, The 45 King, and Kid Capri. Charting hits from this album included "Can I Get A... '', featuring Ja Rule and Amil, and "Nigga What, Nigga Who '', also featuring Amil. Vol. 2 would eventually become Jay - Z 's most commercially successful album; it was certified 5 × Platinum in the United States and has to date sold over five million copies. The album went on to win a Grammy Award, although Jay - Z boycotted the ceremony protesting DMX 's failure to garner a Grammy nomination.
In 1999, Jay - Z dueted with Mariah Carey on "Heartbreaker '', a song from her seventh album, Rainbow. In that same year, Jay - Z released Vol. 3... Life and Times of S. Carter. The album proved successful and sold over 3 million copies. Vol. 3 's most successful single was "Big Pimpin ' '', featuring UGK.
In 2000, Jay - Z released The Dynasty: Roc La Familia, which was originally intended to become a compilation album for Roc - A-Fella artists but Def Jam turned into a Jay - Z album. The album helped to introduce newcomer producers The Neptunes, Just Blaze, Kanye West, and Bink, which have all gone on to achieve notable success. This is also the first album where Jay - Z utilizes a more soulful sound than his previous albums. The Dynasty sold over two million units in the U.S. alone.
In 2001, Jay - Z spoke out against Prodigy after he took an issue with a Jay - Z line from "Money, Cash, Hoes '' that he felt alluded disparagingly to Mobb Deep and his dispute with Tupac Shakur, Snoop Dogg, and Death Row Records. He later performed the song "Takeover '', at Summer Jam 2001, which initially attacked Prodigy and revealed photos of Prodigy dressed like Michael Jackson. A line at the end of "Takeover '' referred to Nas, who criticized him on "We Will Survive ''. Nas responded with a diss track called "Ether '' and Jay - Z straightaway added a verse to "Takeover '' which dissed Nas and would start a feud between the two rappers. Jay - Z reported on MTV that Mark Pitts had settled the feud between him and Nas.
On September 11, 2001, hours before the September 11 attacks, Jay - Z released his sixth studio album, The Blueprint, which received a coveted 5 mic review from hip - hop magazine The Source. Written in just two days, the album sold more than 427,000 copies, debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and reached 2x platinum status in the U.S. It was lauded for its production and its balance of "mainstream '' and "hardcore '' rap. Eminem was the only guest rapper on the album, producing and rapping on the song "Renegade ''. Four tracks were produced by Kanye West and the album represents one of West 's first major breaks in the industry. The Blueprint includes the popular songs "Izzo (H.O.V.A.) '', "Girls, Girls, Girls '', "Jigga That Nigga '', and "Song Cry ''. As of February 2012, the album had sold 2,700,000 copies worldwide, even though its initial success had been overshadowed by the tragic events of 9 / 11.
In October 2001, Jay - Z pleaded guilty to stabbing record producer Lance Rivera at the Kit Kat Klub in New York City in 1999. For this second degree felony, Jay - Z was sentenced to three years probation.
Jay - Z 's next solo album was 2002 's The Blueprint: The Gift & the Curse, a double - album. The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one, selling over 3 million units in the U.S. alone and surpassing The Blueprint. It was later reissued in a single - disc version, The Blueprint 2.1, which retained half of the tracks from the original. The album spawned two massive hit singles, "Excuse Me Miss '' and "' 03 Bonnie & Clyde '', which featured Jay - Z 's future wife Beyoncé. "Guns & Roses '', featuring Lenny Kravitz, and "Hovi Baby '' were two successful radio singles as well. The album also contained the tracks "A Dream '', featuring Faith Evans and the late The Notorious B.I.G.; and "The Bounce '', featuring Kanye West. The Blueprint 2.1 featured tracks that do not appear on The Blueprint: The Gift & the Curse, such as "Stop '', "La La La (Excuse Me Again) '', "What They Gonna Do, Part II '' and "Beware '' produced by and featuring Panjabi MC.
After visiting the south of France, Jay - Z announced work on his eighth studio album The Black Album at the opening of the 40 / 40 Club. He worked with several producers including Just Blaze, The Neptunes, Kanye West, Timbaland, Eminem, DJ Quik, 9th Wonder, The Buchanans, and Rick Rubin. Notable songs on the album included "What More Can I Say '', "Dirt Off Your Shoulder '', "Change Clothes '', and "99 Problems ''. The Black Album has sold more than 3 million copies in the US. Jay - Z collaborated with R. Kelly and released a collaborative studio album, The Best of Both Worlds.
On November 25, 2003, Jay - Z held a concert -- billed as a "retirement party '' at Madison Square Garden in New York City, which would later be the focus of his film Fade to Black. All proceeds went to charity. Other performers included collaborators like the Roots (in the form of his backing band), Missy Elliott, Memphis Bleek, Beanie Siegel, Freeway, Mary J. Blige, Beyoncé, Twista, Ghostface Killah, Foxy Brown, Pharrell Williams and R. Kelly with special appearances by Voletta Wallace and Afeni Shakur, the mothers of The Notorious B.I.G. and Tupac Shakur respectively. While Jay - Z had attested to a retirement from making new studio albums, various side projects and appearances soon followed. Included in these were a greatest hits record, as well as the release and tour of Unfinished Business, the second collaborative album between Jay - Z and R. Kelly.
In 2004, Jay - Z collaborated with rock group Linkin Park, in which they released their collaborative remix EP Collision Course, which featured mashups of both artists ' songs, as well as a concert DVD. The album 's only single, "Numb / Encore '', went on to win a Grammy for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration, and was performed with Linkin Park live at the Grammys, with a special appearance by Paul McCartney, who added verses from the song "Yesterday ''. The EP sold over 1 million copies in the US. Jay - Z was the executive producer of The Rising Tied, the debut album of Fort Minor, the hip hop side project of Linkin Park rapper Mike Shinoda. Jay - Z also planned to retire in 2004.
Later in 2004, Jay - Z was named president of Def Jam Records, which led to Jay - Z, Dash and Biggs selling their remaining interests in Roc - A-Fella Records and Jay - Z taking control of both of the companies. Reportedly this major industry move was prompted by disagreements between Jay - Z and Dash as to what direction Roc - A-Fella could undertake. The publicized split between Jay - Z, Dash, and Biggs led to the former partners sending jabs at each other in interviews.
On October 27, 2005, Jay - Z headlined New York 's Power 105.1 annual concert, Powerhouse. The concert was entitled the "I Declare War '' concert leading to intense speculation in the weeks preceding the event on whom exactly Jay - Z would declare war. As he had previously "declared war '' on other artists taking lyrical shots at him at other events, many believed that the Powerhouse show would represent an all - out assault by Jay - Z upon his rivals. The theme of the concert was Jay - Z 's position as President and CEO of Def Jam, complete with an on - stage mock - up of the Oval Office. Many artists made appearances such as the old roster of Roc - A-Fella records artists, as well as Ne - Yo, Teairra Marí, T.I., Young Jeezy, Akon, Kanye West, Paul Wall, The LOX, and Diddy.
At the conclusion of the concert, Jay - Z put many arguments to rest to the surprise of hip hop fans. The most significant development in this show was closure to the infamous hip hop rivalry between Jay - Z and Nas. The two former rivals shook hands and shared the stage together to perform Jay - Z 's "Dead presidents '' blended with Nas 's song "The World is Yours ''.
Jay - Z returned with his comeback album on November 21, 2006, titled Kingdom Come. Jay - Z 's comeback single, "Show Me What You Got '', was leaked on the Internet in early October 2006, scheduled to be released later on that month, received heavy air - play after its leak, causing the FBI to step in and investigate. Jay - Z worked with video director Hype Williams, and the single 's video was directed by F. Gary Gray. The album features production from Just Blaze, Pharrell, Kanye West, Dr. Dre and Coldplay 's Chris Martin (single entitled "Beach Chair ''). The first week saw 680,000 sales of the CD, which Entertainment Weekly said was "the highest single - week total in Jay 's decade long career ''. This album has sold 2 million copies in the US.
Jay - Z released his tenth album entitled American Gangster on November 6, 2007. After viewing the Ridley Scott film of the same name, Jay - Z was heavily inspired to create a new "concept '' album that depicts his experiences as a street - hustler. The album is not the film 's official soundtrack, although it was distributed by Def Jam. Jay - Z 's American Gangster depicts his life in correlation to the movie American Gangster. At the start of the album 's first single, "Blue Magic '', Jay - Z offers a dealer 's manifesto while making references to political figures of the late 1980s with the lyric: "Blame Reagan for making me to into a monster, blame Oliver North and Iran - Contra, I ran contraband that they sponsored, before this rhymin ' stuff we was in concert. '' Also notable about the "Blue Magic '' music video was Jay - Z flashing € 500 euro notes; Harvard Business School professor Rawi Abdelal called this a "turning point in American pop culture 's response to globalization. '' The album has sold 1 million copies in the US. On January 1, 2008, Jay - Z resigned as president of Def Jam.
In the winter of 2008 it was announced that Jay - Z become the first major hip hop artist to headline Britain 's 2008 Glastonbury Festival. Tickets sold out quickly. Former headliner Noel Gallagher of Oasis condemned the festival organizers for choosing Jay - Z to headline a traditionally guitar - driven festival. "I 'm sorry, but Jay - Z? '' Gallagher asked, swearing. "No chance. Glastonbury has a tradition of, kind of, guitar music, do you know what I mean? And even when they throw the odd curve balls in on a Sunday night -- you go, ' Kylie Minogue? I do n't know about that ', do you know what I mean? -- but I 'm not having hip hop at Glastonbury, no way, no, no. It 's wrong. '' As controversy mounted, Jay - Z replied, "We do n't play guitars, Noel, but hip hop has put in its work like any other form of music. This headline show is just a natural progression. Rap music is still evolving. We have to respect each other 's genre of music and move forward. '' Jay - Z opened his Glastonbury set with a tongue - in - cheek cover of Oasis 's iconic song "Wonderwall '', and went on to deliver a performance heralded as a successful response to pre-festival criticism.
He also headlined many other summer festivals in 2008, including Roskilde Festival in Denmark, Hove Festival in Norway and O2 Wireless Festival in London. During Kanye West 's concert of August 6, 2008 at Madison Square Garden, Jay - Z came out to perform a new song and he and Kanye proclaimed that it was to be on The Blueprint 3. On May 21, 2009, Jay - Z announced he would be parting ways with Def Jam, and had struck a multimillion - dollar deal to sign with Live Nation, with whom he would start his Roc Nation imprint which would serve as a record label, talent / management agency, and music publishing company and also partnered up with production team Stargate to start a record label called StarRoc. Jay - Z 's 11th studio album The Blueprint 3 was originally to be released on September 11, 2009, but was instead released in North America on September 8, 2009, due to increasing anticipation. Its international release followed on September 14. It is his 11th album to reach No. 1 on the Billboard 200 and has surpassed Elvis Presley 's previous record, making him the current solo artist record holder.
On October 9, 2009, Jay - Z kicked off his tour for The Blueprint 3, during which he supported his new album in North America. In a Shave Magazine review of his performance at Rexall Place in Edmonton, Jake Tomlinson expressed that "It was the type of smooth performance you would expect from the hip - hop superstar. '' The review gave this performance 4 stars. His North American tour continued until November 22, 2009. At his concert on November 8, 2009, at UCLA 's Pauley Pavilion, Rihanna joined him on stage and performed "Hard '' for the very first time, then performed "Run This Town '' with Jay - Z. Among his success, Jay - Z has ventured into producing Broadway shows. Along with Jada Pinkett Smith and Will Smith, Jay - Z helped produced the play Fela!, a musical celebrating the work of the late Nigerian star Fela Kuti. Jay - Z said he was inspired by the power of Kuti 's work and his life story, which resulted in his interest to help produce the musical. Fela! is a story about an African pioneer and political activist who made his first moves on the scene during the 1970s.
On January 23, 2010, Jay - Z released a track, "Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour) '', with Rihanna, and U2 's Bono and The Edge, as well as performing it at the Hope For Haiti Now telethon. In June 2010, Eminem and Jay - Z announced they would perform together in a pair of concerts in Detroit and New York. The event was dubbed The Home & Home Tour. The first two concerts rapidly sold out, prompting the scheduling of an additional show at each venue. Jay - Z was the supporting act for U2 on the Australian and New Zealand leg of their U2 360 ° Tour, beginning in Auckland, New Zealand in November 2010, followed by Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth in December. Jay - Z also appeared on stage during U2 performances of "Sunday Bloody Sunday '', and in Auckland also on a five - track EP entitled Watch the Throne. Although, it was later revealed by West that the project had become a full - length LP. Recording sessions for the album took place at various recording locations and began in November 2010. The first single released for the project was "H A M ''. The track was co-produced by Lex Luger and West himself. The track ended up being on the deluxe edition of the album. The follow - up to that was the second single "Otis '', which premiered on Funkmaster Flex 's Hot 97 radio show, and was later released to the iTunes Store eleven days later. The song 's existence, along with several other tracks from the album, was confirmed during a listening session hosted by Jay - Z. The album was first released on the iTunes Store, five days prior to it being released in physical format, a strategy Jay - Z later said was used to block an internet leak. It debuted at No. 1 on the iTunes Store in 23 countries. It also broke Coldplay 's record for most albums sold in one week on the online retailer, selling 290,000 copies on iTunes alone. It held that record, until Lil Wayne 's Tha Carter IV was released twenty - one days later, selling only 10,000 copies more. It debuted on the US Billboard 200 chart at No. 1, selling 436,000 copies in its first week. The album received generally positive reviews. Jay - Z and West later gave a surprise performance of "Otis '' at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards. In April 2011, Jay - Z launched a blog - like, lifestyle website by the name of Life + Times. It covers everything from music, to fashion, to technology, to sports. The site is curated based on Jay - Z 's interests, and he himself works with a small staff to produce every single piece of content.
Jay - Z collaborated with M.I.A on her single "XXXO '', which achieved a fair level of success and went on to become remixed by several producers worldwide. In May 2012, Jay - Z and Philadelphia Mayor Michael A. Nutter announced Jay - Z as the curator and the headliner for the first annual "Budweiser Made in America '' festival at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia on September 1 and 2, 2012. The performance was produced by Live Nation and assembled an eclectic lineup of "rock, hip hop, R&B, Latin music and dance '' musicians. Jay - Z and Rihanna were the two main headlining acts for BBC Radio 1 's 2012 Hackney Weekend music festival on June 23 to 24. Jay - Z opened his set with an appearance from Rihanna, they performed "Run this Town ''. On September 6, "Clique '' was released, a single from the album "Cruel Summer '', by GOOD Music. Kanye West and Big Sean starred alongside Jay - Z on the track. Jay - Z took the subway to his sold out show at The Barclays Center on October 6, 2012. On November 12, 2012, Coldplay announced that they will be playing with Jay - Z at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn on December 31.
On September 23, 2010, Q - Tip confirmed working on Jay - Z 's follow up album to The Blueprint 3, saying the album was to hit stores by spring 2011. In May 2012 it was reported that Jay - Z would work on new music with Roc Nation producer Jahlil Beats. Beats told XXL: "Me and Jay - Z been going back and forth. He picked a couple of my joints that he 's working on. I do n't even wan na say too much about Jay, but we definitely working on some stuff. I have n't even sent him a bunch of beats. I sent him my favorite stuff. He hit me right back like, ' Yo, I'ma go in on this, ' or, ' I like this. ' '' The album has been named one of the most anticipated albums of 2013 by Complex Magazine, MTV, and XXL Magazine. Production will come from Jahlil Beats, Kanye West, Rick Rubin, Swizz Beatz, Timbaland, and Pharrell Williams. Jay - Z also made an appearance on Justin Timberlake 's comeback single "Suit & Tie '' from his third studio album The 20 / 20 Experience, the song itself was produced by both Jay - Z and Timberlake 's mutual friend, Timbaland. During the fifth game of the 2013 NBA Finals, Carter announced his twelfth studio album, Magna Carta Holy Grail, and was released on July 4, 2013. Not long after, Jay - Z confirmed that the hyphen in his stage name would be left out and officially stylized in all capital letters Magna Carta Holy Grail debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 528,000 copies in its first week, which bypassed its predicted debut in the range of 350,000 to 400,000. In December 2013, it was announced that Jay - Z had received nine nominations at the 2014 Grammy Awards, more than any other artist. Jay - Z appeared on his wife Beyoncé 's self - titled fifth studio album, Beyoncé, with a feature on the song "Drunk in Love ''. They performed this song together at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards opening. The song and its accompanying album would later win three Grammy Awards including Best R&B Performance at the 2015 ceremony.
In 2016, he won a lawsuit for the song "Made in America '' with Kanye West featuring Frank Ocean against Joel McDonald.
In early June 2017, posters were displayed in New York City and Los Angeles, as well as banner ads on the Internet promoting a TIDAL - related project titled 4: 44. A teaser ad was aired during the NBA Finals on June 7 featuring actors Mahershala Ali, Lupita Nyong'o and Danny Glover in a one - minute video, ending in "4: 44 -- 6.30. 17, Exclusively on Tidal ''. On June 18, the project was confirmed to be a new Jay - Z album, and a clip featuring a song titled "Adnis '' was posted on Sprint 's YouTube page.
4: 44 was released through Roc Nation and Universal Music Group, as an exclusive to Sprint and Tidal customers. The album is the first in a planned series of music exclusives from the Sprint -- Tidal partnership. For a short time, on July 2, the album was made available for free digital download in Tidal 's site. A physical edition was released on July 7, including three additional tracks. On the same day, the album was made available to other streaming platforms, such as Apple Music, Google Play Music and Amazon Music.
The album received widespread acclaim from critics, who praised its emotional and personal content. On July 5, the album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), in recognition of one million copies purchased by Sprint and offered to consumers as free downloads. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, making it Jay - Z 's 13th consecutive studio album to top the chart. The album spawned two singles, the title track "4: 44 '' and "Bam '', as well as several music videos, directed by a variety of high - profile collaborators. The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Album of the Year, while the title track was nominated for Song of the Year and "The Story of O.J. '' was nominated for Record of the Year at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
Jay - Z says his earliest exposure to music was through his parents ' record collection, which was mostly of soul artists such as Marvin Gaye and Donny Hathaway. He says "I grew up around music, listening to all types of people... I 'm into music that has soul in it, whether it be rap, R&B, pop music, whatever. As long as I can feel their soul through the wax, that 's what I really listen to. '' He often uses excerpts from these artists as samples in his work, particularly in the Kanye West - productions included on The Blueprint.
Royce da 5'9 '' and Fredro Starr of Onyx both describe Jay - Z 's emphasis on flow in the book How to Rap -- Starr says that Jay - Z is "a master of the flow -- he can flow fast, he can flow slow ''. The book describes how Jay - Z uses ' rests ' to provide structure to a verse and how he uses ' partial linking ' to add more rhymes to a verse. Jay - Z 's early style is described by Vibe as "a distinctly Das EFX - type, stiggety style '' on his 12 '' single "Ca n't Get With That '', referring to the fast rhythms and vocal delivery of the group Das EFX. He is also known to write lyrics in his head, as described by Pusha T of Clipse in How to Rap, a style popular with many MCs such as The Notorious B.I.G., Everlast, Bobby Creekwater and Guerilla Black. Shock G of Digital Underground describes Jay - Z 's performance style, saying he "rarely breaks a sweat, and instead uses smoothness and clever wordplay to keep the audience interested and entertained ''.
Jay - Z appeared in a 2003 Reebok collection advertising his S. Carter Collection.
Jay - Z has also established himself as a successful entrepreneur with a business empire spanning a variety of industries from clothing lines, beverages, real estate, sport teams, and record labels. In an interview, he stated that "my brands are an extension of me. They 're close to me. It 's not like running GM, where there 's no emotional attachment. '' Jay - Z and Damon Dash are the founders of the urban clothing brand Rocawear. Rocawear has clothing lines and accessories for men, women and children. The line was taken over by Jay - Z in early 2006 following a falling out with Dash. In March 2007, Jay - Z sold the rights to the Rocawear brand to Iconix Brand Group, for $204 million. He retains his stake in the company and continues to oversee the marketing, licensing and product development. He also co-owns the 40 / 40 Club, an upscale sports bar that started in New York City and has since expanded to Atlantic City and Chicago. In 2008, the 40 / 40 club in Las Vegas was closed down and bought back by the hotel after attendance steadily declined. Future plans will see 40 / 40 Clubs in Tokyo and Singapore. In 2005, Jay - Z became an investor in Carol 's Daughter, a line of beauty products, including products for hair, skin, and hands. In September 2013, his stake in Barclays Center was sold for $1.5 million.
Jay - Z serves as co-brand director for Budweiser Select and collaborates with the company on strategic marketing programs and creative ad development. He provides direction on brand programs and ads that appear on TV, radio, print, and high - profile events. He is also yet to expand his 40 / 40 Club sports bar in as many as 20 airports, as he makes deals with his business partners, Juan and Desiree Perez. He is a part - owner of the Brooklyn Nets NBA team, having paid a reported $4.5 million for his share, which declined in value to $350,000 in April 2013. He encouraged the team 's relocation to Brooklyn 's Barclays Center (from New Jersey) in the 2012 -- 2013 season, at which point the team took on the Brooklyn Nets moniker. In October 2005, he was reported in English media as considering buying a stake of Arsenal F.C., an English soccer team. He has also invested in a real estate development venture called J Hotels which recently acquired a $66 million mid-block parcel in Chelsea, New York. Jay - Z and his partners are contemplating constructing a high - end hotel or an art gallery building on the newly acquired site which has the potential to go up about twelve stories. Through his conglomerate company Gain Global Investments Network LLC, he had an interest estimated between 2 and 7 % in the Aqueduct Entertainment Group (AEG) consortium, which in January 2010 was awarded a contract to operate a 4,500 slot machine racino at the Aqueduct Race Track. Jay - Z became interested in the project after New York Governor David Paterson who awarded the contract said there had to be an affirmative action component to the ownership. Jay - Z initially approached by casino mogul Steve Wynn who was also bidding on the contract. On March 9, 2010, Jay - Z and Flake withdrew from the project and Paterson recused himself from further involvement.
On November 16, 2010, Jay - Z published a memoir entitled Decoded.
In April 2011, it was widely reported that Jay - Z had outbid executives at Universal Records and Jive Records to acquire independent record label Block Starz Music.
Jay - Z is also credited as the executive producer of the basketball video game NBA 2K13, where he worked on the look and feel of the game along with its soundtrack.
On April 2, 2013, ESPN Jay - Z launched his own sports agency, Roc Nation Sports, with a focus on the representations of various professional athletes. The sport management group will work as partners with Creative Artists Agency. In conjunction with the agency 's launch, New York Yankees 's second baseman Robinson Canó left agent Scott Boras to sign with the company. Sources have mentioned that Jay - Z himself is planning to be a certified sports agent, first in baseball and eventually in basketball and football. In order to represent clients in basketball, he would have to give up his small share of the Brooklyn Nets. On April 18, 2013 Jay - Z officially announced through his Life + Times website in a press release that he will be relinquishing his ownership in the Brooklyn Nets. The shares were eventually sold to singer, rapper, actor and entrepreneur Will Pan, making Wilber the first American of Taiwanese descent to own a US professional sports franchise. Jay - Z 's cited Wilber 's athletic background (he was a team captain of his high school basketball team and played in college), his multitude of musical styles, his influence in the Taiwanese American community, and his business acumen and portfolio (including being the founder and chief executive of software company Camigo Media and a co-founder of streetwear boutique N.P.C (New Project Center)), as reasons why his bid was successful.
In 2014, Jay - Z invested $200 million in Armand de Brignac champagne owned Sovereign Brands, a New York - based wine and spirits company for a 100 percent stake, making it the second alcoholic product acquisition in his financial investment portfolio. The brand is known for its popularity with high - profile artists as being the gold bottles often referred to in media. His ties to the company date back to 2006, and he received millions of dollars per year for his association with Armand de Brignac before he bought the entire company.
In March 2015, Jay - Z completed the $56 million acquisition of Aspiro, a Norwegian media technology company that operates the subscription - based music streaming service Tidal, which has been in operation since October 2014. The music service was acquired through his company Project Panther Bidco Ltd. (an entity indirectly owned by Jay - Z 's S. Carter Enterprises a company holding interests in leading international music, media and entertainment companies). The acquisition was completed with the help of Mooreland Partners, a leading global technology - focused M&A advisory firm, which acted as financial advisor to Aspiro. The music service combines lossless audio and high definition music videos with curated editorial. The main idea of the service is to bring major revenue streams back to the music artists themselves as the idea of an artist - owned streaming platform was stated as to "restore the value to music by launching a service owned by artists. '' Jay - Z currently is a major shareholder in the company.
Parlux fragrances sued Jay - Z for $18 million for the failure of his cologne, Gold. They claim the cologne 's failure is due to Jay - Z not doing social media posts and interviews about the cologne. Parlux claims they projected selling $15 million the first year, and $35 million the second, and subsequent years after the launch. The fragrance sold $14 million the first year and $6.1 million the second. Parlux supposedly lost money on the venture and have had constant returns of unsold inventory.
In July 2015, Carter invested $20 million in JetSmarter, an app that lets people book private executive plane rides in seconds. The app was built by 27 - year - old entrepreneur Sergey Petrossev.
Jay - Z collaborated with Cohiba to launch his own cigars.
He signed a two - year exclusive film and TV Deal with Weinstein Company and with the deal gives them first - look options to create scripted and unscripted TV projects and film projects, and those projects were in works. As part of his deal with Weinstein company, he produced a documentary series on the life of Kalief Browder who was imprisoned for three years and committed suicide upon his release. He also addressed racial profiling and police brutality in a conscious manner.
Jay - Z is married to American R&B singer Beyoncé. In 2002, Jay - Z and Beyoncé collaborated for the song "' 03 Bonnie & Clyde ''. Jay - Z also appeared on Beyoncé 's hit single "Crazy in Love '' as well as "That 's How You Like It '' from her debut album Dangerously in Love. On her second album, B'Day, he made appearances on the 2006 hits, "Déjà Vu '' and "Upgrade U ''. In the video for the latter song, she comically imitates his appearance. The couple generally avoids discussing their relationship. Beyoncé has stated that she believes that not publicly discussing their relationship has helped them. Jay - Z said in a People article, "We do n't play with our relationship. '' They kept a low profile while dating, and married in April 2008. It became a matter of public record on April 22, 2008, but Beyoncé did not publicly debut her $5 million Lorraine Schwartz - designed wedding ring until the Fashion Rocks concert on September 5, 2008 in New York City.
Beyoncé and Jay - Z were listed as the most powerful couple for TIME magazine 's 100 most influential people of 2006. In January 2009, Forbes ranked them as Hollywood 's top - earning couple, with a combined total of $162 million. They made it to the top of the list the following year, with a combined total of $122 million between June 2008 and June 2009.
At the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, Beyoncé revealed that she was pregnant with their first child and on January 7, 2012 she gave birth to their daughter, Blue Ivy Carter, at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York. On January 9, 2012, Jay - Z released "Glory '', a song dedicated to their child, on his social website LifeandTimes.com. The song detailed the couple 's pregnancy struggles, including a miscarriage Beyoncé suffered before becoming pregnant with their daughter. Because Blue 's cries were included at the end of the song and she was officially credited on the song as "B.I.C '', at two days old she became the youngest person ever to appear on a Billboard chart when "Glory '' debuted on Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs at number 74. On June 18, 2017, Beyoncé 's father Mathew Knowles confirmed that she had given birth to twins with Jay - Z.
On December 1, 1999, Jay - Z, who had come to believe that record executive Lance "Un '' Rivera was behind the bootlegging of Vol. 3..., allegedly stabbed Rivera at the release party for Q - Tip 's album Amplified at the Kit Kat Klub, a now - defunct night club in Times Square, New York City. Jay - Z 's associates at the party were accused of causing a commotion within the club, which Jay - Z allegedly used as cover when he supposedly stabbed Rivera in the stomach with a five - inch (127 mm) blade. He surrendered to police the following evening and was placed under arrest, although he was soon released on $50,000 bail. When he was indicted in Manhattan Criminal Court in late January 2000, he pleaded not guilty; he and his lawyers contended that they had witnesses and videotapes proving he had been nowhere near Rivera during the incident. Nevertheless, he later pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor and accepted a three - year probation sentence.
Jay - Z later addressed the case in his 2010 book Decoded:
One night I went to Q - Tip 's solo album release party and at some point in the night, I ran into the guy everyone 's been telling me is behind the bootleg. So I approached him. When I told him what I suspected, to my surprise, he got real loud with me right there in the middle of the club. It was strange. We separated and I went over to the bar. I was sitting there like, "No the fuck this nigga did not... '' I was talking to people, but I was really talking to myself out loud, just in a state of shock. Before I even realized what I was doing, I headed back over to him, but this time I was blacking out with anger. The next thing I knew, all hell had broken loose in the club. That night the guy went straight to the police and I was indicted...
There was no reason to put my life on the line, and the lives of everyone who depends on me, because of a momentary loss of control... I vowed to never allow myself to be in a situation like that again.
During his retirement, Jay - Z also became involved in philanthropic activity. In 2003, Jay - Z, together with his mother, founded The Shawn Carter Foundation, which has assisted eligible students facing socio - economic hardships through college. On August 9, 2006, he met with United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan at the organization 's headquarters in New York City. The rapper pledged to use his upcoming world tour to raise awareness of and combat global water shortage. Already on the look - out for a way to, in his own words, "become helpful '', he had been made aware of this issue during a visit to Africa by Bono from the rock group U2. The effort took place in partnership with the UN, as well as MTV, which produced a documentary entitled Diary of Jay - Z: Water for Life, first airing in November 2006. Along with Sean "Diddy '' Combs, Jay - Z pledged $1 million to the American Red Cross ' relief effort after Hurricane Katrina. Jay - Z stated his support for Kanye West after the latter 's outburst against President Bush during a live Katrina charity telethon. He also addressed the issue of the Katrina disaster, and the government 's response, in his one verse song "Minority Report ''.
Jay - Z has previously stated in a song that "the greatest form of giving is anonymous to anonymous '' and, in 2013, it was revealed by author dream hampton, who co-wrote Jay - Z 's book Decoded, that he quietly established a trust fund for Sean Bell 's children.
In 2006, Jay - Z appeared with Russell Simmons in a PSA combatting racism and anti-Semitism organized by the Foundation for Ethnic Understanding. By 2008, Jay - Z was actively involved in the 2008 presidential campaign, where he supported increased voter participation and helped send voters to polling stations. He was an early supporter for the candidacy of Illinois senator and subsequent U.S. president Barack Obama, performing for free in voter - drive concerts financed by the Democrats ' campaign. He also became acquainted with Obama himself, who stated "Every time I talk to Jay - Z, who is a brilliant talent and a good guy, I enjoy how he thinks. That 's somebody who is going to start branching out and can help shape attitudes in a real positive way. '' During the 2010 mid-term elections ' campaign, Jay - Z appeared, along with other artists, in an ad prepared by the HeadCount organization, urging voters, and especially younger ones, to register and vote. In May 2012, Jay - Z announced his endorsement of President Obama 's support of same - sex marriage and participated in his re-election campaign.
Musician and civil rights activist Harry Belafonte has been openly critical of Jay - Z and Beyoncé in their relatively safe political stances, saying that they "have turned their back on social responsibility '' in an interview with the Hollywood Reporter. A Syracuse University finance professor also gave similar opinions, pointing to Jay - Z 's only giving $6,000 to charity after making $63 million in 2012. He also voiced that the hip - hop mogul likely would never have come out in support of gay marriage had President Obama not first taken the initiative.
In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Jay - Z and Beyoncé supported presidential candidate Hillary Clinton at her rally in Cleveland. Clinton praised Jay - Z for addressing racism, oppression, and the criminal justice system.
Solo albums
Collaborative albums
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where did the phrase go to hell in a handbasket come from
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To hell in a Handbasket - wikipedia
"Going to hell in a handbasket '', "going to hell in a handcart '', "going to hell in a handbag '', "go to hell in a bucket '', "sending something to hell in a handbasket '' and "something being like hell in a handbasket '' are variations on an American allegorical locution of unclear origin, which describes a situation headed for disaster inescapably or precipitately.
I. Windslow Ayer 's 1865 polemic alleges, "Judge Morris of the Circuit Court of Illinois at an August meeting of Order of the Sons of Liberty said: "Thousands of our best men were prisoners in Camp Douglas, and if once at liberty would ' send abolitionists to hell in a hand basket. ' ''
The phrase also appeared in the title of several published works and other media:
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top 10 cities in new jersey by population
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List of municipalities in New Jersey - wikipedia
This is a list of the 565 municipalities in the U.S. state of New Jersey, ordered by population. There are five types of municipality in the state -- boroughs (254), cities (52), towns (15), townships (241), and villages (3). New Jersey, the fourth - smallest state, covers 8,722 square miles (22,590 km), meaning the average land size of a municipality in the state is about 15 square miles (39 km) -- but note the wide range of actual sizes in the map at right.
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who won more love it or list it
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Love It or List It - wikipedia
Love It or List It is a Canadian home design TV show currently airing on HGTV, W Network, and on OWN Canada, and is the original show in the Love it or List It franchise. The show is produced by Big Coat Productions and was based in Toronto and other surrounding areas in Ontario, Canada. The show premiered as a primetime program on W Network on September 8, 2008, and has since aired on OWN Canada as well as HGTV in the United States. In September 2014, the show began filming in the United States in North Carolina.
In September 2017, HGTV ordered 20 additional episodes of the program. The next season is to start airing in June 2018.
Every episode of Love It or List It follows the same formula. A couple (usually, but not in all cases) presents their living situation in the current house that they own. In most episodes, the couple is split on whether or not they want to stay in the house.
Interior designer Hilary Farr and real estate agent David Visentin tour the couple 's home before meeting with them. The tour usually consists of David finding mostly negative things to say about the residence while Hilary is convinced that she can work magic with whatever plans she is given.
At the meetup between the couple and the hosts of the show, both Hilary and David are briefed as to what the couple 's desires are. Hilary is given a list of renovations the couple wants for the current house and her budget for the entire project. David, meanwhile, is tasked with searching for a new home for the couple that both meets their needs and stays within their desired budget.
Common challenges faced by Hilary are an inadequate budget to complete the entire request list from the homeowners, often due to discovery of unforeseen issues with the house that are uncovered during the renovation such as lack of compliance with modern building codes. Common issues for David, meanwhile, depend on the homeowners ' desires; for instance, the couple has children enrolled in the neighborhood school and they do not desire to change, or the potential house is too distant from family members or a workplace.
After Hilary 's renovation is complete, the homeowners are given a tour of their current home to see what she was able to accomplish. After the tour, David meets with them and hands them an evaluation of the home 's current market value following the renovations. He will then remind the couple what they could have in one of the new homes they looked at and that they would not get that in their current home.
After a moment to deliberate, Hilary and David pose a question to the homeowners. They must choose to either Love It, meaning that they will continue to live in their current home with the renovations, or to List It, meaning that they will buy one of the homes David showed them and sell their current home. After they reveal their decision, the homeowners explain their reasoning to Hilary and David (who, if they decided to Love It, reacts with incredulity) before bidding them farewell.
Hosts
Assistant Designer
Contractors
Behind the Scenes
Victories for Hilary are families or clients who decided to love their home and stay. Victories for David are families and clients who decided to list and move into a new or better home.
Love It or List It has spawned five spinoffs. The first, known as Love It or List It Vancouver (or Love it or List it Too in the US), was launched in winter 2012 and is hosted by Jillian Harris and Todd Talbot. The second spin - off, a British version known as Love It or List It UK, debuted in 2015, is hosted by Kirstie Allsopp and Phil Spencer. The third spin off, Love It or List It Vacation Homes debuted in spring 2016 and is hosted by Dan Vickery and Elisa Goldhawke. A fourth spin off, Vendre ou renover au Quebec debuted in January 2017 and is hosted by Maika Desnoyers and Daniel Corbin. The fifth spin off, Love It Or List It Australia debuted in September 2017 and is hosted by Andrew Winter and Neale Whittaker.
On August 31, 2010, Love It or List It was nominated for two Gemini Awards: Best Reality Program or Series and Best Direction in a Reality Program or Series. When HGTV premiered the show on the network, the company stated that Love It or List It has been the highest rating reality series since Candice Olson 's Candice Tells All.
In 2012, New York Times ' columnist Gail Collins noted that it was US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton 's favorite TV show. According to Collins, Clinton finds the show "very calming '' after being interviewed about her departure from politics.
In a 2013 interview with Las Vegas Magazine, Vanna White from Wheel of Fortune said it was one of her favourite HGTV programs. Actress Julianne Moore also gave similar praise for the show in an interview with Katie Couric and the Daily Mail.
According to the Wall Street Journal, the show and its Vancouver spinoff is one of Canada 's beloved reality series.
In April 2016, homeowners Deanna Murphy and Tim Sullivan who had participated in a 2015 Love It or List It episode filed suit against production company Big Coat TV, as well as the North Carolina contractor (Aaron Fitz Construction) who had been hired by the show to do the renovations on their home. The couple alleges that the renovation funds that they provided were not properly disbursed, and that the work on their home was done to a substandard quality. Moreover, the lawsuit states that the television personalities on the show do not play an active role in the renovation process, and that they were not shown homes on the market by any licensed North Carolina real estate agent. Big Coat TV has commented that they "do intend to vigorously defend what (they) consider to be false allegations. ''
The suit was settled in April 2017. The plaintiffs had signed a confidentiality agreement; their lawyer would not comment on the settlement. Big Coat had previously filed a countersuit for libel, slander and product disparagement; parts of that suit had been dismissed by the time of the settlement but that was under appeal by Big Coat. After the agreements had been concluded, both suits were dismissed.
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who created the quote never judge a book by its cover
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Do n't judge a book by its cover - Wikipedia
The English idiom "do n't judge a book by its cover '' is a metaphorical phrase which means "you should n't prejudge the worth or value of something by its outward appearance alone ''. For example "That man may look very small and insignificant, but do n't judge a book by its cover -- he 's a very powerful man in his circle ''.
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when was poem added to statue of liberty
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The New Colossus - wikipedia
"The New Colossus '' is a sonnet that American poet Emma Lazarus (1849 -- 1887) wrote in 1883 to raise money for the construction of a pedestal for the Statue of Liberty. In 1903, the poem was cast onto a bronze plaque and mounted inside the pedestal 's lower level.
This poem was written as a donation to an auction of art and literary works conducted by the "Art Loan Fund Exhibition in Aid of the Bartholdi Pedestal Fund for the Statue of Liberty '' to raise money for the pedestal 's construction. Lazarus 's contribution was solicited by fundraiser William Maxwell Evarts. Initially she refused but writer Constance Cary Harrison convinced her that the statue would be of great significance to immigrants sailing into the harbor.
"The New Colossus '' was the first entry read at the exhibit 's opening on November 2, 1883. It remained associated with the exhibit through a published catalog until the exhibit closed after the pedestal was fully funded in August 1885, but was forgotten and played no role at the opening of the statue in 1886. It was, however, published in Joseph Pulitzer 's New York World as well as The New York Times during this time period. In 1901, Lazarus 's friend Georgina Schuyler began an effort to memorialize Lazarus and her poem, which succeeded in 1903 when a plaque bearing the text of the poem was put on the inner wall of the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty.
On the plaque hanging inside the Statue of Liberty, the line "Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp! '' is missing a comma, and reads in Lazarus 's manuscript "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp! '' since its unveiling in 1903. The plaque also describes itself as an engraving; it is actually a casting.
The original manuscript is held by the American Jewish Historical Society.
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea - washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name MOTHER OF EXILES. From her beacon - hand Glows world - wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air - bridged harbor that twin cities frame. "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp! '' cries she With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest - tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door! ''
The poem is a Petrarchan sonnet.
The title of the poem and the first two lines refer to the Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, sometimes described as standing astride the harbor.
The "sea - washed, sunset gates '' are the mouths of the Hudson and East Rivers, to the west of Brooklyn. The "imprisoned lightning '' refers to the electric light in the torch, then a novelty.
The "air - bridged harbor that twin cities frame '' refers to New York Harbor between New York City and Brooklyn, which were consolidated into one unit in 1898, 15 years after the poem was written.
The "huddled masses '' are the many immigrants coming to the United States (many of them through Ellis Island at the port of New York).
Paul Auster wrote that "Bartholdi 's gigantic effigy was originally intended as a monument to the principles of international republicanism, but ' The New Colossus ' reinvented the statue 's purpose, turning Liberty into a welcoming mother, a symbol of hope to the outcasts and downtrodden of the world. ''
John T. Cunningham wrote that "The Statue of Liberty was not conceived and sculpted as a symbol of immigration, but it quickly became so as immigrant ships passed under the torch and the shining face, heading toward Ellis Island. However, it was (Lazarus 's poem) that permanently stamped on Miss Liberty the role of unofficial greeter of incoming immigrants. ''
The poem has entered the political realm. It was quoted in John F. Kennedy 's book A Nation of Immigrants (1958) as well as a 2010 political speech by President Obama advocating immigration policy reform. On August 2, 2017, the poem and its importance to the Statue of Liberty 's symbolism, and thus the effect on American immigration policy, was debated in a White House briefing.
Classical composer David Ludwig set the poem to music, which was performed at the worship service of President Obama 's 2013 inauguration ceremony.
Author and scholar Julia Gordon - Bramer theorizes that Sylvia Plath 's poem, "Lady Lazarus, '' is about the Statue of Liberty and Lazarus in her book, Fixed Stars Govern a Life: Decoding Sylvia Plath, volume one (2014, Stephen F. Austin State University Press).
Parts of the poem also appear in popular culture. The Broadway musical Miss Liberty, with music and lyrics by Irving Berlin, an immigrant himself, used the final stanza beginning "Give me your tired, your poor '' as the basis for a song. It was also read in the 1941 film Hold Back the Dawn as well as being recited by the heroine in Alfred Hitchcock 's wartime film Saboteur. Harpist and singer Joanna Newsom indirectly references the poem in her 2015 song "Sapokanikan, '' in contrast to the forbidding colossus of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's Ozymandias. The poem is read aloud in the eponymous episode, "New Colossus '', in the 2016 Netflix web series The OA.
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what type of macro molecule is an enzyme
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Macromolecule - wikipedia
A macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as protein, commonly created by the polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers). They are typically composed of thousands of atoms or more. The most common macromolecules in biochemistry are biopolymers (nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids) and large non-polymeric molecules (such as lipids and macrocycles). Synthetic macromolecules include common plastics and synthetic fibers as well as experimental materials such as carbon nanotubes.
A molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass.
1. In many cases, especially for synthetic polymers, a molecule can be regarded as having a high relative molecular mass if the addition or removal of one or a few of the units has a negligible effect on the molecular properties. This statement fails in the case of certain macromolecules for which the properties may be critically dependent on fine details of the molecular structure.
The term macromolecule (macro - + molecule) was coined by Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger in the 1920s, although his first relevant publication on this field only mentions high molecular compounds (in excess of 1,000 atoms). At that time the phrase polymer, as introduced by Berzelius in 1833, had a different meaning from that of today: it simply was another form of isomerism for example with benzene and acetylene and had little to do with size.
Usage of the term to describe large molecules varies among the disciplines. For example, while biology refers to macromolecules as the four large molecules comprising living things, in chemistry, the term may refer to aggregates of two or more molecules held together by intermolecular forces rather than covalent bonds but which do not readily dissociate.
According to the standard IUPAC definition, the term macromolecule as used in polymer science refers only to a single molecule. For example, a single polymeric molecule is appropriately described as a "macromolecule '' or "polymer molecule '' rather than a "polymer, '' which suggests a substance composed of macromolecules.
Because of their size, macromolecules are not conveniently described in terms of stoichiometry alone. The structure of simple macromolecules, such as homopolymers, may be described in terms of the individual monomer subunit and total molecular mass. Complicated biomacromolecules, on the other hand, require multi-faceted structural description such as the hierarchy of structures used to describe proteins. In British English, the word "macromolecule '' tends to be called "high polymer ''.
Macromolecules often have unusual physical properties that do not occur for smaller molecules.
For example, DNA in a solution can be broken simply by sucking the solution through an ordinary straw because the physical forces on the molecule can overcome the strength of its covalent bonds. The 1964 edition of Linus Pauling 's College Chemistry asserted that DNA in nature is never longer than about 5,000 base pairs. This error arose because biochemists were inadvertently breaking their samples into fragments. In fact, the DNA of chromosomes can be hundreds of millions of base pairs long, packaged into chromatin.
Another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar solvents, instead forming colloids. Many require salts or particular ions to dissolve in water. Similarly, many proteins will denature if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low.
High concentrations of macromolecules in a solution can alter the rates and equilibrium constants of the reactions of other macromolecules, through an effect known as macromolecular crowding. This comes from macromolecules excluding other molecules from a large part of the volume of the solution, thereby increasing the effective concentrations of these molecules.
All living organisms are dependent on three essential biopolymers for their biological functions: DNA, RNA and proteins. Each of these molecules is required for life since each plays a distinct, indispensable role in the cell. The simple summary is that DNA makes RNA, and then RNA makes proteins.
DNA, RNA, and proteins all consist of a repeating structure of related building blocks (nucleotides in the case of DNA and RNA, amino acids in the case of proteins). In general, they are all unbranched polymers, and so can be represented in the form of a string. Indeed, they can be viewed as a string of beads, with each bead representing a single nucleotide or amino acid monomer linked together through covalent chemical bonds into a very long chain.
In most cases, the monomers within the chain have a strong propensity to interact with other amino acids or nucleotides. In DNA and RNA, this can take the form of Watson - Crick base pairs (G-C and A-T or A-U), although many more complicated interactions can and do occur.
Because of the double - stranded nature of DNA, essentially all of the nucleotides take the form of Watson - Crick base pairs between nucleotides on the two complementary strands of the double - helix.
In contrast, both RNA and proteins are normally single - stranded. Therefore, they are not constrained by the regular geometry of the DNA double helix, and so fold into complex three - dimensional shapes dependent on their sequence. These different shapes are responsible for many of the common properties of RNA and proteins, including the formation of specific binding pockets, and the ability to catalyse biochemical reactions.
DNA is an information storage macromolecule that encodes the complete set of instructions (the genome) that are required to assemble, maintain, and reproduce every living organism.
DNA and RNA are both capable of encoding genetic information, because there are biochemical mechanisms which read the information coded within a DNA or RNA sequence and use it to generate a specified protein. On the other hand, the sequence information of a protein molecule is not used by cells to functionally encode genetic information.
DNA has three primary attributes that allow it to be far better than RNA at encoding genetic information. First, it is normally double - stranded, so that there are a minimum of two copies of the information encoding each gene in every cell. Second, DNA has a much greater stability against breakdown than does RNA, an attribute primarily associated with the absence of the 2 ' - hydroxyl group within every nucleotide of DNA. Third, highly sophisticated DNA surveillance and repair systems are present which monitor damage to the DNA and repair the sequence when necessary. Analogous systems have not evolved for repairing damaged RNA molecules. Consequently, chromosomes can contain many billions of atoms, arranged in a specific chemical structure.
Proteins are functional macromolecules responsible for catalysing the biochemical reactions that sustain life. Proteins carry out all functions of an organism, for example photosynthesis, neural function, vision, and movement.
The single - stranded nature of protein molecules, together with their composition of 20 or more different amino acid building blocks, allows them to fold in to a vast number of different three - dimensional shapes, while providing binding pockets through which they can specifically interact with all manner of molecules. In addition, the chemical diversity of the different amino acids, together with different chemical environments afforded by local 3D structure, enables many proteins to act as enzymes, catalyzing a wide range of specific biochemical transformations within cells. In addition, proteins have evolved the ability to bind a wide range of cofactors and coenzymes, smaller molecules that can endow the protein with specific activities beyond those associated with the polypeptide chain alone.
RNA is multifunctional, its primary function is to encode proteins, according to the instructions within a cell 's DNA. They control and regulate many aspects of protein synthesis in eukaryotes.
RNA encodes genetic information that can be translated into the amino acid sequence of proteins, as evidenced by the messenger RNA molecules present within every cell, and the RNA genomes of a large number of viruses. The single - stranded nature of RNA, together with tendency for rapid breakdown and a lack of repair systems means that RNA is not so well suited for the long - term storage of genetic information as is DNA.
In addition, RNA is a single - stranded polymer that can, like proteins, fold into a very large number of three - dimensional structures. Some of these structures provide binding sites for other molecules and chemically - active centers that can catalyze specific chemical reactions on those bound molecules. The limited number of different building blocks of RNA (4 nucleotides vs > 20 amino acids in proteins), together with their lack of chemical diversity, results in catalytic RNA (ribozymes) being generally less - effective catalysts than proteins for most biological reactions.
Carbohydrate macromolecules (polysaccharides) are formed from polymers of monosaccharides. Because monosaccharides have multiple functional groups, polysaccharides can form linear polymers (e.g. cellulose) or complex branched structures (e.g. glycogen). Polysaccharides perform numerous roles in living organisms, acting as energy stores (e.g. starch) and as structural components (e.g. chitin in arthropods and fungi). Many carbohydrates contain modified monosaccharide units that have had functional groups replaced or removed.
Polyphenols consist of a branched structure of multiple phenolic subunits. They can perform structural roles (e.g. lignin) as well as roles as secondary metabolites involved in signalling, pigmentation and defense.
Some examples of macromolecules are synthetic polymers (plastics, synthetic fibers, and synthetic rubber), graphene, and carbon nanotubes. Polymers may be prepared from inorganic matter as well as for instance in inorganic polymers and geopolymers. The incorporation of inorganic elements enables the tunability of properties and / or responsive behavior as for instance in smart inorganic polymers.
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who said why dont you come up and see me sometime
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Mae West - wikipedia
Mary Jane "Mae '' West (August 17, 1893 -- November 22, 1980) was an American actress, singer, playwright, screenwriter, comedian, and sex symbol whose entertainment career spanned seven decades.
Known for her lighthearted bawdy double entendres, and breezy sexual independence, West made a name for herself in vaudeville and on the stage in New York City before moving to Hollywood to become a comedian, actress, and writer in the motion picture industry, as well as appearing on radio and television. For her contributions to American cinema, the American Film Institute named West 15th among the greatest female stars of classic American cinema.
One of the more controversial movie stars of her day, West encountered many problems, especially censorship. She bucked the system, making comedy out of prudish conventional mores, and the Depression - era audience admired her for it. When her cinematic career ended, she wrote books and plays, and continued to perform in Las Vegas, in the United Kingdom, and on radio and television, and to record rock and roll albums. Asked about the various efforts to impede her career, West replied: "I believe in censorship. I made a fortune out of it. '' While true, she also suffered greatly because of it, even going to jail for her right to freedom of speech.
West was born in Bushwick, Brooklyn on August 17, 1893, having been delivered at home by an aunt who was a midwife. She was the eldest surviving child of John Patrick West and Matilda "Tillie '' Delker (sometimes spelled "Dilker ''). Delker and her five siblings emigrated with their parents, Jacob and Christiana, from the German state of Bavaria in 1886. West 's parents married on January 18, 1889, in Brooklyn and reared their children as Protestants, although John West was of mixed Catholic - Protestant descent and Matilda "Tillie '' Delker was of Jewish descent.
West 's father was a prizefighter known as "Battlin ' Jack West '' who later worked as a "special policeman '', and later had his own private investigations agency. Her mother was a former corset and fashion model. Her paternal grandmother, Mary Jane (née Copley), for whom she was named, was of Irish Catholic descent, and West 's paternal grandfather, John Edwin West, was of English - Scots descent and a ship 's rigger.
Her eldest sibling, Katie, died in infancy. Her other siblings were Mildred Katherine West, later known as Beverly (December 8, 1898 -- March 12, 1982), and John Edwin West, II (sometimes inaccurately called "John Edwin West, Jr. ''; February 11, 1900 -- October 12, 1964). During her childhood, West 's family moved to various parts of Woodhaven, as well as the Williamsburg and Greenpoint neighborhoods of Brooklyn. In Woodhaven, at Neir 's Social Hall (which opened in 1829 and is still existent), West supposedly first performed professionally.
West was five when she first entertained a crowd at a church social, and she started appearing in amateur shows at the age of seven. She often won prizes at local talent contests. She began performing professionally in vaudeville in the Hal Clarendon Stock Company in 1907 at the age of 14. West first performed under the stage name "Baby Mae:, and tried various personas, including a male impersonator, She used the alias "Jane Mast '' early in her career. Her trademark walk was said to have been inspired or influenced by female impersonators Bert Savoy and Julian Eltinge, who were famous during the Pansy Craze. Her first appearance in a Broadway show was in a 1911 revue A La Broadway put on by her former dancing teacher, Ned Wayburn. The show folded after eight performances, but at age 18, West was singled out and discovered by The New York Times. The Times reviewer wrote that a "girl named Mae West, hitherto unknown, pleased by her grotesquerie and snappy way of singing and dancing. '' West next appeared in a show called Vera Violetta, whose cast featured Al Jolson. In 1912, she appeared in the opening performance of A Winsome Widow as a "baby vamp '' named La Petite Daffy.
She was encouraged as a performer by her mother, who according to West, always thought that anything Mae did was fantastic. Other family members were less encouraging, including an aunt and her paternal grandmother. They are all reported as having disapproved of her career and her choices. In 1918, after exiting several high - profile revues, West finally got her break in the Shubert Brothers revue Sometime, opposite Ed Wynn. Her character Mayme danced the shimmy, and her photograph appeared on an edition of the sheet music for the popular number "Ev'rybody Shimmies Now ''.
Eventually, she began writing her own risqué plays using the pen name Jane Mast. Her first starring role on Broadway was in a 1926 play she entitled Sex, which she wrote, produced, and directed. Although conservative critics panned the show, ticket sales were hot. The production did not go over well with city officials, who had received complaints from some religious groups, and the theater was raided, with West arrested along with the cast. She was taken to the Jefferson Market Court House, (now Jefferson Market Library), where she was prosecuted on morals charges, and on April 19, 1927, was sentenced to 10 days for "corrupting the morals of youth ''. Though West could have paid a fine, and been let off, she chose the jail sentence for the publicity it would garner. While incarcerated on Welfare Island (now known as Roosevelt Island), she dined with the warden and his wife; she told reporters that she had worn her silk panties while serving time, in lieu of the "burlap '' the other girls had to wear. West got great mileage from this jail stint. She served eight days with two days off for "good '' behavior. Media attention surrounding the incident enhanced her career, by crowning her the darling "bad girl '' who "had climbed the ladder of success wrong by wrong. ''
Her next play, The Drag, dealt with homosexuality, and was what West called one of her "comedy - dramas of life ''. After a series of try - outs in Connecticut and New Jersey, West announced she would open the play in New York. However, The Drag never opened on Broadway due to efforts by the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice to ban any attempt by West to stage it. West explained, "the city fathers begged me not to bring the show to New York because they were not equipped to handle the commotion it would cause. '' West was an early supporter of the women 's liberation movement, but said she was not a "burn your bra '' type feminist. Since the 1920s, she was also an early supporter of gay rights.
West continued to write plays, including The Wicked Age, Pleasure Man, and The Constant Sinner. Her productions aroused controversy, which ensured that she stayed in the news, which also often resulted in packed houses at her performances. Her 1928 play, Diamond Lil, about a racy, easygoing, and ultimately very smart lady of the 1890s, became a Broadway hit, and cemented West 's image in the public 's eye. This show had an enduring popularity and West successfully revived it many times throughout the course of her career. With Diamond Lil being a hit show, Hollywood naturally came courting.
In 1932, West was offered a motion picture contract by Paramount Pictures despite being close to 40. This was an unusually late age to begin a movie career, especially for women, but she was not playing an ingénue, and her characterization of a freewheeling, sexually secure, and liberated woman was timeless and ageless. She nonetheless managed to keep her age ambiguous for some years. She made her film debut in 1932 's Night After Night starring George Raft, who suggested her for the role, and helped secure her entry into film history. At first, she did not like her small role in Night After Night, but was appeased when she was allowed to rewrite her scenes. In West 's first scene, a hat - check girl exclaims, "Goodness, what beautiful diamonds '', and West replies, "Goodness had nothing to do with it, dearie. '' Reflecting on the overall result of her rewritten scenes, Raft is said to have remarked, "She stole everything but the cameras. ''
She brought her Diamond Lil character, now renamed "Lady Lou '', to the screen in She Done Him Wrong (1933). The film is also notable as one of Cary Grant 's first major roles, which boosted his career. West claimed she spotted Grant at the studio and insisted that he be cast as the male lead. She claimed to have told a Paramount director "If he can talk, I 'll take him! '' The film was a box - office hit and earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture. The success of the film saved Paramount from bankruptcy, grossing over $2 million, the equivalent of $140 million in today 's dollars. Paramount recognizes that debt of gratitude today, with a building on the lot named after her.
Her next release, I 'm No Angel (1933), paired her with Grant again. I 'm No Angel was also a financial success, and was the most successful film of her entire movie career. In the months that followed the release of this film, reference to Mae West could be found almost anywhere, from the song lyrics of Cole Porter, to a WPA mural of San Francisco 's newly built Art - Deco Coit Tower, to "She Done Him Right '', a Betty Boop cartoon, to "My Dress Hangs There '', a painting by renowned Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. Kahlo 's equally famed muralist painter husband, Diego Rivera, paid his own tribute: "West is the most wonderful machine for living I have ever known -- unfortunately on the screen only. '' To F. Scott Fitzgerald, Mae West was especially unique: "The only Hollywood actress with both an ironic edge and a comic spark. '' As Variety put it, "Mae West 's films have made her the biggest conversation - provoker, free - space grabber, and all - around box - office bet in the country. She 's as hot an issue as Hitler. ''
By 1933, West was one of the largest box office draws in the United States and, by 1935, West was also the highest paid woman and the second - highest paid person in the United States (after William Randolph Hearst). Hearst invited West to San Simeon, California. "I could'a married him, '' West explained, "but I got no time for parties. I do n't like those big crowds. '' On July 1, 1934, the censorship of the Production Code began to be seriously and meticulously enforced, and her screenplays were heavily edited. West would purposely place over-the - top lines in her scripts, knowing the censors would cut them out. She hoped they would then not object as much to her other lines. Her next film was Belle of the Nineties (1934). The original titled, It Ai n't No Sin, was changed due to the censors ' objections. Despite Paramount 's early objections regarding costs, she insisted the studio hire Duke Ellington and his orchestra to accompany her in the film 's musical numbers. Their collaboration was a success; the classic "My Old Flame '' (recorded by Duke Ellington) was introduced in this picture. Her next film, Goin ' to Town (1935), received mixed reviews, as censorship continued to take its toll in eroding West 's best lines.
Her following effort, Klondike Annie (1936) dealt, as best it could given the heavy censorship, with religion and hypocrisy. Some critics called the film her screen masterpiece, but not everyone felt the same way. Press baron and would - be film mogul William Randolph Hearst, ostensibly offended by an offhanded remark West made about his mistress, Marion Davies, sent a private memo to all his editors stating, "That Mae West picture ' Klondike Annie ' is a filthy picture... We should have editorials roasting that picture, Mae West, and Paramount... DO NOT ACCEPT ANY ADVERTISING OF THIS PICTURE. '' At one point, Hearst asked aloud, "Is n't it time Congress did something about the Mae West menace? '' Paramount executives felt they had to tone down the West characterization, or face further recrimination. This may be surprising by today 's standards, as West 's films contained no nudity, no profanity, and very little violence. Though raised in an era when women held second - place roles in society, West portrayed confident women who were not afraid to use their sexual wiles to get what they wanted. "I was the first liberated woman, you know. No guy was going to get the best of me. That 's what I wrote all my scripts about. ''
That same year, 1936, West played opposite Randolph Scott in Go West, Young Man. In this film, she adapted Lawrence Riley 's Broadway hit Personal Appearance into a screenplay. Directed by Henry Hathaway, Go West, Young Man is considered one of West 's weaker films of the era, due to the censor 's cuts.
West next starred in Every Day 's a Holiday (1937) for Paramount before their association came to an end. Again, due to censor cuts, the film performed below its goal. Censorship had made West 's sexually suggestive brand of humor impossible for the studios to distribute. West, along with other stellar performers, was put on a list of actors called "Box Office Poison '' by Harry Brandt on behalf of the Independent Theatre Owners Association. Others on the list were Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford, Marlene Dietrich, Fred Astaire, Dolores del Río, Katharine Hepburn, and Kay Francis. The attack was published as a paid advertisement in The Hollywood Reporter and was taken seriously by the fearful studio executives. The association argued that these stars ' high salaries and extreme public popularity did not affect their ticket sales, thus hurt the exhibitors. This did not stop producer David O. Selznick, who next offered West the role of the sage madam, Belle Watling, the only woman ever to truly understand Rhett Butler, in his film version of Margaret Mitchell 's Gone with the Wind after Tallulah Bankhead turned him down. West also declined the part, claiming that as it was, it was too small for an established star, and that she would need to rewrite her lines to suit her own persona. The role eventually went to Ona Munson.
In 1939, Universal Pictures approached West to star in a film opposite W.C. Fields. The studio was eager to duplicate the success of Destry Rides Again starring Marlene Dietrich and James Stewart with a comic vehicle starring West and Fields. Having left Paramount 18 months earlier and looking for a new film, West accepted the role of Flower Belle Lee in the film My Little Chickadee (1940). Despite the stars ' intense mutual dislike, and Fields 's very real drinking problems, and fights over the screenplay, My Little Chickadee was a box - office success, outgrossing Fields 's previous film, You Ca n't Cheat an Honest Man (1939), and the later The Bank Dick (1940). Despite this, religious leaders condemned West as a negative role model, taking offense at lines such as "Between two evils, I like to pick the one I have n't tried before, '' and "Is that a gun in your pocket, or are you just glad to see me? ''
West 's next film was The Heat 's On (1943) for Columbia Pictures. She initially did not want to do the film, but after actor / producer / director and personal friend Gregory Ratoff (producer Max Fabian in All About Eve) pleaded with her and claimed he would go bankrupt if she could not help, West relented as a personal favor. Censors by now, though, had curtailed the sexual burlesque of the West characterization. The studio had orders to raise the neck lines and clean up the double entendres. This was the only film for which West was virtually not allowed to write her own dialogue, and as a result the film suffered.
Perhaps the most critical challenge facing West in her career was censorship of her dialogue. As on Broadway a decade before, by the mid 1930s, her risqué and ribald dialogue could no longer be allowed to pass. The Heat 's On opened to poor reviews and weak performance at the box office. West was so distraught after the experience, and by her years of struggling with the strict Hays censorship office, that she would not attempt another film role for the next quarter - century. Instead, West pursued a successful and record - breaking career in top nightclubs, Las Vegas, nationally in theater, and on Broadway, where she was allowed, even welcomed, to be herself.
On December 12, 1937, West appeared in two separate sketches on ventriloquist Edgar Bergen 's radio show The Chase and Sanborn Hour. By the second half of the 1930s, West 's popularity was affected by her dialogue being severely censored. She went on the show eager to promote her latest movie, Every Day 's a Holiday. Appearing as herself, West flirted with Charlie McCarthy, Bergen 's dummy, using her usual brand of wit and risqué sexual references. West referred to Charlie as "all wood and a yard long '' and commented, "Charles, I remember our last date, and have the splinters to prove it! '' West was on the verge of being banned from radio.
More outrageous still was a sketch written by Arch Oboler, starring Don Ameche and West as Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden on NBC. She told Ameche in the show to "get me a big one... I feel like doin ' a big apple! '' This ostensible reference to the then - current dance craze was one of the many double entendres in the dialogue. Days after the broadcast, the studio received letters calling the show "immoral '' and "obscene '' by societies for the protection of morals. Several conservative women 's clubs and religious groups admonished the show 's sponsor, Chase & Sanborn Coffee Company, for "prostituting '' their services for allowing "impurity (to) invade the air ''. Under pressure, the Federal Communications Commission later deemed the broadcast "vulgar and indecent '' and "far below even the minimum standard which should control in the selection and production of broadcast programs ''. Some debate existed regarding the reaction to the skit. Conservative religious groups took umbrage far more swiftly than the mainstream. These groups found it easy to make West their target. They took exception to her outspoken use of sexuality and sexual imagery, which she had employed in her career since at least the Pre-Code films of the early 1930s and for decades before on Broadway, but which was now being broadcast into American living rooms on a popular family - friendly radio program. The groups reportedly warned the sponsor of the program they would protest her appearance.
NBC Radio scapegoated West for the incident and banned her (and the mention of her name) from their stations. They claimed it was not the content of the skit, but West 's tonal inflections that gave it the controversial context, acting as though they had hired West knowing nothing of her previous work, nor had any idea of how she would deliver the lines written for her by Oboler. West would not perform in radio for a dozen years, until January 1950, in an episode of The Chesterfield Supper Club, which was hosted by Perry Como. Ameche 's career did not suffer any serious repercussions, however, as he was playing the "straight '' guy. Nonetheless, Mae West went on to enjoy a record - breaking success in Las Vegas, swank nightclubs such as Lou Walters 's The Latin Quarter, Broadway, and London.
After appearing in The Heat 's On in 1943, West returned to a very active career on stage and swank clubs. Among her popular new stage performances was the title role in Catherine Was Great (1944) on Broadway, in which she penned a spoof on the story of Catherine the Great of Russia, surrounding herself with an "imperial guard '' of tall, muscular young actors. The play was produced by theater and film impresario Mike Todd (Around The World In 80 Days) and ran for 191 performances.
When Mae West revived her 1928 play Diamond Lil, bringing it back to Broadway in 1949, The New York Times labeled her an "American Institution -- as beloved and indestructible as Donald Duck. Like Chinatown, and Grant 's Tomb, Mae West should be seen at least once. '' In the 1950s, West starred in her own Las Vegas stage show at the newly opened Sahara Hotel, singing while surrounded by bodybuilders. The show stood Las Vegas on its head. "Men come to see me, but I also give the women something to see: wall to wall men! '' West explained. Jayne Mansfield met and later married one of West 's muscle men, a former Mr. Universe, Mickey Hargitay.
When casting about for the role of Norma Desmond for the 1950 film Sunset Boulevard, Billy Wilder offered West the role. Still smarting from the censorship debacle of The Heat 's On, and the constraints placed on her characterization, she declined. The theme of the Wilder film, she noted, was pure pathos, while her brand of comedy was always "about uplifting the audience ''. Mae West had a unique comic character that was timeless, in the same way Charlie Chaplin did. After Mary Pickford also declined the role, Gloria Swanson was cast. In subsequent years, West was offered the role of Vera Simpson, opposite Marlon Brando, in the 1957 film adaptation of Pal Joey, which she turned down, with the role going to Rita Hayworth. In 1964, West was offered a leading role in Roustabout, starring Elvis Presley. She turned the role down, and Barbara Stanwyck was cast in her place. West was also approached for roles in Frederico Fellini 's Juliet of the Spirits and Satyricon, but rejected both offers.
In 1958, West appeared at the live televised Academy Awards and performed the song "Baby, It 's Cold Outside '' with Rock Hudson, which brought a standing ovation. In 1959, she released an autobiography, Goodness Had Nothing to Do With It, which became a best seller and was reprinted with a new chapter in 1970. West guest - starred on television, including The Dean Martin Show in 1959 and The Red Skelton Show in 1960, to promote her autobiography, and a lengthy interview on Person to Person with Charles Collingwood, which was censored by CBS in 1959, and never aired. CBS executives felt members of the television audience were not ready to see a nude marble statue of West, which rested on her piano. In 1964, she made a guest appearance on the sitcom Mister Ed. Much later, in 1976, she was interviewed by Dick Cavett and sang two songs on his "Back Lot U.S.A. '' special on CBS.
West 's recording career started in the early 1930s with releases of her film songs on shellac 78 rpm records. Most of her film songs were released as 78s, as well as sheet music. In 1955, she recorded her first album, The Fabulous Mae West. In 1965, she recorded two songs, "Am I Too Young '' and "He 's Good For Me '', for a 45 rpm record released by Plaza Records. She recorded several tongue - in - cheek songs, including "Santa, Come Up to See Me '', on the album Wild Christmas, which was released in 1966 and reissued as Mae in December in 1980. Demonstrating her willingness to keep in touch with the contemporary scene, in 1966 she recorded Way Out West, the first of her two rock - and - roll albums. The second, released in 1972 on MGM Records and titled Great Balls of Fire, covered songs by The Doors, among others, and had songs written for West by English songwriter - producer Ian Whitcomb.
The April 18, 1969 issue of Life featured West at age 75, with images by child star, actor, and professional photographer Roddy McDowall.
After a 27 - year absence from motion pictures, West appeared as Leticia Van Allen in Gore Vidal 's Myra Breckinridge (1970) with Raquel Welch, Rex Reed, Farrah Fawcett, and Tom Selleck in a small part. The movie was intended to be deliberately campy sex change comedy, but had serious production problems, resulting in a botched film that was both a box - office and critical failure. Author Vidal, at great odds with inexperienced and self - styled "art film '' director Michael Sarne, later called the film "an awful joke ''. Though Mae West was given star billing to attract ticket buyers, her scenes were truncated by the inexperienced film editor, and her songs were filmed as though they were merely side acts. Despite Myra Breckinridge 's mainstream failure, it continued to find an audience on the cult film circuit where West 's films were regularly screened and West herself was dubbed "the queen of camp ''. Mae West 's counterculture appeal included the young and hip, and by 1971, the student body of UCLA voted Mae West "Woman of the Century '' in honor of her relevance as a pioneering advocate of sexual frankness and courageous crusader against censorship.
In 1975, West released her book Sex, Health, and ESP (William Allen & Sons, publisher), and Pleasure Man (Dell publishers) based on her 1928 play of the same name. Her autobiography, Goodness Had Nothing to Do with It, was also updated and republished in the 1970s.
Mae West was a shrewd investor, produced her own stage acts, and invested her money in large tracts of land in Van Nuys, a thriving suburb of Los Angeles. With her considerable fortune, she could afford to do as she liked. In 1976, she appeared on Back Lot U.S.A. on CBS, where she was interviewed by Dick Cavett and sang "Frankie and Johnny '' along with "After You 've Gone. '' That same year, she began work on her final film, Sextette (1978). Adapted from a 1959 script written by West, the film 's daily revisions and production disagreements hampered production from the beginning. Due to the near - endless last - minute script changes and tiring production schedule, West agreed to have her lines signaled to her through a speaker concealed in her hair piece. Despite the daily problems, West was, according to Sextette director Ken Hughes, determined to see the film through. At 86, her now - failing eyesight made navigating around the set difficult, but she made it through the filming, a tribute to her self - confidence, remarkable endurance, and stature as a self - created star 67 years after her Broadway debut in 1911 at the age of 18. Time wrote an article on the indomitable star entitled "At 84, Mae West Is Still Mae West. '' Upon its release, Sextette was not a critical or commercial success, but remains notable for the diverse cast, and because none of West 's contemporaries such as Dietrich, Garbo, etc., were still making films. The cast included some of West 's first co-stars such George Raft (Night After Night, 1932), silver screen stars such as Walter Pigeon and Tony Curtis, and more contemporary pop stars such as The Beatles ' Ringo Starr and Alice Cooper, and television favorites such as Dom DeLuise and gossip queen Rona Barrett. It also included cameos of some of her famed musclemen from her 1950s Las Vegas show, such as the still remarkably fit Reg Lewis. Sextette also reunited Mae West with Edith Head, her costume designer from 1933 in She Done Him Wrong. The film was a last hurrah and a Valentine from Mae West to her fans.
In August 1980, West tripped while getting out of bed. After the fall, West was unable to speak and was taken to Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles, where tests revealed that she had suffered a stroke. She died on November 22, 1980, at the age of 87.
A private service was held in the Old North Church replica, in Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills, on November 25, 1980. Bishop Andre Penachio, a friend, officiated at the entombment in the family mausoleum at Cypress Hills Abbey, Brooklyn, purchased in 1930 when her mother died. Her father and brother were also entombed there before her, and her younger sister, Beverly, was laid to rest in the last of the five crypts less than 18 months after West 's death.
For her contribution to the film industry, Mae West has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1560 Vine Street in Hollywood. For her contributions as a stage actor in the theater world, she has been inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.
West was married on April 11, 1911, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Frank Szatkus, whose stage name was Frank Wallace, a fellow vaudevillian whom she first met in 1909. She was 17; he was 21. West kept the marriage a secret, but in 1935, after West had made several hit movies, a filing clerk discovered West 's marriage certificate and alerted the press. An affidavit in which she had declared herself married, which she made during the Sex trial in 1927, was also uncovered. At first, West denied ever marrying Wallace, but she finally admitted in July 1937, in reply to a legal interrogatory, that they had been married. Although legally wed, the couple never lived together as husband and wife. She insisted they have separate bedrooms, and she soon sent him away in a show of his own to get rid of him. She obtained a legal divorce on July 21, 1942, during which Wallace withdrew his request for separate maintenance, and West testified that Wallace and she had lived together for only "several weeks ''. The final divorce decree was granted on May 7, 1943.
In August 1913, she met an Italian - born vaudeville headliner and star of the piano - accordion, Guido Deiro. Her affair went "(v) ery deep, hittin ' on all the emotions. '' West later said, "Marriage is a great institution. I 'm not ready for an institution yet. ''
West remained close to her family throughout her life and was devastated by her mother 's death in 1930. In 1930, she moved to Hollywood and into the penthouse at the new Ravenswood apartment building, where she lived until her death in 1980.
After she began her movie career, her sister, brother, and father followed her to Hollywood. West provided them with nearby homes, jobs, and sometimes financial support. Among West 's other boyfriends was boxing champion William Jones, nicknamed Gorilla Jones. When the management at her Ravenswood apartment building barred the African American boxer from entering the premises, West solved the problem by buying the building and lifting the ban.
West had a relationship with James Timony, an attorney 15 years her senior, in 1916, when she was a vaudeville actress. Timony was also her manager. By the time West was an established movie actress in the mid-1930s, they were no longer a couple. West and Timony remained extremely close, living in the same building, working together, and providing support for each other until Timony 's death in 1954.
At 61, West became romantically involved with one of the muscle men in her Las Vegas stage show, wrestler, former Mr. California, and former merchant marine Chester Rybinski. He was 30 years younger than West, and later changed his name to Paul Novak. He soon moved in with her, and their romance continued until West 's death in 1980 at age 87. Novak once commented, "I believe I was put on this Earth to take care of Mae West. ''
Albums:
At least 21 singles (78 rpm and 45 rpm) also were released from 1933 to 1973.
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the joint session of both houses of parliament is presided over by
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Joint session of Indian Parliament - wikipedia
The Parliament of India is bicameral. Concurrence of both houses are required to pass any bill. However, the authors of the Constitution of India visualised situations of deadlock between the upper house i.e. Rajya Sabha and the lower house i.e. Lok Sabha. Therefore, the Constitution of India provides for Joint sittings of both the Houses to break this deadlock. The joint sitting of the Parliament is called by the President and is presided over by the Speaker or, in his absence, by the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha or in his absence, the Deputy - Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. If any of the above officers are not present then any other member of the Parliament can preside by consensus of both the House.
As per Article 108 of Constitution, a Joint session of Parliament can be summoned in the following situations.
If after a Bill has been passed by one House and transmitted to the other House --
(a) the Bill is rejected by the other House; or (b) the Houses have finally disagreed as to the amendments to be made in the Bill; or (c) more than six months elapse from the date of the reception of the Bill by the other House without the Bill being passed by it, the President may, unless the Bill has elapsed by reason of a dissolution of the House of the People, notify to the Houses by message if they are sitting or by public notification if they are not sitting, his intention to summon them to meet in a joint sitting for the purpose of deliberating and voting on the Bill
However, in calculating period of six months, those days are not considered when house is prorogued or adjourned for more than 4 consecutive days.
If the above conditions are satisfied, the President of India may summon joint sitting of both the houses of parliament.
Not all bills can be refereed to a joint sitting of Parliament. There are two exception.
1. Money Bill
Under the Constitution of India, money bills require approval of the Lok Sabha only. Rajya Sabha can make recommendations to Lok Sabha, which it is not required to accept. Even if Rajya Sabha does n't pass a money bill within 14 days, it is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses of Parliament after expiry of the above period. Therefore, a requirement to summon a joint session can never arise in the case of money bill.
2. Constitution Amendment Bill
Article 368 of Indian constitution require that constitution of India can be amended by both houses of parliament by 2 / 3 majority. In case of disagreement between both houses, there is no provision to summon joint session of parliament.
Joint session of Indian parliament has been called for only three bills i.e. dowry prohibition act, 1961, banking service commission act, 1977 and POTA, 2002.
BILLS PASSED IN JOINT SESSION: 1. Dowry Prohibition Bill, 1961 2. Banking Service Commission (Repeal) Bill, 1978 3. Prevention of Terrorism Bill, 2002
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and we shall dwell in the house of the lord
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Psalm 23 - wikipedia
Psalm 23 is the 23rd psalm of the Book of Psalms, generally known in English by its first verse, in the King James Version, "The Lord is my Shepherd ''. The Book of Psalms is the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the Christian Old Testament. In the Greek Septuagint version of the Bible, and in its Latin translation the Vulgate, this psalm is Psalm 22 in a slightly different numbering system. In Latin, it is known as "Dominus reget me et nihil mihi deerit ''.
Like all psalms, Psalm 23 was used in worship of the ancient Hebrews. The writer describes God as his shepherd, in the role of protector and provider. The psalm is read, recited and sung by Jews and Christians. It has been called the most well - known of all chapters in the Book of Psalms for its universal theme of trust in God.
Following is the Hebrew text and English translation of Psalm 23:
For Christians the image of God as a shepherd evokes connections not only with David but with Jesus, described as "Good Shepherd '' in the Gospel of John. The phrase about "the valley of the shadow of death '' is often taken as an allusion to the eternal life given by Jesus.
Orthodox Christians typically include this Psalm in the prayers of preparation for receiving the Eucharist.
The Reformation inspired widespread efforts in western Europe to make biblical texts available in vernacular languages. One of the most popular early English versions was the Geneva Bible (1557). The most widely recognized version of the psalm in English today is undoubtedly the one drawn from the King James Bible (1611).
The psalm is a popular passage for memorization and is often used in sermons.
An early metrical version of the psalm in English was made in 1565 by Thomas Sternhold. Other metrical versions to emerge from the Protestant Reformation include those from The Bay Psalm Book (1640) and a version influenced by Sternholm published in the Scottish Psalter (1650). The latter version is still encountered, with modernized spelling, in many Protestant hymns. Other notable metrical versions include those by George Herbert, Philip Sidney, and Isaac Watts.
A metrical version of the psalm is traditionally sung to the hymn tune Crimond, generally attributed to Jessie Seymour Irvine. This version, with its opening words "The Lord 's My Shepherd '', is probably the best - known amongst English - speaking congregations. Other melodies, such as Brother James ' Air or Amazing Grace, are also used. Other tunes sometimes used include Belmont, Evan, Martyrdom, Orlington, and Wiltshire.
In the twentieth century, Psalm 23 became particularly associated with funeral liturgies in the English - speaking world, and films with funeral scenes often depict a graveside recitation of the psalm. Official liturgies of English - speaking churches were slow to adopt this practice, though. The Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England has only Psalms 39 and 90 in its order for the burial of the dead, and in the Episcopal Church in the United States, Psalm 23 was not used for funerals until the 1928 revision of the prayer book.
The theme of God as a shepherd was common in ancient Israel and Mesopotamia. For example, King Hammurabi, in the conclusion to his famous legal code, wrote: "I am the shepherd who brings well - being and abundant prosperity; my rule is just... so that the strong might not oppress the weak, and that even the orphan and the widow might be treated with justice. '' This imagery and language was well known to the community that created the Psalm, and was easily imported into its worship.
Psalm 23 portrays God as a good shepherd, feeding (verse 1) and leading (verse 3) his flock. The "rod and staff '' (verse 4) are also the implements of a shepherd. Some commentators see the shepherd imagery pervading the entire psalm. It is known that the shepherd is to know each sheep by name, thus when God is given the analogy of a shepherd, he is not only a protector but also the caretaker. God, as the caretaker, leads the sheep to green pastures (verse 2) and still waters (verse 2) because he knows that each of his sheep must be personally led to be fed. Thus, without its Shepherd, the sheep would die either by a predator or of starvation, since sheep are known for their helplessness without their shepherd.
J. Douglas MacMillan argues that verse 5 ("Thou preparest a table before me '') refers to the "old oriental shepherding practice '' of using little raised tables to feed sheep. Similarly, "Thou anointest my head with oil '' may refer to an ancient form of backliner -- the oil is poured on wounds, and repels flies. MacMillan also notes that verse 6 ("Goodness and mercy shall follow me '') reminds him of two loyal sheepdogs coming behind the flock.
John Ellinwood argues that in verses 4 and 5 King David acknowledges God 's protection in expeditions and in battles. "Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies '' refers to the sober raucous dinner before major battles. These were raucous in order to demoralize hostiles camped within earshot, and (only) the king ate from a table. "Thou anointest my head with oil '' because tomorrow this ceremony might be impossible. After each victory there was no longer a need for sobriety, so "my cup runneth over. '' The king 's lyricist wisely shortened these military verses for balance. Also in Psalm 18 David mentions God 's protection in battle. (13).
The first verse of the Psalm ascribes authorship to King David, said in the Hebrew Scriptures to have been a field shepherd himself as a youth. However, some scholars do not believe that David could have written any of the Psalms.
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players who have played for river plate and boca juniors
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Superclásico - wikipedia
Superclásico is the name used to describe the football match in Argentina between Buenos Aires rivals Boca Juniors and River Plate. It derives from the Spanish usage of "clásico '' to mean derby, with the prefix "super '' used as the two clubs are the most popular and successful clubs in Argentine football. According to some statistics, they commandeer more than 70 % of all Argentine football fans between them, with Boca claiming 40 % and River 33 %.
The Superclásico is known worldwide as one of the fiercest and most important derbies. In April 2004, the English newspaper The Observer put the Superclásico at the top of their list of "50 sporting things you must do before you die '', saying that "Derby day in Buenos Aires makes the Old Firm game look like a primary school kick - about '', in 2016 the British football magazine FourFourTwo considered it the "biggest derby in the world '', The Daily Telegraph ranked this match as the "biggest club rivalry in world football '' in 2016, and the Daily Mirror placed it # 1 in The top 50 football derbies in the world, above El Clásico between FC Barcelona and Real Madrid C.F., in 2017.
The two clubs both have origins in La Boca, the working class dockland area of Buenos Aires, with River being founded in 1901 and Boca in 1905. River, however, moved to the affluent district of Núñez in the north of the city in 1925. Since then, Boca Juniors has been known as the club of Argentina 's working class or the people 's club, with many Boca fans coming from the local Italian immigrant community. Boca fans are actually known as "Xeneizes '' ("Genoese ''). By contrast, River Plate became known by the nickname, Los Millonarios (The Millionaires), with a supposedly upper - class support base. Both clubs, however, have supporters from all social classes.
The first official match was played on August 24, 1913, with River winning 2 -- 1.
The Superclásico is particularly noted for the passion of the fans, with what the BBC describe as "a sea of colourful flowing banners, screams and roars, chanting, dancing and never - ending fireworks ''. Both sets of supporters sing passionate chants aimed at their rivals, often based on popular Argentine rock band tunes. Each stadium, Boca 's La Bombonera and River 's El Monumental are known to bounce with the simultaneous jumping of the fans. At times, the matches have been known to end in fights between the violent factions on both sides or with the police.
Boca fans refer to River supporters as "gallinas '' ("chickens '') claiming the lack of guts of River players. Despite the fact that their club traces back its roots to La Boca, River fans refer to their Boca rivals as "los chanchitos '' ("little pigs '') because they claim their stadium, located in the less affluent La Boca area, smells most of the time, as well as "bosteros '' ("manure collectors ''), a reference to the smell of a polluted river in La Boca. Another infamous slur, coined in the late 1990s over remarks of Boca 's forward Diego Latorre, is to brand Boca Juniors as "The Cabaret '', due to the alleged aspiration of some players to steal the limelight.
The rivalry between the two clubs can also affect players, particularly those who are transferred between the two clubs. Cataldo Spitale was the first to make the change, when he left Boca to sign for River in 1933. Oscar Ruggeri, who moved to River from Boca in 1985 said, "It 's not easy I can tell you. One side looks on you as a traitor and the other does n't really trust you. You need time to adapt and a lot of character to win people over. '' Some players have gone so far as to state that they would not play for the other club such as River 's Uruguayan player Enzo Francescoli while Diego Maradona during his time playing for Argentinos Juniors, refused to even consider a move to El Monumental, stating that his dream was to play for Boca.
Recently, on March 21 in the Clausura 2010 tournament, the two teams started playing in La Bombonera. In the ninth minute of play, the match was suspended because of heavy rainfall in Buenos Aires. The pitch was practically flooded, but in spite of this, referee Héctor Baldassi stated that the match could be played. In the course of the match, the two teams were unable to keep possession because the ball became repeatedly bogged down. The match restarted on Thursday, March 25, 2010, and was played with two halves of 41 minutes. This was the first Superclásico suspended in history.
In January 2013, El Superclásico became a topic of diplomatic discussion when the United States Embassy in Buenos Aires; Argentina released a video entitled, Fiebre del Superclásico. In the video, American diplomats from different sections of the Embassy (including the Deputy Chief of Mission and Ambassador) debate the question of "Boca or River? '' by trading a series of common jokes and barbs from the Boca -- River rivalry. In its first week, the video garnered nearly 50,000 views on YouTube.
On June 23, 1968, in El Monumental, after a match between the two teams, 71 fans were killed in a crush at gate 12, with 150 fans left injured. The disaster was the worst football related incident in the history of Argentine football and the majority of the dead were teenagers and young adults; the average age of the victims was 19. There are various claims as to what exactly happened that day. Some claim that the disaster happened after Boca Juniors fans threw burning River flags from the upper tiers of the stadium, causing a stampede of their own fans in the lower tier.
Others claim that it happened after River fans arrived at the Boca section, causing the stampede of the visiting fans. Yet others claim that gate 12 was locked, or would not open at the time, and that the fans at the back did not hear the ones at the front telling them to stop coming in. William Kent, River 's former president, claimed that the police were the culprits, as they began repressing Boca fans after they had thrown urine at them from the stands. Some witnesses claim that the turnstiles to the exit were blocked by a huge iron pole.
After three years of investigation, a government inquiry found no one guilty, much to the disappointment of the families of the victims. Since the tragedy, the gates at El Monumental have been identified by letters instead of numbers.
At the end of the 1968 season, the 68 football clubs in the Argentine Football Association collected 100,000 pesos for the families of the deceased.
Only official matches are included. Updated to 5 November 2017.
Includes only matches in the Primera División since their first official game in 1913.
These are only matches in the Copa Libertadores, club name in bold indicate win. The score is given at full - time, in the goals columns the goal scorer and time when goal was scored is noted.
These are only matches in other international cups. The club name in bold indicates a win. The score is given at full - time, in the goals columns the goal scorer and time when goal was scored is noted.
These are only matches in national cup competitions. The club name in bold indicates a win. The score is given at full - time, in the goals columns the goal scorer and time when goal was scored is noted.
This is a list of unofficial matches. The club name in bold indicates a win. The score is given at full - time, in the goals columns the goal scorer and time when goal was scored is noted.
(*) Game was suspended 15 minutes into the second half.
List of 100 players who have played for Boca Juniors and River Plate
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what is an indication that a woman has given birth
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Childbirth - wikipedia
Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of a pregnancy by one or more babies leaving a woman 's uterus by vaginal passage or C - section. In 2015 there were about 135 million births globally. About 15 million were born before 37 weeks of gestation, while between 3 and 12 % were born after 42 weeks. In the developed world most deliveries occur in hospital, while in the developing world most births take place at home with the support of a traditional birth attendant.
The most common way of childbirth is a vaginal delivery. It involves three stages of labour: the shortening and opening of the cervix, descent and birth of the baby, and the delivery of the placenta. The first stage typically lasts twelve to nineteen hours, the second stage twenty minutes to two hours, and the third stage five to thirty minutes. The first stage begins with crampy abdominal or back pains that last around half a minute and occur every ten to thirty minutes. The crampy pains become stronger and closer together over time. During the second stage pushing with contractions may occur. In the third stage delayed clamping of the umbilical cord is generally recommended. A number of methods can help with pain such as relaxation techniques, opioids, and spinal blocks.
Most babies are born head first; however about 4 % are born feet or buttock first, known as breech. During labour a woman can generally eat and move around as she likes, but pushing is not recommended during the first stage or during delivery of the head, and enemas are not recommended. While making a cut to the opening of the vagina, known as an episiotomy is common, it is generally not needed. In 2012, about 23 million deliveries occurred by a surgical procedure known as Caesarean section. Caesarean sections may be recommended for twins, signs of distress in the baby, or breech position. This method of delivery can take longer to heal from.
Each year, complications from pregnancy and childbirth result in about 500,000 maternal deaths, 7 million women have serious long term problems, and 50 million women have health negative outcomes following delivery. Most of these occur in the developing world. Specific complications include obstructed labour, postpartum bleeding, eclampsia, and postpartum infection. Complications in the baby include birth asphyxia.
The most prominent sign of labour is strong repetitive uterine contractions. The distress levels reported by labouring women vary widely. They appear to be influenced by fear and anxiety levels, experience with prior childbirth, cultural ideas of childbirth and pain, mobility during labour, and the support received during labour. Personal expectations, the amount of support from caregivers, quality of the caregiver - patient relationship, and involvement in decision - making are more important in women 's overall satisfaction with the experience of childbirth than are other factors such as age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, preparation, physical environment, pain, immobility, or medical interventions.
Pain in contractions has been described as feeling similar to very strong menstrual cramps. Women are often encouraged to refrain from screaming, but moaning and grunting may be encouraged to help lessen pain. Crowning may be experienced as an intense stretching and burning. Even women who show little reaction to labour pains, in comparison to other women, show a substantially severe reaction to crowning.
Back labour is a term for specific pain occurring in the lower back, just above the tailbone, during childbirth.
Childbirth can be an intense event and strong emotions, both positive and negative, can be brought to the surface. Abnormal and persistent fear of childbirth is known as tokophobia. The prevalence of fear of childbirth around the world ranges between 4 - 25 %, with 3 - 7 % of pregnant women having clinical fear of childbirth.
During the later stages of gestation there is an increase in abundance of oxytocin, a hormone that is known to evoke feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness and security around the mate. Oxytocin is further released during labour when the fetus stimulates the cervix and vagina, and it is believed that it plays a major role in the bonding of a mother to her infant and in the establishment of maternal behavior. The act of nursing a child also causes a release of oxytocin.
Between 70 % and 80 % of mothers in the United States report some feelings of sadness or "baby blues '' after giving birth. The symptoms normally occur for a few minutes up to few hours each day and they should lessen and disappear within two weeks after delivery. Postpartum depression may develop in some women; about 10 % of mothers in the United States are diagnosed with this condition. Preventive group therapy has proven effective as a prophylactic treatment for postpartum depression.
Humans are bipedal with an erect stance. The erect posture causes the weight of the abdominal contents to thrust on the pelvic floor, a complex structure which must not only support this weight but allow, in women, three channels to pass through it: the urethra, the vagina and the rectum. The infant 's head and shoulders must go through a specific sequence of maneuvers in order to pass through the ring of the mother 's pelvis.
Six phases of a typical vertex (head - first presentation) delivery:
The vagina is called a ' birth canal ' when the baby enters this passage.
Station refers to the relationship of the fetal presenting part to the level of the ischial spines. When the presenting part is at the ischial spines the station is 0 (synonymous with engagement). If the presenting fetal part is above the spines, the distance is measured and described as minus stations, which range from − 1 to − 4 cm. If the presenting part is below the ischial spines, the distance is stated as plus stations (+ 1 to + 4 cm). At + 3 and + 4 the presenting part is at the perineum and can be seen.
The fetal head may temporarily change shape substantially (becoming more elongated) as it moves through the birth canal. This change in the shape of the fetal head is called molding and is much more prominent in women having their first vaginal delivery.
There are various definitions of the onset of labour, including:
In order to avail for more uniform terminology, the first stage of labour is divided into "latent '' and "active '' phases, where the latent phase is sometimes included in the definition of labour, and sometimes not.
Some reports note that the onset of term labour more commonly takes place in the late night and early morning hours. This may be a result of a synergism between the nocturnal increase in melatonin and oxytocin.
The latent phase of labour is also called the quiescent phase, prodromal labour, or pre-labour. It is a subclassification of the first stage.
The latent phase is generally defined as beginning at the point at which the woman perceives regular uterine contractions. In contrast, Braxton Hicks contractions, which are contractions that may start around 26 weeks gestation and are sometimes called "false labour '', should be infrequent, irregular, and involve only mild cramping. The signaling mechanisms responsible for uterine coordination are complex. Electrical propagation is the primary mechanism used for signaling up to several centimeters. Over longer distances, however, signaling may involve a mechanical mechanism.
Cervical effacement, which is the thinning and stretching of the cervix, and cervical dilation occur during the closing weeks of pregnancy and is usually complete or near complete, by the end of the latent phase. The degree of cervical effacement may be felt during a vaginal examination. A ' long ' cervix implies that effacement has not yet occurred. Latent phase ends with the onset of active first stage, and this transition is defined retrospectively.
The active stage of labour (or "active phase of first stage '' if the previous phase is termed "latent phase of first stage '') has geographically differing definitions. In the US, the definition of active labour was changed from 3 to 4 cm, to 5 cm of cervical dilation for multiparous women, mothers who had given birth previously, and at 6 cm for nulliparous women, those who had not given birth before. This has been done in an effort to increase the rates of vaginal delivery.
A definition of active labour in a British journal was having contractions more frequent than every 5 minutes, in addition to either a cervical dilation of 3 cm or more or a cervical effacement of 80 % or more.
In Sweden, the onset of the active phase of labour is defined as when two of the following criteria are met:
Health care providers may assess a labouring mother 's progress in labour by performing a cervical exam to evaluate the cervical dilation, effacement, and station. These factors form the Bishop score. The Bishop score can also be used as a means to predict the success of an induction of labour.
During effacement, the cervix becomes incorporated into the lower segment of the uterus. During a contraction, uterine muscles contract causing shortening of the upper segment and drawing upwards of the lower segment, in a gradual expulsive motion. The presenting fetal part then is permitted to descend. Full dilation is reached when the cervix has widened enough to allow passage of the baby 's head, around 10 cm dilation for a term baby.
The duration of labour varies widely, but the active phase averages some 8 hours for women giving birth to their first child ("primiparae '') and shorter for women who have already given birth ("multiparae ''). Active phase prolongation is defined as in a primigravid woman as the failure of the cervix to dilate at a rate of 1.2 cm / h over a period of at least two hours. This definition is based on Friedman 's Curve, which plots the typical rate of cervical dilation and fetal descent during active labour. Some practitioners may diagnose "Failure to Progress '', and consequently, propose interventions to optimize chances for healthy outcome.
The expulsion stage (stimulated by prostaglandins and oxytocin) begins when the cervix is fully dilated, and ends when the baby is born. As pressure on the cervix increases, women may have the sensation of pelvic pressure and an urge to begin pushing. At the beginning of the normal second stage, the head is fully engaged in the pelvis; the widest diameter of the head has passed below the level of the pelvic inlet. The fetal head then continues descent into the pelvis, below the pubic arch and out through the vaginal introitus (opening). This is assisted by the additional maternal efforts of "bearing down '' or pushing. The appearance of the fetal head at the vaginal orifice is termed the "crowning ''. At this point, the woman will feel an intense burning or stinging sensation.
When the amniotic sac has not ruptured during labour or pushing, the infant can be born with the membranes intact. This is referred to as "delivery en caul ''.
Complete expulsion of the baby signals the successful completion of the second stage of labour.
The second stage of birth will vary by factors including parity (the number of children a woman has had), fetal size, anesthesia, and the presence of infection. Longer labours are associated with declining rates of spontaneous vaginal delivery and increasing rates of infection, perineal laceration, and obstetric hemorrhage, as well as the need for intensive care of the neonate.
The period from just after the fetus is expelled until just after the placenta is expelled is called the third stage of labour or the involution stage. Placental expulsion begins as a physiological separation from the wall of the uterus. The average time from delivery of the baby until complete expulsion of the placenta is estimated to be 10 -- 12 minutes dependent on whether active or expectant management is employed. In as many as 3 % of all vaginal deliveries, the duration of the third stage is longer than 30 minutes and raises concern for retained placenta.
Placental expulsion can be managed actively or it can be managed expectantly, allowing the placenta to be expelled without medical assistance. Active management is described as the administration of a uterotonic drug within one minute of fetal delivery, controlled traction of the umbilical cord and fundal massage after delivery of the placenta, followed by performance of uterine massage every 15 minutes for two hours. In a joint statement, World Health Organization, the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics and the International Confederation of Midwives recommend active management of the third stage of labour in all vaginal deliveries to help to prevent postpartum hemorrhage.
Delaying the clamping of the umbilical cord until at least one minute after birth improves outcomes as long as there is the ability to treat jaundice if it occurs. In some birthing centers, this may be delayed by 5 minutes or more, or omitted entirely. Delayed clamping of the cord decreases the risk of anemia but may increase risk of jaundice. Clamping is followed by cutting of the cord, which is painless due to the absence of nerves.
The "fourth stage of labour '' is the period beginning immediately after the birth of a child and extending for about six weeks. The terms postpartum and postnatal are often used to describe this period. The woman 's body, including hormone levels and uterus size, return to a non-pregnant state and the newborn adjusts to life outside the mother 's body. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes the postnatal period as the most critical and yet the most neglected phase in the lives of mothers and babies; most deaths occur during the postnatal period.
Following the birth, if the mother had an episiotomy or a tearing of the perineum, it is stitched. The mother has regular assessments for uterine contraction and fundal height, vaginal bleeding, heart rate and blood pressure, and temperature, for the first 24 hours after birth. The first passing of urine should be documented within 6 hours. Afterpains (pains similar to menstrual cramps), contractions of the uterus to prevent excessive blood flow, continue for several days. Vaginal discharge, termed "lochia '', can be expected to continue for several weeks; initially bright red, it gradually becomes pink, changing to brown, and finally to yellow or white. Some women experience an uncontrolled episode of shivering or postpartum chills, after the birth.
Most authorities suggest the infant be placed in skin - to - skin contact with the mother for 1 -- 2 hours immediately after birth, putting routine cares off till later.
Until recently babies born in hospitals were removed from their mothers shortly after birth and brought to the mother only at feeding times. Mothers were told that their newborn would be safer in the nursery and that the separation would offer the mother more time to rest. As attitudes began to change, some hospitals offered a "rooming in '' option wherein after a period of routine hospital procedures and observation, the infant could be allowed to share the mother 's room. However, more recent information has begun to question the standard practice of removing the newborn immediately postpartum for routine postnatal procedures before being returned to the mother. Beginning around 2000, some authorities began to suggest that early skin - to - skin contact (placing the naked baby on the mother 's chest) may benefit both mother and infant. Using animal studies that have shown that the intimate contact inherent in skin - to - skin contact promotes neurobehaviors that result in the fulfillment of basic biological needs as a model, recent studies have been done to assess what, if any, advantages may be associated with early skin - to - skin contact for human mothers and their babies. A 2011 medical review looked at existing studies and found that early skin - to - skin contact, sometimes called kangaroo care, resulted in improved breastfeeding outcomes, cardio - respiratory stability, and a decrease in infant crying. A 2016 Cochrane review found that skin - to - skin contact at birth promotes the likelihood and effectiveness of breastfeeding. Evidence on physiological outcomes, such as crying or temperature was unclear.
As of 2014, early postpartum skin - to - skin contact is endorsed by all major organizations that are responsible for the well - being of infants, including the American Academy of Pediatrics. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that "the process of childbirth is not finished until the baby has safely transferred from placental to mammary nutrition. '' They advise that the newborn be placed skin - to - skin with the mother, postponing any routine procedures for at least one to two hours. The WHO suggests that any initial observations of the infant can be done while the infant remains close to the mother, saying that even a brief separation before the baby has had its first feed can disturb the bonding process. They further advise frequent skin - to - skin contact as much as possible during the first days after delivery, especially if it was interrupted for some reason after the delivery. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence also advises postponing procedures such as weighing, measuring, and bathing for at least 1 hour to insure an initial period of skin - to - skin contact between mother and infant.
Deliveries are assisted by a number of professionals including: obstetricians, family physicians and midwives. For low risk pregnancies all three result in similar outcomes.
Eating or drinking during labour is an area of ongoing debate. While some have argued that eating in labour has no harmful effects on outcomes, others continue to have concern regarding the increased possibility of an aspiration event (choking on recently eaten foods) in the event of an emergency delivery due to the increased relaxation of the esophagus in pregnancy, upward pressure of the uterus on the stomach, and the possibility of general anesthetic in the event of an emergency cesarean. A 2013 Cochrane review found that with good obstetrical anaesthesia there is no change in harms from allowing eating and drinking during labour in those who are unlikely to need surgery. They additionally acknowledge that not eating does not mean there is an empty stomach or that its contents are not as acidic. They therefore conclude that "women should be free to eat and drink in labour, or not, as they wish. ''
At one time shaving of the area around the vagina, was common practice due to the belief that hair removal reduced the risk of infection, made an episiotomy (a surgical cut to enlarge the vaginal entrance) easier, and helped with instrumental deliveries. It is currently less common, though it is still a routine procedure in some countries even though a systematic review found no evidence to recommend shaving. Side effects appear later, including irritation, redness, and multiple superficial scratches from the razor. Another effort to prevent infection has been the use of the antiseptic chlorhexidine or providone - iodine solution in the vagina. Evidence of benefit with chlorhexidine is lacking. A decreased risk is found with providone - iodine when a cesarean section is to be performed.
Active management of labour consists of a number of care principles, including frequent assessment of cervical dilatation. If the cervix is not dilating, oxytocin is offered. This management results in a slightly reduced number of Caesarean births (C - sections births), but does not change how many women have assisted vaginal births. 75 % of women report that they are very satisfied with either active management or normal care.
In many cases and with increasing frequency, childbirth is achieved through induction of labour or caesarean section. Caesarean section is the removal of the neonate through a surgical incision in the abdomen, rather than through vaginal birth. Childbirth by C - Sections increased 50 % in the U.S. from 1996 to 2006, and comprise nearly 32 % of births in the U.S. and Canada. Induced births and elective cesarean before 39 weeks can be harmful to the neonate as well as harmful or without benefit to the mother. Therefore, many guidelines recommend against non-medically required induced births and elective cesarean before 39 weeks. The rate of labour induction in the United States is 22 %, and has more than doubled from 1990 to 2006.
Health conditions that may warrant induced labour or cesarean delivery include gestational or chronic hypertension, preeclampsia, eclampsia, diabetes, premature rupture of membranes, severe fetal growth restriction, and post-term pregnancy. Cesarean section too may be of benefit to both the mother and baby for certain indications including maternal HIV / AIDS, fetal abnormality, breech position, fetal distress, multiple gestations, and maternal medical conditions which would be worsened by labour or vaginal birth.
Pitocin is the most commonly used agent for induction in the United States, and is used to induce uterine contractions. Other methods of inducing labour include stripping of the amniotic membrane, artificial rupturing of the amniotic sac (called amniotomy), or nipple stimulation. Ripening of the cervix can be accomplished with the placement of a Foley catheter or the use of synthetic prostaglandins such as misoprostol. A large review of methods of induction was published in 2011.
The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) guidelines recommend a full evaluation of the maternal - fetal status, the status of the cervix, and at least a 39 completed weeks (full term) of gestation for optimal health of the newborn when considering elective induction of labour. Per these guidelines, the following conditions may be an indication for induction, including:
Induction is also considered for logistical reasons, such as the distance from hospital or psychosocial conditions, but in these instances gestational age confirmation must be done, and the maturity of the fetal lung must be confirmed by testing.
The ACOG also note that contraindications for induced labour are the same as for spontaneous vaginal delivery, including vasa previa, complete placenta praevia, umbilical cord prolapse or active genital herpes simplex infection.
Some women prefer to avoid analgesic medication during childbirth. Psychological preparation may be beneficial. Relaxation techniques, immersion in water, massage, and acupuncture may provide pain relief. Acupuncture and relaxation were found to decrease the number of caesarean sections required. Immersion in water has been found to relieve pain during the first stage of labor and to reduce the need for anesthesia and shorten the duration of labor, however the safety and efficacy of immersion during birth, water birth, has not been established or associated with maternal or fetal benefit.
Some women like to have someone to support them during labour and birth; such as a midwife, nurse, or doula; or a lay person such as the father of the baby, a family member, or a close friend. Studies have found that continuous support during labor and delivery reduce the need for medication and a caesarean or operative vaginal delivery, and result in an improved Apgar score for the infant.
The injection of small amounts of sterile water into or just below the skin at several points on the back has been a method tried to reduce labour pain, but no good evidence shows that it actually helps.
Different measures for pain control have varying degrees of success and side effects to the woman and her baby. In some countries of Europe, doctors commonly prescribe inhaled nitrous oxide gas for pain control, especially as 53 % nitrous oxide, 47 % oxygen, known as Entonox; in the UK, midwives may use this gas without a doctor 's prescription. Opioids such as fentanyl may be used, but if given too close to birth there is a risk of respiratory depression in the infant.
Popular medical pain control in hospitals include the regional anesthetics epidurals (EDA), and spinal anaesthesia. Epidural analgesia is a generally safe and effective method of relieving pain in labour, but is associated with longer labour, more operative intervention (particularly instrument delivery), and increases in cost. Generally, pain and stress hormones rise throughout labour for women without epidurals, while pain, fear, and stress hormones decrease upon administration of epidural analgesia, but rise again later. Medicine administered via epidural can cross the placenta and enter the bloodstream of the fetus. Epidural analgesia has no statistically significant impact on the risk of caesarean section, and does not appear to have an immediate effect on neonatal status as determined by Apgar scores.
Augmentation is the process of facilitating further labour. Oxytocin has been used to increase the rate of vaginal delivery in those with a slow progress of labour.
Administration of antispasmodics (e.g. hyoscine butylbromide) is not formally regarded as augmentation of labour; however, there is weak evidence that they may shorten labour. There is not enough evidence to make conclusions about unwanted effects in mothers or babies.
Vaginal tears can occur during childbirth, most often at the vaginal opening as the baby 's head passes through, especially if the baby descends quickly. Tears can involve the perineal skin or extend to the muscles and the anal sphincter and anus. The midwife or obstetrician may decide to make a surgical cut to the perineum (episiotomy) to make the baby 's birth easier and prevent severe tears that can be difficult to repair. A 2017 Cochrane review compared episiotomy as needed (restrictive) with routine episiotomy to determine the possible benefits and harms for mother and baby. The review found that restrictive episiotomy policies appeared to give a number of benefits compared with using routine episiotomy. Women experienced less severe perineal trauma, less posterior perineal trauma, less suturing and fewer healing complications at seven days with no difference in occurrence of pain, urinary incontinence, painful sex or severe vaginal / perineal trauma after birth.
Obstetric forceps or ventouse may be used to facilitate childbirth.
In cases of a head first - presenting first twin, twins can often be delivered vaginally. In some cases twin delivery is done in a larger delivery room or in an operating theatre, in the event of complication e.g.
Historically women have been attended and supported by other women during labour and birth. However currently, as more women are giving birth in a hospital rather than at home, continuous support has become the exception rather than the norm. When women became pregnant any time before the 1950s the husband would not be in the birthing room. It did not matter if it was a home birth; the husband was waiting downstairs or in another room in the home. If it was in a hospital then the husband was in the waiting room. "Her husband was attentive and kind, but, Kirby concluded, Every good woman needs a companion of her own sex. '' Obstetric care frequently subjects women to institutional routines, which may have adverse effects on the progress of labour. Supportive care during labour may involve emotional support, comfort measures, and information and advocacy which may promote the physical process of labour as well as women 's feelings of control and competence, thus reducing the need for obstetric intervention. The continuous support may be provided either by hospital staff such as nurses or midwives, doulas, or by companions of the woman 's choice from her social network. There is increasing evidence to show that the participation of the child 's father in the birth leads to better birth and also post-birth outcomes, providing the father does not exhibit excessive anxiety.
A recent Cochrane review involving more than 15,000 women in a wide range of settings and circumstances found that "Women who received continuous labour support were more likely to give birth ' spontaneously ', i.e. give birth with neither caesarean nor vacuum nor forceps. In addition, women were less likely to use pain medications, were more likely to be satisfied, and had slightly shorter labours. Their babies were less likely to have low five - minute Apgar scores. ''
For monitoring of the fetus during childbirth, a simple pinard stethoscope or doppler fetal monitor ("doptone '') can be used. A method of external (noninvasive) fetal monitoring (EFM) during childbirth is cardiotocography, using a cardiotocograph that consists of two sensors: The heart (cardio) sensor is an ultrasonic sensor, similar to a Doppler fetal monitor, that continuously emits ultrasound and detects motion of the fetal heart by the characteristic of the reflected sound. The pressure - sensitive contraction transducer, called a tocodynamometer (toco) has a flat area that is fixated to the skin by a band around the belly. The pressure required to flatten a section of the wall correlates with the internal pressure, thereby providing an estimate of contraction. Monitoring with a cardiotocograph can either be intermittent or continuous.
A mother 's water has to break before internal (invasive) monitoring can be used. More invasive monitoring can involve a fetal scalp electrode to give an additional measure of fetal heart activity, and / or intrauterine pressure catheter (IUPC). It can also involve fetal scalp pH testing.
It is currently possible to collect two types of stem cells during childbirth: amniotic stem cells and umbilical cord blood stem cells. They are being studied as possible treatments of a number of conditions.
The "natural '' maternal mortality rate of childbirth -- where nothing is done to avert maternal death -- has been estimated at 1500 deaths per 100,000 births. (See main articles: neonatal death, maternal death). Each year about 500,000 women die due to pregnancy, 7 million have serious long term complications, and 50 million have negative outcomes following delivery.
Modern medicine has decreased the risk of childbirth complications. In Western countries, such as the United States and Sweden, the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births. As of June 2011, about one third of American births have some complications, "many of which are directly related to the mother 's health. ''
Birthing complications may be maternal or fetal, and long term or short term.
Newborn mortality at 37 weeks may be 2.5 times the number at 40 weeks, and was elevated compared to 38 weeks of gestation. These "early term '' births were also associated with increased death during infancy, compared to those occurring at 39 to 41 weeks ("full term ''). Researchers found benefits to going full term and "no adverse effects '' in the health of the mothers or babies.
Medical researchers find that neonates born before 39 weeks experienced significantly more complications (2.5 times more in one study) compared with those delivered at 39 to 40 weeks. Health problems among babies delivered "pre-term '' included respiratory distress, jaundice and low blood sugar. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and medical policy makers review research studies and find increased incidence of suspected or proven sepsis, RDS, Hypoglycemia, need for respiratory support, need for NICU admission, and need for hospitalization > 4 -- 5 days. In the case of cesarean sections, rates of respiratory death were 14 times higher in pre-labour at 37 compared with 40 weeks gestation, and 8.2 times higher for pre-labour cesarean at 38 weeks. In this review, no studies found decreased neonatal morbidity due to non-medically indicated (elective) delivery before 39 weeks.
The second stage of labour may be delayed or lengthy due to:
Secondary changes may be observed: swelling of the tissues, maternal exhaustion, fetal heart rate abnormalities. Left untreated, severe complications include death of mother and / or baby, and genitovaginal fistula.
Obstructed labour, also known as labor dystocia, is when, even though the uterus is contracting normally, the baby does not exit the pelvis during childbirth due to being physically blocked. Prolonged obstructed labor can result in obstetric fistula, a complication of childbirth where tissue death preforates the rectum or bladder.
Vaginal birth injury with visible tears or episiotomies are common. Internal tissue tearing as well as nerve damage to the pelvic structures lead in a proportion of women to problems with prolapse, incontinence of stool or urine and sexual dysfunction. Fifteen percent of women become incontinent, to some degree, of stool or urine after normal delivery, this number rising considerably after these women reach menopause. Vaginal birth injury is a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of all non hysterectomy related prolapse in later life. Risk factors for significant vaginal birth injury include:
There is tentative evidence that antibiotics may help prevent wound infections in women with third or fourth degree tears.
Pelvic girdle pain. Hormones and enzymes work together to produce ligamentous relaxation and widening of the symphysis pubis during the last trimester of pregnancy. Most girdle pain occurs before birthing, and is known as diastasis of the pubic symphysis. Predisposing factors for girdle pain include maternal obesity.
Infection remains a major cause of maternal mortality and morbidity in the developing world. The work of Ignaz Semmelweis was seminal in the pathophysiology and treatment of puerperal fever and saved many lives.
Hemorrhage, or heavy blood loss, is still the leading cause of death of birthing mothers in the world today, especially in the developing world. Heavy blood loss leads to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if not rapidly treated. Blood transfusion may be life saving. Rare sequelae include Hypopituitarism Sheehan 's syndrome.
The maternal mortality rate (MMR) varies from 9 per 100,000 live births in the US and Europe to 900 per 100,000 live births in Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, more than half a million women die in pregnancy or childbirth.
Risk factors for fetal birth injury include fetal macrosomia (big baby), maternal obesity, the need for instrumental delivery, and an inexperienced attendant. Specific situations that can contribute to birth injury include breech presentation and shoulder dystocia. Most fetal birth injuries resolve without long term harm, but brachial plexus injury may lead to Erb 's palsy or Klumpke 's paralysis.
Neonates are prone to infection in the first month of life. Some organisms such as S. agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus) or (GBS) are more prone to cause these occasionally fatal infections. Risk factors for GBS infection include:
Untreated sexually transmitted infections are associated with congenital and perinatal infections in neonates, particularly in the areas where rates of infection remain high. The overall perinatal mortality rate associated with untreated syphilis, for example, is 30 %.
Infant deaths (neonatal deaths from birth to 28 days, or perinatal deaths if including fetal deaths at 28 weeks gestation and later) are around 1 % in modernized countries.
The most important factors affecting mortality in childbirth are adequate nutrition and access to quality medical care ("access '' is affected both by the cost of available care, and distance from health services).
A 1983 -- 1989 study by the Texas Department of State Health Services highlighted the differences in neonatal mortality (NMR) between high risk and low risk pregnancies. NMR was 0.57 % for doctor - attended high risk births, and 0.19 % for low risk births attended by non-nurse midwives. Around 80 % of pregnancies are low - risk. Factors that may make a birth high risk include prematurity, high blood pressure, gestational diabetes and a previous cesarean section.
Intrapartum asphyxia is the impairment of the delivery of oxygen to the brain and vital tissues during the progress of labour. This may exist in a pregnancy already impaired by maternal or fetal disease, or may rarely arise de novo in labour. This can be termed fetal distress, but this term may be emotive and misleading. True intrapartum asphyxia is not as common as previously believed, and is usually accompanied by multiple other symptoms during the immediate period after delivery. Monitoring might show up problems during birthing, but the interpretation and use of monitoring devices is complex and prone to misinterpretation. Intrapartum asphyxia can cause long - term impairment, particularly when this results in tissue damage through encephalopathy.
Childbirth routinely occurs in hospitals in much of Western society. Before the 20th century and in some countries to the present day it has more typically occurred at home.
In Western and other cultures, age is reckoned from the date of birth, and sometimes the birthday is celebrated annually. East Asian age reckoning starts newborns at "1 '', incrementing each Lunar New Year.
Some families view the placenta as a special part of birth, since it has been the child 's life support for so many months. The placenta may be eaten by the newborn 's family, ceremonially or otherwise (for nutrition; the great majority of animals in fact do this naturally). Most recently there is a category of birth professionals available who will encapsulate placenta for use as placenta medicine by postpartum mothers.
The exact location in which childbirth takes place is an important factor in determining nationality, in particular for birth aboard aircraft and ships.
Following are facilities that are particularly intended to house women during childbirth:
In addition, it is possible to have a home birth.
Different categories of birth attendants may provide support and care during pregnancy and childbirth, although there are important differences across categories based on professional training and skills, practice regulations, as well as nature of care delivered.
"Childbirth educators '' are instructors who aim to educate pregnant women and their partners about the nature of pregnancy, labour signs and stages, techniques for giving birth, breastfeeding and newborn baby care. In the United States and elsewhere, classes for training as a childbirth educator can be found in hospital settings or through independent certifying organizations. Each organization teaches its own curriculum and each emphasizes different techniques.
Doulas are assistants who support mothers during pregnancy, labour, birth, and postpartum. They are not medical attendants; rather, they provide emotional support and non-medical pain relief for women during labour. Like childbirth educators and other assistive personnel, certification to become a doula is not compulsory, thus, anyone can call themself a doula or a childbirth educator.
Confinement nannies are individuals who are employed to provide assistance and stay with the mothers at their home after childbirth. They are usually experienced mothers who took courses on how to take care of mothers and newborn babies.
Midwives are autonomous practitioners who provide basic and emergency health care before, during and after pregnancy and childbirth, generally to women with low - risk pregnancies. Midwives are trained to assist during labour and birth, either through direct - entry or nurse - midwifery education programs. Jurisdictions where midwifery is a regulated profession will typically have a registering and disciplinary body for quality control, such as the American Midwifery Certification Board in the United States, the College of Midwives of British Columbia (CMBC) in Canada or the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) in the United Kingdom.
In jurisdictions where midwifery is not a regulated profession, traditional or lay midwives may assist women during childbirth, although they do not typically receive formal health care education and training.
Medical doctors who practice obstetrics include categorically specialized obstetricians, family practitioners and general practitioners whose training, skills and practices include obstetrics, and in some contexts general surgeons. These physicians and surgeons variously provide care across the whole spectrum of normal and abnormal births and pathological labour conditions. Categorically specialized obstetricians are qualified surgeons, so they can undertake surgical procedures relating to childbirth. Some family practitioners or general practitioners also perform obstetrical surgery. Obstetrical procedures include cesarean sections, episiotomies, and assisted delivery. Categorical specialists in obstetrics are commonly dually trained in obstetrics and gynecology (OB / GYN), and may provide other medical and surgical gynecological care, and may incorporate more general, well - woman, primary care elements in their practices. Maternal - fetal medicine specialists are obstetrician / gynecologists subspecialized in managing and treating high - risk pregnancy and delivery.
Anaesthetists or anesthesiologists are medical doctors who specialise in pain relief and the use of drugs to facilitate surgery and other painful procedures. They may contribute to the care of a woman in labour by performing epidurals or by providing anaesthesia (often spinal anaesthesia) for Cesarean section or forceps delivery.
Obstetric nurses assist midwives, doctors, women, and babies before, during, and after the birth process, in the hospital system. Obstetric nurses hold various certifications and typically undergo additional obstetric training in addition to standard nursing training.
Paramedics are healthcare providers that are able to provide emergency care to both the mother and infant during and after delivery using a wide range of medications and tools on an ambulance. They are capable of delivering babies but can do very little for infants that become "stuck '' and are unable to be delivered vaginally.
For uncomplicated births, care can include suctioning of newborns airway, cord cutting, collection of afterbirth, obtaining an APGAR score, keeping the newborn warm, and monitoring of vital signs such as respiratory rate and effort, pulse, blood pressure (rarely taken on newborns in the pre-hospital setting) oxygen saturation, blood sugar, and EKG monitoring.
They are able to provide resuscitative care to stillborn infants including intubation, defibrillation, suctioning of the airway, oxygen administration, meconium suctioning, IV fluid administration and administration of cardiac and respiratory medications.
Care for the mother can include external bleeding control, airway management, IV fluids, EKG monitoring and medication administration for conditions such as eclampsia or other emergency medical conditions.
According to a 2013 analysis performed commissioned by the New York Times and performed by Truven Healthcare Analytics, the cost of childbirth varies dramatically by country. In the United States the average amount actually paid by insurance companies or other payers in 2012 averaged $9,775 for an uncomplicated conventional delivery and $15,041 for a caesarean birth. The aggregate charges of healthcare facilities for 4 million annual births in the United States was estimated at over $50 billion. The summed cost of prenatal care, childbirth, and newborn care came to $30,000 for a vaginal delivery and $50,000 for a caesarian section.
In the United States, childbirth hospital stays have some of the lowest ICU utilizations. Vaginal delivery with and without complicating diagnoses and caesarean section with and without comorbidities or major comorbidities account for four of the fifteen types of hospital stays with low rates of ICU utilization (where less than 20 % of visits were admitted to the ICU). During stays with ICU services, approximately 20 % of costs were attributable to the ICU.
A 2013 study published in BMJ Open found widely varying costs by facility for childbirth expenses in California, varying from $3,296 to $37,227 for vaginal birth and from $8,312 to $70,908 for a caesarean birth.
Beginning in 2014, the United Kingdom National Institute for Health and Care Excellence began recommending that many women give birth at home under the care of a midwife rather than an obstetrician, citing lower expenses and better healthcare outcomes. The median cost associated with home birth was estimated to be about $1,500 vs. about $2,500 in hospital.
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when is dragon ball z fighters coming out
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Dragon Ball FighterZ - wikipedia
Dragon Ball FighterZ (Japanese: ドラゴンボール ファイターズ, Hepburn: Doragon Bōru Faitāzu) is an upcoming 2.5 D fighting game developed by Arc System Works and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment, based on the Dragon Ball franchise for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Microsoft Windows. It is set to be released January 26, 2018 internationally and February 1, 2018 in Japan.
The gameplay borrows concepts from several other fighting games, primarily the Marvel vs. Capcom series ' control scheme and team mechanics. Players each select three characters to form a team. One character is controlled, and can be switched with one of the other characters at any time. Players can also call one of their other characters to perform an "Assist '' move, allowing simultaneous attacks and combos with the entire team. All three of the opponent 's characters must be defeated to win the game.
The universal "Vanish '' and "Dragon Rush '' moves resemble the Roman Cancel system commonly found in Arc System Works games and Guilty Gear Xrd 's Dust attacks respectively, while the "Super Dash '' move resembles the Homing system of Arcana Heart. Players can also "Ki Charge '' to manually increase their super meter, similar to previous Dragon Ball fighting games.
Goku and his friends must fight a new battle against a revived Android 16 and an army of super androids designed to resemble and fight like them. The story is split into three chapters: the Super Warriors Arc, the Super Villain Arc, and the Android Arc, each of which follows the story from the perspective of different characters.
On June 9, 2017, a Japanese press release dated for June 12 prematurely revealed information about the game and two screenshots before its official announcement. The press release was eventually removed from Bandai Namco 's website.
On June 11, 2017, the game was revealed at Microsoft 's E3 press conference. A closed beta for the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions was also confirmed. Bandai Namco said there is a possibility the game could come to the Nintendo Switch if enough fans request it. Dragon Ball creator Akira Toriyama designed a new female character named Android 21 for the game.
Players who pre-ordered Dragon Ball FighterZ received early access to the game 's open beta test period, as well as early unlocks for the SSGSS Goku and SSGSS Vegeta characters and an additional in - game stamp pack. Two digital bundles have been announced: The "FighterZ Edition '' includes the game and the FighterZ Pass, which includes eight additional downloadable characters. The "Ultimate Edition '' includes all content from the FighterZ Edition, as well as a Commentator Voice Pack and additional music from the anime series which can be played during battle. A physical collector 's edition for the game is also available, which includes a steelbook case, three art boards, and a 7 '' statue of Goku.
After its announcement, Dragon Ball FighterZ was met with great enthusiasm from fans of fighting games and the source material alike, with many saying it has the potential to be the next big competitive fighting game. The game gained praise regarding its art design and animation being faithful to the source material, as well as its fighting mechanics. A playable demo was available at the Evolution Championship Series 2017, where pros were able to get their hands on the title for a small tournament; many of the pros praised the game highly, regarding its versatility when it comes to play styles as well as being enjoyable.
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who is in charge of conducting the federal and state elections
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Elections in the United states - Wikipedia
Elections in the United States are held for government officials at the federal, state and local levels. At the federal level, the nation 's head of state, the President, is elected indirectly by the people of each state, through an Electoral College. Today, these electors almost always vote with the popular vote of their state. All members of the federal legislature, the Congress, are directly elected by the people of each state. There are many elected offices at state level, each state having at least an elective Governor and legislature. There are also elected offices at the local level, in counties, cities, towns, townships, boroughs, and villages. According to a study by political scientist Jennifer Lawless, there were 519,682 elected officials in the United States as of 2012.
While the United States Constitution does set parameters for the election of federal officials, state law, not federal, regulates most aspects of elections in the U.S., including primaries, the eligibility of voters (beyond the basic constitutional definition), the running of each state 's electoral college, as well as the running of state and local elections. All elections -- federal, state and local -- are administered by the individual states.
The restriction and extension of voting rights to different groups has been a contested process throughout United States history. The federal government has also been involved in attempts to increase voter turnout, by measures such as the National Voter Registration Act of 1993. The financing of elections has also long been controversial, because private sources make up substantial amounts of campaign contributions, especially in federal elections. Voluntary public funding for candidates willing to accept spending limits was introduced in 1974 for presidential primaries and elections. The Federal Elections Commission, created in 1975 by an amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act has the responsibility to disclose campaign finance information, to enforce the provisions of the law such as the limits and prohibitions on contributions, and to oversee the public funding of U.S. Presidential elections.
The most common method used in U.S. elections is the first - past - the - post system, where the highest polling candidate wins the election. Some may use a two - round system, where if no candidate receives a required number of votes then there is a runoff between the two candidates with the most votes.
Since 2002, several cities have adopted instant - runoff voting in their elections. Voters rank the candidates in order of preference rather than voting for a single candidate. If a candidate secures more than half of votes cast, that candidate wins. Otherwise, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. Ballots assigned to the eliminated candidate are recounted and assigned to those of the remaining candidates who rank next in order of preference on each ballot. This process continues until one candidate wins by obtaining more than half the votes.
The eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the constitution and also regulated at state level. The constitution states that suffrage can not be denied on grounds of race or color, sex or age for citizens eighteen years or older. Beyond these basic qualifications, it is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate voter eligibility. Some states ban convicted criminals, especially felons, from voting for a fixed period of time or indefinitely. The number of American adults who are currently or permanently ineligible to vote due to felony convictions is estimated to be 5.3 million. Some states also have legacy constitutional statements barring legally declared incompetent from voting; such references are generally considered obsolete and are being considered for review or removal where they appear.
While the federal government has jurisdiction over federal elections, most election laws are decided at the state level. All U.S. states except North Dakota require that citizens who wish to vote be registered. Traditionally, voters had to register at state offices to vote, but in the mid-1990s efforts were made by the federal government to make registering easier, in an attempt to increase turnout. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (the "Motor Voter '' law) required state governments that receive certain types of federal funding to make the voter registration process easier by providing uniform registration services through drivers ' license registration centers, disability centers, schools, libraries, and mail - in registration. Other states allow citizens same - day registration on Election Day.
In many states, citizens registering to vote may declare an affiliation with a political party. This declaration of affiliation does not cost money, and does not make the citizen a dues - paying member of a party. A party can not prevent a voter from declaring his or her affiliation with them, but it can refuse requests for full membership. In some states, only voters affiliated with a party may vote in that party 's primary elections (see below). Declaring a party affiliation is never required. Some states, including Georgia, Michigan, Minnesota, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Washington, practice non-partisan registration.
Voters unable or unwilling to vote at polling stations on Election Day can vote via absentee ballots. Absentee ballots are most commonly sent and received via the United States Postal Service. Despite their name, absentee ballots are often requested and submitted in person. About half of all states and U.S. territories allow "no excuse absentee, '' where no reason is required to request an absentee ballot. Others require a valid reason, such as infirmity or travel, be given before a voter can participate using an absentee ballot. Some states, including California, and Washington allow citizens to apply for permanent absentee voter status, which will automatically receive an absentee ballot for each election. Typically a voter must request an absentee ballot before the election occurs.
A significant source of absentee ballots is the population of Americans living outside the United States. In 1986 Congress enacted the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA). UOCAVA requires that the states and territories allow members of the United States Uniformed Services and merchant marine, their family members, and United States citizens residing outside the United States to register and vote absentee in elections for Federal offices. Though many states had pre-existing statutes in place UOCAVA made it mandatory and nationally uniform. "Generally, all U.S. citizens 19 years or older who are or will be residing outside the United States during an election period are eligible to vote absentee in any election for Federal office. In addition, all members of the Uniformed Services, their family members and members of the Merchant Marine and their family members, who are U.S. citizens, may vote absentee in Federal, state and local elections. '' Absentee ballots from these voters can often be transmitted private delivery services, fax, or email.
Mail ballots are similar in many respects to an absentee ballot. However they are used for Mailing Precincts where on Election Day no polling place is opened for a specific precinct. In Oregon, Washington, and Colorado, all ballots are delivered through the mail.
Early voting is a formal process where voters can cast their ballots prior to the official Election Day. Early voting in person is allowed in 33 states and in Washington, D.C., with no excuse required.
Voters casting their ballots in polling places record their votes most commonly with optical scan voting machines or DRE voting machines. Voting machine selection is typically done through a state 's local election jurisdiction including counties, cities, and townships. Many of these local jurisdictions have changed their voting equipment since 2000 due to the passage of the Help America Vote Act (HAVA), which allocated funds for the replacement of lever machine and punch card voting equipment.
Since the 1980s many jurisdictions and voting locations have given out "I Voted '' stickers to people casting ballots. In the state of Illinois it 's a state law to have stickers available to voters after they have cast their ballots. State and local governments pay $30 million per year for the stickers that cost about one cent each.
The United States has a presidential system of government, which means that the executive and legislature are elected separately. Article One of the United States Constitution requires that any election for the U.S. President must occur on a single day throughout the country; elections for Congressional offices, however, can be held at different times. Congressional and presidential elections take place simultaneously every four years, and the intervening Congressional elections, which take place every two years, are called Midterm elections.
The constitution states that members of the United States House of Representatives must be at least 25 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least nine years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. The President must be at least 35 years old, a natural born citizen of the United States and a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years. It is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate the qualifications for a candidate appearing on a ballot paper, although in order to get onto the ballot, a candidate must often collect a legally defined number of signatures.
The President and the Vice President are elected together in a Presidential election. It is an indirect election, with the winner being determined by votes cast by electors of the Electoral College. In modern times, voters in each state select a slate of electors from a list of several slates designated by different parties or candidates, and the electors typically promise in advance to vote for the candidates of their party (whose names of the presidential candidates usually appear on the ballot rather than those of the individual electors). The winner of the election is the candidate with at least 270 Electoral College votes. It is possible for a candidate to win the electoral vote, and lose the (nationwide) popular vote (receive fewer votes nationwide than the second ranked candidate). Prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1804), the runner - up in a Presidential election became the Vice President.
Electoral College votes are cast by individual states by a group of electors; each elector casts one electoral college vote. Until the Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1961 the District of Columbia citizens did not have representation and / or electors in the electoral college. In modern times, with electors usually committed to vote for a party candidate in advance, electors that vote against the popular vote in their state are called faithless electors, and occurrences are rare. State law regulates how states cast their electoral college votes. In all states except Maine and Nebraska, the candidate that wins the most votes in the state receives all its electoral college votes (a "winner takes all '' system). From 1969 in Maine, and from 1991 in Nebraska, two electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election, and the rest (two in Maine, three in Nebraska) go to the highest vote - winner in each of the state 's congressional districts.
Congress has two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Senate has 100 members, elected for a six - year term in dual - seat constituencies (2 from each state), with one - third being renewed every two years. The group of the Senate seats that is up for election during a given year is known as a "class ''; the three classes are staggered so that only one of the three groups is renewed every two years. Until the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, States chose how to elect Senators, and they were often elected by state legislatures, not the electorate of states.
The House of Representatives has 435 members, elected for a two - year term in single - seat constituencies. House of Representatives elections are held every two years on the first Tuesday after November 1 in even years. Special House elections can occur between if a member dies or resigns during a term. House elections are first - past - the - post elections that elect a Representative from each of 435 House districts which cover the United States. The non-voting delegates of Washington, D.C. and the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected.
House elections occur every two years, correlated with presidential elections or halfway through a President 's term. The House delegate of Puerto Rico, officially known as the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, is elected to a four - year term, coinciding with those of the President.
As the redistricting commissions of states are often partisan, districts are often drawn which benefit incumbents. An increasing trend has been for incumbents to have an overwhelming advantage in House elections, and since the 1994 election, an unusually low number of seats has changed hands in each election. Due to gerrymandering, fewer than 10 % of all House seats are contested in each election cycle. Over 90 % of House members are reelected every two years, due to lack of electoral competition. Gerrymandering of the House, combined with the divisions inherent in the design of the Senate and of the Electoral College, result in a discrepancy between the percentage of popular support for various political parties and the actual level of the parties ' representation.
State law and state constitutions, controlled by state legislatures regulate elections at state level and local level. Various officials at state level are elected. Since the separation of powers applies to states as well as the federal government, state legislatures and the executive (the governor) are elected separately. Governors and lieutenant governor are elected in all states, in some states on a joint ticket and in some states separately, some separately in different electoral cycles. The governors of the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected. In some states, executive positions such as Attorney General and Secretary of State are also elected offices. All members of state legislatures and territorial jurisdiction legislatures are elected. In some states, members of the state supreme court and other members of the state judiciary are elected. Proposals to amend the state constitution are also placed on the ballot in some states.
As a matter of convenience and cost saving, elections for many of these state and local offices are held at the same time as either the federal presidential or midterm elections. There are a handful of states, however, that instead hold their elections during odd - numbered "off years. ''
At the local level, county and city government positions are usually filled by election, especially within the legislative branch. The extent to which offices in the executive or judicial branches are elected vary from county - to - county or city - to - city. Some examples of local elected positions include sheriffs at the county level and mayors and school board members at the city level. Like state elections, an election for a specific local office may be held at the same time as either the presidential, midterm, or off - year elections.
Americans vote for a specific candidate instead of directly selecting a particular political party. The United States Constitution has never formally addressed the issue of political parties. The Founding Fathers such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison did not support domestic political factions at the time the Constitution was written. In addition, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was not a member of any political party at the time of his election or throughout his tenure as president. Furthermore, he hoped that political parties would not be formed, fearing conflict and stagnation. Nevertheless, the beginnings of the American two - party system emerged from his immediate circle of advisers, with Hamilton and Madison ending up being the core leaders in this emerging party system.
Thus, it is up to the candidate to decide under what party he / she should run, registers to run, pays the fees, etc. In the primary elections, the party organization stays neutral until one candidate has been elected. The platform of the party is written by the winning candidate (in presidential elections; in other elections no platform is involved). Each candidate has his or her own campaign, fund raising organization, etc. The primary elections in the main parties are organized by the states, who also register the party affiliation of the voters (this also makes it easier to gerrymander the congressional districts). The party is thus little more than a campaign organization for the main elections.
However, elections in the United States often do become de facto national races between the political parties. In what is known as "presidential coattails '', candidates in presidential elections usually bring out supporters who then vote for his or her party 's candidates for other offices, usually resulting in the presidential winner 's party gaining seats in Congress. On the other hand, midterm elections are sometimes regarded as a referendum on the sitting president 's and / or incumbent party 's performance. There is a historical pattern that the incumbent president 's party loses seats in midterm elections. This may be because the President 's popularity has slipped since election, or because the President 's popularity encouraged supporters to come out to vote for him or her in the presidential election, but these supporters are less likely to vote when the President is not up for election.
Ballot access refers to the laws which regulate under what conditions access is granted for a candidate or political party to appear on voters ' ballots. Each State has its own ballot access laws to determine who may appear on ballots and who may not. According to Article I, Section 4, of the United States Constitution, the authority to regulate the time, place, and manner of federal elections is up to each State, unless Congress legislates otherwise. Depending on the office and the state, it may be possible for a voter to cast a write - in vote for a candidate whose name does not appear on the ballot, but it is extremely rare for such a candidate to win office.
The funding of electoral campaigns has always been a controversial issue in American politics. Infringement of free speech (First Amendment) is an argument against restrictions on campaign contributions, while allegations of corruption arising from unlimited contributions and the need for political equality are arguments for the other side. Private funds are a major source of finance, from individuals and organizations. The first attempt to regulate campaign finance by legislation was in 1867, but major legislation, with the intention to widely enforce, on campaign finance was not introduced until the 1970s.
Money contributed to campaigns can be classified into "hard money '' and "soft money ''. Hard money is money contributed directly to a campaign, by an individual or organization. Soft money is money from an individual or organization not contributed to a campaign, but spent in candidate specific advertising or other efforts that benefits that candidate by groups supporting the candidate, but legally not coordinated by the official campaign.
The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 required candidates to disclose sources of campaign contributions and campaign expenditure. It was amended in 1974 to legally limit campaign contributions. It banned direct contributing to campaigns by corporations and trade unions and limited individual donations to $1,000 per campaign. It introduced public funding for Presidential primaries and elections. The Act also placed limits of $5,000 per campaign on PACs (political action committees). The limits on individual contributions and prohibition of direct corporate or labor union campaigns led to a huge increase in the number of PACs. Today many labor unions and corporations have their own PACs, and over 4,000 in total exist. The 1974 amendment also specified a Federal Election Commission, created in 1975 to administer and enforce campaign finance law. Various other provisions were also included, such as a ban on contributions or expenditures by foreign nationals (incorporated from the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) (1966)).
The case of Buckley v. Valeo (1976) challenged the Act. Most provisions were upheld, but the court found that the mandatory spending limit imposed was unconstitutional, as was the limit placed on campaign spending from the candidate 's personal fortune and the provision that limited independent expenditures by individuals and organizations supporting but not officially linked to a campaign. The effect of the first decision was to allow candidates such as Ross Perot and Steve Forbes to spend enormous amounts of their own money in their own campaigns. The effect of the second decision was to allow the culture of "soft money '' to develop.
A 1979 amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act allowed political parties to spend without limit on get - out - the - vote and voter registration activities conducted primarily for a presidential candidate. Later, they were permitted by FECA to use "soft money '', unregulated, unlimited contributions to fund this effort. Increasingly, the money began to be spent on issue advertising, candidate specific advertising that was being funded mostly by soft money.
The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 banned local and national parties from spending "soft money '' and banned national party committees from accepting or spending soft money. It increased the limit of contributions by individuals from $1,000 to $2,000. It banned corporations or labor unions from funding issue advertising directly, and banned the use of corporate or labor money for advertisements that mention a federal candidate within 60 days of a general election or 30 days of a primary. The constitutionality of the bill was challenged and in December 2003, the Supreme Court upheld most provisions of the legislation. (See McConnell v. FEC.)
A large number of "527 groups '' were active for the first time in the 2004 election. These groups receive donations from individuals and groups and then spend the money on issue advocacy, such as the anti-Kerry ads by Swift Boat Veterans For Truth. This is a new form of soft money, and not surprisingly it is controversial. Many 527 groups have close links with the Democratic or Republican Parties, even though legally they can not coordinate their activities with them. John McCain, one of the Senators behind the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, and President Bush have both declared a desire to ban 527s.
Changing campaign finance laws is a highly controversial issue. Some reformers wish to see laws changed in order to improve electoral competition and political equality. Opponents wish to see the system stay as it is, whereas other reformers wish even fewer restrictions on the freedom to spend and contribute money. The Supreme Court has made it increasingly difficult for those who wish to regulate election financing, but options like partial public funding of campaigns are still possible and offer the potential to address reformers ' concerns with minimal restrictions on the freedom to contribute.
In partisan elections, candidates are chosen by primary elections (abbreviated to "primaries '') and caucuses in the states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
A primary election is an election in which registered voters in a jurisdiction (nominating primary) select a political party 's candidate for a later election. There are various types of primary: either the whole electorate is eligible, and voters choose one party 's primary at the polling booth (an open primary); or only independent voters can choose a party 's primary at the polling booth (a semi-closed primary); or only registered members of the party are allowed to vote (closed primary). The blanket primary, when voters could vote for all parties ' primaries on the same ballot was struck down by the United States Supreme Court as violating the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of assembly in the case California Democratic Party v. Jones. Primaries are also used to select candidates at the state level, for example in gubernatorial elections.
Caucuses also nominate candidates by election, but they are very different from primaries. Caucuses are meetings that occur at precincts and involve discussion of each party 's platform and issues such as voter turnout in addition to voting. Eleven states: Iowa, New Mexico, North Dakota, Maine, Nevada, Hawaii, Minnesota, Kansas, Alaska, Wyoming, Colorado and the District of Columbia use caucuses, for one or more political parties.
The primary and caucus season in Presidential elections lasts from the Iowa caucus in January to the last primaries in June. Front - loading - when larger numbers of contests take place in the opening weeks of the season -- can have an effect on the nomination process, potentially reducing the number of realistic candidates, as fund - raisers and donors quickly abandon those they see as untenable. However, it is not the case that the successful candidate is always the candidate that does the best in the early primaries. There is also a period dubbed the "invisible primary '' that takes place before the primary season, when candidates attempt to solicit media coverage and funding well before the real primary season begins.
A state 's presidential primary election or caucus usually is an indirect election: instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for President, it determines how many delegates each party 's national political convention will receive from their respective state. These delegates then in turn select their party 's presidential nominee. Held in the summer, a political convention 's purpose is also to adopt a statement of the party 's principles and goals known as the platform and adopt the rules for the party 's activities.
The day on which primaries are held for congressional seats, and state and local offices may also vary between states. The only federally mandated day for elections is Election Day for the general elections of the President and Congress; all other elections are at the discretion of the individual state and local governments.
In most states of the U.S., the chief election officer is the Secretary of state. In some states, local officials like a county Registrar of Voters or Supervisor of Elections manages the conduct of elections under the supervision of (or in coordination with) the chief election officer of the state. Many of these state and county offices have web sites that provide information to help voters obtain information on their polling places for each election, the various districts to which they belong (e.g., house and senate districts in the state and federal legislature, school boards, water districts, municipalities, etc.), as well as dates of elections and deadlines to file to run or register to vote. Some allow voters to download a sample ballot in advance of the election.
Beyond this, various media outlets provide information they think will interest their audience.
More systematic coverage is provided by web sites devoted specifically to collecting election information and making it available to the public. Two of the better known such sites are Ballotpedia and Vote Smart. These are run by non-profit, non-partisan organizations. They have paid staffs and are much more tightly controlled than Wikipedia.
USElections.com tries to provide similar information but relies on volunteers in a way that is more like Wikipedia than Ballotpedia and Vote Smart.
The website 270towin provides actual electoral college maps (both current and historic) but also the ability to use an interactive 3d map in order to make election predictions. Ongoing election news is reported as well as data on Senate and House races.
The Center for Responsive Politics (opensecrets.org) and the National Institute on Money in State Politics (followthemoney.org) also provide useful election information focusing especially on campaign finance.
In 2014 scientists from Princeton University did a study on the influence of the "elite '', and their derived power from special interest lobbying, versus the "ordinary '' US citizen within the US political system. They found that the US was looking more like an oligarchy than a real representative democracy; thus eroding a government of the people, by the people, for the people as stated by Abraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address. In fact, the study found that average citizens had an almost nonexistent influence on public policies and that the ordinary citizen had little or no independent influence on policy at all.
There were many US presidential elections in which foreign countries manipulate the voters. Electoral College is criticised for being un-democratic (it can choose candidate who did not win the popular vote) and for focusing campaigns only on swing states.
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what kind of interaction will most likely occur between the two species
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Introduced species - wikipedia
An introduced species (alien species, exotic species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species) is a species living outside its native distributional range, which has arrived there by human activity, either deliberate or accidental. Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are called invasive species. The impact of introduced species is highly variable. Some have a negative effect on a local ecosystem, while other introduced species may have no negative effect or only minor impact. Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests. They are called biocontrols and may be regarded as beneficial as an alternative to pesticides in agriculture for example. In some instances the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown.
The effects of introduced species on natural environments have gained much scrutiny from scientists, governments, farmers and others.
Formal definition from the United States Environmental Protection Agency: A species that has been intentionally or inadvertently brought into a region or area. Also called an exotic or non-native species.
There are many terms associated with introduced species that represent subsets of introduced species, and the terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons. Examples of these terms are acclimatized, adventive, naturalized, and immigrant species but those terms refer to a subset of introduced species. The term "invasive '' is used to describe introduced species when the introduced species causes substantial damage to the area in which it was introduced.
Subset descriptions:
General description of introduced species:
In the broadest and most widely used sense, an introduced species is synonymous with non-native and therefore applies as well to most garden and farm organisms; these adequately fit the basic definition given above. However, some sources add to that basic definition "and are now reproducing in the wild '', which removes from consideration as introduced species that were raised or grown in gardens or farms that do not survive without tending by people. With respect to plants, these latter are in this case defined as either ornamental or cultivated plants.
Introduction of a species outside its native range is all that is required to be qualified as an "introduced species '' such that one can distinguish between introduced species that may not occur except in cultivation, under domestication or captivity whereas others become established outside their native range and reproduce without human assistance. Such species might be termed "naturalized '', "established '', "wild non-native species ''. If they further spread beyond the place of introduction and cause damage to nearby species, they are called "invasive ''. The transition from introduction, to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants. Introduced species are essentially "non-native '' species. Invasive species are those introduced species that spreadwidely or quickly and cause harm, be that to the environment, human health, other valued resources or the economy. There have been calls from scientists to consider a species "invasive '' only in terms of their spread and reproduction rather than the harm they may cause.
According to a practical definition, an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location, spreading (invading) by natural means. The term is used to imply both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm. For example, U.S. Executive Order 13112 (1999) defines "invasive species '' as "an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health ''. The biological definition of invasive species, on the other hand, makes no reference to the harm they may cause, only to the fact that they spread beyond the area of original introduction.
Although some argue that "invasive '' is a loaded word and harm is difficult to define, the fact of the matter is that organisms have and continue to be introduced to areas in which they are not native, sometimes with but usually without much regard to the harm that could result.
From a regulatory perspective, it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species (although the State of Hawaii has adopted an approach that comes close to this). Regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others. Introduced pest species that are officially listed as invasive, best fit the definition of an invasive species. Early detection and rapid response is the most effective strategy for regulating a pest species and reducing economic and environmental impacts of an introduction
In Great Britain, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prevents the introduction of any animal not naturally occurring in the wild or any of a list of both animals or plants introduced previously and proved to be invasive.
By definition, a species is considered "introduced '' when its transport into an area outside of its native range is human mediated. Introductions by humans can be described as either intentional or accidental. Intentional introductions have been motivated by individuals or groups who either (1) believe that the newly introduced species will be in some way beneficial to humans in its new location or, (2) species are introduced intentionally but with no regard to the potential impact. Unintentional or accidental introductions are most often a byproduct of human movements, and are thus unbound to human motivations. Subsequent range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity.
Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for establishment in the wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in the wild. In these cases it is clear that the introduction is directly facilitated by human desires.
In the second case, species intentionally transported into a new region may escape from captive or cultivated populations and subsequently establish independent breeding populations. Escaped organisms are included in this category because their initial transport to a new region is human motivated.
Economic: Perhaps the most common motivation for introducing a species into a new place is that of economic gain. Non-native species can become such a common part of an environment, culture, and even diet that little thought is given to their geographic origin. For example, soybeans, kiwi fruit, wheat, honey bees, and all livestock except the American bison and the turkey are non-native species to North America. Collectively, non-native crops and livestock comprise 98 % of US food. These and other benefits from non-natives are so vast that, according to the Congressional Research Service, they probably exceed the costs.
Other examples of species introduced for the purposes of benefiting agriculture, aquaculture or other economic activities are widespread. Eurasian carp was first introduced to the United States as a potential food source. The apple snail was released in Southeast Asia with the intent that it be used as a protein source, and subsequently to places like Hawaii to establish a food industry. In Alaska, foxes were introduced to many islands to create new populations for the fur trade. About twenty species of African and European dung beetles have established themselves in Australia after deliberate introduction by the Australian Dung Beetle Project in an effort to reduce the impact of livestock manure. The timber industry promoted the introduction of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) from California to Australia and New Zealand as a commercial timber crop. These examples represent only a small subsample of species that have been moved by humans for economic interests.
The rise in the use of genetically modified organisms has added another potential economic advantage to introducing new / modified species into different environments. Companies such as Monsanto that earn much of their profit through the selling of genetically modified seeds has added to the controversy surrounding introduced species. The effect of genetically modified organisms varies from organism to organism and is still being researched today, however the rise of genetically modified organisms has added complexity to the conversations surrounding introduced species.
Introductions have also been important in supporting recreation activities or otherwise increasing human enjoyment. Numerous fish and game animals have been introduced for the purposes of sport fishing and hunting (earthworms as invasive species). The introduced amphibian (Ambystoma tigrinum) that threatens the endemic California salamander (Ambystoma californiense) was introduced to California as a source of bait for fishermen. Pet animals have also been frequently transported into new areas by humans, and their escapes have resulted in several successful introductions, such as those of feral cats and parrots.
Many plants have been introduced with the intent of aesthetically improving public recreation areas or private properties. The introduced Norway maple for example occupies a prominent status in many of Canada 's parks. The transport of ornamental plants for landscaping use has and continues to be a source of many introductions. Some of these species have escaped horticultural control and become invasive. Notable examples include water hyacinth, salt cedar, and purple loosestrife
In other cases, species have been translocated for reasons of "cultural nostalgia, '' which refers to instances in which humans who have migrated to new regions have intentionally brought with them familiar organisms. Famous examples include the introduction of starlings to North America by Englishman Eugene Schieffelin, a lover of the works of Shakespeare and the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, who, it is rumoured, wanted to introduce all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare 's plays into the United States. He deliberately released eighty starlings into Central Park in New York City in 1890, and another forty in 1891.
Yet another prominent example of an introduced species that became invasive is the European rabbit in Australia. Thomas Austin, a British landowner had rabbits released on his estate in Victoria because he missed hunting them. A more recent example is the introduction of the common wall lizard to North America by a Cincinnati boy, George Rau, around 1950 after a family vacation to Italy.
Intentional introductions have also been undertaken with the aim of ameliorating environmental problems. A number of fast spreading plants such as kudzu have been introduced as a means of erosion control. Other species have been introduced as biological control agents to control invasive species and involves the purposeful introduction of a natural enemy of the target species with the intention of reducing its numbers or controlling its spread.
A special case of introduction is the reintroduction of a species that has become locally endangered or extinct, done in the interests of conservation. Examples of successful reintroductions include wolves to Yellowstone National Park in the U.S., and the red kite to parts of England and Scotland. Introductions or translocations of species have also been proposed in the interest of genetic conservation, which advocates the introduction of new individuals into genetically depauperate populations of endangered or threatened species.
The above examples highlight the intent of humans to introduce species as a means of incurring some benefit. While these benefits have in some cases been realized, introductions have also resulted in unforeseen costs, particularly when introduced species take on characteristics of invasive species.
Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors. Increasing rates of human travel are providing accelerating opportunities for species to be accidentally transported into areas in which they are not considered native. For example, three species of rat (the black, Norway and Polynesian) have spread to most of the world as hitchhikers on ships. There are also numerous examples of marine organisms being transported in ballast water, one being the zebra mussel. Over 200 species have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in the world. There is also the accidental release of the Africanized honey bees (AHB), known colloquially as "killer bees '' or Africanized bee to Brazil in 1957 and the Asian carps to the United States. The insect commonly known as the brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys) was introduced accidentally in Pennsylvania. Another form of unintentional introductions is when an intentionally introduced plant carries a parasite or herbivore with it. Some become invasive, for example the oleander aphid, accidentally introduced with the ornamental plant, oleander.
Most accidentally or intentionally introduced species do not become invasive as the ones mentioned above. For instance Some 179 coccinellid species have been introduced to the U.S. and Canada; about 27 of these non-native species have become established, and only a handful can be considered invasive, including the intentionally introduced Harmonia axyridis, multicolored Asian lady beetle. However the small percentage of introduced species that become invasive can produce profound ecological changes. In North America Harmonia axyridis has become the most abundant lady beetle and probably accounts for more observations than all the native lady beetles put together.
Many non-native plants have been introduced into new territories, initially as either ornamental plants or for erosion control, stock feed, or forestry. Whether an exotic will become an invasive species is seldom understood in the beginning, and many non-native ornamentals languish in the trade for years before suddenly naturalizing and becoming invasive.
Peaches, for example, originated in China, and have been carried to much of the populated world. Tomatoes are native to the Andes. Squash (pumpkins), maize (corn), and tobacco are native to the Americas, but were introduced to the Old World. Many introduced species require continued human intervention to survive in the new environment. Others may become feral, but do not seriously compete with natives, but simply increase the biodiversity of the area.
Dandelions are also introduced species to North America.
A very troublesome marine species in southern Europe is the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia. Caulerpa was first observed in the Mediterranean Sea in 1984, off the coast of Monaco. By 1997, it had covered some 50 km2. It has a strong potential to overgrow natural biotopes, and represents a major risk for sublittoral ecosystems. The origin of the alga in the Mediterranean was thought to be either as a migration through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea, or as an accidental introduction from an aquarium. Another troublesome plant species is the terrestrial plant Phyla canescens, which was intentionally introduced into many countries in North America, Europe, and Africa as an ornamental plant. This species has become invasive in Australia, where it threatens native rare plants and causes erosion and soil slumping around river banks. It has also become invasive in France where it has been listed as an invasive plant species of concern in the Mediterranean region, where it can form monocultures that threaten critical conservation habitats.
Japanese knotweed grows profusely in many nations. Human beings introduced it into many places in the 19th century. It is a source of resveratrol, a dietary supplement.
Bear in mind that most introduced species do not become invasive. Examples of introduced animals that have become invasive include the gypsy moth in eastern North America, the zebra mussel and alewife in the Great Lakes, the Canada goose and gray squirrel in Europe, the muskrat in Europe and Asia, the cane toad and red fox in Australia, nutria in North America, Eurasia, and Africa, and the common brushtail possum in New Zealand. In Taiwan, the success of introduced bird species was related to their native range size and body size; larger species with larger native range sizes were found to have larger introduced range sizes.
Some species, such as the brown rat, house sparrow, ring - necked pheasant and European starling, have been introduced very widely. In addition there are some agricultural and pet species that frequently become feral; these include rabbits, dogs, goats, fish, pigs and cats.
When a new species is introduced, the species could potentially breed with members of native species, producing hybrids. The effect of the creating of hybrids can range from having little effect, a negative effect, to having devastating effects on native species. Potential negative effects include hybrids that are less fit for their environment resulting in a population decrease. This was seen in the Atlantic Salmon population when high levels of escape from Atlantic Salmon farms into the wild populations resulted in hybrids that had reduced survival. Potential positive effects include adding to the genetic diversity of the population which can increase the adaptation ability of the population and increase the number of healthy individuals within a population. This was seen in the introduction of guppies in Trinidad to encourage population growth and introduce new alleles into the population. The results of this introduction included increased levels of heterozygosity and a larger population size.
It has been hypothesized that invasive species of microbial life could contaminate a planetary body after the former is introduced by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberately or unintentionally.
"This protocol was defined in concert with Viking, the first mission to face the most stringent planetary protection requirements; its implementation remains the gold standard today. ''
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which of the following types of compositions did josquin desprez write
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Josquin des Prez - wikipedia
Josquin des Prez (French: (ʒɔskɛ̃ depʁe); c. 1450 / 1455 -- 27 August 1521), often referred to simply as Josquin, was a French composer of the Renaissance. His original name is sometimes given as Josquin Lebloitte and his later name is given under a wide variety of spellings in French, Italian, and Latin, including Iosquinus Pratensis and Iodocus a Prato. His motet Illibata Dei virgo nutrix includes an acrostic of his name, where he spelled it "Josquin des Prez ''. He was the most famous European composer between Guillaume Dufay and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, and is usually considered to be the central figure of the Franco - Flemish School. Josquin is widely considered by music scholars to be the first master of the high Renaissance style of polyphonic vocal music that was emerging during his lifetime.
During the 16th century, Josquin gradually acquired the reputation as the greatest composer of the age, his mastery of technique and expression universally imitated and admired. Writers as diverse as Baldassare Castiglione and Martin Luther wrote about his reputation and fame; theorists such as Heinrich Glarean and Gioseffo Zarlino held his style as that best representing perfection. He was so admired that many anonymous compositions were attributed to him by copyists, probably to increase their sales. More than 370 works are attributed to him; it was only after the advent of modern analytical scholarship that some of these attributions were challenged, and revealed as mistaken, on the basis of stylistic features and manuscript evidence. Yet in spite of Josquin 's colossal reputation, which endured until the beginning of the Baroque era and was revived in the 20th century, his biography is shadowy, and virtually nothing is known about his personality. The only surviving work which may be in his own hand is a graffito on the wall of the Sistine Chapel, and only one contemporary mention of his character is known, in a letter to Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. The lives of dozens of less revered Renaissance composers are better documented than that of Josquin.
Josquin wrote both sacred and secular music, and in all of the significant vocal forms of the age, including masses, motets, chansons and frottole. During the 16th century, he was praised for both his supreme melodic gift and his use of ingenious technical devices. In modern times, scholars have attempted to ascertain the basic details of his biography, and have tried to define the key characteristics of his style to correct misattributions, a task that has proved difficult, as Josquin liked to solve compositional problems in different ways in successive compositions -- sometimes he wrote in an austere style devoid of ornamentation, and at other times he wrote music requiring considerable virtuosity. Heinrich Glarean wrote in 1547 that Josquin was not only a "magnificent virtuoso '' (the Latin can be translated also as "show - off '') but capable of being a "mocker '', using satire effectively. While the focus of scholarship in recent years has been to remove music from the "Josquin canon '' (including some of his most famous pieces) and to reattribute it to his contemporaries, the remaining music represents some of the most famous and enduring of the Renaissance.
Little is known for certain of Josquin 's early life. Much is inferential and speculative, though numerous clues have emerged from his works and the writings of contemporary composers, theorists, and writers of the next several generations. Josquin was born in the area controlled by the Dukes of Burgundy, and was possibly born either in Hainaut (modern - day Belgium), or immediately across the border in modern - day France, since several times in his life he was classified legally as a Frenchman (for instance, when he made his will). Josquin was long mistaken for a man with a similar name, Josquin de Kessalia, born around the year 1440, who sang in Milan from 1459 to 1474, dying in 1498. More recent scholarship has shown that Josquin des Prez was born around 1450 or a few years later, and did not go to Italy until the early 1480s.
Around 1466, perhaps on the death of his father, Josquin was named by his uncle and aunt, Gille Lebloitte dit Desprez and Jacque Banestonne, as their heir. Their will gives Josquin 's actual surname as Lebloitte. According to Matthews and Merkley, "des Prez '' was an alternative name.
According to an account by Claude Hémeré, a friend and librarian of Cardinal Richelieu whose evidence dates as late as 1633, and who used the records of the collegiate church of Saint - Quentin, Josquin became a choirboy with his friend and colleague the Franco Flemish composer Jean Mouton at Saint - Quentin 's royal church, probably around 1460. Doubt has been cast on the accuracy of Hémeré 's account, however. Josquin may have studied counterpoint under Ockeghem, whom he greatly admired throughout his life: this is suggested both by the testimony of Gioseffo Zarlino and Lodovico Zacconi, writing later in the 16th century, and by Josquin 's eloquent lament on the death of Ockeghem in 1497, Nymphes des bois / Requiem aeternam, based on the poem by Jean Molinet. All records from Saint - Quentin were destroyed in 1669; however the collegiate chapel there was a center of music - making for the entire area, and in addition was an important center of royal patronage. Both Jean Mouton and Loyset Compère were buried there and it is certainly possible that Josquin acquired his later connections with the French royal chapel through early experiences at Saint - Quentin.
The first definite record of his employment is dated 19 April 1477, and it shows that he was a singer at the chapel of René, Duke of Anjou, in Aix - en - Provence. He remained there at least until 1478. No certain records of his movements exist for the period from March 1478 until 1483, but if he remained in the employ of René he would have transferred to Paris in 1481 along with the rest of the chapel. One of Josquin 's early motets, Misericordias Domini in aeternum cantabo, suggests a direct connection with Louis XI, who was king during this time. In 1483 Josquin returned to Condé to claim his inheritance from his aunt and uncle, who may have been killed by the army of Louis XI in May 1478, when they besieged the town, locked the population into the church, and burned them alive.
The period from 1480 to 1482 has puzzled biographers; contradictory evidence exists suggesting either that Josquin was still in France, or was already in the service of the Sforza family, specifically with Ascanio Sforza, who had been banished from Milan and resided temporarily in Ferrara or Naples. Residence in Ferrara in the early 1480s could explain the Missa Hercules dux Ferrariae, composed for Ercole d'Este, but which stylistically does not fit with the usual date of 1503 -- 4 when Josquin was known to be in Ferrara. Alternatively it has been suggested that Josquin spent some of that time in Hungary, based on a mid-16th - century Roman document describing the Hungarian court in those years, and including Josquin as one of the musicians present.
In either 1483 or 1484, Josquin is known to have been in the service of the Sforza family in Milan. While in their employ, he made one or more trips to Rome, and possibly also to Paris; while in Milan he made the acquaintance of Franchinus Gaffurius, who was maestro di cappella of the cathedral there. He was in Milan again in 1489, after a possible period of travel; but he left that year.
From 1489 to 1495, Josquin was a member of the papal choir, first under Pope Innocent VIII, and later under the Borgia pope Alexander VI. He may have gone there as part of a singer exchange with Gaspar van Weerbeke, who went back to Milan at the same time. While there, he may have been the one who carved his name into the wall of the Sistine Chapel; a "JOSQUINJ '' was recently revealed by workers restoring the chapel. Since it was traditional for singers to carve their names into the walls, and hundreds of names were inscribed there during the period from the 15th to the 18th centuries, it is considered highly likely that the graffiti is by Josquin -- and if so, it would be his only surviving autograph.
Josquin 's mature style evolved during this period; as in Milan he had absorbed the influence of light Italian secular music, in Rome he refined his techniques of sacred music. Several of his motets have been dated to the years he spent at the papal chapel.
Around 1498, Josquin most likely re-entered the service of the Sforza family, on the evidence of a pair of letters between the Gonzaga and Sforza families. He probably did not stay in Milan long, for in 1499 Louis XII captured Milan in his invasion of northern Italy and imprisoned Josquin 's former employers. Around this time Josquin most likely returned to France, although documented details of his career around the turn of the 16th century are lacking. Prior to departing Italy he most likely wrote one of his most famous secular compositions, the frottola El grillo (the Cricket), as well as In te Domine speravi ("I have placed my hope in you, Lord ''), based on Psalm 30. The latter composition may have been a veiled reference to the religious reformer Girolamo Savonarola, who had been burned at the stake in Florence in 1498, and for whom Josquin seems to have had a special reverence; the text was the Dominican friar 's favorite psalm, a meditation on which he left incomplete in prison prior to his execution.
Some of Josquin 's compositions, such as the instrumental Vive le roy, have been tentatively dated to the period around 1500 when he was in France. A motet, Memor esto verbi tui servo tuo ("Remember thy promise unto thy servant ''), was, according to Heinrich Glarean writing in the Dodecachordon of 1547, composed as a gentle reminder to the king to keep his promise of a benefice to Josquin, which he had forgotten to keep. According to Glarean 's story, it worked: the court applauded, and the king gave Josquin his benefice. Upon receiving it, Josquin reportedly wrote a motet on the text Benefecisti servo tuo, Domine ("Lord, thou hast dealt graciously with thy servant '') to show his gratitude to the king.
Josquin probably remained in the service of Louis XII until 1503, when Duke Ercole I of Ferrara hired him for the chapel there. One of the rare mentions of Josquin 's personality survives from this time. Prior to hiring Josquin, one of Duke Ercole 's assistants recommended that he hire Heinrich Isaac instead, since Isaac was easier to get along with, more companionable, was more willing to compose on demand, and would cost significantly less (120 ducats vs. 200). Ercole, however, chose Josquin.
While in Ferrara, Josquin wrote some of his most famous compositions, including the austere, Savonarola - influenced Miserere, which became one of the most widely distributed motets of the 16th century; the utterly contrasting, virtuoso motet Virgo salutiferi; and possibly the Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, which is written on a cantus firmus derived from the musical letters in the Duke 's name, a technique known as soggetto cavato.
Josquin did not stay in Ferrara long. An outbreak of the plague in the summer of 1503 prompted the evacuation of the Duke and his family, as well as two - thirds of the citizens, and Josquin left by April of the next year, possibly also to escape the plague. His replacement, Jacob Obrecht, died of the plague in the summer of 1505, to be replaced by Antoine Brumel in 1506, who stayed until the disbanding of the chapel in 1510.
Josquin went directly from Ferrara to his home region of Condé - sur - l'Escaut, southeast of Lille on the present - day border between Belgium and France, becoming provost of the collegiate church of Notre - Dame on 3 May 1504, a large musical establishment that he headed for the rest of his life. While the chapter at Bourges Cathedral asked him to become master of the choirboys there in 1508, it is not known how he responded, and there is no record of his having been employed there; most scholars presume he remained in Condé. In 1509, he held concurrently provost and choir master offices at Saint Quentin collegiate church.
During the last two decades of his life, Josquin 's fame spread abroad along with his music. The newly developed technology of printing made wide dissemination of his music possible, and Josquin was the favorite of the first printers: one of Petrucci 's first publications, and the earliest surviving print of music by a single composer, was a book of Josquin 's masses which he printed in Venice in 1502. This publication was successful enough that Petrucci published two further volumes of Josquin 's masses, in 1504 and 1514, and reissued them several times.
On his death - bed, Josquin asked that he be listed on the rolls as a foreigner, so that his property would not pass to the Lords and Ladies of Condé. This bit of evidence has been used to show that he was French by birth. Additionally, he left an endowment for the performance of his late motet, Pater noster, at all general processions in the town when they passed in front of his house, stopping to place a wafer on the marketplace altar to the Holy Virgin. Pater noster may have been his last work.
Josquin lived during a transitional stage in music history. Musical styles were changing rapidly, in part owing to the movement of musicians between different regions of Europe. Many northern musicians moved to Italy, the heart of the Renaissance, attracted by the Italian nobility 's patronage of the arts; while in Italy, these composers were influenced by the native Italian styles, and often brought those ideas with them back to their homelands. The sinuous musical lines of the Ockeghem generation, the contrapuntal complexity of the Netherlanders, and the homophonic textures of the Italian lauda and secular music began to merge into a unified style; indeed Josquin was to be the leading figure in this musical process, which eventually resulted in the formation of an international musical language, of which the most famous composers included Palestrina and Lassus.
Josquin likely learned his craft in his home region in the North, in France, and then in Italy when he went to Milan and Rome. His early sacred works emulate the contrapuntal complexity and ornamented, melismatic lines of Ockeghem and his contemporaries, but at the same time he was learning his contrapuntal technique he was acquiring an Italianate idiom for his secular music: after all, he was surrounded by Italian popular music in Milan. By the end of his long creative career, which spanned approximately 50 productive years, he had developed a simplified style in which each voice of a polyphonic composition exhibited free and smooth motion, and close attention was paid to clear setting of text as well as clear alignment of text with musical motifs. While other composers were influential on the development of Josquin 's style, especially in the late 15th century, he himself became the most influential composer in Europe, especially after the development of music printing, which was concurrent with the years of his maturity and peak output. This event made his influence even more decisive than it might otherwise have been.
Many "modern '' musical compositional practices were being born in the era around 1500. Josquin made extensive use of "motivic cells '' in his compositions, short, easily recognizable melodic fragments which passed from voice to voice in a contrapuntal texture, giving it an inner unity. This is a basic organizational principle in music which has been practiced continuously from approximately 1500 until the present day.
Josquin wrote in all of the important forms current at the time, including masses, motets, chansons, and frottole. He even contributed to the development of a new form, the motet - chanson, of which he left at least three examples. In addition, some of his pieces were probably intended for instrumental performance.
Each area of his output can be further subdivided by form or by hypothetical period of composition. Since dating Josquin 's compositions is particularly problematic, with scholarly consensus only achieved on a minority of works, discussion here is by type.
Josquin wrote towards the end of the period in which the mass was the predominant form of sacred composition in Europe. The mass, as it had developed through the 15th century, was a long, multi-section form, with opportunities for large - scale structure and organization not possible in the other forms such as the motet. Josquin wrote some of the most famous examples of the genre, most using some kind of cyclic organization.
He wrote masses using the following general techniques, although there is considerable overlap between techniques in individual compositions:
Most of these techniques, particularly paraphrase and parody, became standardized during the first half of the 16th century; Josquin was very much a pioneer, and what was perceived by later observers as the mixing of these techniques was actually the process by which they were created.
Prior to Josquin 's mature period, the most common technique for writing masses was the cantus firmus, a technique which had been in use already for most of the 15th century. It was the technique that Josquin used earliest in his career, with the Missa L'ami Baudichon, possibly his first mass. This mass is based on a secular -- indeed ribald -- tune similar to "Three Blind Mice ''. That basing a mass on such a source was an accepted procedure is evident from the existence of the mass in Sistine Chapel part - books copied during the papacy of Julius II (1503 to 1513).
Josquin 's most famous cantus - firmus masses are the two based on the L'homme armé tune, which was the favorite tune for mass composition of the entire Renaissance. The earlier of the two, Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales, is a technical tour - de-force on the tune, containing numerous mensuration canons and contrapuntal display. It was by far the most famous of all his masses. The second, Missa L'homme armé sexti toni, is a "fantasia on the theme of the armed man. '' While based on a cantus firmus, it is also a paraphrase mass, for fragments of the tune appear in all voices. Technically it is almost restrained, compared to the other L'homme armé mass, until the closing Agnus Dei, which contains a complex canonic structure including a rare retrograde canon, around which other voices are woven.
The paraphrase technique differs from the cantus - firmus technique in that the source material, though it still consists of a monophonic original, is embellished, often with ornaments. As in the cantus - firmus technique, the source tune may appear in many voices of the mass.
Several of Josquin 's masses feature the paraphrase technique, and they include some of his most famous work including the great Missa Gaudeamus. The relatively early Missa Ave maris stella, which probably dates from his years in the Sistine Chapel choir, paraphrases the Marian antiphon of the same name; it is also one of his shortest masses. The late Missa de Beata Virgine paraphrases plainchants in praise of the Virgin Mary; it is a Lady Mass, a votive mass for Saturday performance, and was his most popular mass in the 16th century.
By far the most famous of Josquin 's masses using the technique, and one of the most famous mass settings of the entire era, was the Missa pange lingua, based on the hymn by Thomas Aquinas for the Vespers of Corpus Christi. It was probably the last mass that Josquin composed. This mass is an extended fantasia on the tune, using the melody in all voices and in all parts of the mass, in elaborate and ever - changing polyphony. One of the high points of the mass is the et incarnatus est section of the Credo, where the texture becomes homophonic, and the tune appears in the topmost voice; here the portion which would normally set "Sing, O my tongue, of the mystery of the divine body '' is instead given the words "And he became incarnate by the Holy Ghost from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. ''
In parody masses, the source material was not a single line, but an entire texture, often of a popular song. Several works by Josquin fall loosely into this category, including the Missa Fortuna desperata, based on the three - voice song Fortuna desperata (possibly by Antoine Busnois); the Missa Malheur me bat (based on a chanson variously ascribed to Obrecht, Ockeghem, or, most likely, Abertijne Malcourt); and the Missa Mater Patris, based on a three - voice motet by Antoine Brumel. The Missa Mater Patris is probably the first true parody mass to be composed, for it no longer contains any hint of a cantus firmus. Parody technique was to become the most usual means of mass composition for the remainder of the 16th century, although the mass gradually fell out of favor as the motet grew in esteem.
The earliest known mass by any composer using this method of composition -- the soggetto cavato -- is the Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, which Josquin probably wrote in the early 1480s for the powerful Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara. The notes of the cantus firmus are drawn from the musical syllables of the Duke 's name in the following way: Ercole, Duke of Ferrara in Latin is Hercules Dux Ferrarie. Taking the solmization syllables with the same vowels gives: Re -- Ut -- Re -- Ut -- Re -- Fa -- Mi -- Re (in modern nomenclature: D -- C -- D -- C -- D -- F -- E -- D). Another mass using this technique is the Missa La sol fa re mi, based on the musical syllables contained in "Lascia fare mi '' ("let me do it ''). The story, as told by Glareanus in 1547, was that an unknown aristocrat used to order suitors away with this phrase, and Josquin immediately wrote an "exceedingly elegant '' mass on it as a jab at him.
Canonic masses came into increasing prominence in the latter part of the 15th century. Early examples include Ockeghem 's famous Missa prolationum, consisting entirely of mensuration canons, the Missa L'homme armé of Guillaume Faugues, whose cantus firmus is presented in canon at the descending fifth, the Missa (Ad fugam) of Marbrianus de Orto, based on freely composed canons at the fifth between superius and tenor, and the two great canonic masses of Josquin, the Missa Ad fugam and Missa Sine nomine. Josquin makes use of canon in the Osanna and Agnus Dei III of the Missa L'homme armé sexti toni, throughout the Missa Sine nomine and Missa Ad fugam, and in the final three movements of the Missa De beata virgine. The Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales incorporates mensuration canons in the Kyrie, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei II.
Josquin 's motet style varied from almost strictly homophonic settings with block chords and syllabic text declamation to highly ornate contrapuntal fantasias, to the psalm settings which combined these extremes with the addition of rhetorical figures and text - painting that foreshadowed the later development of the madrigal. He wrote many of his motets for four voices, an ensemble size which had become the compositional norm around 1500, and he was also a considerable innovator in writing motets for five and six voices. No motets of more than six voices have been reliably attributed to Josquin.
Almost all of Josquin 's motets use some kind of compositional constraint on the process; they are not freely composed. Some of them use a cantus firmus as a unifying device; some are canonic; some use a motto which repeats throughout; some use several of these methods. The motets that use canon can be roughly divided into two groups: those in which the canon is plainly designed to be heard and appreciated as such, and another group in which a canon is present, but almost impossible to hear, and seemingly written to be appreciated by the eye, and by connoisseurs.
Josquin frequently used imitation, especially paired imitation, in writing his motets, with sections akin to fugal expositions occurring on successive lines of the text he was setting. An example is his setting of Dominus regnavit (Psalm 93), for four voices; each of the lines of the psalm begins with a voice singing a new tune alone, quickly followed by entries of other three voices in imitation.
In writing polyphonic settings of psalms, Josquin was a pioneer, and psalm settings form a large proportion of the motets of his later years. Few composers prior to Josquin had written polyphonic psalm settings. Some of Josquin 's settings include the famous Miserere, written in Ferrara in 1503 or 1504 and most likely inspired by the recent execution of the reformist monk Girolamo Savonarola, Memor esto verbi tui, based on Psalm 119, and two settings of De profundis (Psalm 130), both of which are often considered to be among his most significant accomplishments.
In the domain of secular music, Josquin left numerous French chansons, for from three to six voices, as well as a handful of Italian secular songs known as frottole, as well as some pieces which were probably intended for instrumental performance. Problems of attribution are even more acute with the chansons than they are with other portions of his output: while about 70 three and four - voice chansons were published under his name during his lifetime, only six of the more than thirty five - and six - voice chansons attributed to him were circulated under his name during the same time. Many of the attributions added after his death are considered to be unreliable, and much work has been done in the last decades of the 20th century to correct attributions on stylistic grounds.
Josquin 's earliest chansons were probably composed in northern Europe, under the influence of composers such as Ockeghem and Busnois. Unlike them, however, he never adhered strictly to the conventions of the formes fixes -- the rigid and complex repetition patterns of the rondeau, virelai, and ballade -- instead he often wrote his early chansons in strict imitation, a feature they shared with many of his sacred works. He was one of the first composers of chansons to make all voices equal parts of the texture; and many of his chansons contain points of imitation, in the manner of motets. However he did use melodic repetition, especially where the lines of text rhymed, and many of his chansons had a lighter texture, as well as a faster tempo, than his motets.
Inside of his chansons, he often used a cantus firmus, sometimes a popular song whose origin can no longer be traced, as in Si j'avoye Marion. Other times he used a tune originally associated with a separate text; and still other times he freely composed an entire song, using no apparent external source material. Another technique he sometimes used was to take a popular song and write it as a canon with itself, in two inner voices, and write new melodic material above and around it, to a new text: he used this technique in one of his most famous chansons, Faulte d'argent ("The problem with money ''), a song sung by a man who wakes in bed with a prostitute, broke and unable to pay her.
Some of his chansons were doubtless designed to be performed instrumentally. That Petrucci published many of them without text is strong evidence of this; additionally, some of the pieces (for example, the fanfare - like Vive le roy) contain writing more idiomatic for instruments than voices.
Josquin 's most famous chansons circulated widely in Europe. Some of the better known include his lament on the death of Ockeghem, Nymphes des bois / Requiem aeternam; Mille regretz (the attribution of which has recently been questioned); Plus nulz regretz; and Je me complains.
In addition to his French chansons, he wrote at least three pieces in the manner of the Italian frottola, a popular Italian song form which he would have encountered during his years in Milan. These songs include Scaramella, El grillo, and In te domine speravi. They are even simpler in texture than his French chansons, being almost uniformly syllabic and homophonic, and they remain among the most frequently sung portions of his output.
While in Milan, Josquin wrote several examples of a new type of piece developed by the composers there, the motet - chanson. These compositions were texturally very similar to 15th century chansons in the formes fixes mold, except that unlike those completely secular works, they contained a chant - derived Latin cantus - firmus in the lowest of the three voices. The other voices, in French, sang a secular text which had either a symbolic relationship to the sacred Latin text, or commented on it. Josquin 's three known motet - chansons, Que vous madame / In pace, A la mort / Monstra te esse matrem, and Fortune destrange plummaige / Pauper sum ego, are similar stylistically to those by the other composers of the Milan chapel, such as Loyset Compère and Alexander Agricola.
Josquin 's fame lasted throughout the 16th century, and indeed increased for several decades after his death. Zarlino, writing in the 1580s, was still using examples from Josquin in his treatises on composition; and Josquin 's fame was only eclipsed after the beginning of the Baroque era, with the decline of the pre-tonal polyphonic style. During the 18th and 19th centuries Josquin 's fame was overshadowed by later Roman School composer Palestrina, whose music was seen as the summit of polyphonic refinement, and codified into a system of composition by theorists such as Johann Fux; however, during the 20th century, Josquin 's reputation has grown steadily, to the point where scholars again consider him "the greatest and most successful composer of the age. '' According to Richard Sherr, writing in the introduction to the Josquin Companion, addressing specifically the shrinking of Josquin 's canon due to correction of misattributions, "Josquin will survive because his best music really is as magnificent as everybody has always said it was. ''
Since the 1950s Josquin 's reputation has been boosted by the increasing availability of recordings, of which there are many, and the rise of ensembles specializing in the performance of 16th century vocal music, many of which place Josquin 's output at the heart of their repertoire.
The difficulties in compiling a works list for Josquin can not be overstated. Because of his immense prestige in the early sixteenth century, many scribes and publishers did not resist the temptation of attributing anonymous or otherwise spurious works to Josquin. The German editor Georg Forster summed up the situation admirably in 1540 when he wrote, "I remember a certain eminent man saying that, now that Josquin is dead, he is putting out more works than when he was alive. '' Thus, the authenticity of many of the works listed below is disputed on stylistic grounds or problems with sources or both. This thorny issue has been taken up vigorously in the now nearly complete New Josquin Edition (NJE).
Doubtful works:
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where are newcastle united in the premier league
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Newcastle United F.C. - Wikipedia
Newcastle United Football Club is an English professional association football club based in Newcastle upon Tyne, that currently plays in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. Newcastle United was founded in 1892 by the merger of Newcastle East End and Newcastle West End, and has played at its current home ground, St James ' Park, ever since. The ground was developed into an all - seater stadium in the mid-1990s and now has a capacity of 52,354.
The club has been a member of the Premier League for all but three years of the competition 's history, spending 85 seasons in the top tier as of May 2016, and has never dropped below English football 's second tier since joining the Football League in 1893. They have won four League Championship titles, six FA Cups and a Charity Shield, as well as the 1969 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and the 2006 UEFA Intertoto Cup. Newcastle United has the ninth highest total of trophies won by an English club. The club 's most successful period was between 1904 and 1910, when they won an FA Cup and three of their First Division titles. The club were highly successful in the Premier League in the 1990s and early 2000s without winning any trophies, but have been mostly struggling since the 2006 -- 07 season, and were relegated in 2009 and 2016. They returned to the Premiership for the 2017 -- 18 season after winning the Championship title the preceding year.
Newcastle has a fierce local rivalry with Sunderland, and the two clubs have engaged in the Tyne -- Wear derby since 1898. The club 's traditional kit colours are black and white striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. Their traditional crest takes elements of the city coat of arms, which features two grey seahorses. Prior to each home game the team enters the field to "Local Hero '', written by Newcastle native Mark Knopfler, while "Blaydon Races '' is invariably sung during games.
The club has been owned by Mike Ashley since 2007, succeeding long term chairman and owner Sir John Hall. The club is the seventeenth highest revenue producing club in the world in terms of annual revenue, generating € 169.3 m in 2015. Historically, Newcastle 's highest placing was in 1999 when they were the fifth highest revenue producing football club in the world, and second in England only behind Manchester United.
The first record of football being played on Tyneside dates from 3 March 1877 at Elswick Rugby Club. Later that year, Newcastle 's first football club, Tyne Association, was formed. The origins of Newcastle United Football Club itself can be traced back to the formation of a football club by the Stanley Cricket Club of Byker in November 1881. This team was renamed Newcastle East End F.C. in October 1882, to avoid confusion with the cricket club in Stanley, County Durham. Rosewood F.C. of Byker merged with Newcastle East End a short time later. In 1886, Newcastle East End moved from Byker to Heaton. In August 1882, Newcastle West End F.C. formed from West End Cricket Club, and in May 1886, the club moved into St James ' Park. The two clubs became rivals in the Northern League. In 1889, Newcastle East End became a professional team, before becoming a limited company the following March. However, on the other hand, Newcastle West End were in serious financial trouble and approached East End with a view to a take over. Newcastle West End were eventually dissolved, and a number of their players and backroom staff joined Newcastle East End, effectively merging the two clubs, with Newcastle East End taking over the lease on St James ' Park in May 1892.
With only one senior club in the city for fans to support, development of the club was much more rapid. Despite being refused entry to the Football League 's First Division at the start of the 1892 -- 93 season, they were invited to play in their new Second Division. However, with no big names playing in the Second Division, they turned down the offer and remained in the Northern League, stating "gates would not meet the heavy expenses incurred for travelling ''. In a bid to start drawing larger crowds, Newcastle East End decided to adopt a new name in recognition of the merger. Suggested names included Newcastle F.C., Newcastle Rangers, Newcastle City and City of Newcastle, but Newcastle United was decided upon on 9 December 1892, to signify the unification of the two teams. The name change was accepted by the Football Association on 22 December, but the club was not legally constituted as Newcastle United Football Club Co. Ltd. until 6 September 1895. At the start of the 1893 -- 94 season, Newcastle United were once again refused entry to the First Division and so joined the Second Division, along with Liverpool and Woolwich Arsenal. They played their first competitive match in the division that September against Woolwich Arsenal, with a score of 2 -- 2.
Turnstile numbers were still low, and the incensed club published a statement stating, "The Newcastle public do not deserve to be catered for as far as professional football is concerned ''. However, eventually figures picked up by 1895 -- 96, when 14,000 fans watched the team play Bury. That season Frank Watt became secretary of the club, and he was instrumental in promotion to the First Division for the 1898 -- 99 season. However, they lost their first game 4 -- 2 at home to Wolves and finished their first season in thirteenth place.
In 1903 -- 04, the club built up a promising squad of players, and went on to dominate English football for almost a decade, the team known for their "artistic play, combining team - work and quick, short passing ''. Long after his retirement, Peter McWilliam, the team 's defender at the time, said "The Newcastle team of the 1900s would give any modern side a two goal start and beat them, and further more, beat them at a trot. '' Newcastle United went on to win the League on three occasions during the 1900s; 1904 -- 05, 1906 -- 07 and 1908 -- 09. In 1904 -- 05, they nearly did the double, losing to Aston Villa in the 1905 FA Cup Final. They were beaten again the following year by Everton in the 1906 FA Cup Final. They reached the final again in 1908 where they lost to Wolves. They finally won the FA Cup in 1910 when they beat Barnsley in the final. They lost again the following year in the final against Bradford City.
The team returned to the FA Cup final in 1924, in the second final held at the then new Wembley Stadium. They defeated Aston Villa, winning the club 's second FA Cup. Three years later they won the First Division championship a fourth time in 1926 -- 27, with Hughie Gallacher, one of the most prolific goal scorers in the club 's history, captaining the team. Other key players in this period were Neil Harris, Stan Seymour and Frank Hudspeth. In 1930, Newcastle United came close to relegation, and at the end of the season Gallacher left the club for Chelsea, and at the same time Andy Cunningham became the club 's first team manager. In 1931 -- 32, the club won the FA Cup a third time. However, a couple of years later, at the end of the 1933 -- 34 season, the team were relegated to the Second Division after 35 seasons in the top. Cunningham left as manager and Tom Mather took over.
The club found it difficult to adjust to the Second Division and were nearly further relegated in the 1937 -- 38 season, when they were spared on goal averages. However, when World War II broke in 1939, Newcastle had a chance to regroup, and in the War period, they brought in Jackie Milburn, Tommy Walker and Bobby Cowell. They were finally promoted back to the First Division at the end of the 1947 -- 48 season. During the 1950s, Newcastle won the FA Cup trophy on three occasions within a five - year period, beating Blackpool in 1951, Arsenal in 1952, and Manchester City in 1955. However, after this last FA Cup victory the club fell back into decline and were relegated to the Second Division once again at the end of the 1960 -- 61 season under the management of Charlie Mitten. Mitten left after one season in the Second Division and was replaced by former player Joe Harvey. Newcastle returned to the First Division at the end of the 1964 -- 65 season after winning the Second Division title. Under Harvey, the club qualified for European competition for the first time after a good run in the 1967 -- 68 season and the following year won the 1969 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Final, triumphing 6 -- 2 over two legs against Hungary 's Újpest in the final.
Harvey bought striker Malcolm Macdonald in the summer of 1971, for a club record transfer fee of £ 180,000 (worth ₤ 2294499 in 2016). He was an impressive goal scorer, who led United 's attack to Wembley in their 1974 FA Cup Final defeat at the hands of Liverpool. The club also had back to back triumphs in the Texaco Cup in 1974 and 1975. Harvey left the club in 1975, with Gordon Lee brought in to replace him. Lee took the team to the 1976 Football League Cup Final against Manchester City, but failed to bring the trophy back to Tyneside. However, he sold Macdonald to Arsenal at the end of the season, a decision of which Macdonald later said "I loved Newcastle, until Gordon Lee took over ''. Lee left for Everton in 1977, and was replaced by Richard Dinnis.
United dropped once again to the Second Division at the end of the 1977 -- 78 season. Dinnis was replaced by Bill McGarry, and then he was replaced by Arthur Cox. Cox steered Newcastle back to the First Division at the end of the 1983 -- 84 season, with players such as Peter Beardsley, Chris Waddle, and ex-England captain Kevin Keegan the fulcrum of the team. However, with a lack of funds, Cox left for Derby County and Keegan retired. With managers such as Jack Charlton and then Willie McFaul, Newcastle remained in the top - flight, until key players such as Waddle, Beardsley and Paul Gascoigne were sold, and the team was relegated once more in 1989. McFaul left the managerial post, and was replaced by Jim Smith. Smith left at the start of the 1991 -- 92 season and the board appointed Osvaldo Ardiles his replacement.
Sir John Hall became the club 's chairman in 1992, and replaced Ardiles with Keegan, who managed to save the team from relegation to the Third Division. Keegan was given more money for players, and he brought in Rob Lee, Paul Bracewell and Barry Venison and the club won the then First Division Championship at the end of the 1992 -- 93 season, earning promotion to the then new Premier League. At the end of the 1993 -- 94 season, their first year back in the top flight they finished in third, their highest league finish since 1927. The attacking philosophy of Keegan led to the team being labelled "The Entertainers '' by Sky Sports.
Keegan took Newcastle to two consecutive runners - up finishes in the league in 1995 -- 96 and 1996 -- 97, coming very close to winning the title in the former season. This success was in part due to the talent of players like David Ginola, Les Ferdinand and Alan Shearer, who was signed on 30 July 1996 for a then world record fee of £ 15 million.
Keegan left Newcastle in January 1997 and was replaced by Kenny Dalglish, however the club endured a largely unsuccessful season with a 13th - place finish in the 1997 -- 98 FA Premier League, failure to progress beyond the group stages of the 1997 -- 98 UEFA Champions League despite beating Barcelona and group winners Dynamo Kiev at St James Park as well as coming from 2 -- 0 down to draw 2 -- 2 with Valery Lobanovsky 's team in Ukraine and defeat in the 1998 FA Cup Final. Dalglish was replaced as manager early in the following season by Ruud Gullit.
The club once again finished thirteenth in the league and lost the 1999 FA Cup Final. Gullit fell into disagreements with the squad and chairman Freddy Shepherd, and quit the club four games into the 1999 -- 2000 season with the team bottom of the table to be replaced by Bobby Robson. The club managed to reach an FA Cup Semi-final and to stay in the Premier League.
A title challenge emerged during the 2001 -- 02 season, and Newcastle 's fourth - place finish saw them qualify for the Champions League. The following season, Robson guided the team to another title challenge and finished third in the League, and the second group stage of the Champions League. Newcastle finished fifth in the league at the end of the 2003 -- 04 season, and exited the Champions League in the qualifying rounds, but despite this Robson was sacked in August 2004 following a series of disagreements with the club.
Graeme Souness was brought in to manage by the start of the 2004 -- 05 season. In his time at the helm, he broke the club 's transfer record by signing Michael Owen. Souness also took the geordies to the quarterfinals of the 2005 UEFA Cup with Alan Shearer winning the tournament 's golden boot as well. However, he was sacked in February 2006 after a bad start to the club 's 2005 -- 06 season. Glenn Roeder took over, initially on a temporary basis, before being appointed full - time manager at the end of the season. Shearer retired at the end of the 2005 -- 06 season as the club 's all - time record goal scorer, with a total of 206 goals.
Despite finishing the 2005 -- 06 season in seventh, Roeder 's fortunes changed in the 2006 -- 07 season, with a terrible injury run to the senior squad, and he left the club by mutual consent on 6 May 2007.
Sam Allardyce was appointed Roeder 's replacement as manager on 15 May 2007. On 7 June, Freddy Shepherd 's final shares in the club were sold to Mike Ashley and Shepherd was replaced as chairman by Chris Mort on 25 July.
Allardyce departed the club on in January 2008 by mutual consent after a bad start to the 2007 -- 08 season, and Kevin Keegan was reappointed as Newcastle manager. Mort stepped down as chairman in June and was replaced by Derek Llambias, a long - term associate of Ashley. Newcastle finished the 2007 -- 08 season in twelfth place, but as the season drew to a close, Keegan publicly criticised the board, claiming they were not providing the team enough financial support.
In September 2008 Keegan resigned as manager, stating "It 's my opinion that a manager must have the right to manage and that clubs should not impose upon any manager any player that he does not want ''. Former Wimbledon manager Joe Kinnear was appointed as his replacement, but in February 2009, due to his heart surgery, Alan Shearer was appointed interim manager in his absence. Under Shearer, the club were relegated to the Football League Championship at the end of the 2008 -- 09 season, the first time the club had left the Premier League since joining it in 1993.
Following their relegation, the club was put up for sale in June 2009, with an asking price of £ 100 million. Chris Hughton was given the manager job on a caretaker basis before taking over full - time on 27 October 2009. On the same day, Ashley announced that the club was no longer for sale.
Hughton led Newcastle to win the 2009 -- 10 Football League Championship, securing automatic promotion on 5 April 2010 with five games remaining, and securing the title on 19 April; Newcastle were promoted back to the Premier League after just one season away.
Under Hughton, Newcastle enjoyed a strong start to the 2010 -- 11 season, but he was sacked on 6 December 2010. The club 's board stated that they felt "an individual with more managerial experience (was) needed to take the club forward. '' Three days later, Alan Pardew was appointed as manager with a five - and - a-half - year contract. Further controversy was caused on 31 January 2011, when striker Andy Carroll was sold to Liverpool for a club record of £ 35 million. Despite this turbulence, Newcastle were able to finish 12th at the end of the season, with one particular highlight being a 4 -- 4 home draw against Arsenal that saw Newcastle come back from four goals down to claim a point.
The start of the 2011 -- 12 season saw an overhaul in the first team, with the sale of influential first team players Kevin Nolan, Joey Barton and José Enrique during the summer and the elevation of Tim Krul as first choice goalkeeper and centre back Fabricio Coloccini as captain. Signings such as Yohan Cabaye, Italian international Davide Santon and Senegalese striker Demba Ba in cut - price deals saw Newcastle adopt a new transfer policy, one which would be met with success in the season. They went on to enjoy one of their strongest openings to a season, playing 11 consecutive games unbeaten. before losing away to Manchester City. Another Senegalese striker, Papiss Cissé, joined in the January transfer window, and Newcastle had a strong second half of the season, eventually securing a place in the 2012 -- 13 Europa League. Newcastle finished in fifth place, their highest league position since the Bobby Robson days. Further honours were to come as Pardew won both the Premier League Manager of the Season and the LMA Manager of the Year awards, captain Coloccini was named in the PFA Team of the Year, and Cissé won the Goal of the Season award for a goal against Chelsea.
The 2012 -- 13 season saw Newcastle regain European football for the first time since 2007. Newcastle made few acquisitions in the summer and suffered injuries over the season, including layoffs to key midfielders Yohan Cabaye and Hatem Ben Arfa, and defenders Steven and Ryan Taylor. As a result, the first half of the season was marred by a run of ten losses in 13 games, which saw the club sink near the relegation zone. In January, Newcastle signed five French players, and advanced to the Europa League quarter - finals before bowing out to eventual finalists Benfica. Domestically, Newcastle struggled, and stayed up after a 2 -- 1 victory over already - relegated Queens Park Rangers on the penultimate game of the season.
The 2014 -- 15 season saw Newcastle fail to win any of their first seven games, prompting fans to start a campaign to get Pardew sacked as manager before a six - game winning run in all competitions (including knocking holders Manchester City out of the League Cup) saw them climb to fifth in the table. After they ended Chelsea 's unbeaten start to the season, Pardew left for Crystal Palace. On 26 January 2015, his assistant John Carver was put in charge for the remainder of the season but came close to relegation, staying up on the final day with a 2 -- 0 home win against West Ham, with Jonás Gutiérrez, who beat testicular cancer earlier in the season, scoring the team 's second goal.
On 9 June 2015, Carver and his assistant Steve Stone were both sacked and replaced by Steve McClaren the following day. On 11 March 2016, McClaren was sacked after nine months as manager, with Newcastle in 19th place in the Premier League and the club winning just six of 28 Premier League games during his time at the club. He was replaced by Spaniard Rafael Benítez on the same day, who signed a three - year deal, but was not able to prevent the club from being relegated. Newcastle returned to the Premier League at the first attempt, winning the Championship title on 7 May 2017 with a 3 -- 0 win against Barnsley.
The club 's home colours are a black and white striped shirt. Shorts and socks are usually black with white trim, though white socks are sometimes worn under some managers who consider them "lucky ''. Newcastle 's colours at the outset was generally the home kit of Newcastle East End F.C., comprising plain red shirts with white shorts and red socks. In 1894, the club adopted the black and white striped shirts, which had been used as the reserve team 's colours. These colours were chosen for the senior team because they were not associated with either of the two teams United were merged from. They played in grey shorts until 1897, and between 1897 and 1921, they played in blue shorts before adopting the black shorts they play in now.
United 's away colours have changed a number of times over the years. They played in white shirts and black shorts from 1914 until 1961, and then white shorts until 1966. They then played in yellow shirts and blue shorts for the 1967 -- 68 season, but from 1969 to 1974 played in all red with an all blue third kit. In 1974, they returned to a yellow shirt, which they played with various coloured shorts until 1983. They played in all grey from 1983 to 1988, before once again returning to the yellow kit until 1993. Since 1995, the away kit has changed consistently and has not been the same for more than a single season. Through owner Mike Ashley, the club also has a relationship with the Sports Direct retail chain which he founded.
On 4 January 2012, Virgin Money, who had just bought Northern Rock, signed a two - year deal to sponsor Newcastle United. In January 2010, Puma became the official supplier and licensee of replica merchandise for Newcastle. The deal meant Puma supplied the team kit, replica kit and training equipment for the 2010 -- 11 and 2011 -- 12 seasons.
The current club crest was first used in the 1988 -- 89 season. The crest includes elements from the coat of arms of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne -- the two sea horses representing Tyneside 's strong connections with the sea, the castle representing the city 's Norman keep. The city 's coat of arms were first embroidered on the team 's shirts in 1969 and worn as standard until 1976. A scroll at the bottom featured the city 's motto in Latin; fortiter defendit triumphans which translates into English as "triumphing by brave defence. '' From 1976 until 1983, the club wore a specific badge which was developed to wear in place of the city 's coat of arms. The design was of a circular shape, which featured the club 's name in full, it contained a magpie standing in front of the River Tyne with the historic Norman castle of Newcastle in the background. A more simplistic design followed in 1983, featuring the initials of the club 's name, NUFC with the small magpie used in the previous crest within the horizontally laid "C, '' this logo was relatively short lived and was discontinued after 1988.
On 16 May 2013, Newcastle released the away shirt for the 2013 -- 14 season which for the first time featured the Wonga.com logo, which attracted criticism from many Newcastle supporters; the shirt was navy blue with light blue bands. The shirt received mixed reviews from Newcastle supporters, who described the shirt as both "awesome '' and "bland, '' as quoted in the Newcastle daily Evening Chronicle. In July 2013, Newcastle striker and practicing Muslim Papiss Cissé refused to wear any official kit or training wear with reference to Wonga.com, subsequently failing to travel to the team 's 2013 pre-season tour of Portugal. The matter has since been resolved.
On 15 May 2017, the home shirt for the 2017 -- 18 season was revealed, featuring the logo of new sponsors Fun88. The shirt was shown to include a gold and silver commemorative crest to mark the club 's 125th football season, based on the city 's coat of arms. It was also announced that the kit would feature red numbers for the first time since the 1992 -- 93 season.
Previous kit sponsors include Newcastle Breweries (1980 -- 86), Greenall 's Beers (1986 -- 90), McEwan 's Lager and Newcastle Brown Ale (1990 -- 2000), NTL (2000 -- 03), Northern Rock (2003 -- 12), and Virgin Money (2012 -- 13).
Newcastle 's current kit manufacturers are Puma, in a deal that started in 2010. Previous kit manufacturers include Bukta (1974 -- 75, 1976 -- 80), Umbro (1975 -- 76, 1980 -- 86), Asics (1993 -- 95) and Adidas (1995 -- 2010). Other current team sponsors include Fun88, Carling, Coral, Pulman, Thomas Cook Group and Stelrad. Newcastle United have named Indian tyre conglomerate Madras Rubber Factory Limited -- more commonly known as MRF -- as the club 's new shirt sleeve sponsor for the 2017 / 18 Premier League season. Founded in 1946, MRF is the largest manufacturer of tyres in India and has more than 15,000 employees. The publicly listed company also produces treads, tubes and conveyor belts, as well as toys and paint.
Throughout Newcastle United 's history, their home venue has been St James ' Park, the oldest and largest football stadium in North East England, as well as the sixth - largest football stadium in the United Kingdom. It has hosted ten international football matches at senior level, the first in 1901 and the most recent in 2005. It was used as a venue for both the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2015 Rugby World Cup.
Football had been played at St James ' Park as early as 1880, the ground being occupied by Newcastle Rangers, before becoming the home of Newcastle West End F.C. in 1886. Its lease was then bought by Newcastle East End F.C. in 1892, before they changed their name to Newcastle United. At the turn of the 19th century, the ground 's capacity was given as 30,000 before being redeveloped between 1900 and 1905, increasing the capacity to 60,000 and making it the biggest stadium in England for a time. For most of the 20th century, the stadium changed very little, despite various plans for development of the ground. The old West Stand was replaced with the Milburn Stand in 1987, the Sir John Hall Stand replacing the Leazes End in 1993, and the rest of the ground renovated making the ground a 37,000 capacity all - seater stadium. Between 1998 and 2000, double tiers were added to the Milburn and John Hall stands to bring the venue up to its current capacity of 52,420. There were plans to build a new 90,000 seater stadium in Leazes park, just behind St James ' with Newcastle Falcons taking over St James ' Park, but due to protests the plans were dropped. St James ' Park currently seats 52,420 people, but club owner Mike Ashley would consider taking the roof off The Gallowgate end and adding another 6,000 seats making the total capacity to 58,420, but only if the team manage to finish in the top six places of the Premier League.
In October 2009, Mike Ashley announced that he planned to lease the name of the ground in a bid to increase revenue, and in November the stadium was temporarily renamed sportsdirect.com @ St James ' Park Stadium. This name was only supposed to be used until the end of the 2009 -- 10 season, but lasted until November 2011. On 10 November 2011, the club officially changed the name of the stadium to the Sports Direct Arena, although this will most likely be an interim name, as it is only being used to showcase the sponsorship capabilities of the stadium. The company, owned by Ashley, were not paying anything for the deal. However, if another company purchases the naming rights, they will be expected to pay between £ 8 million and £ 10 million. Many fans voiced their anger at the renaming, but Managing Director Derek Llambias has said that it was necessary to give Newcastle extra money so that they compete with the bigger clubs in the league.
Since 1982, the stadium is served by St James Metro station on the Tyne and Wear Metro. The station is decorated in a black and white colour scheme, with archive photographs of the club 's players.
The club 's current training ground is located at Darsley Park, which is north of the city at Benton. The facility was opened in July 2003 and is also used by the Newcastle Falcons rugby team.
Newcastle United was set up as a private company limited by shares on 6 September 1895. The club traded in this way for much of the 20th century, dominated by McKeag, Westwood and Seymour family ownership, until April 1997, when John Hall, who bought 72.9 % of the club for £ 3 million in 1991, floated the club on the stock exchange as a public limited company, with less than half the shares sold to the Hall family and the majority holding going to his business partner Freddy Shepherd. Later that year, Hall stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Shepherd, with the Hall family represented on the board by John 's son Douglas. In December 1998, after buying a 6.3 % stake in the club for £ 10 million, the media group NTL had considered a full takeover of the club. This was later dropped after the April 1999 Competition Commission, brought in due to government concerns about football clubs being owned by media companies.
In 2007, businessman Mike Ashley purchased the combined stakes of both Douglas and John Hall, 41 % share in the club, through a holding company St James Holdings, with a view to buy the rest. Upon purchasing this share, he appointed Chris Mort as chairman, while gaining more shares, owning 93.19 % of the club by 29 June 2007. This figure reached 95 % on 11 July 2007, forcing the remaining shareholders to sell their shares.
Since completing the purchase of the club, Ashley has twice announced that he planned to sell the club. The first occurred after fan protests over the resignation of Kevin Keegan on 14 September 2008, when Ashley stated, "I have listened to you. You want me out. That is what I am now trying to do. '' However, he took it off the market on 28 December 2008 after being unable to find a buyer. On 31 May 2009, it was reported that Ashley was attempting to sell the club again. On 8 June 2009, Ashley confirmed that the club was up for sale at an asking price of £ 100 million. By the end of August 2009, the club was back off the market.
Newcastle United established the Newcastle United Foundation in summer 2008, which seeks to encourage learning and promote healthy living amongst disadvantaged children, young people and families in the North East region, as well as promoting equality and diversity. The Foundation 's manager Kate Bradley told charity news website The Third Sector, "Children look up to players as their heroes, and anything they say is instantly taken on board. If Newcastle defender Steven Taylor tells them not to eat a Mars bar for breakfast, they 'll listen. '' In 2010, the charity taught over 5,000 children about healthy living.
The Foundation 's commitment, along with a similar foundation run by West Bromwich Albion, the unique relationship that Aston Villa has with Acorns Children 's Hospice and Tottenham Hotspur has with SOS Children 's Villages UK, are some leading examples of commitment in the highest level of football to responsibility and change in the communities in which they work and who enrich them through their support and ticket sales. The work of these clubs, and others, is changing the way professional sport interacts with their communities and supporters.
In December 2012, the club announced that it had become the world 's first carbon positive football club.
Supporters of Newcastle United are drawn from all over the North East and beyond, with supporters ' clubs in some countries across the world. The club 's nickname is ' The Magpies ', while the club 's supporters are also known as the Geordies or the Toon Army. The name Toon originates from the Geordie pronunciation of town. In a 2004 survey by Co-operative Financial Services, it was found that Newcastle United topped the league table for the cost incurred and distance travelled by Newcastle - based fans wishing to travel to every Premier League away game. The total distance travelled for a fan to attend every away game from Newcastle was found to be equivalent to a round - the - world trip. In the 2009 -- 10 season, when the club were playing in English football 's second tier, the Football League Championship, the average attendance at St James ' Park was 43,388, the fourth - highest for an English club that season. At the end of the 2011 -- 12 Premier league season, Newcastle United held the third - highest average attendance for the season, at 49,935. This figure was only surpassed by Arsenal and Manchester United, the only two clubs in the Premier League with larger stadiums.
The club 's supporters publish a number of fanzines including True Faith and The Mag, along with NUFC.com, which was established in 1996. They set up Newcastle United Supporters Trust in September 2008, aiming to "represent the broad church of Newcastle United 's support. ''
In addition to the usual English football chants, Newcastle 's supporters sing the traditional Tyneside song "Blaydon Races. ''
Traditionally, Newcastle 's main rivals are Sunderland, against whom the Tyne -- Wear derby is competed.
To date, inclusive of the 2015 -- 16 season, Newcastle United have spent 85 seasons in the top - flight. They are eighth in the All - time FA Premier League table and have the ninth - highest total of major honours won by an English club with 11 wins. The holder of the record for the most appearances is Jimmy Lawrence, having made 496 first team appearances between 1904 and 1921. The club 's top goal scorer is Alan Shearer, who scored 206 goals in all competitions between 1996 and 2006. Andy Cole holds the record for the most goals scored in a season: 41 in the 1993 -- 94 season in the Premier League. Shay Given is the most capped international for the club, with 134 appearances for Republic of Ireland.
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was in the 13 -- 0 win against Newport County in the Second Division in 1946. Their heaviest defeat in the league was 9 -- 0 against Burton Wanderers in the Second Division in 1895. The club 's longest number of consecutive seasons in the top flight of English football was 36 from 1898 -- 99 until 1933 -- 34.
Newcastle 's record home attendance is 68,386 for a First Division match against Chelsea on 3 September 1930. The club 's highest attendance in the Premier League is 52,389, in a match against Manchester City on 6 May 2012. Newcastle lost the game 2 -- 0. The highest transfer fee received for a Newcastle player is £ 35 million, from Liverpool for Andy Carroll in January 2011, while the most spent by the club on a player was £ 16 million for striker Michael Owen from Real Madrid in August 2005.
The current Newcastle United first team squad consist of the following players:
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
The following players have made a league or cup appearance for Newcastle United or were assigned squad numbers for the current season, but are not listed on the first team squad page:
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
The following former first team players are currently on loan at other clubs.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
For details on former players, see List of Newcastle United F.C. players and Category: Newcastle United F.C. players
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who founded the all india harijan samaj in 1932
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Harijan Sevak Sangh - wikipedia
Harijan Sevak Sangh is a non-profit organisation founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 to eradicate untouchability in India, working for Harijan or Dalit people and upliftment of scheduled castes of India. It is headquartered at Kingsway Camp in Delhi, with branches in 26 states across India. Prof. Sankar Kumar Sanyal is its present president. (1)
After the Second Round Table Conference, British government agreed to give Communal Award to the depressed classes on the request of B.R. Ambedkar. Gandhi opposed the government 's decision which he considered it would divide the Hindu society and subsequently went on to the indefinite fast in Yerwada Jail. He ended his fast after signed Poona Pact with Ambedkar on 24 September 1932. On 30 September, Gandhi founded All India Anti Untouchability League, to remove untouchability in the society, which later renamed as Harijan Sevak Sangh ("Servants of Untouchables Society ''). At the time industrialist Ghanshyam Das Birla was its founding president with Amritlal Takkar as its Secretary. (2)
The Sangh is headquartered at Kingsway Camp in Delhi. It was Valmiki Bhawan within the campus, which functioned as Gandhiji 's one - room ashram, Kasturba Gandhi and their children stayed at the nearby Kasturba Kutir, between April 1946 and June 1947, before he moved to Birla House. Today, the 20 - acre campus includes the Gandhi ashram, Harijan Basti, Lala Hans Raj Gupta Industrial Training Institute and also has a residential school for boys and girls. Its headquarter Gandhi Ashram, Kingsway Camp is listed as Gandhian Heritage Site by the Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India. (3)
The Sangh helped the depressed classes to access public places such as temples, schools, roads and water resources, also conducted inter dining and inter caste marriages. It constructed and maintains several schools and hostels across the country.
In 1939, Harijan Sevak Sangh of Tamil Nadu headed by A. Vaidyanatha Iyer entered the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, with members of depressed class including P. Kakkan despite opposition from the upper caste Hindus. The Sangh led by Iyer organised several temple entry movements in other Parts of Tamil Nadu and in Travancore. Through their movements, more than 100 temples were opened to all sections of the society.
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ctrl + z is the keyboard shortcut for
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Table of Keyboard shortcuts - Wikipedia
In computing, a keyboard shortcut is a sequence or combination of keystrokes on a computer keyboard which invokes commands in software.
Most keyboard shortcuts require the user to press a single key or a sequence of keys one after the other. Other keyboard shortcuts require pressing and holding several keys simultaneously (indicated in the tables below by this sign: +). Keyboard shortcuts may depend on the keyboard layout...
Keyboard shortcuts are a common aspect of most modern operating systems and associated software applications. Their use is pervasive enough that some users consider them an important element of their routine interactions with a computer. Whether used as a matter of personal preference or for adaptive technology, the pervasiveness of common conventions means that a meaningful comparison of keyboard shortcuts can be made across various widely used operating systems.
Cells with a yellow background in the tables below denote Apple 's "sacred '' keybindings.
A note regarding KDE 's shortcuts is that they can be changed and the below list contains the defaults. Some of the combinations are not true for localized versions of operating systems. For example, in a non-English version of Windows, the Edit menu is not always bound to the E shortcut. Furthermore, many shortcuts (such as Ctrl + Z, Alt + E, etc.) are just common conventions and are not handled by the operating system. Whether such commands are implemented (or not) depends on how an actual application program (such as an editor) is written. Not all applications follow (all of) these conventions, so if it does n't work, it is n't compatible.
or Ctrl + e (vim + NERDTree)
Ctrl + / or Ctrl + _ or Undo
or "ax to cut in register "a '' or "+ x to cut in system clipboard
or "ay or "+ y
or "ap to paste the content of the "a '' register or "+ p to paste the content of the system clipboard
The latter displays a menu with the currently selected input method highlighted, and debuted in Windows 8.
Configure desired keypress in Keyboard and Mouse Preferences, Keyboard Shortcuts, Select the next source in Input menu.
⇧ Shift + Alt in GNOME
e.g. for File Alt + F
(If "Require password after sleep or screen saver '' is enabled in "System Preferences -- Security & Privacy '')
⇧ Shift + Alt + Tab ↹
⇧ Shift + ⌘ Cmd + Tab ↹
Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + Tab ↹
⇧ Shift + Alt + Esc
⌘ Cmd + ` / ⌘ Cmd + ~
⇧ Shift + Ctrl + Esc
⊞ Win + R, enter executable name
Windows 7: ⊞ Win + → + → + ↵ Enter
Sleep (available on some keyboards)
(no confirmation, shutdown is immediate)
(KDE; no confirmation, shutdown is immediate)
(no confirmation, restart is immediate)
(KDE; no confirmation, restart is immediate)
Many of these commands may be combined with ⇧ Shift to select a region of text.
Fn + ← Backspace
Fn + ← Backspace
⌥ Opt + Fn + ← Backspace
or de (keep space)
Meta + ← Backspace
or db (keep space)
Fn + ←
Ctrl + A
Home
Fn + →
Ctrl + E
End
Ctrl + Home
Ctrl + End
Ctrl + /
Ctrl + ← or Meta + ←
Ctrl + → or Meta + →
Ctrl + p
↑ k or ↑
Ctrl + n
⌥ Opt + Fn + ↓
Page Down
Page Down
⌥ Opt + Fn + ↑
Page Up
Page Up
⌘ Cmd + E (Search with current selection)
Ctrl + K (GNOME; interactive search)
F3 (KDE)
⇧ Shift + F3 (KDE)
Ctrl + R (KDE)
or Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + A
Meta + l for lower, Meta + c for capitalized.
or Ctrl + (, Ctrl / core +)
Alt + Home (GNOME)
(Firefox)
Ctrl + ↵ Enter (Chrome)
Ctrl + D
⌘ Cmd + ⇧ Shift + B (Firefox)
Ctrl + B
⌘ Cmd + K (Firefox) or ⌥ Opt + ⌘ Cmd + F (Safari)
F6 or Alt + D
Alt + D or F6
Ctrl + R
Ctrl + R
Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + R
Ctrl + - / Ctrl + 0
⌘ Cmd + - / ⌘ Cmd + 0
Ctrl + - / Ctrl + 0
or zI / zO / zZ (text and images)
Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + T or Ctrl + T
Ctrl + F4 Mozilla Firefox & Opera & Chrome & Arora
⌘ Cmd + ⇧ Shift + → (Safari)
Ctrl + Tab ↹ or Ctrl +.
⌘ Cmd + ⇧ Shift + ← (Safari)
Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + Tab ↹ or Ctrl +,
Ctrl + n (Chrome)
Last tab: g $
(Firefox, Opera, Chrome)
Alt + F3 then M then Arrow Keys
Alt + F7 then Arrow Keys
F9 or Fn + F9 or Move mouse pointer to configured hot corner or active screen corner
F10 or Move mouse pointer to configured hot corner or active screen corner
Move mouse pointer to configured hot corner or active screen corner
Ctrl + → / Ctrl + ↑ / Ctrl + ↓ (OS X 10.5 to 10.6), Ctrl + ← / Ctrl + → (OS X 10.7 and later)
→ / ↑ / ↓
F11 or Move mouse pointer to configured hot corner or active screen corner
Ctrl + Tab ↹ / ⇧ Shift + Ctrl + Tab ↹
Ctrl + 5 (numeric keypad) or Function + Ctrl + I (laptop)
(or Fn + ↑ / Fn + ↓ on some keyboards)
↘ or on MacBook Pro Fn + ⌥ Opt + ↘
⌘ Cmd + `
Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + Tab ↹ < -
⇧ Shift + Ctrl + Alt + Esc
Below is a list of common keyboard shortcuts that are used in a command line environment.
or Home
or End
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list of all ncaa division 1 football teams
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List of NCAA Division I FBS football programs - wikipedia
This is a list of the 130 schools in the Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in the United States. By definition, all schools in this grouping have varsity football teams.
Schools in Division I FBS are distinguished from those in the Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) by being allowed to provide scholarship aid to a total of 85 players, and may grant a full scholarship to all 85. FCS schools are limited to financial assistance amounting to a maximum of 63 full scholarships, although some conferences voluntarily place further restrictions on athletic aid. The NCAA classifies FBS football as a "head - count '' sport, meaning that each player receiving any athletically - related aid from the school counts fully against the 85 - player limit. By contrast, FCS football is classified as an "equivalency '' sport, which means that scholarship aid is limited to the equivalent of a specified number of full scholarships. In turn, this means that FCS schools can freely grant partial scholarships, but are also limited to a total of 85 players receiving assistance. Another NCAA rule mandates that any multi-sport athlete who plays football and receives any athletic aid is counted against the football limit, with an exception for players in non-scholarship FCS programs who receive aid in another sport. The three service academies that play in Division I FBS -- Air Force, Army, and Navy -- are theoretically subject to this rule, but are exempt in practice because all students at these schools receive full scholarships from the federal government.
Starting in 2014, the FBS began playing a four - team tournament culminating in a National Championship Game to determine its national champion, a system that will be in place from the 2014 - 2025 seasons by contract with ESPN, broadcaster of the games. Formerly, Division I FBS football was the only NCAA sport without a formal tournament to determine an undisputed national champion, with the FBS schools instead playing in a series of postseason bowl games, culminating in the BCS National Championship Game, which attempted to crown a single national champion. Other organizations, most notably the Associated Press, crowned their own champions via polling. The BCS and AP have not always agreed on a single champion. Before the BCS, the AP was considered to be the deciding body for crowning a Champion, but it was started as a regional voting body, much like every other organization before the BCS. Most of the years preceding the BCS era, the Championships were claimed by more than one school.
Conference affiliations are current for the 2017 season.
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what is the main purpose of the salvation army
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The Salvation Army - wikipedia
The Salvation Army is a Protestant Christian church and an international charitable organisation structured in a quasi-military fashion. Their mission statement reads:
The Salvation Army, an international movement, is an evangelical part of the universal Christian church. Its message is based on the Bible. Its ministry is motivated by the love of God. Its mission is to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ and to meet human needs in His name without discrimination.
The organisation reports a worldwide membership of over 1.7 million, consisting of soldiers, officers and adherents collectively known as Salvationists. Its founders Catherine and William Booth sought to bring salvation to the poor, destitute, and hungry by meeting both their "physical and spiritual needs ''. It is present in 128 countries, running charity shops, operating shelters for the homeless and disaster relief and humanitarian aid to developing countries.
The theology of the Salvation Army is derived from that of Methodism, although it is distinctive in institution and practice. It does not celebrate the divine command of Baptism and Holy Communion. The Army 's doctrine is typical of evangelical Protestant churches. The Army 's purposes are "the advancement of the Christian religion... of education, the relief of poverty, and other charitable objects beneficial to society or the community of mankind as a whole ''.
The Army was founded in 1865 in London by one - time Methodist circuit - preacher William Booth and his wife Catherine as the East London Christian Mission, and can trace its origins to the Blind Beggar tavern. In 1878 Booth reorganised the mission, becoming its first General and introducing the military structure which has been retained to the present day. The current international leader of The Salvation Army and chief executive officer (CEO) is General André Cox, who was elected by the High Council of The Salvation Army on 3 August 2013 and is due to retire on 2 August 2018.
The Salvation Army was founded in London 's East End in 1865 by one - time Methodist Reform Church minister William Booth and his wife Catherine as the East London Christian Mission, and this name was used until 1878. The name "The Salvation Army '' developed from an incident on 19 and 20 May. William Booth was dictating a letter to his secretary George Scott Railton and said, "We are a volunteer army. '' Bramwell Booth heard his father and said, "Volunteer! I 'm no volunteer, I 'm a regular! '' Railton was instructed to cross out the word "volunteer '' and substitute the word "salvation ''. The Salvation Army was modelled after the military, with its own flag (or colours) and its own hymns, often with words set to popular and folkloric tunes sung in the pubs. Booth and the other soldiers in "God 's Army '' would wear the Army 's own uniform, for meetings and ministry work. He became the "General '' and his other ministers were given appropriate ranks as "officers ''. Other members became "soldiers ''.
When William Booth became known as the General, Catherine is known as the "Mother of The Salvation Army ''. William Booth 's early motivation for The Salvation Army was to convert poor Londoners such as prostitutes, gamblers and alcoholics to Christianity, while Catherine spoke to the wealthier people, gaining financial support for their work. She also acted as a religious minister, which was unusual at the time; the Foundation Deed of the Christian Mission states that women had the same rights to preach as men. William Booth described the organisation 's approach: "The three ' S 's ' best expressed the way in which the Army administered to the ' down and outs ': first, soup; second, soap; and finally, salvation. ''
In 1880, the Salvation Army started its work in three others countries: Australia, Ireland, and the United States. Salvationists set out for the United States in 1880, and when George Scott Railton and his team arrived they started work in Harry Hill 's Variety Theatre on 14th March 1880. The first notable convert was Ashbarrel Jimmie who had so many convictions for drunkenness that the judge sentenced him to attend the Salvation Army. The corps in New York were founded as a result of Jimmys ' rehabilitation. It was not always an Officer of The Salvation Army who started the Salvation Army in a new country; sometimes Salvationists emigrated to countries and started operating as "the Salvation Army '' on their own authority. When the first official officers arrived in Australia and the United States, they found groups of Salvationists already waiting for them and started working with each other. Australia was the place where the Armys organised social work began in 8 December 1883 with the establishment of a home for ex-convicts. In 1891 Booth established a farm colony in Hadleigh, Essex.
The Salvation Army 's main converts were at first alcoholics, morphine addicts, prostitutes and other "undesirables '' unwelcome in polite Christian society, which helped prompt the Booths to start their own church. The Booths did not include the use of sacraments (mainly baptism and Holy Communion) in the Army 's form of worship, believing that many Christians had come to rely on the outward signs of spiritual grace rather than on grace itself. Other beliefs are that its members should completely refrain from drinking alcohol (Holy Communion is not practiced), smoking, taking illegal drugs and gambling. Its soldiers wear a uniform tailored to the country in which they work; the uniform can be white, grey, navy, fawn and are even styled like a sari in some areas. Any member of the public is welcome to attend their meetings. As the Salvation Army grew rapidly in the late 19th century, it generated opposition in England. Opponents, grouped under the name of the Skeleton Army, disrupted Salvation Army meetings and gatherings, with tactics such as throwing rocks, bones, rats, and tar as well as physical assaults on members of the Salvation Army. Much of this was led by pub owners who were losing business because of the Army 's opposition to alcohol and targeting of the frequenters of saloons and public houses.
The Salvation Army 's reputation in the United States improved as a result of its disaster relief efforts following the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 and the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The familiar use of bell ringers to solicit donations from passers - by "helps complete the American portrait of Christmas. '' In the U.S. alone, over 25,000 volunteers with red kettles are stationed near retail stores during the weeks preceding Christmas for fundraising. The church remains a highly visible and sometimes controversial presence in many parts of the world.
In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, an industry publication, released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organisation popularity and credibility. The study showed that The Salvation Army was ranked as the 4th "most popular charity / non-profit in America '' of over 100 charities researched, with 47 % of Americans over the age of 12 choosing ' Love ' and ' Like A Lot ' for The Salvation Army.
Charity Watch rates the Salvation Army an "A - '' to an "A '', indicating a high level of financial efficiency and organisational transparency.
In 1917, over two hundred - fifty Salvation Army volunteers went overseas to France to provide supplies and baked goods, including donuts, to American soldiers. The women who served donuts to the troops fried them in soldiers ' hats. They were known as "Donut Lassies '' and are credited with popularising donuts in the United States. National Doughnut Day is now celebrated on the first Friday of June every year, starting in Chicago of 1938, to honour those who served doughnuts to soldiers during World War l.
As of 23 October 2016 the Salvation Army operates in 128 countries and provides services in 175 different languages. For administrative purposes, the Salvation Army divides itself geographically into 5 zones and the zonal departments at International Headquarters in London, United Kingdom are the main administrative link with territories and commands
These are further divided into territories, which are then sub-divided into divisions. Some territories cover several countries (like Italy and Greece) while some countries may have several territories (Australia Eastern and Australia Southern) In larger areas, regional and area commands are also introduced as subdivisions of divisions. Each territory has an administrative hub known as territorial headquarters (THQ). Likewise, each division has a divisional headquarters (DHQ). Each of these territories is led by a territorial commander who receives orders from the Salvation Army 's international headquarters in London. A territory is normally led by an officer holding the rank of colonel (for small territories) or commissioner for larger territories. In some countries, the work of The Salvation Army may be called a command, led by a command commander. A larger command is typically led by an officer holding the rank of colonel. There is a Women 's Ministries division devoted to supporting women in ministry which has 766,369 members, founded as the Home League in 1907. Red Shield Defence Services work with the Armed Services in order to provide assistance such as refreshments, soap, chewing gum, toothpaste and sewing kits. "Waves Of Transformation '' is a water resources project assisting deprived communities. The International Spiritual Life Commission, is convened by the General to examine and identify aspects essential to the spiritual growth of both the Church and individual Salvationists. Reliance Bank is the financial services arm of the Salvation Army, offering bank accounts, loans and mortgages. It is registered with the UK banking regulator, the Financial Conduct Authority, registration number 204537. SAGIC Insurance is the insurance services arm of the Army, offering various types of policy, a nationwide removals service and a conveyancing service for buying and selling houses.
Heritage Centres are museums run by the Salvation Army which have exhibits and historical documents related to the history and work of the organisation. Heritage Centres collect, preserve, catalog, research and share material about the life and work of The Salvation Army. The International Heritage Centre in London can provide details of premises in any specific territory. Much of what happens at the High Council is governed by British Law, as set out in the Salvation Army Acts (1931 to 1968). The 2013 High Council consists of 118 members (62 women and 56 men) made up of the Chief of Staff, all the active commissioners and territorial leaders (some territories are led by colonels), each of whom was summoned by the Chief of the Staff for the sole purpose of electing a new General. The International Heritage Centre in London, England is located at the William Booth Memorial Training College and can provide details of premises in any specific territory and runs the @ SalvArmyArchive Twitter feed. Another training college for officers is the Catherine Booth Bible College based at Winnipeg, Canada which was authorised in August 1983 by the Manitoba Legislature to grant academic degrees. International Development Services team work with some of the pooest communities around the world and run the official @ TSA_Projects Twitter feed.
National Salvation Army week was created by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on November 24, 1954, telling people to honor the Salvation Army during that week for its work in the United States in the past seventy - five years. The Salvation Army was one of the original six organizations that made up the USO along with YMCA, YWCA, National Catholic Community Services, National Jewish Welfare Board, and National Travelers Aid Association.
An early precursor to the Salvation Army becoming involved in safeguarding work was Catherine Booth writing to Queen Victoria regarding a Parliamentary bill for the protection of girls. Safeguarding legislation was strengthened by a new Act of Parliament, the "Public General Act, An Act to make further provision for the Protection of Women and Girls, the suppression of brothels, and other purposes, (otherwise known as the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885) '', which received Royal Assent on 14 August 1885 The Salvation Army was involved in getting this Act passed. Work included a petition (numbering 340,000 signatures deposited on the floor of the House of Commons by 8 uniformed Salvationists), mass meetings and an investigation into child prostitution. W.T. Stead of the Pall Mall Gazette launched a campaign in 1885 by writing articles on The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon to expose the extent of child prostitution which involved procuring a girl, Eliza for £ 5. She was cared for by the Army, taken to France and subsequently testified as a key witness at the trial of Stead and Rebecca Jarrett (the prostitute who had arranged the "sale '' of Eliza) at Bow Street. Both were sentenced to 6 months in prison. The newly founded Salvation Army in Japan also encountered child prostitution, derived from a system of Debt Bondage. While an imperial ordinance (written in classical Japanese which few could understand) declared the girls right to freedom, the pioneer Salvationist Gunpei Yamamuro rewrote it in colloquial speech. His wife Kiye took charge of a girls home to provide secure accommodation for any girl wishing to give up prostitution. An imperial ordinance passed on 2 October 1900 stated that any woman who wished to give up prostitution only had to go to the nearest Police station and ask.
The involvement of the Salvation Army in work to combat slavery and people trafficking can be traced back to William Booth publishing a letter in The War Cry in 1885. The same year an escapee from a prostitution house turned up on the door of the Salvation Army headquarters and sought help from Bramwell Booth. Work with people at risk of exploitation continues today, with a specialist team, and working in partnership with the UK service Modern Slavery Helpline (telephone 0800 0121 700). Work is also done assisting homeless people by running 461 hostels and 20 Refugee programmes.
Various Constituting Instruments apply to different aspects of the work of the Salvation Army. Legislation passed in the United Kingdom Parliament covered the following:
The most recent statistics for membership from the 2018 Year Book are 111,859 employees, 17,168 Active Officers, 9,775 Retired Officers, 1,050 Cadets, 175,811 Adherents, 411,327 Junior Soldiers and 1,182,100 Senior Soldiers. Previous membership statistics (as quoted from 2010 year book) includes 16,938 active and 9,190 retired officers, 39,071 Corps Cadets and more than 4.5 million volunteers. Members of the Salvation Army also include "adherents ''; these are people who do not make the commitment to be a soldier but who recognise the Salvation Army as their church. (According to the 2006 Salvation Army year book, in the United States there are 85,148 senior soldiers and 28,377 junior soldiers, 17,396 adherents and around 60,000 employees.) Further information is available from the Salvation Army International website.
The current world leader of the Salvation Army is General André Cox, due to retire at midnight 2 August 2018 and his successor will be chosen by the High Council.
The Salvation Army is one of the world 's largest providers of social aid, with expenditures including operating costs of $2.6 billion in 2004, helping more than 32 million people in the U.S. alone. In addition to community centres and disaster relief, the organisation does work in refugee camps, especially among displaced people in Africa. The Salvation Army has received an A − rating from the American Institute of Philanthropy. In the United Kingdom, the Salvation Army is no longer the largest nongovernmental provider of social services; however, it still provides a significant service to people in need. The Salvation Army is the second largest charity in the United States, with private donations of almost $2 billion for the fiscal year ending 30 September 2007. and is a member of the American organisation Christian Churches Together.
In 2004, the Army in the United States received a $1.6 billion donation in the will of Joan B. Kroc, third wife of former McDonald 's CEO Ray Kroc. This donation was among the larger individual philanthropic gifts ever given to a single organisation. The donation came with certain restrictions that caused some controversy.
The International Congress of the Salvation Army is normally held every 10 years as a conference for all Salvationists from around the world to meet. The first such conference took place in London, UK, from 28 May to 4 June 1886, and subsequent Congressional meetings were held sporadically until 1904 and then 1990. The seventh International Congress in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, from 28 June to 2 July 2000, was the first held outside of the UK. The latest International Congress was held in London on 1 -- 5 July 2015, in commemoration of the 150th anniversary of the Salvation Army 's founding.
Officers are given Marching Orders to change ministries within the Salvation Army. Usually, officers are given new marching orders every two to five years and reassigned to different posts, sometimes moving great distances.
In Russia the Army was founded around 1917 and the Army struggled on until 1922 at which point the situaton had become extremely challenging. A Moscow court ruled that the Salvation Army was a paramilitary organisation subject to expulsion. In October 2006, the European Court of Human Rights ruled the decision illegal. The Salvation Army International website lists the Russian Federation, now part of the Territory of Eastern Europe. William Booth 's dying wish for the Salvation Army to be established in China was fulfilled in a pledge made in 1912 Bramwell Booth to his father. In 1915 the first officers were sent, and during the 1931 famine fed 100,000 people daily. Following political difficulties by 1952 the Army withdrew from the country but work still continues in the provinces of Macau, Hong Kong and Taiwan. In 1882 the Salvation Army was established in Asia with the first outpost in India. The Army also established outposts in Australia in 1879, Japan in 1895 and China in 1915.
Early beliefs of the Salvation Army were influenced by a book Helps to Holiness, which was to influence spiritual life of the Army for a generation. The sacred text of the Salvation Army is the Bible and the beliefs of the Salvation Army rest upon these eleven doctrines:
The denomination does not celebrate the Christian sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion. The International Spiritual Life Commission opinion on Baptism is that enrolment as a Soldier by accepting the call to discipleship should be followed by a lifetime of continued obedient faith in Christ. The Commissions considered option of Holy Communion is that Gods grace is readily accessible in all places and at all times, although Salvationists may participate in Holy Communion if attending a service of worship in another Christian denomination if the host Church allows. Although its officers conduct marriages, it holds a traditional Protestant belief that marriage was not instituted by Christ and therefore is not a sacrament. The mercy seat is a focal point in a Salvation Army Church, symbolising God 's call to his people, and a place for commitment and communion, and is available for anyone to kneel at in prayer.
The Soldiers Covenant is the creed of the Salvation Army. All members of the church and congregants are required to subscribe to this creed; every person has to sign the document before they can become enrolled as a Soldier. Members have traditionally been referred to as "soldiers '' of Christ. These were formerly known as the Articles of War and include: Having received with all my heart the salvation offered to me by the tender mercy of God, I do here and now acknowledge God the Father to be my King; God the Son, Jesus Christ our Lord, to be my Savious; and God the Holy Spirit to be my Guide, Comforter and Strength, and I will, by His help, love, serve, worship and obey this glorious God through time and in eternity.
Positional Statements describe Salvation Army policy on various social and moral issues, are carefully considered and subject to review. They are derived from work by the International Moral and Social Issues Council. The Salvation Army opposes euthanasia and assisted suicide. Its official stance on abortion is that "The Salvation Army believes in the sanctity of all human life and considers each person to be of infinite value and each life a gift from God to be cherished, nurtured and redeemed. Human life is sacred because it is made in the image of God and has an eternal destiny. (Genesis 1: 27) Sacredness is not conferred, nor can it be taken away by human agreement. '' The Salvation Army official stance admitted in 2010 exceptions in cases such as rape and incest: "In addition, rape and incest are brutal acts of dominance violating women physically and emotionally. This situation represents a special case for the consideration of termination as the violation may be compounded by the continuation of the pregnancy. '' It is also against the death penalty: "The Salvation Army recognises that the opinions of Salvationists are divided on the moral acceptability of capital punishment and its effectiveness as a deterrent. However, to advocate in any way the continuance or restoration of capital punishment in any part of the world would be inconsistent with the Army 's purposes and contrary to the Army 's belief that all human life is sacred and that each human being, however wretched, can become a new person in Christ. ''
In 2012, the Salvation Army published a "Positional Statement on Homosexuality '' after receiving adverse publicity about their position on homosexuality.
The Bible teaches that God 's intention for humankind is that society should be ordered on the basis of lifelong, legally sanctioned heterosexual unions... A disposition towards homosexuality is not in itself blameworthy nor is the disposition seen as rectifiable at will... Homosexual practice however, is, in the light of Scripture, clearly unacceptable. Such activity is chosen behaviour and is thus a matter of the will. It is therefore able to be directed or restrained in the same way heterosexual urges are controlled. Homosexual practice would render any person ineligible for full membership (soldiership) in the Army.
As of 2016 the organisation will not appoint homosexual people to posts as ministers, preferring individuals "whose values are consistent with the church 's philosophy ''. (See also § Criticism by LGBT activists section.)
The ordination of women is permitted in the Salvation Army. Salvation Army officers were previously allowed to marry only other officers (this rule varies in different countries); but this rule has been relaxed in recent years. Husbands and wives usually share the same rank and have the same or similar assignments; the major exception to this is the General 's spouse, who holds the rank of commissioner.
There is no requirement for anyone attending a service to be a member of the Salvation Army in any capacity (as a Soldier, Adherent or Officer) and services in Salvation Army churches feature a variety of activities:
Tea and biscuits are usually served after the formal conclusion of the service.
The Salvation Army flag is a symbol of the Army 's war against sin and social evils. The red on the flag symbolises the blood shed by Jesus Christ, the yellow for the fire of the Holy Spirit and the blue for the purity of God the Father.
The oldest official emblem of The Salvation Army is the crest.
In 1878 Captain W.H. Ebdon suggested a logo, and in 1879 it was to be found on the letterhead of the Salvation Army Headquarters. The captain 's suggested design was changed only slightly and a crown was added.
The Army 's crest proclaims Biblical truth though its symbolism:
1 -- The existence of a Holy God; 2 -- The evil of sin are against God and man; 3 -- There will be punishment for sin that is fair and everlasting; 4 -- Jesus died on the cross for the human race; 5 -- Salvation is for all mankind and is free to all who accept Jesus Christ; 6 -- It is the responsibility of every Christian to do whatever they can do to spread the Gospel; 7 -- God rewards those who are faithful with eternal life in Heaven with Him.
The Red Shield has its origins in Salvation Army work during wartime. At the end of the 19th century, Staff - Captain Mary Murray was sent by William Booth to support British troops serving in the Boer War in South Africa. Then, in 1901, this same officer was given the task of establishing the Naval and Military League, the forerunner of the Red Shield Services.
Salvation Army officers serving in the Red Shield Services in wartime performed many functions. The Doughnut Girls of World War I are an early example, serving refreshments to troops in the trenches. They also provided first aid stations, ambulances, chaplaincy, social clubs, Christian worship and other front - line services.
This symbol is still used in Blue Shield Services that serve the British Armed Forces but it is widely used as a simple, more readily identifiable symbol in many Salvation Army settings. It is common to see the Red Shield used on casual Salvation Army uniform. It is now official Salvation Army policy in the UK that the red shield should be used as the external symbol of the Salvation Army, with the Crest only being used internally. Therefore, any new Salvation Army building will now have the red shield on the outside rather than the crest which certainly would have been used on its Corps (church) buildings.
In Australia, the Red Shield has become one of the country 's most identified and trusted symbols, leading the Australian Salvation Army to prefer to use this symbol over the logo on its uniform, corps buildings and advertising materials. In the 5th volume of Australian Superbrands it was recorded that "Research reveals that the popular Salvation Army slogan ' Thank God for the Salvos ' has almost total recognition amongst the Australian public, achieving 93 per cent aided awareness ''.
Salvation Army officers, cadets (trainee officers) and soldiers often wear uniforms. The idea that they should do so originated with Elijah Cadman who, at the Salvation Army 's ' War Congress ' in August 1878 said "I would like to wear a suit of clothes that would let everyone know I meant war to the teeth and salvation for the world ''. The uniform identifies the wearer as a Salvationist and a Christian. It also symbolises availability to those in need. The uniform takes many forms internationally but is characterised by the ' S ' insignia for ' Salvation ' and carries the meaning ' Saved to Serve ', or ' Saved to Save '. Different colors and styles represent different ranks including soldiers, cadets, lieutenants, captains, majors, colonels, commissioner, and even the General.
Characteristics of the uniform vary between ranks where accessories (the official term is "trimings '') comprise epaulettes and hexagonal lapel patches. The uniform varies with the position and rank:
Other letters are substituted to conform with local language. The words "The Salvation Army '' are woven into the fabric of the uniform as a logo on shirts, blouses and jackets.
Since 1983 there has been an official Salvation Army tartan. It was designed by Captain Harry Cooper, for the Perth Citadel Corps centenary commemoration in Scotland. It is based upon the colours of the Salvation Army flag, with which it shares the same symbolism. However, it is rarely seen outside Scotland.
The Salvation Army has a unique form of salute which involves raising the right hand above shoulder - height with the index finger pointing upwards. It signifies recognition of a fellow citizen of heaven, and a pledge to do everything possible to get others to heaven also. In the case of saluting in response to applause, in circumstances such as a musical festival or being applauded for a speech, it also signifies that the Salvationist wishes to give Glory to God and not themselves.
In some instances, the salute is accompanied with a shout of ' hallelujah! '
As the popularity of the organisation grew and Salvationists worked their way through the streets of London attempting to convert individuals, they were sometimes confronted with unruly crowds. A family of musicians (the Frys, from Alderbury, Wiltshire) began working with the Army as their "bodyguards '' and played music to distract the crowds.
The tradition of having musicians available continued and eventually grew into standard brass bands. These are still seen in public at Army campaigns, as well as at other festivals, parades and at Christmas. Across the world the brass band has been an integral part of the Army 's ministry and an immediately recognisable symbol to Salvationists and non-Salvationists alike. The Salvation Army also has choirs; these are known as Songster Brigades, normally comprising the traditional soprano, alto, tenor and bass singers. The premier Songster Brigade in the Salvation Army is the International Staff Songsters (ISS).
The standard of playing is high and the Army operates bands at the international level, such as the International Staff Band (a brass band) which is the equal of professional ensembles although it does not participate in the brass band contest scene, and territorial levels such as the New York Staff Band. Some professional brass players and contesting brass band personnel have Salvation Army backgrounds. Many Salvation Army corps have brass bands that play at Salvation Army meetings, although not all.
The Salvation Army also fielded large concertina bands. From the turn of the (20th) century to the Second World War between a third and a half of all SA officers in Britain played concertina. For an evangelist the concertina 's portability, its ability to play both melody and chords, and most especially the fact that the player can sing or speak while playing, were all distinct advantages over brass instruments.
The Army tradition in music is to use the popular idiom of the day to reach people for Jesus. The Army 's Joy Strings were a hit pop group in the 1960s and early 1970s in the UK and beyond, reaching the charts and being featured on national television. Another popular band is The Insyderz, an American ska - core group popular in the 1990s and early 2000s. Hundreds of bands carry on this Salvation Army tradition, such as New Zealand 's Moped, Chamberlain, Vatic, Agent C, and The Lads; England 's Electralyte; Australia 's Soteria Music Ministries, Summer Carnival Band, Crown of Thorns and Escape; and America 's transMission, The Singing Company, HAB, BurN, and CJD -- Cookies, Juice, & Donuts. Saytunes is a website designed to encourage and promote these contemporary Salvation Army bands and artists.
Another significant musical feature of the Salvation Army is its use of tambourines. With coloured ribbons representing the colours of the Salvation Army flag, timbrels play an integral facet of music in the Salvation army. They are mainly played by women.
Local corps usually sing contemporary worship music songs in Sunday worship services, as well as traditional hymns and music accompanied by the brass band. These are usually from the official Songbook Of The Salvation Army.
Today it is becoming common in Salvation Army corps not to have a full brass band. This is reflective for many social and cultural reasons. Some Salvation Army corps make use of smaller ensembles of musicians. Often this ensemble consists simply of a guitar, piano or a keyboard, drums and sometimes a bass guitar and other instruments, especially during "Youth Fellowships ''.
The music played does tend to also take on a more contemporary style as is reflected in modern music today. The early Salvation Army bands were known for their excitement and public appeal, and the modern ensemble keeps to this ideology. Traditional hymns are still used in worship services and these are blended with other musical pieces from Christian Music Publishers such as Vineyard Music, Hillsong, and Planet Shakers to name but a few.
In the USA the Salvation Army 's first major forays into disaster relief resulted from the tragedies of the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 and the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The Salvationists ' nationwide appeals for financial and material donations yielded tremendous support, enabling the Army to provide assistance to thousands. General Evangeline Booth, when she offered the services of Salvationists to President Woodrow Wilson during the First World War, thrust Salvation Army social and relief work to newer heights. Today the Salvation Army is best known for its charitable efforts.
The Salvation Army is a non-governmental relief agency and is usually among the first to arrive with help after natural or man - made disasters. They have worked to alleviate suffering and help people rebuild their lives. After the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, they arrived immediately at some of the worst disaster sites to help retrieve and bury the dead. Since then they have helped rebuild homes and construct new boats for people to recover their livelihood. Members were prominent among relief organisations after Hurricane Hugo and Hurricane Andrew and other such natural disasters in the United States. In August 2005, they supplied drinking water to poor people affected by the heat wave in the United States. Later in 2005 they responded to hurricanes Katrina and Rita. They have helped the victims of an earthquake in Indonesia in May 2006.
Since Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast, the Salvation Army has allocated donations of more than $365 million to serve more than 1.7 million people in nearly every state. The Army 's immediate response to Hurricane Katrina included the mobilisation of more than 178 canteen feeding units and 11 field kitchens which together have served more than 5.7 million hot meals, 8.3 million sandwiches, snacks and drinks. Its SATERN (Salvation Army Team Emergency Radio Network) network of amateur ham - radio operators picked up where modern communications left off to help locate more than 25,000 survivors. Salvation Army pastoral care counsellors were on hand to comfort the emotional and spiritual needs of 277,000 individuals. As part of the overall effort, Salvation Army officers, employees and volunteers have contributed more than 900,000 hours of service.
The Salvation Army was one of the first relief agencies on the scene of the September 11 attacks in New York City in 2001. They also provided prayer support for families of missing people.
The Salvation Army, along with the American National Red Cross, Southern Baptist Convention, and other disaster relief organisations, are national members of the National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (NVOAD).
Also among the disaster relief capabilities is the Red Shield Defence Services, often called the SallyMan for short. The effort that they put in is similar to that of a chaplain, and reaches many more, offering cold drinks, hot drinks, and some biscuits for the soldiers of the military to have, though, if a SallyMan is on deployment, the locals are offered a share in the produce.
Around the world the Salvation Army have Emergency Services Support Units throughout the country. These are mobile canteen vehicles providing food and other welfare to members of the Emergency Services such as bushfires, floods, land search, and other both large - and small - scale emergency operations undertaken by Police, Fire, Ambulance and State Emergency Service members, and the general public affected by these events. Volunteers and officers run the canteen service and the response policy is to respond when emergency services have been on the scene for more than four hours or where four or more Fire vehicles are responding.
The Salvation Army is well known for its network of thrift stores or charity shops, colloquially referred to as "the Sally Ann '' in Canada and "Salvos Stores '' in Australia, which raise money for its rehabilitation programs by selling donated used items such as clothing, housewares and toys. Clothing collected by Salvation Army stores that are not sold on location are often sold wholesale on the global second hand clothing market.
The Salvation Army 's fundraising shops in the United Kingdom participate in the UK government 's Work Programme, a workfare programme where benefit claimants must work for no compensation for 20 to 40 hours per week over periods that can be as long as 6 months.
When items are bought at the Salvation Army thrift stores, part of the proceeds go towards The Salvation Army 's emergency reliefs efforts and programs. Items not sold are recycled and turned into other items such as carpets and rugs, instead of being thrown away in landfills. The Salvation Army also helps their employees by hiring ex-felons depending on the circumstances because they believe in giving people second chances. There are many job opportunities available for them nationwide and are able to move their way up to become a manager or even work in one of their corporate offices.
In many countries, the Salvation Army is most recognised during the Christmas season with its volunteers and employees who stand outside of businesses and play / sing Christmas carols, or ring bells to inspire passers - by to place donations of cash and cheques inside red kettles. A tradition has developed in the United States in which, in some places, gold coins or rings or bundles of large bills are anonymously inserted into the kettles. This was first recorded in 1982, in Crystal Lake, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. The red kettles are not only used during the Christmas season though. They are used throughout the year at other fundraising events, such as on National Doughnut Day in the U.S. On this day, some donut shops that teamed up with the Salvation Army have a red kettle set up for donations. Each corps has a specific goal chosen for them by DHQ (Divisional Headquarters) which differs based on size and capability
The Red Shield Appeal and Self - Denial Appeal are annual fundraising campaigns in some territories, such as the UK and Australia. Each year, officers, soldiers, employees and volunteers take to the streets worldwide to participate in door - to - door or street collections. The money raised is specifically channelled towards The Salvation Army 's social work in each respective territory. Within the territory defined by the United Kingdom and Ireland (UKIT) this collection is known as the Annual Appeal, and it often carries another name that the generally public would more readily know -- in 2012 becoming The Big Collection.
The Family Tracing Service (sometimes known as the Missing Persons Service) was established in 1885, and the service is now available in most of the countries where The Salvation Army operates. The Tracing Service 's objective is to restore (or to sustain) family relationships where contact has been lost, whether recently or in the distant past. Thousands of people are traced every year on behalf of their relatives.
Farmland at Hadleigh in Essex was acquired in 1891 to provide training for men referred from Salvation Army shelters. It featured market gardens, orchards and two brickfields. It was mentioned in the Royal Commission report of 1909 appointed to consider Poor Laws. 7,000 trainees had passed through its doors by 1912 with more than 60 % subsequently finding employment. It is still operating today and has a Twitter feed @ SalArmyHFE and website.
The Salvation Army includes many youth groups, which primarily consist of its Sunday schools and the Scout and Guide packs that are sometimes set up. The Scout and Guide packs are affiliated and sponsored by the Salvation Army but are open units allowing anyone to join, these units / pack observe Christian standards and encourage the young people to investigate and develop in their Christian faith. Some territories have Salvation Army Guards and Legions Association (SAGALA). In the United States these internal youth groups that are specifically for females are known as Girl Guards (older females) and Sunbeams (younger females). Adventure Corps serves boys who are enrolled in school for first through eighth grade, and is sometimes separated into Rangers (6th - 8th Grade) and Explorers (5th Grade and younger).
In the 21st century, the Salvation Army in the United Kingdom created a branch for the youth, called Alove, the Salvation Army for a new generation. Its purpose is to free the youth of the church and their communities to express themselves and their faith in their own ways. Its mission statement is "Calling a generation to dynamic faith, radical lifestyle, adventurous mission and a fight for justice '', and it emphasises worship, discipleship, missions, and social action. Alove is a member of the National Council for Voluntary Youth Services (NCVYS).
General Bramwell Booth instituted the Order of the Founder on 20 August 1917 and the first awards were made in 1920 to one Soldier and 15 Officers. General George Carpenter founded the Order Of Distinguished Auxiliary Service in 1941 to express the Salvation Army 's gratitude for service given to the organisation by non-Salvationists.
In addition to books and magazines, the Salvation Army publishes sheet music and Facebook groups run by Territories and Corps officers, and unofficial fan groups. Due to the way in which the Salvation Army is constituted, copyright of some Army publications is vested in the General of The Salvation Army, and not necessarily the original authors.
There are official social media accounts run by the Salvation Army on Twitter and Facebook.
This is a list of books and magazines:
The Salvation Army does not celebrate the Holy sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion. This has led to allegations of cultism due to the common belief that baptism for the Salvationist comes when they first put on the uniform. Even though communion is believed by most Christians in the world to be divinely commanded by Jesus Christ, the Salvation Army does not participate in Holy Communion. This is usually addressed by stating that Communion and Baptism are not what gains one salvation. This leads many in the world of the Church to see the Salvation Army more as a para-church organization rather than a church that holds to orthodox Christian belief, tradition, and revelation.
Some in the United States have alleged that the Salvation Army discriminates against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals in its hiring practices. The Salvation Army states that it does not "discriminate against hiring gays and lesbians for the majority of its roughly 55,000 jobs ''. Because the Salvation Army is a church, Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 allows it to inquire into people 's religious beliefs in its hiring practices.
In 1997 the city of San Francisco enacted a law requiring all companies doing business with the city government to extend domestic benefits to same - sex partners of employees. In refusing to do so, the Salvation Army declined a US $3.5 million contract. In 2001, the Salvation Army pressed the Bush Administration to exempt it and other religious groups from anti-discrimination legislation which it felt infringed on the organization 's religious freedoms. This request was denied, and was sharply rebuked by David Smith, then - spokesperson for the Human Rights Campaign. "Gays and lesbians are taxpayers, too, '' said Smith. "Their money should not be used by religious groups to fund discriminatory practices against them. ''.
The Salvation Army Western Territory approved a plan in October 2001 to start offering domestic partnership benefits to employees in same - sex relationships. Members of various evangelical Christian interest groups protested the decision. Focus on the Family founder James Dobson excoriated the Salvation Army for abandoning its "moral integrity '' and urged his radio listeners to bombard the organisation 's offices with phone calls and letters. The American Family Association also accused the Salvation Army of a "monstrous... appeasement of sin '' that resulted in a "betrayal of the church ''. In November 2001 the Salvation Army nationwide rescinded the Western Territory 's decision with an announcement that it would only provide benefits coverage for different - sex spouses and dependent children of its employees.
In 2004, the Salvation Army said that it would close operations in New York City unless it was exempted from a municipal ordinance requiring them to offer benefits to gay employees ' partners. The City Council refused to make the exemption. Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg 's administration chose not to enforce the ordinance. The administration 's right to decline to enforce the ordinance was upheld by the New York State Court of Appeals in 2006.
On 15 December 2012, in Canada, Andrea Le Good noticed a Salvation Army bell - ringer carrying a sign reading "if you support gay rights: please do not donate ''. While the bell - ringer claimed he had permission from the charity to wear the sign, Salvation Army spokeswoman Kyla Ferns said that it had no part in the sign, and that the bell - ringer was pulled away immediately when the charity learned about it. The charity 's website describes marriage as heterosexual by definition, and a published document called on homosexuals to embrace celibacy as a way of life. The same document also states that there is no scriptural support for the mistreatment of homosexuals.
In February 2000, the Salvation Army in the United Kingdom publicly opposed (in their publication The War Cry and in a letter to a Scottish Parliament committee) the repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988, which prevented local authorities from "intentionally promot (ing) homosexuality ''. However, the organisation 's UK website states that it offers "unconditional assistance and support regardless of race, religion, gender or sexual orientation, respecting the identity and choices of all those referred to them... As well as having a right to be dealt with professionally, people can expect from us encouragement and a respect for their individual beliefs, ambitions and preferences ''.
Before the passing of the Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986 by the New Zealand Parliament, the Salvation Army was active throughout New Zealand gathering signatures for a petition seeking to prevent the bill 's passing. In 2006, the Army released a statement regretting the ill feelings that persisted following this activity. It stated in part "We do understand though that The Salvation Army 's official opposition to the Reform Bill was deeply hurtful to many, and are distressed that ill - feeling still troubles our relationship with segments of the gay community. We regret any hurt that may remain from that turbulent time and our present hope is to rebuild bridges of understanding and dialogue between our movement and the gay community. ''
Despite documented events of Salvation Army 's volunteers and their views, the organisation has issued an LGBT Statement as a response. The statement does not address any documented news events of discrimination and claims to debunk these events as urban myth.
In November 2013 it was made known that the Salvation Army was referring LGBT individuals to one of several conversion therapy groups. As a response the Salvation Army removed such referrals from their website.
A positional statement on the Salvation Army UK and Ireland site stated (but has since been taken down):
The Salvation Army teaches that sexual acts should take place only in a monogamous heterosexual marriage, believing that this reflects God 's intentions for sexual behaviour and provides the best environment for raising children.
The positional statement is, however, intended explicitly for members of the Salvation Army and the Salvation Army mission statement as of 2013 states:
The Salvation Army stands against homophobia, which victimises people and can reinforce feelings of alienation, loneliness and despair. We want to be an inclusive church community where members of the LGBT community find welcome and the encouragement to develop their relationship with God... Our international mission statement is very clear on this point when it says we will "meet human needs in (Jesus ') name without discrimination ''. Anyone who comes through our doors will be welcomed with love and service, based on their need and our capacity to provide.
As of late 2013, activists were still calling on the Salvation Army to change its stance on LGBT issues, citing ongoing discrimination.
As of April 2018, the Inclusion page on the official UK website states that the Salvation Army stands against homophobia and does not permit discrimination in its employment practices or delivery of care.
During the 2010 Christmas season, the Salvation Army in Calgary, Alberta, refused to accept toys based on the Harry Potter and Twilight franchises because of a perceived conflict with the organisation 's religious principles. One volunteer claimed that the toys were destroyed instead of being given to other agencies. The volunteer also criticised the Salvation Army for accepting violence - themed toys such as plastic rifles while not accepting Harry Potter or Twilight toys. A Salvation Army captain said that the toys were given to other organisations, not disposed of. This policy is however, not universal, as the Wetaskiwin chapter of the Salvation Army has accepted Harry Potter toys. One captain called the series "a classic story of good winning over evil ''.
Also during the 2010 Christmas season, the Salvation Army in Vancouver, BC, came under fire for a program that provided goodie bags to federal inmates for Christmas by playing Santa to incarcerated criminals. This was however simply an extended outreach as part of the Salvation Army 's prisoner visitation program established over a century ago.
In 2004, the Salvation Army 's New York division was named in a lawsuit filed by 18 current and former employees of its social service arm, claiming that the organisation asked about the religious and sexual habits of employees in programs funded by local and state government. One member claimed the organisation forced them to agree "to preach the Gospel of Jesus Christ ''. Proselytising or otherwise pursuing religious motives in a government - funded program is generally considered a violation of the Establishment Clause of the US Constitution. While the employment - discrimination portion of the lawsuit was dismissed in 2005, government agencies agreed in a 2010 settlement to set up monitoring systems to ensure that the Army did not violate church - state separation in its publicly funded projects. The organisation did not dispute allegations that nine - year - olds in a city - funded foster care program were put through a "confirmation - like '' ceremony, where they were given Bibles and prayed over.
From the 1940s to the 1980s the Salvation Army in Australia sheltered approximately 30,000 children. In 2006 the Australian division of the Salvation Army acknowledged that sexual abuse may have occurred during this time and issued an apology. In it, the Army explicitly rejected a claim, made by a party unnamed in the apology, that there were as many as 500 potential claimants.
In 2013 it was reported that private settlements totalling A $ 15.5 million had been made in Victoria relating to 474 abuse cases; a Salvation Army spokesman said that "This should not have happened and this was a breach of the trust placed in us '' and that they were "deeply sorry '' whilst claiming that the abuse was "the result of individuals and not a culture within the organization ''.
On 28 January 2014, the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, a royal commission of inquiry initiated in 2013 by the Australian Government and supported by all of its state governments, began an investigation into abuse cases at the Alkira Salvation Army Home for Boys at Indooroopilly; the Riverview Training Farm (also known as Endeavour Training Farm) at Riverview -- both in Queensland; the Bexley Boys ' Home at Bexley; and the Gill Memorial Home at Goulburn -- both in New South Wales. The investigation also examined the Salvation Army 's processes in investigating, disciplining, removing and / or transferring anyone accused of, or found to have engaged in, child sexual abuse in these homes. On 27 March 2014, the Royal Commission began an investigation into the handling by the Salvation Army (Eastern Territory) of claims of child sexual abuse between 1993 and 2014.
The Royal Commission published a case study report on the findings and recommendations for one of the above - mentioned case studies.
The Salvation Army has been criticized for making use of the UK Government 's workfare schemes across Britain. The UK campaign group Boycott Workfare lists them as a participant in Workfare.
The Salvation Army is featured in many popular movies such as Seabiscuit. The Salvation Army is only briefly shown or discussed in these movies such as a bell ringer on the corner in the movie Maid in Manhattan, and briefly mentioned in Batman Begins. The Salvation Army began producing silent films in the 1900s when they created Australia 's first film studio.
The Salvation Army started their own film studio called The Limelight Department in Australia beginning in 1892. The original studio still stands today and is being preserved by the Salvation Army. One of the films included was a documentary called Inauguration of the Australian Commonwealth. In the years between 1892 and 1909, The Limelight Department produced over 300 films and documented Australia 's Federation Ceremonies in 1909.
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which body of water lies between east africa and arabian peninsula
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Arabian peninsula - wikipedia
The Arabian Peninsula, simplified Arabia (Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية Shibhu al - jazīrati al - ʿarabiyya, ' Arabian island ' or Arabic: جزيرة العرب Jazīratu Al - ʿArab, ' Island of the Arabs '), is a peninsula of Western Asia situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian plate. From a geological perspective, it is considered a subcontinent of Asia.
It is the largest peninsula in the world, at 3,237,500 km (1,250,000 sq mi). The Arabian Peninsula consists of the countries Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, and parts of Jordan and Iraq. The peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and southwest, the Persian Gulf to the northeast, the Levant to the north and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. The Arabian Peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Middle East and the Arab world due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas.
Before the modern era, it was divided into four distinct regions: Hejaz (Tihamah), Najd (Al - Yamama), Southern Arabia (Hadhramaut) and Eastern Arabia. Hejaz and Najd make up most of Saudi Arabia. Southern Arabia consists of Yemen and some parts of Saudi Arabia (Najran, Jizan, Asir) and Oman (Dhofar). Eastern Arabia consists of the entire coastal strip of the Persian Gulf.
The Arabian Peninsula is located in the continent of Asia and bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast and south, the Gulf of Aden on the south, the Bab - el - Mandeb strait on the southwest and the Red Sea, which is located on the southwest and west. The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the Syrian Desert with no clear border line, although the northern boundary of the Arabian Peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges, which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula. Harrat ash Shaam is a large volcanic field that extends from the northwestern Arabian Peninsula into Jordan and southern Syria.
The peninsula 's constituent countries are (clockwise north to south) Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south and Saudi Arabia at the center. The island nation of Bahrain lies off the east coast of the peninsula.
Six countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman) form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the peninsula live in Saudi Arabia and in Yemen. The peninsula contains the world 's largest reserves of oil. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, a small peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the Arabic - language television station Al Jazeera and its English - language subsidiary Al Jazeera English. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Though historically lightly populated, political Arabia is noted for a high population growth rate -- as the result of both very strong inflows of migrant labor as well as sustained high birth rates. The population tends to be relatively young and heavily skewed gender ratio dominated by males. In many states, the number of South Asians exceeds that of the local citizenry. The four smallest states (by area), which have their entire coastlines on the Persian Gulf, exhibit the world 's most extreme population growth, roughly tripling every 20 years.
In 2014, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936 (including expatriates). The Arabian Peninsula is known for having one of the most uneven adult sex ratios in the world with females in some regions (especially the east) constituting only a quarter of vicenarians and tricenarians.
Listed here are the human Y - chromosome DNA haplogroups in Arabia (Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates)
Haplogroup J is the most abundant component in the Arabian peninsula, embracing more than 50 % of its Y - chromosomes. Its two main subclades (J1 - M267 and J2 - M172), show opposite latitudinal gradients in the Middle East. J1 - M267 is more abundant in the southern areas, reaching a frequency around 73 % in Yemen, whereas J2 - M172 is more common in the Levant.
J (L222. 2) Accounts for the majority of (L147. 1) in Saudi Arabia. It seems to be an exclusively Adnani marker. Haplogroup J 54.8 % Haplogroup E 17.5 % R 11.6 % Haplogroup T - M184 5.1 %
Geologically, this region is perhaps more appropriately called the Arabian subcontinent because it lies on a tectonic plate of its own, the Arabian Plate, which has been moving incrementally away from the rest of Africa (forming the Red Sea) and north, toward Asia, into the Eurasian Plate (forming the Zagros Mountains). The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the Arabian - Nubian Shield near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best - preserved ophiolite on Earth, the Semail Ophiolite, lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.
The peninsula consists of:
Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called wadis, which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient aquifers exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, oases form (e.g. Al - Hasa and Qatif, two of the world 's largest oases) and permit agriculture, especially palm trees, which allowed the peninsula to produce more dates than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and arid, although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive surprisingly cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert - adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.
According to NASA 's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data (2003 -- 2013) analysed in a University of California, Irvine (UCI) - led study published in Water Resources Research on 16 June 2015, the most over-stressed aquifer system in the world is the Arabian Aquifer System, upon which more than 60 million people depend for water. Twenty - one of the thirty seven largest aquifers "have exceeded sustainability tipping points and are being depleted '' and thirteen of them are "considered significantly distressed. ''
A plateau more than 2,500 feet (760 m) high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterised by cuestas and valleys, drained by a system of wadis. A crescent of sand and gravel deserts lies to the east.
Most of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1 % of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, coffee and tropical fruits. Goat, sheep, and camel husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula. Some areas have a summer humid tropical monsoon climate, in particular the Dhofar and Al Mahrah areas of Oman and Yemen. These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical monsoon rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid desert climate or arid steppe climate. The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally tropical sea with a very rich tropical sea life and some of the world 's largest, undestroyed and most pristine coral reefs. In addition, the organisms living in symbiosis with the Red Sea coral, the protozoa and zooxanthellae, have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence, these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperature as elsewhere in the indopacific coral sea. The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. However, some reefs were destroyed in the Persian Gulf, mostly caused by phosphate water pollution and resultant increase in algae growth as well as oil pollution from ships and pipeline leakage.
The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at 10,000 feet (3,000 m). In the higher reaches, elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger and khat cultivation.
The Arabian peninsula is known for its rich oil, i.e. petroleum production due to its geographical location.
During the Hellenistic period, the area was known as Arabia or Aravia (Greek: Αραβία). The Romans named three regions with the prefix "Arabia '', encompassing a larger area than the current term "Arabian Peninsula '':
The Arab inhabitants used a north - south division of Arabia: Al Sham - Al Yaman, or Arabia Deserta - Arabia Felix. Arabia Felix had originally been used for the whole peninsula, and at other times only for the southern region. Because its use became limited to the south, the whole peninsula was simply called Arabia. Arabia Deserta was the entire desert region extending north from Arabia Felix to Palmyra and the Euphrates, including all the area between Pelusium on the Nile and Babylon. This area was also called Arabia and not sharply distinguished from the peninsula.
The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the west of the Arabian Peninsula region where the Arabs lived ' the land of the Arabs ' -- Bilad al - Arab (Arabia), and its major divisions were the bilad al - Sham (Syria), bilad al - Yaman (the Land of the southern Peninsula), and Bilad al - Iraq and modern - day Kuwait (the Land of the River Banks). The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the subcontinent itself starting from Cilicia, where the Euphrates river makes its descent into Syria, through Palestine, and on through the remainder of the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas.
The provinces of Arabia were: Al Tih, the Sinai peninsula, Hedjaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadramaut, Mahra and Shilu, Oman, Hasa, Bahrain, Dahna, Nufud, the Hammad, which included the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia.
The history of the Arabian Peninsula goes back to the beginnings of human habitation in Arabia up to 130,000 years ago.
There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 106,000 to 130,000 years ago. However, the harsh climate historically prevented much settlement in pre-Islamic Arabian peninsula, apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of the peninsula.
However, archaeology has revealed the existence of many civilizations in pre-Islamic Arabia (such as Thamud), especially in South Arabia. South Arabian civilizations include Sheba, Himyarite Kingdom, Kingdom of Awsan, Kingdom of Ma'īn and Sabaean Kingdom. Central Arabia was the location of Kingdom of Kindah in the 4th, 5th and early 6th centuries AD. Eastern Arabia was home to the Dilmun civilization. The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the Peninsula into neighbouring areas.
The Arabian peninsula has long been accepted as the original Urheimat of the Semitic languages by a majority of scholars.
"Shamir of Dhu - Raydan and Himyar had called in the help of the clans of Habashat for against the kings of Saba; but Ilmuqah granted... the submission of Shamir of Dhu - Raydan and the clans of Habashat. ''
The seventh century saw the introduction of Islam to the Arabian Peninsula. The Islamic prophet Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but migrated to Medina in 622. From there he and his companions united the tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam and created a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian peninsula.
He established a new unified polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.
Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad 's death in 632 AD, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al - Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad 's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad 's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son - in - law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr 's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy ''.
Following Muhammad 's death in 632, Abu Bakr became leader of the Muslims as the first Caliph. After putting down a rebellion by the Arab tribes (known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy ''), Abu Bakr attacked the Byzantine Empire. On his death in 634, he was succeeded by Umar as caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al - Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. The period of these first four caliphs is known as al - khulafā ' ar - rāshidūn: the Rashidun or "rightly guided '' Caliphate. Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their Umayyad successors, the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army and destroyed the Persian Empire, conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian peninsula to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.
Nevertheless, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world. The Qur'an requires every able - bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj, to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al - Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime. The Masjid al - Haram (the Grand Mosque) in Mecca is the location of the Kaaba, Islam 's holiest site, and the Masjid al - Nabawi (the Prophet 's Mosque) in Medina is the location of Muhammad tomb; as a result, from the 7th century, Mecca and Medina became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Islamic world.
Despite its spiritual importance, in political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region of the Islamic world, in which the most important medieval Islamic states were based at various times in such far away cities as Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo.
However, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the Hejaz. Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of Mecca and Medina but in the 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the Hejaz. Although, the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the Hejaz, they were usually subject to the suzerainty of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the Abbasids of Baghdad, and the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks of Egypt.
The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was headquartered in Syria, which included Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon (Mount Lebanon was, however, a semi-autonomous mutasarrifate). It was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula. The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia, also known as the Najd region.
The Damascus Protocol of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of Hejaz, asked for a British guarantee of independence. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present - day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised Cilicia -- İskenderun and Mersin, Iraq with Kuwait, Syria, Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, Jordan, and Palestine.
In the modern era, the term bilad al - Yaman came to refer specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as ' jazirat al - Arab ', or the peninsula of the Arabs.
In the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottomans embarked on an ambitious project: the construction of a railway connecting Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire and the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, and Hejaz with its holiest shrines of Islam which are the yearly pilgrimage destination of the Hajj. Another important goal was to improve the economic and political integration of the distant Arabian provinces into the Ottoman state, and to facilitate the transportation of military troops in case of need.
The Hejaz Railway was a narrow gauge railway (1050 mm) that ran from Damascus to Medina, through the Hejaz region of Arabia. It was originally planned to reach the holy city of Mecca, but due to the interruption of the construction works caused by the outbreak of World War I, it eventually only reached Medina. It was a part of the Ottoman railway network and was built in order to extend the previously existing line between Istanbul and Damascus (which began from the Haydarpaşa Terminal).
The railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was built largely by the Turks, with German advice and support. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a waqf, an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust.
The major developments of the early 20th century were the Arab Revolt during World War I and the subsequent collapse and partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Arab Revolt (1916 -- 1918) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Empire and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen. During World War I, the Sharif Hussein entered into an alliance with the United Kingdom and France against the Ottomans in June 1916.
These events were followed by the unification of Saudi Arabia under King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. In 1902, Ibn Saud had captured Riyadh. Continuing his conquests, Abdulaziz subdued Al - Hasa, Jabal Shammar, Hejaz between 1913 and 1926 founded the modern state of Saudi Arabia. The Saudis absorbed the Emirate of Asir, with their expansion only ending in 1934 after a war with Yemen. Two Saudi states were formed and controlled much of Arabia before Ibn Saud was even born. Ibn Saud, however, established the third Saudi state.
The second major development has been the discovery of vast reserves of oil in the 1930s. Its production brought great wealth to all countries of the region, with the exception of Yemen.
The North Yemen Civil War was fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'état carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as - Sallal, which dethroned the newly crowned Muhammad al - Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support.
The royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egypt 's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six - Day War of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army 's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen.
By 1970, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to the war in Yemen as their Vietnam.
In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi forces led to the 1990 -- 91 Gulf War. Egypt, Qatar, Syria and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational coalition that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and Palestine resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so - called "Damascus Declaration '' formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC member states.
The extraction and refining of oil and gas are the major industrial activities in the Arabian Peninsula. The region also has an active construction sector, with many cities reflecting the wealth generated by the oil industry. The service sector is dominated by financial and technical institutions, which, like the construction sector, mainly serve the oil industry. Traditional handicrafts such as carpet - weaving are found in rural areas of Arabia.
Coordinates: 23 ° N 46 ° E / 23 ° N 46 ° E / 23; 46
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who was heading indian army during bangaladesh liberation war 1971
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Bangladesh Liberation war - wikipedia
Decisive Indian and Bangladeshi victory
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Supported by: China United States United Kingdom Turkey
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (President of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) Tajuddin Ahmad (Prime Minister of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) M.A.G. Osmani (Cdr - in - C, Bangladesh Forces) Maj. K.M. Shafiullah (Commander, S Force) Maj. Ziaur Rahman (Commander, Z Force) Maj. Khaled Mosharraf (Commander, K Force)
Abdul Motaleb Malik (Governor of East Pakistan) Ghulam Azam (Chair, Nagorik Shanti Committee) Motiur Rahman Nizami (Emir of Jamaat - e-Islami) Abdul Quader Molla (Leader, Al - Badr) Abul Kalam Azad (Leader, Razakar) Fazlul Qadir Chaudhry (Leader, Al - Shams)
Systematic events
§ indicates events in the internal resistance movement linked to the Indo - Pakistani War. ‡ indicates events in the Indo - Pakistani War linked to the internal resistance movement in Bangladesh.
The Bangladesh Liberation War (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh, was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self - determination movement in what was then East Pakistan and the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. It resulted in the independence of the People 's Republic of Bangladesh. The war began after the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971. It pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime minister - designate Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The war ended on 16 December 1971 after West Pakistan surrendered.
Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias -- the Razakars, Al - Badr and Al - Shams -- to assist it during raids on the local populace. Urdu - speaking Biharis in Bangladesh (ethnic minority) were also in support of Pakistani military. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of numerous massacres, including the Operation Searchlight and Dhaka University massacre. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighboring India, while 30 million were internally displaced. Sectarian violence broke out between Bengalis and Urdu - speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the atrocities committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide.
The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members of the Mukti Bahini -- the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians. The East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the resistance. Led by General M.A.G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders, the Bangladesh Forces waged a mass guerrilla war against the Pakistani military. They liberated numerous towns and cities in the initial months of the conflict. The Pakistan Army regained momentum in the monsoon. Bengali guerrillas carried out widespread sabotage, including Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy. The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases. By November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside.
The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government. Thousands of Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan. Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station. The plight of millions of war - ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic and military support to Bangladeshi nationalists. British, Indian and American musicians organised the world 's first benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. Senator Ted Kennedy in the United States led a congressional campaign for an end to Pakistani military persecution; while US diplomats in East Pakistan strongly dissented with the Nixon administration 's close ties to the Pakistani military dictator Yahya Khan.
India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India. The subsequent Indo - Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. With air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan surrendered in Dacca on 16 December 1971.
The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most populous country in the world. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.
Prior to the Partition of British India, the Lahore Resolution initially envisaged separate Muslim - majority states in the eastern and northwestern zones of British India. A proposal for an independent United Bengal was mooted by Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy in 1946, but was opposed by the colonial authorities. The East Pakistan Renaissance Society advocated the creation of a sovereign state in eastern British India. Eventually, political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, Pakistan and India, giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus respectively following the departure of the British. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west with India in between. The western zone was popularly (and for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern - day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later, East Pakistan. Although the population of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge. On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the Awami League) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed Operation Searchlight. The violent crackdown by Pakistan Army led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring East Pakistan 's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971. Most Bengalis threw their support behind this move although Islamists and Biharis opposed this and sided with the Pakistan Army instead. Pakistani President Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government 's authority, beginning the civil war. The war led to a sea of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million) flooding into the eastern provinces of India. Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising the Bangladeshi resistance army known as the Mukti Bahini.
In 1948, Governor - General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu '' would be the federal language of Pakistan. However, Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western region of the subcontinent; whereas in East Bengal, the native language was Bengali, one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo - European languages. The Bengali - speaking people of Pakistan constituted over 30 % of the country 's population. The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The Language Movement began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of the Bengali script from currency and stamps, which were in place since the British Raj. The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day. Later, in memory of the deaths in 1952, UNESCO declared 21 February as International Mother Language Day in November 1999.
Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.
Bengalis were under - represented in the Pakistan military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5 % of overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts. West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined '' unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; the "Martial races '' notion was dismissed as ridiculous and humiliating by Bengalis. Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under - strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support were in East Pakistan to thwart any Indian retaliations during the conflict.
The only common bond between the two Pakistani wings was religion. But there were differences even in religious practices. Bengali Muslims tended to be less conservative in religious zeal, and had come to accept their Hindu minority and neighbours despite some communal clashes. Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm imposed by the Pakistani state. Most members of West Pakistan 's ruling elite also belonged to a liberal society, yet understood a common faith as the mobilising factor behind Pakistan 's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan 's multiple identities into one.
Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings outweighed any religious unity. The Bengalis were very proud of their culture and language which with its Devnagari script and Sanskrit vocabulary was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite who considered it to smack of Hindu culture.
The Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders. With this reality and the feeling of Islamic solidarity in the background, Islamists in East Pakistan viewed Bengali nationalism as unacceptable and instead sided with the Pakistani Army 's efforts to crush the Bengali independence movement. Secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion - centred Pakistani nationalism.
Most of the politically - active ulama of East Pakistan either remained neutral or sided with the Pakistani state, since they perceived the break - up of Pakistan as a loss for Islam.
Although East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country 's population, political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit '' scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing 's votes.
After the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan 's first prime minister, in 1951, political power began to devolve to the new President of Pakistan, which replaced the office of Governor General when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.
The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment would swiftly depose any East Pakistanis elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra, or Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 -- 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 -- 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the Bangladesh Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme ''. Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman 's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dacca to decide the fate of the country. After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan. A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto. Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as Premier and Bhutto as President. However, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.
On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be the prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now called the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four - point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:
He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence. '' This speech is considered the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East - Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.
Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly "government passengers '' to Dacca. These "government passengers '' were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.
The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local high tide, killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people. Though the exact death toll is not known, it is considered the deadliest tropical cyclone on record. A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips '' and "mistakes '' in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.
A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference ''. They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage. On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government 's response. Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.
As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long - term planning was curtailed. This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.
A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army -- codenamed Operation Searchlight -- started on 25 March to curb the Bengali independence movement by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military, within one month. The Pakistani state claimed to justify starting Operation Searchlight on the basis of anti-Bihari violence by Bengalis in early March.
Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.
The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, which ultimately resulted in the secession of East Pakistan later in the same year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000 -- 35,000 in Dacca, and 200,000 -- 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, although independent researchers, including the British Medical Journal, have put forward the figure ranging from between 125,000 and 505,000. American political scientist Rudolph Rummel puts total deaths at 1.5 million. The atrocities have been referred to as acts of genocide.
According to the Asia Times,
At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands. '' Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation Searchlight to "crush '' Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able - bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.
Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the University of Dacca were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall -- Jagannath Hall -- was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamoodur Rahman Commission in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.
The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan 's actions, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in The Sunday Times describing the systematic killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas ' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role '', with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi herself stating that Mascarenhas ' article has led her "to prepare the ground for India 's armed intervention ''.
Hindu areas suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dacca was burning, especially the Hindu - dominated eastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three - fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred. ''
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal 's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.
The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:
Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla (May Bangladesh be victorious).
Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25 -- 26 March 1971 at about 1: 30 am (as per Radio Pakistan 's news on 29 March 1971).
A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated to Bengali by Dr. Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation. However, the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by some rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major Ziaur Rahman was requested to provide security of the station and he also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971. Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People 's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.
The Kalurghat Radio Station 's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia and later by the British Broadcasting Corporation.
M.A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.
26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh. Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan '' until 16 December 1971.
At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not expected to be prolonged. However, when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army ''. These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al - Badrs and Al - Shams (who were mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.
On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur District in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, Tajuddin Ahmad as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander - in - Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.
Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M.A.G. Osmani as commander - in - chief (C - in - C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col., Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain AK Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major AR Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).
General Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership regarding the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned Bengali forces to be trained into a small elite guerrilla force of 8,000 members, led by the surviving East Bengal Regiment soldiers operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate the eventual Indian intervention, but with the Bangladesh government in exile, General Osmani favoured a different strategy:
Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July, each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to conduct guerrilla operations and train fighters. Most of their training camps were situated near the border area and were operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was directly placed under the Commander in Chief (C - in - C) General M.A.G. Osmani and included the Naval Commandos and C - in - C 's special force. Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.
Three brigades (eight infantry battalions and three artillery batteries) were put into action between July and September. During June and July, Mukti Bahini had regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and began sending 2000 -- 5000 guerrillas across the border, the so - called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives. Bengali regular forces also attacked BOPs in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near - accurate observation.
Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, Mongla, Narayanganj and Chandpur on 15 August 1971.
Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few examples. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar. Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was economical to go to war against Pakistan. As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General Manekshaw (Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee) to "Go into East Pakistan ''. Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India 's decision to intervene in Pakistan 's civil war. Resultantly, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the Mukti Bahini. For this, RAW, helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, thus creating conditions conducive for a full - scale Indian military intervention in early December. Thus, wary of the growing involvement of India, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian Air Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force 's Operation Focus during the Six - Day War, and intended to neutralise the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. The strike was seen by India as an open act of unprovoked aggression. This marked the official start of the Indo - Pakistani War.
As a response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries '', even though neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.
Three Indian corps were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more fighting irregularly. This was far superior to the Pakistani army of three divisions. The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini. Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.
The debate of Indian involvement in this war has been a source of tension and underlying conflict between India and Bangladesh since the emergence of the war itself. This section examines the role of India in this war by exploring the ways in which India largely contributed to the war and to what extent this aided the Bangladeshis. In exploring the latter, one can see that there are several ways in which India aided Bangladesh. For one, India was largely responsible for building the Mukti Bahini from a group of inexperienced rebel fighters to an army formidable enough to fight against the Pakistani army. When the war first broke out it in 1971, the initial state of the Bengali rebels can be understood from the remark of one Bengali rebel officer, who complained that "No one in the Bangladesh cabinet knows anything about war ''. This construed the dire situation of the army before India 's intervention. The Mukti Bahini was recounted as being "Without any supplies or assistance ''. If a weapon became unserviceable the soldier carrying that weapon became useless, since he could not be given another weapon. There was a complete dearth of a "Modern communication system to be in constant touch with troops in different battle locations ''. This is evidenced in that the Mukti Bahini 's position was threatened at Kumira, but the army had received the message three hours late because of the poor communication system. Indira Gandhi 's government escalated its backing for the Bengali uprising from July 1970 onwards. Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India at the time, when asked if India stimulated the Liberation War, had candidly said that "If you want to go way back, we helped the Mukti Bahini. So, if you consider it all as beginning with that aid and from that moment, yes - we were the ones to start it. '' As the war progressed, the involvement of the Indian Army in this war intensified and with each stage improved Mukti Bahini. Initially, the Indian army was directly ordered to help the Mukti Bahini, involving India 's top generals This is evident in the Indian army 's training and sponsoring of the Bengali rebels who comprised Mukti Bahini, which was badly outnumbered, many bearing only knives and hand grenades, reluctant to attack Pakistani army units. Even the better - armed insurgents were outmatched by Pakistan 's artillery and air force. Durga Prasad Dhar, confidant of Indira Gandhi who was a chief architect of the Indian intervention in the war, aided Bengali exiles in London to purchase weapons in Belgium and ship them to the guerrillas in East Pakistan. The Indian Army was thoroughly enmeshed in the guerilla warfare, as shown by a report to Indira Gandhi 's government from an Indian team touring the border states of Assam and Tripura in the early 1970s. Furthermore, India 's Border Security Force provided cover when the Bengali rebels attacked towns of Pakistan army positions. Under fire, the guerrillas relied on India 's force to provide support or re-supply them with ammunition. The Bengalis, in desperation, used children as soldiers - these children were untrained and inexperienced. However, under the eye of the Indian army, these child soldiers were taken for special and regular military training, and the Indian government planned youth training, consisting of political indoctrination and guerilla warfare. Many of the youth camps were run by India 's Border Security Force, with the military training given by the Indian army. To fight an effective riverine campaign, the rebels -- accustomed to their homeland of marshes and water - wars, needed to be taught about camouflage and crawling.
This is where the debate comes in. On the other side of the argument there is evidence that shows this aid may have not been as adequate as many historians believe. The rebels were simply not getting enough. Furthermore, the guerillas, often fighting with weapons captured from Pakistan desperately wanted more arms and ammunition from India. The rebel officers pleaded for heavy artillery, anti-aircraft rounds, and anti-tank grenades. They required Rifles, mortars, walkie - talkies, field telephone sets, maps, medical kits, binoculars, etc. However, ' India seemed more worried about the embarrassment that would inevitably follow when Indian weapons were captured during the fighting and thus was hesitant in expediting the deployment of arms to the rebels.
The Bengali rebels also questioned Indian supervision. India was unaware and unprepared of the Bangladeshi situation.
In a Bangladeshi assessment of the war, a top Awami League leader, MR Chowdhury, lambasted the performance of the Indian army. Chowdhury argued that "Never was such a heroic force neglected so much as the Mukti Fouz. The rebels got only ten rounds of ammunition a day, and this was far from adequate. Officers waited for days to get ammunition for a raid. Senior officers lacked weapons, and most of the rebels were short on rations, uniforms, Pakistani cash (necessary for missions inside East Pakistan), tents, soaps, and shoes. '' Mr Chowdhury further said: "I have seen our (Mukti Bahini) sector commanders have to roam like beggars to procure medicine from various sources for their ailing men. We were assured that the ' Friends ' (the Indian army) promised to look after the basic necessities of our (Bengali) men, but the bare truth is that our men never get what they require. ''
The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It achieved near - total air supremacy by the end of the first week as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No. 14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladesh airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitolla, Lal Munir Hat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from the carrier INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox 's Bazar, destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, thereby cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably Operation Jackpot.
On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces & Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II, although the Pakistani Army had fought gallantly according to Indian Army Chief Sam Manekshaw. Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally. The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition. To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months. Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were also pardoned by India. The accord also gave back 13,000 km (5,019 sq mi) of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas; most notably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace '' and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. However, some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis.
Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan 's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power. General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan 's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan ''.
During the war there were widespread killings and other atrocities -- including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights began with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting Islamist militias from Jamaat e Islami killed an estimated 300,000 to 3,000,000 people and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape. Some Islamic clerics issued fatwas in support of raping Bengali women, especially Hindu women, as they considered the conflict a holy war. During the war, a fatwa in Pakistan declared that the Bengali freedom fighters were Hindus and that their women could be taken as "the booty of war ''.
A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al - Shams and Al - Badr forces, at the instruction of the Pakistani Army. Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.
Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh. The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the United States State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dacca University and other civilians. Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of war babies. The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex - slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most of the girls were captured from Dacca University and private homes. There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army, but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis. In June 1971, Bihari representatives stated that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis. R.J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.
On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University 's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and United States Information Service centres in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C. These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide '' and "genocide '' (see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term that is still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh, although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.
Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government of Bangladesh to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world 's context of the war and to justify military action by India. Also, following Pakistan 's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.
Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.
Following India 's entry into the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a ceasefire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease - fire and withdrawal of troops ''. While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.
On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan 's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the cease fire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalised, Pakistan 's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.
Most UN member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.
As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan became the first state in the world to recognise the newly independent country on 6 December 1971. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.
The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan both politically and materially. US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People 's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America 's new tacit ally, China. To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress - imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran, while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.
Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan 's defeat seemed certain, Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.
The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals -- the United States and China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo - Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.
At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognise Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972. The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.
As a long - standing ally of Pakistan, the People 's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani - controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino - Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino - Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.
When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application because two United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented. China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.
Notes
Citations
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
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when did the dark ages start and finish
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Dark Ages (historiography) - wikipedia
The "Dark Ages '' is a historical periodization traditionally referring to the Middle Ages, that asserts that a demographic, cultural, and economic deterioration occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire.
The term employs traditional light - versus - darkness imagery to contrast the era 's "darkness '' (lack of records) with earlier and later periods of "light '' (abundance of records). The concept of a "Dark Age '' originated in the 1330s with the Italian scholar Petrarch, who regarded the post-Roman centuries as "dark '' compared to the light of classical antiquity. The phrase "Dark Age '' itself derives from the Latin saeculum obscurum, originally applied by Caesar Baronius in 1602 to a tumultuous period in the 10th and 11th centuries. The concept thus came to characterize the entire Middle Ages as a time of intellectual darkness between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance; this became especially popular during the 18th - century Age of Enlightenment.
As the accomplishments of the era came to be better understood in the 18th and 20th centuries, scholars began restricting the "Dark Ages '' appellation to the Early Middle Ages (c. 5th -- 10th century). The majority of modern scholars avoid the term altogether due to its negative connotations, finding it misleading and inaccurate. The original definition remains in popular use, and popular culture often employs it as a vehicle to depict the Middle Ages as a time of backwardness, extending its pejorative use and expanding its scope.
The idea of a Dark Age originated with the Tuscan scholar Petrarch in the 1330s. Writing of the past, he said: "Amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius; no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom ''. Christian writers, including Petrarch himself, had long used traditional metaphors of ' light versus darkness ' to describe ' good versus evil '. Petrarch was the first to give the metaphor secular meaning by reversing its application. He now saw Classical Antiquity, so long considered a ' dark ' age for its lack of Christianity, in the ' light ' of its cultural achievements, while Petrarch 's own time, allegedly lacking such cultural achievements, was seen as the age of darkness.
From his perspective on the Italian peninsula, Petrarch saw the Roman and classical period as an expression of greatness. He spent much of his time travelling through Europe, rediscovering and republishing classic Latin and Greek texts. He wanted to restore the Latin language to its former purity. Renaissance humanists saw the preceding 900 years as a time of stagnation, with history unfolding not along the religious outline of Saint Augustine 's Six Ages of the World, but in cultural (or secular) terms through progressive development of classical ideals, literature, and art.
Petrarch wrote that history had two periods: the classic period of Greeks and Romans, followed by a time of darkness in which he saw himself living. In around 1343, in the conclusion of his epic Africa, he wrote: "My fate is to live among varied and confusing storms. But for you perhaps, if as I hope and wish you will live long after me, there will follow a better age. This sleep of forgetfulness will not last forever. When the darkness has been dispersed, our descendants can come again in the former pure radiance. '' In the 15th century, historians Leonardo Bruni and Flavio Biondo developed a three - tier outline of history. They used Petrarch 's two ages, plus a modern, ' better age ', which they believed the world had entered. Later the term ' Middle Ages ' - Latin media tempestas (1469) or medium aevum (1604) - was used to describe the period of supposed decline.
During the Reformations of the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestants generally had a similar view to Renaissance Humanists such as Petrarch, but also added an Anti-Catholic perspective. They saw classical antiquity as a golden time, not only because of its Latin literature, but also because it witnessed the beginnings of Christianity. They promoted the idea that the ' Middle Age ' was a time of darkness also because of corruption within the Roman Catholic Church, such as: Popes ruling as kings, veneration of saints ' relics, a celibate priesthood, and institutionalized moral hypocrisy.
In response to the Protestants, Catholics developed a counter-image to depict the High Middle Ages in particular as a period of social and religious harmony, and not ' dark ' at all. The most important Catholic reply to the Magdeburg Centuries was the Annales Ecclesiastici by Cardinal Caesar Baronius. Baronius was a trained historian who produced a work that the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1911 described as "far surpassing anything before '' and that Acton regarded as "the greatest history of the Church ever written ''. The Annales covered the first twelve centuries of Christianity to 1198, and was published in twelve volumes between 1588 and 1607. It was in Volume X that Baronius coined the term "dark age '' for the period between the end of the Carolingian Empire in 888 and the first stirrings of Gregorian Reform under Pope Clement II in 1046:
"The new age (saeculum) which was beginning, for its harshness and barrenness of good could well be called iron, for its baseness and abounding evil leaden, and moreover for its lack of writers (inopia scriptorum) dark (obscurum) ''.
Significantly, Baronius termed the age ' dark ' because of the paucity of written records. The "lack of writers '' he referred to may be illustrated by comparing the number of volumes in Migne 's Patrologia Latina containing the work of Latin writers from the 10th century (the heart of the age he called ' dark ') with the number containing the work of writers from the preceding and succeeding centuries. A minority of these writers were historians.
There is a sharp drop from 34 volumes in the 9th century to just 8 in the 10th. The 11th century, with 13, evidences a certain recovery, and the 12th century, with 40, surpasses the 9th, something the 13th, with just 26, fails to do. There was indeed a ' dark age ', in Baronius 's sense of a "lack of writers '', between the Carolingian Renaissance in the 9th century and the beginnings, some time in the 11th, of what has been called the Renaissance of the 12th century. Furthermore, there was an earlier period of "lack of writers '' during the 7th and 8th centuries. So, in Western Europe, two ' dark ages ' can be identified, separated by the brilliant but brief Carolingian Renaissance.
Baronius 's ' dark age ' seems to have struck historians, for it was in the 17th century that the term started to proliferate in various European languages, with his original Latin term saeculum obscurum being reserved for the period he had applied it to. But while some, following Baronius, used ' dark age ' neutrally to refer to a dearth of written records, others used it pejoratively, lapsing into that lack of objectivity that has discredited the term for many modern historians.
The first British historian to use the term was most likely Gilbert Burnet, in the form ' darker ages ' which appears several times in his work during the later 17th century. The earliest reference seems to be in the "Epistle Dedicatory '' to Volume I of The History of the Reformation of the Church of England of 1679, where he writes: "The design of the reformation was to restore Christianity to what it was at first, and to purge it of those corruptions, with which it was overrun in the later and darker ages. '' He uses it again in the 1682 Volume II, where he dismisses the story of "St George 's fighting with the dragon '' as "a legend formed in the darker ages to support the humour of chivalry ''. Burnet was a bishop chronicling how England became Protestant, and his use of the term is invariably pejorative.
During the Age of Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries, many critical thinkers saw religion as antithetical to reason. For them the Middle Ages, or "Age of Faith '', was therefore the opposite of the Age of Reason. Kant and Voltaire were vocal in attacking the Middle Ages as a period of social regress dominated by religion, while Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire expressed contempt for the "rubbish of the Dark Ages ''. Yet just as Petrarch, seeing himself at the cusp of a "new age '', was criticising the centuries before his own time, so too were Enlightenment writers.
Consequently, an evolution had occurred in at least three ways. Petrarch 's original metaphor of light versus dark has expanded over time, implicitly at least. Even if later humanists no longer saw themselves living in a dark age, their times were still not light enough for 18th - century writers who saw themselves as living in the real Age of Enlightenment, while the period to be condemned stretched to include what we now call Early Modern times. Additionally, Petrarch 's metaphor of darkness, which he used mainly to deplore what he saw as a lack of secular achievement, was sharpened to take on a more explicitly anti-religious and anti-clerical meaning.
Nevertheless, the term ' Middle Ages ', used by Biondo and other early humanists after Petrarch, was in general use before the 18th century to denote the period before the Renaissance. The earliest recorded use of the English word "medieval '' was in 1827. The concept of the Dark Ages was also in use, but by the 18th century it tended to be confined to the earlier part of this period. The earliest entry for a capitalized "Dark Ages '' in the Oxford English Dictionary is a reference in Henry Thomas Buckle 's History of Civilization in England in 1857. Starting and ending dates varied: the Dark Ages were considered by some to start in 410, by others in 476 when there was no longer an emperor in Rome, and to end about 800, at the time of the Carolingian Renaissance under Charlemagne, or alternatively to extend through to the end of the 1st millennium.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Romantics reversed the negative assessment of Enlightenment critics with a vogue for medievalism. The word "Gothic '' had been a term of opprobrium akin to "Vandal '' until a few self - confident mid-18th - century English "Goths '' like Horace Walpole initiated the Gothic Revival in the arts. This stimulated interest in the Middle Ages, which for the following generation began to take on the idyllic image of an "Age of Faith ''. This, reacting to a world dominated by Enlightenment rationalism, expressed a romantic view of a Golden Age of chivalry. The Middle Ages were seen with nostalgia as a period of social and environmental harmony and spiritual inspiration, in contrast to the excesses of the French Revolution and, most of all, to the environmental and social upheavals and utilitarianism of the developing Industrial Revolution. The Romantics ' view is still represented in modern - day fairs and festivals celebrating the period with ' merrie ' costumes and events.
Just as Petrarch had twisted the meaning of light versus darkness, so the Romantics had twisted the judgment of the Enlightenment. However, the period they idealized was largely the High Middle Ages, extending into Early Modern times. In one respect, this negated the religious aspect of Petrarch 's judgment, since these later centuries were those when the power and prestige of the Church were at their height. To many, the scope of the Dark Ages was becoming divorced from this period, denoting mainly the centuries immediately following the fall of Rome.
The term was widely used by 19th - century historians. In 1860, in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, Jacob Burckhardt delineated the contrast between the medieval ' dark ages ' and the more enlightened Renaissance, which had revived the cultural and intellectual achievements of antiquity. However, the early 20th century saw a radical re-evaluation of the Middle Ages, which called into question the terminology of darkness, or at least its more pejorative use. The historian Denys Hay spoke ironically of "the lively centuries which we call dark ''. More forcefully, a book about the history of German literature published in 2007 describes "the dark ages '' as "a popular if ignorant manner of speaking ''.
Most modern historians do not use the term "dark ages '', preferring terms such as Early Middle Ages. But when used by some historians today, the term "Dark Ages '' is meant to describe the economic, political, and cultural problems of the era. For others, the term Dark Ages is intended to be neutral, expressing the idea that the events of the period seem ' dark ' to us because of the paucity of the historical record. The term is used in this sense (often in the singular) to reference the Bronze Age collapse and the subsequent Greek Dark Ages, the dark ages of Cambodia (c. 1450 - 1863), and also a hypothetical Digital Dark Age which would ensue if the electronic documents produced in the current period were to become unreadable at some point in the future. Some Byzantinists have used the term "Byzantine Dark Ages '' to refer to the period from the earliest Muslim conquests to about 800, because there are no extant historical texts in Greek from this period, and thus the history of the Byzantine Empire and its territories that were conquered by the Muslims is poorly understood and must be reconstructed from other contemporaneous sources, such as religious texts. The term "dark age '' is not restricted to the discipline of history. Since the archaeological evidence for some periods is abundant and for others scanty, there are also archaeological dark ages.
Since the Late Middle Ages significantly overlap with the Renaissance, the term ' Dark Ages ' has become restricted to distinct times and places in medieval Europe. Thus the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain, at the height of the Saxon invasions, have been called "the darkest of the Dark Ages '', in view of the societal collapse of the period and the consequent lack of historical records. Further south and east, the same was true in the formerly Roman province of Dacia, where history after the Roman withdrawal went unrecorded for centuries as Slavs, Avars, Bulgars, and others struggled for supremacy in the Danube basin, and events there are still disputed. However, at this time the Arab Empire is often considered to have experienced its Golden Age rather than Dark Age; consequently, usage of the term must also specify a geography. While Petrarch 's concept of a Dark Age corresponded to a mostly Christian period following pre-Christian Rome, today the term mainly applies to the cultures and periods in Europe that were least Christianized, and thus most sparsely covered by chronicles and other contemporary sources, at the time mostly written by Catholic clergy.
However, from the later 20th century onwards, other historians became critical even of this nonjudgmental use of the term, for two main reasons. Firstly, it is questionable whether it is ever possible to use the term in a neutral way: scholars may intend this, but ordinary readers may not understand it so. Secondly, 20th - century scholarship had increased understanding of the history and culture of the period, to such an extent that it is no longer really ' dark ' to us. To avoid the value judgment implied by the expression, many historians now avoid it altogether.
Science historian David C. Lindberg criticised the public use of ' dark ages ' to describe the entire Middle Ages as "a time of ignorance, barbarism and superstition '' for which "blame is most often laid at the feet of the Christian church, which is alleged to have placed religious authority over personal experience and rational activity ''. Historian of science Edward Grant writes that "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities ''. Furthermore, Lindberg says that, contrary to common belief, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led ''. Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire due to the Migration Period a lot of classical Greek texts were lost there, but part of these texts survived and they were studied widely in the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate. Around the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the High Middle Ages stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored after the invasions of Vikings and Magyars; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made which increased the food supply and population. And the rejuvenation of science and scholarship in the West was due in large part to the new availability of Latin translations of Aristotle.
Another view of the period is reflected by more specific notions such as the 19th - century claim that everyone in the Middle Ages thought the world was flat. In fact, lecturers in medieval universities commonly advanced the idea that the Earth was a sphere. Lindberg and Ronald Numbers write: "There was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge (Earth 's) sphericity and even know its approximate circumference ''. Other misconceptions such as: "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages '', "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science '', and "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy '', are cited by Numbers as examples of myths that still pass as historical truth, although unsupported by current research.
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who sings the song broken merry go round
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Josh Osborne - wikipedia
Josh Osborne (born 1980) is an American songwriter with several number one singles to his credit.
Josh Osborne was born in Pike County, Kentucky, and raised in Virgie, Kentucky. Josh grew up on US 23, renamed Country Music Highway by the state of Kentucky in honor of the many country music artists and musicians that had come from the area, and developed a deep love of country music, particularly artists like Keith Whitley and Dwight Yoakam. His father encouraged him to write songs because of his love of music, and encouraged him to listen to The Beatles, which made Josh want to become a songwriter. Josh graduated from Shelby Valley High School in 1998 and moved right after graduation to Nashville where he signed his first publishing deal with Warner Chappell Music.
Osborne signed a publishing agreement with Black River Entertainment in 2010. His first number one hit as a songwriter was "Come Over, '' performed by Kenny Chesney. The song spent two weeks at the top of the Billboard Country Airplay charts. Osborne 's song "Merry Go ' Round, '' co-written with Kacey Musgraves and Shane McAnally, became a top 10 Billboard Country Airplay hit for Musgraves, and has sold over one million copies to achieve Platinum status. The song went on to win the Grammy Award for Best Country Song of the Year, in recognition of the songwriters, at the 56th Grammy Awards.
Osborne has since written other Billboard Country Airplay chart - topping songs, including "Drunk Last Night, '' recorded by Eli Young Band, "My Eyes, '' performed by Blake Shelton featuring Gwen Sebastian, "We Are Tonight, '' sung by Billy Currington, "Leave the Night On '' and "Take Your Time '' by Sam Hunt, "Wild Child '', written with Chesney and frequent collaborator Shane McAnally featuring Grace Potter, "Sangria '' performed by Blake Shelton, Jake Owen 's "Real Life '', "John Cougar, John Deere, John 3: 16 '' performed by Keith Urban, Tim McGraw 's "Top of the World '', "Setting the World on Fire '' performed by Kenny Chesney featuring Pink, and the Grammy and Academy of Country Music Award nominated "Vice '' performed by Miranda Lambert. Osborne broke the Billboard Hot Country Songs Chart record with Sam Hunt 's "Body Like a Back Road '' with 34 weeks at # 1, written with Sam Hunt, Shane McAnally, and Zach Crowell. Osborne is currently enjoying the success of his latest # 1s, Midland 's "Drinking Problem '' (which he also produced), and Kenny Chesney 's "All the Pretty Girls ''. In addition to radio singles, Josh has had songs recorded by Luke Bryan, The Band Perry, Joe Nichols, Kelly Clarkson, Reba McEntire, Sara Evans, Easton Corbin, Trisha Yearwood, Craig Morgan, Rodney Atkins, Chris Young, Love and Theft, Faith Hill, Randy Rogers Band and many others.
In 2015 Osborne announced he was joining Shane McAnally 's company, SMACKSongs as a partner and songwriter. SMACKSongs currently represents McAnally, as well as Matthew Ramsey, Trevor Rosen, and Walker Hayes among other writers.
Osborne has produced or co-produced the following works:
Songs written or co-written by Osborne.
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how old do you have to be to get a tattoo in md
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Legal status of Tattooing in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor can not enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).
In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and / or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.
Cal. Penal Code 653
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a - 92g
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 § 122 (3) (w)
Fla. Stat. § 381.0775 et seq. Fla. Stat. § 381.075
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes. ''
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.
Ga. Code § 16 - 12 - 5
Ga. Code § 16 - 5 - 71.1
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321 - 379
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent / guardian consent.
Ill. Stat. 410 § 54 / 1 t0 54 / 999
Ind. Code Ann. § 16 - 19 - 3 - 4.1
Iowa Code § 135.37
Kan. Stat. Ann. § 65 - 1940 to 65 - 1954
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 194A. 050; 211.760
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40: 2831 et seq.
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50 -- 100 for a first offense to $300 and / or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 101 to 110
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 201 to 209
N.J.A.C. 8: 27 - 1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 26 - 1A - 7
N.Y. Public Health Law § 460 - 466
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14 - 400
N.D. Code § 12.1 - 31 - 13
Scleral tattooing is illegal.
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders can not be tattooed or pierced.
Minors can not be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent / guardian consent.
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920
RI Gen L § 11 - 9 - 15
S.C. Code § 44 - 34 - 10 to 44 - 34 - 110
S.D. Laws § 9 - 34 - 17
For piercings: Parent / Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor, breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.
Minors may, with parent / guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang - related, or drug - related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person 's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover ''
Tongue splitting prohibited.
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation
Civic / local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.
Va. Code § 15.2 - 912
Va. Code § 18.2 - 371.3.
Wash. Code § 18.300
Wash. Code § 246 - 145 - 001 to 060
Wash. Code § 70.54
W. Va. Code § 16 - 38
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who sang take me on a sea cruise
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Sea Cruise - wikipedia
"Sea Cruise '' is a song written and sung by Huey "Piano '' Smith and His Clowns.
The recording was included on the 1971 Ace Records compilation Huey "Piano '' Smith 's Rock & Roll Revival!
The song was initially covered by Frankie Ford in 1959, with a top - 20 hit, using Smith 's original backing track. Released on Ace Records, it sold over one million copies, gaining gold disc status. The single included ship 's bell and horn sound - effects, as well as boogie piano, a driving horn section and a beat that anticipated ska music. The song has been included in several motion picture soundtracks, including Ski Patrol in 1990 and Out to Sea in 1997.
It was later also covered by:
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what is the natural satellite of the earth
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Natural satellite - wikipedia
A natural satellite or moon is, in the most common usage, an astronomical body that orbits a planet or minor planet (or sometimes another small Solar System body).
In the Solar System there are six planetary satellite systems containing 178 known natural satellites. Four IAU - listed dwarf planets are also known to have natural satellites: Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. As of October 2016, there are over 300 minor planets known to have moons.
The Earth -- Moon system is unique in that the ratio of the mass of the Moon to the mass of Earth is much greater than that of any other natural - satellite -- planet ratio in the Solar System (although there are minor - planet systems with even greater ratios, notably the Pluto -- Charon system). At 3,474 km (2,158 miles) across, Earth 's Moon is 0.27 times the diameter of Earth.
The first known natural satellite was the Moon, but it was considered a "planet '' until Copernicus ' introduction of heliocentrism in 1543. Until the discovery of the Galilean satellites in 1610, however, there was no opportunity for referring to such objects as a class. Galileo chose to refer to his discoveries as Planetæ ("planets ''), but later discoverers chose other terms to distinguish them from the objects they orbited.
The first to use of the term satellite to describe orbiting bodies was the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in his pamphlet Narratio de Observatis a se quatuor Iouis satellitibus erronibus ("Narration About Four Satellites of Jupiter Observed '') in 1610. He derived the term from the Latin word satelles, meaning "guard '', "attendant '', or "companion '', because the satellites accompanied their primary planet in their journey through the heavens.
The term satellite thus became the normal one for referring to an object orbiting a planet, as it avoided the ambiguity of "moon ''. In 1957, however, the launching of the artificial object Sputnik created a need for new terminology. The terms man - made satellite and artificial moon were very quickly abandoned in favor of the simpler satellite, and as a consequence, the term has become linked primarily with artificial objects flown in space -- including, sometimes, even those not in orbit around a planet.
Because of this shift in meaning, the term moon, which had continued to be used in a generic sense in works of popular science and in fiction, has regained respectability and is now used interchangeably with natural satellite, even in scientific articles. When it is necessary to avoid both the ambiguity of confusion with Earth 's natural satellite the Moon and the natural satellites of the other planets on the one hand, and artificial satellites on the other, the term natural satellite (using "natural '' in a sense opposed to "artificial '') is used. To further avoid ambiguity, the convention is to capitalize the word Moon when referring to Earth 's natural satellite, but not when referring to other natural satellites.
Many authors define "satellite '' or "natural satellite '' as orbiting some planet or minor planet, synonymous with "moon '' -- by such a definition all natural satellites are moons, but Earth and other planets are not satellites. A few recent authors define "moon '' as "a satellite of a planet or minor planet '', and "planet '' as "a satellite of a star '' -- such authors consider Earth as a "natural satellite of the sun ''.
There is no established lower limit on what is considered a "moon ''. Every natural celestial body with an identified orbit around a planet of the Solar System, some as small as a kilometer across, has been considered a moon, though objects a tenth that size within Saturn 's rings, which have not been directly observed, have been called moonlets. Small asteroid moons (natural satellites of asteroids), such as Dactyl, have also been called moonlets.
The upper limit is also vague. Two orbiting bodies are sometimes described as a double body rather than primary and satellite. Asteroids such as 90 Antiope are considered double asteroids, but they have not forced a clear definition of what constitutes a moon. Some authors consider the Pluto -- Charon system to be a double (dwarf) planet. The most common dividing line on what is considered a moon rests upon whether the barycentre is below the surface of the larger body, though this is somewhat arbitrary, because it depends on distance as well as relative mass.
The natural satellites orbiting relatively close to the planet on prograde, uninclined circular orbits (regular satellites) are generally thought to have been formed out of the same collapsing region of the protoplanetary disk that created its primary. In contrast, irregular satellites (generally orbiting on distant, inclined, eccentric and / or retrograde orbits) are thought to be captured asteroids possibly further fragmented by collisions. Most of the major natural satellites of the Solar System have regular orbits, while most of the small natural satellites have irregular orbits. The Moon and possibly Charon are exceptions among large bodies in that they are thought to have originated by the collision of two large proto - planetary objects (see the giant impact hypothesis). The material that would have been placed in orbit around the central body is predicted to have reaccreted to form one or more orbiting natural satellites. As opposed to planetary - sized bodies, asteroid moons are thought to commonly form by this process. Triton is another exception; although large and in a close, circular orbit, its motion is retrograde and it is thought to be a captured dwarf planet.
Most regular moons (natural satellites following relatively close and prograde orbits with small orbital inclination and eccentricity) in the Solar System are tidally locked to their respective primaries, meaning that the same side of the natural satellite always faces its planet. The only known exception is Saturn 's natural satellite Hyperion, which rotates chaotically because of the gravitational influence of Titan.
In contrast, the outer natural satellites of the giant planets (irregular satellites) are too far away to have become locked. For example, Jupiter 's Himalia, Saturn 's Phoebe, and Neptune 's Nereid have rotation periods in the range of ten hours, whereas their orbital periods are hundreds of days.
No "moons of moons '' (natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of a planet) are currently known as of 2017. In most cases, the tidal effects of the planet would make such a system unstable.
However, calculations performed after the recent detection of a possible ring system around Saturn 's moon Rhea indicate that satellites orbiting Rhea could have stable orbits. Furthermore, the suspected rings are thought to be narrow, a phenomenon normally associated with shepherd moons. However, targeted images taken by the Cassini spacecraft failed to detect rings around Rhea.
It has also been proposed that Saturn 's moon Iapetus had a satellite in the past; this is one of several hypotheses that have been put forward to account for its equatorial ridge.
Two natural satellites are known to have small companions at both their L and L Lagrangian points, sixty degrees ahead and behind the body in its orbit. These companions are called trojan moons, as their orbits are analogous to the trojan asteroids of Jupiter. The trojan moons are Telesto and Calypso, which are the leading and following companions, respectively, of the Saturnian moon Tethys; and Helene and Polydeuces, the leading and following companions of the Saturnian moon Dione.
The discovery of 243 Ida 's natural satellite Dactyl in the early 1990s confirmed that some asteroids have natural satellites; indeed, 87 Sylvia has two. Some, such as 90 Antiope, are double asteroids with two comparably sized components.
Neptune 's moon Proteus is the largest irregularly shaped natural satellite. All other known natural satellites that are at least the size of Uranus 's Miranda have lapsed into rounded ellipsoids under hydrostatic equilibrium, i.e. are "round / rounded satellites ''. The larger natural satellites, being tidally locked, tend toward ovoid (egg - like) shapes: squat at their poles and with longer equatorial axes in the direction of their primaries (their planets) than in the direction of their motion. Saturn 's moon Mimas, for example, has a major axis 9 % greater than its polar axis and 5 % greater than its other equatorial axis. Methone, another of Saturn 's moons, is only around 3 km in diameter and visibly egg - shaped. The effect is smaller on the largest natural satellites, where their own gravity is greater relative to the effects of tidal distortion, especially those that orbit less massive planets or, as in the case of the Moon, at greater distances.
Of the nineteen known natural satellites in the Solar System that are massive enough to have lapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium, several remain geologically active today. Io is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System, while Europa, Enceladus, Titan and Triton display evidence of ongoing tectonic activity and cryovolcanism. In the first three cases, the geological activity is powered by the tidal heating resulting from having eccentric orbits close to their giant - planet primaries. (This mechanism would have also operated on Triton in the past, before its orbit was circularized.) Many other natural satellites, such as Earth 's Moon, Ganymede, Tethys and Miranda, show evidence of past geological activity, resulting from energy sources such as the decay of their primordial radioisotopes, greater past orbital eccentricities (due in some cases to past orbital resonances), or the differentiation or freezing of their interiors. Enceladus and Triton both have active features resembling geysers, although in the case of Triton solar heating appears to provide the energy. Titan and Triton have significant atmospheres; Titan also has hydrocarbon lakes. Four of the largest natural satellites, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, and Titan, are thought to have subsurface oceans of liquid water, while smaller Enceladus may have localized subsurface liquid water.
Of the objects within our Solar System known to have natural satellites, there are 76 in the asteroid belt (five with two each), four Jupiter trojans, 39 near - Earth objects (two with two satellites each), and 14 Mars - crossers. There are also 84 known natural satellites of trans - Neptunian objects. Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the rings of Saturn, but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, and although numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet been confirmed.
Of the inner planets, Mercury and Venus have no natural satellites; Earth has one large natural satellite, known as the Moon; and Mars has two tiny natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos. The giant planets have extensive systems of natural satellites, including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth 's Moon: the four Galilean moons, Saturn 's Titan, and Neptune 's Triton. Saturn has an additional six mid-sized natural satellites massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium, and Uranus has five. It has been suggested that some satellites may potentially harbour life.
Among the identified dwarf planets, Ceres has no known natural satellites. Pluto has the relatively large natural satellite Charon and four smaller natural satellites; Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Haumea has two natural satellites, and Eris and Makemake have one each. The Pluto -- Charon system is unusual in that the center of mass lies in open space between the two, a characteristic sometimes associated with a double - planet system.
The seven largest natural satellites in the Solar System (those bigger than 2,500 km across) are Jupiter 's Galilean moons (Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa), Saturn 's moon Titan, Earth 's moon, and Neptune 's captured natural satellite Triton. Triton, the smallest of these, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. Similarly in the next size group of nine natural satellites, between 1,000 km and 1,600 km across, Titania, Oberon, Rhea, Iapetus, Charon, Ariel, Umbriel, Dione, and Tethys, the smallest, Tethys, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. As well as the natural satellites of the various planets, there are also over 80 known natural satellites of the dwarf planets, minor planets and other small Solar System bodies. Some studies estimate that up to 15 % of all trans - Neptunian objects could have satellites.
The following is a comparative table classifying the natural satellites in the Solar System by diameter. The column on the right includes some notable planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, and trans - Neptunian objects for comparison. The natural satellites of the planets are named after mythological figures. These are predominantly Greek, except for the Uranian natural satellites, which are named after Shakespearean characters. The nineteen bodies massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium are in bold in the table below. Minor planets and satellites suspected but not proven to have achieved a hydrostatic equilibrium are italicized in the table below.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Pisces -- Cetus Supercluster Complex → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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where did the phrase put your two cents in come from
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My two cents - wikipedia
"My two cents '' ("my 2 ¢ '') and its longer version "put my two cents in '' is an American idiomatic expression, taken from the original English idiom "to put in my two penny worth '' or "my two - cents. '' It is used to preface the tentative statement of one 's opinion. By deprecating the opinion to follow -- suggesting its value is only two cents, a very small amount -- the user of the phrase, showing politeness and humility, hopes to lessen the impact of a possibly contentious statement. However, it is also sometimes used ironically when expressing a strongly held opinion. The phrase is also sometimes used out of habit to preface uncontentious opinions. For example: "If I may put my two cents in, that hat does n't do you any favors. '' (A polite way of saying, for example: That hat is ugly). Another example would be: "My two cents is that you should sell your stock now. ''
The earliest reference to an analog of "two cents '' appears in the lesson of the widow 's mite in both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Luke. In the biblical episode, several wealthy temple patrons donate large sums of money, but an extremely poor widow places just two small coins, i.e. her two cents, into the offering. She finds greater favor with Jesus than do the wealthy patrons, seeing that the widow gave all of her money to the Temple in Jerusalem while the wealthy patrons made little investment, leaving much money for themselves.
Some believe that the phrase originates in betting card games, such as poker. In these games, one must make a small bet, or ante, before beginning play. Thus, the phrase makes an analogy between entering the game and entering a conversation. However, there is no documentary evidence of this being the origin of the idiom, so it is merely speculation. Other likely origins are that "my two pennies worth '' is derived from the much older 16th Century English expression, "a penny for your thoughts '', possibly a sarcastic response to receiving more opinion than was wanted "I said a penny for your thoughts, but I got two pennies ' worth ''. There is also some belief that the idiom may have its origins in the early cost of postage in England, the "twopenny post '', where two pennies was the normal charge of sending a letter containing one 's words and thoughts or feelings to someone.
There is also hard evidence that the US - variant phrase in print, is from the Olean Evening Times, March 1926. That includes an item by Allene Sumner, headed My "Two cents ' worth ''.
"Two cents '' and its variations may also be used in place of the noun "opinion '' or the verb phrase "state (subject 's) opinion '', e.g. "You had to put your two cents in, did n't you? '' or "But that 's just my two cents. ''
This expression is also often used at the end of a statement, e.g. "Just my two cents. ''
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who is rosie's biological father in the rosie project
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The Rosie Project - wikipedia
The Rosie Project is a 2013 Australian novel and the debut work of Australian novelist Graeme Simsion. The work was first published on January 30, 2013 in Australia by Text Publishing and the rights have since been sold in over 40 other countries. International sales are in excess of 3.5 million copies and the book was named Book of the Year for 2014 by the Australian Book Industry Association. In the United States the novel was published through Simon & Schuster and in the United Kingdom through Penguin Books. The novel centers on genetics professor Don Tillman, who struggles to have a serious relationship with women. With a friend 's help, he devises a questionnaire to assess the suitability of female partners. His plans are set off course when he meets Rosie, who does not fit many of Tillman 's criteria, but becomes a big part of his life.
A sequel titled, The Rosie Effect was released in 2014.
Don Tillman is an Australian genetics professor who has spent his days organizing his life with the expectation that it will reduce inefficiency, improve himself as a person, and make him an all around happier person. He does not fit in well with others, which has kept Don from dating and having a satisfying romantic life - something that confounds him, as he believes that his IQ, physical health, finances, and social status should otherwise make him an appealing mate. After spending time with his best friend and womanizing colleague Gene and his wife Claudia, Don comes up with the idea of the Wife Project, a questionnaire that would help find the perfect mate. This turns out to be something more easily done in theory, as his questionnaire fails to produce a satisfactory woman and alienates many potential candidates.
Soon after Gene introduces him to Rosie, a bartender whom he quickly eliminates as unsuitable per his criteria. Despite this, Don finds himself quickly drawn to her and even goes so far to agree to help her find her biological father, a man that her mother slept with after a graduation party - a task Don terms the "Father Project ''. Her mother is dead and as such, Rosie can not ask her for the answer and can only go on the information that her father was an attendee at the party. The two manage to eliminate most of the attendees via DNA testing, which Don secretly does in the university laboratory under the guise of it being an official project. As time progresses Rosie begins to challenge more and more of Don 's habits and assumptions, and he 's surprised when she reveals that she 's working as a bartender in order to pay her way through university while she works on her doctorate in psychology. He also finds that part of the reason that Rosie is so desperate to find her biological father is because of her unsatisfactory relationship with her stepfather Phil. Don also finally meets a woman who fulfills all of his criteria, but he discovers that he is completely unattracted to her.
Eventually, the Father Project eliminates all but a select few people, two of which require that Don and Rosie travel to New York City. Once there Rosie forces Don to abandon his schedules in exchange for a spontaneous trip through the city, which he finds that he truly enjoys. This culminates in the two almost having sex, only for Rosie to change her mind because she 's unsure that a relationship with Don could actually work out. The two return to Australia where Don continues the Father Project and realizes that his friend Gene may actually be Rosie 's father since he also attended the party and is also very promiscuous. After some thinking Don decides that he will test Gene and that he will also try to convince Rosie to marry him, as he has discovered that he is genuinely attracted to her. Despite trying to change to fit what he believes she needs, Don is rejected by Rosie when he says that he does not feel love like others do. However this rejection causes Don to realize that he actually does love Rosie. He also decides to confront her father Phil over her father issues, as Rosie felt neglected because she believed that Phil prioritized his career over her and failed to fulfill a promise to go to Disneyland, a move that she views as representative of their relationship as a whole. Rosie inevitably discovers that Gene may be her real father and she confronts him over this with his wife Claudia, who was largely unaware of his womanizing. Don arrives at the scene just in time to watch Phil punch Gene, after which point Don and Rosie reconcile and she agrees to marry him. She also reconciles with her father and after she marries Don, the two of them move to America to start anew. The book ends with Don running a final test on a sample of Phil 's DNA, which confirms that he was her biological father all along, and the whole issue was raised by Rosie 's mother because of Gene 's negligence in explaining to his students the rules of eye color inheritance.
In September 2014 it was confirmed that Sony Pictures optioned film rights to The Rosie Project. Simsion penned the first draft of the script and screenwriters Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber were later brought on to work on the final script, with Phil Lord and Christopher Miller set to potentially direct. Jennifer Lawrence was cast as the female lead for the film in July 2015. In October 2015, Lawrence dropped out to star in the film mother! by Darren Aronofsky, director of the Oscar - winning movie Black Swan. In July 2015, Richard Linklater was in talks to direct after Lord and Miller dropped out to do other projects. However, after Lawrence dropped out of the film, so did Linklater. In 2017, Tristar Pictures announced that Ben Taylor would direct the film.
Critical reception for The Rosie Project has been mostly positive and the book was a bestseller in multiple countries. NPR gave a favorable review for the work, which they felt was charming. Bill Gates included The Rosie Project as the only novel in his Six Books I 'd Recommend.
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who played my favorite martian in the tv series
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My Favorite Martian - wikipedia
My Favorite Martian is an American television sitcom that aired on CBS from September 29, 1963, to May 1, 1966, for 107 episodes (75 in black and white: 1963 -- 65, 32 color: 1965 -- 66). The show starred Ray Walston as Uncle Martin (the Martian) and Bill Bixby as Tim O'Hara.
John L. Green created the central characters and developed the core format of this series, which was produced by Jack Chertok.
A human - looking extraterrestrial in a one - man spaceship crash - lands near Los Angeles. The ship 's pilot is, in fact, an anthropologist from Mars and is now stranded on Earth. Tim O'Hara, a young newspaper reporter for The Los Angeles Sun, is on his way home from Edwards Air Force Base (where he had gone to report on the flight of the X-15) back to Los Angeles when he spots the spaceship coming down. The rocket - powered aircraft had nearly hit the spaceship and caused it to crash.
Tim takes the Martian in as his roommate and passes him off as his "Uncle Martin. '' Uncle Martin refuses to reveal any of his Martian traits to people other than Tim, to avoid publicity (or panic), and Tim agrees to keep Martin 's identity a secret while the Martian attempts to repair his ship. Uncle Martin has various unusual powers: he can raise two retractable antennae from his head and become invisible; he is telepathic and can read and influence minds; he can levitate objects with the motion of his finger; he can communicate with animals; he can freeze people or objects; and he can speed himself (and other people) up to do work.
Ostensibly an inventor by trade, Martin also builds several advanced devices, such as a time machine that transports Tim and the Martian back to medieval England and other times and places, such as St. Louis in 1849 and the early days of Hollywood, and brings Leonardo da Vinci and Jesse James into the present. Another device he builds is a "molecular separator '' that can take apart the molecules of a physical object, or rearrange them (a squirrel is made into a human). Another device can take memories and store them in pill form to "relearn '' them later. Other devices create temporary duplicates, or levitate Martin and others without the need of his finger.
Tim and Uncle Martin live in a garage apartment owned by a congenial (and former WAVE as revealed in season 1 episode 1) but scatterbrained landlady, Mrs. Lorelei Brown, who often shows up when not wanted. She and Martin have an awkward romance from time to time but Martin never gets serious for fear of going home to Mars. She later dates a vain, cold - hearted, plain - clothes police officer, Detective Bill Brennan, who dislikes Uncle Martin and is highly suspicious of him.
"Martin O'Hara's '' real name is Exigius 121⁄2. Revealed in "We Love You, Miss Pringle '', it was heard again when his real nephew, Andromeda (played by young actor Wayne Stam), crash - landed on Earth in the show 's third season. Andromeda, originally devised to bring younger viewers to the aging show, disappeared without explanation after this single episode and was never referred to again. Andromeda was, however, a regular on the later animated series My Favorite Martians. Andromeda had a single antenna, which Martin explained was because his baby antennae had fallen out and only one adult antenna had come in so far.
The series was produced by Jack Chertok Television in association with CBS. The show was originally syndicated by Wolper Pictures, then it moved to Telepictures, and later by successor - in - interest Warner Bros. Television Distribution. The Chertok Company retained ownership of all copyrights for the show as of early July 2013; Rhino Entertainment held U.S. video rights until August 2008. Australian entertainment company Umbrella Entertainment acquired rights for Australia and New Zealand and released Seasons 1, 2 and 3 (in full color) in 2007 and 2008 on DVD suitable for all region codes. Those rights together with streaming recently were aquirered by Shock Video who in November 2017 released a new complete box set using the restored show elements. In2010 MPI Home Video acquired the rights to the series for home video. In 2018 Pidax Video Germany aquirered both streaming and DVD rights for Germany will begin to release the series in Germany under it 's German title Mien Okel Vom Mars the release is expected sometime in 2018. As of early July 2013, Warner Bros. held domestic and international syndication rights for the series. Those rights have now returned to the Chertok trust.
The theme music for the series was composed by George Greeley and performed on an electro - theremin by Paul Tanner, a former member of Glenn Miller 's band. It was influential in Brian Wilson 's engagement of Tanner in 1965 and 1966 to work with the Beach Boys on their landmark hit, "Good Vibrations. '' Greeley also scored the series; an album of his music from the first two seasons was released by La - La Land Records in 2007 (dedicated to the composer, who died while the album was being prepared).
The first two seasons were filmed in black - and - white (at Desilu), but the final season was shot in color (at MGM), resulting in minor changes in the set and the format of the show. In addition to the extraterrestrial powers indicated in the first two seasons, Martin was able to do much more in the final season, such as stimulating facial hair to provide him and Tim with a quick disguise, and levitating with his nose. Brennan 's boss, the police chief, was involved in many episodes in the third season, generally as a device to humiliate the overzealous detective.
My Favorite Martian was produced at the same time as other situation comedies that featured characters who could do extraordinary things, as a parody of the standard family situation comedy. The show was an example of science - fiction comedy, differing from Bewitched and I Dream of Jeannie in that the central character was a man, and in that he relied on science and advanced technology rather than magic.
Rhino Entertainment released the first two seasons on DVD in Region 1 in 2004 -- 2005. The third season was never released, however the season 3 release from Umbrella Entertainment of Australia was released in North America on February 5, 2008, as an import. This release is classified as ' Region 0 ', thus making it viewable around the world to anyone with a region - free DVD player. Rhino also released a 3 - DVD box of "The Best of My Favorite Martian '' in 2007 comprising episodes 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24, 29, 31, 34 and 37.
In January 2010, it was announced that MPI Home Video had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1 (under license from Jack Chertok Productions). It was announced at the time that they planned on releasing season 3 on DVD in the summer of 2010. However, this release never materialized and was postponed indefinitely. It was subsequently released on October 30, 2012.
MPI subsequently re-released season 1 on June 24, 2014. and season 2 on December 23, 2014.
On October 20, 2015, MPI Home Video will release My Favorite Martian - The Complete Series ' on DVD in Region 1.
In Region 4, Umbrella Entertainment has released all 3 seasons on DVD in Australia. These releases are all Region Free. The season 1 release includes special features such as audio commentary with Ann Marshall, a stills gallery, script, and interview with Ann Marshall. The season 3 release includes special features such as an unaired version of the pilot, behind the scenes home movies, interviews with Stan Frazen, Ted Rich, James Hulsey and Wayne Stam, audio commentary by James 's Hulsey and Chertok historian and licencing manager Peter Greenwood.
scans of the original comic series, scripts and the shooting sched
ule.
In its first season, My Favorite Martian did extremely well in the Nielsen ratings, ranking at # 10. However, by the end of the second season the show had dipped to # 24. Still, the series was doing well enough to be renewed for a third season. Ratings dipped even further in the third season due to redundant stories, usually involving Martin 's time machine, and the series was canceled.
An animated series, My Favorite Martians, was made by Filmation and was broadcast as part of the Saturday morning programming on CBS from September 8, 1973 to December 22, 1973 for a total of sixteen episodes. The series features Tim, Martin, Mrs. Brown and Detective Brennan (Brennan is considerably different). To appeal to a younger audience, Uncle Martin is joined by his Martian nephew named Andromeda, nicknamed "Andy '', who only has one antenna and thus lesser powers than Uncle Martin and did appear in one episode of the television series. The pair also have a Martian pet named Okey, a sort of bouncing sheepdog with antennae. Tim also had a niece of his own, named Katy, living with them. None of the characters were voiced by the original actors; Bixby was at the time committed to his latest project, The Magician, and Walston tried to distance himself from the role. As a result, Jonathan Harris voiced Martin and Jane Webb voiced Mrs. Brown.
The cartoon utilized a number of scripts from what would have been season four of the live action show; as of early July 2013, Jack Chertok Television co-owned it, with the Chertok company retaining all merchandising rights to the show.
Distribution rights were held, as of April 2013, by Classic Media as part of their Filmation holdings.
Although those rights may now have reverted back to the Chertok company as of, 2018.
The series was also remade as a feature film in 1999 starring Christopher Lloyd as the Martian and Jeff Daniels as Tim. This film was released and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Ray Walston was featured in the film (both Bill Bixby and Pamela Britton had since died; the former in 1993 and the latter in 1974) and played another Martian who had been trapped on Earth since the time of the first series and wore a similar space suit from the series; his cover was now that of a Government investigator of unidentified flying objects. However, the premise was changed: Martians such as Lloyd 's "Uncle Martin '' are now non-humanoids with four arms, four legs, and three eyes who use a gumball (which they call "nerplex '') to assume human form. The "nerplex '' comes in a selection that will turn the person ingesting it into assorted life forms, including Martian, Venusian and one to "never use '' (Venox 7).
The TV series was adapted into a comic strip by Dan Spiegle, distributed by Gold Key Comics. It ran between 1963 and 1966 for nine issues.
Gerry Anderson 's company Century 21 aquirered the rights to produce a weekly adaption than ran in their weekly newspaper like formatted comic TV21.
Unlike the Gold Key adaption the British comics would later in their run featured Martin 's nephew Andromeda.
Due to a lack of reference he was depicted as a chubby freckled British schoolboy.
The weekly adaption ran for two years (1965 - 66) and was featured in three of the comics British Christmas annuals.
The comic rights returned to the Chertok company who licenced a reprint of the Gold Key produced by Hermes Press. Who subsequently issued a special edition single issue reprint for the national national free comic book day.
That reprint is the only instance of a sixties television comic reprint to be used for this event Subsequently during the event the books in almost every venue were the first to sell out.
The Chertok Company is actively looking to reprint the British comic adaption in a single volume for the first time.
However the TV21 Martian pages have been used as special features on the US MPI DVD release and the Australian release by Umbrella Entertainment.
And more recently on the Australia New Zealand release by Shock Entertainment.
Merchandising
During the show 's initial run several products were produced resulting in a board game, a magic set, paint by numbers and springs with bells beanie hat.
In 2012 licensing resumed on the My Favorite Martian property resulting in a model kit and built up box version from Pegasus Hobbies.
Due to the success of the kit the Chertok company subsequently has extended the license to Pegasus Hobbies.
The Pegasus kit is in fact a props replica based on the Martian spaceships appearance in the episode Crash Diet where the ship was shrunk as part of the episode the initial version of the shrunk ship is in scale with the Pegasus model.
A still of Martin holding that scaled ship can be found on the back of the box for the fully assembled version.
A photoetched metal kit that gives modelers the ability to uupgrade the cockpit detail. Was produced by by the Paragrafix Company who also for the first time created a scale version of the time suitcase the CCTBS together with Martin 's flight log book in English and the show 's Martian text.
Factory entertainment produced a shake ems version of both Uncle Martin and his spaceship.
A special edition black and white version of their Uncle Martin statue was used as a Comic Con exclusive by Factory entertainment.
In 2015 Greenlight collectibles produced a prototype My Favorite Martian boxed set featuring the second season Plymouth Fury as seen in the show it was not produced subsequently.
In November 2017 Zynga Entertainmart added My Favorite Martian to its cell phone game Black Diamond Casino which is now playing worldwide.

My Favorite Martian:
My Favorite Martians:
http://www.peterrodgers.org/index.php/television-series/item/32-my-favorite-martian Peter Rogers Organization Website
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how did the spanish conquistadors conquer huge native american empires
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Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire - wikipedia
Annexation of the Aztec Empire, Tarascans and others by Spanish Empire
Spanish Empire Confederacy of Tlaxcala Cempoala support or casual alliance:
Aztec Triple Alliance (1519 -- 1521)
allied states:
independent states:
Motecuhzoma II † Cuitláhuac † Cuauhtémoc Cacamatzin † Coanacochtzin Tetlepanquetzal Itzquauhtzin †
Spanish conquistadors:
Aztecs: 300,000
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, beginning in February 1519, was one of the most significant events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Following Christopher Columbus ' establishment of permanent settlement in the Caribbean, the Spanish authorized expeditions or entradas for the discovery, conquest, and colonization of new territory, using existing Spanish settlements as a base.
The Spanish campaign began in February 1519, following the Spanish arrival in Yucatán in 1517. Two years later the Spanish set sail, thus beginning the campaign of colonization of the Americas. The Spanish campaign declared victorious on August 13, 1521, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native Tlaxcalan warriors led by Hernán Cortés and Xicotencatl the Younger captured the emperor Cuauhtemoc and Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire.
During the campaign, Cortés was given support from a number of tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs, including the Totonacs, and the Tlaxcaltecas, Texcocans, and other city - states particularly bordering Lake Texcoco. In their advance, the allies were tricked and ambushed several times by the people they encountered. After eight months of battles and negotiations, which overcame the diplomatic resistance of the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II to his visit, Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519, where he took up residence, welcomed by Moctezuma. When news reached Cortés of the death of several of his men during the Aztec attack on the Totonacs in Veracruz, he took the opportunity to take Moctezuma captive, Moctezuma allowed himself to be captured as a diplomatic gesture. Capturing the cacique or indigenous ruler was standard operating procedure for Spaniards in their expansion in the Caribbean, so capturing Moctezuma had considerable precedent, which might well have included those in Spain during the Christian reconquest of territory held by Muslims.
When Cortés left Tenochtitlan to return to the coast and deal with the expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez, Pedro de Alvarado was left in charge. Alvarado allowed a significant Aztec feast to be celebrated in Tenochtitlan and on the pattern of the earlier massacre in Cholula, closed off the square and massacred the celebrating Aztec noblemen. The biography of Cortés by Francisco López de Gómara contains a description of the massacre. The Alvarado massacre at the Main Temple of Tenochtitlan precipitated rebellion by the population of the city. When Moctezuma, now seen as a mere puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace, he was killed by a projectile. Cortés had returned to Tenochtitlan and his men fled the capital city during the Noche Triste in June, 1520. The Spanish, Tlaxcalans and reinforcements returned a year later on August 13, 1521 to a civilization that had been wiped out by famine and smallpox. This made it easier to conquer the remaining Aztecs.
Many of those on the Cortés expedition of 1519 had never seen combat before, including Cortés. A whole generation of Spaniards later participated in expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra Firme (Central America), learning strategy and tactics of successful enterprises. The Spanish conquest of Mexico had antecedents with established practices.
The fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the formation of the Spanish overseas empire, with New Spain, which later became Mexico, as a major component.
The conquest of Mexico is not only a significant event in world history as the first successful conquest of a great pre-Columbian civilization, but is also particularly important because there are multiple accounts of the conquest from different points of view, Spanish and indigenous of diverse backgrounds. The Spanish conquerors could and did write accounts that narrated the conquest from the first landfalls in Mexico to the final victory over the Mexica in Tenochtitlan on August 13, 1521. Indigenous accounts are from particular native viewpoints (either allies or opponents) and as the events had a direct impact on their polity. All accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases and exaggerations. Some, but not all, Spanish accounts downplay credit their indigenous allies ' support. Individual conquerors ' accounts exaggerate that individual 's contribution to the conquest, downplaying other conquerors '. Indigenous allies ' accounts stress their loyalty to the Spanish and their particular aid as being key to the Spanish victory. Their accounts are similar to Spanish conquerors ' accounts contained in petitions for rewards, known as benemérito petitions.
Two lengthy accounts from the defeated indigenous viewpoint were created under the direction of Spanish friars, Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and Dominican Diego Durán, using indigenous informants.
The first Spanish account of the conquest was written by lead conqueror Hernán Cortés, who sent a series of letters to the Spanish monarch Charles V, giving a contemporary account of the conquest from his point of view, in which he justified his actions. These were almost immediately published in Spain and later in other parts of Europe. Much later, Spanish conqueror Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a well - seasoned participant in the conquest of Central Mexico, wrote what he called The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, countering the account by Cortés 's official biographer, Francisco López de Gómara. Bernal Díaz 's account had begun as a benemérito petition for rewards but he expanded it to encompass a full history of his earlier expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra Firme and the conquest of the Aztec. A number of lower rank Spanish conquerors wrote benemérito petitions to the Spanish Crown, requesting rewards for their services in the conquest, including Juan Díaz, Andrés de Tapia, García del Pilar, and Fray Francisco de Aguilar. Cortés 's right - hand man, Pedro de Alvarado did not write at any length about his actions in the New World, and died as a man of action in the Mixtón War in 1542. Two letters to Cortés about Alvarado 's campaigns in Guatemala are published in The Conquistadors.
The chronicle of the so - called "Anonymous Conqueror '' was written sometime in the sixteenth century, entitled in an early twentieth - century translation to English as Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan (i.e. Tenochtitlan). Rather than it being a petition for rewards for services, as many Spanish accounts were, the Anonymous Conqueror made observations about the indigenous situation at the time of the conquest. The account was used by eighteenth - century Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in his descriptions of the history of Mexico.
On the indigenous side, the allies of Cortés, particularly the Tlaxcalans, wrote extensively about their services to the Spanish Crown in the conquest, arguing for special privileges for themselves. The most important of these are the pictorial Lienzo de Tlaxcala and the Historia de Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo. Less successfully, the Nahua allies from Huexotzinco (or Huejotzinco) near Tlaxcala argued that their contributions had been overlooked by the Spanish. In a letter in Nahuatl to the Spanish Crown, the indigenous lords of Huejotzinco lay out their case in for their valorous service. The letter has been published in Nahuatl and English translation by James Lockhart in We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico in 1991. Texcoco patriot and member of a noble family there, Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl, likewise petitioned the Spanish Crown, in Spanish, saying that Texcoco had not received sufficient rewards for their support of the conquistadors, particularly after the Spanish were forced out of Tenochtitlan.
The best - known indigenous account of the conquest is Book 12 of Bernardino de Sahagún 's General History of the Things of New Spain and published as the Florentine Codex, in parallel columns of Nahuatl and Spanish, with pictorials. Less well - known is Sahagún 's 1585 revision of the conquest account, which shifts from the indigenous viewpoint entirely and inserts at crucial junctures passages lauding the Spanish and in particular Hernán Cortés. Another indigenous account compiled by a Spanish friar is Dominican Diego Durán 's The History of the Indies of New Spain, from 1581, with many color illustrations.
A text from the Nahua point of view, the Anales de Tlatelolco, an early indigenous account in Nahuatl, perhaps from 1540, remained in indigenous hands until it was published. An extract of this important manuscript was published in 1991 by James Lockhart in Nahuatl transcription and English translation. A popular anthology in English for classroom use is Miguel León - Portilla 's, The Broken Spears: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico from 1992. Not surprisingly, many publications and republications of sixteenth - century accounts of the conquest of Mexico appeared around 1992, the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's first voyage, when scholarly and popular interest in first encounters surged.
The most popular and enduring narrative of the Spanish campaign in central Mexico is by New England - born nineteenth - century historian William Hickling Prescott. His History of the Conquest of Mexico, first published in 1843, remains an engaging narrative of the conquest, based on a large number of sources copied from the Spanish archives. Prescott based his narrative history on primary source documentation, mainly from the Spanish viewpoint, but it is likely that the copy of the Spanish text of the 1585 revision of Bernardino de Sahagǘn 's account of the conquest was done for Prescott 's history.
Historical sources for the conquest of Mexico recount some of the same events in both Spanish and indigenous sources. Others, however, are unique to a particular primary source or group narrating the event. Individuals and groups laud their own accomplishments, while often denigrating or ignoring those of their opponents or their allies or both.
In the sources recorded by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and Dominican Diego Durán, there are accounts of events that were interpreted as supernatural omens of the conquest. These two accounts are full - blown narratives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents. Most first - hand accounts about the conquest of the Aztec Empire were written by Spaniards: Hernán Cortés ' letters to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and the first - person narrative of Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The True History of the Conquest of New Spain. The primary sources from the native people affected as a result of the conquest are seldom used, because they tend to reflect the views of a particular native group, such as the Tlaxcalans. Indigenous accounts were written in pictographs as early as 1525. Later accounts were written in the native tongue of the Aztec and other native peoples of central Mexico, Nahuatl.
It is also important to note that the native texts of the defeated Mexica narrating their version of the conquest described eight omens that were believed to have occurred nine years prior to the arrival of the Spanish from the Gulf of Mexico. The eight bad omens or wonders:
Additionally, the Tlaxcala saw a "radiance that shone in the east every morning three hours before sunrise '', and a "whirlwind of dust '' from the volcano Matlalcueye. According to Diaz, "These Caciques also told us of a tradition they had heard from their ancestors, that one of the idols which they particularly worshipped had prophesied the coming of men from distant lands in the direction of the sunrise, who would conquer them and rule them. ''
Omens were extremely important to the Aztecs, who believed that history repeated itself. Emperor Moctezuma, often spelled Montezuma in English, who was trained as a high priest, was said to have consulted his chief priests and fortune tellers to determine the causes of these omens. However, they were unable to provide an exact explanation until, perhaps, the Spanish arrived. A number of modern scholars cast doubt on whether such omens occurred or whether they were ex post facto (retrospective) creations to help the Mexica explain their defeat.
Many sources depicting omens and the return of old Aztec gods, including those supervised by Spanish priests, were written after the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Some ethnohistorians say that when the Spanish arrived native peoples and their leaders did not view them as supernatural in any sense but rather as simply another group of powerful outsiders. Many Spanish accounts incorporated omens to emphasize what they saw as the preordained nature of the conquest and their success as Spanish destiny. This means that native emphasis on omens and bewilderment in the face of invasion "may be a postconquest interpretation by informants who wished to please the Spaniards or who resented the failure of Montezuma and of the warriors of Tenochtitlan to provide leadership. '' Hugh Thomas concludes that Moctezuma was confused and ambivalent about whether Cortés was a god or the ambassador of a great king in another land. However, Thomas does not support the theory that the Aztec Emperor really believed that Cortés was any reincarnation of Quetzalcoatl.
In 1517, Cuban governor Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar commissioned a fleet of three ships under the command of Hernández de Córdoba to sail west and explore the Yucatán peninsula. Córdoba reached the coast of Yucatán. The Mayans at Cape Catoche invited the Spanish to land, and the conquistadors read the Requirement of 1513 to them, which offered the natives the protection of the King of Spain, if they would submit to him. Córdoba took two prisoners, who adopted the baptized names of Melchor and Julián and became interpreters. Later, the two prisoners, being mislead or misinterpreting the language with information given to the Spanish conquistadors that there was plenty of gold up for grabs. On the western side of the Yucatán Peninsula, the Spanish were attacked at night by Maya chief Mochcouoh (Mochh Couoh), a battle in which fifty men were killed. Córdoba was mortally wounded and only a remnant of his crew returned to Cuba.
At that time, Yucatán was briefly explored by the conquistadors, but the Spanish conquest of Yucatán with its many independent city - state polities of the Late Postclassic Maya civilization came many years after the Spaniards ' rapid conquest of Central Mexico, from 1519 to 1521. With the help of tens of thousands of Xiu Mayan warriors, it would take more than 170 years for the Spanish to establish full control of the Maya homelands, which extended from northern Yucatán to the central lowlands region of El Petén and the southern Guatemalan highlands. The end of this latter campaign is generally marked by the downfall of the Maya state based at Tayasal in the Petén region, in 1697.
Even before Juan de Grijalva returned to Spain, Velázquez decided to send a third and even larger expedition to explore the Mexican coast. Hernán Cortés, then one of Velázquez 's favorites and brother - in - law, was named as the commander, which created envy and resentment among the Spanish contingent in the Spanish colony. Licenses for expeditions allowed the Crown to retain sovereignty over newly conquered lands while not risking its own assets in the enterprise. Anyone willing to make a financial contribution could potentially gain even more wealth and power. Men who brought horses, caballeros, received two shares of the spoils, one for military service, another because of the horse. Cortés invested a considerable part of his personal fortune and probably went into debt to borrow additional funds. Velázquez may have personally contributed nearly half the cost of the expedition.
In an agreement signed on 23 October 1518, Governor Velázquez restricted the expedition led by Cortés to exploration and trade, so that conquest and settlement of the mainland might occur under his own command, once he had received the permission necessary to do so which he had already requested from the Crown. In this way, Velázquez sought to ensure title to the riches and laborers discovered. However, armed with the knowledge of Castilian law that he had likely gained as a notary in Valladolid, Cortés managed to free himself of Velázquez 's authority by presenting Velázquez as a tyrant acting in his own self - interest, and not in the interest of the Crown. Cortés also contrived to have his men name him military leader and chief magistrate (judge) of the expedition.
Velázquez himself must have been keenly aware that whoever conquered the mainland for Spain would gain fame, glory and fortune to eclipse anything that could be achieved in Cuba. Thus, as the preparations for departure drew to a close, the governor became suspicious that Cortés would be disloyal to him and try to commandeer the expedition for his own purposes, namely to establish himself as governor of the colony, independent of Velázquez 's control.
Therefore, Velázquez sent Luis de Medina with orders to replace Cortés. However, Cortés ' brother - in - law allegedly had Medina intercepted and killed. The papers that Medina had been carrying were sent to Cortés. Thus warned, Cortés accelerated the organization and preparation of his expedition.
Velázquez arrived at the dock in Santiago de Cuba in person, "he and Cortes again embraced, with a great exchange of compliments '', before Cortes set sail for Trinidad, Cuba. Velázquez then sent orders for the fleet to be held and Cortés taken prisoner. Nevertheless, Cortes set sail, beginning his conquest of New Spain with the legal status of a mutineer.
Cortés 's contingent consisted of 11 ships carrying about 630 men (including 30 crossbowmen and 12 arquebusiers, an early form of firearm), a doctor, several carpenters, at least eight women, a few hundred Cuban Arawaks and some Africans, both freedmen and slaves. Although modern usage often calls the European participants "soldiers '', the term was never used by these men themselves in any context, something that James Lockhart realized when analyzing sixteenth - century legal records from conquest - era Peru.
Cortés spent some time at the island of Cozumel, on the east coast of Yucatán, trying to convert the locals to Christianity, something that provided mixed results. While at Cozumel, Cortés heard reports of other white men living in the Yucatán. Cortés sent messengers to these reported castilianos, who turned out to be the survivors of a Spanish shipwreck that had occurred in 1511, Gerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero.
Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed to join his former countrymen, and he was released and made his way to Cortés 's ships. According to Bernal Díaz, Aguilar relayed that before coming, he had attempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. Guerrero declined on the basis that he was by now well - assimilated with the Maya culture, had a Maya wife and three children, and he was looked upon as a figure of rank within the Maya settlement of Chetumal, where he lived.
Although Guerrero 's later fate is somewhat uncertain, it appears that for some years he continued to fight alongside the Maya forces against Spanish incursions, providing military counsel and encouraging resistance; it is speculated that he may have been killed in a later battle.
Aguilar, now quite fluent in Maya, as well as some other indigenous languages, proved to be a valuable asset for Cortés as a translator -- a skill of particular significance to the later conquest of the Aztec Empire that was to be the end result of Cortés ' expedition.
After leaving Cozumel, Hernán Cortés continued round the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula and landed at Potonchán, where there was little gold. However, Cortés, after defeating the local natives in two battles, discovered a far more valuable asset in the form of a woman whom Cortés would have christened Marina. She is often known as La Malinche and also sometimes called "Malintzin '' or Malinalli, her native birth names. Later, the Aztecs would come to call Cortés "Malintzin '' or La Malinche by dint of his close association with her.
Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote in his account The True History of the Conquest of New Spain that Marina was "truly a great princess. '' Later, the honorific Spanish title of Doña would be added to her baptized name.
Her lineage notwithstanding, Cortés had stumbled upon one of the keys to realizing his ambitions. He would speak to Gerónimo de Aguilar in Spanish who would then translate into Mayan for Marina. She would then translate from Mayan to Nahuatl. With this pair of translators, Cortés could now communicate to the Aztecs. How effectively is still a matter of speculation, since Marina did not speak the dialect of the Aztecs, nor was she familiar with the protocols of the Aztec nobility, who were renowned for their flowery, flattering talk.
Doña Marina quickly learned Spanish, and became Cortés 's primary interpreter, confidant, consort, cultural translator, and the mother of his son, Martin. Until Cortes 's marriage to his second wife, a union which produced a legitimate son whom he also named Martin, Cortés 's natural son with Marina was the heir of his envisaged fortunes.
Native speakers of Nahuatl would call her "Malintzin. '' This name is the closest phonetic approximation possible in Nahuatl to the sound of ' Marina ' in Spanish. Over time, "La Malinche '' (the modern Spanish cognate of ' Malintzin ') became a term that describes a traitor to one 's people. To this day, the word malinchista is used by Mexicans to denote one who apes the language and customs of another country. It would not be until the late 20th century that a few feminist writers and academics would attempt to rehabilitate La Malinche as a woman who made the best of her situation and became, in most respects, the most powerful woman in the Western Hemisphere, as well as the founder of the modern Mexican nation.
Cortés landed his expedition force on the coast of the modern day state of Veracruz in April 1519. During this same period, soon after he arrived, Cortés was welcomed by representatives of the Aztec Emperor, Moctezuma II. Gifts were exchanged, and Cortés attempted to frighten the Aztec delegation with a display of his firepower.
Faced with imprisonment or death for defying the governor, Cortés ' only alternative was to continue his enterprise in the hope of redeeming himself with the Spanish Crown. To do this, he directed his men to establish a settlement called La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, or "True Cross '', since they arrived on Maundy Thursday and landed on Good Friday. The legally constituted "town council of Villa Rica '' then promptly offered him the position of adelantado, or Chief Justice and Captain - General.
This strategy was not unique. Velásquez had used this same legal mechanism to free himself from Diego Columbus ' authority in Cuba. In being named adelantado by a duly constituted cabildo, Cortés was able to free himself from Velásquez 's authority and continue his expedition. To ensure the legality of this action, several members of his expedition, including Francisco Montejo and Alonso Hernandez Puertocarrero, returned to Spain to seek acceptance of the cabildo 's declaration with King Charles.
Cortés learned of an indigenous settlement called Cempoala and marched his forces there. On their arrival in Cempoala, they were greeted by 20 dignitaries and cheering townsfolk. Cortés quickly persuaded the Totonac chiefs to rebel against the Aztecs, taking prisoner five of Moctezuma 's tax collectors. The Totonacs also helped Cortés build the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, which was the starting point for his attempt to conquer the Aztec Empire.
Hearing of the rebellion, more ambassadors from the Aztec Emperor returned to see Cortés, bearing gifts of "gold and cloth '', in thankfulness for Cortés freeing his tax collectors. Montezuma also told Cortés, he was certain the Spanish were of "his own race '', and had arrived as "his ancestors had foretold ''. As Cortés told his men, the natives "think of us as gods, or godlike beings. ''
Although they attempted to dissuade Cortés from visiting Tenochtitlan, the lavish gifts and the polite, welcoming remarks only encouraged El Caudillo to continue his march towards the capital of the empire.
Those of his men still loyal to the Governor of Cuba conspired to seize a ship and escape to Cuba, but Cortés moved swiftly to squash their plans. Two ringleaders were condemned to be hanged; two were lashed, and one had his foot mutilated. To make sure such a mutiny did not happen again, he decided to scuttle his ships.
There is a popular misconception that the ships were burned rather than sunk. This misconception has been attributed to the reference made by Cervantes de Salazár in 1546, as to Cortés burning his ships. This may have also come from a mis - translation of the version of the story written in Latin.
With all of his ships scuttled, Cortés effectively stranded the expedition in central Mexico. However, it did not completely end the aspirations of those members of his company who remained loyal to the Governor of Cuba. Cortés then led his band inland towards the fabled Tenochtitlan.
In addition to the Spaniards, Cortés force now included 40 Cempoalan warrior chiefs and at least 200 other natives whose task was to drag the cannon and carry supplies. The Cempoalans were accustomed to the hot climate of the coast, but they suffered immensely from the cold of the mountains, the rain, and the hail as they marched towards Tenochtitlan.
Cortés soon arrived at Tlaxcala, a confederacy of about 200 towns and different tribes, but without central government.
The Otomi initially, and then the Tlaxcalans fought the Spanish in a series of three battles from 2 to 5 September 1519, and at one point Diaz remarked, "they surrounded us on every side ''. After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Montezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder, and Maxixcatzin, persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them.
The Tlaxcalans main city was Tlaxcala. After almost a century of fighting the Flower Wars, a great deal of hatred and bitterness had developed between the Tlaxcalans and the Aztecs. The Aztecs had already conquered most of the territory around Tlaxcala, and waged war on them every year. It has been suggested that the Aztecs left Tlaxcala independent so that they would have a constant supply of war captives to sacrifice to their gods.
On 23 September 1519, Cortés arrived in Tlaxcala and was greeted with joy by the rulers, who saw the Spanish as an ally against the Aztecs. Due to a commercial blockade by the Aztecs, Tlaxcala was poor, lacking, among other things, salt and cotton cloths, so they could only offer Cortés and his men food and slaves. Cortés stayed twenty days in Tlaxcala, giving his men time to recover from their wounds from the battles. Cortés seems to have won the true friendship and loyalty of the senior leaders of Tlaxcala, among them Maxixcatzin and Xicotencatl the Elder, although he could not win the heart of Xicotencatl the Younger. The Spaniards agreed to respect parts of the city, like the temples, and reportedly took only the things that were offered to them freely.
As before with other native groups, Cortés preached to the Tlaxcalan leaders about the benefits of Christianity. The Cacques gave Cortes "the most beautiful of their daughters and nieces ''. Xicotencatl the Elder 's daughter was baptized as Doña Luisa, and Maxixcatzin 's daughter as Doña Elvira. They were given by Cortés to Pedro de Alvarado and Juan Velázquez de León respectively.
Legends say that he convinced the four leaders of Tlaxcala to become baptized. Maxixcatzin, Xicotencatl the Elder, Citalpopocatzin and Temiloltecutl received the names of Don Lorenzo, Don Vicente, Don Bartolomé and Don Gonzalo. It is impossible to know if these leaders understood the Catholic faith. In any case, they apparently had no problems in adding the Christian "Dios '' (God in Spanish), the lord of the heavens, to their already complex pantheon of gods. An exchange of gifts was made and thus began the highly significant and effective alliance between Cortés and Tlaxcala.
Meanwhile, Moctezuma 's ambassadors, who had been in the Spanish camp after the battles with the Tlaxcalans, continued to press Cortés to take the road to Mexico via Cholula, which was under Aztec control, rather than over Huexotzinco. They were surprised Cortés had stayed in Tlaxcala so long "among a poor and ill - bred people ''.
Cholula was one of the most important cities of Mesoamerica, the second largest, and probably the most sacred. Its huge pyramid (larger in volume than the great pyramids of Egypt) made it one of the most prestigious places of the Aztec religion. However, it appears that Cortés perceived Cholula more as a military threat to his rear guard as he marched to Tenochtitlan than a religious center. He sent emissaries ahead to try a diplomatic solution to enter the city.
Cortés, who had not yet decided to start a war with the Aztec Empire, decided to offer a compromise. He accepted the gifts of the Aztec ambassadors, and at the same time accepted the offer of the Tlaxcalans to provide porters and 1000 warriors on his journey to Cholula. He also sent two men, Pedro de Alvarado, and Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia, directly to Tenochtitlan, as ambassadors and to scout for an appropriate route.
There are contradictory reports about what happened at Cholula. Moctezuma had apparently decided to resist with force the advance of Cortés and his troops, and it seems that Moctezuma ordered the leaders of Cholula to try to stop the Spanish. Cholula had a very small army, because as a sacred city they put their confidence in their prestige and their gods. According to the chronicles of the Tlaxcalteca, the priests of Cholula expected to use the power of Quetzalcoatl, their primary god, against the invaders.
Cortés and his men entered Cholula without active resistance. However, they were not met by the city leaders and were not given food and drink on the third day. Cempoalans reported that fortifications were being constructed around the city and the Tlaxcalans were warning the Spaniards. Finally, La Malinche informed Cortés, after talking to the wife of one of the lords of Cholula, that the locals planned to murder the Spanish in their sleep. Although he did not know if the rumor was true or not, Cortés ordered a pre-emptive strike, urged by the Tlaxcalans, the enemies of the Cholulans. Cortés confronted the city leaders in the main temple alleging that they were planning to attack his men. They admitted that they had been ordered to resist by Moctezuma, but they claimed they had not followed his orders. Regardless, on command, the Spaniards seized and killed many of the local nobles to serve as a lesson.
They captured the Cholulan leaders Tlaquiach and Tlalchiac and then ordered the city to be set on fire. The troops started in the palace of Xacayatzin, and then on to Chialinco and Yetzcoloc. In letters to his King, Cortés claimed that in three hours time his troops (helped by the Tlaxcalans) killed 3,000 people and had burned the city. Another witness, Vázquez de Tapia, claimed the death toll was as high as 30,000. Of course, the reports by the Spaniards were usually gross exaggerations. Since the women and children, and many men, had already fled the city, it is unlikely that so many were killed. Regardless, the massacre of the nobility of Cholula was a notorious chapter in the conquest of Mexico.
The Azteca and Tlaxcalteca histories of the events leading up to the massacre vary; the Tlaxcalteca claimed that their ambassador Patlahuatzin was sent to Cholula and had been tortured by the Cholula. Thus, Cortés was avenging him by attacking Cholula. (Historia de Tlaxcala, por Diego Muñoz Camargo, lib. II cap. V. 1550). The Azteca version put the blame on the Tlaxcalteca, claiming that they resented Cortés going to Cholula instead of Huexotzingo.
The massacre had a chilling effect on the other city states and groups affiliated with the Aztecs, as well as the Aztecs themselves. Tales of the massacre convinced the other cities in the Aztec Empire to entertain seriously Cortés ' proposals rather than risk the same fate.
Cortés then sent emissaries to Moctezuma with the message that the people of Cholula had treated him with trickery and had therefore been punished.
In one of his responses to Cortés, Moctezuma blamed the commanders of the local Aztec garrison for the resistance in Cholula, and recognizing that his long - standing attempts to dissuade Cortés from coming to Tenochtitlan with gifts of gold and silver had failed, Moctezuma finally invited the conquistadors to visit his capital city, according to Spanish sources.
On 8 November 1519, after the fall of Cholula, Cortés and his forces entered Tenochtitlan, the island capital of the Mexica - Aztecs. It is believed that the city was one of the largest in the world at that time, and the largest in the Americas up to that point. The most common estimates put the population at around 60,000 to over 300,000 people. If the population of Tenochtitlan was 250,000 in 1519, then Tenochtitlan would have been larger than every city in Europe except perhaps Naples and Constantinople, and four times the size of Seville.
Accordings to the Aztec chronicles recorded by Sahagún, the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II welcomed Hernán Cortés, El Caudillo, with great pomp. Sahagún reports that Moctezuma welcomed Cortés to Tenochtitlan on the Great Causeway. "The chiefs who accompanied Moctcuhzoma were: Cacama, king of Texcoco (altepetl); Tetlepanquetzaltin, king of Tlacopan, Itzcuauhtzin the Tlacochcalcatl, lord of Tlatelolco (altepetl); and Topantemoc, Motechzoma 's treasurer in Tlatelolco. ''
A fragment of the greetings of Moctezuma says: "My lord, you have become fatigued, you have become tired: to the land you have arrived. You have come to your city: Mexico, here you have come to sit on your place, on your throne. Oh, it has been reserved to you for a small time, it was conserved by those who have gone, your substitutes... This is what has been told by our rulers, those of whom governed this city, ruled this city. That you would come to ask for your throne, your place, that you would come here. Come to the land, come and rest: take possession of your royal houses, give food to your body. ''
According to Sahagún 's manuscript, Moctezuma personally dressed Cortés and his commanders with flowers. In turn, Cortés attempted to embrace the Emperor, but was restrained by a courtier.
This contradiction between "the arrogant emperor ' and the "humble servant of Quetzalcoatl '' has been problematic for historians to explain and has led to much speculation. However, all the proscriptions and prohibitions regarding Moctezuma and his court had been established by Moctezuma and were not part of traditional Aztec customs. Those prohibitions had already caused friction between Moctezuma and the pillis (noble classes). There is even an Aztec legend in which Huemac, the legendary last lord of Tollan Xicotitlan, instructed Moctezuma to live humbly and eat only the food of the poor, to divert a future catastrophe. Thus, it seems out of character for Moctezuma to violate rules that he himself had promulgated. Yet, as supreme ruler, he had the power to break his own rules.
Moctezuma had the royal palace of Axayácatl, Moctezuma 's father, prepared for Cortés. On the same day that the Spanish expedition and their allies entered Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma came to visit Cortés and his men. What happened in this second meeting remains controversial. According to several Spanish versions, some written years or decades later, Moctezuma first repeated his earlier, flowery welcome to Cortés on the Great Causeway, but then went on to explain his view of what the Spanish expedition represented in terms of Aztec tradition and lore, including the idea that Cortés and his men (pale, bearded men from the east) were the return of characters from Aztec legend. At the end of this explanation, the Emperor pledged his loyalty to the King of Spain and accepted Cortés as the King 's representative. According to Diaz, Moctezuma said to Cortes, "As for your great King, I am in his debt and will give him of what I possess. ''
While in the Axayacatl palace, the conquistadors discovered the secret room where Moctezuma kept the treasure he had inherited from his father. The treasure consisted of a "quantity of golden objects -- jewels and plates and ingots ''. Diaz noted, "The sight of all that wealth dumbfounded me. ''
Cortés later asked Moctezuma to allow him to erect a cross and an image of Virgin Mary next to the two large idols of Huichilobos and Tezcatlipoca, after climbing the one hundred and fourteen steps to the top of the main temple pyramid. Moctezuma and his papas were furious at the suggestion, with Moctezuma claiming his idols, "give us health and rain and crops and weather, and all the victories we desire. ''
The Mexica then killed seven Spanish soldiers Cortés had left on the coast, including Cortes ' Villa Rica Constable Juan de Escalante, and many Totonacs. Cortés along with five of his captains and Doña Marina and Aguilar, convinced Moctezuma to "come quietly with us to our quarters, and make no protest... if you cry out, or raise any commotion, you will immediately be killed. '' Moctezuma was later implicated by Qualpopoca and his captains, who had killed the Spanish soldiers. Though these captains of Moctezuma were sentenced to be "burned to death '', Moctezuma continued to remain a prisoner, fearing a "rebellion in his city '' or that the Spanish may "try to set up another prince in his place. '' This, despite Moctezuma 's chieftains, nephews and relations suggesting they should attack the Spanish.
As of 14 November 1519, Moctezuma was Cortés ' prisoner as insurance against any further resistance, until the end of May 1520, Moctezuma lived with Cortés in the palace of Axayácatl.
However, Moctezuma continued to act as Emperor, subject to Cortés ' overall control. During the period of his imprisonment, Moctezuma stated "he was glad to be a prisoner, since either our gods gave us power to confine him or Huichilobos permitted it. '' He would even play the game of totoloque with Cortés. After the treason of Cacamatzin, Moctezuma and his caciques, were forced to take a more formal oath of allegiance to the King of Spain, though Moctezuma "could not restrain his tears ''. Moctezuma told his caciques that "their ancestral tradition, set down in their books of records, that men would come from the direction of the sunrise to rule these lands '' and that "He believed... we were these men. ''
Cortés sent expeditions to investigate the Aztec sources of gold in the provinces of Zacatula, Tuxtepec, and the land of the Chinantec. Moctezuma was then made to pay a tribute to the Spanish King, which included his father 's treasure. These treasures, the Spaniards melted down to form gold bars stamped with an iron die. Finally, Moctezuma let the catholic conquistadors build an altar on their temple, next to the Aztec idols.
Finally, the Aztec gods allegedly told the Mexican papas, or priests, they would not stay unless the Spaniards were killed and driven back across the sea. Moctezuma warned Cortés to leave at once, as their lives were at risk. Many of the nobility rallied around Cuitláhuac, the brother of Moctezuma and his heir - apparent; however, most of them could take no overt action against the Spanish unless the order was given by the Emperor.
In April 1520, Cortés was told by Moctezuma, that a much larger party of Spanish troops, consisting of nineteen ships and fourteen hundred soldiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez, had arrived. Pánfilo de Narváez had been sent by Governor Velázquez from Cuba to kill or capture Cortés.
Leaving his "least reliable soldiers '' under the command of Pedro de Alvarado to guard Moctezuma, Cortés set out against De Narváez who had advanced onto Cempoala. Cortés surprised his antagonist with a night attack, during which his men wounded De Narváez in the eye and took him prisoner. After Cortés permitted the defeated soldiers to settle in the country, they "passed with more or less willingness to Cortés ' side. '' Hernán Cortés gained their support when he "promised to make them rich and give them commands. '' The Caudillo then made a rapid return to Tenochtitlan, to relieve the besieged Alvarado and his men.
Cortés led his combined forces on an arduous trek back over the Sierra Madre Oriental, returning to Mexico on St. John 's Day June 1520, with 1300 soldiers and 96 horses, plus 2000 Tlaxcalan warriors.
When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan in late May, he found that Alvarado and his men had attacked and killed many of the Aztec nobility in the Massacre in the Great Temple, that happened during a religious festival organized by the Aztec. Alvarado 's explanation to Cortés was that the Spaniards had learned that the Aztecs planned to attack the Spanish garrison in the city once the festival was complete, so he had launched a pre-emptive attack.
Considerable doubt has been cast by different commentators on this explanation, which may have been self - serving rationalization on the part of Alvarado, who may have attacked out of fear (or greed) where no immediate threat existed.
In any event, the population of the city rose en masse after the Spanish attack. Fierce fighting ensued, and the Aztec troops besieged the palace housing the Spaniards and Moctezuma. The nobility of Tenochtitlan chose Cuitláhuac as Huey Tlatoani (Emperor). Cortés ordered Moctezuma to speak to his people from a palace balcony and persuade them to let the Spanish return to the coast in peace. Moctezuma was jeered and stones were thrown at him, mortally wounding Moctezuma. Aztec sources state the Spaniards killed him.
The Spanish and their allies had to flee the city, as the people of Tenochtitlan had risen against them and their situation could only deteriorate. Because the Aztecs had removed the bridges over the gaps in the causeways that linked the city to the surrounding lands, Cortés ' men constructed a portable bridge to cross the water of the lake. On the rainy night of 10 July 1520, the Spaniards and their allies set out for the mainland via the causeway to Tlacopan. They placed the portable bridge in the first gap, but at that moment their movement was detected and Aztec forces attacked, both along the causeway and by means of canoes on the lake. The Spanish were thus caught on a narrow road with water or buildings on both sides.
The retreat quickly turned into a rout. The Spanish discovered that they could not remove their portable bridge unit from the first gap, and so had no choice but to leave it behind. The bulk of the Spanish infantry, left behind by Cortés and the other horsemen, had to cut their way through the masses of Aztec warriors opposing them. Many of the Spaniards, weighed down by their armor and booty, drowned in the causeway gaps or were killed by the Aztecs. Much of the wealth the Spaniards had acquired in Tenochtitlan was lost. The bridge was later called "Alvarado 's Leap ''.
The channel is now a street in Mexico City, called "Puente de Alvarado '' (Alvarado 's Bridge), because it seemed Alvarado escaped across an invisible bridge. (He may have been walking on the bodies of those soldiers and attackers who had preceded him, given the shallowness of the lake.)
It is said that Cortés, upon reaching the mainland at Tlacopan, wept over their losses. This episode is called "La Noche Triste '' (The Night of Sorrows), and the old tree ("El árbol de la noche triste '') where Cortés allegedly cried, is still a monument in Mexico City.
Cortés had to fight one last battle, before reaching Tlaxcala. The Aztecs pursued and harassed the Spanish, who, guided by their Tlaxcalan allies, moved around Lake Zumpango towards a sanctuary in Tlaxcala. On 14 July 1520 the Aztecs attempted to destroy the Spanish for good at the Battle of Otumba. Although hard - pressed, the Spanish infantry was able to hold off the overwhelming numbers of enemy warriors, while the Spanish cavalry under the leadership of Cortés charged through the enemy ranks again and again. When Cortés and his men killed one of the Aztec leaders, the Aztecs broke off the battle and left the field.
In this retreat, the Spaniards suffered heavy casualties, losing 860 soldiers, 72 other Spanish members of Cortes ' group, including five women, and a thousand Tlaxcalan warriors. Several Aztec noblemen loyal to Cortés, including Cacamatzin, and their families also perished, including Moctezuma 's son and two daughters.
The Spanish were able to complete their escape to Tlaxcala. There, they were given assistance and comfort, since all 440 of them were wounded, with only 20 horses left. Maxixcatzin, Xicotencatl the Elder and Chichimecatecle told Cortés ' men: "Consider yourselves at home. Rest... do not think it a small thing that you have escaped with your lives from that strong city... if we thought of you as brave men before, we consider you much braver now. ''
Cortés then received reinforcements when the Panuco River settlement was abandoned, and supply ships arrived from Cuba and Spain. Cortés also built 13 sloops to cross Lake Texcoco. Xicotencatl the Younger, however, sought an alliance with the Mexicans, but was opposed.
Cortés sent Diego de Ordaz, and the remants of De Narvaez ' men, on a ship to Spain, and Alonso de Ávila on a ship to Santo Domingo to represent his case in the Royal Courts.
Cortés was able to pacify the country, after the natives realized the Spaniards put "an end to the rape and robbery that the Mexicans practised. '' Finally, Xicotencatl the Elder, baptized as Don Lorenzo de Vargas, agreed to support Cortés ' expedition against Texcoco. He sent more than ten thousand warriors under the command of Chichimecatecle as Cortés marched on the day after Christmas 1520.
The Aztecs were struck by a smallpox plague starting in September 1520, which lasted seventy days. Many were killed, including their new leader, the Emperor Cuitlahuac.
The joint forces of Tlaxcala and Cortés proved to be formidable. One by one they took over most of the cities under Aztec control, some in battle, others by diplomacy. In the end, only Tenochtitlan and the neighboring city of Tlatelolco remained unconquered or not allied with the Spaniards.
Cortés then approached Tenochtitlan and mounted a siege of the city that involved cutting the causeways from the mainland and controlling the lake with armed brigantines constructed by the Spanish and transported overland to the lake. The Siege of Tenochtitlan lasted eight months. The besiegers cut off the supply of food and destroyed the aqueduct carrying water to the city.
Despite the stubborn Aztec resistance organized by their new emperor, Cuauhtémoc, the cousin of Moctezuma II, Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco fell on 13 August 1521, during which the Emperor was captured trying to escape the city in a canoe. The siege of the city and its defense had both been brutal. Largely because he wanted to present the city to his king and emperor, Cortés had made several attempts to end the siege through diplomacy, but all offers were rejected. During the battle, the defenders cut the beating hearts from seventy Spanish prisoners - of - war at the altar to Huitzilopochtli, an act that infuriated the Spaniards.
Cortés then ordered the idols of the Aztec gods in the temples to be taken down and replaced with icons of Christianity. He also announced that the temple would never again be used for human sacrifice. Human sacrifice and reports of cannibalism, common among the natives of the Aztec Empire, had been a major reason motivating Cortés and encouraging his soldiers to avoid surrender while fighting to the death.
Tenochtitlan had been almost totally destroyed by fire and cannon fire during the siege, and once it finally fell, the Spanish continued its destruction, as they soon began to establish the foundations of what would become Mexico City on the site. The surviving Aztec people were forbidden to live in Tenochtitlan and the surrounding isles, and were banished to live in Tlatelolco.
After hearing about the fall of the Aztec Empire, tarascan ruler (Cazonci) Tangaxuan II sent emissaries to the Spanish victors (the Tarascan state was contemporary with and an enemy of the Aztec Empire). A few Spaniards went with them to Tzintzuntzan where they were presented to the ruler and gifts were exchanged. They returned with samples of gold and Cortés ' interest in the Tarascan state was awakened.
In 1522 a Spanish force under the leadership of Cristobal de Olid was sent into Tarascan territory and arrived at Tzintzuntzan within days. The Tarascan army numbered many thousands, perhaps as many as 100,000, but at the crucial moment they chose not to fight. Tangáxuan submitted to the Spanish administration, but for his cooperation was allowed a large degree of autonomy. This resulted in a strange arrangement where both Cortés and Tangáxuan considered themselves rulers of Michoacán for the following years: the population of the area paid tribute to them both.
Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán, then president of the first Audiencia decided, to march on northwestern Mexico with a force of 5,000 -- 8,000 men in search for new populations to subdue, and when he arrived in Michoacán and found out that Tangaxuan was still de facto ruler of his empire he allied himself with a Tarascan noble Don Pedro Panza Cuinierángari against the Cazonci. The Cazonci was tried with plotting a rebellion, withholding tribute, sodomy and heresy, and he was tortured and executed. His ashes were thrown into the Lerma river. A period of violence and turbulence began. During the next decades, Tarascan puppet rulers were installed by the Spanish government.
The Council of the Indies was constituted in 1524 and the first Audiencia in 1527. In 1535, Charles V the Holy Roman Emperor (who was as the King of Spain known as Charles I), named the Spanish nobleman Don Antonio de Mendoza the first Viceroy of New Spain. Mendoza was entirely loyal to the Spanish crown, unlike the conqueror of Mexico Hernán Cortés, who had demonstrated that he was independent - minded and defied official orders when he threw off the authority of Governor Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar in Cuba. The name "New Spain '' had been suggested by Cortés and was later confirmed officially by Mendoza.
The fall of Tenochtitlan usually is referred to as the main episode in the process of the conquest of Mesoamerica. However, this process was much more complex and took longer than the three years that it took Cortés to conquer Tenochtitlan. It took almost 60 years of wars for the Spaniards to suppress the resistance of the Indian population of Mesoamerica.
After the Spanish conquest of central Mexico, expeditions were sent further northward in Mesoamerica, to the region known as La Gran Chichimeca. The expeditions under Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán were particularly harsh on the Chichimeca population, causing them to rebel under the leadership of Tenamaxtli and thus launch the Mixton War.
In 1540, the Chichimecas fortified Mixtón, Nochistlán, and other mountain towns then besieged the Spanish settlement in Guadalajara. The famous conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, coming to the aid of acting governor Cristóbal de Oñate, led an attack on Nochistlán. However, the Chichimecas counter-attacked and Alvarado 's forces were routed. Under the leadership of Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza, the Spanish forces and their Indian allies ultimately succeeded in recapturing the towns and suppressing resistance. However, fighting did not completely come to a halt in the ensuing years.
In 1546, Spanish authorities discovered silver in the Zacatecas region and established mining settlements in Chichimeca territory which altered the terrain and the Chichimeca traditional way of life. The Chichimeca resisted the intrusions on their ancestral lands by attacking travelers and merchants along the "silver roads. '' The ensuing Chichimeca War (1550 -- 1590) would become the longest and costliest conflict between Spanish forces and indigenous peoples in the Americas. The attacks intensified with each passing year. In 1554, the Chichimecas inflicted a great loss upon the Spanish when they attacked a train of sixty wagons and captured more than 30,000 pesos worth of valuables. By the 1580s, thousands had died and Spanish mining settlements in Chichimeca territory were continually under threat. In 1585, Don Alvaro Manrique de Zúñiga, Marquis of Villamanrique, was appointed viceroy. The viceroy was infuriated when he learned that some Spanish soldiers had begun supplementing their incomes by raiding the villages of peaceful Indians in order to sell them into slavery. With no military end to the conflict in sight, he was determined to restore peace to that region and launched a full - scale peace offensive by negotiating with Chichimeca leaders and providing them with lands, agricultural supplies, and other goods. This policy of "peace by purchase '' finally brought an end to the Chichimeca War.
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán took almost 170 years. The whole process could have taken longer were it not for three separate epidemics that took a heavy toll on the Native Americans, causing the population to fall in half and weakening the traditional social structure.
The Aztec Empire ceased to exist with the Spanish final conquest of Tenochtitlan in August 1521. The empire had been composed of separate city - states that had either allied with or been conquered by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, and rendered tribute to the Mexica while maintaining their internal ruling structures. Those polities now came under Spanish rule, also retaining their internal structures of ruling elites, tribute paying commoners, and land holding and other economic structures largely intact. Two key works by historian Charles Gibson, Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century (1952) and his monograph The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519 - 1810 (1964) were central in reshaping the historiography of the indigenous and their communities from the Spanish Conquest to the 1810 Mexican independence era.
Scholars who were part of a branch of Mesoamerican ethnohistory, more recently called the New Philology have, using indigenous texts in the indigenous languages, been able to examine in considerable detail how the indigenous lived during the era of Spanish colonial rule. A major work that utilizes colonial - era indigenous texts as its main source is James Lockhart 's The Nahuas After the Conquest: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology. The key to understanding how considerable continuity of pre-Conquest indigenous structures was possible was the Spanish colonial utilization of the indigenous nobility. In the colonial era, the indigenous nobility were largely recognized as nobles by the Spanish colonial regime, with privileges including the noble Spanish title don for noblemen and doña for noblewomen. To this day, the title of Duke of Moctezuma is held by a Spanish noble family. A few of the indigenous nobility learned Spanish. Spanish friars taught indigenous tribes to write their own languages in Latin letters, which soon became a self - perpetuating tradition at the local level. Their surviving writings are crucial in our knowledge of colonial era Nahuas.
The first mendicants in central Mexico, particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans learned the indigenous language of Nahuatl, in order to evangelize to the indigenous people in their native tongue. Early mendicants created texts in order to forward the project of Christianization. Particularly important were the 1571 Spanish - Nahuatl dictionary compiled by the Franciscan Fray Alonso de Molina, and his 1569 bilingual Nahuatl - Spanish confessional manual for priests. A major project by the Franciscans in Mexico was the compilation of knowledge on Nahua religious beliefs and culture that friar Bernardino de Sahagún, oversaw, using indigenous informants, resulting in a number of important texts and culminating in a 12 volume text, The General History of the Things of New Spain published in English as the Florentine Codex. The Spanish crown via the Council of the Indies and the Franciscan order in the late sixteenth century became increasingly hostile to works by religious in the indigenous languages, concerned that they were heretical and an impediment to the Indians ' true conversion.
To reward Spaniards who participated in the conquest of what is now contemporary Mexico, the Spanish crown authorized grants of native labor, in particular the assignment of entire indigenous communities to labor via the Encomienda system. The indigenous were not slaves under this system, chattel bought and sold or removed from their home community, but the system was still one of forced labor. The indigenous people of Central Mexico had practices rendering labor and tribute products to their polity 's elites and those elites to the Mexica overlords in Tenochtitlan, so the Spanish system of encomienda was built on pre-existing patterns of labor service.
The Spanish conquerors in Mexico during the early colonial era lived off the labor of the indigenous peoples. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the native peoples, Bishop Bartolomé de las Casas suggested importing black slaves to replace them. Las Casas later repented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the black slaves.
The other discovery that perpetuated this system of indigenous forced labor were the extensive silver mines discovered at Potosi, in Upper Peru (now Bolivia) and other places in the Spanish empire in the New World that were worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and contributed most of the wealth that flowed to Spain.
According to West, "slavery was a well established institution among the Aztecs and their neighbors. '' "During the Conquest, Spaniards legally enslaved large numbers of natives - men, women and children - as booty of warfare, branding each individual on the cheek. '' In fact, "Cortes owned several hundred, used mainly in gold placering. '' Indian slavery was abolished in 1542, but persisted until the 1550s.
Spain spent enormous amounts of this wealth hiring mercenaries to fight the Protestant Reformation and to halt the Turkish invasions of Europe. The silver was used to purchase commercial goods abroad, as European manufactured goods were not in demand in Asia and the Middle East. The Manila Galleon brought in far more silver direct from South American mines to China than the overland Silk Road, or even European trade routes in the Indian Ocean could.
The Aztec education system was abolished and replaced by a very limited church education. Even some foods associated with Mesoamerican religious practice, such as amaranth, were forbidden.
In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered American ports. They were joined by 450,000 in the next century. Unlike the English - speaking colonists of North America, the majority of the Spanish colonists were single men who married or made concubines of the natives, and were even encouraged to do so by Queen Isabella during the earliest days of colonization. As a result of these unions, as well as concubinage and secret mistresses, mixed race individuals known as "Mestizos '' came into being as the majority of the Mexican population in the centuries following the Spanish conquest.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire is the subject of an opera, La Conquista (2005) and of a set of six symphonic poems, La Nueva España (1992 -- 99) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero.
Cortés 's conquest has been depicted in numerous television documentaries. These include in an episode of Engineering an Empire as well as in the BBC series Heroes and Villains, with Cortés being portrayed by Brian McCardie.
Captain from Castile (1947) is about early Cortés and the Aztec.
The expedition was also partially included in the animated film The Road to El Dorado as the main characters Tulio and Miguel end up as stowaways on Hernán Cortés ' fleet to Mexico. Here, Cortés is represented as a merciless and ambitious villain, leading a quest to find El Dorado, the legendary city of gold in the New World. Hernán Cortés is voiced by Jim Cummings.
The aftermath of the Spanish conquest, including the Aztecs ' struggle to preserve their cultural identity, is the subject of the acclaimed Mexican feature film, The Other Conquest, directed by Salvador Carrasco.
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lightning arresters are used in power systems to protect electrical equipments against
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Lightning arrester - wikipedia
A lightning arrester (alternative spelling lightning arrestor) (also called lightning diverter) is a device used on electric power systems and telecommunication systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high - voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrester, in most cases to earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrester is placed where wires enter a structure, preventing damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a path over which high - voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike.
If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning - produced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances or even produce death.
Lightning arresters are used to protect electric fences. They consist of a spark gap and sometimes a series inductor.
Lightning arresters can form part of large electrical transformers and can fragment during transformer ruptures. High - voltage transformer fire barriers are required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters, per NFPA 850.
A potential target for a lightning strike, such as an outdoor television antenna, is attached to the terminal labeled A in the photograph. Terminal E is attached to a long rod buried in the ground. Ordinarily no current will flow between the antenna and the ground because there is extremely high resistance between B and C, and also between C and D. The voltage of a lightning strike, however, is many times higher than that needed to move electrons through the two air gaps. The result is that electrons go through the lightning arresters rather than traveling on to the television set and destroying it.
A lightning arrester may be a spark gap or may have a block of a semiconducting material such as silicon carbide or zinc oxide. "Thyrite '' was once a trade name for the silicon carbide used in arresters. Some spark gaps are open to the air, but most modern varieties are filled with a precision gas mixture, and have a small amount of radioactive material to encourage the gas to ionize when the voltage across the gap reaches a specified level. Other designs of lightning arresters use a glow - discharge tube (essentially like a neon glow lamp) connected between the protected conductor and ground, or voltage - activated solid - state switches called varistors or MOVs.
Lightning arresters used in power substations are large devices, consisting of a porcelain tube several feet long and several inches in diameter, typically filled with discs of zinc oxide. A safety port on the side of the device vents the occasional internal explosion without shattering the porcelain cylinder.
Lightning arresters are rated by the peak current they can withstand, the amount of energy they can absorb, and the breakover voltage that they require to begin conduction. They are applied as part of a lightning protection system, in combination with air terminals and bonding.
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where are earth's sedimentary rocks generally found
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Sedimentary rock - wikipedia
Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth 's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral or organic particles (detritus) to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment. Before being deposited, the sediment was formed by weathering and erosion from the source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers, which are called agents of denudation. Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.
The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth 's crust is extensive (73 % of the Earth 's current land surface), but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8 % of the total volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding. The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other structures. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels, drinking water or ores.
The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the Earth 's history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology and the history of life. The scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology. Sedimentology is part of both geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth sciences, such as pedology, geomorphology, geochemistry and structural geology. Sedimentary rocks have also been found on Mars.
Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation: clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical (biogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for "other '' sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor processes.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of other rock fragments that were cemented by silicate minerals. Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, rock (lithic) fragments, clay minerals, and mica; any type of mineral may be present, but they in general represent the minerals that exist locally.
Clastic sedimentary rocks, are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. Most geologists use the Udden - Wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions: gravel (> 2 mm diameter), sand (1 / 16 to 2 mm diameter), and mud (clay is < 1 / 256 mm and silt is between 1 / 16 and 1 / 256 mm). The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme; conglomerates and breccias are made mostly of gravel, sandstones are made mostly of sand, and mudrocks are made mostly of the finest material. This tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites, arenites, and lutites, respectively, in older literature.
The subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape (conglomerates and breccias), composition (sandstones), grain size or texture (mudrocks).
Conglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel, while breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel.
Sandstone classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme, which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains.
Six sandstone names are possible using the descriptors for grain composition (quartz -, feldspathic -, and lithic -) and the amount of matrix (wacke or arenite). For example, a quartz arenite would be composed of mostly (> 90 %) quartz grains and have little or no clayey matrix between the grains, a lithic wacke would have abundant lithic grains and abundant muddy matrix, etc.
Although the Dott classification scheme is widely used by sedimentologists, common names like greywacke, arkose, and quartz sandstone are still widely used by non-specialists and in popular literature.
Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least 50 % silt - and clay - sized particles. These relatively fine - grained particles are commonly transported by turbulent flow in water or air, and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of suspension.
Most authors presently use the term "mudrock '' to refer to all rocks composed dominantly of mud. Mudrocks can be divided into siltstones, composed dominantly of silt - sized particles; mudstones with subequal mixture of silt - and clay - sized particles; and claystones, composed mostly of clay - sized particles. Most authors use "shale '' as a term for a fissile mudrock (regardless of grain size) although some older literature uses the term "shale '' as a synonym for mudrock.
Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or water to build their tissue. Examples include:
Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral constituents in solution become supersaturated and inorganically precipitate. Common chemical sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals, such as halite (rock salt), sylvite, barite and gypsum.
This fourth miscellaneous category includes rocks formed by Pyroclastic flows, impact breccias, volcanic breccias, and other relatively uncommon processes.
Alternatively, sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into compositional groups based on their mineralogy:
Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as evaporites, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.
The term diagenesis is used to describe all the chemical, physical, and biological changes, exclusive of surface weathering, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition. Some of those processes cause the sediment to consolidate into a compact, solid substance from the originally loose material. Young sedimentary rocks, especially those of Quaternary age (the most recent period of the geologic time scale) are often still unconsolidated. As sediment deposition builds up, the overburden (lithostatic) pressure rises, and a process known as lithification takes place.
Sedimentary rocks are often saturated with seawater or groundwater, in which minerals can dissolve, or from which minerals can precipitate. Precipitating minerals reduce the pore space in a rock, a process called cementation. Due to the decrease in pore space, the original connate fluids are expelled. The precipitated minerals form a cement and make the rock more compact and competent. In this way, loose clasts in a sedimentary rock can become "glued '' together.
When sedimentation continues, an older rock layer becomes buried deeper as a result. The lithostatic pressure in the rock increases due to the weight of the overlying sediment. This causes compaction, a process in which grains mechanically reorganize. Compaction is, for example, an important diagenetic process in clay, which can initially consist of 60 % water. During compaction, this interstitial water is pressed out of pore spaces. Compaction can also be the result of dissolution of grains by pressure solution. The dissolved material precipitates again in open pore spaces, which means there is a net flow of material into the pores. However, in some cases, a certain mineral dissolves and does not precipitate again. This process, called leaching, increases pore space in the rock.
Some biochemical processes, like the activity of bacteria, can affect minerals in a rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis. Fungi and plants (by their roots) and various other organisms that live beneath the surface can also influence diagenesis.
Burial of rocks due to ongoing sedimentation leads to increased pressure and temperature, which stimulates certain chemical reactions. An example is the reactions by which organic material becomes lignite or coal. When temperature and pressure increase still further, the realm of diagenesis makes way for metamorphism, the process that forms metamorphic rock.
The color of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined by iron, an element with two major oxides: iron (II) oxide and iron (III) oxide. Iron (II) oxide (FeO) only forms under low oxygen (anoxic) circumstances and gives the rock a grey or greenish colour. Iron (III) oxide (Fe O) in a richer oxygen environment is often found in the form of the mineral hematite and gives the rock a reddish to brownish colour. In arid continental climates rocks are in direct contact with the atmosphere, and oxidation is an important process, giving the rock a red or orange colour. Thick sequences of red sedimentary rocks formed in arid climates are called red beds. However, a red colour does not necessarily mean the rock formed in a continental environment or arid climate.
The presence of organic material can colour a rock black or grey. Organic material is formed from dead organisms, mostly plants. Normally, such material eventually decays by oxidation or bacterial activity. Under anoxic circumstances, however, organic material can not decay and leaves a dark sediment, rich in organic material. This can, for example, occur at the bottom of deep seas and lakes. There is little water mixing in such environments; as a result, oxygen from surface water is not brought down, and the deposited sediment is normally a fine dark clay. Dark rocks, rich in organic material, are therefore often shales.
The size, form and orientation of clasts (the original pieces of rock) in a sediment is called its texture. The texture is a small - scale property of a rock, but determines many of its large - scale properties, such as the density, porosity or permeability.
The 3D orientation of the clasts is called the fabric of the rock. Between the clasts, the rock can be composed of a matrix (a cement) that consists of crystals of one or more precipitated minerals. The size and form of clasts can be used to determine the velocity and direction of current in the sedimentary environment that moved the clasts from their origin; fine, calcareous mud only settles in quiet water while gravel and larger clasts are moved only by rapidly moving water. The grain size of a rock is usually expressed with the Wentworth scale, though alternative scales are sometimes used. The grain size can be expressed as a diameter or a volume, and is always an average value -- a rock is composed of clasts with different sizes. The statistical distribution of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the sorting of the rock. When all clasts are more or less of the same size, the rock is called ' well - sorted ', and when there is a large spread in grain size, the rock is called ' poorly sorted '.
The form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock.
Coquina, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. The form of a clast can be described by using four parameters:
Chemical sedimentary rocks have a non-clastic texture, consisting entirely of crystals. To describe such a texture, only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary.
Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz (especially siliciclastic rocks) or calcite (especially carbonate rocks). In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. However, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock. Minerals in a sedimentary rock can have formed by precipitation during sedimentation or by diagenesis. In the second case, the mineral precipitate can have grown over an older generation of cement. A complex diagenetic history can be studied by optical mineralogy, using a petrographic microscope.
Carbonate rocks dominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite or dolomite. Both the cement and the clasts (including fossils and ooids) of a carbonate sedimentary rock can consist of carbonate minerals. The mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area, the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. The resistance of rock - forming minerals to weathering is expressed by Bowen 's reaction series. In this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred. The amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited. In most sedimentary rocks, mica, feldspar and less stable minerals have been reduced to clay minerals like kaolinite, illite or smectite.
Among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under magnification.
Dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by scavengers, bacteria, rotting and erosion, but sedimentation can contribute to exceptional circumstances where these natural processes are unable to work, causing fossilisation. The chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high (so that a carcass is quickly buried), in anoxic environments (where little bacterial activity occurs) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton. Larger, well - preserved fossils are relatively rare.
Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc.
As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the containing rock. A shell consisting of calcite can, for example, dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization. The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of carbonates (especially calcite), forms of amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert) and pyrite. In the case of silica cements, the process is called lithification.
At high pressure and temperature, the organic material of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are expulsed. The fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form, graphite. This form of fossilisation is called carbonisation. It is particularly important for plant fossils. The same process is responsible for the formation of fossil fuels like lignite or coal.
Structures in sedimentary rocks can be divided into ' primary ' structures (formed during deposition) and ' secondary ' structures (formed after deposition). Unlike textures, structures are always large - scale features that can easily be studied in the field. Sedimentary structures can indicate something about the sedimentary environment or can serve to tell which side originally faced up where tectonics have tilted or overturned sedimentary layers.
Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. A bed is defined as a layer of rock that has a uniform lithology and texture. Beds form by the deposition of layers of sediment on top of each other. The sequence of beds that characterizes sedimentary rocks is called bedding. Single beds can be a couple of centimetres to several meters thick. Finer, less pronounced layers are called laminae, and the structure a lamina forms in a rock is called lamination. Laminae are usually less than a few centimetres thick. Though bedding and lamination are often originally horizontal in nature, this is not always the case. In some environments, beds are deposited at a (usually small) angle. Sometimes multiple sets of layers with different orientations exist in the same rock, a structure called cross-bedding. Cross-bedding forms when small - scale erosion occurs during deposition, cutting off part of the beds. Newer beds then form at an angle to older ones.
The opposite of cross-bedding is parallel lamination, where all sedimentary layering is parallel. Differences in laminations are generally caused by cyclic changes in the sediment supply, caused, for example, by seasonal changes in rainfall, temperature or biochemical activity. Laminae that represent seasonal changes (similar to tree rings) are called varves. Any sedimentary rock composed of millimeter or finer scale layers can be named with the general term laminite. When sedimentary rocks have no lamination at all, their structural character is called massive bedding.
Graded bedding is a structure where beds with a smaller grain size occur on top of beds with larger grains. This structure forms when fast flowing water stops flowing. Larger, heavier clasts in suspension settle first, then smaller clasts. Although graded bedding can form in many different environments, it is a characteristic of turbidity currents.
The surface of a particular bed, called the bedform, can be indicative of a particular sedimentary environment, too. Examples of bed forms include dunes and ripple marks. Sole markings, such as tool marks and flute casts, are groves dug into a sedimentary layer that are preserved. These are often elongated structures and can be used to establish the direction of the flow during deposition.
Ripple marks also form in flowing water. There are two types of ripples: symmetric and asymmetric. Environments where the current is in one direction, such as rivers, produce asymmetric ripples. The longer flank of such ripples is on the upstream side of the current. Symmetric wave ripples occur in environments where currents reverse directions, such as tidal flats.
Mudcracks are a bed form caused by the dehydration of sediment that occasionally comes above the water surface. Such structures are commonly found at tidal flats or point bars along rivers.
Secondary sedimentary structures are those which formed after deposition. Such structures form by chemical, physical and biological processes within the sediment. They can be indicators of circumstances after deposition. Some can be used as way up criteria.
Organic materials in a sediment can leave more traces than just fossils. Preserved tracks and burrows are examples of trace fossils (also called ichnofossils). Such traces are relatively rare. Most trace fossils are burrows of molluscs or arthropods. This burrowing is called bioturbation by sedimentologists. It can be a valuable indicator of the biological and ecological environment that existed after the sediment was deposited. On the other hand, the burrowing activity of organisms can destroy other (primary) structures in the sediment, making a reconstruction more difficult.
Secondary structures can also form by diagenesis or the formation of a soil (pedogenesis) when a sediment is exposed above the water level. An example of a diagenetic structure common in carbonate rocks is a stylolite. Stylolites are irregular planes where material was dissolved into the pore fluids in the rock. This can result in the precipitation of a certain chemical species producing colouring and staining of the rock, or the formation of concretions. Concretions are roughly concentric bodies with a different composition from the host rock. Their formation can be the result of localized precipitation due to small differences in composition or porosity of the host rock, such as around fossils, inside burrows or around plant roots. In carbonate based rocks such as limestone or chalk, chert or flint concretions are common, while terrestrial sandstones can have iron concretions. Calcite concretions in clay are called septarian concretions.
After deposition, physical processes can deform the sediment, producing a third class of secondary structures. Density contrasts between different sedimentary layers, such as between sand and clay, can result in flame structures or load casts, formed by inverted diapirism. While the clastic bed is still fluid, diapirism can cause a denser upper layer to sink into a lower layer. Sometimes, density contrasts can result or grow when one of the lithologies dehydrates. Clay can be easily compressed as a result of dehydration, while sand retains the same volume and becomes relatively less dense. On the other hand, when the pore fluid pressure in a sand layer surpasses a critical point, the sand can break through overlying clay layers and flow through, forming discordant bodies of sedimentary rock called sedimentary dykes. The same process can form mud volcanoes on the surface where they broke through upper layers.
Sedimentary dykes can also be formed in a cold climate where the soil is permanently frozen during a large part of the year. Frost weathering can form cracks in the soil that fill with rubble from above. Such structures can be used as climate indicators as well as way up structures.
Density contrasts can also cause small - scale faulting, even while sedimentation progresses (synchronous - sedimentary faulting). Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front side of a delta or the continental slope. Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to slump, producing fissures and folding. The resulting structures in the rock are syn - sedimentary folds and faults, which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by tectonic forces acting on lithified rocks.
The setting in which a sedimentary rock forms is called the sedimentary environment. Every environment has a characteristic combination of geologic processes and circumstances. The type of sediment that is deposited is not only dependent on the sediment that is transported to a place, but also on the environment itself.
A marine environment means that the rock was formed in a sea or ocean. Often, a distinction is made between deep and shallow marine environments. Deep marine usually refers to environments more than 200 m below the water surface. Shallow marine environments exist adjacent to coastlines and can extend to the boundaries of the continental shelf. The water movements in such environments have a generally higher energy than that in deep environments, as wave activity diminishes with depth. This means that coarser sediment particles can be transported and the deposited sediment can be coarser than in deeper environments. When the sediment is transported from the continent, an alternation of sand, clay and silt is deposited. When the continent is far away, the amount of such sediment deposited may be small, and biochemical processes dominate the type of rock that forms. Especially in warm climates, shallow marine environments far offshore mainly see deposition of carbonate rocks. The shallow, warm water is an ideal habitat for many small organisms that build carbonate skeletons. When these organisms die, their skeletons sink to the bottom, forming a thick layer of calcareous mud that may lithify into limestone. Warm shallow marine environments also are ideal environments for coral reefs, where the sediment consists mainly of the calcareous skeletons of larger organisms.
In deep marine environments, the water current working the sea bottom is small. Only fine particles can be transported to such places. Typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro-organisms. At 4 km depth, the solubility of carbonates increases dramatically (the depth zone where this happens is called the lysocline). Calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves; as a result, no limestone can be formed below this depth. Skeletons of micro-organisms formed of silica (such as radiolarians) are not as soluble and still deposit. An example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is radiolarite. When the bottom of the sea has a small inclination, for example at the continental slopes, the sedimentary cover can become unstable, causing turbidity currents. Turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quite deep marine environment and can cause the geologically speaking instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt. The rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a turbidite.
The coast is an environment dominated by wave action. At a beach, dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel, often mingled with shell fragments, is deposited, while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension. Tidal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry because of the tide. They are often cross-cut by gullies, where the current is strong and the grain size of the deposited sediment is larger. Where rivers enter the body of water, either on a sea or lake coast, deltas can form. These are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river. Deltas are dominantly composed of clastic sediment (in contrast to chemical).
A sedimentary rock formed on land has a continental sedimentary environment. Examples of continental environments are lagoons, lakes, swamps, floodplains and alluvial fans. In the quiet water of swamps, lakes and lagoons, fine sediment is deposited, mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals. In rivers, the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material. Besides transport by water, sediment can in continental environments also be transported by wind or glaciers. Sediment transported by wind is called aeolian and is always very well sorted, while sediment transported by a glacier is called glacial till and is characterized by very poor sorting.
Aeolian deposits can be quite striking. The depositional environment of the Touchet Formation, located in the Northwestern United States, had intervening periods of aridity which resulted in a series of rhythmite layers. Erosional cracks were later infilled with layers of soil material, especially from aeolian processes. The infilled sections formed vertical inclusions in the horizontally deposited layers of the Touchet Formation, and thus provided evidence of the events that intervened over time among the forty - one layers that were deposited.
Sedimentary environments usually exist alongside each other in certain natural successions. A beach, where sand and gravel is deposited, is usually bounded by a deeper marine environment a little offshore, where finer sediments are deposited at the same time. Behind the beach, there can be dunes (where the dominant deposition is well sorted sand) or a lagoon (where fine clay and organic material is deposited). Every sedimentary environment has its own characteristic deposits. The typical rock formed in a certain environment is called its sedimentary facies. When sedimentary strata accumulate through time, the environment can shift, forming a change in facies in the subsurface at one location. On the other hand, when a rock layer with a certain age is followed laterally, the lithology (the type of rock) and facies eventually change.
Facies can be distinguished in a number of ways: the most common are by the lithology (for example: limestone, siltstone or sandstone) or by fossil content. Coral, for example, only lives in warm and shallow marine environments and fossils of coral are thus typical for shallow marine facies. Facies determined by lithology are called lithofacies; facies determined by fossils are biofacies.
Sedimentary environments can shift their geographical positions through time. Coastlines can shift in the direction of the sea when the sea level drops, when the surface rises due to tectonic forces in the Earth 's crust or when a river forms a large delta. In the subsurface, such geographic shifts of sedimentary environments of the past are recorded in shifts in sedimentary facies. This means that sedimentary facies can change either parallel or perpendicular to an imaginary layer of rock with a fixed age, a phenomenon described by Walther 's Law.
The situation in which coastlines move in the direction of the continent is called transgression. In the case of transgression, deeper marine facies are deposited over shallower facies, a succession called onlap. Regression is the situation in which a coastline moves in the direction of the sea. With regression, shallower facies are deposited on top of deeper facies, a situation called offlap.
The facies of all rocks of a certain age can be plotted on a map to give an overview of the palaeogeography. A sequence of maps for different ages can give an insight in the development of the regional geography.
Places where large - scale sedimentation takes place are called sedimentary basins. The amount of sediment that can be deposited in a basin depends on the depth of the basin, the so - called accommodation space. The depth, shape and size of a basin depend on tectonics, movements within the Earth 's lithosphere. Where the lithosphere moves upward (tectonic uplift), land eventually rises above sea level, so that and erosion removes material, and the area becomes a source for new sediment. Where the lithosphere moves downward (tectonic subsidence), a basin forms and sedimentation can take place. When the lithosphere keeps subsiding, new accommodation space keeps being created.
A type of basin formed by the moving apart of two pieces of a continent is called a rift basin. Rift basins are elongated, narrow and deep basins. Due to divergent movement, the lithosphere is stretched and thinned, so that the hot asthenosphere rises and heats the overlying rift basin. Apart from continental sediments, rift basins normally also have part of their infill consisting of volcanic deposits. When the basin grows due to continued stretching of the lithosphere, the rift grows and the sea can enter, forming marine deposits.
When a piece of lithosphere that was heated and stretched cools again, its density rises, causing isostatic subsidence. If this subsidence continues long enough, the basin is called a sag basin. Examples of sag basins are the regions along passive continental margins, but sag basins can also be found in the interior of continents. In sag basins, the extra weight of the newly deposited sediments is enough to keep the subsidence going in a vicious circle. The total thickness of the sedimentary infill in a sag basins can thus exceed 10 km.
A third type of basin exists along convergent plate boundaries -- places where one tectonic plate moves under another into the asthenosphere. The subducting plate bends and forms a fore - arc basin in front of the overriding plate -- an elongated, deep asymmetric basin. Fore - arc basins are filled with deep marine deposits and thick sequences of turbidites. Such infill is called flysch. When the convergent movement of the two plates results in continental collision, the basin becomes shallower and develops into a foreland basin. At the same time, tectonic uplift forms a mountain belt in the overriding plate, from which large amounts of material are eroded and transported to the basin. Such erosional material of a growing mountain chain is called molasse and has either a shallow marine or a continental facies.
At the same time, the growing weight of the mountain belt can cause isostatic subsidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain belt. The basin type resulting from this subsidence is called a back - arc basin and is usually filled by shallow marine deposits and molasse.
In many cases facies changes and other lithological features in sequences of sedimentary rock have a cyclic nature. This cyclic nature was caused by cyclic changes in sediment supply and the sedimentary environment. Most of these cyclic changes are caused by astronomic cycles. Short astronomic cycles can be the difference between the tides or the spring tide every two weeks. On a larger time - scale, cyclic changes in climate and sea level are caused by Milankovitch cycles: cyclic changes in the orientation and / or position of the Earth 's rotational axis and orbit around the Sun. There are a number of Milankovitch cycles known, lasting between 10,000 and 200,000 years.
Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth 's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth 's climate. An example are the ice ages of the past 2.6 million years (the Quaternary period), which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles. Climate change can influence the global sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins) and sediment supply from a certain region. Eventually, small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation.
The rate at which sediment is deposited differs depending on the location. A channel in a tidal flat can see the deposition of a few metres of sediment in one day, while on the deep ocean floor each year only a few millimetres of sediment accumulate. A distinction can be made between normal sedimentation and sedimentation caused by catastrophic processes. The latter category includes all kinds of sudden exceptional processes like mass movements, rock slides or flooding. Catastrophic processes can see the sudden deposition of a large amount of sediment at once. In some sedimentary environments, most of the total column of sedimentary rock was formed by catastrophic processes, even though the environment is usually a quiet place. Other sedimentary environments are dominated by normal, ongoing sedimentation.
In many cases, sedimentation occurs slowly. In a desert, for example, the wind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a wadi may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material, but in most places eolian erosion dominates. The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material, but also on how well the material consolidates. Erosion removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition.
That new rock layers are above older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition. There are usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities. These represent periods where no new sediments were laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away.
Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the Earth. They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.
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are all the songs from mamma mia by abba
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Mamma Mia! - Wikipedia
1999 West End 2000 Toronto 2000 US Tour 2001 Melbourne 2001 Broadway 2002 North America Tour 2002 Hamburg 2002 Tokyo 2003 Las Vegas 2003 Utrecht 2004 Seoul 2004 International Tour 2004 Stuttgart 2004 Madrid 2005 Stockholm 2006 Antwerp 2006 Moscow 2007 Essen 2008 Film 2009 Oslo 2009 Mexico City 2009 Netherlands Tour 2009 Australia Tour 2010 South Africa Tour 2010 Milan 2010 Copenhagen 2010 Paris 2010 São Paulo 2011 Shanghai 2012 Buenos Aires 2012 Moscow 2013 Stuttgart 2014 New Zealand Tour * 2014 Vienna 2014 Las Vegas 2014 Budapest * 2014 Helsinki 2014 Royal Caribbean 2014 Prague * 2015 Warsaw * 2015 Belgrade * 2015 Zagreb * 2015 Ljubljana * 2015 Barcelona 2016 Seoul 2016 Reykjavík * 2016 Panama City * 2016 UK Tour 2016 Lima * 2016 Tartu * 2016 Athens * 2017 Italy Tour * 2017 Australia Tour * 2017 Bratislava * 2017 Helsinki
Mamma Mia! (promoted as Benny Andersson & Björn Ulvaeus ' Mamma Mia!) is a jukebox musical written by British playwright Catherine Johnson, based on the songs of ABBA, composed by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, former members of the band. The title of the musical is taken from the group 's 1975 chart - topper "Mamma Mia ''. Ulvaeus and Andersson, who composed the original music for ABBA, were involved in the development of the show from the beginning. Singer Anni - Frid Lyngstad has been involved financially in the production and she has also been present at many of the premieres around the world.
The musical includes such hits as "Super Trouper '', "Lay All Your Love on Me '', "Dancing Queen '', "Knowing Me, Knowing You '', "Take a Chance on Me '', "Thank You for the Music '', "Money, Money, Money '', "The Winner Takes It All '', "Voulez - Vous '', "SOS '' and the title track. Over 60 million people have seen the show, which has grossed $2 billion worldwide since its 1999 debut. A film adaptation starring Meryl Streep, Colin Firth, Pierce Brosnan, Amanda Seyfried, Christine Baranski, Stellan Skarsgård and Julie Walters was released in July 2008.
As of 2016, the show has productions in London 's West End, where it is the eighth longest - running show in West End history, as well as various international productions. Its Broadway incarnation closed in September 2015 after a 14 - year run, making it the ninth longest - running show in Broadway history. The show had its first regional production on May 27, 2016 at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia. A typical performance of Mamma Mia! runs for approximately two hours and 30 minutes, plus a 15 - minute intermission.
Mamma Mia! is based on the songs of ABBA, a Swedish pop / dance group active from 1972 to 1982 and one of the most popular international pop groups of all time, topping the charts again and again in Europe, North and South America and Australia. Following the premiere of the musical in London in 1999, ABBA Gold topped the charts in the United Kingdom again. This musical was the brainchild of producer Judy Craymer. She met songwriters Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson in 1983 when they were working with Tim Rice on Chess. It was the song "The Winner Takes It All '' that suggested to her the theatrical potential of their pop songs. The songwriters were not enthusiastic, but they were not completely opposed to the idea.
In 1997, Craymer commissioned Catherine Johnson to write the book for the musical. In 1998, Phyllida Lloyd became the director for the show.
The musical opened in the West End at the Prince Edward Theatre on April 6, 1999, and transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre on June 9, 2004, where it played until September 2012, when it moved to the Novello Theatre. Directed by Phyllida Lloyd with choreography by Anthony Van Laast, the original cast featured Siobhan McCarthy, Lisa Stokke, and Hilton McRae.
Prior to the musical 's Broadway engagement, it opened in Toronto at the Royal Alexandra Theatre in May 2000, where it played for five years. Its US debut was in San Francisco, California, at the Orpheum Theatre from November 17, 2000 to February 17, 2001, moving next to Los Angeles, California, at the Shubert Theatre from February 26, 2001 to May 12, 2001, and finally to Chicago, Illinois, at the Cadillac Palace Theatre from May 13, 2001 to August 12, 2001.
The musical opened on Broadway at the Winter Garden Theatre on October 18, 2001, after beginning previews on October 5. The director is Phyllida Lloyd with choreography by Anthony Van Laast. As of October 2017, it is the ninth longest - running Broadway show and the longest - running jukebox musical in Broadway history. On April 18, 2013, it was announced that Mamma Mia! would transfer from its home at the Winter Garden Theatre to the Broadhurst Theatre later that year to make way for the musical adaptation of Rocky. The show played its final performance at the Winter Garden Theatre on October 19, 2013 and began performances at the Broadhurst Theatre on November 2, 2013.
It was announced on April 9, 2015 that the show would close on September 5, 2015. On April 21, 2015, it was then announced that show would play an additional week and would instead close on September 12, 2015. Mamma Mia! played 5,773 performances on Broadway before closing.
Mamma Mia! has been played in more than 50 countries in all 6 continents, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Latvia, Lituania, Malaysia, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Russia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and United States, and has been translated into 22 languages: German, Japanese, Dutch, Korean, Spanish, Swedish, Russian, Norwegian, Italian, Danish, French, Portuguese, Mandarin, Hungarian, Czech, Polish, Serbian, Croatian, Slovene, Icelandic, Estonian, Greek, Slovak, and newly also in Finnish. Over 60 million people have seen the show worldwide and it has set the record for premiering in more cities faster than any other musical in history.
The first city to produce the show after London was Toronto, where it ran from May 22, 2000 to May 22, 2005, being the North America premiere of Mamma Mia!. The original cast included Louise Pitre as Donna and Tina Maddigan as Sophie, who both of them later reprised their roles in first US Tour and Broadway premiere.
Mamma Mia! played in Las Vegas, opening at the Mandalay Bay in February 2003 and closing on January 4, 2009. In June 2005, Mamma Mia! played its 1000th performance in Las Vegas, becoming the longest - running West End / Broadway musical in Las Vegas. The clothes and scenarios from this production are now used in Brazil. The show returned to Las Vegas on May 16, 2014 at the Tropicana Hotel & Casino, but announced its closing soon after on July 22.
The North American tour started in Providence, Rhode Island in February 28, 2002 and closed in St. Louis, Missouri in July 30, 2017, after more than 4.000 performances.
The first non-English version of the show debuted in Hamburg at the Operettenhaus, where it ran from November 3, 2002 to September 8, 2007. With the productions of Stuttgart (2004) and Essen (2007), Mamma Mia! became the first major musical to play concurrently in three German cities.
The show has had (and in some cases, still has) permanent productions in London, Toronto, Melbourne, New York, Hamburg, Tokyo (later transferred to Osaka, Fukuoka and Nagoya), Las Vegas, Utrecht, Seoul (later transferred to Seongnam and Daegu), Stuttgart, Madrid (later transferred to Barcelona), Stockholm (later transferred to Gothenburg), Antwerp, Moscow, Essen, Berlin, Oslo, Mexico City, Milan (later transferred to Rome), Copenhagen (later transferred to Aarhus), Paris, São Paulo, Shanghai, Buenos Aires, Vienna and Helsinki.
Since its premiere in Dublin on September 9, 2004 (with Helen Hobson as Donna) the international tour has visited more than 74 cities in 35 countries and has been seen by 5 million people. In addition there have been several touring productions worldwide, including Australia / Asia (2002 -- 2005), Australia (2009 -- 2010), China, France (2012 -- 2013), Germany, Japan, Netherlands (2009 -- 2010), North America (2002 -- 2017), Spain (2009 -- 2011 and 2016 -- 2017), South Africa (2010 -- 2011), South Korea, United Kingdom (2016 -- 2017), and United States (2000 -- 2001).
The Dutch actress Lone van Roosendaal has played Donna in three different countries: Netherlands, Belgium and Germany.
The South African tour, conducted at the Artscape Theatre in Cape Town on August 11, 2010 and 3 months later at The Teatro, Montecasino in Johannesburg, featured an all local cast.
The Chinese production opened on July 11, 2011 at the Shanghai Grand Theatre and closed on January 18, 2012 at Shanghai Cultural Square after a small tour, marking the first time that a blockbuster contemporary Western musical were presented in Chinese in Shanghai (there was a previous Chinese production of Beauty and the Beast in Beijing in 1999). It was seen by 250,000 people across six venues, with a total of 190 performances. Shadow Zen played the role of Donna.
On January 24, 2012, Mamma Mia! opened in Manila at the Main Theater of the Cultural Center of the Philippines as part of the international Tour. The show was originally set to stay only for a week but with the positive response, the organisers decided that it would play until February 19, 2012. The show features Sara Poyzer as Donna Sheridan and Charlotte Wakefield as Sophie. The cast also included Kate Graham (Tanya), Jenny Dale (Rosie) and David Roberts (Sky).
A New Zealand tour production of Mamma Mia! opened at the Auckland Civic Theatre on March 4, 2014, featuring an all new set design by John Harding. International theatre star Deliah Hannah played Donna, and popular New Zealand entertainment icon Jackie Clark plays Rosie. The NZ tour visited 11 cities in 2014 -- 2016
The musical is performed on sailings of Royal Caribbean 's Quantum of the Seas and Allure of the Seas. Unlike other cruise ship performances of musicals, the show is performed in its entirety.
In Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, the musical had its premiere on December 12, 2014. Czech is the seventeenth language in which the musical was performed. At the date of the premiere a record 70,000 tickets were sold.
On February 21, 2015, the musical premiered in Warsaw, Poland at Roma Musical Theatre.
The Belgrade, Serbia -- Terazije Theatre (Pozorište na Terazijama) premiere was on March 27, 2015.
On June 15, 2015 in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, premiere of Slovene production took place in Križanke Outdoor Theatre as a part of Ljubljana Summer Festival (Poletni festival Ljubljana).
On March 18, 2016, Mamma Mia! opened for the first time in Panama City, Panama, at the Anayansi Theatre in the Atlapa Convention Centre, directed by Aaron Zebede.
On May 27, 2016 the first regional production opened at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia.
On 31 August 2016, it was announced that the show would once again tour Australia with the premier being held in Canberra in November 2017 before transferring to Brisbane the following month. The tour has been confirmed to include all 6 major Australian cities. Casting is yet to be announced.
From July 28, 2017 to July 30, 2017, Mamma Mia! was performed at the Hollywood Bowl. Directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall, the show starred Jennifer Nettles as Donna, Dove Cameron as Sophie, Corbin Bleu as Sky, Jaime Camil as Sam, Tisha Campbell - Martin as Tanya, and Lea Delaria as Rosie.
Nová scéna Theatre in Bratislava, Slovakia is planning premiere on November 11, 2017 for the first time in Slovak. In Slovakia were formerly performed Czech and original version.
A Finnish - language production will be premiering at the Messukeskus Helsinki in Helsinki, Finland on May 4, 2018.
Before the curtain rises, the orchestra starts playing the overture, which is a montage of instrumental versions of some of ABBA 's hit songs.
On the Greek island of Kalokairi, 20 - year - old Sophie is preparing to marry her fiancé, Sky. She wants her father to walk her down the aisle ("Prologue '') but does n't know who he is. Sophie discovers her mother 's old diary and finds entries which describe intimate dates with three men (Sam Carmichael, Bill Austin (Anderson in the film version), and Harry Bright) ("Honey, Honey ''). Sophie believes one of these men is her father and, three months before her nuptials, sends each an invitation to her wedding, writing in her mother 's name, Donna, without letting her unsuspecting mother know.
The day before the wedding, Donna begins receiving guests at her taverna. The first to arrive are her long - term best friends, Tanya, a rich woman who has been married and divorced three times, and Rosie, an unmarried, carefree woman. The trio used to comprise a girl group called "Donna and the Dynamos ''. The three women catch up and talk about their lives ("Money, Money, Money '').
Later that day, Sophie 's three possible fathers arrive: Sam (an American architect), Harry (a British banker), and Bill (originally an Australian writer and adventurer, Swedish in the film, and currently American in New York and on tour). Sophie convinces them not to tell Donna that she invited them ("Thank You for the Music ''). Donna is surprised to see her ex-lovers ("Mamma Mia '') and leaves in tears. Donna, crying, explains to Tanya and Rosie the situation, and they cheer her up ("Chiquitita ''). Tanya and Rosie try to convince Donna that she can still be the girl she once was ("Dancing Queen '').
Sophie had hoped she would know her father the moment she saw him but is now only confused. She tries to tell her fiancé, Sky, how she feels without confessing what she has done. Sky tells her he will be the only man she ever needs ("Lay All Your Love on Me '').
At Sophie 's hen party, Donna and the Dynamos don their old costumes and perform a song, "(Super Trouper) ''. Sam, Bill, and Harry accidentally walk in on the party, and the guests persuade them to stay ("Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! '').
Sophie first pulls Sam out of the room to talk to him. After he asks why he is there, she is overcome with guilt and goes to talk to Harry, instead. But Harry asks if Sophie 's father is at the party, and she tells him the whole truth.
Lastly, she draws Bill aside to talk with him. She learns that Bill has an aunt Sophia who left all her money to Donna 's family. Bill learns that Donna built the taverna with money she inherited from a friend she lived with when Sophie was a baby; that friend was Bill 's aunt. They both think this means he is her father.
Sophie asks Bill to walk her down the aisle, but Bill wants to discuss it first with Donna. This has been her secret, after all. But no one knows yet that even Donna does not know who the father is, because she slept with the three men in such swift succession. Sophie insists they must not tell Donna anything ("The Name of the Game '') and finally, Bill agrees.
Afterward, everybody crashes the hen party (including the guys from the stag party). Eddie, a stripper, has an erotic yet tasteful nude scene. During the striptease, Sam pulls Sophie aside and tells her he has figured out why she invited him. He knows he is her father and promises to walk her down the aisle the next day. Then, Harry approaches Sophie, apologizing for being so slow on the uptake; he is also convinced that she is his daughter and promises to walk her down the aisle. Sophie leaves the party, hopelessly confused; she does n't want to turn any of them down ("Voulez - Vous '').
(Entr'acte) Sophie 's having a nightmare, involving her three possible fathers all fighting for the right to walk her down the aisle and wakes up despairing ("Under Attack '').
Sophie 's upset, and Donna assumes that Sophie wants to cancel the wedding and offers to handle all the details. Sophie is offended and vows that her children wo n't grow up not knowing who their father is. As Sophie storms out of the room, Sam enters and tries to tell Donna that Sophie may not be all she seems, but Donna wo n't listen ("One of Us ''). She hates Sam; at the end of their affair, she said she never wanted to see him again. But it seems that Sam was the man Donna cared about the most, and both of them wish they could go back to the start ("SOS '' ').
At the beach, Harry asks Tanya what the father of the bride ought to be doing for Sophie 's wedding. Tanya explains that for her part, her father gave her his advice and then paid. Pepper, one of the guys who works at Donna 's taverna, makes advances to Tanya, but she rebuffs him ("Does Your Mother Know '').
Sky finds out what Sophie has done in inviting Sam, Harry and Bill to the wedding. He accuses her of wanting a big white wedding only so that she can find out who her father is. He 's very hurt that she kept this plan a secret from him. He storms off just as Sam walks in. Sam tries to give Sophie some fatherly advice by describing his failed marriage ("Knowing Me, Knowing You ''), but Sophie is n't consoled.
Harry offers to Donna to pay for the wedding, and they reminisce about their fling ("Our Last Summer ''). Sophie arrives and Donna helps her get dressed. She can not believe her daughter is going to be a bride ("Slipping Through My Fingers ''). Donna admits that her own mother disowned her when she learned that she was pregnant. They reconcile and Sophie asks her mother if she will walk her down the aisle. Sam arrives and tries to speak to Donna again, but she does not want to see him, and asks him to leave. He refuses, and a bitter confrontation ensues. Donna tells Sam that he broke her heart, presumably when she found out he was engaged ("The Winner Takes It All ''). It emerges that the two still love each other dearly, albeit against Donna 's better judgment.
Rosie is making final preparations in the taverna when Bill arrives. He 's upset because he has received a note that Donna will be walking Sophie down the aisle. Bill reaffirms his commitment to the single life, but Rosie has become attracted to him, and urges him to reconsider ("Take a Chance on Me ''). They are about to have sex in the taverna, but the guests arrive, leaving Rosie quite stunned.
The wedding begins, with Donna walking Sophie down the aisle. Before the priest has a chance to begin the ceremonies, Donna acknowledges to everyone that Sophie 's father is present. Sophie tells her mother that she knows about her father. Donna realizes that Sophie invited them to the wedding for that very reason. The issue of Sophie 's parentage is left unsettled, as none of them have any idea whether they are actually her father. Everyone involved agrees that it does not matter which one of them her biological parent is, as Sophie loves all three and they are all happy to be "one - third of a father '' and a part of her life at last. Finally, Harry, who has made frequent references to his "other half '' throughout the show, is revealed to be in a committed gay relationship.
Suddenly, Sophie calls a halt to the proceedings. She is n't ready to get married and Sky agrees with Sophie about not getting married. Sam seizes his chance and proposes to Donna in order to prevent the wedding preparations from going to waste. He explains that he loved her, even when he left to get married. It is revealed that he called off the wedding with his fiancée and came back to the island, only to be told that Donna was going out with another man (Bill). He went back, married his fiancée and had children but he got divorced. Surprisingly, Donna accepts ("I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do ''). In the end, Sam and Donna are married, and at the end of the night, Sophie and Sky depart on a round - the - world tour ("I Have a Dream '').
After their final bows to the audience, the ensemble performs a reprise of "Mamma Mia ''. A reprise of "Dancing Queen '' follows, during which Donna, Tanya, Rosie are revealed wearing brightly colored ABBA inspired costumes. The cast ends the finale with "Waterloo '', during which Sam, Bill, and Harry join the rest of the cast onstage in brightly colored costumes that match the leading ladies. The Dynamos and the Dads often invite the audience to clap, dance, and sing along during the finale.
Encore
During the preview period in London, the musical had the song "Summer Night City '' just after the prologue. The "Summer Night City '' scene was a wedding rehearsal and during the song, Ali, Lisa, Tanya, and Rosie arrived on the island. Now, part of the song is used as underscoring to connect the end of "The Winner Takes It All '' and "Take a Chance on Me ''. You can also hear a couple of lines of "Summer Night City '' in the ' Entr'acte ' (the most noticeable line is: ' Time to breathe and time to live ').
Donna hums a few lines of "Fernando '', when she repairs the doors of the taverna just before she sees her three former lovers. In the Mexican production Donna sings a few lines of ABBA 's original Spanish version of the song.
In the German production, Sky (Bernhard Forcher) sang a few lines of "King Kong Song '' before starting "Lay All Your Love on Me ''. Niklas Riesbeck uses the same song in the Swedish production. Andrey Kozhan sang a few lines of Summer Night City in the Russian production. In the international tour version, Sky (David Roberts) sings a few lines of "She 's My Kind of Girl '', a Björn & Benny song. In the 2015 International tour version, Sky (Justin Thomas) sings a few lines of "Dum Dum Diddle ''.
The wedding march that is played as Sophie walks down the aisle is a slower arrangement of "Dancing Queen ''.
The creators also intended to include "Just Like That '', an unreleased ABBA song recorded in 1982. The song was apparently dropped just before the first public previews in March 1999, though it was listed in the program available during the preview period.
Originally the outro after the encore was a 5 - minute instrumental medley (in the style of the Ouverture and Entr'Acte) featuring Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight), SOS, Voulez - Vous, Does Your Mother Know, Money, Money, Money and Dancing Queen. It was later replaced with the short Dancing Queen instrumental, still being used today.
The last three songs, performed as an encore / finale by the whole cast are: "Mamma Mia '', "Dancing Queen '' and "Waterloo ''. The version of "Mamma Mia '' used in the encore / finale is sung by the Company. The finale song Mamma Mia has been extended in theatres where Donna and the Dynamos had to go downstairs for taking the stage lift in Dancing Queen. Then, during the intro of "Dancing Queen '', Donna, Tanya and Rosie join the Company (as the girl - power band "Donna and the Dynamos '', wearing ABBA 's 1970s - style colorful and flashy costumes). Sam, Bill and Harry join them during Waterloo, wearing male versions of the girls ' ABBA 's costumes. The Encore is included on the 5th Anniversary Cast Recording (commemorating said anniversary for the Broadway production).
In the Brazilian production, all three songs from the encore / finale were kept in English. Though "Waterloo '' was adapted into Brazilian Portuguese, this version was never used and the lyrics are unknown.
In the Russian production the song "Happy New Year '' is sung at the encore on New Year holidays shows.
Mamma Mia! was adapted as a film, produced by Judy Craymer and Gary Goetzman, written by Catherine Johnson directed by Phyllida Lloyd and with Tom Hanks, Rita Wilson, Björn Ulvaeus, and Benny Andersson as executive producers. Meryl Streep stars as Donna Sheridan and Amanda Seyfried as Sophie and Pierce Brosnan as Sam Carmichael. The movie also features Christine Baranski, Dominic Cooper, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård and Julie Walters. It premiered July 18, 2008, in the US. Most of the songs remained intact with the exceptions of "Under Attack '', "One of Us '', "Knowing Me, Knowing You '', and "Thank You for the Music ''. "Knowing Me, Knowing You '' was used as the wedding music and "Thank You for the Music '' is sung during the second half of the end credits. The first half is occupied with a "Dancing Queen '' reprise and "Waterloo '', with a "Mamma Mia '' reprise and "I Have a Dream '' sung before the credits (though the latter is sung as Sophie mails the invitations at the start of the film). "When All Is Said and Done '', a song not used in the musical, was added for the film sung by Sam, Donna, and the company. "Our Last Summer '' was used earlier in the movie, with Sophie, Bill, Sam, and Harry singing it. "The Name of the Game '', while filmed, was subsequently edited out of the film for the final cut. The song is included in full on the motion picture soundtrack -- an abbreviated version of the song and scene appear on the DVD / Blu - ray as a supplement. In addition, "Thank You for the Music '' is used as a hidden track, and is performed by Amanda Seyfried.
A sequel to the film titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again has been filmed and will release in 2018. It will tell the story of how Donna met each of the 3 men who are potentially Sophie 's father.
On any given day, there are at least seven performances of Mamma Mia! being performed around the globe.
On May 15, 2005, Mamma Mia! surpassed the original Broadway runs of The Sound of Music, The King and I, and Damn Yankees with 1,500 performances. On March 6, 2014, it surpassed Rent to become the 8th longest - running Broadway musical and 9th longest - running show of all time with 5,124 performances, then surpassed Beauty and the Beast 's 5,462 performances that same year, on December 14, to become Broadway 's 7th longest - running musical and 8th longest - running show. The Broadway run ended on September 12, 2015, with its 5,758 th performance, and was passed two years later (August 16, 2017) by Wicked to move one spot down in the list of longest - running Broadway shows.
When Mamma Mia! opened in Russia, it received a very positive response. As of January 2008, Mamma Mia! became the longest daily running show in the history of Russian theatre.
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i'm just a barbie girl in a barbie world
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Barbie Girl - wikipedia
"Barbie Girl '' is a song by the Danish - Norwegian dance - pop group Aqua. It was released in May 1997 as the third single from the group 's debut studio album, Aquarium (1997). The song was written by Søren Rasted, Claus Norreen, René Dif, and Lene Nystrøm, and was produced by Johnny Jam, Delgado, Rasted, and Norreen. It was written after Rasted saw an exhibit on kitsch culture in Denmark which featured Barbie dolls.
The song topped the charts worldwide, particularly in European countries such as the UK, where it was a number - one hit for three weeks. It was also on top of the charts in Australia for the same length of time, and debuted and peaked at No. 7 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on 6 September 1997 and it remains Aqua 's biggest hit single in the US to date, and their only one to reach the top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100. It is Aqua 's most popular work. The song became the subject of the controversial lawsuit Mattel v. MCA Records.
The lyrics of the song are about Barbie and Ken, the dolls made by Mattel. Both the song and its music video feature Lene Nystrøm as Barbie and René Dif as Ken. As such, the lyrics drew the ire of Barbie 's corporate owners, and a lawsuit was filed by Mattel.
A footnote on the back of the Aquarium CD case precisely stated that "The song ' Barbie Girl ' is a social comment and was not created or approved by the makers of the doll. ''
The song was performed as the interval act in the Eurovision Song Contest 2001.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called the song "one of those inexplicable pop culture phenomena '' and "insanely catchy, '' describing it as "a bouncy, slightly warped Euro - dance song that simultaneously sends up femininity and Barbie dolls. ''
The song was voted the fourth "Best Number One of All Time '' in a VH1 poll, and was featured in spot No. 32 on VH1 's "Most Awesomely Bad Songs... Ever '' countdown. In an unrelated VH1 countdown, VH1 's 100 Greatest One - Hit Wonders, it was featured at # 88.
In 2007, Rolling Stone Magazine named "Barbie Girl '' as one of the 20 Most Annoying Songs. But in 2007, MuchMoreMusic featured the song at No. 27 on the list of the 50 Guilty Pleasures. In 2009, Same Difference voted it No. 2 in their Ultimate Cheese-Fest Top 20 on 4Music. Five years before, Blender Magazine voted it at No. 33, as one of the 50 Worst Songs Ever. In 2011, Rolling Stone readers voted it the number one most annoying song of the 1990s.
Rob Swire has said that "' Another Night ' by Real McCoy and ' Barbie Girl ' by Aqua are pretty much the same tune. ''
In 1999, it was placed as the fourteenth worst music on MTV special 25 Lame.
The song won the 1998 NME Award for Worst Single.
In the United States, the song debuted at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100. It sold 82,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number five on the Hot Singles Sales chart.
"Barbie Girl '' has sold more than 8 million copies worldwide. It has sold 1.84 million copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2017, making it the thirteenth best - selling single in the UK.
The music video was directed by Peder Pedersen and Peter Stenbæk.
In December 2000, toy manufacturer Mattel sued MCA Records, Aqua 's record label. Mattel claimed that "Barbie Girl '' violated their trademark and turned her into a sex object, referring to her as a "Blonde Bimbo ''. They alleged the song had violated their copyrights and trademarks of Barbie, and that its lyrics had tarnished the reputation of their trademark and impinged on their marketing plan. Aqua claimed that Mattel injected their own meanings into the song 's lyrics and MCA Records was not about to let their hit single be suppressed without a fight. They contested Mattel 's claims and countersued for defamation after Mattel had likened MCA to a bank robber.
The lawsuit filed by Mattel was dismissed by the lower courts, and this dismissal was upheld, though Mattel took their case up to the Supreme Court of the United States, but that appeal was later rejected. In 2002, a Court of Appeals ruled the song was protected as a parody under the trademark doctrine of nominative use and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution; the judge Alex Kozinski also threw out the defamation lawsuit that Aqua 's record company filed against Mattel, concluding his ruling: "The parties are advised to chill. '' The case was dismissed, and in the process, it garnered lots of media attention for the song and the band.
In 2009, Mattel released a series of advertisements and a promotional music video of the song, with modified lyrics, as part of a new marketing strategy brought in to revive sales. Mattel also uses the song in its product Barbie Shopping Time.
As the interval act during the 2001 Eurovision Song Contest, Aqua performed a medley of their singles alongside percussion ensemble Safri Duo. There were several complaints due to the profanity used during the performance, both at the beginning and end of "Barbie Girl ''.
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "Barbie Girl ''.
United Kingdom / Europe
Europe
Australia, US and Canada
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 2005, Brazilian recording artist Kelly Key recorded a version in Portuguese for her third studio album Kelly Key. The version was released as second single on August 15, 2005. Key said she loved the song and wanted to do a version for honor: "I really like this song since I heard. I wanted to record without thinking about whether my fans will like it or not ''.
The song received generally negative reviews from music critics. Vinícius Versiani Durães of IMHO said that that version was funny and a future success. Marcos Paulo Bin of Universo Musical commented that the song was really different from previous releases -- known for explicit lyrics -- but was positive and said the version was good. Rodrigo Ortega of Pilula Pop said "Barbie Girl '' was sensational, funny and chose as the best of the album. He also said that Key was wrong to released "Escuta Aqui Rapaz '' as first single, because "the song was boring '', but "Barbie Girl '' saved the era. Carlos Eduardo Lima of Scream & Yell was negative and said the song was "childish, silly, boring '' and killed Kelly Key sex - symbol.
The music video for "Barbie Girl '' was recorded on August 2005, between 17 and 18. It was directed by Ricardo Vereza, Bidu Madio, Rentz and Mauricio Eça. The video was released on August 30. Kelly plays a determinate and feminist woman, who does n't need a man.
This song is internationally notable to be wrongly attributed to Czech model Dominika Myslivcová as she uploaded a video in YouTube lip - synching to this song and, later, it became a viral video.
The song has been covered by several artists throughout years, including U.S. electric duo Velva Blu, Rob Mayth (2006, released as single; in summer 2006, German Eurodance project Bangbros played live the remix of this version in a DJ set), Andrea featuring Sergio (Eurobeat cover for Super Eurobeat Vol. 199 ~ Collaboration of Eurobeat ~), Electric Chairs (2001, melancholy and down - tempo version). Other covers have been performed by bands Home Grown, My Favorite Band (MFB), Mars Moles and Ben l'Oncle Soul. An Easy listening version also exists by Axel Boys Quartet (1999) which was featured in a Dior television ad.
There are also many parodies of the song, notable made by The Dog House (a "gay '' version in which Barbie is insulted behind her back by Garrett and Raoul with gratuitous words because they pine for Ken, however the conclusion of the song sees Barbie approach the pair who proceed to assault her and run off. This song is featured on their 2000 album, How Many People Must Get Dissed?), German duo Lynne & Tessa (a lip - synched internet video of the song, May 2006), British Indian comedy sketch show Goodness Gracious Me (titled "Punjabi Girl '' both in the radio series and later on television), Ome Henk - Dutch song "Neem Een Ander in de Maling (Barbie Girl) '', WPLJ (entitled "Jersey Girl '', using stereotypes of Jersey girls as the basis for the whole song). In 2000, in India, a parody of this song "Chalu girl '' was published by Times Music in the album "PatelScope I '' by musician Devang Patel.
Identical twin sisters Amanda and Samantha Marchant, better known as Samanda, who came to fame appearing on the eighth series of Big Brother, released their cover of the song on 8 October 2007, and it entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26.
Girls ' Generation 's Jessica Jung covered this song as her solo performance during the first Asian concert tour Girls ' Generation 1st Asia Tour: Into the New World. Mattel in 2009 -- 2010 used an edit of the song as the ' theme song ' of Barbie.
In 2010, it was used in Just Dance: Summer Party. In the Family Guy episode "Bill and Peter 's Bogus Journey, '' president Bill Clinton is seen singing and dancing to "Barbie Girl '' while playing Dance Dance Revolution.
HBO comedy series Mr. Show with Bob and David did a parody of the song called "Party Girl '' in the episode "Life is Precious and God and the Bible ''.
The Swedish artist Loke Nyberg did a new version of this song for the Swedish radio show Morgonpasset. He interprets the song as criticism of today 's beauty ideals.
In 2012, the song was parodied in an Australian lamb advertising campaign, relying on the Australian use of the term "barbie '' to refer to the outdoor barbecue popularly held in Australia. The advertisement starred Melissa Tkautz and Sam Kekovich.
The song was referred to in the 2013 set - up of the musical We Will Rock You. In 2013, Ludacris sampled the song in his single Party Girls featuring Wiz Khalifa, Jeremih and Cashmere Cat. In 2014, the song was used in the South Park episode "Cock Magic '', during Randy Marsh 's "cock magic '' show.
In January 2016, Caramella Girls released a version called "Candy Girl '' on iTunes as well as a YouTube music video.
In early 2017, young Belgian singer Tanaë fully reinterpretated that global hit giving to that happy song a melancholic feeling.
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what does the kangaroo represent on the australian coat of arms
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Coat of arms of Australia - Wikipedia
The coat of arms of Australia, officially called the Commonwealth Coat of Arms, is the formal symbol of the Commonwealth of Australia. A shield, depicting symbols of Australia 's six states, is held up by the native Australian animals the kangaroo and the emu. The seven - pointed Commonwealth Star surmounting the crest also represents the states and territories, while floral emblems appear below the shield.
The first arms were authorised by King Edward VII on 7 May 1908, and the current version by King George V on 19 September 1912, although the 1908 version continued to be used in some contexts, notably appearing on the reverse of the sixpenny coin.
The escutcheon is the focal point of the coat of arms, contained within is the badge of each Australian state, the whole surrounded by an ermine border representing the federation of the states:.
In the top half, from left to right, the states represented are: New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. In the bottom half, from left to right: South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. Above the shield is the seven - pointed Commonwealth Star or Star of Federation above a blue and gold wreath, forming the crest. Six of the points on the star represent the original six states, while the seventh point represents the combined territories and any future states of Australia. In its entirety the shield represents the federation of Australia.
The Red Kangaroo and Emu that support the shield have never been designated as official animal emblems of the nation. They owe their unofficial recognition to the fact that they are endemic Australian fauna (found only on that continent), and likely chosen because they are the most well - known native Australian animals large enough to be positioned together in scale holding up the shield. They were chosen to symbolise a nation moving forward, based on the fact that neither animal can move backwards easily -- i.e. symbolising progress. It has been claimed that the kangaroo is, and must be seen to be, male.
In the background is wreath of Golden Wattle, the official national floral emblem, though the representation of the species is not botanically accurate. At the bottom is a scroll that contains the name of the nation. Neither the wreath of wattle nor the scroll are technically part of the design, because they are not described on the Royal Warrant that grants the armorial design.
The official blazon of the Commonwealth was included within a Royal Warrant of King George V on 19 September 1912, making the Arms officially adopted. The blazon is as follows:
Quarterly of six, the first quarter Argent a Cross Gules charged with a Lion passant guardant between on each limb a Mullet of eight points Or; the second Azure five Mullets, one of eight, two of seven, one of six and one of five points of the first (representing the Constellation of the Southern Cross) ensigned with an Imperial Crown proper; the third of the first a Maltese Cross of the fourth, surmounted by a like Imperial Crown; the fourth of the third, on a Perch wreathed Vert and Gules an Australian Piping Shrike displayed also proper; the fifth also Or a Swan naiant to the sinister Sable; the last of the first, a Lion passant of the second, the whole within a Bordure Ermine; for the Crest on a Wreath Or and Azure A Seven - pointed Star Or, and for Supporters dexter a Kangaroo, sinister an Emu, both proper.
Following the federation of Australia, the first official of Australia was granted by King Edward VII on 7 May 1908. The original design is thought to have been inspired by the 1805 Bowman Flag, which showed the rose, shamrock and thistle supported by a kangaroo and emu.
It consisted of a shield in the centre, the seven pointed star on a wreath as the crest above it, and a kangaroo and an emu using its foot to help the kangaroo to support the shield, all on a bed of green grass with a scroll containing the motto "Advance Australia ''. The selection of the kangaroo, the emu and the words, "Advance Australia '' was tied together symbolically. The shield had a white background, with a red cross of Saint George, blue lines outside the cross, and a blue border containing six inescutcheons featuring a red chevron on white, representing the six states. The Scottish Patriotic Association was vocally opposed to the shield 's design, noting that it should display the Union Jack to represent British and Irish settlers. These arms were used by the government and appeared on the sixpence coin from 1910 until 1963, and the threepence, shilling and florin from 1910 to 1936.
The 1908 arms were redesigned in 1911, and officially granted by George V on 19 September 1912. The redesign of the spurred much debate in Parliament. The Member for Wentworth, Willie Kelly, said:
"The emu and kangaroo are so built that they hardly fit into the heraldic atmosphere, and I think we make ourselves ridiculous when we endeavour to carry on the traditions of the Old World with some of the wild creations of our Australian fauna. ''
Despite objections, the kangaroo and emu now not having its leg up remained the shield bearers in the new coat of arms and were modified to appear more realistic. The principal reason for the redesign was the concern that Australia 's states were not individually represented; that was achieved by showing each state 's heraldic badge on the shield. The new coat of arms removed the bed of grass beneath the shield and changed the scroll to read simply "Australia ''. The colours in the wreath were also changed from blue and white to blue and gold. A background of two sprays of Golden Wattle was added, but it has never been an official part of the armorial bearings, even though the Golden Wattle was proclaimed Australia 's national flower on 19 August 1988 by the Governor - General Sir Ninian Stephen.
The Commonwealth Coat of Arms is the formal symbol of the Commonwealth of Australia that signifies Commonwealth authority and ownership. The Arms are used by Australian Government departments and agencies, statutory and non-statutory authorities, the Parliament and Commonwealth courts and tribunals. Senators and Federal Members of the Australian Parliament may also use the Arms in the course of their duties as Parliamentarians. The coat of arms should never be used where it could wrongly imply a formal guarantee, sponsorship or endorsement by the Commonwealth. Use of the arms by private citizens or organisations is rarely permitted; however, there are provisions for use by sporting bodies and in educational publications. Use of the coat of arms without permission may be in breach of Sections 53 (c) (d) and (e) of the Trade Practices Act 1974, Section 145.1 of the Criminal Code Act 1995 or Section 39 (2) of the Trade Marks Act 1995. The import of goods bearing the arms is also illegal according to the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations.
There is a full colour version and nine heraldically correct official versions exist for single - colour reproduction.
The coat of arms is the basis of the Queen 's Personal Australian Flag, and since 1973 a slightly modified version has formed the basis of the Great Seal of Australia.
The coat of arms is used as badge of rank for Warrant Officers Class 1 (Army) and Warrant Officer (Navy and Air Force). A more stylised version is used as a badge of rank for Warrant Officer of the Navy, Regimental Sergeant Major of the Army and Warrant Officer of the Air Force.
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Australian Capital Territory
Norfolk Island
Northern Territory
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how many episodes does season 4 of the fosters have
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The Fosters (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of The Fosters premiered on June 20, 2016 and ended on April 11, 2017. The season consisted of 20 episodes and stars Teri Polo and Sherri Saum as Stef Foster and Lena Adams, an interracial lesbian couple, who foster a girl (Maia Mitchell) and her younger brother (Hayden Byerly) while also trying to juggle raising Latino twin teenagers, (Cierra Ramirez and Noah Centineo), and Stef 's biological son (David Lambert). In this season, Callie is determined to find out about a police case who convicted a teenager of murder but learns the dark secrets surrounding the case. Meanwhile, after adopting AJ, Mike struggles with fatherhood while dealing with his girlfriend, Ana. Also, Mariana struggles to let go of Nick after the incident at school.
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what is the name of the items in a geometry set
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Set square - wikipedia
A set square or triangle (American English) is an object used in engineering and technical drawing, with the aim of providing a straightedge at a right angle or other particular planar angle to a baseline.
The most simple form of set square is a triangular piece of transparent plastic (or formerly of polished wood) with the centre removed. More commonly the set square bears the markings of a ruler and a half circle protractor. The outer edges are typically bevelled. These set squares come in two usual forms, both right triangles: one with 90 - 45 - 45 degree angles, the other with 30 - 60 - 90 degree angles. Combining the two forms by placing the hypotenuses together will also yield 15 ° and 75 ° angles. They are often purchased in packs with protractors and compasses.
Less commonly found is the adjustable set square. Here, the body of the object is cut in half and rejoined with a hinge marked with angles. Adjustment to the marked angle will produce any desired angle up to a maximum of 180 °.
In many European countries, the most common form of set square combines a 90 - 45 - 45 triangle with a protractor into a single tool made of clear plastic. Named "Geodreieck '' (German for "geometry triangle ''), it was originally developed and trademarked by the German manufacturer Aristo - Instrumente Dennert KG (now GEOtec Zeichen - und Kunststofftechnik GmbH) in 1964.
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who wrote the song go away little girl
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Go Away Little Girl - Wikipedia
"Go Away Little Girl '' is a popular song written by Gerry Goffin and Carole King. It was first recorded by Bobby Vee for Liberty Records on March 28, 1962. The lyrics consist of a young man asking a young attractive woman to stay away from him, so that he will not be tempted to betray his steady girlfriend by kissing her. The song is notable for making the American Top 20 three times: for Steve Lawrence in 1962 (US number 1), for The Happenings in 1966 (US number 12), and for Donny Osmond in 1971 (US number 1). It is also the first song, and one of only nine, to reach US number 1 by two different artists.
In late 1962, Steve Lawrence released the second recording of this song (Bobby Vee recorded it first in March 1962). The single reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1963 and remained in the top position for two weeks. This recording also spent six weeks atop the U.S. Easy Listening chart. It also went to number 1 on the New Zealand Lever chart and number 18 in Canada.
Mark Wynter 's 1962 cover of the song on the Pye Records label also made the UK Singles Chart, reaching number six in Britain.
Donny Osmond 's cover version of "Go Away Little Girl '' reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on September 11, 1971. It remained in the top position for three weeks. Osmond 's version also went to number 36 on the Australian Go - Set chart. It was certified Gold by the RIAA on October 13, 1971.
Marlena Shaw does a version called "Yu - Ma / Go Away Little Boy '' from her 1977 album Sweet Beginnings. This reached number twenty one on the Billboard R & B chart staying in the Top 100 for eleven weeks. In the 1980s it became a popular UK record on the Rare Groove dance scene.
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what was the content of the ark of the covenant
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Ark of the Covenant - wikipedia
The Ark of the Covenant (Hebrew: אָרוֹן הַבְּרִית , Modern Arōn Ha'brēt, Tiberian ʾĀrôn Habbərîṯ), also known as the Ark of the Testimony, is a gold - covered wooden chest with lid cover described in the Book of Exodus as containing the two stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. According to various texts within the Hebrew Bible, it also contained Aaron 's rod and a pot of manna. Hebrews 9: 4 describes: "The ark of the covenant (was) covered on all sides with gold, in which was a golden jar holding the manna, and Aaron 's rod which budded, and the tables of the covenant. ''
The biblical account relates that, approximately one year after the Israelites ' exodus from Egypt, the Ark was created according to the pattern given to Moses by God when the Israelites were encamped at the foot of biblical Mount Sinai. Thereafter, the gold - plated acacia chest was carried by its staves while en route by the Levites approximately 2,000 cubits (approximately 800 meters or 2,600 feet) in advance of the people when on the march or before the Israelite army, the host of fighting men. When carried, the Ark was always hidden under a large veil made of skins and blue cloth, always carefully concealed, even from the eyes of the priests and the Levites who carried it. God was said to have spoken with Moses "from between the two cherubim '' on the Ark 's cover. When at rest the tabernacle was set up and the holy Ark was placed under the veil of the covering, the staves of it crossing the middle side bars to hold it up off the ground.
According to the Book of Exodus, God instructed Moses on Mount Sinai during his 40 - day stay upon the mountain within the thick cloud and darkness where God was and he was shown the pattern for the tabernacle and furnishings of the Ark to be made of shittim wood to house the Tablets of Stone. Moses instructed Bezalel and Oholiab to construct the Ark. In Deuteronomy, however, the Ark is said to have been built specifically by Moses himself without reference of Bezalel or Oholiab.
The Book of Exodus gives detailed instructions on how the Ark is to be constructed. It is to be 21⁄2 cubits in length, 11⁄2 in breadth, and 11⁄2 in height (approximately 131 × 79 × 79 cm or 52 × 31 × 31 in). Then it is to be gilded entirely with gold, and a crown or molding of gold is to be put around it. Four rings of gold are to be attached to its four corners, two on each side -- and through these rings staves of shittim - wood overlaid with gold for carrying the Ark are to be inserted; and these are not to be removed. A golden lid, the kapporet (traditionally "mercy seat '' in Christian translations) which is covered with 2 golden cherubim, is to be placed above the Ark. Missing from the account are instructions concerning the thickness of the mercy seat and details about the cherubim other than that the cover be beaten out the ends of the Ark and that they form the space where God will appear. The Ark is finally to be placed under the veil of the covering.
The biblical account continues that, after its creation by Moses, the Ark was carried by the Israelites during their 40 years of wandering in the desert. Whenever the Israelites camped, the Ark was placed in a separate room in a sacred tent, called the Tabernacle.
When the Israelites, led by Joshua toward the Promised Land, arrived at the banks of the Jordan river, the Ark was carried in the lead preceding the people and was the signal for their advance. During the crossing, the river grew dry as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the Ark touched its waters, and remained so until the priests -- with the Ark -- left the river after the people had passed over. As memorials, twelve stones were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood.
In the Battle of Jericho, the Ark was carried round the city once a day for seven days, preceded by the armed men and seven priests sounding seven trumpets of rams ' horns. On the seventh day, the seven priests sounding the seven trumpets of rams ' horns before the Ark compassed the city seven times and, with a great shout, Jericho 's wall fell down flat and the people took the city. After the defeat at Ai, Joshua lamented before the Ark. When Joshua read the Law to the people between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, they stood on each side of the Ark. We next hear of the Ark in Bethel where it was being cared for by the priest Phineas the grandson of Aaron (where ' Bethel ' is translated ' the House of God ' in the King James Version). According to this verse it was consulted by the people of Israel when they were planning to attack the Benjaminites at the battle of Gibeah. Later, however, the Ark was kept at Shiloh, another religious centre some 16 km (10 mi) north of Bethel, at the time of the prophet Samuel 's apprenticeship, where it was cared for by Hophni and Phinehas, two sons of Eli.
A few years later the elders of Israel decided to take the Ark out onto the battlefield to assist them against the Philistines, after being defeated at the battle of Eben - Ezer. They were, however, heavily defeated with the loss of 30,000 men. The Ark was captured by the Philistines and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. The news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger "with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head. '' The old priest, Eli, fell dead when he heard it; and his daughter - in - law, bearing a son at the time the news of the capture of the Ark was received, named him Ichabod -- explained as "The glory has departed Israel '' in reference to the loss of the Ark. The mother of the child Ichabod died at his birth.
The Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune befell them. At Ashdod it was placed in the temple of Dagon. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with tumors; a plague of mice was sent over the land. The affliction of boils was also visited upon the people of Gath and of Ekron, whither the Ark was successively removed.
After the Ark had been among them for seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the tumors and mice wherewith they had been afflicted. The Ark was set up in the field of Joshua the Beth - shemite, and the Beth - shemites offered sacrifices and burnt offerings. Out of curiosity the men of Beth - shemesh gazed at the Ark; and as a punishment, seventy of them (fifty thousand and seventy in some translations) were smitten by the Lord. The Bethshemites sent to Kirjath - jearim, or Baal - Judah, to have the Ark removed; and it was taken to the house of Abinadab, whose son Eleazar was sanctified to keep it. Kirjath - jearim remained the abode of the Ark for twenty years. Under Saul, the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too impatient to consult it before engaging in battle. In 1 Chronicles 13: 3 it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consulting the Ark in the days of Saul.
At the beginning of his reign over the United Monarchy, King David removed the Ark from Kirjath - jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to Zion, Uzzah, one of the drivers of the cart that carried the Ark, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was struck dead by God for touching it. The place was subsequently named "Perez - Uzzah '', literally "Outburst Against Uzzah '', as a result. David, in fear, carried the Ark aside into the house of Obed - edom the Gittite, instead of carrying it on to Zion, and there it stayed three months.
On hearing that God had blessed Obed - edom because of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, "girded with a linen ephod... danced before the Lord with all his might '' and in the sight of all the public gathered in Jerusalem - a performance that caused him to be scornfully rebuked by his first wife, Saul 's daughter Michal. In Zion, David put the Ark in the tabernacle he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household.
The Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark. David 's plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped at the advice of God. The Ark was with the army during the siege of Rabbah; and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time of Absalom 's conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ordered Zadok the priest to return it to Jerusalem.
When Abiathar was dismissed from the priesthood by King Solomon for having taken part in Adonijah 's conspiracy against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark. Solomon worshipped before the Ark after his dream in which God promised him wisdom.
During the construction of Solomon 's Temple, a special inner room, named Kodesh Hakodashim (Eng. Holy of Holies), was prepared to receive and house the Ark; and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark -- containing the original tablets of the Ten Commandments -- was placed therein. When the priests emerged from the holy place after placing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, "for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord ''.
When Solomon married Pharaoh 's daughter, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, as Zion was consecrated because of its containing the Ark. King Josiah also had the Ark returned to the Temple, from which it appears to have been removed by one of his predecessors (cf. 2 Chron. 33 - 34 and 2 Kings 21 - 23).
In 587 BC, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and Solomon 's Temple. There is no record of what became of the Ark in the Books of Kings and Chronicles. An ancient Greek version of the biblical third Book of Ezra, 1 Esdras, suggests that Babylonians took away the vessels of the ark of God, but does not mention taking away the Ark:
And they took all the holy vessels of the Lord, both great and small, with the vessels of the ark of God, and the king 's treasures, and carried them away into Babylon
In Rabbinic literature, the final disposition of the Ark is disputed. Some rabbis hold that it must have been carried off to Babylon, while others hold that it must have been hidden lest it be carried off into Babylon and never brought back. A late 2nd - century rabbinic work known as the Tosefta states the opinions of these rabbis that Josiah, the king of Judah, stored away the Ark, along with the jar of manna, and a jar containing the holy anointing oil, the rod of Aaron which budded and a chest given to Israel by the Philistines. This was said to have been done in order to prevent their being carried off into Babylon as had already happened to the other vessels. Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Shimon, in the same rabbinic work, state that the Ark was, in fact, taken into Babylon. Rabbi Yehudah, dissenting, says that the Ark was stored away in its own place, meaning, somewhere on the Temple Mount.
The Ark is first mentioned in the Book of Exodus, and then numerous times in Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, I Samuel, II Samuel, I Kings, I Chronicles, II Chronicles, Psalms and Jeremiah.
In the Book of Jeremiah, it is referenced by Jeremiah, who, speaking in the days of Josiah, prophesied a future time, possibly the end of days, when the Ark will no longer be talked about or be made again:
And it shall be that when you multiply and become fruitful in the land, in those days - the word of the LORD - they will no longer say, ' The Ark of the Covenant of the LORD ' and it will not come to mind; they will not mention it, and will not recall it, and it will not be used any more.
Rashi comments on this verse that "The entire people will be so imbued with the spirit of sanctity that God 's Presence will rest upon them collectively, as if the congregation itself was the Ark of the Covenant. ''
According to Second Maccabees, at the beginning of chapter 2:
The records show that it was the prophet Jeremiah who... prompted by a divine message... gave orders that the Tent of Meeting and the ark should go with him. Then he went away to the mountain from the top of which Moses saw God 's promised land. When he reached the mountain, Jeremiah found a cave - dwelling; he carried the tent, the ark, and the incense - altar into it, then blocked up the entrance. Some of his companions came to mark out the way, but were unable to find it. When Jeremiah learnt of this he reprimanded them. "The place shall remain unknown '', he said, "until God finally gathers his people together and shows mercy to them. The Lord will bring these things to light again, and the glory of the Lord will appear with the cloud, as it was seen both in the time of Moses and when Solomon prayed that the shrine might be worthily consecrated. ''
The "mountain from the top of which Moses saw God 's promised land '' would be Mount Nebo, located in what is now Jordan.
In the New Testament, the Ark is mentioned in the Letter to the Hebrews and the Revelation to St. John. Hebrews 9: 4 states that the Ark contained "the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron 's rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant. '' Revelation 11: 19 says the prophet saw God 's temple in heaven opened, "and the ark of his covenant was seen within his temple. ''
Catholic scholars connect this verse with the Woman of the Apocalypse in Revelation 12: 1, which immediately follows, and say that the Blessed Virgin Mary is identified as the "Ark of the New Covenant. '' Carrying the saviour of mankind within her, she herself became the Holy of Holies. This is the interpretation given in the third century by Gregory Thaumaturgus, and in the fourth century by Saint Ambrose, Saint Ephraem of Syria and Saint Augustine. The Catholic Church teaches this in the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Mary, in whom the Lord himself has just made his dwelling, is the daughter of Zion in person, the Ark of the Covenant, the place where the glory of the Lord dwells. She is ' the dwelling of God... with men ''
In the Gospel of Luke, the author 's accounts of the Annunciation and Visitation are constructed using eight points of literary parallelism to compare Mary to the Ark.
Saint Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, is credited with writing about the connections between the Ark and the Virgin Mary: "O noble Virgin, truly you are greater than any other greatness. For who is your equal in greatness, O dwelling place of God the Word? To whom among all creatures shall I compare you, O Virgin? You are greater than them all O (Ark of the) Covenant, clothed with purity instead of gold! You are the Ark in which is found the golden vessel containing the true manna, that is, the flesh in which Divinity resides '' (Homily of the Papyrus of Turin).
Chapter 2 (Sura 2) of the Quran (Verse 248), is believed to refer to the Ark:
And their prophet said to them, "Indeed, a sign of his kingship is that the chest (tābūt) will come to you in which is assurance (sakīnatun) from your Lord and a remnant of what the family of Moses (Mūsā) and the family of Aaron (Hārūn) had left, carried by the angels. Indeed in that is a sign for you, if you are believers. ''
The Arabic word sakīna (variously translated "peace of reassurance '' or "spirit of tranquility '') is related to the post-Biblical Hebrew shekhinah, meaning "dwelling or presence of God ''.
The Islamic scholar Al Baidawi mentioned that the sakina could be Tawrat, the Books of Moses. According to Al - Jalalan, the relics in the Ark were the fragments of the two tablets, rods, robes, shoes, mitres of Moses and the vase of manna. Al - Tha'alibi, in Qisas Al - Anbiya (The Stories of the Prophets), has given an earlier and later history of the Ark.
According to Uri Rubin the Ark of the Covenant has a religious basis in Islam, and Islam gives it special significance.
Since its disappearance from the Biblical narrative, there has been a number of claims of having discovered or of having possession of the Ark, and several possible places have been suggested for its location.
2 Maccabees 2: 4 - 10, written around 100 BC, says that the prophet Jeremiah, "being warned by God '' before the Babylonian invasion, took the Ark, the Tabernacle, and the Altar of Incense, and buried them in a cave on Mount Nebo, informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown "until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy. '' Mount Nebo is also described in the Bible (Deuteronomy 34) as the site from which Moses views the Promised Land, and apparently also is his final burial place. Mount Nebo is approximately 47 km (29 miles) slightly south of due east from Jerusalem, near the east bank of the Jordan River.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims to possess the Ark of the Covenant, or Tabot, in Axum. The object is currently kept under guard in a treasury near the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion. Replicas of the Axum tabot are kept in every Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo church, each with its own dedication to a particular saint; the most popular of these include Mary, George and Michael.
The Kebra Nagast was composed to legitimise the Solomonic dynasty, which ruled the Ethiopian Empire following its establishment in 1270. It narrates how the real Ark of the Covenant was brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I with divine assistance, while a forgery was left in the Temple in Jerusalem. Although the Kebra Nagast is the best - known account of this belief, it predates the document. Abu al - Makarim, writing in the last quarter of the twelfth century, makes one early reference to this belief that they possessed the Ark. "The Abyssinians possess also the Ark of the Covenant '', he wrote, and, after a description of the object, describes how the liturgy is celebrated upon the Ark four times a year, "on the feast of the great nativity, on the feast of the glorious Baptism, on the feast of the holy Resurrection, and on the feast of the illuminating Cross. ''
In his 1992 book The Sign and the Seal, British writer Graham Hancock suggests, contrary to the Kebra Nagast, that the ark spent several years in Egypt before it came to Ethiopia via the Nile River, where it was kept in the islands of Lake Tana for about four hundred years and finally taken to Axum. Archaeologist John Holladay of the University of Toronto called Hancock 's theory "garbage and hogwash, '' while Edward Ullendorff, a former Professor of Ethiopian Studies at the University of London, said he "wasted a lot of time reading it. ''
On 25 June 2009, the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia, Abune Paulos, said he would announce to the world the next day the unveiling of the Ark of the Covenant, which he said had been kept safe and secure in a church in Axum, Ethiopia. The following day, on 26 June 2009, the patriarch announced that he would not unveil the Ark after all, but that instead he could attest to its current status.
The Lemba people of South Africa and Zimbabwe have claimed that their ancestors carried the Ark south, calling it the ngoma lungundu or "voice of God '', eventually hiding it in a deep cave in the Dumghe mountains, their spiritual home.
On 14 April 2008, in a UK Channel 4 documentary, Tudor Parfitt, taking a literalist approach to the Biblical story, described his research into this claim. He says that the object described by the Lemba has attributes similar to the Ark. It was of similar size, was carried on poles by priests, was not allowed to touch the ground, was revered as a voice of their God, and was used as a weapon of great power, sweeping enemies aside.
In his book The Lost Ark of the Covenant (2008), Parfitt also suggests that the Ark was taken to Arabia following the events depicted in the Second Book of Maccabees, and cites Arabic sources which maintain it was brought in distant times to Yemen. One Lemba clan, the Buba, which was supposed to have brought the Ark to Africa, have a genetic signature called the Cohen Modal Haplotype. This suggests a male Semitic link to the Levant. Lemba tradition maintains that the Ark spent some time in Sena in Yemen. Later, it was taken across the sea to East Africa and may have been taken inland at the time of the Great Zimbabwe civilization. According to their oral traditions, some time after the arrival of the Lemba with the Ark, it self - destructed. Using a core from the original, the Lemba priests constructed a new one. This replica was discovered in a cave by a Swedish German missionary named Harald von Sicard in the 1940s and eventually found its way to the Museum of Human Science in Harare. Parfitt had this artifact radio - carbon dated to about 1350, which coincided with the sudden end of the Great Zimbabwe civilization.
French author Louis Charpentier claimed that the Ark was taken to the Chartres Cathedral by the Knights Templar.
One author has theorised that the Ark was taken from Jerusalem to the village of Rennes - le - Château in Southern France. Karen Ralls has cited Freemason Patrick Byrne, who believes the Ark was moved from Rennes - le - Château at the outbreak of World War I to the United States.
The Ark of the Covenant was said to have been kept in the Basilica of St. John Lateran, surviving the pillages of Rome by Genseric and Alaric I but lost when the basilica burned.
"Rabbi Eliezer ben José stated that he saw in Rome the mercy - seat of the temple. There was a bloodstain on it. On inquiry he was told that it was a stain from the blood which the high priest sprinkled thereon on the Day of Atonement. ''
In 2003, author Graham Phillips hypothetically concluded that the Ark was taken to Mount Sinai in the Valley of Edom by the Maccabees. Phillips claims it remained there until the 1180s, when Ralph de Sudeley, the leader of the Templars found the Maccabean treasure at Jebel al - Madhbah, and returned home to his estate at Herdewyke in Warwickshire, England taking the treasure with him.
During the turn of the 20th century British Israelites carried out some excavations of the Hill of Tara in Ireland looking for the Ark of the Covenant -- the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland campaigned successfully to have them stopped before they destroyed the hill.
In 1922 in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt, the royal tomb of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun (KV62) was opened by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon. Among the artifacts was a processional ark, listed as Shrine 261, the Anubis Shrine. Almost immediately after publication of the photographs of this sensational archaeological find, some claimed that the Anubis Shrine could be the Ark of the Covenant. John M. Lundquist, author of The Temple of Jerusalem: Past, Present, and Future (2008), discounts this idea. The Anubis Shrine measures 95 centimetres (37 in) long, 37 centimetres (15 in) wide, and 54.3 centimetres (21.4 in) high in the shape of a pylon. The Biblical Ark of the Covenant is approximately 133 centimetres (52 in) long, 80 centimetres (31 in) wide, and 80 centimetres (31 in) high in the shape of a rectangular chest.
Lundquist observes that the Anubis Shrine is not strictly analogous to the Ark of the Covenant; it can only be said that it is "ark - like '', constructed of wood, gessoed and gilded, stored within a sacred tomb, "guarding '' the treasury of the tomb (and not the primary focus of that environment), that it contains compartments within it that store and hold sacred objects, that it has a figure of Anubis on its lid, and that it was carried by two staves permanently inserted into rings at its base and borne by eight priests in the funerary procession to Tutankhamun 's tomb. Its value is the insight it provides to the ancient culture of Egypt.
The Ark of the Covenant is the main plot device in Steven Spielberg 's 1981 adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark, which depicts it as located by Indiana Jones in the Egyptian city of Tanis in 1936. It is mentioned briefly in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) and appears in a cameo in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008).
In the Danish family film The Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar from 2006, the main part of the treasure found in the end is the Ark of the Covenant. The power of the Ark comes from static electricity stored in separated metal plates like a giant Leyden jar.
It appears in the video game Assassin 's Creed (2007), where Robert de Sablé found a "Piece of the Eden '' and Altaïr Ibn - La'Ahad planned to stop him, but he could n't. It 's also mentioned in Assassin 's Creed Chronicles: China (2015) and in the film Assassin 's Creed (2016).
Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day) (Hebrew: יום העלייה ) is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of the Hebrew month of Nisan to commemorate the Israelites crossing the Jordan River into the Land of Israel while carrying the Ark of the Covenant.
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local elections in which all candidates run for multiple seats (positions) citywide are called
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At - large - wikipedia
At - large is a designation for members of a governing body who are elected or appointed to represent the whole membership of the body (for example, a city, state or province, nation, club or association), rather than a subset of that membership. At - large voting is in contrast to voting by electoral districts.
If an at - large election is called to choose a single candidate, a single - winner voting system must necessarily be used. If a group of seats must be covered, many electoral systems can be possible, from proportional representation methods (such as party - list proportional representation, or PR - STV) to block voting.
A number of municipalities in Canada elect part or all of their city councils at - large. Although this form of municipal election is most common in small towns due to the difficulty of dividing the municipality into wards, several larger cities use an at - large system as well:
At the federal level, Canada 's three territories, Yukon, Nunavut and the Northwest Territories are each represented in the Parliament of Canada by one at - large Member of Parliament and one at - large Senator. However, all Canadian provinces, regardless of size, are divided into multiple electoral districts.
In Israel, elections for the Knesset (the national parliament) are conducted on an at - large basis by proportional representation from party lists. Election of municipal and town (but not regional) councils is also done on an at - large basis by proportional representation from party lists.
In the Netherlands, elections for the House of Representatives (the lower house of the States - General, the national parliament) are conducted on an at - large basis by proportional representation from party lists.
In Philippine politics, "at - large '' usually refers to the manner of election of the Senate: the voters have twelve votes, with the country acting as one at - large "district '', the twelve candidates with the most number of votes are elected (plurality - at - large voting).
Provinces that send only one representative to the House of Representatives are called "lone districts ''. All local legislatures elect member via at - large districts via plurality - at - large voting. Sangguniang Kabataan (Youth Council), Sangguniang Barangay (Barangay) (village) Council, Sangguniang Bayan (Municipal Councils) and some Sangguniang Panlungsod (City Councils) all elect members with each local government unit acting as one at - large district. Some City Councils and all Sangguniang Panlalawigan (Provincial Board) members are elected with the city or province being split into as much as seven districts, then each district elects at least two members, at - large.
Article One of the United States Constitution provides for direct election of members of the House of Representatives. A congressional act passed in 1967, 2 U.S.C. § 2c, dictates that representatives must be elected from geographical districts and that these must be single - member districts, except when the state has a single representative, in which case one at - large representative is elected from the entire state.
This is a table of every instance of at - large representation in the United States Congress when the same state had geographically defined districts as well.
Since passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and lessening of some historic barriers to voter registration and voting, legal challenges have been made based on at - large election schemes at the county or city level, including in school board elections, in numerous jurisdictions where minorities had been effectively excluded from representation on local councils or boards. An example is Charleston County, South Carolina, which was sued in 2001 and reached a settlement in 2004. Its county commission changed to nine members elected from single - member districts; in 2015 they included six white Republicans and three African - American Democrats, where the black minority makes up more than one - third of the population.
In another instance, in 2013 Fayette County, Georgia, which had an estimated 70 % white majority and 20 % black minority, was ordered by a federal district court to develop single - member districts for election of members to its county council and its school board. Due to at - large voting, African Americans had been unable to elect any candidate of their choice to either of these boards for decades. Such local election systems have become subject to litigation, since enabling more representative elections can create entry points for minorities and women into the political system, as well as providing more representative government. In the late 1980s, several major cities in Tennessee reached settlement in court cases to adopt single - member districts in order to enable minorities to elect candidates of their choice to city councils; they had previously been excluded by at - large voting favoring the majority population. By 2015, voters in two of these cities had elected women mayors who had gotten their start in being elected to the city council from single - member districts.
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the following output was issued by which of the following commands in windows servers 2003
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Windows Vista - wikipedia
Windows Vista is an operating system that was produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs and media center PCs. Development was completed on 8 November 2006, and over the following three months, it was released in stages to computer hardware and software manufacturers, business customers and retail channels. On 30 January 2007, it was released worldwide and was made available for purchase and download from the Windows Marketplace. The release of Windows Vista came more than five years after the introduction of its predecessor, Windows XP, the longest time span between successive releases of Microsoft Windows desktop operating systems.
New features of Windows Vista include an updated graphical user interface and visual style dubbed Aero, a new search component called Windows Search, redesigned networking, audio, print and display sub-systems, and new multimedia tools such as Windows DVD Maker. Vista aimed to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network, using peer - to - peer technology to simplify sharing files and media between computers and devices. Windows Vista included version 3.0 of the. NET Framework, allowing software developers to write applications without traditional Windows APIs.
Microsoft 's primary stated objective with Windows Vista was to improve the state of security in the Windows operating system. One common criticism of Windows XP and its predecessors was their commonly exploited security vulnerabilities and overall susceptibility to malware, viruses and buffer overflows. In light of this, Microsoft chairman Bill Gates announced in early 2002 a company - wide "Trustworthy Computing initiative '', which aimed to incorporate security into every aspect of software development at the company. Microsoft stated that it prioritized improving the security of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 above finishing Windows Vista, thus delaying its completion.
While these new features and security improvements have garnered positive reviews, Vista has also been the target of much criticism and negative press. Criticism of Windows Vista has targeted its high system requirements, its more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number of then - new DRM technologies aimed at restricting the copying of protected digital media, lack of compatibility with some pre-Vista hardware and software, longer boot time, and the number of authorization prompts for User Account Control. As a result of these and other issues, Windows Vista had seen initial adoption and satisfaction rates lower than Windows XP. However, with an estimated 330 million Internet users as of January 2009, it had been announced that Vista usage had surpassed Microsoft 's pre-launch two - year - out expectations of achieving 200 million users. At the release of Windows 7 (October 2009), Windows Vista (with approximately 400 million Internet users) was the second most widely used operating system on the Internet with an approximately 19 % market share, the most widely used being Windows XP with an approximately 63 % market share. In May 2010, Windows Vista 's market share had an estimated range from 15 % to 26 %. On 22 October 2010, Microsoft ceased sales of retail copies of Windows Vista, and the OEM sales for Vista ceased a year later. In May 2018, Vista 's market share was 0.28 %.
On March 14, 2017, Microsoft made an emergency security patch to Windows Vista that addresses a vulnerability that was then exploited almost two months later by the WannaCry ransomware attack. Extended support for Windows Vista ended on 11 April, 2017.
Microsoft began work on Windows Vista, known at the time by its codename Longhorn, in May 2001, five months before the release of Windows XP. It was originally expected to ship sometime late in 2003 as a minor step between Windows XP and Blackcomb, which was planned to be the company 's next major operating system release. Gradually, "Longhorn '' assimilated many of the important new features and technologies slated for Blackcomb, resulting in the release date being pushed back several times in 3 years. In some builds of Longhorn, their license agreement said "For the Microsoft product codenamed "Whistler '' ". Many of Microsoft 's developers were also re-tasked to build updates to Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 to strengthen security. Faced with ongoing delays and concerns about feature creep, Microsoft announced on 27 August 2004, that it had revised its plans. For this reason, Longhorn was reset to start work on componentizing the Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 codebase, and over time re-incorporating the features that would be intended for an actual operating system release. However, some previously announced features such as WinFS were dropped or postponed, and a new software development methodology called the Security Development Lifecycle was incorporated in an effort to address concerns with the security of the Windows codebase, which is programmed in C, C++ and assembly. Longhorn became known as Vista in 2005.
The early development stages of Longhorn were generally characterized by incremental improvements and updates to Windows XP. During this period, Microsoft was fairly quiet about what was being worked on, as their marketing and public relations focus was more strongly focused on Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003, which was released in April 2003. Occasional builds of Longhorn were leaked onto popular file sharing networks such as IRC, BitTorrent, eDonkey and various newsgroups, and so most of what is known about builds prior to the first sanctioned development release of Longhorn in May 2003, is derived from these builds.
After several months of relatively little news or activity from Microsoft with Longhorn, Microsoft released Build 4008, which had made an appearance on the Internet around 28 February 2003. It was also privately handed out to a select group of software developers. As an evolutionary release over build 3683, it contained a number of small improvements, including a modified blue "Plex '' theme and a new, simplified Windows Image - based installer that operates in graphical mode from the outset, and completed an install of the operating system in approximately one third the time of Windows XP on the same hardware. An optional "new taskbar '' was introduced that was thinner than the previous build and displayed the time differently.
The most notable visual and functional difference, however, came with Windows Explorer. The incorporation of the Plex theme made blue the dominant color of the entire application. The Windows XP - style task pane was almost completely replaced with a large horizontal pane that appeared under the toolbars. A new search interface allowed for filtering of results, searching of Windows help, and natural - language queries that would be used to integrate with WinFS. The animated search characters were also removed. The "view modes '' were also replaced with a single slider that would resize the icons in real - time, in list, thumbnail, or details mode, depending on where the slider was. File metadata was also made more visible and more easily editable, with more active encouragement to fill out missing pieces of information. Also of note was the conversion of Windows Explorer to being a. NET application.
Most builds of Longhorn and Vista were identified by a label that was always displayed in the bottom - right corner of the desktop. A typical build label would look like "Longhorn Build 3663. Lab06_N. 020728 - 1728 ''. Higher build numbers did not automatically mean that the latest features from every development team at Microsoft was included. Typically, a team working on a certain feature or subsystem would generate their own working builds which developers would test with, and when the code was deemed stable, all the changes would be incorporated back into the main development tree at once. At Microsoft, a number of "Build labs '' exist where the compilation of the entirety of Windows can be performed by a team. The name of the lab in which any given build originated is shown as part of the build label, and the date and time of the build follows that. Some builds (such as Beta 1 and Beta 2) only display the build label in the version information dialog (Winver). The icons used in these builds are from Windows XP.
At the Windows Hardware Engineering Conference (WinHEC) in May 2003, Microsoft gave their first public demonstrations of the new Desktop Window Manager and Aero. The demonstrations were done on a revised build 4015 which was never released. A number of sessions for developers and hardware engineers at the conference focused on these new features, as well as the Next - Generation Secure Computing Base (previously known as "Palladium ''), which at the time was Microsoft 's proposed solution for creating a secure computing environment whereby any given component of the system could be deemed "trusted ''. Also at this conference, Microsoft reiterated their roadmap for delivering Longhorn, pointing to an "early 2005 '' release date.
By 2004, it had become obvious to the Windows team at Microsoft that they were losing sight of what needed to be done to complete the next version of Windows and ship it to customers. Internally, some Microsoft employees were describing the Longhorn project as "another Cairo '' or "Cairo.NET '', referring to the Cairo development project that the company embarked on through the first half of the 1990s, which never resulted in a shipping operating system (though nearly all the technologies developed in that time did end up in Windows 95 and Windows NT). Microsoft was shocked in 2005 by Apple 's release of Mac OS X Tiger. It offered only a limited subset of features planned for Longhorn, in particular fast file searching and integrated graphics and sound processing, but appeared to have impressive reliability and performance compared to contemporary Longhorn builds. Most Longhorn builds had major Explorer. exe system leaks which prevented the OS from performing well, and added more confusion to the development teams in later builds with more and more code being developed which failed to reach stability.
In a 23 September 2005 front - page article on The Wall Street Journal, Microsoft co-president Jim Allchin, who had overall responsibility for the development and delivery of Windows, explained how development of Longhorn had been "crashing into the ground '' due in large part to the haphazard methods by which features were introduced and integrated into the core of the operating system, without a clear focus on an end - product. Allchin went on to explain how in December 2003, he enlisted the help of two other senior executives, Brian Valentine and Amitabh Srivastava, the former being experienced with shipping software at Microsoft, most notably Windows Server 2003, and the latter having spent his career at Microsoft researching and developing methods of producing high - quality testing systems. Srivastava employed a team of core architects to visually map out the entirety of the Windows operating system, and to proactively work towards a development process that would enforce high levels of code quality, reduce interdependencies between components, and in general, "not make things worse with Vista ''. Since Microsoft decided that Longhorn needed to be further componentized, work started on the Omega - 13 series builds where they would componentize existing Windows Server 2003 source code, and over time add back functionality as development progressed. Future Longhorn builds would start from Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 and continue from there.
This change, announced internally to Microsoft employees on 26 August 2004, began in earnest in September, though it would take several more months before the new development process and build methodology would be used by all of the development teams. A number of complaints came from individual developers, and Bill Gates himself, that the new development process was going to be prohibitively difficult to work within.
By approximately November 2004, the company had considered several names for the final release, ranging from simple to fanciful and inventive. In the end, Microsoft chose Windows Vista as confirmed on 22 July 2005, believing it to be a "wonderful intersection of what the product really does, what Windows stands for, and what resonates with customers, and their needs. '' Group Project Manager Greg Sullivan told Paul Thurrott "You want the PC to adapt to you and help you cut through the clutter to focus on what 's important to you. That 's what Windows Vista is all about: "bringing clarity to your world. '' (a reference to the three marketing points of Vista -- Clear, Connected, Confident), so you can focus on what matters to you. ". Microsoft co-president Jim Allchin also loved the name, saying that "Vista '' creates the right imagery for the new product capabilities and inspires the imagination with all the possibilities of what can be done with Windows -- making people 's passions come alive. ''
After Longhorn was named Windows Vista in November 2004, an unprecedented beta - test program was started, involving hundreds of thousands of volunteers and companies. In September of that year, Microsoft started releasing regular Community Technology Previews (CTP) to beta testers from July 2005 to February 2006. The first of these was distributed at the 2005 Microsoft Professional Developers Conference, and was subsequently released to beta testers and Microsoft Developer Network subscribers. The builds that followed incorporated most of the planned features for the final product, as well as a number of changes to the user interface, based largely on feedback from beta testers. Windows Vista was deemed feature - complete with the release of the "February CTP, '' released on 22 February 2006, and much of the remainder of the work between that build and the final release of the product focused on stability, performance, application and driver compatibility, and documentation. Beta 2, released in late May, was the first build to be made available to the general public through Microsoft 's Customer Preview Program. It was downloaded by over five million people. Two release candidates followed in September and October, both of which were made available to a large number of users.
At the Intel Developer Forum on 9 March 2006, Microsoft announced a change in their plans to support EFI in Windows Vista. The UEFI 2.0 specification (which replaces EFI 1.10) was not completed until early 2006, and at the time of Microsoft 's announcement, no firmware manufacturers had completed a production implementation which could be used for testing. As a result, the decision was made to postpone the introduction of UEFI support to Windows; support for UEFI on 64 - bit platforms was postponed until Vista Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008 and 32 - bit UEFI would not be supported, as Microsoft does not expect many such systems to be built as the market moves to 64 - bit processors.
While Microsoft had originally hoped to have the consumer versions of the operating system available worldwide in time for Christmas 2006, it announced in March 2006 that the release date would be pushed back to January 2007 in order to give the company -- and the hardware and software companies that Microsoft depends on for providing device drivers -- additional time to prepare. Because a release to manufacturing (RTM) build is the final version of code shipped to retailers and other distributors, the purpose of a pre-RTM build is to eliminate any last "show - stopper '' bugs that may prevent the code from responsibly being shipped to customers, as well as anything else that consumers may find annoying. Thus, it is unlikely that any major new features would be introduced; instead, work would focus on Vista 's "fit - and - finish ''. In just a few days, developers had managed to drop Vista 's bug count from over 2470 on 22 September to just over 1400 by the time RC2 shipped in early October. However, they still had a way to go before Vista was ready to RTM. Microsoft 's internal processes required Vista 's bug count to drop to 500 or fewer before the product could go into escrow for RTM. For most of the pre-RTM builds, those 32 - bit editions are only released.
On 14 June 2006, Windows developer Philip Su posted a blog entry which decried the development process of Windows Vista, stating that "The code is way too complicated, and that the pace of coding has been tremendously slowed down by overbearing process. '' The same post also described Windows Vista as having approximately 50 million lines of code, with about 2,000 developers working on the product. During a demonstration of the speech recognition feature new to Windows Vista at Microsoft 's Financial Analyst Meeting on 27 July 2006, the software recognized the phrase "Dear mom '' as "Dear aunt ''. After several failed attempts to correct the error, the sentence eventually became "Dear aunt, let 's set so double the killer delete select all ''. A developer with Vista 's speech recognition team later explained that there was a bug with the build of Vista that was causing the microphone gain level to be set very high, resulting in the audio being received by the speech recognition software being "incredibly distorted ''.
Windows Vista build 5824 (October 17, 2006) was supposed to be the RTM release, but a bug, which destroyed any system that was upgraded from Windows XP, prevented this, damaging development and lowering the chance that it would hit its January 2007 deadline.
Development of Windows Vista came to an end when Microsoft announced that it had been finalized on November 8, 2006, and was concluded by co-president of Windows development, Jim Allchin. The RTM 's build number had also jumped to 6000 to reflect Vista 's internal version number, NT 6.0. Jumping RTM build numbers is common practice among consumer - oriented Windows versions, like Windows 98 (build 1998), Windows 98 SE (build 2222), Windows Me (build 3000) or Windows XP (build 2600), as compared to the business - oriented versions like Windows 2000 (build 2195) or Server 2003 (build 3790). On November 16, 2006, Microsoft made the final build available to MSDN and Technet Plus subscribers. A business - oriented Enterprise edition was made available to volume license customers on 30 November. Windows Vista was launched for general customer availability on January 30, 2007.
Windows Vista introduced several features and functionality not present in its predecessors.
Vista includes technologies such as ReadyBoost and ReadyDrive, which employ fast flash memory (located on USB flash drives and hybrid hard disk drives) to improve system performance by caching commonly used programs and data. This manifests itself in improved battery life on notebook computers as well, since a hybrid drive can be spun down when not in use. Another new technology called SuperFetch utilizes machine learning techniques to analyze usage patterns to allow Windows Vista to make intelligent decisions about what content should be present in system memory at any given time. It uses almost all the extra RAM as disk cache. In conjunction with SuperFetch, an automatic built - in Windows Disk Defragmenter makes sure that those applications are strategically positioned on the hard disk where they can be loaded into memory very quickly with the least amount of physical movement of the hard disk 's read - write heads.
As part of the redesign of the networking architecture, IPv6 has been fully incorporated into the operating system and a number of performance improvements have been introduced, such as TCP window scaling. Earlier versions of Windows typically needed third - party wireless networking software to work properly, but this is not the case with Vista, which includes more comprehensive wireless networking support.
For graphics, Vista introduces a new Windows Display Driver Model and a major revision to Direct3D. The new driver model facilitates the new Desktop Window Manager, which provides the tearing - free desktop and special effects that are the cornerstones of Windows Aero. Direct3D 10, developed in conjunction with major graphics card manufacturers, is a new architecture with more advanced shader support, and allows the graphics processing unit to render more complex scenes without assistance from the CPU. It features improved load balancing between CPU and GPU and also optimizes data transfer between them. WDDM also provides video content playback that rivals typical consumer electronics devices. It does this by making it easy to connect to external monitors, providing for protected HD video playback and increasing overall video playback quality. For the first time in Windows, graphics processing unit (GPU) multitasking is possible, enabling users to run more than one GPU - intensive application simultaneously.
At the core of the operating system, many improvements have been made to the memory manager, process scheduler and I / O scheduler. The Heap Manager implements additional features such as integrity checking in order to improve robustness and defend against buffer overflow security exploits, although this comes at the price of breaking backward compatibility with some legacy applications. A Kernel Transaction Manager has been implemented that enables applications to work with the file system and Registry using atomic transaction operations.
Improved security was a primary design goal for Vista. Microsoft 's Trustworthy Computing initiative, which aims to improve public trust in its products, has had a direct effect on its development. This effort has resulted in a number of new security and safety features and an Evaluation Assurance Level rating of 4 +.
User Account Control, or UAC is perhaps the most significant and visible of these changes. UAC is a security technology that makes it possible for users to use their computer with fewer privileges by default, with a view to stopping malware from making unauthorized changes to the system. This was often difficult in previous versions of Windows, as the previous "limited '' user accounts proved too restrictive and incompatible with a large proportion of application software, and even prevented some basic operations such as looking at the calendar from the notification tray. In Windows Vista, when an action is performed that requires administrative rights (such as installing / uninstalling software or making system - wide configuration changes), the user is first prompted for an administrator name and password; in cases where the user is already an administrator, the user is still prompted to confirm the pending privileged action. Regular use of the computer such as running programs, printing, or surfing the Internet does not trigger UAC prompts. User Account Control asks for credentials in a Secure Desktop mode, in which the entire screen is dimmed, and only the authorization window is active and highlighted. The intent is to stop a malicious program misleading the user by interfering with the authorization window, and to hint to the user the importance of the prompt.
Testing by Symantec Corporation has proven the effectiveness of UAC. Symantec used over 2,000 active malware samples, consisting of backdoors, keyloggers, rootkits, mass mailers, trojan horses, spyware, adware, and various other samples. Each was executed on a default Windows Vista installation within a standard user account. UAC effectively blocked over 50 percent of each threat, excluding rootkits. 5 percent or less of the malware that evaded UAC survived a reboot.
Internet Explorer 7 's new security and safety features include a phishing filter, IDN with anti-spoofing capabilities, and integration with system - wide parental controls. For added security, ActiveX controls are disabled by default. Also, Internet Explorer operates in a protected mode, which operates with lower permissions than the user and runs in isolation from other applications in the operating system, preventing it from accessing or modifying anything besides the Temporary Internet Files directory. Microsoft 's anti-spyware product, Windows Defender, has been incorporated into Windows, providing protection against malware and other threats. Changes to various system configuration settings (such as new auto - starting applications) are blocked unless the user gives consent.
Whereas prior releases of Windows supported per - file encryption using Encrypting File System, the Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Vista include BitLocker Drive Encryption, which can protect entire volumes, notably the operating system volume. However, BitLocker requires approximately a 1.5 - gigabyte partition to be permanently not encrypted and to contain system files in order for Windows to boot. In normal circumstances, the only time this partition is accessed is when the computer is booting, or when there is a Windows update that changes files in this area, which is a legitimate reason to access this section of the drive. The area can be a potential security issue, because a hexadecimal editor (such as dskprobe. exe), or malicious software running with administrator and / or kernel level privileges would be able to write to this "Ghost Partition '' and allow a piece of malicious software to compromise the system, or disable the encryption. BitLocker can work in conjunction with a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) cryptoprocessor (version 1.2) embedded in a computer 's motherboard, or with a USB key. However, as with other full disk encryption technologies, BitLocker is vulnerable to a cold boot attack, especially where TPM is used as a key protector without a boot PIN being required too.
A variety of other privilege - restriction techniques are also built into Vista. An example is the concept of "integrity levels '' in user processes, whereby a process with a lower integrity level can not interact with processes of a higher integrity level and can not perform DLL -- injection to a processes of a higher integrity level. The security restrictions of Windows services are more fine - grained, so that services (especially those listening on the network) have no ability to interact with parts of the operating system they do not need to. Obfuscation techniques such as address space layout randomization are used to increase the amount of effort required of malware before successful infiltration of a system. Code integrity verifies that system binaries have not been tampered with by malicious code.
As part of the redesign of the network stack, Windows Firewall has been upgraded, with new support for filtering both incoming and outgoing traffic. Advanced packet filter rules can be created that can grant or deny communications to specific services.
The 64 - bit versions of Vista require that all device drivers be digitally signed, so that the creator of the driver can be identified.
While much of the focus of Vista 's new capabilities highlighted the new user - interface, security technologies, and improvements to the core operating system, Microsoft also adding new deployment and maintenance features:
Windows Vista includes a large number of new application programming interfaces. Chief among them is the inclusion of version 3.0 of the. NET Framework, which consists of a class library and Common Language Runtime and OS / 2 environment just like its NT predecessors. Version 3.0 includes four new major components:
These technologies are also available for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 to facilitate their introduction to and usage by developers and end users.
There are also significant new development APIs in the core of the operating system, notably the completely re-designed audio, networking, print, and video interfaces, major changes to the security infrastructure, improvements to the deployment and installation of applications ("ClickOnce '' and Windows Installer 4.0), new device driver development model ("Windows Driver Foundation ''), Transactional NTFS, mobile computing API advancements (power management, Tablet PC Ink support, SideShow) and major updates to (or complete replacements of) many core subsystems such as Winlogon and CAPI.
There are some issues for software developers using some of the graphics APIs in Vista. Games or programs built solely on the Windows Vista - exclusive version of DirectX, version 10, can not work on prior versions of Windows, as DirectX 10 is not available for previous Windows versions. Also, games that require the features of D3D9Ex, the updated implementation of DirectX 9 in Windows Vista are also incompatible with previous Windows versions. According to a Microsoft blog, there are three choices for OpenGL implementation on Vista. An application can use the default implementation, which translates OpenGL calls into the Direct3D API and is frozen at OpenGL version 1.4, or an application can use an Installable Client Driver (ICD), which comes in two flavors: legacy and Vista - compatible. A legacy ICD disables the Desktop Window Manager, a Vista - compatible ICD takes advantage of a new API, and is fully compatible with the Desktop Window Manager. At least two primary vendors, ATI and NVIDIA provided full Vista - compatible ICDs. However, hardware overlay is not supported, because it is considered as an obsolete feature in Vista. ATI and NVIDIA strongly recommend using compositing desktop / Framebuffer Objects for same functionality.
Windows Vista is the first Microsoft operating system:
Some notable Windows XP features and components have been replaced or removed in Windows Vista, including several shell and Windows Explorer features, multimedia features, networking related functionality, Windows Messenger, NTBackup, the network Windows Messenger service, HyperTerminal, MSN Explorer, Active Desktop, and the replacement of NetMeeting with Windows Meeting Space. Windows Vista also does not include the Windows XP "Luna '' visual theme, or most of the classic color schemes that have been part of Windows since the Windows 3. x era. The "Hardware profiles '' startup feature has also been removed, along with support for older motherboard technologies like the EISA bus, APM and Game port support (though on the 32 - bit version game port support can be enabled by applying an older driver). IP over FireWire (TCP / IP over IEEE 1394) has been removed as well. The IPX / SPX protocol has also been removed, although it can be enabled by a third - party plug - in.
Windows Vista shipped in six different editions. These are roughly divided into two target markets, consumer and business, with editions varying to cater for specific sub-markets. For consumers, there are three editions, with two available for economically more developed countries. Windows Vista Starter edition is aimed for low powered computers with availability only in emerging markets. Windows Vista Home Basic is intended for budget users. Windows Vista Home Premium covers the majority of the consumer market, and contains applications for creating and using multimedia. The home editions can not join a Windows Server domain. For businesses, there are three editions as well. Windows Vista Business is specifically designed for small and medium - sized enterprises, while Windows Vista Enterprise is only available to customers participating in Microsoft 's Software Assurance program. Windows Vista Ultimate contains the complete feature - set of both the Home and Business (combination of both Home Premium and Enterprise) editions, as well as a set of Windows Ultimate Extras, and is aimed at enthusiasts.
All editions except Windows Vista Starter support both 32 - bit (x32) and 64 - bit (x64) processor architectures.
In the European Union, Home Basic N and Business N versions are also available. These come without Windows Media Player, due to EU sanctions brought against Microsoft for violating anti-trust laws. Similar sanctions exist in South Korea.
Windows Vista has four distinct visual styles.
Computers capable of running Windows Vista are classified as Vista Capable and Vista Premium Ready. A Vista Capable or equivalent PC is capable of running all editions of Windows Vista although some of the special features and high - end graphics options may require additional or more advanced hardware. A Vista Premium Ready PC can take advantage of Vista 's high - end features.
Windows Vista 's Basic and Classic interfaces work with virtually any graphics hardware that supports Windows XP or 2000; accordingly, most discussion around Vista 's graphics requirements centers on those for the Windows Aero interface. As of Windows Vista Beta 2, the NVIDIA GeForce 6 series and later, the ATI Radeon 9500 and later, Intel 's GMA 950 and later integrated graphics, and a handful of VIA chipsets and S3 Graphics discrete chips are supported. Although originally supported, the GeForce FX 5 series has been dropped from newer drivers from NVIDIA. The last driver from NVIDIA to support the GeForce FX series on Vista was 96.85. Microsoft offered a tool called the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor to assist Windows XP and Vista users in determining what versions of Windows their machine is capable of running. The required server connections for this utility are no longer available. Although the installation media included in retail packages is a 32 - bit DVD, customers needing a CD - ROM or customers who wish for a 64 - bit install media are able to acquire this media through the Windows Vista Alternate Media program. The Ultimate edition includes both 32 - bit and 64 - bit media. The digitally downloaded version of Ultimate includes only one version, either 32 - bit or 64 - bit, from Windows Marketplace.
The maximum amount of RAM that Windows Vista can support varies, depending on both its edition and its processor architecture, as shown in the table.
The maximum number of logical processors in a PC that Windows Vista supports is: 32 for 32 - bit; 64 for 64 - bit.
The maximum number of physical processors in a PC that Windows Vista supports is: 2 for Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate, and 1 for Starter, Home Basic, and Home Premium.
Microsoft occasionally releases updates such as service packs for its Windows operating systems to fix bugs, improve performance and add new features.
Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (SP1) was released on 4 February 2008, alongside Windows Server 2008 to OEM partners, after a five - month beta test period. The initial deployment of the service pack caused a number of machines to continually reboot, rendering the machines unusable. This temporarily caused Microsoft to suspend automatic deployment of the service pack until the problem was resolved. The synchronized release date of the two operating systems reflected the merging of the workstation and server kernels back into a single code base for the first time since Windows 2000. MSDN subscribers were able to download SP1 on 15 February 2008. SP1 became available to current Windows Vista users on Windows Update and the Download Center on 18 March 2008. Initially, the service pack only supported five languages -- English, French, Spanish, German and Japanese. Support for the remaining 31 languages was released on 14 April 2008.
A white paper, published by Microsoft on 29 August 2007, outlined the scope and intent of the service pack, identifying three major areas of improvement: reliability and performance, administration experience, and support for newer hardware and standards.
One area of particular note is performance. Areas of improvement include file copy operations, hibernation, logging off on domain - joined machines, JavaScript parsing in Internet Explorer, network file share browsing, Windows Explorer ZIP file handling, and Windows Disk Defragmenter. The ability to choose individual drives to defragment is being reintroduced as well.
Service Pack 1 introduced support for some new hardware and software standards, notably the exFAT file system, 802.11 n wireless networking, IPv6 over VPN connections, and the Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol.
Booting a system using Extensible Firmware Interface on x64 systems was also introduced; this feature had originally been slated for the initial release of Vista but was delayed due to a lack of compatible hardware at the time. Booting from a GUID Partition Table -- based hard drive greater than 2.19 TB is supported (x64 only).
Two areas have seen changes in SP1 that have come as the result of concerns from software vendors. One of these is desktop search; users will be able to change the default desktop search program to one provided by a third party instead of the Microsoft desktop search program that comes with Windows Vista, and desktop search programs will be able to seamlessly tie in their services into the operating system. These changes come in part due to complaints from Google, whose Google Desktop Search application was hindered by the presence of Vista 's built - in desktop search. In June 2007, Google claimed that the changes being introduced for SP1 "are a step in the right direction, but they should be improved further to give consumers greater access to alternate desktop search providers ''. The other area of note is a set of new security APIs being introduced for the benefit of antivirus software that currently relies on the unsupported practice of patching the kernel (see Kernel Patch Protection).
An update to DirectX 10, named DirectX 10.1, marked mandatory several features that were previously optional in Direct3D 10 hardware. Graphics cards will be required to support DirectX 10.1. SP1 includes a kernel (6001.18000) that matches the version shipped with Windows Server 2008.
The Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) was replaced by the Group Policy Object Editor. An updated downloadable version of the Group Policy Management Console was released soon after the service pack.
SP1 enables support for hotpatching, a reboot - reduction servicing technology designed to maximize uptime. It works by allowing Windows components to be updated (or "patched '') while they are still in use by a running process. Hotpatch - enabled update packages are installed via the same methods as traditional update packages, and will not trigger a system reboot.
Service Pack 2 for Windows Vista was released to manufacturing on 28 April 2009, and released to Microsoft Download Center and Windows Update on 26 May 2009. In addition to a number of security and other fixes, a number of new features have been added. However, it did not include Internet Explorer 8. Windows Vista Service Pack 2 build number is 6002.18005. 090410 - 1830.
Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 share a single service pack binary, reflecting the fact that their code bases were joined with the release of Server 2008. Service Pack 2 is not a cumulative update meaning that Service Pack 1 must be installed first.
Platform Update for Windows Vista was released on 27 October 2009. It includes major new components that shipped with Windows 7, as well as updated runtime libraries. It requires Service Pack 2 of Windows Vista or Windows Server 2008 and is listed on Windows Update as a Recommended download.
The Platform Update allows application developers to target both Windows Vista and Windows 7. It consists of the following components:
Some updates are available as separate releases for both Windows XP and Windows Vista:
Although extensive, the Platform Update does not bring Windows Vista to the level of features and performance offered by Windows 7. For example, even though Direct3D 11 runtime will be able to run on D3D9 - class hardware and WDDM drivers using "feature levels '' first introduced in Direct3D 10.1, Desktop Window Manager has not been updated to use Direct3D 10.1.
In July 2011, Microsoft released Platform Update Supplement for Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, which contains several bug fixes and performance improvements.
In July 2008, Microsoft introduced a web - based advertising campaign called the "Mojave Experiment '', that depicts a group of people who are asked to evaluate the newest operating system from Microsoft, calling it Windows ' Mojave '. Participants are first asked about Vista, if they have used it, and their overall satisfaction with Vista on a scale of 1 to 10. They are then shown a demo of some of the new operating system 's features, and asked their opinion and satisfaction with it on the same 1 to 10 scale. After respondents rate "Mojave '', they are then told that they were really shown a demo of Windows Vista. The object was to test "A theory: If people could see Windows Vista firsthand, they would like it. '' According to Microsoft, the initial sample of respondents rated Vista an average of 4.4 out of 10, and Mojave received an average of 8.5, with no respondents rating Mojave lower than they originally rated Windows Vista before the demo. The "experiment '' has been criticized for deliberate selection of positive statements and not addressing all aspects of Vista.
Amid the negative reviews and reception, there were also positive reviews of Vista, most notably among PC gamers and the advantages brought about with DirectX 10, which allowed for better gaming performance and more realistic graphics, as well as support for many new capabilities brought about in new video cards and GPUs. However, many DirectX 9 games initially showed a drop in frame rate compared to that experienced in Windows XP. In mid-2008, benchmarks suggested that Vista SP1 was on par with (or better than) Windows XP in terms of game performance. Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that, in spite of its delays and feature cuts, Windows Vista is "a huge evolution in the history of the NT platform (...) The fundamental changes to the platform are of a scale not seen since the release of NT. '' In a continuation of his previous assessment, Bright would go on to state that "Vista is not simply XP with a new skin; core parts of the OS have been radically overhauled, and virtually every area has seen significant refinement. In terms of the magnitude and extent of these changes, Vista represents probably the biggest leap that the NT platform has ever seen. Never before have significant subsystems been gutted and replaced in the way they are in Vista. ''
Windows Vista received the "Best of CES '' award at the Consumer Electronics Show in 2007.
In its first year of availability, PC World rated it as the biggest tech disappointment of 2007, and it was rated by InfoWorld as No. 2 of Tech 's all - time 25 flops. Microsoft 's then much smaller competitor Apple noted that, despite Vista 's far greater sales, its own did not seem to have suffered after its release, and would later invest in advertising mocking Vista 's unpopularity with users.
Computer manufactures such as Dell, Lenovo, and Hewlett - Packard released their newest computers with Windows Vista pre-installed; however, after the negative reception of the operating system, they also began selling their computers with Windows XP CDs included because of a drop in sales.
A Gartner research report predicted that Vista business adoption in 2008 would overtake that of XP during the same time frame (21.3 % vs. 16.9 %) while IDC had indicated that the launch of Windows Server 2008 served as a catalyst for the stronger adoption rates. As of January 2009, Forrester Research had indicated that almost one third of North American and European corporations had started deploying Vista. At a May 2009 conference, a Microsoft Vice President said "Adoption and deployment of Windows Vista has been slightly ahead of where we had been with XP '' for big businesses.
Within its first month, 20 million copies of Vista were sold, double the amount of Windows XP sales within its first month in October 2001, five years earlier. Shortly after however, due to Vista 's relatively low adoption rates and continued demand for Windows XP, Microsoft decided to sell Windows XP until 30 June 2008, instead of the previously planned date of 31 January 2008. There were reports of Vista users "downgrading '' their operating systems, as well as reports of businesses planning to skip Vista. A study conducted by ChangeWave in March 2008 showed that the percentage of corporate users who were "very satisfied '' with Vista was dramatically lower than other operating systems, with Vista at 8 %, compared to the 40 % who said they were "very satisfied '' with Windows XP.
The internet - usage market share for Windows Vista after two years of availability, in January 2009, was 20.61 %. This figure combined with World Internet Users and Population Stats yielded a user base of roughly 330 million, which exceeded Microsoft 's two - year post launch expectations by 130 million. The internet user base reached before the release of its successor (Windows 7) was roughly 400 million according to the same statistical sources.
Windows Vista has received a number of negative assessments. Criticism targets include protracted development time (5 -- 6 years), more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number of technologies aimed at restricting the copying of protected digital media, and the usability of the new User Account Control security technology. Moreover, some concerns have been raised about many PCs meeting "Vista Premium Ready '' hardware requirements and Vista 's pricing.
While in 2005 Microsoft claimed "nearly all PCs on the market today will run Windows Vista '', the higher requirements of some of the "premium '' features, such as the Aero interface, affected many upgraders. According to the UK newspaper The Times in May 2006, the full set of features "would be available to less than 5 percent of Britain 's PC market ''; however, this prediction was made several months before Vista was released. This continuing lack of clarity eventually led to a class action against Microsoft as people found themselves with new computers that were unable to use the new software to its full potential despite the assurance of "Vista Capable '' designations. The court case has made public internal Microsoft communications that indicate that senior executives have also had difficulty with this issue. For example, Mike Nash (Corporate Vice President, Windows Product Management) commented, "I now have a $2,100 e-mail machine '' because his laptop 's lack of an appropriate graphics chip so hobbled Vista.
Criticism of upgrade licenses pertaining to Windows Vista Starter through Home Premium was expressed by Ars Technica 's Ken Fisher, who noted that the new requirement of having a prior operating system already installed was going to cause irritation for users who reinstall Windows on a regular basis. It has been revealed that an Upgrade copy of Windows Vista can be installed clean without first installing a previous version of Windows. On the first install, Windows will refuse to activate. The user must then reinstall that same copy of Vista. Vista will then activate on the reinstall, thus allowing a user to install an Upgrade of Windows Vista without owning a previous operating system. As with Windows XP, separate rules still apply to OEM versions of Vista installed on new PCs: Microsoft asserts that these versions are not legally transferable (although whether this conflicts with the right of first sale has yet to be clearly decided legally).
Initially, the cost of Windows Vista was also a source of concern and commentary. A majority of users in a poll said that the prices of various Windows Vista editions posted on the Microsoft Canada website in August 2006 make the product too expensive. A BBC News report on the day of Vista 's release suggested that, "there may be a backlash from consumers over its pricing plans -- with the cost of Vista versions in the US roughly half the price of equivalent versions in the UK. '' Since the release of Vista in 2006, Microsoft has reduced the retail, and upgrade price point of Vista. Originally, Vista Ultimate was priced at $399, and Home Premium Vista at $239. These prices have since been reduced to $319 and $199 respectively.
Windows Vista supports additional forms of DRM restrictions. One aspect of this is the Protected Video Path, which is designed so that "premium content '' from HD DVD or Blu - ray Discs may mandate that the connections between PC components be encrypted. Depending on what the content demands, the devices may not pass premium content over non-encrypted outputs, or they must artificially degrade the quality of the signal on such outputs or not display it at all. Drivers for such hardware must be approved by Microsoft; a revocation mechanism is also included, which allows Microsoft to disable drivers of devices in end - user PCs over the Internet. Peter Gutmann, security researcher and author of the open source cryptlib library, claims that these mechanisms violate fundamental rights of the user (such as fair use), unnecessarily increase the cost of hardware, and make systems less reliable (the "tilt bit '' being a particular worry; if triggered, the entire graphic subsystem performs a reset) and vulnerable to denial - of - service attacks. However, despite several requests for evidence supporting such claims Peter Gutmann has never supported his claims with any researched evidence. Proponents have claimed that Microsoft had no choice but to follow the demands of the movie studios, and that the technology will not actually be enabled until after 2010; Microsoft also noted that content protection mechanisms have existed in Windows as far back as Windows ME, and that the new protections will not apply to any existing content (only future content).
Although User Account Control (UAC) is an important part of Vista 's security infrastructure, as it blocks software from silently gaining administrator privileges without the user 's knowledge, it has been widely criticized for generating too many prompts. This has led many Vista UAC users to consider it troublesome, with some consequently either turning the feature off or (for Windows Vista Enterprise or Windows Vista Ultimate users) putting it in auto - approval mode. Responding to this criticism, Microsoft altered the implementation to reduce the number of prompts with SP1. Though the changes have resulted in some improvement, it has not alleviated the concerns completely.
For Windows 8 licenses acquired through an OEM, a user may downgrade to the equivalent edition of Windows Vista. Customers licensed for use of Windows 8 Enterprise are generally licensed for Windows 8 Pro, which may be downgraded to Windows Vista Business. End users of licenses of Windows 7 acquired through OEM or volume licensing may downgrade to the equivalent edition of Windows Vista. Downgrade rights are not offered for Starter, Home Basic or Home Premium editions of Windows 7.
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where was the first bit of gold found
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Australian gold rushes - Wikipedia
During the Australian gold rushes, significant numbers of workers (both from other areas within Australia and from overseas) relocated to areas in which gold had been discovered. A number of gold finds occurred in Australia prior to 1851, but only the gold found from 1851 onwards created gold rushes. This is mainly because, prior to 1851, the colonial government of New South Wales (Victoria did not become a separate colony until 1 July 1851) had suppressed news of gold finds which it believed would reduce the workforce and destabilise the economy.
After the California gold rush began in 1848, which caused many people to leave Australia for California to look for gold there, the New South Wales government rethought its position, and sought approval from the Colonial Office in England to allow the exploitation of the mineral resources and also offered rewards for the finding of payable gold.
The first gold rush in Australia began in May 1851 after prospector Edward Hargraves claimed to have discovered payable gold near Orange, at a site he called Ophir. Hargraves had been to the Californian goldfields and had learned new gold prospecting techniques such as panning and cradling. Hargraves was offered rewards by the Colony of New South Wales and the Colony of Victoria. Before the end of the year, the gold rush had spread to many other parts of the state where gold had been found, not just to the west, but also to the south and north of Sydney.
The Australian gold rushes changed the convict colonies into more progressive cities with the influx of free immigrants. These hopefuls, termed diggers, brought new skills and professions, contributing to a burgeoning economy. The mateship that evolved between these diggers and their collective resistance to authority led to the emergence of a unique national identity. Although not all diggers found riches on the goldfields, many decided to stay and integrate into these communities.
In July 1851, Victoria 's first gold rush began on the Clunes goldfield. In August, the gold rush had spread to include the goldfield at Buninyong (today a suburb of Ballarat) 45 km (28 m) away and, by early September 1851, to the nearby goldfield at Ballarat (then also known as Yuille 's Diggings), followed in early September to the goldfield at Castlemaine (then known as Forest Creek and the Mount Alexander Goldfield) and the goldfield at Bendigo (then known as Bendigo Creek) in November 1851. Gold, just as in New South Wales, was also found in many other parts of the state. The Victorian Gold Discovery Committee wrote in 1854:
The discovery of the Victorian Goldfields has converted a remote dependency into a country of world wide fame; it has attracted a population, extraordinary in number, with unprecedented rapidity; it has enhanced the value of property to an enormous extent; it has made this the richest country in the world; and, in less than three years, it has done for this colony the work of an age, and made its impulses felt in the most distant regions of the earth.
When the rush began at Ballarat, diggers discovered it was a prosperous goldfield. Lieutenant - Governor, Charles La Trobe visited the site and watched five men uncover 136 ounces of gold in one day. Mount Alexander was even richer than Ballarat. With gold sitting just under the surface, the shallowness allowed diggers to easily unearth gold nuggets. In 7 months, 2.4 million pounds of gold was transported from Mount Alexander to nearby capital cities.
The gold rushes caused a huge influx of people from overseas. Australia 's total population more than tripled from 430,000 in 1851 to 1.7 million in 1871. Australia first became a multicultural society during the gold rush period. Between 1852 and 1860, 290,000 people migrated to Victoria from the British Isles, 15,000 came from other European countries, and 18,000 emigrated from the United States. Non-European immigrants, however, were unwelcome, especially the Chinese.
The Chinese were particularly industrious, with techniques that differed widely from the Europeans. This and their physical appearance and fear of the unknown led to them to being persecuted in a racist way that would be regarded as untenable today.
In 1855, 11,493 Chinese arrived in Melbourne. Chinese travelling outside of New South Wales had to obtain special re-entry certificates. In 1855, Victoria enacted the Chinese Immigration Act 1855, severely limiting the number of Chinese passengers permitted on an arriving vessel. To evade the new law, many Chinese were landed in the south - east of South Australia and travelled more than 400 km across country to the Victorian goldfields, along tracks which are still evident today.
In 1885, following a call by the Western Australian government for a reward for the first find of payable gold, a discovery was made at Halls Creek, sparking a gold rush in that state.
In August 1788, convict James Daley reported to several people that he had found gold, "an inexhaustible source of wealth '', "some distance down the harbour (Port Jackson, Sydney) ''. On the pretense of showing an officer the position of his gold find, Daley absconded into the bush for a day. For this escapade, Daley was to receive 50 lashes. Still insisting that he had found gold, Daley next produced a specimen of gold ore. Governor Arthur Phillip then ordered Daley to again be taken down the harbour to point out where he had found the gold. Before being taken down the harbour, however, on being warned by an officer that he would be put to death if he attempted to deceive him, Daley confessed that his story about finding gold was "a falsehood ''. He had manufactured the specimen of gold ore that he had exhibited from a gold guinea and a brass buckle and he produced the remains of the same as proof. For this deception, Daley received 100 lashes. Many convicts, however, continued to believe that Daley had indeed found gold, and that he had only changed his story to keep the place of the gold find to himself. James Daley 's fate was to hang in December that same year (1788) for breaking and entering and theft.
Some convicts who were employed cutting a road over the Blue Mountains were rumoured to have found small pieces of gold in 1815.
F. Stein was a Russian naturalist with the 1819 -- 1821 Bellinhausen expedition to explore the Southern Ocean. Stein claimed to have sighted gold - bearing ore while he was on a 12 - day trip to the Blue Mountains in March 1820. Many people were sceptical of his claim.
The first officially recognised gold find in Australia was on 15 February 1823, by assistant surveyor James McBrien, at Fish River, between Rydal and Bathurst, New South Wales. McBrien noted the date in his field survey book along with, "At E. (End of the survey line) 1 chain 50 links to river and marked a gum tree. At this place I found numerous particles of gold convenient to river. ''
In 1834 with government help, John Lhotsky travelled to the Monaro district of New South Wales and explored its southern mountains. On returning to Sydney in that same year, he exhibited specimens that he had collected that contained gold.
In 1837, gold and silver ore was found about 30 miles (48 km) from Segenhoe near Aberdeen. The find was described in the newspapers as the discovery of a gold and silver mine about 30 miles from Thomas Potter Macqueen 's Segenhoe Estate, by a Russian stockman employed in the neighbourhood of the discovery, which was located on Crown land.
Paweł Edmund Strzelecki geologist and explorer, found small amounts of gold in silicate in 1839 at the Vale of Clwyd near Hartley, a location on the road to Bathurst.
Gold is believed to have been found in Northern Tasmania at The Den (formerly known as Lefroy or Nine Mile Springs) near George Town in 1840 by a convict. In the 1880s, this became known as the Lefroy goldfields.
The Reverend William Branwhite Clarke found gold on the Coxs River, a location on the road to Bathurst, in 1841. In 1842 he found gold on the Wollondilly River. In 1843, Clarke spoke to many persons of the abundance of gold likely to be found in the colony of New South Wales. On 9 April 1844, Clarke exhibited a sample of gold in quartz to Governor Sir George Gipps. In that same year, Clarke showed the sample and spoke of the probable abundance of gold to some members of the New South Wales Legislative Council including Justice Roger Therry, the member for Camden and Joseph Phelps Robinson, then member for the Town of Melbourne. In evidence that Clarke gave before a Select Committee of the NSW Legislative Council in September 1852, he stated that the subject was not followed up as "the matter was regarded as one of curiosity only, and considerations of the penal character of the colony kept the subject quiet, as much as the general ignorance of the value of such an indication. '' Towards the end of 1853, Clarke was given a grant of £ 1000 by the New South Wales government for his services in connection with the discovery of gold. The same amount (£ 1000) was voted by the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee in 1854.
Gold was found in Pyrenees Ranges near Clunes and in the Plenty Ranges near Melbourne in 1841 and the gold was sent to Hobart where it was sold.
Beginning in 1843, gold samples were brought several times into the watchmaker 's shop of T.J. Thomas in Melbourne by "bushmen ''. The specimens were looked upon as curiosities.
A shepherd named Smith thought that he had found gold near the Ovens River in 1844, and reported the matter to Charles La Trobe, who advised him to say nothing about it.
On 12 December 1845, a shepherd walked into the George Street, Sydney shop of goldsmith E.D. Cohen carrying a specimen of gold embedded in quartz for sale, with the gold weighing about four ounces, with the shepherd saying he had been robbed of double as much on his way to town. The shepherd did not disclose where he had found the gold, just that if men were to take engagements with squatters they, in addition to receiving their wages, may also discover a gold mine.
Gold was found in South Australia and Australia 's first goldmine was established. From the earliest days of the Colony of South Australia men, including Johannes Menge the geologist with the South Australian Company, had been seeking gold. "Armed with miner 's pick, numberless explorers are to be found prying into the depths of the valleys or climbing the mountain tops. No place is too remote ''. Gold was found in January 1846 by Captain Thomas Terrell at the Victoria Mine near Castambul, in the Adelaide Hills, South Australia, about 10 miles (16 km) east of Adelaide. Some of the gold was made into a brooch sent to Queen Victoria and samples were displayed at the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in 1851. Share prices rose from £ 2 to £ 30, but soon fell back to £ 3 when no further gold was found. Unfortunately for the investors, and everyone else concerned, the mine 's total gold production never amounted to more than 24 ounces.
Gold was found at Port Phillip (Victoria) by a shepherd. About April 1847 a shepherd took a sample of ore about the size of an apple, that he believed to be copper, into the jewellery store of Charles Brentani in Collins Street, Melbourne, where the sample was purchased by an employee, Joseph Forrester, a gold and silver smith. The shepherd refused to disclose to Forrester where he had obtained the nugget, but stated that "there was plenty more of it where it came from '' on the station where he worked about 60 miles (96 km) from Melbourne. The sample was tested by Forrester and found to be 65 per cent virgin gold. A sample of this ore was given to Captain Clinch who took it to Hobart.
It is said that John Gardner found gold - bearing quartz in 1847 on Blythe Creek, near Beaconsfield, on the other side of the Tamar River from George Town.
Gold was found by a shepherd named McGregor at Mitchells Creek near Wellington, New South Wales, in 1848 on the Montefiore 's squatting run, "Nanima ''. The Bathurst Free Press noted, on 25 May 1850, that "Neither is there any doubt in the fact that Mr M'Gregor found a considerable quantity of the precious metal some years ago, near Mitchell 's Creek, and it is surmised he still gets more in the same locality. ''
William Tipple Smith found gold near Bathurst in 1848. Smith, a mineralogist and manager of an iron works in New South Wales, had been inspired to look for gold near Bathurst by the ideas of Roderick Murchison, president of the Royal Geographical Society, who in 1844 in his first presidential address, had predicted the existence of gold in Australia 's Great Dividing Range, ideas which were published again in "The Sydney Morning Herald '' on 28 September 1847 suggesting that gold "will be found on the western flanks of the dividing ranges ''. Smith sent samples of the gold he found to Murchison.
Gold was first detected in Western Australia in 1848 in specimens sent for assay to Adelaide from copper and lead deposits found in the bed of the Murchison River, near Northampton, by explorer James Perry Walcott, a member of A.C. Gregory 's party.
In 1852 -- 53 rich specimens of gold - bearing stone were found by shepherds and others in the eastern districts, but they were unable afterwards to locate the places where the stone was discovered. The late Hon A.C. Gregory found traces of gold in quartz in the Bowes River in 1854. In 1861 Mr Panton found near Northam, while shortly afterwards a shepherd brought in rich specimens of auriferous quartz which he had found to the eastward of Northam, but he failed to locate the spot again.
Various small finds were made up to 1882, when Alexander McRae found gold between Cossack and Roebourne, with one nugget weighing upwards of 9 dwt (14g).
Edward Hardman, Government Geologist, found traces of gold in the East Kimberley in 1884. His report about his finds subsequently led to the discovery of payable gold and the first Western Australian Goldrush.
Gold was found in the Pyrnees Ranges in 1848 by a shepherd, Thomas Chapman. In December 1848 Chapman came into the jewellery store of Charles Brentani, in Collins Street, Melbourne, with a stone that he had "held for several months ''. Chapman said that he had found the gold where he worked on Charles Browning Hall (later Gold Commissioner) and Edmund McNeill 's station at Daisy Hill (near Amherst) in the Pyrennes Ranges. Alexandre Duchene and Joseph Forrester, both working for Charles Brentani, confirmed the stone contained a total of 38 ounces of 90 per cent pure gold, and Brentani 's wife Ann purchased the stone on behalf of her husband. A sample of this ore was given to Captain Clinch who took it to Hobart, Captain White who took it to England, and Charles La Trobe. As a consequence of the gold find by Chapman official printed notices were posted on a number of prominent places in the town (Melbourne) proclaiming the fact that gold had been found in Port Phillip (Victoria). The Bertini 's shop was thronged by persons wanting to see the nugget and asking where it had been found. This find sparked a mini-gold - rush with about a hundred men rushing to the site. This could perhaps be categorised as the first, though unofficial, gold rush in Victoria, or perhaps the gold rush that was stamped out.
Charles La Trobe quickly put an end to the search for gold in February 1849 by ordering 10 mounted police (William Dana and Richard McLelland in charge of 8 native troopers) to ' take possession of the Gold - mine ', ' prevent any unauthorised occupation of Crown Lands in the neighbourhood ' (Hall and McNeill 's station was leased from the Crown), dismiss the gold - seekers and prevent any further digging at Daisy Hill. The story was then dismissed by some of the press as a hoax. This did not stop people finding gold, however, and in the year 1850, according to Brentani 's wife Ann, the "gold came down from the country in all directions ''. She and her husband purchased as much as they could but had difficulty in supplying the money.
The first substantiated find of gold in Tasmania was reported to have been made by a Mr Riva of Launceston, who is stated to have traced gold in slate rocks in the vicinity of The Den (formerly known as Lefroy or Nine Mile Springs) near George Town in 1849.
The following news item from the "Geelong Advertiser '' of 10 July 1849 shows the attitude of scepticism towards gold finds that were being brought into towns like Geelong during the pre-goldrush period:
GOLD. - A specimen of this valuable mineral was brought into town yesterday, having been picked up in a locality near the Wardy - yallock River. Of the identity of the metal there can be no mistake; but whether it was really taken from the spot indicated, or intended merely as a hoax or perhaps a swindle, it is quite impossible, at the present moment, to say. The piece exhibited, is of very small size; but, of course, as in all such instances, the lucky finder can obtain tons from the same spot by the simple mode of stooping down and picking it up.
The attitude was completely different just a couple of years later in 1853 after the Victorian goldrushes had begun:
Smythe 's Creek, a branch of the Wardy Yallock river, is also attracting its share of the mining population, who are doing tolerably well. One very fine sample of gold has also been received in town during the week from the Wardy Yallock itself, found in the locality where the exploring party of last winter ended their labours. The parcel is small, - only 22 dwts., but was obtained by one man in a week from very shallow surfacing.
In March 1850 pastoralist William Campbell found several minute pieces of native gold in quartz on the station of Donald Cameron at Clunes. William Campbell is notable as having been the first member of the electoral district of Loddon of the Victorian Legislative Council from November 1851 to May 1854. Campbell was in 1854 to receive a £ 1,000 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee as the original discoverer of gold at Clunes. At the time of the find in March 1850 Campbell was in the company of Donald Cameron, Cameron 's superintendent, and a friend. This find was concealed at the time lest it should bring undesirable strangers to the run. Observing, however, the migration of the population of New South Wales and the panic created throughout the whole colony, and especially in Melbourne, and further motivated by a £ 200 reward that had been offered the day previous to anyone who could find payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne, on 10 June 1851, Campbell addressed a letter to merchant James Graham (member of Victorian Legislative Council 1853 -- 1854 and 1867 -- 1886) stating that within a radius of 15 miles of Burn Bank, on another party 's station, he had procured specimens of gold. Campbell divulged the precise spot where the gold had been found in a letter to Graham dated 5 July 1851. Prior to this date, however, James Esmond and his party were already at work there mining for gold. This was because Cameron had earlier shown specimens of the gold to George Hermann Bruhn, a German doctor and geologist whose services as an analyst were in great demand. Communication of this knowledge by Hermann to James Esmond was to result in the discovery by Esmond on 1 July 1851 of payable quantities of alluvial gold at Clunes which then resulted in the first Victorian gold rush.
Edward Hargraves, accompanied by John Lister, found five specks of alluvial gold at Ophir near Orange in February 1851. Then, in April 1851, John Lister and William Tom, trained by Edward Hargraves, found 120 grams of gold. This discovery, instigated by Hargraves, led directly to the beginning of the gold rush in New South Wales. This was the first gold rush in Australia and was in full operation by May 1851, even before it was officially proclaimed on 14 May 1851, with already an estimated 300 diggers in place by 15 May 1851. Before 14 May 1851 gold was already flowing from Bathurst to Sydney, an example being when Edward Austin brought to Sydney a nugget of gold worth £ 35, which had been found in the Bathurst District.
In 1872 a large gold and quartz "Holtermann Nugget '' discovered by the night shift in a mine part owned by Bernhardt Holtermann at Hill End, near Bathurst, New South Wales: the largest specimen of reef gold ever found, 1.5 meters (59 inches) long, weighing 286 kg (630 pounds), in Hill End, near Bathurst, and with an estimated gold content of 5000 ounces (57 kg).
In January 1851, before Hargraves ' find of gold in February 1851 at Ophir near Orange in New South Wales which started the first Australian gold rush, George Hermann Bruhn had left Melbourne to explore the mineral resources of the countryside of Victoria. On his trek Bruhn found, on a date unknown, indications of gold in quartz about 2 miles (3 km) from Edward Stone Parker 's station at Franklinford (between Castlemaine and Daylesford). After leaving Parker 's station Bruhn arrived at Donald Cameron 's station at Clunes in April 1851. Cameron showed Bruhn samples of the gold that had been found on his station at Clunes in March 1850. Bruhn also explored the countryside and found quartz reefs in the vicinity. "This information he promulgated through the country in the course of his journey. '' One of the people to whom Bruhn communicated this information was James Esmond who was at that time engaged in erecting a building on James Hodgkinson 's station "Woodstock '' at Lexton about 16 miles (25 km) to the west of Clunes. This then indirectly led to the first gold rush in Victoria from Esmond 's subsequent discovery of payable gold at Clunes in July 1851. Bruhn also forwarded specimens of gold to Melbourne which were received by the Gold Discovery Committee on 30 June 1851. Bruhn was in 1854 to receive a £ 500 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee "in acknowledgment of his services in exploring the country for five or six months, and for diffusing the information of the discovery of gold ''.
Gold was found at the Turon Goldfields at Sofala in June 1851.
On 9 June 1851 a reward of £ 200 was offered to the first person to discover payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne. Henry Frencham, then a reporter for "The Times '', and shortly afterwards for "The Argus '', was determined to be one of the persons to claim this reward. On 11 June 1851 he formed one of a party of 8 to search for gold north and north - east of Melbourne. Only 2 days later the party had dwindled to two men, Frencham and W.H. Walsh, who found what they thought to be gold at Warrandyte. At 5pm on 13 June 1851 Frencham deposited with the Town Clerk at Melbourne, William Kerr, specimens of gold. The next day the headline in "The Times '' newspaper was "Gold Discovery ''. On 24 June 1851 Frencham and Walsh lodged a claim for the reward offered by the Gold Committee for the discovery of a payable goldfield in the Plenty Ranges about 25 miles (40 km) from Melbourne. The claim was not allowed. The specimens were tested by chemists Hood and Sydney Gibbons who could not find a trace of gold, but this may have been because they had little expertise in the area. Even if they had determined that the samples contained gold, however, it was not payable gold. Frencham always claimed to have been the first to find gold in the Plenty Ranges.
On 30 June 1851 gold was definitely found about 36 km (22 miles) north - east of Melbourne in the quartz rocks of the Yarra Ranges at Anderson 's Creek, Warrandyte, Victoria by Louis John Michel, William Haberlin, James Furnival, James Melville, James Headon and B. Gruening. This gold was shown at the precise spot where it had been found to Webb Richmond, on behalf of the Gold Discovery Committee, on 5 July, the full particulars of the locality were communicated to the Lieutenant - Governor on 8 July and a sample was brought to Melbourne and exhibited to the Gold Discovery Committee on 16 July. As a result the Gold Discovery Committee were of the opinion that this find was the first publisher of the location of the discovery of a goldfield in the Colony of Victoria. This site was later named as Victoria 's first official gold discovery. Michel and his party were in 1854 to receive a £ 1,000 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee "as having, at considerable expense, succeeded in discovering and publishing an available goldfield ''. On 1 September 1851 the first gold licences in Victoria were issued to dig for gold in this locality, "which was previous to their issue on any other Goldfield ''. About 300 people were at work on this goldfield prior to the discovery of Ballarat.
On 1 July 1851 Victoria became a separate colony and, on the same day, James Esmond in company with Pugh, Burns and Kelly, found alluvial gold in payable quantities near Donald Cameron 's station on Creswick 's Creek, a tributary of the Loddon, at Clunes, 34 km (22m) north of Ballarat. Esmond and his party found the gold after Esmond had been told by George Hermann Bruhn of the gold that had been found in March 1850 on Cameron 's property at Clunes and that in the vicinity were quartz reefs which were likely to bear gold. Esmond rode into Geelong with a sample of their discovery on 5 July. News of the discovery was published first in the Geelong Advertiser on 7 July and then in Melbourne on 8 July.
Gold in the Pyrenees. The long sought treasure is at length found! Victoria is a gold country, and from Geelong goes forth the first glad tidings of the discovery. Esmonds arrived in Geelong on Saturday with some beautiful specimens of gold, in quartz, and gold - dust in a "debris '' of the same species of rock. The specimens have been subjected to the most rigid test by Mr Patterson, in the presence of other competent parties, and he pronounced them to be beyond any possibility of doubt pure gold...
The particulars of the precise location, with Esmond 's consent, was published in the Geelong Advertiser on 22 July 1851. Publication of Esmond 's find started the first official gold rush in Victoria in that same month. By 1 August between 300 and 400 diggers were encamped on the Clunes Goldfield, but soon moved to other fields as news of other gold discoveries spread. Esmond was in 1854 to receive a £ 1,000 reward as "the first actual producer of alluvial gold for the market ''.
The following goldfields were discovered in New South Wales during July 1851:
On 20 July 1851 gold was found near present - day Castlemaine, Victoria (Mt Alexander Goldfields) at Specimen Gully in today 's Castlemaine suburb of Barkers Creek. The gold was first found by Christopher Thomas Peters, a shepherd and hut - keeper on the Barker 's Creek, in the service of William Barker. When the gold was shown in the men 's quarters Peters was ridiculed for finding fool 's gold, and the gold was thrown away. Barker did not want his workmen to abandon his sheep, but in August they did just that. John Worley, George Robinson and Robert Keen, also in the employ of Barker as shepherds and a bullock driver, immediately teamed with Peters in working the deposits by panning in Specimen Gully, which they did in relative privacy during the next month. When Barker sacked them and ran them off for trespass, Worley, on behalf of the party "to prevent them getting in trouble '', mailed a letter to The Argus (Melbourne) dated 1 September 1851 announcing this new goldfield with the precise location of their workings. This letter was published on 8 September 1851. "With this obsure notice, rendered still more so by the journalist as ' Western Port ', were ushered to the world the inexhaustible treasures of Mount Alexander '', also to become known as the Forest Creek diggings. Within a month there were about 8,000 diggers working the alluvial beds of the creeks near the present day town of Castlemaine, and particularly Forest Creek which runs through the suburb today known as Chewton where the first small township was established. By the end of the year there were about 25,000 on the field.
On 8 August 1851 an auriferous deposit of gold was found 3 kilometres west of Buninyong, Victoria, near Ballarat. The gold was discovered in a gully in the Buninyong ranges, by a resident of Buninyong, Thomas Hiscock. Hiscock communicated the find, with its precise locality, to the editor of the "Geelong Advertiser '' on 10 August. In that same month prospectors began moving from the Clunes to the Buninyong diggings. Hiscock was in 1854 to receive £ 1,000 reward from the Victorian Gold Discovery Committee as the substantial discoverer of the gold deposits of "superior value '' in the Ballarat area.
On 21 August 1851 gold was found at Ballarat, Victoria in Poverty Point by John Dunlop and James Regan. Ballarat is about 10 km (6m) from Buninyong and upon the same range. John Dunlop and James Regan found their first few ounces of gold while panning in the Canadian Creek after leaving the Buninyong diggings to extend their search for gold. However Henry Frenchman, a newspaper man who in June had claimed, unsuccessfully, the £ 200 reward for finding payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne, had followed them and noticed their work. As a result, they only had the rich Ballarat goldfield to themselves for a week. By early September 1851 what became known as the Ballarat gold rush had begun, as reported from the field by Henry Frencham, then a reporter for the Argus. (Henry Frencham claimed in his article of 19 September 1851 to have been the first to discover gold at Ballarat (then also known as Yuille 's Diggings) "and make it known to the public '', a claim he was later to also make about Bendigo, and which resulted in the sitting of a Select Committee of the Victorian Legislative Assembly in 1890.)
In the report of the Committee on the Claims to Original Discovery of the Goldfields of Victoria published in The Argus (Melbourne) newspaper of 28 March 1854, however, a different picture of the discovery of gold at Golden Point at Ballarat is presented. They stated that Regan and Dunlop were one of two parties working at the same time on opposite sides of the ranges forming Golden Point, the other contenders for the first finders of gold at Ballarat being described as "Mr Brown and his party ''. The committee stated that "where so many rich deposits were discovered almost simultaneously, within a radius of little more than half a mile, it is difficult to decide to whom is due the actual commencement of the Ballarat diggings. '' They also agreed that the prospectors "had been attracted there (Ballarat) by the discoveries in the neighbourhood of Messrs. Esmonds (Clunes) and Hiscock (Buninyong) '' and "by attracting great numbers of diggers to the neighbourhood '' that "the discovery of Ballarat was but a natural consequence of the discovery of Buninyong ''.
in 1858 the "Welcome Nugget '' weighing 2,217 troy ounces 16 pennyweight. (68.98 kg) found at Bakery Hill at Ballarat by a group of 22 Cornish miners working at the mine of the Red Hill Mining Company.
It has been claimed that Gold was first found at Bendigo, Victoria in September 1851.
The name of the first discoverer of gold on the Bendigo goldfield is unknown. A Select Committee of the Victorian Parliament inquiring into this matter in September and October 1890 examined many witnesses but was unable to decide between the various claimants. They were, however, able to decide that the first gold on the Bendigo goldfields was found in 1851 at "The Rocks '' area of Bendigo Creek at Golden Square, which is near where today 's Maple Street crosses the Bendigo Creek.
According to the Bendigo Historical Society, it has today, contrary to the findings of the Select Committee of 1890, become "generally agreed '' or "acknowledged '' that gold was found at Bendigo Creek by two married women from the Mount Alexander North Run (later renamed the Ravenswood Run), Margaret Kennedy and Julia Farrell. A monument to this effect was erected by the City Of Greater Bendigo in front of the Senior Citizens Centre at High Street, Golden Square on 28 September 2001. This acknowledgement is not shared by contemporaneous historians such as Robert Coupe who wrote in his book "Australia 's Gold Rushes '', first published in 2000, that "there are several accounts of the first finds in the Bendigo area ''. Also, as stated by local Bendigo historian Rita Hull: "For decades many historians have made the bold statement that Margaret Kennedy and her friend Julia Farrrell were the first to find gold at Bendigo Creek, but on what grounds do they make this statement? ''. This acknowledgement by the Bendigo Historical Society and the City Of Greater Bendigo is despite the fact that FIRSTLY many others also claimed to have been the first to have found gold at Bendigo Creek; SECONDLY Julia Farrell, deceased before the 1890 Select Committee, is never documented to have made this claim; THIRDLY Margaret Kennedy claimed to have found gold without the help of Julia Farrell and whilst accompanied and helped by her 9 year old son John Drane; FOURTHLY that both their husbands, John "Happy Jack '' Kennedy and Patrick Peter Farrell are also documented to have claimed to have been the first to have found gold, and were also seen at various times with their wives at the Bendigo Creek by witnesses, and FIFTHLY that the 1890 Select Committee of the Victorian Government, after hearing evidence from Margaret Kennedy (her second husband John "Happy Jack '' Kennedy being deceased), Patrick Peter Farrell (his first wife Julia Farrell being deceased), and many others, was unable to decide who had been the first to find gold on what became the Bendigo goldfield.
When Margaret Kennedy gave evidence before the Select Committee in September 1890 she claimed to alone have found gold near "The Rocks '' in early September 1851. She claimed that she had taken her (9 year old) son, John Drane with her to search for gold near "The Rocks '' after her husband had told her that he had seen gravel there that might bear gold, and that she was joined by her husband in the evenings. She also gave evidence that after finding gold she "engaged '' Julia Farrell and went back with her to pan for more gold at the same spot, and it was while there that they were seen by a Mr Frencham, he said in November. She confirmed that they had been panning for gold (also called washing) with a milk dish, and had been using a quart - pot and a stocking as storage vessels.
Margaret Kennedy and Julia Farrell were, however, but one pair of the serious contenders for the first finders of gold on what became the Bendigo Goldfields. The date of September 1851, or soon after, and place, at or near "The Rocks '' on Bendigo Creek, were also mentioned in relation to three other sets of serious contenders for the first finders of gold on what became the Bendigo goldfields, all associated with the Mount Alexander North Run (later renamed the Ravenswood Run).
The four sets of serious contenders for the first finders of gold on what became the Bendigo goldfield are, in no particular order:
In September 1890, a Select Committee of the Victorian Legislative Assembly began sitting to decide who was the first to discover gold at Bendigo. They stated that there were 12 claimants who had made submissions to being the first to find gold at Bendigo (this included Mrs Margaret Kennedy, but not Mrs Julia Farrell who was deceased), plus the journalist Henry Frencham who claimed to have discovered gold at Bendigo Creek in November 1851. (Frencham had previously also claimed to have been the first to have discovered gold at Warrandyte in June 1851 when he, unsuccessfully, claimed the £ 200 reward for finding payable gold within 200 miles (320 km) of Melbourne; and then he also claimed to be the first to have discovered gold at Ballarat (then also known as Yuille 's Diggings) "and make it known to the public '' in September 1851.)
In the evidence that Margaret Kennedy gave before the Select Committee in September 1890, Margaret Kennedy claimed that she and Julia Farrell had been secretly panning for gold before Henry Frencham arrived, evidence that was substantiated by others. The Select Committee found "that Henry Frencham 's claim to be the discoverer of gold at Bendigo has not been sustained '', but could not make a decision as to whom of the other at least 12 claimants had been first as "it would be most difficult, if not impossible, to decide that question now ''... "at this distance of time from the eventful discovery of gold at Bendigo ''. They concluded that there was "no doubt that Mrs Kennedy and Mrs Farrell had obtained gold before Henry Frencham arrived on the Bendigo Creek '', but that Frencham "was the first to report the discovery of payable gold at Bendigo to the Commissioner at Forest Creek (Castlemaine) ''. (An event Frencham dated to 28 November 1851, a date which was, according to Frencham 's own contemporaneous writings, after a number of diggers had already begun prospecting on the Bendigo goldfield. 28 November 1851 was the date on which Frencham had a letter delivered to Chief Commissioner Wright at Forest Creek (Castlemaine) asking for police protection at Bendigo Creek, a request that officially disclosed the new gold - field. Protection was granted and the Assistant Commissioner of Crown Lands for the Gold Districts of Buninyong and Mt Alexander, Captain Robert Wintle Home, arrived with three black troopers (native police) to set up camp at Bendigo Creek on 8 December.)
The Select Committee also decided "that the first place at which gold was discovered on Bendigo was at what is now known as Golden Square, called by the station hands in 1851 "The Rocks '', a point about 200 yards to the west of the junction of Golden Gully with the Bendigo Creek. '' (The straight - line distance is nearer to 650 yards (600 metres).) In October 1893, Alfred Shrapnell Bailes (1849 -- 1928), the man who had proposed the Select Committee, who was one of the men who had sat on the Select Committee, and who was chairman of the Select Committee for 6 of the 7 days that it sat, gave an address in Bendigo where he gave his opinion on the matter of who had first found gold at Bendigo. Alfred Shrapnell Bailes, Mayor of Bendigo 1883 -- 84, and member of the Legislative Council of Victoria 1886 -- 1894 & 1897 -- 1907, stated that:
upon the whole, from evidence which, read with the stations books, can be fairly easily pieced together, it would seem that Asquith, Graham, Johnson and Bannister (the three shepherds residing at the hut on Bendigo Creek and their shepherd visitor Johnson), were the first to discover gold
The first persons digging for gold at the Bendigo Creek in 1851 were people associated with the Mount Alexander North (Ravenswood) Run. They included, in no particular order:
They were soon joined by miners from the Forest Creek (Castlemaine) diggings including the journalist Henry Frencham (1816 -- 1897).
There is no doubt that Henry Frencham, under the pen - name of "Bendigo '', was the first to publicly write anything about gold - mining at Bendigo Creek, with a report about a meeting of miners at Bendigo Creek on 8 and 9 December 1851, published respectively in the Daily News, Melbourne, date unknown and 13 December 1851 editions of the Geelong Advertiser and The Argus, Melbourne. It was Frencham 's words, published in The Argus of 13 December 1851 that were to begin the Bendigo Goldrush: "As regards the success of the diggers, it is tolerably certain the majority are doing well, and few making less than half an ounce per man per day. ''
In late November 1851 some of the miners at Castlemaine (Forest Creek), having heard of the new discovery of gold, began to move to Bendigo Creek joining those from the Mount Alexander North (Ravenswood) Run who were already prospecting there. The beginnings of this gold - mining was reported from the field by Henry Frencham, under the pen - name of "Bendigo '', who stated that the new field at Bendigo Creek, which was at first treated as if it were an extension of the Mount Alexander or Forest Creek (Castlemaine) rush, was already about two weeks old on 8 December 1851. Frencham reported then about 250 miners on the field (not counting hut - keepers). On 13 December Henry Frencham 's article in The Argus was published announcing to the world that gold was abundant in Bendigo. Just days later, in mid-December 1851 the rush to Bendigo had begun, with a correspondent from Castlemaine for the Geelong Advertiser reported on 16 December 1851 that "hundreds are on the wing thither (to Bendigo Creek) ''.
Henry Frencham may not have been the first person to find gold at Bendigo but he was the first person to announce to the authorities (28 November 1851) and then the world ("The Argus '', 13 December 1851) the existence of the Bendigo gold - field. He was also the first person to deliver a quantity of payable gold from the Bendigo gold - field to the authorities when on 28 December 1851, 3 days after the 603 men, women and children then working the Bendigo gold - field had pooled their food resources for a combined Christmas dinner, Frencham and his partner Robert Atkinson, with Trooper Synott as an escort, delivered 30 lbs of gold that they had mined to Assistant Commissioner Charles J.P. Lydiard at Forest Creek (Castlemaine), the first gold received from Bendigo.
Gold was found at Omeo in late 1851 and gold mining continued in the area for many years. Due to the inaccessibility of the area there was only a small Omeo gold rush.
Woods Almanac, 1857, states that gold was possibly found at Fingal (near Mangana) in 1851 by the "Old Major '' who steadily worked at a gully for two to three years guarding his secret. This gold find was probably at Mangana and that there is a gully there known as Major 's Gully. The first payable alluvial gold deposits were reported in Tasmania in 1852 by James Grant at Managa (then known as The Nook) and Tower Hill Creek which began the Tasmanian gold - rushes. The first registered gold strike was made by Charles Gould at Tullochgoram near Fingal and Managa and weighed 2 lb 6ozs. Further small finds were reported during the same year in the vicinity of Nine Mile Springs (Lefroy). In 1854 gold was found at Mt. Mary. During 1859 the first quartz mine started operations at Fingal. In the same year James Smith found gold at the River Forth, and Mr. Peter Leete at the Calder, a tributary of the Inglis. Gold was discovered in 1869 at Nine Mile Springs (Lefroy) by Samuel Richards. The news of this brought the first big rush to Nine Mile Springs. A township quickly developed beside the present main road from Bell Bay to Bridport, and dozens of miners pegged out claims there and at nearby Back Creek. The first recorded returns from the Mangana goldfields date from 1870; Waterhouse, 1871; Hellyer, Denison, and Brandy Creek, 1872; Lisle, 1878 Gladstone and Cam, 1881; Minnow and River Forth, 1882; Brauxholme and Mount Victoria, 1883; and Mount Lyell, 1886.
Payable gold was found in May 1852 at Echunga in the Adelaide Hills in South Australia by William Chapman and his mates Thomas Hardiman and Henry Hampton. After returning to his father 's farm from the Victorian goldfields William Chapman had searched the area around Echunga for gold motivated by his mining experience and the £ 1,000 reward being offered by the South Australian government for the first discoverer of payable gold. Chapman, Hardiman and Hampton were later to receive £ 500 of this reward as the required £ 10,000 of gold had not been raised in two months. Within a few days of the announcement of finding gold 80 gold licenses had been issued. Within seven weeks there were about 600 people, including women and children, camped in tents and wattle - and - daub huts in "Chapman 's Gully ''. A township sprang up in the area as the population grew. Soon there were blacksmiths, butchers and bakers to provide the gold diggers ' needs. Within 6 months 684 licences had been issued. Three police constables were appointed to maintain order and to assist the Gold Commissioner. By August 1852 there were less than 100 gold diggers and the police presence was reduced to two troopers. The gold rush was at its peak for nine months. It was estimated in May 1853 that about £ 18,000 worth of gold, more than 113 kg (4,000 oz, 250 lb), had been sold in Adelaide between September 1852 and January 1853, with an additional unknown value sent overseas to England.
Despite the sales of gold from Echunga, this goldfield could not compete with the richer fields in Victoria and by 1853 the South Australian goldfields were described as being ' pretty deserted '. There were further discoveries of gold in the Echunga area made in 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1858 causing minor rushes. There was a major revival of the Echunga fields in 1868 when Thomas Plane and Henry Saunders found gold at Jupiter Creek. Plane and Saunders were to receive rewards of £ 300 and £ 200 respectively. By September 1868 there were about 1,200 people living at the new diggings and tents and huts were scattered throughout the scrub. A township was established with general stores, butchers and refreshment booths. By the end of 1868 though, the alluvial deposits at Echunga were almost exhausted and the population dwindled to several hundred. During 1869 reef mining was introduced and some small mining companies were established but all had gone into liquidation by 1871. The Echunga goldfields were South Australia 's most productive. By 1900 the estimated gold production was 6,000 kg (13,225 lb), compared with 680g (24oz, 11⁄2lb) from the Victoria Mine at Castambul. After the revival of the Echunga goldfields in 1868, prospectors searched the Adelaide Hills for new goldfields. News of a new discovery would set off another rush. Gold was found at many locations including Balhannah, Forest Range, Birdwood, Para Wirra, Mount Pleasant and Woodside.
Gold was found in Queensland near Warwick as early as 1851, beginning small - scale alluvial gold mining in that state.
The first Queensland goldrush did not occur until late 1858, however, after the discovery of what was rumoured to be payable gold for a large number of men at Canoona near what was to become the town of Rockhampton. According to legend this gold was found at Canoona near Rockhampton by a man named Chappie (or Chapel) in July or August 1858. The gold in the area, however, had first been found north of the Fitroy river on 17 November 1857 by Captain (later Sir) Maurice Charles O'Connell, a grandson of William Bligh the former governor of New South Wales, who was Government Resident at Gladstone. Initially worried that his find would be exaggerated O'Connell wrote to the Chief Commissioner of Crown Lands on 25 November 1857 to inform him that he had found "very promising prospects of gold '' after having some pans of earth washed. Chapel was a flamboyant and extrovert character who in 1858 at the height of the goldrush claimed to have first found the gold. Instead Chapel had been employed by O'Connell as but part of a prospecting party to follow up on O'Connell's initial gold find, a prospecting party which, according to contemporary local pastoralist Colin Archer, "after pottering about for some six months or more, did discover a gold - field near Canoona, yielding gold in paying quantities for a limited number of men ''. O'Connell was in Sydney in July 1858 when he reported to the Government the success of the measures he had initiated for the development of the goldfield which he had discovered.
This first Queensland goldrush resulted in about 15,000 people flocking to this sparsely populated area in the last months of 1858. This was, however, a small goldfield with only shallow gold deposits and with no where near enough gold to sustain the large number of prospectors. This goldrush was given the name of the ' duffer rush ' as destitute prospectors "had, in the end, to be rescued by their colonial governments or given charitable treatment by shipping companies '' to return home when they did not strike it rich and had used up all their capital. The authorities had expected violence to break - out and had supplied contingents of mounted and foot police as well as war ships. The New South Wales government (Queensland was then part of New South Wales) sent up the "Iris '' which remained in Keppel Bay during November to preserve the peace. The Victorian government sent up the "Victoria '' with orders to the captain to bring back all Victorian diggers unable to pay their fares; they were to work out their passage money on return to Melbourne. O'Connell had reported that "we have had some trying moments when it seemed as if the weight of a feather would have turned the balance between comparative order and scenes of great violence '', and according to legend both O'Connel and Chapel were threatened with lynching.
In late 1861 the Clermont goldfield was discovered in Central Queensland near Peak Downs, triggering what has (incorrectly) been described as one of Queensland 's major gold rushes. Mining extended over a large area, but only a small number of miners was involved. Newspapers of the day, which also warned against a repeat of the Canoona experience of 1858, at the same time as describing lucrative gold - finds reveal that this was only a small goldrush. The Rockhampton Bulletin and Central Queensland Advertiser of 3 May 1862 reported that "a few men have managed to earn a subsistence for some months... others have gone there and returned unsuccessful ''. "The Courier '' (Brisbane) of 5 January 1863 describes "40 miners on the diggings at present... and in the course of a few months there will probably be several hundred miners at work ''. The Courier reported 200 diggers at Peak Downs in July 1863. The goldfield covering an area of over 1600 square miles (4000 km) was officially declared in August 1863. The Cornwall Chronicle (Lanceston, Tasmania), citing the Ballarat Star, reported about 300 men at work, many of them new chums, in October 1863.
In 1862, gold was found at Calliope near Gladstone, with the goldfield being officially proclaimed in the next year. The small rush attracted around 800 people by 1864 and after that the population declined as by 1870 the gold deposits were worked out.
In 1863, gold was also found at Canal Creek (Leyburn) and some gold - mining began there at that time, but the short - lived goldrush there did not occur until 1871 -- 72.
In 1865, Richard Daintree discovered 100 km (60 miles) south - west of Charters Towers the Cape River goldfield near Pentland in North Queensland. The Cape River Goldfield which covered an area of over 300 square miles (750 km) was not, however, proclaimed until 4 September 1867, and by the next year the best of the alluvial gold had petered out. This goldrush attracted Chinese diggers to Queensland for the first time. The Chinese miners at Cape River moved to Richard Daintree 's newly discovered Oaks Goldfield on the Gilbert River in 1869.
The Crocodile Creek (Bouldercombe Gorge) field near Rockhampton was also discovered in 1865. By August 1866 it was reported that there were between 800 and 1,000 men on the field. A new rush took place in March 1867. By 1868 the best of the alluvial gold had petered out. The enterprising Chinese diggers who arrived in the area, however, were still able to make a success of their gold - mining endeavours.
Gold was also found at Morinish near Rockhampton in 1866 with miners working in the area by December 1866, and a "new rush '' being described in the newspapers in February 1867 with the population being estimated on the field as 600.
Queensland had plunged into an economic crisis after the separation of Queensland from New South Wales in 1859. This had led to severe unemployment with a peak in 1866. Gold was being mined in the state but the number of men involved was only small. On 8 January 1867 the Queensland Government offered a £ 3,000 reward for the discovery of more payable goldfields in the state. As a direct result 1867 saw new goldrushes.
More goldfields were discovered near Rockhampton in early 1867 being Ridgelands and Rosewood. The rush to Rosewood was described in May 1867 as having "over three hundred miners ''. Ridgelands with its few hundred miners was described as "the most populous gold - field in the colony '' on 5 October 1867, but it was very soon overtaken and far surpassed by Gympie.
The most important discovery in 1867 was later in the year when James Nash discovered gold at Gympie, with the rush under way by November 1867.
J.A. Lewis, Inspector of Police arrived on the Gympie goldfield on 3 November 1867 and wrote on 11 November 1867:
On reaching the diggings I found a population numbering about five hundred, the majority of whom were doing little or nothing in the way of digging for the precious metal. Claims, however, were marked out in all directions, and the ground leading from the gullies where the richest finds have been got was taken up for a considerable distance. I have very little hesitation in stating that two - thirds of the people congregated there had never been on a diggings before, and seemed to be quite at a loss what to do. Very few of them had tents to live in or tools to work with; and I am afraid that the majority of those had not sufficient money to keep them in food for one week... From all that I could glean from miners and others, with whom I had an opportunity of speaking, respecting the diggings, I think it very probable that a permanent gold - field will be established at, or in the vicinity of, Gympie Creek; and if reports - which were in circulation when I left the diggings - to the effect that several prospecting parties had found gold at different points, varying from one to five miles from the township, be correct, there is little doubt but it will be an extensive gold - field, and will absorb a large population within a very short period.
The very rich and productive area, which covered only an area of 120 square miles (300 km), was officially declared the Gympie Goldfield in 1868. In 1868 the mining shanty town which had quickly grown with tents, many small stores and liquor outlets, and was known as "Nashville '', was also renamed Gympie after the Gympie Creek named from the aboriginal name for a local stinging tree. Within months there were 25,000 people on the goldfield. This was the first large goldrush after Canoona in 1858, and Gympie became ' The Town That Saved Queensland ' from bankruptcy.
The Kilkivan Goldfield (N.W of Gympie) was also discovered in 1867 with the rush to that area beginning in that same year, and, as was commonly the case, before the goldfield was officially declared in July 1868.
Townsville was opened up in 1868, the Gilbert River goldfield (110 km from Georgetown) in 1869, and Etheridge (Georgetown) in 1870.
Gold found about 10 km south - east of Gawler in South Australia in 1868. Gold was found by Job Harris and his partners in Spike Valley near the South Para River. This was unsold Crown Land and was proclaimed an official goldfield with a warden appointed. On the second day there were 40 gold seekers, 1,000 within a week and, within a month, 4,000 licensed and 1,000 unlicensed diggers. Three towns were established nearby with about 6,000 people at their peak. Alluvial gold was easily recovered when the gold was in high concentration. As the alluvial was worked out, companies were formed to extract the gold from the ore with crushers and a mercury process. By 1870 only 50 people remained, although one of the three towns, Barossa, lasted until the 1950s. South of the Barossa goldfield, the Lady Alice Mine in Hamlin Gully, discovered in 1871 by James Goddard, was the first South Australian gold mine to pay a dividend.
As settlers took up land north of Adelaide, so more goldfields were discovered in South Australia: Ulooloo in 1870, Waukaringa in 1873, Teetulpa in 1886, Wadnaminga in 1888 and Tarcoola in 1893.
Teetulpa, 11 km (7 miles) north of Yunta, was a rich goldfield where more gold was found than anywhere else in South Australia at that time. Teetulpa had the largest number of diggers of any field at any time in the history of South Australian gold discoveries. By the end of 1886, two months into the rush, there were more than five thousand men on the field. A reporter noted: "All sorts of people are going -- from lawyers to larrikins... Yesterday 's train from Adelaide brought a contingent of over 150... Many arrived in open trucks... Local ironmongers and drapers were busy fitting out intending diggers with tents, picks, shovels, rugs, moleskins, etc. '' Good mining at Teetulpa lasted about ten years. For a time it had a bank, shops, hotel, hospital, church and a newspaper. The largest nugget found weighed 30oz (850g).
A significant Queensland goldfield was discovered at Charters Towers on 24 December 1871 by a young 12 - year - old Aboriginal stockman, Jupiter Mosman, and soon moved attention to this area. The goldrush which followed has been argued to be the most important in Queensland 's gold - mining history. This was a reef - mining area with only a small amount of alluvial gold., and as a result received negative reviews from miners who wanted easier pickings. Nevertheless thousands of men rushed to the field, and a public battery was set up to crush the quartz ore in 1872. The town of Charters Towers grew to become the second largest town in Queensland during the late 1880s with a population of about 30,000.
In 1872 gold was discovered by James Mulligan on the Palmer River inland from Cooktown. This turned out to contain Queensland 's richest alluvial deposits. After the rush began in 1873 over 20,000 people made their way to the remote goldfield. This was one of the largest rushes experienced in Queensland. The rush lasted approximately 3 years and attracted a large number of Chinese. In 1877 over 18,000 of the residents were Chinese miners.
Port Douglas dates from 1873, and the Hodgkinson river (west of Cairns) from 1875.
The celebrated Mount Morgan was first worked in 1882, Croydon in 1886, the Starcke river goldfield near the coast 70 km (45 miles) north of Cooktown in 1890, Coen in 1900, and Alice River in 1904.
Darwin felt the effects of a gold rush at Pine Creek after employees of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line found gold while digging holes for telegraph poles in 1871.
There are numerous deposits of the precious metal at various localities in the Northern Territory, the total yield in 1908 being 8575 ounces (243 kg), valued at £ 27,512, of which 1021 ounces (29 kg) were obtained at the Driffield. In June 1909, a rich find of gold was reported from Tanami... Steps are being taken to open up this field by sinking wells to provide permanent water, of which there is a great scarcity in the district. A large number of Chinese are engaged in mining in the Territory. In 1908, out of a total of 824 miners employed, the Chinese numbered 674.
Donald McDonald and his party discovered two gold - rich quartz reefs at Mount McDonald, as they were prospecting the mountain ranges around Wyangala. This find resulted in the establishment of the township of Mt McDonald. By the early 1900s, mining declined and the town slowly faded away.
In 1872 the Western Australian Government offered a reward of £ 5,000 for the discovery of the colony 's first payable goldfield.
Ten years later, in 1882, small finds of gold were being made in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, prompting in 1883 the appointment of a Government Geologist. In 1884 Edward Hardman, Government Geologist, published a report that he had found traces of gold throughout the east Kimberley, especially in the area around the present - day town of Halls Creek.
On 14 July 1885, having been prompted by Hardman 's report, Charles Hall and Jack Slattery found payable gold at what they called Halls Creek, in the Kimberleys, Western Australia. After working for a few weeks Hall returned to Derby with 200 ounces of gold and reported his find. Once this discovery became known it prompted the Kimberley Rush, the first gold - rush in Western Australia. It is estimated that as many as 10,000 men joined the rush. On 19 May 1886 the Kimberley Goldfield was officially declared.
Thousands of men made their way to the Kimberley from other parts of WA, the eastern colonies, and New Zealand. Most arrived by ship in Derby or Wyndham, and then walked to Halls Creek. Others came overland from the Northern Territory. Most had no previous experience in gold prospecting or of life in the bush. Illness and disease were rife, and when the first warden, C.D. Price, arrived on 3 September 1886, he found that "great numbers were stricken down, in a dying condition, helpless, destitute of money, food, or covering, and without mates or friends simply lying down to die ''. A few were lucky enough to locate rich alluvial or reef gold, but most had little or no success.
In the early days of the gold rush no records or statistics were recorded for either the arrivals or deaths. Also no - one knows how many died trying to get to Halls Creek across the waterless desert, or how many simply turned back. When men actually arrived at Halls Creek, dysentery, scurvy, sun - stroke and thirst continued to take its toll. The Government applied a gold tax of two shillings and sixpence an ounce. It was a very unpopular levy as gold proved so hard to get. The diggers avoided registering and the Government had a great deal of trouble collecting the tax or statistics of any kind.
When the first warden C.D. Price arrived in September 1886 he reported that about 2,000 remained at the diggings. By the end of 1886 the rush had ceased. When in May 1888 the government considered claims for the reward for discovery of the first payable goldfield, it was decided that the Kimberley goldfield, which had proven disappointing, and no reward was paid out as the field had not met the stipulated conditions of a yield of at least 10,000 ounces (280 kg) of gold in a 2 - year period passing through Customs or shipped to England. (It is estimated that as much as 23,000 ounces (650 kg) of gold was taken from the fields around Halls Creek, but with much leaving the field through the Northern Territory.) Hardman 's contribution was recognised, however, with a gift of £ 500 to his widow Louisa Hardman. Another £ 500 was given to Charles Hall and his party.
1887 saw the first discovery of gold in what was to be the huge Eastern Goldfields region. Gold - bearing quartz was found near Lake Deborah in the Yilgarn Hills north of what was to become the town of Southern Cross in October 1887 by the party of Harry Francis Anstey. Anstey and his party were prospecting in the area after having heard that a farmer had found a gold nugget in the Yilgarn while sinking a bore. Others in his party were Dick Greaves and Ted Paine, with Ted Paine being the first to see the gold. As a result of this find Anstey and one of his backers George Leake, the then Solicitor - General and future Premier of Western Australia, were in November 1887 granted a 60,000 acre (24,280 hectare) mining concession for prospecting purposes.
On 30 December 1887, after hearing directly from Anstey of the success of his party, Bernard Norbert Colreavy also discovered a gold - bearing quartz reef in the Golden Valley in the Yilgarn Hills, and on 12 January 1888 Colreavy 's fellow party member, H. Huggins, discovered another gold - bearing quartz reef. They soon found and secured another seven more gold - bearing quartz reefs.
In May 1888 Michael Toomey and Samuel Faulkner were the first to discover gold - bearing quartz at the site of what became the town of Southern Cross on the Yilgarn Goldfield, about 50 km (30 miles) south - east of the Golden Valley. Party leader Thomas Riseley subsequently crushed and panned the samples that had been taken which confirmed that they had found gold, and Riseley and Toomey then proceeding to peg out their claim on behalf of the Phoenix Prospecting Company.
On the news of Anstey 's find the Yilgarn Rush had begun in late 1887. The excitement of the goldrush intensified in early 1888 with the news of the discovery of Golden Valley (named for the Golden Wattle that grows there) by Colreavy and Huggins, and further intensified just a few months later with the news of the discovery of Riseley, Toomey and Faulkner, but the goldfield was not officially proclaimed until 1 October 1888. In 1892 the Government awarded Anstey £ 500, and Colreavy and Huggins £ 250 each, for the discovery of the Yilgarn goldfields. The Yilgarn Rush died out when news arrived of the rich discovery of gold to the east at Coolgardie in September 1892.
The Pilbara Goldfield was officially declared on the same day as the Yilgarn Goldfield, 1 October 1888. The government had offered £ 1,000 reward for the first person to find payable gold in the Pilbara. This was shared by three men: explorers Francis Gregory and N.W. Cook, and pastoralist John Withnell. Gregory also discovered gold in a region known as Nullagine Proper in June 1888 and Harry Wells found gold in Marble Bar. As a result the Pilbara Gold Fields, which covered an area of 34,880 square miles (89,000 km), was divided into two districts, Nullagine and Marble Bar. To support the Pilbara Rush the government developed a railway line between Marble Bar and Port Hedland in 1891. Alluvial gold production started to decline in 1895, after which Mining Companies commenced deep shaft mining.
Gold was found at Cue in 1891 by Michael Fitzgerald, Edward Heffernan and Tom Cue. This became known as the Murchison Rush.
In September 1892 gold was found at Fly Flat (Coolgardie) by Arthur Wesley Bayley and William Ford, who next to a quartz - reef obtaining 554 ozs (15.7 kg) of gold in one afternoon with the aid of a tomahawk. On 17 September 1892 Wesley rode the 185 km (115 miles) with this gold into Southern Cross to register their reward - claim for a new find of gold. Within hours had started what was at first called the Gnarlbine Rush. Overnight the miners who were flocked on the Southern Cross diggings moved to the more lucrative Coolgardie Goldfield. The reward - claim for Bayley 's party for discovering the new goldfield was to be granted a 100 - foot (30.5 - metre) deep claim along the line of reef. This claim was said to cover an area of five acres (2 hectares). On 24 August 1893, less than a year after Arthur Bayley and William Ford 's discovery of gold at Fly Flat, Coolgardie was declared a town site, with an estimated population of 4,000 (with many more mining out in the field).
The Coolgardie goldrush was the beginning of what has been described as "the greatest gold rush in West Australian history ''. It has also been described as "the greatest movement of people in Australia 's history '', but this is an exaggeration. The greatest movement of people in Australia 's history was in the period 1851 to 1861 during the gold - rushes to the Eastern states when the recorded population of Australia rose by 730,484 from 437,665 in 1851 to 1,168,149 in 1861, as against an increase of 20 % of this amount for Western Australia in the period 1891 to 1901, a 137,834 increase of recorded population for Western Australia from 46,290 in 1891 to 184,124 in 1901.
On 17 June 1893 alluvial gold was found near Mount Charlotte, less than 25 miles (40 km) from Coolgardie, at what became the town of Hannan (Kalgoorlie). The announcement of this find by Paddy Hannan only intensified the excitement of the Coolgardie gold - rush, and led to the establishment in Western Australia 's Eastern Goldfields of the twin towns of Kalgoorlie - Boulder. Prior to moving to Western Australia in 1889 to prospect for gold Hannan had prospected at Ballarat in Victoria in the 1860s, Otago in New Zealand in the 1870s, and at Teetulpa (north of Yunta) in South Australia in 1886. The first to find gold at Kalgoorlie were Paddy Hannan and his fellow Irishmen Thomas Flanagan and Daniel Shea.
In the morning Flanagan was fetching the horses when he spotted gold on the ground. As others were camping nearby he kicked a bush over it, took careful note of his bearings, and hastened back to tell Hannan and Dan Shea, another Irishman who had joined them. They tarried there until the others had gone, then recovered Flanagan 's gold and found much more! It was decided one should go back to Southern Cross, the nearest administrative centre, with the gold and seek a reward - claim from the Warden. Tess Thomson in her book "Paddy Hannan, A Claim To Fame '', reveals that it was Hannan who did so. Thus, Flanagan was the ' finder ' and Hannan, who made the find public, was the ' discoverer ', for "dis - cover '' means what it says -- "to take the cover off '', in other words "to reveal; to make public '' which a finder does not necessarily do.
After Hannan registered their reward - claim for a new find of gold with over 100 ounces (2.8 kg) of alluvial gold, an estimated 700 men were prospecting in the area within three days. The reward for Hannan 's party for discovering the best alluvial find ever made in the colony, and without knowing it one of the best reefing fields in the world, was to be granted a six acre (2.4 hectare) mining lease.
Gold was found at Noondamurra Pool on the Greenough River, between Yuna and Mullewa in August 1893 causing a small rush to that area.
Other rich fields were found in the area around Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie in the period 1893 -- 1899.
The population of Coolgardie is estimated to have reached 15,000 at its peak during the goldrush and the town boasted over 26 pubs supplied by 3 breweries, 2 stock exchanges, 14 churches, 6 newspapers, and a courthouse. The population of Kalgoorlie - Boulder is estimated to have reached 30,000 at its peak during the goldrush with over 93 pubs supplied by 8 breweries, a stock exchange, churches, newspapers, and a courthouse.
In 1897 Coolgardie was the third largest town in Western Australia after Perth and Fremantle and the largest town in the Western Australian gold - mining districts with a recorded population of 5,008, while Kalgoorlie - Boulder was the fourth largest town in Western Australia and the second largest in the Western Australian gold - mining districts with an estimated population of 3,400. (Kalgoorlie 's recorded population was 2,018, while numbers for Boulder were not recorded. The estimate of 3,400 for Kalgoorlie - Boulder is based on the proportional numbers in Kalgoorlie and Boulder in the 1901 census.) The total estimated population for 1897 for the many settlements in the Coolgardie Magisterial Districts (which included Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie) was 17,645 (14,047 men and 3,598 women). Many more people were not residing in residential areas but were out in the field mining.
The 1901 census gives a greater idea of the population of the area, and the size of the gold - rush. By 1901 the population of Kalgoorlie - Boulder Municipality had grown to 11,253 (6,652 Kalgoorlie, 4,601 Boulder) making it at that time the third - largest town in Western Australia after Perth and Fremantle and the largest town in the Western Australian gold - mining districts, while that of Coolgardie Municipality had fallen slightly to 4,249. The total population for the Coolgardie Magisterial Districts (which included Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie - Boulder) was 41,816 men, women and children, being: 8,315 in the Coolgardie Magisterial District centred on Coolgardie; 26,101 in the Coolgardie East Magisterial District centred on Kalgoorlie - Boulder; 4,710 in the Coolgardie North Magisterial District centred on Menzies; and 2,690 in the Coolgardie North - East Magisterial District centred on Kanowna.
The far - reaching nature of the mining excitement (in Western Australia) drew men from all over the world... People immigrated from Africa and America, Great Britain and Europe, China and India, New Zealand and the South Sea Islands, and from mining centres in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia.
A website managed by the National Trust of Australia (WA) states:
The gold rush transformed the Western Australian economy as gold production soared from 22,806 ounces in 1890 to 1,643,876 ounces in 1900 and this was matched by the fourfold increase in WA 's population from 46,290 in 1890 to 184,124 reported in the 1901 census.
Gold was rediscovered near Tarnagulla on 6 November 1906 (Melbourne Cup Day), when a miner who had prospected the district for years obtained seven ounces of gold from a shaft nineteen feet deep. With some fairly large nuggets being found soon after, the so - called Poseidon rush, named after the horse that had won the Melbourne Cup that year, set in with "men of all ranks and professions... trying their luck on the field ''. Several of the nuggets were unearthed within a few inches of the surface. The largest weighed 953 ounces (27 kg) and two others weighed 703 (20 kg) and 675 ounces (19 kg) respectively. The shallow ground was soon worked out, but operations have given satisfactory results in the deeper alluvial until 1912.
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where do the ingredients of coca cola come from
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Coca - Cola - Wikipedia
Coca - Cola, or Coke, is a carbonated soft drink produced by The Coca - Cola Company. Originally intended as a patent medicine, it was invented in the late 19th century by John Pemberton and was bought out by businessman Asa Griggs Candler, whose marketing tactics led Coca - Cola to its dominance of the world soft - drink market throughout the 20th century. The drink 's name refers to two of its original ingredients, which were kola nuts (a source of caffeine) and coca leaves. The current formula of Coca - Cola remains a trade secret, although a variety of reported recipes and experimental recreations have been published.
The Coca - Cola Company produces concentrate, which is then sold to licensed Coca - Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. A typical 12 - US - fluid - ounce (350 ml) can contains 38 grams (1.3 oz) of sugar (usually in the form of high fructose corn syrup). The bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise Coca - Cola to retail stores, restaurants, and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca - Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants and foodservice distributors.
The Coca - Cola Company has on occasion introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. The most common of these is Diet Coke, along with others including Caffeine - Free Coca - Cola, Diet Coke Caffeine - Free, Coca - Cola Cherry, Coca - Cola Zero, Coca - Cola Vanilla, and special versions with lemon, lime, and coffee. Based on Interbrand 's "best global brand '' study of 2015, Coca - Cola was the world 's third most valuable brand, after Apple and Google. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries worldwide, with consumers drinking more than 1.8 billion company beverage servings each day.
Confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. The prototype Coca - Cola recipe was formulated at Pemberton 's Eagle Drug and Chemical House, a drugstore in Columbus, Georgia, originally as a coca wine. He may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine. It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called "Kola Coca '' was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, a year before the official birth of Coca - Cola. The patent for this Spanish drink was bought by Coca - Cola in 1953.
In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic. In 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca - Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca. The first sales were at Jacob 's Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 8, 1886. It was initially sold as a patent medicine for five cents a glass at soda fountains, which were popular in the United States at the time due to the belief that carbonated water was good for the health. Pemberton claimed Coca - Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the same year in the Atlanta Journal.
By 1888, three versions of Coca - Cola -- sold by three separate businesses -- were on the market. A co-partnership had been formed on January 14, 1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen: J.C. Mayfield, A.O. Murphey, C.O. Mullahy, and E.H. Bloodworth. Not codified by any signed document, a verbal statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pemberton 's company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the name "Coca - Cola '' belonged to his son, Charley, but the other two manufacturers could continue to use the formula.
Charley Pemberton 's record of control over the "Coca - Cola '' name was the underlying factor that allowed for him to participate as a major shareholder in the March 1888 Coca - Cola Company incorporation filing made in his father 's place. Charley 's exclusive control over the "Coca - Cola '' name became a continual thorn in Asa Candler 's side. Candler 's oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University. In this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states: "..., on April 14, 1888, the young druggist (Asa Griggs Candler) purchased a one - third interest in the formula of an almost completely unknown proprietary elixir known as Coca - Cola. ''
The deal was actually between John Pemberton 's son Charley and Walker, Candler & Co. -- with John Pemberton acting as cosigner for his son. For $50 down and $500 in 30 days, Walker, Candler & Co. obtained all of the one - third interest in the Coca - Cola Company that Charley held, all while Charley still held on to the name. After the April 14 deal, on April 17, 1888, one - half of the Walker / Dozier interest shares were acquired by Candler for an additional $750.
In 1892, Candler set out to incorporate a second company; "The Coca - Cola Company '' (the current corporation). When Candler had the earliest records of the "Coca - Cola Company '' burned in 1910, the action was claimed to have been made during a move to new corporation offices around this time.
After Candler had gained a better foothold on Coca - Cola in April 1888, he nevertheless was forced to sell the beverage he produced with the recipe he had under the names "Yum Yum '' and "Koke ''. This was while Charley Pemberton was selling the elixir, although a cruder mixture, under the name "Coca - Cola '', all with his father 's blessing. After both names failed to catch on for Candler, by the middle of 1888, the Atlanta pharmacist was quite anxious to establish a firmer legal claim to Coca - Cola, and hoped he could force his two competitors, Walker and Dozier, completely out of the business, as well.
On August 16, 1888, Dr. John Stith Pemberton suddenly died; Asa G. Candler then sought to move swiftly forward to attain his vision of taking full control of the whole Coca - Cola operation.
Charley Pemberton, an alcoholic, was the one obstacle who unnerved Asa Candler more than anyone else. Candler is said to have quickly maneuvered to purchase the exclusive rights to the name "Coca - Cola '' from Pemberton 's son Charley right after Dr. Pemberton 's death. One of several stories was that Candler bought the title to the name from Charley 's mother for $300; approaching her at Dr. Pemberton 's funeral. Eventually, Charley Pemberton was found on June 23, 1894, unconscious, with a stick of opium by his side. Ten days later, Charley died at Atlanta 's Grady Hospital at the age of 40.
In Charles Howard Candler 's 1950 book about his father, he stated: "On August 30th (1888), he (Asa Candler) became sole proprietor of Coca - Cola, a fact which was stated on letterheads, invoice blanks and advertising copy. ''
With this action on August 30, 1888, Candler 's sole control became technically all true. Candler had negotiated with Margaret Dozier and her brother Woolfolk Walker a full payment amounting to $1,000, which all agreed Candler could pay off with a series of notes over a specified time span. By May 1, 1889, Candler was now claiming full ownership of the Coca - Cola beverage, with a total investment outlay by Candler for the drink enterprise over the years amounting to $2,300.
In 1914, Margaret Dozier, as co-owner of the original Coca - Cola Company in 1888, came forward to claim that her signature on the 1888 Coca - Cola Company bill of sale had been forged. Subsequent analysis of certain similar transfer documents had also indicated John Pemberton 's signature was most likely a forgery, as well, which some accounts claim was precipitated by his son Charley.
On September 12, 1919, Coca - Cola Co. was purchased by a group of investors for $25 million and reincorporated. The company publicly offered 500,000 shares of the company for $40 a share.
In 1986, The Coca - Cola Company merged with two of their bottling operators (owned by JTL Corporation and BCI Holding Corporation) to form Coca - Cola Enterprises Inc. (CCE).
In December 1991, Coca - Cola Enterprises merged with the Johnston Coca - Cola Bottling Group, Inc.
The first bottling of Coca - Cola occurred in Vicksburg, Mississippi, at the Biedenharn Candy Company in 1891. The proprietor of the bottling works was Joseph A. Biedenharn. The original bottles were Biedenharn bottles, very different from the much later hobble - skirt design of 1915 now so familiar.
It was then a few years later that two entrepreneurs from Chattanooga, Tennessee, namely Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead, proposed the idea of bottling and were so persuasive that Candler signed a contract giving them control of the procedure for only one dollar. Candler never collected his dollar, but in 1899, Chattanooga became the site of the first Coca - Cola bottling company. Candler remained very content just selling his company 's syrup. The loosely termed contract proved to be problematic for The Coca - Cola Company for decades to come. Legal matters were not helped by the decision of the bottlers to subcontract to other companies, effectively becoming parent bottlers. This contract specified that bottles would be sold at 5 ¢ each and had no fixed duration, leading to the fixed price of Coca - Cola from 1886 to 1959.
The first outdoor wall advertisement that promoted the Coca - Cola drink was painted in 1894 in Cartersville, Georgia. Cola syrup was sold as an over-the - counter dietary supplement for upset stomach. By the time of its 50th anniversary, the soft drink had reached the status of a national icon in the USA. In 1935, it was certified kosher by Atlanta Rabbi Tobias Geffen, after the company made minor changes in the sourcing of some ingredients.
The longest running commercial Coca - Cola soda fountain anywhere was Atlanta 's Fleeman 's Pharmacy, which first opened its doors in 1914. Jack Fleeman took over the pharmacy from his father and ran it until 1995; closing it after 81 years. On July 12, 1944, the one - billionth gallon of Coca - Cola syrup was manufactured by The Coca - Cola Company. Cans of Coke first appeared in 1955.
On April 23, 1985, Coca - Cola, amid much publicity, attempted to change the formula of the drink with "New Coke ''. Follow - up taste tests revealed most consumers preferred the taste of New Coke to both Coke and Pepsi but Coca - Cola management was unprepared for the public 's nostalgia for the old drink, leading to a backlash. The company gave in to protests and returned to a variation of the old formula using high fructose corn syrup instead of cane sugar as the main sweetener, under the name Coca - Cola Classic, on July 10, 1985.
On July 5, 2005, it was revealed that Coca - Cola would resume operations in Iraq for the first time since the Arab League boycotted the company in 1968.
In April 2007, in Canada, the name "Coca - Cola Classic '' was changed back to "Coca - Cola ''. The word "Classic '' was removed because "New Coke '' was no longer in production, eliminating the need to differentiate between the two. The formula remained unchanged. In January 2009, Coca - Cola stopped printing the word "Classic '' on the labels of 16 - US - fluid - ounce (470 ml) bottles sold in parts of the southeastern United States. The change is part of a larger strategy to rejuvenate the product 's image. The word "Classic '' was removed from all Coca - Cola products by 2011.
In November 2009, due to a dispute over wholesale prices of Coca - Cola products, Costco stopped restocking its shelves with Coke and Diet Coke for two months; a separate pouring rights deal in 2013 saw Coke products removed from Costco food courts in favor of Pepsi. Some Costco locations (such as the ones in Tucson, Arizona) additionally sell imported Coca - Cola from Mexico with cane sugar instead of corn syrup from separate distributors. Coca - Cola introduced the 7.5 - ounce mini-can in 2009, and on September 22, 2011, the company announced price reductions, asking retailers to sell eight - packs for $2.99. That same day, Coca - Cola announced the 12.5 - ounce bottle, to sell for 89 cents. A 16 - ounce bottle has sold well at 99 cents since being re-introduced, but the price was going up to $1.19.
In 2012, Coca - Cola resumed business in Myanmar after 60 years of absence due to U.S. - imposed investment sanctions against the country. Coca - Cola 's bottling plant will be located in Yangon and is part of the company 's five - year plan and $200 million investment in Myanmar. Coca - Cola with its partners is to invest USD 5 billion in its operations in India by 2020. In 2013, it was announced that Coca - Cola Life would be introduced in Argentina that would contain stevia and sugar.
In August 2014 the company announced it was forming a long - term partnership with Monster Beverage, with the two forging a strategic marketing and distribution alliance, and product line swap. As part of the deal Coca - Cola was to acquire a 16.7 % stake in Monster for $2.15 billion, with an option to increase it to 25 %.
In December 2016, Coca - Cola bought many of the former SABMiller 's Coca - Cola operations.
A typical can of Coca - Cola (12 fl ounces / 355 ml) contains 38 grams of sugar (usually in the form of HFCS), 50 mg of sodium, 0 grams fat, 0 grams potassium, and 140 calories. On May 5, 2014, Coca - Cola said it is working to remove a controversial ingredient, brominated vegetable oil, from all of its drinks.
The exact formula of Coca - Cola 's natural flavorings (but not its other ingredients, which are listed on the side of the bottle or can) is a trade secret. The original copy of the formula was held in SunTrust Bank 's main vault in Atlanta for 86 years. Its predecessor, the Trust Company, was the underwriter for the Coca - Cola Company 's initial public offering in 1919. On December 8, 2011, the original secret formula was moved from the vault at SunTrust Banks to a new vault containing the formula which will be on display for visitors to its World of Coca - Cola museum in downtown Atlanta.
According to Snopes, a popular myth states that only two executives have access to the formula, with each executive having only half the formula. However, several sources state that while Coca - Cola does have a rule restricting access to only two executives, each knows the entire formula and others, in addition to the prescribed duo, have known the formulation process.
On February 11, 2011, Ira Glass said on his PRI radio show, This American Life, that TAL staffers had found a recipe in "Everett Beal 's Recipe Book '', reproduced in the February 28, 1979, issue of The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, that they believed was either Pemberton 's original formula for Coca - Cola, or a version that he made either before or after the product hit the market in 1886. The formula basically matched the one found in Pemberton 's diary. Coca - Cola archivist Phil Mooney acknowledged that the recipe "could... be a precursor '' to the formula used in the original 1886 product, but emphasized that Pemberton 's original formula is not the same as the one used in the current product.
When launched, Coca - Cola 's two key ingredients were cocaine and caffeine. The cocaine was derived from the coca leaf and the caffeine from kola nut, leading to the name Coca - Cola (the "K '' in Kola was replaced with a "C '' for marketing purposes).
Pemberton called for five ounces of coca leaf per gallon of syrup, a significant dose; in 1891, Candler claimed his formula (altered extensively from Pemberton 's original) contained only a tenth of this amount. Coca - Cola once contained an estimated nine milligrams of cocaine per glass. (For comparison, a typical dose or "line '' of cocaine is 50 -- 75 mg.) In 1903, it was removed.
After 1904, instead of using fresh leaves, Coca - Cola started using "spent '' leaves -- the leftovers of the cocaine - extraction process with trace levels of cocaine. Since then, Coca - Cola uses a cocaine - free coca leaf extract prepared at a Stepan Company plant in Maywood, New Jersey.
In the United States, the Stepan Company is the only manufacturing plant authorized by the Federal Government to import and process the coca plant, which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca - Cola, the Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt, a St. Louis, Missouri, pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the United States licensed to purify cocaine for medicinal use.
Long after the syrup had ceased to contain any significant amount of cocaine, in the southeastern U.S., "dope '' remained a common colloquialism for Coca - Cola, and "dope - wagons '' were trucks that transported it.
Kola nuts act as a flavoring and the source of caffeine in Coca - Cola. In Britain, for example, the ingredient label states "Flavourings (Including Caffeine). '' Kola nuts contain about 2.0 to 3.5 % caffeine, are of bitter flavor, and are commonly used in cola soft drinks. In 1911, the U.S. government initiated United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola, hoping to force Coca - Cola to remove caffeine from its formula. The case was decided in favor of Coca - Cola. Subsequently, in 1912, the U.S. Pure Food and Drug Act was amended, adding caffeine to the list of "habit - forming '' and "deleterious '' substances which must be listed on a product 's label.
Coca - Cola contains 34 mg of caffeine per 12 fluid ounces (9.8 mg per 100 ml).
The actual production and distribution of Coca - Cola follows a franchising model. The Coca - Cola Company only produces a syrup concentrate, which it sells to bottlers throughout the world, who hold Coca - Cola franchises for one or more geographical areas. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup with filtered water and sweeteners, and then carbonate it before putting it in cans and bottles, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and food service distributors.
The Coca - Cola Company owns minority shares in some of its largest franchises, such as Coca - Cola Enterprises, Coca - Cola Amatil, Coca - Cola Hellenic Bottling Company, and Coca - Cola FEMSA, but fully independent bottlers produce almost half of the volume sold in the world. Independent bottlers are allowed to sweeten the drink according to local tastes.
The bottling plant in Skopje, Macedonia, received the 2009 award for "Best Bottling Company ''.
Since it announced its intention to begin distribution in Burma in June 2012, Coca - Cola has been officially available in every country in the world except Cuba and North Korea. However, it is reported to be available in both countries as a grey import.
Coca - Cola has been a point of legal discussion in the Middle East. In the early 20th century, a fatwa was created in Egypt to discuss the question of "whether Muslims were permitted to drink Coca - Cola and Pepsi cola. '' The fatwa states: "According to the Muslim Hanefite, Shafi'ite, etc., the rule in Islamic law of forbidding or allowing foods and beverages is based on the presumption that such things are permitted unless it can be shown that they are forbidden on the basis of the Qur'an. '' The Muslim jurists stated that, unless the Qu'ran specifically prohibits the consumption of a particular product, it is permissible to consume. Another clause was discussed, whereby the same rules apply if a person is unaware of the condition or ingredients of the item in question.
This is a list of variants of Coca - Cola introduced around the world. In addition to the caffeine - free version of the original, additional fruit flavors have been included over the years. Not included here are versions of Diet Coke and Coca - Cola Zero; variant versions of those no - calorie colas can be found at their respective articles.
The Coca - Cola logo was created by John Pemberton 's bookkeeper, Frank Mason Robinson, in 1885. Robinson came up with the name and chose the logo 's distinctive cursive script. The writing style used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid-19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period.
Robinson also played a significant role in early Coca - Cola advertising. His promotional suggestions to Pemberton included giving away thousands of free drink coupons and plastering the city of Atlanta with publicity banners and streetcar signs.
The Coca - Cola bottle, called the "contour bottle '' within the company, was created by bottle designer Earl R. Dean and Coca - Cola 's general counsel, Harold Hirsch. In 1915, The Coca - Cola Company was represented by their general counsel to launch a competition among its bottle suppliers as well as any competition entrants to create a new bottle for their beverage that would distinguish it from other beverage bottles, "a bottle which a person could recognize even if they felt it in the dark, and so shaped that, even if broken, a person could tell at a glance what it was. ''
Chapman J. Root, president of the Root Glass Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, turned the project over to members of his supervisory staff, including company auditor T. Clyde Edwards, plant superintendent Alexander Samuelsson, and Earl R. Dean, bottle designer and supervisor of the bottle molding room. Root and his subordinates decided to base the bottle 's design on one of the soda 's two ingredients, the coca leaf or the kola nut, but were unaware of what either ingredient looked like. Dean and Edwards went to the Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library and were unable to find any information about coca or kola. Instead, Dean was inspired by a picture of the gourd - shaped cocoa pod in the Encyclopædia Britannica. Dean made a rough sketch of the pod and returned to the plant to show Root. He explained to Root how he could transform the shape of the pod into a bottle. Root gave Dean his approval.
Faced with the upcoming scheduled maintenance of the mold - making machinery, over the next 24 hours Dean sketched out a concept drawing which was approved by Root the next morning. Dean then proceeded to create a bottle mold and produced a small number of bottles before the glass - molding machinery was turned off.
Chapman Root approved the prototype bottle and a design patent was issued on the bottle in November 1915. The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts. Dean resolved this issue by decreasing the bottle 's middle diameter. During the 1916 bottler 's convention, Dean 's contour bottle was chosen over other entries and was on the market the same year. By 1920, the contour bottle became the standard for The Coca - Cola Company. A revised version was also patented in 1923. Because the Patent Office releases the Patent Gazette on Tuesday, the bottle was patented on December 25, 1923, and was nicknamed the "Christmas bottle. '' Today, the contour Coca - Cola bottle is one of the most recognized packages on the planet... "even in the dark! ''.
As a reward for his efforts, Dean was offered a choice between a $500 bonus or a lifetime job at the Root Glass Company. He chose the lifetime job and kept it until the Owens - Illinois Glass Company bought out the Root Glass Company in the mid-1930s. Dean went on to work in other Midwestern glass factories.
One alternative depiction has Raymond Loewy as the inventor of the unique design, but, while Loewy did serve as a designer of Coke cans and bottles in later years, he was in the French Army the year the bottle was invented and did not emigrate to the United States until 1919. Others have attributed inspiration for the design not to the cocoa pod, but to a Victorian hooped dress.
In 1944, Associate Justice Roger J. Traynor of the Supreme Court of California took advantage of a case involving a waitress injured by an exploding Coca - Cola bottle to articulate the doctrine of strict liability for defective products. Traynor 's concurring opinion in Escola v. Coca - Cola Bottling Co. is widely recognized as a landmark case in U.S. law today.
Earl R. Dean 's original 1915 concept drawing of the contour Coca - Cola bottle
The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts.
Final production version with slimmer middle section.
Karl Lagerfeld is the latest designer to have created a collection of aluminum bottles for Coca - Cola. Lagerfeld is not the first fashion designer to create a special version of the famous Coca - Cola Contour bottle. A number of other limited edition bottles by fashion designers for Coca - Cola Light soda have been created in the last few years.
In 2009, in Italy, Coca - Cola Light had a Tribute to Fashion to celebrate 100 years of the recognizable contour bottle. Well known Italian designers Alberta Ferretti, Blumarine, Etro, Fendi, Marni, Missoni, Moschino, and Versace each designed limited edition bottles.
Pepsi, the flagship product of PepsiCo, The Coca - Cola Company 's main rival in the soft drink industry, is usually second to Coke in sales, and outsells Coca - Cola in some markets. RC Cola, now owned by the Dr Pepper Snapple Group, the third largest soft drink manufacturer, is also widely available.
Around the world, many local brands compete with Coke. In South and Central America Kola Real, known as Big Cola in Mexico, is a growing competitor to Coca - Cola. On the French island of Corsica, Corsica Cola, made by brewers of the local Pietra beer, is a growing competitor to Coca - Cola. In the French region of Brittany, Breizh Cola is available. In Peru, Inca Kola outsells Coca - Cola, which led The Coca - Cola Company to purchase the brand in 1999. In Sweden, Julmust outsells Coca - Cola during the Christmas season. In Scotland, the locally produced Irn - Bru was more popular than Coca - Cola until 2005, when Coca - Cola and Diet Coke began to outpace its sales. In the former East Germany, Vita Cola, invented during Communist rule, is gaining popularity.
In India, Coca - Cola ranked third behind the leader, Pepsi - Cola, and local drink Thums Up. The Coca - Cola Company purchased Thums Up in 1993. As of 2004, Coca - Cola held a 60.9 % market - share in India. Tropicola, a domestic drink, is served in Cuba instead of Coca - Cola, due to a United States embargo. French brand Mecca Cola and British brand Qibla Cola are competitors to Coca - Cola in the Middle East.
In Turkey, Cola Turka, in Iran and the Middle East, Zamzam Cola and Parsi Cola, in some parts of China, China Cola, in Slovenia, Cockta, and the inexpensive Mercator Cola, sold only in the country 's biggest supermarket chain, Mercator, are some of the brand 's competitors. Classiko Cola, made by Tiko Group, the largest manufacturing company in Madagascar, is a serious competitor to Coca - Cola in many regions. Laranjada is the top - selling soft drink on Madeira.
Coca - Cola 's advertising has significantly affected American culture, and it is frequently credited with inventing the modern image of Santa Claus as an old man in a red - and - white suit. Although the company did start using the red - and - white Santa image in the 1930s, with its winter advertising campaigns illustrated by Haddon Sundblom, the motif was already common. Coca - Cola was not even the first soft drink company to use the modern image of Santa Claus in its advertising: White Rock Beverages used Santa in advertisements for its ginger ale in 1923, after first using him to sell mineral water in 1915. Before Santa Claus, Coca - Cola relied on images of smartly dressed young women to sell its beverages. Coca - Cola 's first such advertisement appeared in 1895, featuring the young Bostonian actress Hilda Clark as its spokeswoman.
1941 saw the first use of the nickname "Coke '' as an official trademark for the product, with a series of advertisements informing consumers that "Coke means Coca - Cola ''. In 1971 a song from a Coca - Cola commercial called "I 'd Like to Teach the World to Sing '', produced by Billy Davis, became a hit single.
Coke 's advertising is pervasive, as one of Woodruff 's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca - Cola as their preferred beverage. This is especially true in southern areas of the United States, such as Atlanta, where Coke was born.
Some Coca - Cola television commercials between 1960 through 1986 were written and produced by former Atlanta radio veteran Don Naylor (WGST 1936 -- 1950, WAGA 1951 -- 1959) during his career as a producer for the McCann Erickson advertising agency. Many of these early television commercials for Coca - Cola featured movie stars, sports heroes, and popular singers.
During the 1980s, Pepsi - Cola ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests demonstrating that, according to the commercials, "fifty percent of the participants who said they preferred Coke actually chose the Pepsi. '' Statisticians pointed out the problematic nature of a 50 / 50 result: most likely, the taste tests showed that in blind tests, most people can not tell the difference between Pepsi and Coke. Coca - Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi 's ads in an incident sometimes referred to as the cola wars; one of Coke 's ads compared the so - called Pepsi challenge to two chimpanzees deciding which tennis ball was furrier. Thereafter, Coca - Cola regained its leadership in the market.
Selena was a spokesperson for Coca - Cola from 1989 until the time of her death. She filmed three commercials for the company. During 1994, to commemorate her five years with the company, Coca - Cola issued special Selena coke bottles.
The Coca - Cola Company purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982, and began inserting Coke - product images into many of its films. After a few early successes during Coca - Cola 's ownership, Columbia began to under - perform, and the studio was sold to Sony in 1989.
Coca - Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including "The pause that refreshes '', "I 'd like to buy the world a Coke '', and "Coke is it ''.
In 2006, Coca - Cola introduced My Coke Rewards, a customer loyalty campaign where consumers earn points by entering codes from specially marked packages of Coca - Cola products into a website. These points can be redeemed for various prizes or sweepstakes entries.
In Australia in 2011, Coca - Cola began the "share a Coke '' campaign, where the Coca - Cola logo was replaced on the bottles and replaced with first names. Coca - Cola used the 150 most popular names in Australia to print on the bottles. The campaign was paired with a website page, Facebook page, and an online "share a virtual Coke ''. The same campaign was introduced to Coca - Cola, Diet Coke & Coke Zero bottles and cans in the UK in 2013.
Coca - Cola has also advertised its product to be consumed as a breakfast beverage, instead of coffee or tea for the morning caffeine.
From 1886 to 1959, the price of Coca - Cola was fixed at five cents, in part due to an advertising campaign.
Throughout the years, Coca - Cola has released limited time collector bottles for Christmas.
The "Holidays are coming! '' advertisement features a train of red delivery trucks, emblazoned with the Coca - Cola name and decorated with Christmas lights, driving through a snowy landscape and causing everything that they pass to light up and people to watch as they pass through.
The advertisement fell into disuse in 2001, as the Coca - Cola company restructured its advertising campaigns so that advertising around the world was produced locally in each country, rather than centrally in the company 's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2007, the company brought back the campaign after, according to the company, many consumers telephoned its information center saying that they considered it to mark the beginning of Christmas. The advertisement was created by U.S. advertising agency Doner, and has been part of the company 's global advertising campaign for many years.
Keith Law, a producer and writer of commercials for Belfast CityBeat, was not convinced by Coca - Cola 's reintroduction of the advertisement in 2007, saying that "I do n't think there 's anything Christmassy about HGVs and the commercial is too generic. ''
In 2001, singer Melanie Thornton recorded the campaign 's advertising jingle as a single, Wonderful Dream (Holidays are Coming), which entered the pop - music charts in Germany at no. 9. In 2005, Coca - Cola expanded the advertising campaign to radio, employing several variations of the jingle.
In 2011, Coca - Cola launched a campaign for the Indian holiday Diwali. The campaign included commercials, a song, and an integration with Shah Rukh Khan 's film Ra. One.
Coca - Cola was the first commercial sponsor of the Olympic games, at the 1928 games in Amsterdam, and has been an Olympics sponsor ever since. This corporate sponsorship included the 1996 Summer Olympics hosted in Atlanta, which allowed Coca - Cola to spotlight its hometown. Most recently, Coca - Cola has released localized commercials for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver; one Canadian commercial referred to Canada 's hockey heritage and was modified after Canada won the gold medal game on February 28, 2010 by changing the ending line of the commercial to say "Now they know whose game they 're playing ''.
Since 1978, Coca - Cola has sponsored the FIFA World Cup, and other competitions organized by FIFA. One FIFA tournament trophy, the FIFA World Youth Championship from Tunisia in 1977 to Malaysia in 1997, was called "FIFA -- Coca - Cola Cup ''. In addition, Coca - Cola sponsors the annual Coca - Cola 600 and Coke Zero 400 for the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series at Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord, North Carolina and Daytona International Speedway in Daytona, Florida.
Coca - Cola has a long history of sports marketing relationships, which over the years have included Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League, as well as with many teams within those leagues. Coca - Cola has had a longtime relationship with the NFL 's Pittsburgh Steelers, due in part to the now - famous 1979 television commercial featuring "Mean Joe '' Greene, leading to the two opening the Coca - Cola Great Hall at Heinz Field in 2001 and a more recent Coca - Cola Zero commercial featuring Troy Polamalu.
Coca - Cola is the official soft drink of many collegiate football teams throughout the nation, partly due to Coca - Cola providing those schools with upgraded athletic facilities in exchange for Coca - Cola 's sponsorship. This is especially prevalent at the high school level, which is more dependent on such contracts due to tighter budgets.
Coca - Cola was one of the official sponsors of the 1996 Cricket World Cup held on the Indian subcontinent. Coca - Cola is also one of the associate sponsors of Delhi Daredevils in the Indian Premier League.
In England, Coca - Cola was the main sponsor of The Football League between 2004 and 2010, a name given to the three professional divisions below the Premier League in soccer (football). In 2005, Coca - Cola launched a competition for the 72 clubs of The Football League -- it was called "Win a Player ''. This allowed fans to place one vote per day for their favorite club, with one entry being chosen at random earning £ 250,000 for the club; this was repeated in 2006. The "Win A Player '' competition was very controversial, as at the end of the 2 competitions, Leeds United A.F.C. had the most votes by more than double, yet they did not win any money to spend on a new player for the club. In 2007, the competition changed to "Buy a Player ''. This competition allowed fans to buy a bottle of Coca - Cola or Coca - Cola Zero and submit the code on the wrapper on the Coca - Cola website. This code could then earn anything from 50p to £ 100,000 for a club of their choice. This competition was favored over the old "Win a Player '' competition, as it allowed all clubs to win some money. Between 1992 and 1998, Coca - Cola was the title sponsor of the Football League Cup (Coca - Cola Cup), the secondary cup tournament of England.
Between 1994 and 1997, Coca - Cola was also the title sponsor of the Scottish League Cup, renaming it the Coca - Cola Cup like its English counterpart. From 1998 to 2001, the company were the title sponsor of the Irish League Cup in Northern Ireland, where it was named the Coca - Cola League Cup.
Coca - Cola is the presenting sponsor of the Tour Championship, the final event of the PGA Tour held each year at East Lake Golf Club in Atlanta, GA.
Introduced March 1, 2010, in Canada, to celebrate the 2010 Winter Olympics, Coca - Cola sold gold colored cans in packs of 12 355 mL (12 imp fl oz; 12 US fl oz) each, in select stores.
In 2012, Coca - Cola (Philippines) hosted / sponsored the Coca - Cola PBA Youngstars in the Philippines.
Coca - Cola has been prominently featured in countless films and television programs. Since its creation, it remains as one of the most prominent elements of the popular culture. It was a major plot element in films such as One, Two, Three, The Coca - Cola Kid, and The Gods Must Be Crazy, among many others. It provides a setting for comical corporate shenanigans in the novel Syrup by Maxx Barry. In music, in the Beatles ' song, "Come Together '', the lyrics say, "He shoot Coca - Cola, he say... ''. The Beach Boys also referenced Coca - Cola in their 1964 song "All Summer Long '' (i.e. "' Member when you spilled Coke all over your blouse? '')
The best selling artist of all time and worldwide cultural icon, Elvis Presley, promoted Coca - Cola during his last tour of 1977. The Coca - Cola Company used Elvis ' image to promote the product. For example, the company used a song performed by Presley, A Little Less Conversation, in a Japanese Coca - Cola commercial.
Other artists that promoted Coca - Cola include the Beatles, David Bowie, George Michael, Elton John, and Whitney Houston, who appeared in the Diet Coca - Cola commercial, among many others.
Not all musical references to Coca - Cola went well. A line in "Lola '' by the Kinks was originally recorded as "You drink champagne and it tastes just like Coca - Cola. '' When the British Broadcasting Corporation refused to play the song because of the commercial reference, lead singer Ray Davies re-recorded the lyric as "it tastes just like cherry cola '' to get airplay for the song.
Political cartoonist Michel Kichka satirized a famous Coca - Cola billboard in his 1982 poster "And I Love New York. '' On the billboard, the Coca - Cola wave is accompanied by the words "Enjoy Coke. '' In Kichka 's poster, the lettering and script above the Coca - Cola wave instead read "Enjoy Cocaine. ''
Coca - Cola is sometimes used for the treatment of gastric phytobezoars. In about 50 % of cases studied, Coca - Cola alone was found to be effective in gastric phytobezoar dissolution. Unfortunately, this treatment can result in the potential of developing small bowel obstruction in a minority of cases, necessitating surgical intervention.
Criticism of Coca - Cola has arisen from various groups, concerning a variety of issues, including health effects, environmental issues, and business practices. The drink 's coca flavouring, and the nickname "Coke '', remain a common theme of criticism due to the relationship with the illegal drug cocaine. In 1911 the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca - Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health '', leading to amended food safety legislation.
The Coca - Cola Company, its subsidiaries and products have been subject to sustained criticism by both consumer groups, leftist activists, and watchdogs, particularly since the early 2000s.
Coca - Cola is rich in sugar, especially sucrose, which causes dental caries when consumed regularly. Besides this, the high caloric value contributes to obesity. Both are major health issues in the developed world.
In July 2001, the Coca - Cola company was sued over its alleged use of political far - right wing death squads (the United Self - Defense Forces of Colombia) to kidnap, torture, and kill Colombian bottler workers that were linked with trade union activity. Coca - Cola was sued in a US federal court in Miami by the Colombian food and drink union Sinaltrainal. The suit alleged that Coca - Cola was indirectly responsible for having "contracted with or otherwise directed paramilitary security forces that utilized extreme violence and murdered, tortured, unlawfully detained or otherwise silenced trade union leaders ''. This sparked campaigns to boycott Coca - Cola in the UK, US, Germany, Italy, and Australia. Javier Correa, the president of Sinaltrainal, said the campaign aimed to put pressure on Coca - Cola "to mitigate the pain and suffering '' that union members had suffered.
Speaking from the Coca - Cola company 's headquarters in Atlanta, company spokesperson Rafael Fernandez Quiros said "Coca - Cola denies any connection to any human - rights violation of this type '' and added "We do not own or operate the plants ''.
A documentary on the controversy, titled The Coca - Cola Case, was released in 2010.
Coca - Cola has a high degree of identification with the United States, being considered by some an "American Brand '' or as an item representing America. During World War II, this gave rise to brief production of the White Coke as a neutral brand. The drink is also often a metonym for the Coca - Cola Company.
Coca - Cola was introduced to China in 1927, and was very popular until 1949. When the Cultural Revolution began in 1949, the beverage was no longer imported into China, as it was perceived to be a symbol of decadent Western culture and the capitalist lifestyle. Importation and sales of the beverage resumed in 1979, after diplomatic relations between the United States and China were restored.
There are some consumer boycotts of Coca - Cola in Arab countries due to Coke 's early investment in Israel during the Arab League boycott of Israel (its competitor Pepsi stayed out of Israel). Mecca Cola and Pepsi have been successful alternatives in the Middle East.
A Coca - Cola fountain dispenser (officially a Fluids Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus or FGBA) was developed for use on the Space Shuttle as a test bed to determine if carbonated beverages can be produced from separately stored carbon dioxide, water, and flavored syrups and determine if the resulting fluids can be made available for consumption without bubble nucleation and resulting foam formation. FGBA - 1 flew on STS - 63 in 1995 and dispensed pre-mixed beverages, followed by FGBA - 2 on STS - 77 the next year. The latter mixed CO2, water, and syrup to make beverages. It supplied 1.65 liters each of Coca - Cola and Diet Coke.
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where does the mississippi river enter the gulf
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Mississippi River - wikipedia
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the second - largest drainage system on the North American continent, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. Flowing entirely in the United States (although its drainage basin reaches into Canada), it rises in northern Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for 2,320 miles (3,730 km) to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi 's watershed drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth - longest and fifteenth - largest river in the world by discharge. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Most were hunter - gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States.
Formed from thick layers of the river 's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country, which resulted in the river 's storied steamboat era. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi 's capture by Union forces marked a turning point towards victory due to the river 's importance as a route of trade and travel, not least to the Confederacy. Because of substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that supplanted riverboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination.
Since modern development of the basin began, the Mississippi has also seen its share of pollution and environmental problems -- most notably large volumes of agricultural runoff, which has led to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone off the Delta. In recent years, the river has shown a steady shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta; a course change would be an economic disaster for the port city of New Orleans.
The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River).
In the 18th century, the river was the primary western boundary of the young United States, and since the country 's expansion westward, the Mississippi River has been widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, and the Western United States. This is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase "Trans - Mississippi '' as used in the name of the Trans - Mississippi Exposition.
It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi '' or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi ''. The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast callsigns, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, mixing together in media markets along the river.
The geographical setting of the Mississippi River includes considerations of the course of the river itself, its watershed, its outflow, its prehistoric and historic course changes, and possibilities of future course changes. The New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway and its adjacent lands.
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name "Itasca '' was chosen to designate the "true head '' of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.
From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway 's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river 's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota. Before it was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river 's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river 's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49 - foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.
After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river 's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.
The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly, and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.
The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River 's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
The Middle Mississippi is relatively free - flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm / km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long - term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic metres per second), while the long - term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft / s (5,900 m / s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.
In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi. The widest point of the Mississippi River is in the Lower Mississippi portion where it exceeds 1 mile (1.6 km) in width in several places.
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30 % of the Mississippi flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi 's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River is commonly thought to be a tributary, it is actually not, because its water flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.
The Mississippi River has the world 's fourth - largest drainage basin ("watershed '' or "catchment ''). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km), including all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40 % of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).
In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.
The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey 's number is 2,320 miles (3,730 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days.
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (7,000 -- 20,000 m / s). Although it is the fifth - largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a small fraction of the output of the Amazon, which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m / s) during wet seasons. On average, the Mississippi has only 8 % the flow of the Amazon River.
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA 's MODIS (to the right) show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter - blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 400 million metric tons of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 145 million metric tons per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river - training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.
Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river 's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present - day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary '' rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "oversized '' for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.
Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.
Timeline of outflow course changes
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel. The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acre island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.
The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and was used to define portions of these states ' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.
In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee, but isolated from the rest of its state.
Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river. They are sequenced from the source of the river to its end.
The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek '') flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road '' to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.
The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis, Minnesota where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges which have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi 's source to the Lower Mississippi 's mouth.
A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.
Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period 1830 -- 1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachian coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans - shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio River; down the Missouri and Tennessee, to the main channel of the Mississippi. Only with the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons -- the Delta Queen and the River Queen for instance.
A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free - flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams.
On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150 - foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.
In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.
The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5 - foot - deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5 - foot - deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams which direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.
To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run - off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.
In 1907, Congress authorized a 6 - foot - deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro - electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.
Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps 's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river 's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9 - foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple - barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty - three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low - water dam and an 8.4 - mile - long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.
Because the large scale of high - energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi 's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point - New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.
Some of the pre-1927 strategy is still in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BCE. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BCE during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices. A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 CE, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 CE there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers. The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 CE and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.
Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho - Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo - zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo - ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag - ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa - miskwaawaakokaag - ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish - ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi - ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi - ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi - ziibi was named "Mississippi River ''. The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi - ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi - ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe - éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.
The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint - Louis.
On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit ''), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.
French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river '' in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.
When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league '' (less than 2 miles (3.2 km), 3 km) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.
In 1682, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean - Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.
In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.
Following Britain 's victory in the Seven Years War the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.
Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States ''. With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. In 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France. When France then sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803, a dispute arose again between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida exactly had Spain ceded to France, which would in turn decide which parts of West Florida were now U.S. property versus Spanish property. These aspirations ended when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney 's Treaty in 1795.
France reacquired ' Louisiana ' from Spain in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of War of 1812 when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans -- the attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.
So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guide book called The Navigator, detailing the features and dangers and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over a period of 25 years.
The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.
Mark Twain 's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in Harper 's Weekly in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885.
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811 -- 12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats which suggests it was not very profitable.
Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami, wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steam boat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as the nature of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourists trade.
Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War. In 1862 Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. The remaining major Confederate stronghold was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi, and the Union 's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862 to July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ending the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, was pivotal to the Union 's final victory of the Civil War.
The "Big Freeze '' of 1918 -- 19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.
In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000,000 L) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.
On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy - eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.
In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden - hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (18,000 m) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two - month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.
The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri. The Nature Conservancy 's project called "America 's Rivershed Initiative '' announced a ' report card ' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.
In 2002, Slovenian long - distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society 's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes -- through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain -- might become the Mississippi 's main channel if flood - control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.
Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana 's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30 % of the Mississippi 's flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi 's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi 's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.
Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the flood waters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1 / 4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 ft / sec of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.
Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty - year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere -- when the structures ca n't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river 's going to jump its banks and try to break through. ''
Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 4 -- 6 meters (12 to 20 feet) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi 's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.
The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km / h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.
There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna '' of North American fresh water.
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basin exclusively within temperate / subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, large mouth bass, small mouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum and shovelnose sturgeon.
In addition to fish, several species of turtles (such as snapping, musk, mud, map, cooter, painted and softshell turtles), American alligator, aquatic amphibians (such as hellbender, mudpuppy, three - toed amphiuma and lesser siren), and cambarid crayfish (such as the red swamp crayfish) are native to the Mississippi basin.
Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for outcompeting native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.
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jennifer lopez ft. cardi b & dj khaled
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Dinero (song) - wikipedia
"Dinero '' is a song by American singer Jennifer Lopez featuring American record producer DJ Khaled and American rapper Cardi B. It was written by Charles Anderson, Tommy Brown, Mohombi Moupondo, Yei Gonzalez, Danielle Curiel, Alexander Prado, Jermaine Denny, DJ Khaled, Cardi B and Luis Kalaff, and produced by Scootie, Brown and DJ Khaled and co-produced by Moupondo and Gonzalez. "Dinero '' was released on all digital and streaming platforms on May 17, 2018, by Nuyorican Productions and Epic Records. The song was nominated for Choice Latin Song at the 2018 Teen Choice Awards and its official music video received two nominations for Best Latin Video and Best Collaboration at the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards, winning the latter.
"Dinero '' is Lopez 's first English single since "Us ''. Lopez first heard "Dinero '' in early 2017 when it was sent to her by Cory Rooney, a record producer with whom she had worked frequently in her early career, who felt that it would be good for her. She was receptive of the track, and in the months that followed suggested to her manager Benny Medina that rapper Cardi B be featured on the record. Lopez, who had followed Cardi B prior to her breakthrough with "Bodak Yellow '', said: "I just thought she had a street intelligence that I liked, and she had a logic that just made me laugh and reminded me of girls from the Bronx. '' Later, record producer DJ Khaled offered to provide further production for "Dinero '', and the song was finished by December 2017. That month, a video of Lopez and Khaled working together in the studio was posted to Instagram, which hinted that the singer had collaborated with Cardi B. A short snippet of the song surfaced online in January 2018, and Lopez subsequently confirmed that it was titled "Dinero '' the following month. Khaled stated: "Everything 's top secret, (but) I can tell you this: J. Lo 's got some new music coming (...) I want to thank J. Lo for letting me be one of the producers amongst other great ones, and a feature on the record. I 'm grateful. ''
"Dinero '' is a trap song with a production that consists of synths, drums and an "occasional '' acoustic guitar lick. "Dinero '', which translates in English to "Money '', features Lopez rapping. Lopez opens the song with the introduction: "Me and Benjamín Franco stay at the banco / Getting checks like Nike, everywhere that I go '', and in the hook declares: "Yo quiero, yo quiero dinero '' ("I want money ''). Cardi B 's verse includes the lyric: "Two bad bitches that came from the Bronx / Cardi from the pole and Jenny from the block '', a reference to The Bronx, where both Lopez and Cardi B originate from. Khaled can be heard throughout the track, acting as a hype man.
Abby Jones of Billboard described "Dinero '' as a "fiery proclamation of everyone 's love for cold hard cash that 's brimming with witty bilingual word play. '' The Guardian characterized the song as "a hustler 's anthem '', adding: "And not to mention the fact that J - Lo raps on this song with, ' They say money talk, but my talking bilingual, ' as her best bar. '' Similarly, XXL called it a "fiery anthem '' and "potential banger ''. Vogue writer Michelle Ruiz praised the song as a potential summer hit, and felt that "Dinero '' is "sort of like the 2018 answer '' to Lopez 's 2002 lead single from her third studio album titled This Is Me... Then, "Jenny from the Block ''. Likewise, Mike Nied of Idolator opined that "' Dinero ' could easily dominate the charts this summer '', writing: "Khaled 's production grows under her voice and builds to a steady fizz that is sure to fill dance floors across the globe, and Cardi brings the fire for her verse. ''
The music video for "Dinero '' was shot in April 2018. In the clip that surfaced online in December 2017, Lopez and Khaled could be heard discussing a concept for the video, with Khaled noting that "The video idea is gon na make the record even more crazier. '' Lopez said: "It 's cinematic. It has those themes. I was just trying to connect it to the song where it 's just not the typical reggaeton, bachata, hip - hop video that everybody does all the time. '' Directed by Joseph Kahn, the music video was shot entirely in black - and - white. It was released on May 24, 2018. Lopez sported 13 different looks and wore US $4.5 million worth of jewelry from Tiffany & Co. in the video.
Lopez first previewed the song during her set at Calibash in January 2018, which took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. She included it as part of a dance medley with "Bitch Better Have My Money '' by Rihanna and "Bodak Yellow '' by Cardi B. Lopez officially performed "Dinero '' for the first time at the 2018 Billboard Music Awards which took place at the MGM Grand Garden Arena on May 20. She wore a "bedazzled '' bustier and white pants, later sporting a white blazer and fedora to complete the look. She was surrounded by a group of "' 40s era gangster - styled dancers ''. Khaled, surrounded by piles of money, appeared on a separate stage to introduce Lopez; Cardi B was not present due to her pregnancy, but appeared via a black - and - white video. Leila Cobo of Billboard said the performance was "ridiculously fun to watch '', calling it "A lot of bling, a lot of style, some kick - ass dancing (JLo does not disappoint) and a whole lotta cash flying around ''. Refinery29 writer Kathryn Lindsay stated that "the multi-hyphenate proved she 's going back to her roots with a passionate and colorful performance '', but noted: "The one thing people did n't like about the performance? DJ Khaled. The artist was there, seemingly, to throw around money and yell some of his signature phrases during the song, but fans just wanted more J. Lo. ''
Credits adapted from Tidal.
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the six major rivers in liberia and their location
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List of rivers of Liberia - wikipedia
This is a list of rivers in Liberia. This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries indented under each larger stream 's name.
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who is the speaker of the house representative now
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Speaker of the United States House of Representatives - wikipedia
The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives. The office was established in 1789 by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution. The Speaker is the political and parliamentary leader of the House of Representatives, and is simultaneously the House 's presiding officer, de facto leader of the body 's majority party, and the institution 's administrative head. Speakers also perform various other administrative and procedural functions. Given these several roles and responsibilities, the Speaker usually does not personally preside over debates. That duty is instead delegated to members of the House from the majority party. Neither does the Speaker regularly participate in floor debates nor vote.
The Constitution does not require the Speaker to be an elected member of the House of Representatives, although every Speaker thus far has been. The Speaker is second in the United States presidential line of succession, after the Vice President and ahead of the President pro tempore of the Senate.
The current House Speaker is Congressman Paul Ryan from Wisconsin. He was elected to the office on October 29, 2015, and is the 54th person to serve as Speaker. On April 11, 2018, Ryan announced he will not seek re-election in the 2018 mid-terms, and will also relinquish the office of Speaker when his term ends in 2019.
The House of Representatives elects the Speaker of the House on the first day of every new Congress and in the event of the death, resignation or removal from the Chair of an incumbent Speaker. The Clerk of the House of Representatives requests nominations: there are normally two, one from each major party (each party having previously met to decide on its nominee). The Clerk then calls the roll of the Representatives, each Representative indicating the surname of the candidate the Representative is supporting. Representatives are not restricted to voting for one of the nominated candidates and may vote for any person, even for someone who is not a member of the House at all. They may also abstain by voting "present ''.
Although no rule exists, based on tradition and practice from the earliest days of the nation, to be elected speaker a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, i.e. excluding those who abstain. If no candidate wins such a majority, then the roll call is repeated until a speaker is elected. The last time repeated votes were required was in 1923, when the Speaker was elected on the ninth ballot.
The new Speaker is then sworn in by the Dean of the United States House of Representatives, the chamber 's longest - serving member.
In modern practice, the Speaker is chosen by the majority party from among its senior leaders either when a vacancy in the office arrives or when the majority party changes. Previous Speakers have been minority leaders (when the majority party changes, as they are already the House party leader, and as the minority leader are usually their party 's nominee for Speaker), or majority leaders (upon departure of the current Speaker in the majority party), assuming that the party leadership hierarchy is followed. In the past, other candidates have included chairpersons of influential standing committees.
So far, the Democrats have always elevated their minority leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority control of the House. However, Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern. In 1919, Republicans bypassed James Robert Mann, R - IL, who had been Minority Leader for eight years, and elected a backbencher representative, Frederick H. Gillett, R - MA, to be Speaker. Mann had "angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor, '' and was also a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon (R - IL18) who had been Speaker from 1903 to 1911, and was still in the House. Many members "suspected that he (Mann) would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker. '' More recently, although Robert H. Michel was Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained control of the House in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had little or no involvement in the campaign, including the "Contract with America '', which was unveiled six weeks before Election Day. Michel opted not to seek re-election because he had been isolated in the caucus by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich and other younger and more aggressive Representatives.
It is expected that members of the House vote for their party 's candidate. If they do not, they usually vote for someone else in their party or vote "present ''. Those who vote for the other party 's candidate often face serious consequences, up to and including the loss of seniority. The last instance where a representative voted for the other party 's candidate was in 2000, when Democrat Jim Traficant of Ohio voted for Republican Dennis Hastert. In response, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority and he lost all of his committee posts.
If the Speaker 's party loses control of the House in an election, and if the Speaker and Majority Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively. As the minority party has historically had one less leadership position after losing the Speaker 's chair, there may be a contest for the remaining leadership positions; upon losing control of the House after the 2010 election, the Democrats created the position of Assistant Democratic Leader in order to prevent such a contest. Most Speakers whose party has lost control of the House have not returned to the party leadership (Tom Foley lost his seat, Dennis Hastert returned to the backbenches and resigned from the House in late 2007). However, Speakers Joseph William Martin, Jr. and Sam Rayburn did seek the post of Minority Leader in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Nancy Pelosi is the most recent example of an outgoing Speaker who was elected Minority Leader, after the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 elections.
The first Speaker was Frederick Muhlenberg: he was elected as a Pro-Administration candidate to the 1st Congress, an Anti-Administration candidate to the 2nd and 3rd Congresses, and a Republican candidate to the 4th Congress, according to the Biographical Directory of Congress, though Oswald Seidensticker wrote that he was elected as a Federalist for the first four Congresses.
The position of Speaker started to gain its partisan role and its power in legislative development under Henry Clay (1811 -- 1814, 1815 -- 1820, and 1823 -- 1825). In contrast to many of his predecessors, Clay participated in several debates, and used his influence to procure the passage of measures he supported -- for instance, the declaration of the War of 1812, and various laws relating to Clay 's "American System '' economic plan. Furthermore, when no candidate received an Electoral College majority in the 1824 presidential election causing the President to be elected by the House, Speaker Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams instead of Andrew Jackson, thereby ensuring Adams ' victory. Following Clay 's retirement in 1825, the power of the speakership once again began to decline, despite speakership elections becoming increasingly bitter. As the Civil War approached, several sectional factions nominated their own candidates, often making it difficult for any candidate to attain a majority. In 1855 and again in 1859, for example, the contest for Speaker lasted for two months before the House achieved a result. During this time, Speakers tended to have very short tenures. For example, from 1839 to 1863 there were eleven Speakers, only one of whom served for more than one term. To date, James K. Polk is the only Speaker of the House later elected President of the United States.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the office of Speaker began to develop into a very powerful one. At the time, one of the most important sources of the Speaker 's power was his position as Chairman of the Committee on Rules, which, after the reorganization of the committee system in 1880, became one of the most powerful standing committees of the House. Furthermore, several Speakers became leading figures in their political parties; examples include Democrats Samuel J. Randall, John Griffin Carlisle, and Charles F. Crisp, and Republicans James G. Blaine, Thomas Brackett Reed, and Joseph Gurney Cannon.
The power of the Speaker was greatly augmented during the tenure of the Republican Thomas Brackett Reed (1889 -- 1891, 1895 -- 1899). "Czar Reed '', as he was called by his opponents, sought to end the obstruction of bills by the minority, in particular by countering the tactic known as the "disappearing quorum ''. By refusing to vote on a motion, the minority could ensure that a quorum would not be achieved, and that the result would be invalid. Reed, however, declared that members who were in the chamber but refused to vote would still count for the purposes of determining a quorum. Through these and other rulings, Reed ensured that the Democrats could not block the Republican agenda.
The speakership reached its apogee during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (1903 -- 1911). Cannon exercised extraordinary control over the legislative process. He determined the agenda of the House, appointed the members of all committees, chose committee chairmen, headed the Rules Committee, and determined which committee heard each bill. He vigorously used his powers to ensure that Republican proposals were passed by the House. In 1910, however, Democrats and several dissatisfied Republicans joined together to strip Cannon of many of his powers, including the ability to name committee members and his chairmanship of the Rules Committee. Fifteen years later, Speaker Nicholas Longworth restored much, but not all, of the lost influence of the position.
One of the most influential Speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn. Rayburn was the longest - serving Speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Rayburn 's successor, Democrat John W. McCormack (served 1962 -- 1971), was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert. The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the Speaker was granted the authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the Speaker.
Albert 's successor, Democrat Tip O'Neill, was a prominent Speaker because of his public opposition to the policies of President Ronald Reagan. O'Neill is the longest continually serving Speaker, from 1977 through 1987. He challenged Reagan on domestic programs and on defense expenditures. Republicans made O'Neill the target of their election campaigns in 1980 and 1982 but Democrats managed to retain their majorities in both years.
The roles of the parties reversed in 1994 when, after spending forty years in the minority, the Republicans regained control of the House with the "Contract with America '', an idea spearheaded by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich. Speaker Gingrich would regularly clash with Democratic President Bill Clinton, leading to the United States federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996, in which Clinton was largely seen to have prevailed. Gingrich 's hold on the leadership was weakened significantly by that and several other controversies, and he faced a caucus revolt in 1997. After the Republicans lost House seats in 1998 (although retaining a majority) he did not stand for a third term as Speaker. His successor, Dennis Hastert, had been chosen as a compromise candidate, since the other Republicans in the leadership were more controversial. Hastert played a much less prominent role than other contemporary Speakers, being overshadowed by House Majority Leader Tom DeLay and President George W. Bush. The Republicans came out of the 2000 elections with a further reduced majority but made small gains in 2002 and 2004. The periods of 2001 -- 2002 and 2003 -- 2007 were the first times since 1953 -- 1955 that there was single - party Republican leadership in Washington, interrupted from 2001 -- 2003 as Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become independent and caucused with Senate Democrats to give them a 51 - 49 majority.
In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democrats won a majority in the House. Nancy Pelosi became Speaker when the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, making her the first female to hold the office. With the election of Barack Obama as President and Democratic gains in both houses of Congress, Pelosi became the first Speaker since Tom Foley to hold the office during single - party Democratic leadership in Washington. During the 111th Congress, Pelosi was the driving force behind several of Obama 's major initiatives that proved controversial, and the Republicans campaigned against the Democrats ' legislation by staging a "Fire Pelosi '' bus tour and regained control of the House in the 2010 midterm elections. House Minority Leader John Boehner was elected as Speaker.
Historically, there have been several controversial elections to the speakership, such as the contest of 1839. In that case, even though the 26th United States Congress convened on December 2, the House could not begin the speakership election until December 14 because of an election dispute in New Jersey known as the "Broad Seal War ''. Two rival delegations, one Whig and the other Democrat, had been certified as elected by different branches of the New Jersey government. The problem was compounded by the fact that the result of the dispute would determine whether the Whigs or the Democrats held the majority. Neither party agreed to permit a speakership election with the opposite party 's delegation participating. Finally, it was agreed to exclude both delegations from the election and a Speaker was finally chosen on December 17.
Another, more prolonged fight occurred in 1855 in the 34th United States Congress. The old Whig Party had collapsed but no single party had emerged to replace it. Candidates opposing the Democrats had run under a bewildering variety of labels, including Whig, Republican, American (Know Nothing), and simply "Opposition ''. By the time Congress actually met in December 1855, most of the northerners were concentrated together as Republicans, while most of the southerners and a few northerners used the American or Know Nothing label. Opponents of the Democrats held a majority in House, with the party makeup of the 234 Representatives being 83 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Know Nothings (primarily southern oppositionists). The Democratic minority nominated William Alexander Richardson of Illinois as Speaker, but because of sectional distrust, the various oppositionists were unable to agree on a single candidate for Speaker. The Republicans supported Nathaniel Prentiss Banks of Massachusetts, who had been elected as a Know Nothing but was now largely identified with the Republicans. The southern Know Nothings supported first Humphrey Marshall of Kentucky, and then Henry M. Fuller of Pennsylvania. The voting went on for almost two months with no candidate able to secure a majority, until it was finally agreed to elect the Speaker by plurality vote, and Banks was elected. The House found itself in a similar dilemma when the 36th Congress met in December 1859. Although the Republicans held a plurality, the Republican candidate, John Sherman, was unacceptable to southern oppositionists due to his anti-slavery views, and once again the House was unable to elect a Speaker for several months. After Democrats allied with southern oppositionists to nearly elect the North Carolina oppositionist William N.H. Smith, Sherman finally withdrew in favor of compromise candidate William Pennington of New Jersey, a former Whig of unclear partisan loyalties, who was finally elected Speaker at the end of January 1860.
The last speakership elections in which the House had to vote more than once occurred in the 65th and 72nd United States Congress. In 1917, neither the Republican nor the Democratic candidate could attain a majority because three members of the Progressive Party and other individual members of other parties voted for their own party. The Republicans had a plurality in the House but James "Champ '' Clark remained Speaker of the House because of the support of the Progressive Party members. In 1931, both the Republicans and the Democrats had 217 members with the Minnesota Farmer - Labor Party having one member who served as the deciding vote. The Farmer - Labor Party eventually voted for the Democrats ' candidate for Speaker, John Nance Garner, who later became Vice President under Franklin Roosevelt.
In 1997, several Republican congressional leaders tried to force Speaker Newt Gingrich to resign. However, Gingrich refused since that would have required a new election for Speaker, which could have led to Democrats along with dissenting Republicans voting for Democrat Dick Gephardt (then Minority Leader) as Speaker. After the 1998 midterm elections where the Republicans lost seats, Gingrich did not stand for re-election. The next two figures in the House Republican leadership hierarchy, Majority Leader Richard Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay, chose not to run for the office. The chairman of the House Appropriations Committee, Bob Livingston, declared his bid for the speakership, which was unopposed, making him Speaker - designate. It was then revealed, by Livingston himself, who had been publicly critical of President Bill Clinton 's perjury during his sexual harassment trial, that he had engaged in an extramarital affair. He opted to resign from the House, despite being urged to stay on by House Democratic leader Gephardt. Subsequently, chief deputy whip Dennis Hastert was selected as Speaker. The Republicans retained their majorities in the 2000, 2002, and 2004 elections.
The Democrats won a majority of seats in the 2006 midterm elections. On November 16, 2006, Nancy Pelosi, who was then Minority Leader, was selected as Speaker - designate by House Democrats. When the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, she was elected as the 52nd Speaker by a vote of 233 - 202, becoming the first woman elected Speaker of the House. Pelosi remained Speaker through the 111th Congress. For the 112th Congress, Republican John Boehner was unanimously designated Speaker - designate by House Republicans and was elected the 53rd Speaker of the House. As a show of dissent, nineteen Democratic representatives voted for Democrats other than Pelosi, who had been chosen as House Minority Leader and the Democrats ' candidate for Speaker.
The Constitution does not spell out the political role of the Speaker. As the office has developed historically, however, it has taken on a clearly partisan cast, very different from the speakership of most Westminster - style legislatures, such as the Speaker of the British House of Commons, which is meant to be scrupulously non-partisan. The Speaker in the United States, by tradition, is the head of the majority party in the House of Representatives, outranking the Majority Leader. However, despite having the right to vote, the Speaker usually does not participate in debate and rarely votes.
The Speaker is responsible for ensuring that the House passes legislation supported by the majority party. In pursuing this goal, the Speaker may use their power to determine when each bill reaches the floor. They also chair the majority party 's steering committee in the House. While the Speaker is the functioning head of the House majority party, the same is not true of the President pro tempore of the Senate, whose office is primarily ceremonial and honorary.
When the Speaker and the President belong to the same party, the Speaker tends to play the role in a more ceremonial light, as seen when Dennis Hastert played a very low - key role during the presidency of fellow Republican George W. Bush. Nevertheless, when the Speaker and the President belong to the same party, there are also times that the Speaker plays a much larger role, and the Speaker is tasked, e.g., with pushing through the agenda of the majority party, often at the expense of the minority opposition. This can be seen, most of all, in the speakership of Democratic - Republican Henry Clay, who personally ensured the presidential victory of fellow Democratic - Republican John Quincy Adams. Democrat Sam Rayburn was a key player in the passing of New Deal legislation under the presidency of fellow Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (under Theodore Roosevelt) was particularly infamous for his marginalization of the minority Democrats and centralizing of authority to the speakership. In more recent times, Speaker Nancy Pelosi played a role in continuing the push for health care reform during the presidency of fellow Democrat Barack Obama. The Republicans campaigned against Pelosi and the Democrats ' legislation with their "Fire Pelosi '' bus tour.
On the other hand, when the Speaker and the President belong to opposite parties, the public role and influence of the Speaker tend to increase. As the highest - ranking member of the opposition party (and de facto Leader of the Opposition), the Speaker is normally the chief public opponent of the President 's agenda. In this scenario, the Speaker is known for undercutting the President 's agenda by blocking measures by the minority party or rejecting bills by the Senate. One famous instance came in the form of Thomas Brackett Reed (under Grover Cleveland), a Speaker notorious for his successful attempt to force the Democrats to vote on measures where the Republicans had clear majorities, which ensured that Cleveland 's Democrats were in no position to challenge the Republicans in the House. Joseph Cannon was particularly unique in that he led the conservative "Old Guard '' wing of the Republican Party, while his President -- Theodore Roosevelt -- was of the more progressive clique, and more than just marginalizing the Democrats, Cannon used his power to punish the dissidents in his party and obstruct the progressive wing of the Republican Party.
More modern examples include Tip O'Neill, who was a vocal opponent of President Ronald Reagan 's economic and defense policies; Newt Gingrich, who fought a bitter battle with President Bill Clinton for control of domestic policy; Nancy Pelosi, who argued with President George W. Bush over the Iraq War; and John Boehner, who clashed with President Barack Obama over budget issues and health care.
As presiding officer of the House of Representatives, the Speaker holds a variety of powers over the House and is ceremonially the highest - ranking legislative official in the US government. The Speaker may delegate his powers to a member of the House to act as Speaker pro tempore and preside over the House in the Speaker 's absence; when this has occurred the delegation has always been to a member of the same party. During important debates, the Speaker pro tempore is ordinarily a senior member of the majority party who may be chosen for his skill in presiding. At other times, more junior members may be assigned to preside to give them experience with the rules and procedures of the House. The Speaker may also designate, with approval of the House, a Speaker pro tempore for special purposes, such as designating a Representative whose district is near Washington, D.C. to sign enrolled bills during long recesses.
Under the Rules of the House, the Speaker, "as soon as practicable after the election of the Speaker and whenever appropriate thereafter, '' must deliver to the Clerk of the House a confidential list of Members who are designated to act as Speaker in the case of a vacancy or physical inability of the Speaker to perform their duties.
On the floor of the House, the presiding officer is always addressed as "Mister Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker, '' even if it is a Speaker pro tempore, and not the Speaker themselves. When the House resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole, the Speaker designates a member to preside over the Committee as the Chairman, who is addressed as "Mister Chairman '' or "Madam Chairwoman. '' To speak, members must seek the presiding officer 's recognition. The presiding officer also rules on all points of order but such rulings may be appealed to the whole House. The Speaker is responsible for maintaining decorum in the House and may order the Sergeant - at - Arms to enforce House rules.
The Speaker 's powers and duties extend beyond presiding in the chamber. In particular, the Speaker has great influence over the committee process. The Speaker selects nine of the thirteen members of the powerful Committee on Rules, subject to the approval of the entire majority party. The leadership of the minority party chooses the remaining four members. Furthermore, the Speaker appoints all members of select committees and conference committees. Moreover, when a bill is introduced, the Speaker determines which committee will consider it. As a member of the House, the Speaker is entitled to participate in debate and to vote but, by custom, only does so in exceptional circumstances. Ordinarily, the Speaker votes only when the Speaker 's vote would be decisive or on matters of great importance, such as constitutional amendments or major legislation.
Because joint sessions and joint meetings of Congress are held in the House chamber, the Speaker presides over joint sessions to hear addresses by the President, and joint meetings to hear addresses from foreign leaders or other invited guests. However, the Twelfth Amendment and 3 U.S.C. § 15 require that the President of the Senate preside over joint sessions of Congress assembled to count electoral votes and to certify the results of a presidential election.
The Speaker is also responsible for overseeing the officers of the House: the Clerk, the Sergeant - at - Arms, the Chief Administrative Officer, and the Chaplain. The Speaker can dismiss any of these officers. The Speaker appoints the House Historian and the General Counsel and, jointly with the Majority and Minority Leaders, appoints the House Inspector General.
The Speaker is second in the presidential line of succession, immediately after the Vice President, under the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. The Speaker is followed in the line of succession by the President pro tempore of the Senate and by the heads of federal executive departments.
To date, the implementation of the Presidential Succession Act has never been necessary and no Speaker has ever acted as President. Implementation of the law almost became necessary in 1973 after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew. At the time, many believed that President Richard Nixon would resign because of the Watergate scandal, allowing Speaker Carl Albert to succeed to the Presidency. However, before he resigned, Nixon appointed Gerald Ford as Vice President in accordance with the Twenty - fifth Amendment. Nevertheless, the United States government takes the Speaker 's place in the line of succession seriously enough that, for example, following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Speakers used military jets to fly back and forth to their districts and for other travel until Speaker Boehner discontinued the practice in 2011. The Speaker of the House is one of the officers to whom declarations of presidential inability or ability to resume the Presidency must be addressed under the Twenty - fifth Amendment.
To be elected as Speaker, a candidate must receive an absolute majority of all votes cast for individuals, excluding those who abstain. The most recent election for the post of Speaker of the United States House of Representatives took place on January 3, 2017, during the opening day of the 115th United States Congress. The incumbent speaker, Paul Ryan, was re-elected.
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where did hand foot and mouth disease originated
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Hand, foot, and mouth disease - wikipedia
Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a common infection caused by a group of viruses. It typically begins with a fever and feeling generally unwell. This is followed a day or two later by flat discolored spots or bumps that may blister, on the hands, feet, and mouth, and occasionally buttocks and groin. Signs and symptoms normally appear 3 -- 6 days after exposure to the virus. The rash generally goes away on its own in about a week. Fingernail and toenail loss may occur a few weeks later, but will regrow with time.
The viruses that cause HFMD are spread through close personal contact, through the air from coughing, and the feces of an infected person. Contaminated objects can also spread the disease. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause and Enterovirus 71 is the second-most common cause. Other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible. Some people may carry and pass on the virus despite having no symptoms of disease. Other animals are not involved. Diagnosis can often be made based on symptoms. Occasionally a throat or stool sample may be tested for the virus.
Handwashing may prevent spread and those infected should not go to work, daycare, or school. No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. Most cases require no specific treatment. Simple pain medication such as ibuprofen or numbing mouth gel may be used. Occasionally intravenous fluids are given to children who are unable to drink enough. Rarely viral meningitis or encephalitis may complicate the disease.
HFMD occurs in all areas of the world. It often occurs in small outbreaks in nursery schools or kindergartens. Large outbreaks have been occurring in Asia since 1997. It usually occurs during the spring, summer, and fall months. Typically it occurs in children less than five years old, but can occasionally occur in adults. HFMD should not be confused with foot - and - mouth disease (also known as hoof - and - mouth disease) which mostly affects livestock.
Common constitutional signs and symptoms of the HFMD include fever, nausea, vomiting, feeling tired, generalized discomfort, loss of appetite, and irritability in infants and toddlers. Skin lesions frequently develop in the form of a rash of flat discolored spots and bumps which may be followed by vesicular sores with blisters on palms of the hands, soles of the feet, buttocks, and sometimes on the lips. The rash is rarely itchy for children, but can be extremely itchy for adults. Painful facial ulcers, blisters, or lesions may also develop in or around the nose or mouth. HFMD usually resolves on its own after 7 -- 10 days. Most cases of the disease are relatively harmless, but complications including encephalitis, meningitis, and paralysis that mimics the neurological symptoms of polio can occur.
The viruses that cause the disease are of the Picornaviridae family. Coxsackievirus A16 is the most common cause of HFMD. Enterovirus 71 (EV - 71) is the second-most common cause. Many other strains of coxsackievirus and enterovirus can also be responsible.
HFMD is highly contagious and is transmitted by nasopharyngeal secretions such as saliva or nasal mucus, by direct contact, or by fecal - oral transmission.
Child care settings are the most common places for HMFD to be contracted because of the bathroom training, diaper changes, and that children often put their hands into their mouths. Children that do not attend a preschool or kindergarten were found to be more susceptible to the disease. HFMD is contracted through nose and throat secretions such as saliva, sputum, nasal mucus and as well as fluid in blisters, and stool.
A diagnosis usually can be made by the presenting signs and symptoms alone. If the diagnosis is unclear, a throat swab or stool specimen may be taken to identify the virus by culture. The common incubation period (the time between infection and onset of symptoms) ranges from three to six days. Early detection of HFMD is important in preventing an outbreak in the pediatric population.
Preventive measures include avoiding direct contact with infected individuals (including keeping infected children home from school), proper cleaning of shared utensils, disinfecting contaminated surfaces, and proper hand hygiene. These measures have been shown to be effective in decreasing the transmission of the viruses responsible for HFMD.
Protective habits include hand washing and disinfecting surfaces in play areas. Breast - feeding has also shown to decrease rates of severe HFMD, though does not reduce the risk for the infection of the disease.
A vaccine known as the EV71 vaccine is available to prevent HFMD in China as of December 2015. No vaccine is currently available in the United States.
Medications are usually not needed as hand, foot, and mouth disease is a viral disease that typically resolves on its own. Currently, there is no specific curative treatment for hand, foot and mouth disease. Disease management typically focuses on achieving symptomatic relief. Pain from the sores may be eased with the use of analgesic medications. Infection in older children, adolescents, and adults is typically mild and lasts approximately 1 week, but may occasionally run a longer course. Fever reducers and lukewarm baths can help decrease body temperature.
A minority of individuals with hand, foot and mouth disease may require hospital admission due to complications such as inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the meninges, or acute flaccid paralysis. Non-neurologic complications such as inflammation of the heart, fluid in the lungs, or bleeding into the lungs may also occur.
Complications from the viral infections that cause HFMD are rare, but require immediate medical treatment if present. HFMD infections caused by Enterovirus 71 tend to be more severe and are more likely to have neurologic or cardiac complications including death than infections caused by Coxsackievirus A16. Viral or aseptic meningitis can occur with HFMD in rare cases and is characterized by fever, headache, stiff neck, or back pain. The condition is usually mild and clears without treatment; however, hospitalization for a short time may be needed. Other serious complications of HFMD include encephalitis (swelling of the brain), or flaccid paralysis in rare circumstances.
Fingernail and toenail loss have been reported in children 4 -- 8 weeks after having HFMD. The relationship between HFMD and the reported nail loss is unclear; however, it is temporary and nail growth resumes without treatment.
Minor complications due to symptoms can occur such as dehydration, due to mouth sores causing discomfort with intake of foods and fluid.
Hand, foot and mouth disease most commonly occurs in children under the age of 10. It tends to occur in outbreaks during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons. This is believed to be due to heat and humidity improving spread. HFMD is more common in rural areas than urban areas, however, socioeconomic status and hygiene levels need to considered. Poor hygiene is a risk factor for HFMD.
Outbreaks have occurred in China, Japan, Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan and Vietnam. HFMD most commonly affects young children under the age of 10 and more often under the age of 5, but can also affect adults with varying symptoms.
Since 1997 there have been 71 large enterovirus outbreaks reported, mostly in East and South East Asia, primarily affecting children. From the years 2008 to 2014, more than 1 million HFMD cases have been reported in China each year.
HFMD cases were first described clinically in Canada and New Zealand in 1957. The disease was termed ' Hand Foot and Mouth Disease ' after a similar outbreak in 1959.
Novel antiviral agents to prevent and treat infection with the viruses responsible for HFMD are currently under development. Preliminary studies have shown inhibitors of the EV - 71 viral capsid to have potent antiviral activity.
Media related to Hand, foot and mouth disease at Wikimedia Commons News related to Highly contagious Hand, foot and mouth disease killing China 's children at Wikinews
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who was involved in the group areas act
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Group Areas Act - Wikipedia
Group Areas Act was the title of three acts of the Parliament of South Africa enacted under the apartheid government of South Africa. The acts assigned racial groups to different residential and business sections in urban areas in a system of urban apartheid. An effect of the law was to exclude non-Whites from living in areas which were restricted to Whites (e.g., Sea Point, Lansdowne, Cape Town, Claremont). It caused many non-Whites to have to commute large distances from their homes in order to be able to work. The law led to non-Whites being forcibly removed for living in the "wrong '' areas. The non-white majority were given much smaller areas (e.g., Tongaat, Grassy Park) to live in than the white minority who owned most of the country. Pass Laws required that non-Whites carry pass books, and later ' reference books ' (similar to passports) to enter the ' white ' parts of the country.
The first Group Areas Act, the Group Areas Act, 1950 was promulgated on 7 July 1950, and it was implemented over a period of several years. It was amended by Parliament in 1952, 1955 (twice), 1956 and 1957. Later in 1957 it was repealed and re-enacted in consolidated form as the Group Areas Act, 1957, which was amended in 1961, 1962, and 1965. In 1966 this version was in turn repealed and re-enacted as the Group Areas Act, 1966, which was subsequently amended in 1969, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1982, and 1984. It was repealed (along with many other discriminatory laws) on 30 June 1991 by the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act, 1991.
After the 1948 general election, D.F. Malan 's administration commenced its policy of apartheid that sought to segregate the races in South Africa. The government hoped to achieve this through ' separate development ' of the races and this entailed passing laws that would ensure a distinction on social, economic, political and, in the case of the Group Areas Act, geographical lines. The Group Areas Act may be regarded as an extension of the Asiatic Land Tenure Act, 1946.
The Act empowered the Governor - General to declare certain geographical areas to be for the exclusive occupation of specific racial groups. In particular the statute identified three such racial groups: whites, coloureds and natives. This authority was exercised on the advice of the Minister of the Interior and the Group Areas Board.
Once an area had been designated for sole occupation by certain racial groups the proclamation would not become legally effective for at least one year. Once this time had expired it became a criminal offence to remain in occupation of property in that area with the punishment potentially being a fine and two years ' imprisonment.
The Act also applied to businesses with racial designation being applied on the basis of the individuals who held a controlling interest in the company.
The Act became an effective tool in the separate development of races in South Africa. It also granted the Minister of the Interior a mandate to forcibly remove non-whites from valuable pieces of land so that they could become white settlements.
One of the most famous uses of the Group Areas Act was the destruction of Sophiatown, a suburb of Johannesburg. On 9 February 1955 2,000 policemen began removing residents to Meadowlands, Soweto and erected a new white - only area called Triomf (Triomf -- Afrikaans for Triumph).
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who is featured on birds in the trap
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Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight - wikipedia
Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight is the second studio album by American rapper Travis Scott. It was released on September 2, 2016, by Grand Hustle Records and Epic Records. It exclusively premiered through Travis Scott and Chase B 's radio show Wav Radio on Beats 1 and Apple Music. The album features guest appearances from André 3000, Kid Cudi, Cassie, Young Thug, Nav, Blac Youngsta, 21 Savage, Kendrick Lamar, Bryson Tiller, Quavo, K. Forest and The Weeknd; as well the production that was handled by Scott himself, along with other high - profile record producers such as Vinylz, Mike Dean, Cardo, Frank Dukes and Allen Ritter, among others.
The album was supported by two singles: "Pick Up the Phone '' and "Goosebumps ''. Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight received generally positive reviews from critics, debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200, selling 53,000 copies in the first week.
On January 4, 2016, Scott announced on his Snapchat account that he would be revealing the title for his new album at the time. While going on the road, Scott has been tweeting on what the title is to the album on Twitter. He first removed all of his tweets, and announced the title to the album on the Anti World Tour. In an interview with Billboard, Scott explained the meaning of his album title: "My next album, Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight is basically about all my friends and growing up here (in Missouri City). I 'm not saying that it 's a trap, we not in the fucking projects, but it 's like a social trap. It 's a social connection trap from what you want to do and how you want to express yourself. I feel like everyone just gets constricted by their parents or just life. ''
On March 30, 2016, Scott and Young Thug announced that they will be releasing their song in "the next few days ''. In April 2016, while Scott was performing in Houston, Texas, he previewed a snippet of the track. At the Paris Nightclub in Chicago, Illinois, Scott played the full version of the song, called "Pick Up the Phone ''. The duet track between Scott and Young Thug, featuring Quavo. On May 18, 2016, Scott performed a surprise show in Atlanta and confirmed the imminent release for the album, stating "I 'm dropping my new album in a couple of fucking days. '' He went on to reveal that the album will feature "some of my favorite fucking artists. ''
On June 2, 2016, Scott took that song down, after posting it on his official SoundCloud page, stating that "This song was supposed to go to iTunes, but labels are making this more complicated than it actually need to be this was gon na be my single, but now I 'm giving a way for the kids. P.S. They might take this down cause they do n't want kids to eat. ''
On July 26, 2016, in a show in the Ford Amphitheater at Coney Island, Scott announced the release date for Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight, however, the album missed its release dates due to "technical difficulties '' twice. After a free event named the Wav Party in Los Angeles, his music video for "90210 '' was showcased, while his music video for "Pick Up the Phone '' has been released on Travis Scott 's Vevo account on YouTube. Scott also revealed that Kid Cudi and Kendrick Lamar would appear on his album, with the production that would be provided by Cashmere Cat. On August 25, 2016, Mike Dean announced that the album was delayed again, due to the incompletion with the album 's mixing. On August 31, 2016, Scott announced that he finally finished his album on his Instagram.
On July 24, 2016, in an interview with DJ Whoo Kid, Scott revealed that his biggest musical influence is Kid Cudi. It was announced that Cudi would be appearing on the album. This was revealed a month after Cudi announced that Scott would appear on his respective solo album, Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin '.
On August 12, 2016, Scott premiered a song, "The Hooch '' on the debut episode of his new Apple Music radio show Wav Radio with Chase B. The song was produced by Vinylz, Allen Ritter, Boi - 1da and Mike Dean. On August 15, the song was released via Apple Music Connect, and then Scott announced that the album would be released on August 26. On August 19, Scott premiered the new song, "Black Mass '' on the second episode of. Wav Radio with Chase B. The song was produced by Murda Beatz and Cubeatz.
On September 2, 2016, Scott premiered the album with Chase B on the third episode of Wav Radio, with guest appearances and guest mixes by Pizza Boyz and Kendall Jenner. Scott then released the new song, "RaRa ''. The song features a guest appearance from American rapper Lil Uzi Vert, with the production was handled by TM88 and Cubeatz.
"Wonderful '' featuring Canadian singer - songwriter The Weeknd, was released as a promotional single. The song was produced by T - Minus and Boi - 1da, with co-production by Mike Dean, while the additional production by Scott himself. After its premiere through Scott 's SoundCloud account on December 31, 2015, the song was serviced to rhythmic radio on February 16, 2016.
"Pick Up the Phone '' with Young Thug, was released as the album 's lead single for retail sale and streaming on June 3, 2016. It features a guest appearance from American rapper Quavo and additional vocals from American singer Starrah, while the production was provided by Vinylz and Frank Dukes, with co-production by Allen Ritter and Dean. The music video for the single premiered on August 12, 2016. "Pick Up the Phone '' peaked at number 43 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It is also included on Young Thug 's mixtape Jeffery. On May 22, 2017, the single was certified double Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
"Goosebumps '' featuring Kendrick Lamar, was released as the album 's second single on December 13, 2016. It was produced by Cardo, Yung Exclusive, Cubeatz and Mike Dean. The music video premiered on April 3, 2017, exclusively on Apple Music. The song peaked at number 32 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 64, based on eight reviews. Matthew Cooper of Clash said, "While Scott might spend the 14 tracks telling us how incoherent he is, Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight is anything but. '' Scott Glaysher of HipHopDX said, "There is n't a ton of lyrical progression for La Flame on this album... But he uses a soothing digitized finish and weaves through the most polished contemporary drums in Hip Hop, it 's truly hard to hate. That puzzling beauty is the best part about Scott 's music. '' Matthew Strauss of Pitchfork said, "Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight escapes as Travis Scott 's best work yet: a combination of elevated significance, self - awareness, and the old trick of spinning something so plain into something so luxurious. '' Preezy of XXL said, "Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight is a roller coaster ride of an experience, with an endless amount of highlights, whether it be an indelible hook here or timely guest verse there. ''
Andy Kellman of AllMusic said, "Swarming basslines and sluggish beats likewise form the rhythmic foundation, with gauzy and tickling keyboards adding sweetness to Scott 's hedonistic hooks. Only on "Guidance '', through scuttling drums granted by DF, is there a significant shake - up. '' Calum Slingerland of Exclaim! said, "Scott 's hedonistic lyrics about sex and drugs remain awfully vapid for what 's been billed as a trap masterpiece (the utterly banal "SDP Interlude '' takes the cake)... Scott 's strength, of course, continues to lie in his ear for beats, with part of his appeal being his ability to make songs with less than rewarding subject matter still sound cool. '' Grant Rindner of PopMatters said, "The results here are highly mixed, and he might simply be the kind of artist who should take more time on his releases, even if that extra time is n't completely his choice. '' Mike Giegerich of Tiny Mix Tapes said, "Birds 's stripped - down approach bares an utter lack of finesse behind a microphone. ''
Complex placed Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight at number five on their "50 Best Albums of 2016 '' year - end list, while Variance Magazine placed it at number 38. XXL ranked it among the best 50 hip hop projects of 2016.
Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, earning 88,000 album - equivalent units, of which 53,000 were pure album sales. It became Scott 's first number one album. On May 22, 2017, the album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album - equivalent units over 1,000,000 copies in the United States.
Notes
Sample credits
Music
Production
Managerial and design
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what is the population of st augustine fl
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St. Augustine, Florida - wikipedia
St. Augustine (Spanish: San Agustín) is a city in the Southeastern United States, on the Atlantic coast of northeastern Florida. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorers, it is the oldest continuously occupied European - established settlement within the borders of the continental United States.
The county seat of St. Johns County, St. Augustine is part of Florida 's First Coast region and the Jacksonville metropolitan area. According to the 2010 census, the city 's population was 12,975. The United States Census Bureau 's 2013 estimate of the city 's population was 13,679, while the urban area had a population of 71,379 in 2012.
St. Augustine was founded on September 8, 1565, by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Florida 's first governor. He named the settlement "San Agustín '', as his ships bearing settlers, troops, and supplies from Spain had first sighted land in Florida eleven days earlier on August 28, the feast day of St. Augustine. The city served as the capital of Spanish Florida for over 200 years. It was designated as the capital of British East Florida when the colony was established in 1763 until it was ceded to Spain in 1783.
Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819, and St. Augustine was designated the capital of the Florida Territory upon ratification of the Adams -- Onís Treaty in 1821. The Florida National Guard made the city its headquarters that same year. The territorial government moved and made Tallahassee the capital in 1824. Since the late 19th century, St. Augustine 's distinct historical character has made the city a major tourist attraction.
Founded in 1565 by the Spanish conquistador Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the contiguous United States. In 1562, a group of Huguenots led by Jean Ribault arrived in Spanish Florida to establish a colony in the territory claimed by Spain. They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River, calling it la Rivière de Mai (the River May), then sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present - day South Carolina. Spain learned of this French expedition through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. The Huguenot nobleman René de Laudonnière, who had participated in the expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He arrived at the mouth of the River May on June 22, 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline.
Desiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against such incursions, the Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by King Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, and licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida. This contract directed Menéndez to sail for La Florida, reconnoitre it from the Florida Keys to present - day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with a view to establishing a permanent settlement for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown.
On July 28, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600 - ton flagship, the San Pelayo, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers. On the feast day of St. Augustine, August 28, the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel the French called the River of Dolphins. Menéndez then sailed north and confronted Ribault 's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to the site of his first landfall, naming it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies.
Menéndez then marched his soldiers overland for a surprise attack on Fort Caroline, where they killed almost everyone in the fort except for the women and children. Jean Ribault had already put out to sea with his ships for an assault on St. Augustine, but was surprised by a storm that wrecked his ships further south. Informed by his Indian allies that the survivors were walking northward on the coast, Menéndez began to search for the Frenchmen, who had made it as far as the banks of the Matanzas River 's south entrance. There they were confronted by the Spaniard and his men on the opposite side. After several parleys with the Spanish, Jean Ribault and the Frenchmen with him (between 150 -- 350, sources differ) surrendered; almost all of them were executed in the dunes near the inlet, thereafter called Matanzas (Spanish for "slaughters '').
In May 1566, as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea, and built a wooden fort there. In 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Confident that he had fulfilled the primary conditions of his contract with the King, including the building of forts along the coast of La Florida, Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567. After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17, 1574.
Succeeding governors of the province maintained a peaceful coexistence with the local Native Americans, allowing the isolated outpost of St. Augustine some stability for a few years. On May 28 and 29, 1586, soon after the Anglo - Spanish War began between England and Spain, the English privateer Sir Francis Drake sacked and burned St. Augustine. The approach of his large fleet obliged Governor Pedro Menéndez Márquez and the townspeople to flee for their safety. When the English got ashore, they seized some artillery pieces and a royal strongbox containing gold ducats, the garrison payroll. The killing of their sergeant major by the Spanish rearguard caused Drake to order the town burnt.
In 1609 and 1611, expeditions were sent out from St. Augustine against the English colony at Jamestown, Virginia. In the second half of the 17th century, unsettled groups of Indians, forced southward by the expanding English colony in Carolina, made raids into Florida and killed the Franciscan priests who served at the Catholic missions. Requests by successive governors of the province to strengthen the presidio 's garrison and fortifications were ignored by the Crown. The charter of 1663 for the new Province of Carolina, issued by King Charles II of England, was revised in 1665, claiming lands as far southward as 29 degrees north latitude, about 65 miles south of the existing settlement at St. Augustine.
The English buccaneer Robert Searle then sacked St. Augustine in 1668, killing sixty people and pillaging government buildings, churches and houses, after which his pirates ransomed off some of their hostages and sold others into slavery. This raid and the establishment of the English settlement at Charles Town spurred the Spanish monarchy to finally acknowledge the threat represented by the new English colonies to the north and strengthen the city 's defenses. In 1669, Queen Regent Mariana ordered the Viceroy of New Spain to disburse funds for the construction of a permanent masonry fortress, which began in 1672. Before the fortress was completed, buccaneers Michel de Grammont and Nicolas Brigaut planned an attack in 1686 which was foiled: their ships were run aground, Grammont and his crew lost, and Brigaut captured ashore by Spanish soldiers. The Castillo de San Marcos was completed in 1695, not long before an attack by Governor Moore 's forces from Carolina in November, 1702. Failing to take the fort after a siege of 58 days, the British troops burned St. Augustine to the ground as they retreated. In 1740, the town was again besieged, this time by the governor of the British colony of Georgia, General James Oglethorpe, who was also unable to take the fort.
The Treaty of Paris (1763), signed after Great Britain 's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years ' War, ceded Florida to Great Britain and consequently St. Augustine became a Loyalist haven during the American Revolutionary War. The second Treaty of Paris (1783), which recognized the independence of the former British colonies north of Florida, also ceded Florida back to Spain, and as a result many of the town 's Spanish citizens returned to St Augustine. Refugees from Dr. Andrew Turnbull 's troubled colony in New Smyrna had fled to St. Augustine in 1777, and made up the majority of the city 's population during British rule. This group was, and still is, referred to locally as "Menorcans '', even though it also included settlers from Italy, Corsica and the Greek islands as well.
During the Second Spanish period (1784 - 1821) of Florida, Spain was dealing with invasions of the Iberian peninsula by Napoleon 's armies in the Peninsular War, and struggled to maintain a tenuous hold on its territories in the western hemisphere as revolution swept South America. The royal administration of Florida was neglected, as the province had long been regarded as an unprofitable backwater by the Crown. The United States, however, considered Florida vital to its political and military interests as it expanded its territory in North America, and maneuvered by sometimes clandestine means to acquire it. The Adams -- Onís Treaty, negotiated in 1819 and ratified in 1821, ceded Florida and St. Augustine, still its capital at the time, to the United States.
Florida remained an organized territory of the United States until 1845, when it was admitted into the Union as the State of Florida. The Territorial Period (1821 - 1845) was marked by protracted wars with the Creek Indian groups who occupied the peninsula, collectively known as "Seminoles '', during the Second Seminole War (1835 - 1842). The United States Army took command of the Castillo de San Marcos and renamed it Fort Marion after General Francis Marion, who fought in the American Revolutionary War. The capital of the territory was moved to Tallahassee in 1824.
Florida joined the Confederacy after the Civil War began in 1861, and Confederate authorities remained in control of St. Augustine for fourteen months, although it was barely defended. The Union conducted a blockade of shipping. In 1862 Union troops gained control of St. Augustine and controlled it through the rest of the war. With the economy already suffering, many residents fled.
Henry Flagler, a co-founder with John D. Rockefeller of the Standard Oil Company, spent the winter of 1883 in St. Augustine and found the city charming, but considered its hotels and transportation systems inadequate. He had the idea to make St. Augustine a winter resort for wealthy Americans from the north, and to bring them south he bought several short line railroads and combined these in 1885 to form the Florida East Coast Railway. He built a railroad bridge over the St. Johns River in 1888, opening up the Atlantic coast of Florida to development.
Flagler began construction in 1887 on two large ornate hotels in the city, the 540 - room Ponce de Leon Hotel and the 250 - room Hotel Alcazar. The next year, he purchased the Casa Monica Hotel across the street from both the Alcazar and the Ponce de Leon. His chosen architectural firm, Carrère and Hastings, radically altered the appearance of St. Augustine with these hotels, giving it a skyline and beginning an architectural trend in the state characterized by the use of the Moorish Revival style. With the opening of the Ponce de Leon in 1888, St. Augustine became the winter resort of American high society for a few years.
When Flagler 's Florida East Coast Railroad was extended southward to Palm Beach and then Miami in the early 20th Century, the rich mostly abandoned St. Augustine. Wealthy vacationers began to customarily spend their winters in South Florida, where the climate was warmer and freezes were rare. St. Augustine nevertheless still attracted tourists, and eventually became a destination for families traveling in automobiles as new highways were built and Americans took to the road for annual summer vacations. The tourist industry soon became the dominant sector of the local economy.
In late 1963, nearly a decade after the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation of schools was unconstitutional, African Americans were still trying to get St. Augustine to integrate the public schools in the city. They were also trying to integrate public accommodations, such as lunch counters, and were met with arrests and Ku Klux Klan violence. Local college students held non-violent protests throughout the city, including sit - ins at the local Woolworth 's, picket lines, and marches through the downtown. These protests were often met with police violence. Homes of African Americans were firebombed, black leaders were assaulted and threatened with death, and others were fired from their jobs.
In the spring of 1964, St. Augustine civil rights leader Robert Hayling asked the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and its leader Martin Luther King, Jr. for assistance. From May until July 1964, King and Hayling, along with Andrew Young, organized marches, sit - ins, and other forms of peaceful protest in St. Augustine. Hundreds of black and white civil rights supporters were arrested, and the jails were filled to capacity. At the request of Hayling and King, white civil rights supporters from the North, including students, clergy, and well - known public figures, came to St. Augustine and were arrested together with Southern activists.
St. Augustine was the only place in Florida where King was arrested; his arrest there occurred on June 11, 1964, on the steps of the Monson Motor Lodge 's restaurant. The demonstrations came to a climax when a group of black and white protesters jumped into the hotel 's segregated swimming pool. In response to the protest, James Brock, the manager of the hotel and the president of the Florida Hotel & Motel Association, poured what he claimed to be muriatic acid into the pool to burn the protesters. Photographs of this, and of a policeman jumping into the pool to arrest the protesters, were broadcast around the world.
The Ku Klux Klan responded to these protests with violent attacks that were widely reported in national and international media. Popular revulsion against the Klan and police violence in St. Augustine generated national sympathy for the black protesters and became a key factor in Congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, leading eventually to passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, both of which provided federal enforcement of constitutional rights.
In 1965, St. Augustine celebrated the 400th anniversary of its founding, and jointly with the State of Florida, inaugurated a program to restore part of the colonial city. The Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board was formed to reconstruct more than thirty - six buildings to their historical appearance, which was completed within a few years. When the State of Florida abolished the Board in 1997, the City of St. Augustine assumed control of the reconstructed buildings, as well as other historic properties including the Government House. In 2010, the city transferred control of the historic buildings to the University of Florida.
In 2015, St. Augustine celebrated the 450th anniversary of its founding with a four - day long festival and a visit from Felipe VI of Spain and Queen Letizia of Spain.
On October 7, 2016 Hurricane Matthew caused widespread flooding in downtown St. Augustine.
St. Augustine is located at 29 ° 53 ′ 41 '' N 81 ° 18 ′ 52 '' W / 29.89472 ° N 81.31444 ° W / 29.89472; - 81.31444 (29.8946910, − 81.3145170). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10.7 square miles (27.8 km), 8.4 square miles (21.7 km) of which is land and 2.4 square miles (6.1 km) (21.99 %) is water. Access to the Atlantic Ocean is via the St. Augustine Inlet of the Matanzas River.
St. Augustine has a humid subtropical climate or Cfa -- typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic states. The low latitude and coastal location give the city a mostly warm and sunny climate. Like much of Florida, St. Augustine enjoys a high number of sunny days, averaging 2,900 hours annually. Unlike much of the contiguous United States, St. Augustine 's driest time of year is winter. The hot and wet season extends from May through October, while the cool and dry season extends November through April.
In the hot season, average daytime highs are in the upper 80s to low 90s ° F (26 ° to 33 ° C) and average night - time lows are in the low 70s ° F (21 ° C). The Bermuda High pumps in hot and unstable tropical air from the Bahamas and Gulf of Mexico, which help create the daily thundershowers that are typical in summer months. Intense but very brief downpours are common in mid-summer in the city. Fall and spring are warm and sunny with highs in the 75 to 80 F (21 to 24 ° C) range and overnight lows in the 50s to low 60s (10 to 17 ° C).
In the dry winter season, St. Augustine has generally mild and sunny weather typical of the Florida peninsula. The coolest months are from December through February, with average daytime highs that range from 65 to 70 ° F (18 to 21 ° C) and nighttime lows in the 46 - 49 F (8 to 10 ° C) range. From November through April, St. Augustine often has long periods of rainless weather. Early spring (April) can see near drought conditions with brush fires and water restrictions in place. St. Augustine averages six frosts per year. Hurricanes occasionally impact the region; however, like most areas prone to such storms, St. Augustine rarely suffers a direct hit by a major hurricane. The last direct hit by a major hurricane to the city was Hurricane Dora in 1964. Extensive flooding occurred in the downtown area of St. Augustine when Hurricane Matthew passed east of the city in October 2016.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 12,975 people, 5,743 households, and 2,679 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,376.2 people per square mile (531 / km2). There were 6,978 housing units at an average density of 549.4 per square mile (211.4 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 84.2 % Caucasian, 11.6 % African American, 0.4 % Native American, 1.2 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 0.8 % from other races, and 1.6 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1 % of the population.
There were 5,743 households out of which 14.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.7 % were married couples living together, 10.9 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.4 % were non-families. 37.8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.03 and the average family size was 2.67.
In the city, the population was spread out with 13.1 % under the age of 18, 15.3 % from 18 to 24, 23.9 % from 25 to 44, 25.2 % from 45 to 64, and 19 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $36,424, and the median income for a family was $56,055. Males had a median income of $32,409 versus $30,188 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,485. About 7.6 % of families and 21.1 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.8 % of those under age 18 and 24.4 % of those age 65 or over.
Bus service is operated by the Sunshine Bus Company. Buses operate mainly between shopping centers across town, but a few go to Hastings and Jacksonville, where one can connect to JTA for additional service across Jacksonville.
St. Augustine has one public airport 4 miles (6.4 km) north of the downtown. It has three runways and two seaplane lanes. ViaAir provides seasonal service to Charlotte, and Elite Airways will soon provide service to Rochester, Minnesota. Various private jets and tour helicopters also operate from the airport. Northrop Grumman runs a large manufacturing plant on the grounds, where the E-2 Hawkeye is produced. Jacksonville International Airport is 40 miles to the north along I - 95.
Primary and secondary education in St. Augustine is overseen by the St. Johns County School District. There are no county high schools located within St. Augustine 's current city limits, but St. Augustine High School, Pedro Menendez High School, and St. Johns Technical High School are located in the vicinity. The Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, a state - operated boarding school for deaf and blind students, was founded in the city in 1885. The Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine operates the St. Joseph Academy, Florida 's oldest Catholic high school, to the west of the city.
There are several institutions of higher education in and around St. Augustine. Flagler College is a four - year liberal arts college founded in 1968. It is located in the former Ponce de Leon Hotel in downtown St. Augustine. St. Johns River State College, a state college in the Florida College System, has its St. Augustine campus just west of the city. Also in the area are the University of North Florida, Jacksonville University, and Florida State College at Jacksonville in Jacksonville.
The institution now known as Florida Memorial University was located in St. Augustine from 1918 to 1968, when it relocated to its present campus in Miami. Originally known as Florida Baptist Academy, then Florida Normal, and then Florida Memorial College, it was a historically black institution and had a wide impact on St. Augustine while it was located there. During World War II it was chosen as the site for training the first blacks in the U.S. Signal Corps. Among its faculty members was Zora Neale Hurston; a historic marker is placed at the house where she lived while teaching at Florida Memorial (and where she wrote her autobiography Dust Tracks on a Road.)
Bell tower on northeast bastion of the Castillo de San Marcos
North bastions and wall of the Castillo, looking eastward toward Anastasia Island
Seawall south of the Castillo
The city gates of St. Augustine, built in 1808, part of the much older Cubo Line
The Government House. East wing of the building dates to the 18th - century structure built on original site of the colonial governor 's residence.
Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Augustine
Shrine of Our Lady of La Leche at Mission Nombre de Dios
Statue of Ponce de León
Memorial Presbyterian Church
The former Hotel Alcazar now houses the Lightner Museum and City Hall
Flagler College, formerly the Ponce de Leon Hotel
Bridge of Lions, looking eastward to Anastasia Island
Tolomato Cemetery
Government resources
Local news media
Historical
Higher education
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official website of city college amherst street kolkata
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City College, Kolkata - wikipedia
City College (Bengali: সিটি কলেজ) (or City College, Amherst street, Kolkata) is a constituent undergraduate college of the University of Calcutta. Established in 1881, it is one of the heritage institutions of Kolkata, and played a prominent social role in the wake of the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth century. The college is located at 102 / 1, Raja Rammohan Roy Sarani (Amherst street), Kolkata - 700 009. It is one of the City group colleges administered by Brahmo Samaj Education Society, a registered society, constituted by the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, Kolkata.
Coordinates: 22 ° 34 ′ 49 '' N 88 ° 22 ′ 12 '' E / 22.5802 ° N 88.3699 ° E / 22.5802; 88.3699
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where is the school located in to kill a mockingbird
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To Kill a Mockingbird - wikipedia
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on Lee 's observations of her family, her neighbors and an event that occurred near her hometown of Monroeville, Alabama, in 1936, when she was 10 years old.
The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narrator 's father, Atticus Finch, has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers. One critic explains the novel 's impact by writing, "In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism. ''
As a Southern Gothic novel and a Bildungsroman, the primary themes of To Kill a Mockingbird involve racial injustice and the destruction of innocence. Scholars have noted that Lee also addresses issues of class, courage, compassion, and gender roles in the American Deep South. The book is widely taught in schools in the United States with lessons that emphasize tolerance and decry prejudice. Despite its themes, To Kill a Mockingbird has been subject to campaigns for removal from public classrooms, often challenged for its use of racial epithets.
Reaction to the novel varied widely upon publication. Despite the number of copies sold and its widespread use in education, literary analysis of it is sparse. Author Mary McDonough Murphy, who collected individual impressions of To Kill a Mockingbird by several authors and public figures, calls the book "an astonishing phenomenon ''. In 2006, British librarians ranked the book ahead of the Bible as one "every adult should read before they die ''. It was adapted into an Oscar - winning film in 1962 by director Robert Mulligan, with a screenplay by Horton Foote. Since 1990, a play based on the novel has been performed annually in Harper Lee 's hometown.
To Kill a Mockingbird was Lee 's only published book until Go Set a Watchman, an earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, was published on July 14, 2015. Lee continued to respond to her work 's impact until her death in February 2016, although she had refused any personal publicity for herself or the novel since 1964.
Born in 1926, Harper Lee grew up in the Southern town of Monroeville, Alabama, where she became close friends with soon - to - be famous writer Truman Capote. She attended Huntingdon College in Montgomery (1944 -- 45), and then studied law at the University of Alabama (1945 -- 49). While attending college, she wrote for campus literary magazines: Huntress at Huntingdon and the humor magazine Rammer Jammer at the University of Alabama. At both colleges, she wrote short stories and other works about racial injustice, a rarely mentioned topic on such campuses at the time. In 1950, Lee moved to New York City, where she worked as a reservation clerk for British Overseas Airways Corporation; there, she began writing a collection of essays and short stories about people in Monroeville. Hoping to be published, Lee presented her writing in 1957 to a literary agent recommended by Capote. An editor at J.B. Lippincott, who bought the manuscript, advised her to quit the airline and concentrate on writing. Donations from friends allowed her to write uninterrupted for a year.
After finishing the first draft and returning it to Lippincott, the manuscript, at that point titled "Go Set a Watchman '', fell into the hands of Therese von Hohoff Torrey -- known professionally as Tay Hohoff -- a small, wiry veteran editor in her late 50s. Hohoff was impressed. "(T) he spark of the true writer flashed in every line, '' she would later recount in a corporate history of Lippincott. But as Hohoff saw it, the manuscript was by no means fit for publication. It was, as she described it, "more a series of anecdotes than a fully conceived novel. '' During the next couple of years, she led Lee from one draft to the next until the book finally achieved its finished form and was retitled To Kill a Mockingbird.
Ultimately, Lee spent over two and a half years writing To Kill a Mockingbird. The book was published on July 11, 1960. After rejecting the "Watchman '' title, it was initially re-titled Atticus, but Lee renamed it "To Kill a Mockingbird '' to reflect that the story went beyond just a character portrait. The editorial team at Lippincott warned Lee that she would probably sell only several thousand copies. In 1964, Lee recalled her hopes for the book when she said, "I never expected any sort of success with ' Mockingbird. '... I was hoping for a quick and merciful death at the hands of the reviewers but, at the same time, I sort of hoped someone would like it enough to give me encouragement. Public encouragement. I hoped for a little, as I said, but I got rather a whole lot, and in some ways this was just about as frightening as the quick, merciful death I 'd expected. '' Instead of a "quick and merciful death '', Reader 's Digest Condensed Books chose the book for reprinting in part, which gave it a wide readership immediately. Since the original publication, the book has never been out of print.
The story takes place during three years (1933 -- 35) of the Great Depression in the fictional "tired old town '' of Maycomb, Alabama, the seat of Maycomb County. It focuses on six - year - old Jean Louise Finch (nicknamed Scout), who lives with her older brother, Jeremy (nicknamed Jem), and their widowed father, Atticus, a middle - aged lawyer. Jem and Scout befriend a boy named Dill, who visits Maycomb to stay with his aunt each summer. The three children are terrified yet fascinated by their neighbor, the reclusive Arthur "Boo '' Radley. The adults of Maycomb are hesitant to talk about Boo, and few of them have seen him for many years. The children feed one another 's imagination with rumors about his appearance and reasons for remaining hidden, and they fantasize about how to get him out of his house. After two summers of friendship with Dill, Scout and Jem find that someone leaves them small gifts in a tree outside the Radley place. Several times the mysterious Boo makes gestures of affection to the children, but, to their disappointment, he never appears in person.
Judge Taylor appoints Atticus to defend Tom Robinson, a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman, Mayella Ewell. Although many of Maycomb 's citizens disapprove, Atticus agrees to defend Tom to the best of his ability. Other children taunt Jem and Scout for Atticus 's actions, calling him a "nigger - lover ''. Scout is tempted to stand up for her father 's honor by fighting, even though he has told her not to. Atticus faces a group of men intent on lynching Tom. This danger is averted when Scout, Jem, and Dill shame the mob into dispersing by forcing them to view the situation from Atticus ' and Tom 's perspective.
Atticus does not want Jem and Scout to be present at Tom Robinson 's trial. No seat is available on the main floor, so by invitation of the Rev. Sykes, Jem, Scout, and Dill watch from the colored balcony. Atticus establishes that the accusers -- Mayella and her father, Bob Ewell, the town drunk -- are lying. It also becomes clear that the friendless Mayella made sexual advances toward Tom, and that her father caught her and beat her. Despite significant evidence of Tom 's innocence, the jury convicts him. Jem 's faith in justice becomes badly shaken, as is Atticus ', when the hapless Tom is shot and killed while trying to escape from prison.
Despite Tom 's conviction, Bob Ewell is humiliated by the events of the trial, Atticus explaining that he "destroyed (Ewell 's) last shred of credibility at that trial. '' Ewell vows revenge, spitting in Atticus ' face, trying to break into the judge 's house, and menacing Tom Robinson 's widow. Finally, he attacks the defenseless Jem and Scout while they walk home on a dark night after the school Halloween pageant. Jem suffers a broken arm in the struggle, but amid the confusion someone comes to the children 's rescue. The mysterious man carries Jem home, where Scout realizes that he is Boo Radley.
Sheriff Tate arrives and discovers that Bob Ewell has died during the fight. The sheriff argues with Atticus about the prudence and ethics of charging Jem (whom Atticus believes to be responsible) or Boo (whom Tate believes to be responsible). Atticus eventually accepts the sheriff 's story that Ewell simply fell on his own knife. Boo asks Scout to walk him home, and after she says goodbye to him at his front door he disappears again. While standing on the Radley porch, Scout imagines life from Boo 's perspective, and regrets that they had never repaid him for the gifts he had given them.
Scout then goes back home to Atticus and stays up with him for a while in Jem 's room. Soon Atticus takes her to bed and tucks her in, before leaving to go back to Jem.
Lee has said that To Kill a Mockingbird is not an autobiography, but rather an example of how an author "should write about what he knows and write truthfully ''. Nevertheless, several people and events from Lee 's childhood parallel those of the fictional Scout. Lee 's father, Amasa Coleman Lee, was an attorney, similar to Atticus Finch, and in 1919, he defended two black men accused of murder. After they were convicted, hanged and mutilated, he never tried another criminal case. Lee 's father was also the editor and publisher of the Monroeville newspaper. Although more of a proponent of racial segregation than Atticus, he gradually became more liberal in his later years. Though Scout 's mother died when she was a baby, Lee was 25 when her mother, Frances Cunningham Finch, died. Lee 's mother was prone to a nervous condition that rendered her mentally and emotionally absent. Lee 's older brother Edwin was the inspiration for Jem.
Lee modeled the character of Dill on her childhood friend, Truman Capote, known then as Truman Persons. Just as Dill lived next door to Scout during the summer, Capote lived next door to Lee with his aunts while his mother visited New York City. Like Dill, Capote had an impressive imagination and a gift for fascinating stories. Both Lee and Capote were atypical children: both loved to read. Lee was a scrappy tomboy who was quick to fight, but Capote was ridiculed for his advanced vocabulary and lisp. She and Capote made up and acted out stories they wrote on an old Underwood typewriter Lee 's father gave them. They became good friends when both felt alienated from their peers; Capote called the two of them "apart people ''. In 1960, Capote and Lee traveled to Kansas together to investigate the multiple murders that were the basis for Capote 's nonfiction novel In Cold Blood.
Down the street from the Lees lived a family whose house was always boarded up; they served as the models for the fictional Radleys. The son of the family got into some legal trouble and the father kept him at home for 24 years out of shame. He was hidden until virtually forgotten; he died in 1952.
The origin of Tom Robinson is less clear, although many have speculated that his character was inspired by several models. When Lee was 10 years old, a white woman near Monroeville accused a black man named Walter Lett of raping her. The story and the trial were covered by her father 's newspaper which reported that Lett was convicted and sentenced to death. After a series of letters appeared claiming Lett had been falsely accused, his sentence was commuted to life in prison. He died there of tuberculosis in 1937. Scholars believe that Robinson 's difficulties reflect the notorious case of the Scottsboro Boys, in which nine black men were convicted of raping two white women on negligible evidence. However, in 2005, Lee stated that she had in mind something less sensational, although the Scottsboro case served "the same purpose '' to display Southern prejudices. Emmett Till, a black teenager who was murdered for allegedly flirting with a white woman in Mississippi in 1955, and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, is also considered a model for Tom Robinson.
The strongest element of style noted by critics and reviewers is Lee 's talent for narration, which in an early review in Time was called "tactile brilliance ''. Writing a decade later, another scholar noted, "Harper Lee has a remarkable gift of story - telling. Her art is visual, and with cinematographic fluidity and subtlety we see a scene melting into another scene without jolts of transition. '' Lee combines the narrator 's voice of a child observing her surroundings with a grown woman 's reflecting on her childhood, using the ambiguity of this voice combined with the narrative technique of flashback to play intricately with perspectives. This narrative method allows Lee to tell a "delightfully deceptive '' story that mixes the simplicity of childhood observation with adult situations complicated by hidden motivations and unquestioned tradition. However, at times the blending causes reviewers to question Scout 's preternatural vocabulary and depth of understanding. Both Harding LeMay and the novelist and literary critic Granville Hicks expressed doubt that children as sheltered as Scout and Jem could understand the complexities and horrors involved in the trial for Tom Robinson 's life.
Writing about Lee 's style and use of humor in a tragic story, scholar Jacqueline Tavernier - Courbin states: "Laughter... (exposes) the gangrene under the beautiful surface but also by demeaning it; one can hardly... be controlled by what one is able to laugh at. '' Scout 's precocious observations about her neighbors and behavior inspire National Endowment of the Arts director David Kipen to call her "hysterically funny ''. To address complex issues, however, Tavernier - Courbin notes that Lee uses parody, satire, and irony effectively by using a child 's perspective. After Dill promises to marry her, then spends too much time with Jem, Scout reasons the best way to get him to pay attention to her is to beat him up, which she does several times. Scout 's first day in school is a satirical treatment of education; her teacher says she must undo the damage Atticus has wrought in teaching her to read and write, and forbids Atticus from teaching her further. Lee treats the most unfunny situations with irony, however, as Jem and Scout try to understand how Maycomb embraces racism and still tries sincerely to remain a decent society. Satire and irony are used to such an extent that Tavernier - Courbin suggests one interpretation for the book 's title: Lee is doing the mocking -- of education, the justice system, and her own society by using them as subjects of her humorous disapproval.
Critics also note the entertaining methods used to drive the plot. When Atticus is out of town, Jem locks a Sunday school classmate in the church basement with the furnace during a game of Shadrach. This prompts their black housekeeper Calpurnia to escort Scout and Jem to her church, which allows the children a glimpse into her personal life, as well as Tom Robinson 's. Scout falls asleep during the Halloween pageant and makes a tardy entrance onstage, causing the audience to laugh uproariously. She is so distracted and embarrassed that she prefers to go home in her ham costume, which saves her life.
Scholars have characterized To Kill a Mockingbird as both a Southern Gothic and a Bildungsroman. The grotesque and near - supernatural qualities of Boo Radley and his house, and the element of racial injustice involving Tom Robinson contribute to the aura of the Gothic in the novel. Lee used the term "Gothic '' to describe the architecture of Maycomb 's courthouse and in regard to Dill 's exaggeratedly morbid performances as Boo Radley. Outsiders are also an important element of Southern Gothic texts and Scout and Jem 's questions about the hierarchy in the town cause scholars to compare the novel to Catcher in the Rye and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Despite challenging the town 's systems, Scout reveres Atticus as an authority above all others, because he believes that following one 's conscience is the highest priority, even when the result is social ostracism. However, scholars debate about the Southern Gothic classification, noting that Boo Radley is in fact human, protective, and benevolent. Furthermore, in addressing themes such as alcoholism, incest, rape, and racial violence, Lee wrote about her small town realistically rather than melodramatically. She portrays the problems of individual characters as universal underlying issues in every society.
As children coming of age, Scout and Jem face hard realities and learn from them. Lee seems to examine Jem 's sense of loss about how his neighbors have disappointed him more than Scout 's. Jem says to their neighbor Miss Maudie the day after the trial, "It 's like bein ' a caterpillar wrapped in a cocoon... I always thought Maycomb folks were the best folks in the world, least that 's what they seemed like ''. This leads him to struggle with understanding the separations of race and class. Just as the novel is an illustration of the changes Jem faces, it is also an exploration of the realities Scout must face as an atypical girl on the verge of womanhood. As one scholar writes, "To Kill a Mockingbird can be read as a feminist Bildungsroman, for Scout emerges from her childhood experiences with a clear sense of her place in her community and an awareness of her potential power as the woman she will one day be. ''
Despite the novel 's immense popularity upon publication, it has not received the close critical attention paid to other modern American classics. Don Noble, editor of a book of essays about the novel, estimates that the ratio of sales to analytical essays may be a million to one. Christopher Metress writes that the book is "an icon whose emotive sway remains strangely powerful because it also remains unexamined ''. Noble suggests it does not receive academic attention because of its consistent status as a best - seller ("If that many people like it, it ca n't be any good. '') and that general readers seem to feel they do not require analytical interpretation.
Harper Lee has remained famously detached from interpreting the novel since the mid-1960s. However, she gave some insight into her themes when, in a rare letter to the editor, she wrote in response to the passionate reaction her book caused: "Surely it is plain to the simplest intelligence that To Kill a Mockingbird spells out in words of seldom more than two syllables a code of honor and conduct, Christian in its ethic, that is the heritage of all Southerners. ''
When the book was released, reviewers noted that it was divided into two parts, and opinion was mixed about Lee 's ability to connect them. The first part of the novel concerns the children 's fascination with Boo Radley and their feelings of safety and comfort in the neighborhood. Reviewers were generally charmed by Scout and Jem 's observations of their quirky neighbors. One writer was so impressed by Lee 's detailed explanations of the people of Maycomb that he categorized the book as Southern romantic regionalism. This sentimentalism can be seen in Lee 's representation of the Southern caste system to explain almost every character 's behavior in the novel. Scout 's Aunt Alexandra attributes Maycomb 's inhabitants ' faults and advantages to genealogy (families that have gambling streaks and drinking streaks), and the narrator sets the action and characters amid a finely detailed background of the Finch family history and the history of Maycomb. This regionalist theme is further reflected in Mayella Ewell 's apparent powerlessness to admit her advances toward Tom Robinson, and Scout 's definition of "fine folks '' being people with good sense who do the best they can with what they have. The South itself, with its traditions and taboos, seems to drive the plot more than the characters.
The second part of the novel deals with what book reviewer Harding LeMay termed "the spirit - corroding shame of the civilized white Southerner in the treatment of the Negro ''. In the years following its release, many reviewers considered To Kill a Mockingbird a novel primarily concerned with race relations. Claudia Durst Johnson considers it "reasonable to believe '' that the novel was shaped by two events involving racial issues in Alabama: Rosa Parks ' refusal to yield her seat on a city bus to a white person, which sparked the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the 1956 riots at the University of Alabama after Autherine Lucy and Polly Myers were admitted (Myers eventually withdrew her application and Lucy was expelled, but reinstated in 1980). In writing about the historical context of the novel 's construction, two other literary scholars remark: "To Kill a Mockingbird was written and published amidst the most significant and conflict - ridden social change in the South since the Civil War and Reconstruction. Inevitably, despite its mid-1930s setting, the story told from the perspective of the 1950s voices the conflicts, tensions, and fears induced by this transition. ''
Scholar Patrick Chura, who suggests Emmett Till was a model for Tom Robinson, enumerates the injustices endured by the fictional Tom that Till also faced. Chura notes the icon of the black rapist causing harm to the representation of the "mythologized vulnerable and sacred Southern womanhood ''. Any transgressions by black males that merely hinted at sexual contact with white females during the time the novel was set often resulted in a punishment of death for the accused. Tom Robinson 's trial was juried by poor white farmers who convicted him despite overwhelming evidence of his innocence, as more educated and moderate white townspeople supported the jury 's decision. Furthermore, the victim of racial injustice in To Kill a Mockingbird was physically impaired, which made him unable to commit the act he was accused of, but also crippled him in other ways. Roslyn Siegel includes Tom Robinson as an example of the recurring motif among white Southern writers of the black man as "stupid, pathetic, defenseless, and dependent upon the fair dealing of the whites, rather than his own intelligence to save him ''. Although Tom is spared from being lynched, he is killed with excessive violence during an attempted escape from prison, shot seventeen times.
The theme of racial injustice appears symbolically in the novel as well. For example, Atticus must shoot a rabid dog, even though it is not his job to do so. Carolyn Jones argues that the dog represents prejudice within the town of Maycomb, and Atticus, who waits on a deserted street to shoot the dog, must fight against the town 's racism without help from other white citizens. He is also alone when he faces a group intending to lynch Tom Robinson and once more in the courthouse during Tom 's trial. Lee even uses dreamlike imagery from the mad dog incident to describe some of the courtroom scenes. Jones writes, "(t) he real mad dog in Maycomb is the racism that denies the humanity of Tom Robinson... When Atticus makes his summation to the jury, he literally bares himself to the jury 's and the town 's anger. ''
In a 1964 interview, Lee remarked that her aspiration was "to be... the Jane Austen of South Alabama. '' Both Austen and Lee challenged the social status quo and valued individual worth over social standing. When Scout embarrasses her poorer classmate, Walter Cunningham, at the Finch home one day, Calpurnia, their black cook, chastises and punishes her for doing so. Atticus respects Calpurnia 's judgment, and later in the book even stands up to his sister, the formidable Aunt Alexandra, when she strongly suggests they fire Calpurnia. One writer notes that Scout, "in Austenian fashion '', satirizes women with whom she does not wish to identify. Literary critic Jean Blackall lists the priorities shared by the two authors: "affirmation of order in society, obedience, courtesy, and respect for the individual without regard for status ''.
Scholars argue that Lee 's approach to class and race was more complex "than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to ' poor white trash '... Lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice, silence the voices that might challenge the existing order, and greatly complicate many Americans ' conception of the causes of racism and segregation. '' Lee 's use of the middle - class narrative voice is a literary device that allows an intimacy with the reader, regardless of class or cultural background, and fosters a sense of nostalgia. Sharing Scout and Jem 's perspective, the reader is allowed to engage in relationships with the conservative antebellum Mrs. Dubose; the lower - class Ewells, and the Cunninghams who are equally poor but behave in vastly different ways; the wealthy but ostracized Mr. Dolphus Raymond; and Calpurnia and other members of the black community. The children internalize Atticus ' admonition not to judge someone until they have walked around in that person 's skin, gaining a greater understanding of people 's motives and behavior.
The novel has been noted for its poignant exploration of different forms of courage. Scout 's impulsive inclination to fight students who insult Atticus reflects her attempt to stand up for him and defend him. Atticus is the moral center of the novel, however, and he teaches Jem one of the most significant lessons of courage. In a statement that foreshadows Atticus ' motivation for defending Tom Robinson and describes Mrs. Dubose, who is determined to break herself of a morphine addiction, Atticus tells Jem that courage is "when you 're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what ''.
Charles Shields, who has written the only book - length biography of Harper Lee to date, offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that "its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal ''. Atticus ' lesson to Scout that "you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view -- until you climb around in his skin and walk around in it '' exemplifies his compassion. She ponders the comment when listening to Mayella Ewell 's testimony. When Mayella reacts with confusion to Atticus ' question if she has any friends, Scout offers that she must be lonelier than Boo Radley. Having walked Boo home after he saves their lives, Scout stands on the Radley porch and considers the events of the previous three years from Boo 's perspective. One writer remarks, "... (w) hile the novel concerns tragedy and injustice, heartache and loss, it also carries with it a strong sense (of) courage, compassion, and an awareness of history to be better human beings. ''
Just as Lee explores Jem 's development in coming to grips with a racist and unjust society, Scout realizes what being female means, and several female characters influence her development. Scout 's primary identification with her father and older brother allows her to describe the variety and depth of female characters in the novel both as one of them and as an outsider. Scout 's primary female models are Calpurnia and her neighbor Miss Maudie, both of whom are strong willed, independent, and protective. Mayella Ewell also has an influence; Scout watches her destroy an innocent man in order to hide her desire for him. The female characters who comment the most on Scout 's lack of willingness to adhere to a more feminine role are also those who promote the most racist and classist points of view. For example, Mrs. Dubose chastises Scout for not wearing a dress and camisole, and indicates she is ruining the family name by not doing so, in addition to insulting Atticus ' intentions to defend Tom Robinson. By balancing the masculine influences of Atticus and Jem with the feminine influences of Calpurnia and Miss Maudie, one scholar writes, "Lee gradually demonstrates that Scout is becoming a feminist in the South, for with the use of first - person narration, she indicates that Scout / Jean Louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a Southern lady she possessed as a child. ''
Absent mothers and abusive fathers are another theme in the novel. Scout and Jem 's mother died before Scout could remember her, Mayella 's mother is dead, and Mrs. Radley is silent about Boo 's confinement to the house. Apart from Atticus, the fathers described are abusers. Bob Ewell, it is hinted, molested his daughter, and Mr. Radley imprisons his son in his house until Boo is remembered only as a phantom. Bob Ewell and Mr. Radley represent a form of masculinity that Atticus does not, and the novel suggests that such men as well as the traditionally feminine hypocrites at the Missionary Society can lead society astray. Atticus stands apart as a unique model of masculinity; as one scholar explains: "It is the job of real men who embody the traditional masculine qualities of heroic individualism, bravery, and an unshrinking knowledge of and dedication to social justice and morality, to set the society straight. ''
Allusions to legal issues in To Kill a Mockingbird, particularly in scenes outside of the courtroom, has drawn the attention from legal scholars. Claudia Durst Johnson writes that "a greater volume of critical readings has been amassed by two legal scholars in law journals than by all the literary scholars in literary journals ''. The opening quote by the 19th - century essayist Charles Lamb reads: "Lawyers, I suppose, were children once. '' Johnson notes that even in Scout and Jem 's childhood world, compromises and treaties are struck with each other by spitting on one 's palm and laws are discussed by Atticus and his children: is it right that Bob Ewell hunts and traps out of season? Many social codes are broken by people in symbolic courtrooms: Mr. Dolphus Raymond has been exiled by society for taking a black woman as his common - law wife and having interracial children; Mayella Ewell is beaten by her father in punishment for kissing Tom Robinson; by being turned into a non-person, Boo Radley receives a punishment far greater than any court could have given him. Scout repeatedly breaks codes and laws and reacts to her punishment for them. For example, she refuses to wear frilly clothes, saying that Aunt Alexandra 's "fanatical '' attempts to place her in them made her feel "a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on (her) ''. Johnson states, "(t) he novel is a study of how Jem and Scout begin to perceive the complexity of social codes and how the configuration of relationships dictated by or set off by those codes fails or nurtures the inhabitants of (their) small worlds. ''
Songbirds and their associated symbolism appear throughout the novel. Their family name Finch is also Lee 's mother 's maiden name. The titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme, which first appears when Atticus, having given his children air - rifles for Christmas, allows their Uncle Jack to teach them to shoot. Atticus warns them that, although they can "shoot all the bluejays they want '', they must remember that "it 's a sin to kill a mockingbird ''. Confused, Scout approaches her neighbor Miss Maudie, who explains that mockingbirds never harm other living creatures. She points out that mockingbirds simply provide pleasure with their songs, saying, "They do n't do one thing but sing their hearts out for us. '' Writer Edwin Bruell summarized the symbolism when he wrote in 1964, "' To kill a mockingbird ' is to kill that which is innocent and harmless -- like Tom Robinson. '' Scholars have noted that Lee often returns to the mockingbird theme when trying to make a moral point.
Tom Robinson is the chief example among several innocents destroyed carelessly or deliberately throughout the novel. However, scholar Christopher Metress connects the mockingbird to Boo Radley: "Instead of wanting to exploit Boo for her own fun (as she does in the beginning of the novel by putting on gothic plays about his history), Scout comes to see him as a ' mockingbird ' -- that is, as someone with an inner goodness that must be cherished. '' The last pages of the book illustrate this as Scout relates the moral of a story Atticus has been reading to her, and in allusions to both Boo Radley and Tom Robinson states about a character who was misunderstood, "when they finally saw him, why he had n't done any of those things... Atticus, he was real nice, '' to which he responds, "Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them. ''
The novel exposes the loss of innocence so frequently that reviewer R.A. Dave claims that because every character has to face, or even suffer defeat, the book takes on elements of a classical tragedy. In exploring how each character deals with his or her own personal defeat, Lee builds a framework to judge whether the characters are heroes or fools. She guides the reader in such judgments, alternating between unabashed adoration and biting irony. Scout 's experience with the Missionary Society is an ironic juxtaposition of women who mock her, gossip, and "reflect a smug, colonialist attitude toward other races '' while giving the "appearance of gentility, piety, and morality ''. Conversely, when Atticus loses Tom 's case, he is last to leave the courtroom, except for his children and the black spectators in the colored balcony, who rise silently as he walks underneath them, to honor his efforts.
Despite her editors ' warnings that the book might not sell well, it quickly became a sensation, bringing acclaim to Lee in literary circles, in her hometown of Monroeville, and throughout Alabama. The book went through numerous subsequent printings and became widely available through its inclusion in the Book of the Month Club and editions released by Reader 's Digest Condensed Books.
Initial reactions to the novel were varied. The New Yorker declared Lee "a skilled, unpretentious, and totally ingenuous writer '', and The Atlantic Monthly 's reviewer rated the book "pleasant, undemanding reading '', but found the narrative voice -- "a six - year - old girl with the prose style of a well - educated adult '' -- to be implausible. Time magazine 's 1960 review of the book states that it "teaches the reader an astonishing number of useful truths about little girls and about Southern life '' and calls Scout Finch "the most appealing child since Carson McCullers ' Frankie got left behind at the wedding ''. The Chicago Sunday Tribune noted the even - handed approach to the narration of the novel 's events, writing: "This is in no way a sociological novel. It underlines no cause... To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel of strong contemporary national significance. ''
Not all reviewers were enthusiastic. Some lamented the use of poor white Southerners, and one - dimensional black victims, and Granville Hicks labeled the book "melodramatic and contrived ''. When the book was first released, Southern writer Flannery O'Connor commented, "I think for a child 's book it does all right. It 's interesting that all the folks that are buying it do n't know they 're reading a child 's book. Somebody ought to say what it is. '' Carson McCullers apparently agreed with the Time magazine review, writing to a cousin: "Well, honey, one thing we know is that she 's been poaching on my literary preserves. ''
One year after its publication To Kill a Mockingbird had been translated into ten languages. In the years since, it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages. The novel has never been out of print in hardcover or paperback, and has become part of the standard literature curriculum. A 2008 survey of secondary books read by students between grades 9 -- 12 in the U.S. indicates the novel is the most widely read book in these grades. A 1991 survey by the Book of the Month Club and the Library of Congress Center for the Book found that To Kill a Mockingbird was rated behind only the Bible in books that are "most often cited as making a difference ''. It is considered by some to be the Great American Novel.
The 50th anniversary of the novel 's release was met with celebrations and reflections on its impact. Eric Zorn of the Chicago Tribune praises Lee 's "rich use of language '' but writes that the central lesson is that "courage is n't always flashy, is n't always enough, but is always in style ''. Jane Sullivan in the Sydney Morning Herald agrees, stating that the book "still rouses fresh and horrified indignation '' as it examines morality, a topic that has recently become unfashionable. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie writing in The Guardian states that Lee, rare among American novelists, writes with "a fiercely progressive ink, in which there is nothing inevitable about racism and its very foundation is open to question '', comparing her to William Faulkner, who wrote about racism as an inevitability. Literary critic Rosemary Goring in Scotland 's The Herald notes the connections between Lee and Jane Austen, stating the book 's central theme, that "one 's moral convictions are worth fighting for, even at the risk of being reviled '' is eloquently discussed.
Native Alabamian Allen Barra sharply criticized Lee and the novel in The Wall Street Journal calling Atticus a "repository of cracker - barrel epigrams '' and the novel represents a "sugar - coated myth '' of Alabama history. Barra writes, "It 's time to stop pretending that To Kill a Mockingbird is some kind of timeless classic that ranks with the great works of American literature. Its bloodless liberal humanism is sadly dated ''. Thomas Mallon in The New Yorker criticizes Atticus ' stiff and self - righteous demeanor, and calls Scout "a kind of highly constructed doll '' whose speech and actions are improbable. Although acknowledging that the novel works, Mallon blasts Lee 's "wildly unstable '' narrative voice for developing a story about a content neighborhood until it begins to impart morals in the courtroom drama, following with his observation that "the book has begun to cherish its own goodness '' by the time the case is over. Defending the book, Akin Ajayi writes that justice "is often complicated, but must always be founded upon the notion of equality and fairness for all. '' Ajayi states that the book forces readers to question issues about race, class, and society, but that it was not written to resolve them.
Many writers compare their perceptions of To Kill a Mockingbird as adults with when they first read it as children. Mary McDonagh Murphy interviewed celebrities including Oprah Winfrey, Rosanne Cash, Tom Brokaw, and Harper 's sister Alice Lee, who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled Scout, Atticus, and Boo.
One of the most significant impacts To Kill a Mockingbird has had is Atticus Finch 's model of integrity for the legal profession. As scholar Alice Petry explains, "Atticus has become something of a folk hero in legal circles and is treated almost as if he were an actual person. '' Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center cites Atticus Finch as the reason he became a lawyer, and Richard Matsch, the federal judge who presided over the Timothy McVeigh trial, counts Atticus as a major judicial influence. One law professor at the University of Notre Dame stated that the most influential textbook he taught from was To Kill a Mockingbird, and an article in the Michigan Law Review claims, "No real - life lawyer has done more for the self - image or public perception of the legal profession, '' before questioning whether "Atticus Finch is a paragon of honor or an especially slick hired gun ''.
In 1992, an Alabama editorial called for the death of Atticus, saying that as liberal as Atticus was, he still worked within a system of institutionalized racism and sexism and should not be revered. The editorial sparked a flurry of responses from attorneys who entered the profession because of him and esteemed him as a hero. Critics of Atticus maintain he is morally ambiguous and does not use his legal skills to challenge the racist status quo in Maycomb. However, in 1997, the Alabama State Bar erected a monument to Atticus in Monroeville, marking his existence as the "first commemorative milestone in the state 's judicial history ''. In 2008, Lee herself received an honorary special membership to the Alabama State Bar for creating Atticus who "has become the personification of the exemplary lawyer in serving the legal needs of the poor ''.
To Kill a Mockingbird has been a source of significant controversy since its being the subject of classroom study as early as 1963. The book 's racial slurs, profanity, and frank discussion of rape have led people to challenge its appropriateness in libraries and classrooms across the United States. The American Library Association reported that To Kill a Mockingbird was number 21 of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 2000 -- 2009.
One of the first incidents of the book being challenged was in Hanover, Virginia, in 1966: a parent protested that the use of rape as a plot device was immoral. Johnson cites examples of letters to local newspapers, which ranged from amusement to fury; those letters expressing the most outrage, however, complained about Mayella Ewell 's attraction to Tom Robinson over the depictions of rape. Upon learning the school administrators were holding hearings to decide the book 's appropriateness for the classroom, Harper Lee sent $10 to The Richmond News Leader suggesting it to be used toward the enrollment of "the Hanover County School Board in any first grade of its choice ''. The National Education Association in 1968 placed the novel second on a list of books receiving the most complaints from private organizations -- after Little Black Sambo.
With a shift of attitudes about race in the 1970s, To Kill a Mockingbird faced challenges of a different sort: the treatment of racism in Maycomb was not condemned harshly enough. This has led to disparate perceptions that the novel has a generally positive impact on race relations for white readers, but a more ambiguous reception by black readers. In one high - profile case outside the U.S., school districts in the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia attempted to have the book removed from standard teaching curricula in the 1990s, stating:
The terminology in this novel subjects students to humiliating experiences that rob them of their self - respect and the respect of their peers. The word ' Nigger ' is used 48 times (in) the novel... We believe that the English Language Arts curriculum in Nova Scotia must enable all students to feel comfortable with ideas, feelings and experiences presented without fear of humiliation... To Kill a Mockingbird is clearly a book that no longer meets these goals and therefore must no longer be used for classroom instruction.
Furthermore, despite the novel 's thematic focus on racial injustice, its black characters are not fully examined. In its use of racial epithets, stereotyped depictions of superstitious blacks, and Calpurnia, who to some critics is an updated version of the "contented slave '' motif and to others simply unexplored, the book is viewed as marginalizing black characters. One writer asserts that the use of Scout 's narration serves as a convenient mechanism for readers to be innocent and detached from the racial conflict. Scout 's voice "functions as the not - me which allows the rest of us -- black and white, male and female -- to find our relative position in society ''. A teaching guide for the novel published by The English Journal cautions, "what seems wonderful or powerful to one group of students may seem degrading to another ''. A Canadian language arts consultant found that the novel resonated well with white students, but that black students found it "demoralizing ''. Another criticism, articulated by Michael Lind, is that the novel indulges in classist stereotyping and demonization of poor rural "white trash ''.
The novel is cited as a factor in the success of the civil rights movement in the 1960s, however, in that it "arrived at the right moment to help the South and the nation grapple with the racial tensions (of) the accelerating civil rights movement ''. Its publication is so closely associated with the Civil Rights Movement that many studies of the book and biographies of Harper Lee include descriptions of important moments in the movement, despite the fact that she had no direct involvement in any of them. Civil Rights leader Andrew Young comments that part of the book 's effectiveness is that it "inspires hope in the midst of chaos and confusion '' and by using racial epithets portrays the reality of the times in which it was set. Young views the novel as "an act of humanity '' in showing the possibility of people rising above their prejudices. Alabama author Mark Childress compares it to the impact of Uncle Tom 's Cabin, a book that is popularly implicated in starting the U.S. Civil War. Childress states the novel "gives white Southerners a way to understand the racism that they 've been brought up with and to find another way. And most white people in the South were good people. Most white people in the South were not throwing bombs and causing havoc... I think the book really helped them come to understand what was wrong with the system in the way that any number of treatises could never do, because it was popular art, because it was told from a child 's point of view. ''
Diane McWhorter, Pulitzer Prize - winning historian of the Birmingham civil rights campaign, asserts that To Kill a Mockingbird condemns racism instead of racists, and states that every child in the South has moments of racial cognitive dissonance when they are faced with the harsh reality of inequality. This feeling causes them to question the beliefs with which they have been raised, which for many children is what the novel does. McWhorter writes of Lee, "for a white person from the South to write a book like this in the late 1950s is really unusual -- by its very existence an act of protest. '' Author James McBride calls Lee brilliant but stops short of calling her brave: "I think by calling Harper Lee brave you kind of absolve yourself of your own racism... She certainly set the standards in terms of how these issues need to be discussed, but in many ways I feel... the moral bar 's been lowered. And that 's really distressing. We need a thousand Atticus Finches. '' McBride, however, defends the book 's sentimentality, and the way Lee approaches the story with "honesty and integrity ''.
During the years immediately following the novel 's publication, Harper Lee enjoyed the attention its popularity garnered her, granting interviews, visiting schools, and attending events honoring the book. In 1961, when To Kill a Mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list, it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize, stunning Lee. It also won the Brotherhood Award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the same year, and the Paperback of the Year award from Bestsellers magazine in 1962. Starting in 1964, Lee began to turn down interviews, complaining that the questions were monotonous, and grew concerned that attention she received bordered on the kind of publicity celebrities sought. Since then, she declined talking with reporters about the book. She also steadfastly refused to provide an introduction, writing in 1995: "Introductions inhibit pleasure, they kill the joy of anticipation, they frustrate curiosity. The only good thing about Introductions is that in some cases they delay the dose to come. Mockingbird still says what it has to say; it has managed to survive the years without preamble. ''
In 2001, Lee was inducted into the Alabama Academy of Honor. In the same year, Chicago mayor Richard M. Daley initiated a reading program throughout the city 's libraries, and chose his favorite book, To Kill a Mockingbird, as the first title of the One City, One Book program. Lee declared that "there is no greater honor the novel could receive ''. By 2004, the novel had been chosen by 25 communities for variations of the citywide reading program, more than any other novel. David Kipen of the National Endowment of the Arts, who supervised The Big Read, states "people just seem to connect with it. It dredges up things in their own lives, their interactions across racial lines, legal encounters, and childhood. It 's just this skeleton key to so many different parts of people 's lives, and they cherish it. ''
In 2006, Lee was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Notre Dame. During the ceremony, the students and audience gave Lee a standing ovation, and the entire graduating class held up copies of To Kill a Mockingbird to honor her. Lee was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 5, 2007 by President George W. Bush. In his remarks, Bush stated, "One reason To Kill a Mockingbird succeeded is the wise and kind heart of the author, which comes through on every page... To Kill a Mockingbird has influenced the character of our country for the better. It 's been a gift to the entire world. As a model of good writing and humane sensibility, this book will be read and studied forever. ''
The book was made into the well - received 1962 film with the same title, starring Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch. The film 's producer, Alan J. Pakula, remembered Universal Pictures executives questioning him about a potential script: "They said, ' What story do you plan to tell for the film? ' I said, ' Have you read the book? ' They said, ' Yes. ' I said, ' That 's the story. ' '' The movie was a hit at the box office, quickly grossing more than $20 million from a $2 - million budget. It won three Oscars: Best Actor for Gregory Peck, Best Art Direction - Set Decoration, Black - and - White, and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium for Horton Foote. It was nominated for five more Oscars including Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Mary Badham, the actress who played Scout.
Harper Lee was pleased with the movie, saying: "In that film the man and the part met... I 've had many, many offers to turn it into musicals, into TV or stage plays, but I 've always refused. That film was a work of art. '' Peck met Lee 's father, the model for Atticus, before the filming. Lee 's father died before the film 's release, and Lee was so impressed with Peck 's performance that she gave him her father 's pocketwatch, which he had with him the evening he was awarded the Oscar for Best Actor. Years later, he was reluctant to tell Lee that the watch was stolen out of his luggage in London Heathrow Airport. When Peck eventually did tell Lee, he said she responded, "' Well, it 's only a watch. ' Harper -- she feels deeply, but she 's not a sentimental person about things. '' Lee and Peck shared a friendship long after the movie was made. Peck 's grandson was named "Harper '' in her honor.
In May 2005, Lee made an uncharacteristic appearance at the Los Angeles Public Library at the request of Peck 's widow Veronique, who said of Lee: "She 's like a national treasure. She 's someone who has made a difference... with this book. The book is still as strong as it ever was, and so is the film. All the kids in the United States read this book and see the film in the seventh and eighth grades and write papers and essays. My husband used to get thousands and thousands of letters from teachers who would send them to him. ''
The book has also been adapted as a play by Christopher Sergel. It debuted in 1990 in Monroeville, a town that labels itself "The Literary Capital of Alabama ''. The play runs every May on the county courthouse grounds and townspeople make up the cast. White male audience members are chosen at the intermission to make up the jury. During the courtroom scene the production moves into the Monroe County Courthouse and the audience is racially segregated. Author Albert Murray said of the relationship of the town to the novel (and the annual performance): "It becomes part of the town ritual, like the religious underpinning of Mardi Gras. With the whole town crowded around the actual courthouse, it 's part of a central, civic education -- what Monroeville aspires to be. ''
Sergel 's play toured in the UK starting at West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds in 2006, and again in 2011 starting at the York Theatre Royal, both productions featuring Duncan Preston as Atticus Finch. The play also opened the 2013 season at Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre in London where it played to full houses and starred Robert Sean Leonard as Atticus Finch, his first London appearance in 22 years. The production returned to the venue to close the 2014 season, prior to a UK tour.
According to a National Geographic article, the novel is so revered in Monroeville that people quote lines from it like Scripture; yet Harper Lee herself refused to attend any performances, because "she abhors anything that trades on the book 's fame ''. To underscore this sentiment, Lee demanded that a book of recipes named Calpurnia 's Cookbook not be published and sold out of the Monroe County Heritage Museum. David Lister in The Independent states that Lee 's refusal to speak to reporters made them desire to interview her all the more, and her silence "makes Bob Dylan look like a media tart ''. Despite her discouragement, a rising number of tourists made Monroeville their destination, hoping to see Lee 's inspiration for the book, or Lee herself. Local residents call them "Mockingbird groupies '', and although Lee was not reclusive, she refused publicity and interviews with an emphatic "Hell, no! ''
An earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, titled Go Set a Watchman, was controversially released on July 14, 2015. This draft, which was completed in 1957, is set 20 years after the time period depicted in To Kill a Mockingbird but is not a continuation of the narrative. This earlier version of the story follows an adult Scout Finch who travels from New York City to visit her father, Atticus Finch, in Maycomb, Alabama, where she is confronted by the intolerance in her community. The Watchman manuscript was believed to have been lost until Lee 's lawyer Tonja Carter discovered it, but this claim has been widely disputed. Watchman contains early versions of many of the characters from To Kill a Mockingbird. According to Lee 's agent Andrew Nurnberg, Mockingbird was originally intended to be the first book of a trilogy: "They discussed publishing Mockingbird first, Watchman last, and a shorter connecting novel between the two. '' This assertion has been discredited, however, by rare - books expert James S. Jaffe, who reviewed the pages at the request of Lee 's attorney and found them to be only another draft of To Kill a Mockingbird. Nurnberg 's statement was also contrary to Jonathan Mahler 's description of how Watchman was seen as just the first draft of Mockingbird. Instances where many passages overlap between the two books, in some case word for word, also refutes this assertion.
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the legend of korra season 1 episode 1 watchcartoononline
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The Legend of Korra (season 1) - Wikipedia
Book One: Air is the first season of the U.S. animated TV series The Legend of Korra created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. Consisting of twelve episodes (called "chapters ''), it was initially intended to be a stand - alone miniseries before the series was expanded to four seasons ("books '') and fifty - two episodes ("chapters '') total. Book One: Air aired from April 14 to June 23, 2012 on the Nickelodeon channel in the U.S., and is broadcast in other countries beginning in June 2012.
Book One: Air follows seventeen - year - old Korra from the Southern Water Tribe, and the successor of Avatar Aang from the preceding series Avatar: The Last Airbender, as she travels to the metropolis of Republic City to learn airbending and faces an anti-bender revolutionary group, the "Equalists '', led by the masked Amon.
Before the series premiered on television, it was announced that the first two episodes would be pre-released online if "Korra Nation '', an online social - networking platform for the show, reached 100,000 likes and shares. The goal was reached and at midnight on March 24, the first two episodes were released on a Viacom - owned website. They remained online for the duration of the weekend.
Book One: Air aired on Nickelodeon and Nickelodeon HD between April 14, 2012 and June 23, 2012. For U.S. residents, the episodes were available for free viewing on the channel 's website and for purchase through digital download services. Nicktoons re-aired Book One, with a few minutes of commentary from the series 's creators during commercial breaks, from July 9 to July 20, 2012 under the name Korra: Making of a Legend.
This series debuted in Canada on channel YTV on June 9, 2012 and on Nickelodeon Canada in late 2012. The series also premiered on Nickelodeon UK and Ireland on July 7, 2013.
The series opens introducing Korra as the Avatar and showing that she has mastered all elemental arts except airbending. Korra runs away to Republic City so that Tenzin, Avatar Aang 's youngest son, can train her therein. In the metropolis, Korra clashes with police chief Lin Beifong (the daughter of Toph Beifong of the original series) after dispensing vigilante justice to the local triads. Tarrlok, an ambitious member of the city 's ruling council, enlists Korra against the "Equalists '', an anti-bender revolution led by the masked Amon. As Korra explores Republic City, she befriends the brothers Mako and Bolin and joins their pro-bending team, the "Fire Ferrets ''. The team is sponsored by Asami Sato, daughter of a wealthy industrialist, and the four together form the new "Team Avatar ''.
After Korra 's appearance in the city, the Equalists become increasingly violent, climaxing in an attack on the pro-bending arena. When Tarrlok indiscriminately represses non-benders, Korra refuses to support him. In the resulting fight, Tarrlok overpowers Korra with bloodbending, an illegal form of waterbending, and kidnaps her, framing the Equalists. As Amon arrives at Tarrlok 's hideout and removes Tarrlok 's bending, Korra escapes, only to find Republic City facing an Equalist conquest.
In the two - part finale, naval reinforcements led by Iroh (the grandson of Zuko of the original series), are defeated by Equalist sea mines and biplanes. Attempting to find Amon, Korra learns that Tarrlok and Amon are the sons of Yakone, a mob boss defeated 42 years ago by Avatar Aang. Amon strips Korra of her bending abilities; but Korra reveals her dormant airbending abilities in a moment of distress, and exposes Amon as a waterbender, causing all his followers to desert him. He flees with Tarrlok, who detonates their boat on the open sea. Despondent, Korra establishes spiritual contact with her predecessor Aang, who restores her bending powers, allowing her to do the same to Amon 's other victims.
Elements of the first season that received praise were the exceptional quality of the animation, the background paintings and the martial - arts action scenes, as well as the series ' innovative and engrossing visual design and style. The writers were credited for finding a believable balance between magic and technology and for their mature and nuanced portrayal of romantic relationships and conflicts. Critics also praised the writers ' willingness and ability to tackle difficult themes such as social unrest, terrorism, Tarrlok 's murder -- suicide of Amon, as well as the insinuation of Korra contemplating suicide during the season finale.
While Book One: Air was generally well received, some aspects of the writing were criticized by reviewers. In Kotaku, Kirk Hamilton wrote that he felt that the series failed to tackle its central conflicts in a meaningful way, commenting also on the mix of comedy and drama, the many character arcs in a shorter series than Avatar, and the neat ending. Raz Greenberg of Strange Horizons commented that Korra seemed as though she had things too easy in life in comparison to Aang, and also criticized the show 's rapid pacing. Max Nicholson of IGN praised the series ' writing, animation, humor, setting, and characters, and wrote that elements characterized as a deus ex machina had been foreshadowed throughout. But in his opinion, the love triangle arc between Mako, Asami, and Korra fell flat and the pro-bending arc felt superfluous, although it led up to the conflict with Amon. He also considered that Mako, although a major character, felt underwritten. Lauren Davis of io9, while approving of the character arcs and the setting, was also disappointed about the series ' pacing.
The initial airings of Book One: Air, excluding reruns and digital downloads, drew an average of 3.7 million viewers per episode.
An art book published by Dark Horse Comics, The Legend of Korra -- Book One: Air -- The Art of the Animated Series was released in July 2013. Edited by Dave Marshall and written by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, the art book collects concept art, sketches, storyboards, background paintings, model sheets and other development art from Book One, together with the creators ' and artists ' comments on the development process. Culture Mass praised the book as "meticulously executed and impressively comprehensive ''.
Book One: Air of The Legend of Korra was released on DVD and Blu - ray on 9 July 2013. It contains audio commentary from the creators, the cast and crew. Both versions are to contain, as a special feature, a comical interview with the series ' characters in puppet form. The Blu - ray version comprises, additionally, audio commentaries for all episodes as well as the extra "Series creators ' Favorite Scenes: Eight Animatics ''.
Book One: Air was adapted as two novels by Erica David, aimed at readers aged twelve and up. The novelizations were published by Random House in 2013:
The Legend of Korra is set to music by "The Track Team '', the partnership of composers Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn. They jointly wrote the music for Avatar: The Last Airbender, but split their roles for The Legend of Korra: Zuckerman composed the music and Wynn was responsible for the sound design.
Bryan Konietzko and Mike DiMartino 's concept for the score was to blend traditional Chinese music with early jazz. On that basis, Zuckerman and Wynn composed a score combining elements of Dixieland, traditional Chinese music and Western orchestration, performed mainly by a string sextet and various Chinese solo instruments.
A soundtrack CD, The Legend of Korra: Original Music from Book One, was released on July 16, 2013. It features 26 instrumental tracks. Konietzko wrote that the album release required "an incredibly frustrating wait and battle '' to overcome "a bureaucratic impasse ''. He wished for the record to be commercially successful to convince Nickelodeon to release an Avatar: The Last Airbender soundtrack, a subject of many fan petitions. The day after its release, the album was the bestselling soundtrack album and no. 5 in the pop sales rankings at the online retailer Amazon.com.
All music composed by Jeremy Zuckerman.
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Capital punishment in the United states - wikipedia
Capital punishment is a legal penalty in the United States, currently used by 31 states, the federal government, and the military. Its existence can be traced to the beginning of the American colonies. The United States is the only Western country currently applying the death penalty, one of 54 countries worldwide applying it, and was the first to develop lethal injection as a method of execution, which has since been adopted by five other countries.
There were no executions in the United States between 1967 and 1977. In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down capital punishment statutes in Furman v. Georgia, reducing all death sentences pending at the time to life imprisonment.
Subsequently, a majority of states passed new death penalty statutes, and the court affirmed the legality of capital punishment in the 1976 case Gregg v. Georgia. Since then, more than 7,800 defendants have been sentenced to death; of these, more than 1,400 have been executed, 161 who were sentenced to death in the modern era were exonerated before their execution, and more than 2,900 are still on death row.
The first recorded death sentence in the British North American colonies was carried out in 1608 on Captain George Kendall, who was executed by firing squad at the Jamestown colony for spying for the Spanish government.
The Bill of Rights adopted in 1789 included the Eighth Amendment which prohibited cruel and unusual punishment. The Fifth Amendment was drafted with language implying a possible use of the death penalty, requiring a grand jury indictment for "capital crime '' and a due process of law for deprivation of "life '' by the government. The Fourteenth Amendment adopted in 1868 also requires a due process of law for deprivation of life by any states.
The Espy file, compiled by M. Watt Espy and John Ortiz Smykla, lists 15,269 people executed in the United States and its predecessor colonies between 1608 and 1991. From 1930 to 2002, there were 4,661 executions in the U.S., about two - thirds of them in the first 20 years. Additionally, the United States Army executed 135 soldiers between 1916 and 1955 (the most recent).
Three states abolished the death penalty for murder during the 19th century: Michigan (which has never executed a prisoner since achieving statehood) in 1846, Wisconsin in 1853 and Maine in 1887. Rhode Island is also a state with a long abolitionist background, having repealed the death penalty in 1852, though it was theoretically available for murder committed by a prisoner between 1872 and 1984.
Other states which abolished the death penalty for murder before Gregg v. Georgia include: Minnesota in 1911, Vermont in 1964, Iowa and West Virginia in 1965 and North Dakota in 1973. Hawaii abolished the death penalty in 1948 and Alaska in 1957, both before their statehood. Puerto Rico repealed it in 1929 and the District of Columbia in 1981. Arizona and Oregon abolished the death penalty by popular vote in 1916 and 1964 respectively, but both reinstated it, again by popular vote, some years later: Arizona in 1918 and Oregon in 1978. Puerto Rico and Michigan are the only two U.S. jurisdictions to have explicitly prohibited capital punishment in their constitutions: in 1952 and 1964, respectively.
Nevertheless, capital punishment continued to be used by a majority of states and the federal government for various crimes, especially murder and rape, from the creation of the United States up to the beginning of the 1960s. Until then, "save for a few mavericks, no one gave any credence to the possibility of ending the death penalty by judicial interpretation of constitutional law '', according to abolitionist Hugo Bedau.
The possibility of challenging the constitutionality of the death penalty became progressively more realistic after the Supreme Court of the United States decided Trop v. Dulles in 1958, when the court said explicitly for the first time that the Eighth Amendment 's cruel and unusual clause must draw its meaning from the "evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society '', rather than from its original meaning. Also in the 1932 case Powell v. Alabama, the court made the first step of what would later be called "death is different '' jurisprudence, when it held that any indigent defendant was entitled to a court - appointed attorney in capital cases - a right that was only later extended to non-capital defendants in 1963, with Gideon v. Wainwright.
In Furman v. Georgia, the U.S. Supreme Court considered a group of consolidated cases. The lead case involved an individual convicted under Georgia 's death penalty statute, which featured a "unitary trial '' procedure in which the jury was asked to return a verdict of guilt or innocence and, simultaneously, determine whether the defendant would be punished by death or life imprisonment. The last pre-Furman execution was that of Luis Monge on June 2, 1967.
In a 5 - 4 decision, the Supreme Court struck down the impositions of the death penalty in each of the consolidated cases as unconstitutional in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court has never ruled the death penalty to be per se unconstitutional. The five justices in the majority did not produce a common opinion or rationale for their decision, however, and agreed only on a short statement announcing the result. The narrowest opinions, those of Byron White and Potter Stewart, expressed generalized concerns about the inconsistent application of the death penalty across a variety of cases, but did not exclude the possibility of a constitutional death penalty law. Stewart and William O. Douglas worried explicitly about racial discrimination in enforcement of the death penalty. Thurgood Marshall and William J. Brennan Jr. expressed the opinion that the death penalty was proscribed absolutely by the Eighth Amendment as cruel and unusual punishment.
The Furman decision caused all death sentences pending at the time to be reduced to life imprisonment, and was described by scholars as a "legal bombshell ''. The next day, columnist Barry Schweid wrote that it was "unlikely '' that the death penalty could exist anymore in the United States.
Instead of abandoning capital punishment, 37 states enacted new death penalty statutes that attempted to address the concerns of White and Stewart in Furman. Some states responded by enacting mandatory death penalty statutes which prescribed a sentence of death for anyone convicted of certain forms of murder. White had hinted that such a scheme would meet his constitutional concerns in his Furman opinion. Other states adopted "bifurcated '' trial and sentencing procedures, with various procedural limitations on the jury 's ability to pronounce a death sentence designed to limit juror discretion.
On July 2, 1976, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Gregg v. Georgia and upheld 7 - 2 a Georgia procedure in which the trial of capital crimes was bifurcated into guilt - innocence and sentencing phases. At the first proceeding, the jury decides the defendant 's guilt; if the defendant is innocent or otherwise not convicted of first - degree murder, the death penalty will not be imposed. At the second hearing, the jury determines whether certain statutory aggravating factors exist, whether any mitigating factors exist, and, in many jurisdictions, weigh the aggravating and mitigating factors in assessing the ultimate penalty - either death or life in prison, either with or without parole. The same day, in Woodson v. North Carolina and Roberts v. Louisiana, the court struck down 5 - 4 statutes providing a mandatory death sentence.
Executions resumed on January 17, 1977, when Gary Gilmore went before a firing squad in Utah. Although hundreds of individuals were sentenced to death in the United States during the 1970s and early 1980s, only ten people besides Gilmore (who had waived all of his appeal rights) were actually executed prior to 1984.
In 1977, the Supreme Court 's Coker v. Georgia decision barred the death penalty for rape of an adult woman. Previously, the death penalty for rape of an adult had been gradually phased out in the United States, and at the time of the decision, Georgia and the U.S. Federal government were the only two jurisdictions to still retain the death penalty for that offense.
In the 1980 case Godfrey v. Georgia, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that murder can be punished by death only if it involves a narrow and precise aggravating factor.
The U.S. Supreme Court has placed two major restrictions on the use of the death penalty. First, the case of Atkins v. Virginia, decided on June 20, 2002, held that the execution of intellectually disabled inmates is unconstitutional. Second, in 2005, the court 's decision in Roper v. Simmons struck down executions for offenders under the age of 18 at the time of the crime.
In the 2008 case Kennedy v. Louisiana, the court also held 5 - 4 that the death penalty is unconstitutional when applied to non-homicidal crimes against the person, including child rape. Only two death row inmates (both in Louisiana) were affected by the decision. Nevertheless, the ruling came less than five months before the 2008 presidential election and was criticized by both major party candidates Barack Obama and John McCain.
In 2004, New York and Kansas capital sentencing schemes were struck down by their respective state highest courts. Kansas successfully appealed the Kansas Supreme Court decision to the United States Supreme Court, who reinstated the statute in Kansas v. Marsh (2006), holding it did not violate the U.S. Constitution. The decision of New York Court of Appeals was based on the state constitution, making unavailable any appeal. The state lower house has since blocked all attempts to reinstate the death penalty by adopting a valid sentencing scheme. In 2016, Delaware 's death penalty statute was also struck down by its state supreme court.
In 2007, New Jersey became the first state to repeal the death penalty by legislative vote since Gregg v. Georgia, followed by New Mexico in 2009, Illinois in 2011, Connecticut in 2012, and Maryland in 2013. The repeals were not retroactive, but in New Jersey, Illinois and Maryland, governors commuted all death sentences after enacting the new law. In Connecticut, the Connecticut Supreme Court ruled in 2015 that the repeal must be retroactive. New Mexico is the only state with remaining death row inmates and no present death penalty statute.
Nebraska 's legislature also passed a repeal in 2015, but a referendum campaign gathered enough signatures to suspend it. Capital punishment was reinstated by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The same day, California 's electorate defeated a proposal to repeal the death penalty, and adopted another initiative to speed up its appeal process.
Since Furman, 11 states have organized popular votes dealing with the death penalty through the initiative and referendum process. All resulted in a vote for reinstating it, rejecting its abolition, expanding its application field, specifying in the state constitution that it is not unconstitutional, or expediting the appeal process in capital cases.
19 states including the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico have abolished the death penalty for all crimes. Below is a table of the 19 states and the date that the state abolished the death penalty.
From 1976 to January 1, 2018, there were 1,465 executions, of which 1,290 were by lethal injection, 158 by electrocution, 11 by gas inhalation, 3 by hanging, and 3 by firing squad. The South had the great majority of these executions, with 1,195; there were 181 in the Midwest, 85 in the West, and only 4 in the Northeast. No state in the Northeast has conducted an execution since Connecticut, now abolitionist, in 2005. The state of Texas alone conducted 545 executions, over 1 / 3 of the total; the states of Texas, Virginia, and Oklahoma combined make up over half the total, with 770 executions between them. 3 executions have been conducted by the federal government, the last in 2003. Executions increased in frequency until 1999; 98 prisoners were executed that year. Since 1999, the number of executions has greatly decreased, and the 20 executions in 2016 were the fewest since 1991.
The death penalty was a notable issue during the 1988 presidential election. It came up in the October 13, 1988, debate between the two presidential nominees George H.W. Bush and Michael Dukakis, when Bernard Shaw, the moderator of the debate, asked Dukakis, "Governor, if Kitty Dukakis (his wife) were raped and murdered, would you favor an irrevocable death penalty for the killer? '' Dukakis replied, "No, I do n't, and I think you know that I 've opposed the death penalty during all of my life. I do n't see any evidence that it 's a deterrent, and I think there are better and more effective ways to deal with violent crime. '' Bush was elected, and many, including Dukakis himself, cite the statement as the beginning of the end of his campaign.
In 1996, Congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act to streamline the appeal process in capital cases. The bill was signed into law by President Bill Clinton, who had endorsed capital punishment during his 1992 presidential campaign.
A study found that at least 34 of the 749 executions carried out in the U.S. between 1977 and 2001, or 4.5 %, involved "unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner ''. The rate of these "botched executions '' remained steady over the period. A study published in The Lancet in 2005 found that in 43 % of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics in the prisoner was insufficient to ensure unconsciousness. Nonetheless, the Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (Baze v. Rees) and again in 2015 (Glossip v. Gross) that lethal injection does not constitute cruel and unusual punishment.
In 1632, 24 years after the first recorded male execution in the colonies, Jane Champion became the first woman to be lawfully executed. She was sentenced to death by hanging after she was convicted of murder in front of a grand jury. The second half of the 1600s saw the executions of 14 women and 6 men who were accused of witchcraft during the witch hunt hysteria and the Salem Witch Trials. While both men and women were executed, 80 % of the accusations were towards women, so the list of executions disproportionately affected men by a margin of 6 (actual) to 4 (expected), i.e. 50 % more men were executed than expected from the percentage of accused who were men.
Other notable female executions include Mary Surratt, Margie Velma Barfield and Wanda Jean Allen. Mary Surratt was executed by hanging in 1865 after being convicted of co-conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln. Margie Velma Barfield was convicted of murder and when she was executed by lethal injection in 1984, she became the first woman to be executed since the ban on capital punishment was lifted in 1976. Wanda Jean Allen was convicted of murder in 1989 and had a high - profile execution by lethal injection in January 2001. She was the first black woman to be executed in the US since 1954. According to Allen 's lawyers, prosecutors capitalized on her low IQ, race and homosexuality in their representations of her as a murderer at trial.
Aggravating factors for seeking capital punishment of murder vary greatly among death penalty states. California has twenty - two; New Hampshire has seven. Some aggravating circumstances are nearly universal, such as robbery - murder, murder involving rape of the victim, and murder of an on - duty police officer.
Several states have included child murder to their list of aggravating factors, but the victim 's age under which the murder is punishable by death varies. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to ten.
In some states, the high number of aggravating factors has been criticized on account of giving prosecutors too much discretion in choosing cases where they believe capital punishment is warranted. In California especially, an official commission proposed, in 2008, to reduce these factors to five (multiple murders, torture murder, murder of a police officer, murder committed in jail, and murder related to another felony). Columnist Charles Lane went further, and proposed that murder related to a felony other than rape should no longer be a capital crime when there is only one victim killed.
In order for a person to be eligible for a death sentence when convicted of aggravated first - degree murder, the jury or court (when there is not a jury) must determine at least one of sixteen aggravating factors that existed during the crime 's commission. The following is a list of the 16 aggravating factors.
The opinion of the court in Kennedy v. Louisiana says that the ruling does not apply to "treason, espionage, terrorism, and drug kingpin activity, which are offenses against the State ''.
Since no one is on death row for such offenses, the court has yet to rule on the constitutionality of the death penalty applied for them.
Treason, espionage and large - scale drug trafficking are all capital crimes under federal law. Treason is also punishable by death in six states (Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri). Vermont still has a pre-Furman statute providing the death penalty for treason despite removing capital punishment for murder in 1965. Large - scale drug trafficking is punishable by death in two states (Florida and Missouri). Aircraft hijacking is a capital crime in Georgia and Mississippi.
The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States typically involves five critical steps: (1) prosecutorial decision to seek the death penalty (2) sentencing, (3) direct review, (4) state collateral review, and (5) federal habeas corpus.
Clemency, through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an executive rather than judicial process.
While judges in criminal cases can usually impose a harsher prison sentence than the one demanded by prosecution, the death penalty can be handed down only if the accuser has specifically decided to seek it.
In the decades since Furman, new questions have emerged about whether or not prosecutorial arbitrariness has replaced sentencing arbitrariness. A study by Pepperdine University School of Law published in Temple Law Review, surveyed the decision - making process among prosecutors in various states. The authors found that prosecutors ' capital punishment filing decisions remain marked by local "idiosyncrasies '', suggesting they are not in keeping with the spirit of the Supreme Court 's directive. This means that "the very types of unfairness that the Supreme Court sought to eliminate '' may still "infect capital cases ''. Wide prosecutorial discretion remains because of overly broad criteria. California law, for example, has 22 "special circumstances '', making nearly all premeditated murders potential capital cases.
A proposed remedy against prosecutorial arbitrariness is to transfer the prosecution of capital cases to the state attorney general.
Of the 31 states with the death penalty, 29 provide the sentence to be decided by a jury, and 28 require a unanimous sentence.
The only state which does not require a unanimous jury decision is Alabama. In Alabama, at least 10 jurors must concur. A retrial happens if the jury deadlocks.
Nebraska is the only state in which the sentence is decided by a three - judge panel. If one of the judges on the panel opposes death, the defendant is sentenced to life imprisonment.
Montana is the only state where the trial judge decides the sentence alone.
In all states in which the jury is involved, only death - qualified veniremen can be selected in such a jury, to exclude both people who will always vote for the death sentence and those who are categorically opposed to it.
However, the states differ on what happens if the penalty phase results in a hung jury:
The first outcome is referred as the "true unanimity '' rule, while the third has been criticized as the "single - juror veto '' rule.
If a defendant is sentenced to death at the trial level, the case then goes into a direct review. The direct review process is a typical legal appeal. An appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether the decision was legally sound or not. Direct review of a capital sentencing hearing will result in one of three outcomes. If the appellate court finds that no significant legal errors occurred in the capital sentencing hearing, the appellate court will affirm the judgment, or let the sentence stand. If the appellate court finds that significant legal errors did occur, then it will reverse the judgment, or nullify the sentence and order a new capital sentencing hearing. Lastly, if the appellate court finds that no reasonable juror could find the defendant eligible for the death penalty, a rarity, then it will order the defendant acquitted, or not guilty, of the crime for which he / she was given the death penalty, and order him sentenced to the next most severe punishment for which the offense is eligible. About 60 percent survive the process of direct review intact.
At times when a death sentence is affirmed on direct review, supplemental methods to attack the judgment, though less familiar than a typical appeal, do remain. These supplemental remedies are considered collateral review, that is, an avenue for upsetting judgments that have become otherwise final. Where the prisoner received his death sentence in a state - level trial, as is usually the case, the first step in collateral review is state collateral review, which is often called state habeas corpus. (If the case is a federal death penalty case, it proceeds immediately from direct review to federal habeas corpus.) Although all states have some type of collateral review, the process varies widely from state to state. Generally, the purpose of these collateral proceedings is to permit the prisoner to challenge his sentence on grounds that could not have been raised reasonably at trial or on direct review. Most often, these are claims, such as ineffective assistance of counsel, which requires the court to consider new evidence outside the original trial record, something courts may not do in an ordinary appeal. State collateral review, though an important step in that it helps define the scope of subsequent review through federal habeas corpus, is rarely successful in and of itself. Only around 6 percent of death sentences are overturned on state collateral review.
In Virginia, state habeas corpus for condemned men are heard by the state supreme court under exclusive original jurisdiction since 1995, immediately after direct review by the same court. This avoids any proceeding before the lower courts, and is in part why Virginia has the shortest time on average between death sentence and execution (less than eight years) and has executed 113 offenders since 1976 with only five remaining on death row as of June 2017.
To reduce litigation delays, other states require convicts to file their state collateral appeal before the completion of their direct appeal, or provide adjudication of direct and collateral attacks together in a "unitary review ''.
After a death sentence is affirmed in state collateral review, the prisoner may file for federal habeas corpus, which is a unique type of lawsuit that can be brought in federal courts. Federal habeas corpus is a type of collateral review, and it is the only way that state prisoners may attack a death sentence in federal court (other than petitions for certiorari to the United States Supreme Court after both direct review and state collateral review). The scope of federal habeas corpus is governed by the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA), which restricted significantly its previous scope. The purpose of federal habeas corpus is to ensure that state courts, through the process of direct review and state collateral review, have done a reasonable job in protecting the prisoner 's federal constitutional rights. Prisoners may also use federal habeas corpus suits to bring forth new evidence that they are innocent of the crime, though to be a valid defense at this late stage in the process, evidence of innocence must be truly compelling. According to Eric Freedman, 21 percent of death penalty cases are reversed through federal habeas corpus.
James Liebman, a professor of law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case, there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995 ''. Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabak in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47 percent of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted ''. The different numbers are largely definitional, rather than substantive: Freedam 's statistics looks at the percentage of all death penalty cases reversed, while the others look only at cases not reversed prior to habeas corpus review.
A similar process is available for prisoners sentenced to death by the judgment of a federal court.
The AEDPA also provides an expeditious habeas procedure in capital cases for states meeting several requirements set forth in it concerning counsel appointment for death row inmates. Under this program, federal habeas corpus for condemned prisoners would be decided in about three years from affirmance of the sentence on state collateral review. In 2006, Congress conferred the determination of whether a state fulfilled the requirements to the U.S. attorney general, with a possible appeal of the state to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. As of March 2016, the Department of Justice has still not granted any certifications.
If the federal court refuses to issue a writ of habeas corpus, the death sentence becomes final for all purposes. In recent times, however, prisoners have postponed execution through another way of federal litigation using the Civil Rights Act of 1871 - codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1983 - which allows people to bring lawsuits against state actors to protect their federal constitutional and statutory rights.
While the aforementioned appeals are normally limited to one and automatically stay the execution of the death sentence, Section 1983 lawsuits are unlimited, but the petitioner will be granted a stay of execution only if the court believes he has a likelihood of success on the merits.
Traditionally, Section 1983 was of limited use for a state prisoner under sentence of death because the Supreme Court has held that habeas corpus, not Section 1983, is the only vehicle by which a state prisoner can challenge his judgment of death. In the 2006 Hill v. McDonough case, however, the United States Supreme Court approved the use of Section 1983 as a vehicle for challenging a state 's method of execution as cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment. The theory is that a prisoner bringing such a challenge is not attacking directly his judgment of death, but rather the means by which that the judgment will be carried out. Therefore, the Supreme Court held in the Hill case that a prisoner can use Section 1983 rather than habeas corpus to bring the lawsuit. Yet, as Clarence Hill 's own case shows, lower federal courts have often refused to hear suits challenging methods of execution on the ground that the prisoner brought the claim too late and only for the purposes of delay. Further, the Court 's decision in Baze v. Rees, upholding a lethal injection method used by many states, has narrowed the opportunity for relief through Section 1983.
While the execution warrant is issued by the governor in several states, in the vast majority it is a judicial order, issued by a judge or by the state supreme court at the request of the prosecution.
The warrant usually sets an execution day. Some states instead provide a longer period, such as a week or 10 days to carry out the execution. This is designated to avoid issuing a new warrant in case of a last - minute stay of execution that would be vacated only few days or few hours later.
Within the context of the overall murder rate, the death penalty can not be said to be widely or routinely used in the United States; in recent years the average has been about one death sentence for every 200 murder convictions.
Alabama has the highest per capita rate of death sentences. This is because Alabama was one of the few states that allowed judges to override a jury recommendation in favor of life imprisonment, a possibility it removed in March 2017.
The distribution of death sentences among states is loosely proportional to their populations and murder rates. California, which is the most populous state, has also the largest death row with over 700 inmates. Wyoming, which is the least populous state, has only one condemned man.
But executions are more frequent (and happen more quickly after sentencing) in conservative states. Texas, which is the second most populous state of the Union, carried out over 500 executions during the post-Furman era, more than a third of the national total. California has carried out only 13 executions during the same period, and has carried out none since 2006.
African Americans made up 41 % of death row inmates while making up only 12.6 % of the general population. They have made up 34 % of those actually executed since 1976. However, this is an under - representation relative to the proportion of convicted murderers; 52.5 % of all homicide offenders between 1980 and 2008 were African Americans. According to a 2003 Amnesty International report, blacks and whites were the victims of murder in almost equal numbers, yet 80 % of the people executed since 1977 were convicted of murders involving white victims.
Approximately 13.5 % of death row inmates are of Hispanic or Latino descent, while they make up 17.4 % of the general population.
As of October 1, 2016, the Death Penalty Information Center reports that there are only 54 women on death row. This constitutes 1.86 % of the total death row population. 16 women have been executed since 1976, while 1442 men have been executed. 15,391 total confirmed lawful executions have been carried out in the US since 1608, and of these, 575, or 3.6 %, were women. Women account for 1 / 50 death sentences, 1 / 67 people on death row, and 1 / 100 people whose executions are actually carried out. The states that have executed the most women are California, Texas and Florida. For women, the racial breakdown of those sentenced to death is 21 % black, 13 % Latina, 2 % American Indian, 61 % white and 3 % Asian.
All 31 states with the death penalty provide lethal injection as the primary method of execution.
Some states allow other methods than lethal injection, but only as secondary methods to be used merely at the request of the prisoner or if lethal injection is unavailable.
Several states continue to use the historical three - drug protocol: an anesthetic, pancuronium bromide a paralytic, and potassium chloride to stop the heart. Eight states have used a single - drug protocol, inflicting only an overdose of a single anesthetic to the prisoner.
While some state statutes specify the drugs required, a majority do not, giving more flexibility to corrections officials.
Pressures from anti-death penalty activists and shareholders have made it difficult for correctional services to get the chemicals. Hospira, the only U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental, stopped making the drug in 2011. In 2016, it was reported that more than 20 U.S. and European drug manufacturers including Pfizer (the owner of Hospira) had taken steps to prevent their drugs from being used for lethal injections.
Since then, some states have used other anesthetics, such as pentobarbital, etomidate, or fast - acting benzodiazepines like midazolam. Many states have since bought lethal injection drugs from foreign furnishers, and most states have made it a criminal offense to reveal the identities of furnishers or execution team members. In November 2015, California adopted regulations allowing the state to use its own public compounding pharmacies to make the chemicals.
In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of hydromorphone (a 333-fold overdose for an opioid - naïve patient of this narcotic analgesic closely related to and five times stronger than morphine; this is the equivalent of an entire 50 - ml bottle of Dilaudid HP, the most powerful commercially available form, although the advantage of hydromorphone is its very high solubility allowing for solutions of almost arbitrary concentration; 500 mg of hydromorphone HCl as pure powder can be dissolved in isotonic saline in volumes as small as under 2 cc) and a supratherapeutic dose of midazolam as a backup means of carrying out executions when a suitable vein can not be found for intravenous injection.
Lethal injection was held to be a constitutional method of execution by the U.S. Supreme Court in two cases: Baze v. Rees (2008) and Glossip v. Gross (2015).
In the following states, death row inmates with an execution warrant may choose to be executed by:
In five states (Arizona, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee and Utah), the alternative method is offered only to inmates sentenced to death for crimes committed prior to a specified date (usually when the state switched from the earlier method to lethal injection).
When an offender chooses to be executed by a means different from the state default method, which is always lethal injection, he / she loses the right to challenge its constitutionality in court. See Stewart v. LaGrand, 526 US 115 (1999).
The last executions by methods other than injection are as follows (all chosen by the inmate):
Depending on the state, the following alternative methods are statutorily provided in the event that lethal injection is either found unconstitutional by a court or unavailable for practical reasons:
Oklahoma is the only state allowing more than two methods of execution in its statutes, providing lethal injection, nitrogen hypoxia, electrocution and firing squad to be used in that order in the event that all earlier methods are unavailable. The nitrogen option was added by the Oklahoma Legislature in 2015 and has never been used in a judicial execution, though it is routinely used to give a painless death in animal euthanasia.
Three states (Oklahoma, Tennessee and Utah) have added back - up methods recently in 2014 or 2015 (or have expanded their application fields) in reaction to the shortage of lethal injection drugs.
Some states such as Florida have a larger provision dealing with execution methods unavailability, requiring their state departments of corrections to use "any constitutional method '' if both lethal injection and electrocution are found unconstitutional. This was designed to make unnecessary any further legislative intervention in that event, but the provision applies only to legal (not practical) infeasibility.
In May 2016, an Oklahoma grand jury recommended the state to use nitrogen hypoxia as its primary method of execution rather than as a mere backup, after experts testified that the method would be painless, easy and "inexpensive ''.
The method of execution of federal prisoners for offenses under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 is that of the state in which the conviction took place. If the state has no death penalty, the judge must choose a state with the death penalty for carrying out the execution.
The federal government has a facility (at U.S. Penitentiary Terre Haute) and regulations only for executions by lethal injection, but the United States Code allows U.S. Marshals to use state facilities and employees for federal executions.
The last public execution in the U.S. was that of Rainey Bethea in Owensboro, Kentucky, on August 14, 1936.
It was the last execution in the nation at which the general public was permitted to attend without any legally imposed restrictions. "Public execution '' is a legal phrase, defined by the laws of various states, and carried out pursuant to a court order. Similar to "public record '' or "public meeting '', it means that anyone who wants to attend the execution may do so.
Around 1890, a political movement developed in the United States to mandate private executions. Several states enacted laws which required executions to be conducted within a "wall '' or "enclosure '', or to "exclude public view ''. Most states laws currently use such explicit wording to prohibit public executions, while others do so only implicitly by enumerating the only authorized witnesses.
All states allow news reporters to be execution witnesses for information of the general public, except Wyoming which allow only witnesses authorized by the condemned. Several states also allow victims ' families and relatives selected by the prisoner to watch executions. An hour or two before the execution, the condemned is offered religious services and to choose his last meal (except in Texas which abolished it in 2011).
The execution of Timothy McVeigh on June 11, 2001, was witnessed by over 200 people, most by closed - circuit television.
Gallup, Inc. monitors support for the death penalty in the United States since 1937 by asking "Are you in favor of the death penalty for a person convicted of murder? '' Gallup surveys document a sharp increase in support for capital punishment between 1966 and 1994 clearly in response to rising violent crime rates during this period (e.g. Page and Shapiro 1992.) However, with the dramatic surge in arguments questioning the fairness of the sentence (due, in part, to DNA exonerations of death row inmates in the national media in the late 1990s (Baumgartner, De Boef, and Boydstun 2004 The Decline of the Death Penalty and the Discovery of Innocence), support then began to wane, falling from 80 % in 1994 to 66 % in 2000. Moreover, approval varies substantially depending on the characteristics of the target and the alternatives posed, with much lower support for putting juveniles and the mentally ill to death (26 % and 19 %, respectively, in 2002) and for the alternative of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole (52 % in 2003) Gallup 2005). Given the fact that attitudes toward this policy are often responsive to events, to characteristics of the target, and to alternatives, the conventional wisdom -- that death penalty attitudes are impervious to change -- is surely overstated. Accordingly, any analysis of death penalty attitudes must account for the responsiveness of such attitudes, as well as their reputed resistance to change
In the October 2016 Gallup poll, 60 % of respondents said they were in favor and 37 % were opposed.
Pew Research polls have demonstrated declining American support for the death penalty: 80 % in 1974, 78 % in 1996, 55 % in 2014, and 49 % in 2016. The 2014 poll showed significant differences by race: 63 % of whites, 40 % of Hispanics, and 36 % of blacks, respectively, supported the death penalty in that year.
A 2010 poll found that 61 % of voters would choose a penalty other than the death sentence for murder. When persons surveyed are given a choice between the death penalty and life without parole for persons convicted of capital crimes, support for execution has traditionally been significantly lower than in polling that asks only if a person does or does not support the death penalty. In 2010, for instance, a Gallup poll that offered a choice showed 49 % favoring the death penalty, and 46 % favoring life imprisonment.
On the other hand, in November 2009, another Gallup poll found that 77 % of Americans say that September 11 attacks ' mastermind Khalid Sheikh Mohammed should get the death penalty if convicted, including 12 who normally opposed the death penalty when asked the 1937 question. A similar result was found in 2001 when respondents were polled about the execution of Timothy McVeigh for the Oklahoma City Bombing that killed 168 victims.
Capital punishment is a controversial issue, with many prominent organizations and individuals participating in the debate. Amnesty International and other groups oppose capital punishment on moral grounds.
Some law enforcement organizations, and some victims ' rights groups support capital punishment.
The United States is one of three developed countries, that still practice capital punishment, along with Japan, Singapore.
Religious groups are widely split on the issue of capital punishment. The Fiqh Council of North America, a group of highly influential Muslim scholars in the United States, has issued a fatwa calling for a moratorium on capital punishment in the United States until various preconditions in the legal system are met.
In October 2009, the American Law Institute voted to disavow the framework for capital punishment that it had created in 1962, as part of the Model Penal Code, "in light of the current intractable institutional and structural obstacles to ensuring a minimally adequate system for administering capital punishment ''. A study commissioned by the institute had said that experience had proved that the goal of individualized decisions about who should be executed and the goal of systemic fairness for minorities and others could not be reconciled. As of 2017, 159 prisoners have been exonerated due to evidence of their innocence.
Advocates of the death penalty say that it deters crime, is a good tool for prosecutors in plea bargaining, improves the community by eliminating recidivism by executed criminals, provides "closure '' to surviving victims or loved ones, and is a just penalty.
The murder rate is highest in the South (6.5 per 100,000 in 2016), where 80 % of executions are carried out, and lowest in the Northeast (3.5 per 100,000), with less than 1 % of executions. A report by the US National Research Council in 2012 stated that studies claiming a deterrent effect are "fundamentally flawed '' and should not be used for policy decisions.
According to a survey of the former and present presidents of the country 's top academic criminological societies, 88 % of these experts rejected the notion that the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder. (Radelet & Lacock, 2009)
Data shows that the application of the death penalty is strongly influenced by racial bias. Furthermore, some opponents argue that it is applied in an arbitrary manner by a criminal justice system that has been shown to be biased through the systemic influence of socio - economic, geographic, and gender factors. Another argument in the capital punishment debate is the cost.
Various commentators predicted that the death penalty would likely have disappeared in the United States if Hillary Clinton had been elected U.S. President in November 2016 and allowed to appoint a liberal Supreme Court Justice to replace the late Antonin Scalia. Because Donald Trump won and citizens in three states voted the same day for ballot measures supporting capital punishment, columnists came to the conclusion that it will remain indefinitely.
One of the main arguments against the use of capital punishment in the United States is that there has been a long history of botched executions. University of Colorado Boulder Professor Michael L. Radelet described a "botched execution '' as an execution that causes the prisoner to suffer for a long period of time before they die. This has led to citizens having the opinion that capital punishment is cruel and unusual punishment. The following is a short list of botched executions that have occurred in the United States.
The largest number of clemencies was granted in January 2003 in Illinois when outgoing Governor George Ryan, who had already imposed a moratorium on executions, pardoned four death - row inmates and commuted the sentences of the remaining 167 to life in prison without the possibility of parole. When Governor Pat Quinn signed legislation abolishing the death penalty in Illinois in March 2011, he commuted the sentences of the fifteen inmates on death row to life imprisonment.
Previous post-Furman mass clemencies took place in 1986 in New Mexico, when Governor Toney Anaya commuted all death sentences because of his personal opposition to the death penalty. In 1991, outgoing Ohio Governor Dick Celeste commuted the sentences of eight prisoners, among them all four women on the state 's death row. And during his two terms (1979 - 1987) as Florida 's Governor, Bob Graham, although a strong death penalty supporter who had overseen the first post-Furman involuntary execution as well as 15 others, agreed to commute the sentences of six people on the grounds of doubts about guilt or disproportionality.
All executions were suspended through the country between September 2007 and April 2008. At that time, the U.S. Supreme Court was examining the constitutionality of lethal injection in Baze v. Rees. This was the longest period with no executions in the United States since 1982. The Supreme Court ultimately upheld this method in a 7 -- 2 ruling.
In addition to the states that have no valid death penalty statute, the following states and jurisdictions are noted that have an official moratorium, or have had no executions for more than ten years, as of 2018:
Kansas, New Hampshire, Wyoming, and the U.S. Military have also had no executions for over ten years, but in these states it is because of the lack of death row inmates having exhausted the appeal process.
Since 1976, four states have executed only condemned prisoners who voluntarily waived further appeals: Pennsylvania has executed three inmates, Oregon two, Connecticut one, and New Mexico one.
In North Carolina, executions are suspended following a decision by the state 's medical board that physicians can not participate in executions, which is a requirement under state law.
In California, United States District Judge Jeremy Fogel suspended all executions in the state on December 15, 2006, ruling that the implementation used in California was unconstitutional but that it could be fixed.
On November 25, 2009, the Kentucky Supreme Court suspended executions until the state adopts regulations for carrying out the penalty by lethal injection.
In November 2011, Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber announced a moratorium on executions in Oregon, canceling a planned execution and ordering a review of the death penalty system in the state.
On February 11, 2014, Washington Governor Jay Inslee announced a capital punishment moratorium. All death penalty cases that come to Inslee will result in him issuing a reprieve, not a pardon or commutation.
On February 13, 2015, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf announced a moratorium on the death penalty. Wolf will issue a reprieve for every execution until a commission on capital punishment, which was established in 2011 by the Pennsylvania State Senate, produces a recommendation. Effectively there was a moratorium in place, as the state had not executed anyone since Gary M. Heidnik in 1999.
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who owns oil rigs in gulf of mexico
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Offshore oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico (United States) - Wikipedia
Offshore oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico is a major source of oil and natural gas in the United States. The western and central Gulf of Mexico, which includes offshore Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, is one of the major petroleum - producing areas of the United States. Oil production from US federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico reached an all - time annual high of 1.65 million barrels per day in 2017. Oil production is expected to continue the upward trend in 2018 and 2019, based on ten new oil fields which are planned to start production in those years. According to the Energy Information Administration, "Gulf of Mexico federal offshore oil production accounts for 17 % of total U.S. crude oil production and federal offshore natural gas production in the Gulf accounts for 5 % of total U.S. dry production. ''
Major fields include Eugene Island block 330 oil field, Atlantis Oil Field, and the Tiber oilfield (discovered 2009). Notable oil platforms include Baldpate, Bullwinkle, Mad Dog, Magnolia, Mars, Petronius, and Thunder Horse. Notable individual wells include Jack 2 and Knotty Head.
As technology has progressed over the years, oil companies have extended drilling and production farther and farther from shore, and into deeper and deeper waters. In 1937 Superior Oil of California and Pure Oil constructed a platform just over a mile from the shore at a depth of 13 feet. A year later, Humble Oil built a mile - long wooden trestle with railway tracks into the sea at McFadden Beach on the Gulf of Mexico, placing a derrick at its end - this was later destroyed by a hurricane. A platform was installed in a hundred feet of water for the first time in 1955; in two hundred feet of water in 1962; and in a thousand feet of water in 1979. "By 1970, the technology existed to drill in 2,000 feet of water and actual exploratory drilling was taking place at 1,400 feet. '' By 2009, more than 70 % of Gulf of Mexico oil production came from wells drilled in depths greater than 1,000 feet (300 m), almost double from the percentage ten years ago.
The deepest water depth in which a discovery has been made is 9,975 feet (3,040 m), at Lloyd Ridge 370 (Diamond).
The federal government has not allowed drilling in federal waters in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, which includes offshore Florida and part of offshore Alabama, since 1995. In March 2010, President Barack Obama announced plans to allow drilling in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, in federal waters greater than 125 miles (201 km) from the coasts of Alabama and Florida. In December 2010, following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the Obama administration reversed its plans to open the eastern Gulf, and imposed a moratorium on new drilling in the eastern Gulf of Mexico for at least seven years.
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the BP oil spill, the BP oil disaster, the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, and the Macondo blowout) began on April 20, 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico on the BP - operated Macondo Prospect. Killing eleven people, it is considered the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and estimated to be 8 % to 31 % larger in volume than the previous largest, the Ixtoc I oil spill.
In 2012, federal leases in the Gulf of Mexico produced 463 million barrels (73.6 × 10 ^ m) of oil, which made up 19.5 % of all U.S. oil production that year, and more than that of any U.S. state other than Texas. The 2012 production was less than the 570 million barrels (91 × 10 ^ m) in 2009; however, due to new deep - water discoveries, the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement projects that oil production from the Gulf of Mexico will increase to 686 million barrels (109.1 × 10 ^ m) per year by 2013.
The state of Louisiana issued its first offshore oil and gas lease in 1936, and the following year the Pure Oil Company discovered the first Louisiana offshore oil field, the Creole Field, 1.2 miles (1.9 km) from the shore of Cameron Parish, from a platform built on timber pilings in 10 - to - 15 - foot - deep (3.0 to 4.6 m) water. Today, there are more than 4,000 production platforms and drilling rigs off the coast of Louisiana.
The first offshore well in Texas was drilled in 1938, but the first oil discovery was not made until 1941, off of Jefferson County. Through 2007, Texas state waters have produced 39 million barrels (6.2 × 10 ^ m) of oil and 4.0 trillion cubic feet (110 km). In 2007, Texas state waters produced 600,000 barrels (95,000 m) of oil and condensate and 26 billion cubic feet (0.74 km) gas.
The first oil test in offshore Alabama was made in Mobile Bay in 1951. The first discovery in state waters of offshore Alabama was made in 1979. By 2005 a total of 80 wells have been drilled in state water, and production in Alabama state water provided 154 billion cubic feet (4.4 km) per year, half the state 's gas production.
The eastern Gulf of Mexico, which includes offshore Gulf Coast Florida, has never been a petroleum - producing area. From the 1950s to the 1990s, oil companies drilled exploratory wells off the Gulf Coast of Florida. Nineteen wells were drilled in state waters, and forty were drilled in federal waters.
Gulf Oil drilled the first offshore Florida oil exploration wells in 1947, in state waters in Florida Bay south of Cape Sable, Monroe County. In 1956 Humble Oil drilled an exploratory well in state waters of Pensacola Bay, Santa Rosa County. In 1959 Gulf Oil drilled the first offshore Florida well drilled from an offshore platform, off the Florida Keys. All the wells drilled in state waters were dry holes.
The first federal lease sale offshore Florida was in 1959. In the 1980s the state of Florida objected to further federal lease sales in offshore Florida, and the last one was held in 1985. Because of state objections, the federal government agreed to pay $200 million to nine oil companies to buy back leases south of 26 degrees north latitude.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, oil companies drilled 16 wells on and around the Destin Dome, in federal waters off the Florida Panhandle; none were successful. Then from 1987 to 1995 Chevron made commercial gas discoveries on the Destin Dome 25 miles (40 km) off the coast. The discovery extended the Norphlet productive trend, which is highly productive in Alabama state waters in Mobile Bay. However, the state of Florida objected to plans to produce the deposits, and in May 2002, the US government agreed to buy back 7 leases from Chevron, Conoco, and Murphy Oil for $115 million.
In 1947, the state of Florida issued a long - term oil and gas lease for state waters in the Gulf, stretching from Apalachicola Bay in the north to Naples in the south. The lease, which now belongs to Coastal Petroleum, was renegotiated in 1975 to leave Coastal with partial rights from 0 -- 7.4 miles (0.0 -- 11.9 km) from the shore, and full rights to state waters from 7.4 -- 10.4 miles (11.9 -- 16.7 km) from the shore. Florida has since banned offshore drilling in state waters, and has a long - running legal dispute with Coastal over Coastal 's efforts to drill the offshore lease.
Florida banned drilling in state waters in 1992, and has also opposed additional drilling in federal waters off Florida. However, in April 2009 three committees of the Florida House of Representatives approved a bill that would allow offshore drilling in state waters more than 3 miles (4.8 km) from shore. Because state waters extend only 3 miles (4.8 km) from shore on the east coast of Florida, the legislation would have affected only state waters on the Gulf coast of the state, where state waters extend out to 10.5 statute miles (16.9 km) from shore. The bill passed the Florida House in April 2009, but died soon after in the Florida Senate.
Natural gas hydrates have long been known to exist in sediments beneath the Gulf of Mexico. In May 2009 the US Geological Survey announced the discovery of thick natural gas hydrate deposits beneath the Gulf of Mexico that are recoverable by current technology. To date, natural gas from hydrates has not been produced from the Gulf of Mexico.
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in what time does game of thrones take place
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Game of Thrones - Wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin 's series of fantasy novels, the first of which is A Game of Thrones. It is filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and the United States. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and its seventh season ended on August 27, 2017. The series will conclude with its eighth season premiering in 2019.
Set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, Game of Thrones has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast but centers on three primary story arcs. The first story arc centers on the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms and follows a web of alliances and conflicts among the dynastic noble families either vying to claim the throne or fighting for independence from the throne. The second story arc focuses on the last descendant of the realm 's deposed ruling dynasty, exiled and plotting a return to the throne. The third story arc centers on the longstanding brotherhood charged with defending the realm against the ancient threats of the fierce peoples and legendary creatures that lie far north, and an impending winter that threatens the realm.
Game of Thrones has attracted record viewership on HBO and has a broad, active, international fan base. It has been acclaimed by critics, particularly for its acting, complex characters, story, scope, and production values, although its frequent use of nudity and violence (including sexual violence) has been criticized. The series has received 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series in 2015 and 2016, more than any other primetime scripted television series. Its other awards and nominations include three Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation (2012 -- 2014), a 2011 Peabody Award, and five nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama (2012 and 2015 -- 2018).
Of the ensemble cast, Peter Dinklage has won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (2011 and 2015) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film (2012) for his performance as Tyrion Lannister. Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, Kit Harington, Maisie Williams, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Diana Rigg, and Max von Sydow have also received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for their performances.
Game of Thrones is roughly based on the storylines of A Song of Ice and Fire, set in the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros and the continent of Essos. The series chronicles the violent dynastic struggles among the realm 's noble families for the Iron Throne, while other families fight for independence from it. It opens with additional threats in the icy North and Essos in the east.
Showrunner David Benioff jokingly suggested "The Sopranos in Middle - earth '' as Game of Thrones ' tagline, referring to its intrigue - filled plot and dark tone in a fantasy setting of magic and dragons. In a 2012 study of deaths per episode, it ranked second out of 40 recent U.S. TV drama series (with an average of 14).
The series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. George R.R. Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters, believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre. Martin has stated that "the true horrors of human history derive not from orcs and Dark Lords, but from ourselves. ''
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin says does not mirror the real world. Just like people 's capacity for good and for evil in real life, Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change. The series allows the audience to view different characters from their perspective, unlike in many other fantasies, and thus the supposed villains can provide their side of the story. Benioff said, "George brought a measure of harsh realism to high fantasy. He introduced gray tones into a black - and - white universe. ''
In early seasons, under the influence of the A Song of Ice and Fire books, main characters were regularly killed off, and this was credited with developing tension among viewers. In later seasons, critics pointed out that certain characters had developed "plot armor '' to survive in unlikely circumstances, and attributed this to Game of Thrones deviating from the novels to become more of a traditional television series. The series also reflects the substantial death rates in war.
Although the first season closely follows the events of the first novel, later seasons have made significant changes. According to David Benioff, the series is "about adapting the series as a whole and following the map George laid out for us and hitting the major milestones, but not necessarily each of the stops along the way ''.
The novels and their adaptations base aspects of their settings, characters, and plot on events in European history. Most of Westeros is reminiscent of high medieval Europe, from lands and cultures, to the palace intrigue, feudal system, castles, and knightly tournaments. A principal inspiration for the novels is the English Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 85) between the houses of Lancaster and York, reflected in Martin 's houses of Lannister and Stark. The scheming Cersei Lannister evokes Isabella, the "she - wolf of France '' (1295 -- 1358); Isabella and her family (particularly as portrayed in Maurice Druon 's historical - novel series, The Accursed Kings) were also a main inspiration for Martin.
Holland further proposes that other historical antecedents of series elements include Hadrian 's Wall (which becomes Martin 's Wall), the legend of Atlantis (ancient Valyria), Byzantine Greek fire ("wildfire ''), Icelandic sagas of the Viking Age (the Ironborn), the Mongol hordes (the Dothraki), the Hundred Years ' War (1337 -- 1453) and the Italian Renaissance (c. 1400 -- 1500). The series ' popularity has been attributed, in part, to Martin 's skill at fusing these elements into a seamless, credible version of alternate history. Martin acknowledges, "I take (history) and I file off the serial numbers and I turn it up to 11. ''
Game of Thrones has an ensemble cast estimated to be the largest on television; during its third season, 257 cast names were recorded. In 2014, several actor contracts were renegotiated to include a seventh - season option, with raises which reportedly made them among the highest - paid performers on cable TV. In 2016, several actor contracts were again renegotiated, reportedly increasing the salary of five of the main cast members to £ 2 million per episode for the last two seasons, which would make them the highest paid actors on television. The main cast is listed below.
Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is the head of House Stark, whose members are involved in plot lines throughout most of the series. He and his wife, Catelyn Tully (Michelle Fairley), have five children: Robb (Richard Madden), the eldest, followed by Sansa (Sophie Turner), Arya (Maisie Williams), Bran (Isaac Hempstead - Wright) and Rickon (Art Parkinson), the youngest. Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow (Kit Harington) and his friend, Samwell Tarly (John Bradley), serve in the Night 's Watch under Lord Commander Jeor Mormont (James Cosmo). The Wildlings living north of the Wall include young Gilly (Hannah Murray), and warriors Tormund Giantsbane (Kristofer Hivju) and Ygritte (Rose Leslie).
Others associated with House Stark include Ned 's ward Theon Greyjoy (Alfie Allen), his vassal Roose Bolton (Michael McElhatton), and Bolton 's bastard son, Ramsay Snow (Iwan Rheon). Robb falls in love with the healer Talisa Maegyr (Oona Chaplin), and Arya befriends the blacksmith 's apprentice Gendry (Joe Dempsie) and the assassin Jaqen H'ghar (Tom Wlaschiha). The tall warrior Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie) serves Catelyn and, later, Sansa.
In King 's Landing, the capital, Ned 's friend King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) shares a loveless marriage with Cersei Lannister (Lena Headey), who has taken her twin brother, the "Kingslayer '' Ser Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), as her lover. She loathes her younger brother, the dwarf Tyrion Lannister (Peter Dinklage), who is attended by his mistress Shae (Sibel Kekilli) and the sellsword Bronn (Jerome Flynn). Cersei 's father is Lord Tywin Lannister (Charles Dance). Cersei also has two young sons: Joffrey (Jack Gleeson) and Tommen (Dean - Charles Chapman). Joffrey is guarded by the scar - faced warrior, Sandor "the Hound '' Clegane (Rory McCann).
The king 's Small Council of advisors includes the crafty Master of Coin Lord Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish (Aidan Gillen) and the eunuch spymaster Lord Varys (Conleth Hill). Robert 's brother, Stannis Baratheon (Stephen Dillane), is advised by foreign priestess Melisandre (Carice van Houten) and former smuggler Ser Davos Seaworth (Liam Cunningham). The wealthy Tyrell family is represented at court by Margaery Tyrell (Natalie Dormer). The High Sparrow (Jonathan Pryce) is the capital 's religious leader. In the southern principality of Dorne, Ellaria Sand (Indira Varma) seeks vengeance against the Lannisters.
Across the Narrow Sea, siblings Viserys (Harry Lloyd) and Daenerys Targaryen (Emilia Clarke) -- the exiled children of the last king of the original ruling dynasty, who was overthrown by Robert Baratheon -- are running for their lives and trying to win back the throne. Daenerys has been married to Khal Drogo (Jason Momoa), the leader of the nomadic Dothraki. Her retinue includes the exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont (Iain Glen), her aide Missandei (Nathalie Emmanuel) and the sellsword Daario Naharis (Michiel Huisman).
In January 2006, David Benioff had a phone conversation with George R.R. Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented, and became interested in A Song of Ice and Fire as he had been a fan of fantasy fiction when young but had not read the books before. The literary agent then sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first novel, A Game of Thrones, shared his enthusiasm with D.B. Weiss and suggested that they adapt Martin 's novels into a television series; Weiss finished the first novel in "maybe 36 hours ''. They pitched the series to HBO after a five - hour meeting with Martin (himself a veteran screenwriter) in a restaurant on Santa Monica Boulevard. According to Benioff, they won Martin over with their answer to his question, "Who is Jon Snow 's mother? ''
-- George R.R. Martin, author
Before being approached by Benioff and Weiss, Martin had had other meetings with other scriptwriters, most of them wanting to turn it into a feature film. Martin, however, deemed it "unfilmable '' and impossible to be done as a feature film, stating that the size of one of his novels is as long as The Lord of the Rings, which had been adapted as three feature films. Similarly, Benioff also said that it would be impossible to turn the novels into a feature film as the scale of the novels is too big for a feature film and dozens of characters would have to be discarded. Benioff added, "a fantasy movie of this scope, financed by a major studio, would almost certainly need a PG - 13 rating. That means no sex, no blood, no profanity. Fuck that. '' Martin himself was pleased with the suggestion that they adapt it as an HBO series, saying that he "never imagined it anywhere else ''. "I knew it could n't be done as a network television series. It 's too adult. The level of sex and violence would never have gone through. ''
The series began development in January 2007. HBO acquired the TV rights to the novels, with Benioff and Weiss as its executive producers, and Martin as a co-executive producer. The intention was for each novel to yield a season 's worth of episodes. Initially, Martin would write one episode per season while Benioff and Weiss would write the rest of the episodes. Jane Espenson and Bryan Cogman were later added to write one episode apiece the first season.
The first and second drafts of the pilot script by Benioff and Weiss were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008, respectively. Although HBO liked both drafts, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008; the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike may have delayed the process. The pilot episode, "Winter Is Coming '', was first shot in 2009; after a poor reception in a private viewing, HBO demanded an extensive re-shoot (about 90 percent of the episode, with cast and directorial changes).
The pilot reportedly cost HBO $5 -- 10 million to produce, while the first season 's budget was estimated at $50 -- 60 million. In the second season, the series received a 15 - percent budget increase for the climactic battle in "Blackwater '' (which had an $8 million budget). Between 2012 and 2015, the average budget per episode increased from $6 million to "at least '' $8 million. The sixth - season budget was over $10 million per episode, for a season total of over $100 million and a series record.
Nina Gold and Robert Sterne are the series ' primary casting directors. Through a process of auditions and readings, the main cast was assembled. The only exceptions were Peter Dinklage and Sean Bean, whom the writers wanted from the start; they were announced as joining the pilot in 2009. Other actors signed for the pilot were Kit Harington as Jon Snow, Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon, Harry Lloyd as Viserys Targaryen and Mark Addy as Robert Baratheon. Addy was, according to showrunners Benioff and Weiss, the easiest actor to cast for the series, being that his audition was on point. Some of the characters in the pilot were recast for the first season: Catelyn Stark was initially played by Jennifer Ehle, but the role was recast with Michelle Fairley. Daenerys Targaryen was also recast, with Emilia Clarke replacing Tamzin Merchant. The rest of the first season 's cast was filled in the second half of 2009.
Although many of the cast returned after the first season, the producers had many new characters to cast for each of the following seasons. Due to the large number of new characters, Benioff and Weiss postponed the introduction of several key characters in the second season and merged several characters into one or assigned plot functions to different characters. Some recurring characters were recast over the years; for example, Gregor Clegane was played by three different actors, while Dean - Charles Chapman who played Tommen Baratheon also played a minor Lannister character.
Game of Thrones used seven writers in six seasons. Series creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the showrunners, write most of the episodes each season.
A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin wrote one episode in each of the first four seasons. Martin did not write an episode for the later seasons, since he wanted to focus on completing the sixth novel (The Winds of Winter). Jane Espenson co-wrote one first - season episode as a freelance writer.
Bryan Cogman, initially a script coordinator for the series, was promoted to producer for the fifth season. Cogman, who wrote at least one episode for the first five seasons, is the only other writer in the writers ' room with Benioff and Weiss. Before his promotion, Vanessa Taylor (a writer during the second and third seasons) worked closely with Benioff and Weiss. Dave Hill joined the writing staff for the fifth season after working as an assistant to Benioff and Weiss. Although Martin is not in the writers ' room, he reads the script outlines and makes comments.
Benioff and Weiss sometimes assign characters to particular writers; for example, Cogman was assigned to Arya Stark for the fourth season. The writers spend several weeks writing a character outline, including what material from the novels to use and the overarching themes. After these individual outlines are complete, they spend another two to three weeks discussing each main character 's individual arc and arranging them episode by episode. A detailed outline is created, with each of the writers working on a portion to create a script for each episode. Cogman, who wrote two episodes for the fifth season, took a month and a half to complete both scripts. They are then read by Benioff and Weiss, who make notes, and parts of the script are rewritten. All ten episodes are written before filming begins, since they are filmed out of order with two units in different countries.
Benioff and Weiss write each of their episodes together, with one of them writing the first half of the script and the other the second half. After that they begin with passing the drafts back and forth to make notes and rewrite parts of it.
Benioff and Weiss originally intended to adapt the entire, still - incomplete A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels for television. After Game of Thrones began outpacing the published novels in the sixth season, the series was based on a plot outline of the future novels provided by Martin and original content. In April 2016, the showrunners ' plan was to shoot 13 more episodes after the sixth season: seven episodes in the seventh season and six episodes in the eighth. Later that month, the series was renewed for a seventh season with a seven - episode order. As of 2017, seven seasons have been ordered and filmed, adapting the novels at a rate of about 48 seconds per page for the first three seasons.
The first two seasons adapted one novel each. For the later seasons, its creators see Game of Thrones as an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire as a whole rather than the individual novels; this enables them to move events across novels, according to screen - adaptation requirements.
Principal photography for the first season was scheduled to begin on July 26, 2010, and the primary location was the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Exterior scenes in Northern Ireland were filmed at Sandy Brae in the Mourne Mountains (standing in for Vaes Dothrak), Castle Ward (Winterfell), Saintfield Estates (the Winterfell godswood), Tollymore Forest (outdoor scenes), Cairncastle (the execution site), the Magheramorne quarry (Castle Black) and Shane 's Castle (the tourney grounds). Doune Castle in Stirling, Scotland, was also used in the original pilot episode for scenes at Winterfell. The producers initially considered filming the whole series in Scotland, but decided on Northern Ireland because of the availability of studio space.
The first season 's southern scenes were filmed in Malta, a change in location from the pilot episode 's Moroccan sets. The city of Mdina was used for King 's Landing. Filming was also done at Fort Manoel (representing the Sept of Baelor), at the Azure Window on the island of Gozo (the Dothraki wedding site) and at San Anton Palace, Fort Ricasoli, Fort St. Angelo and St. Dominic monastery (all used for scenes in the Red Keep).
Filming of the second season 's southern scenes shifted from Malta to Croatia, where the city of Dubrovnik and nearby locations allowed exterior shots of a walled, coastal medieval city. The Walls of Dubrovnik and Fort Lovrijenac were used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. The island of Lokrum, the St. Dominic monastery in the coastal town of Trogir, the Rector 's Palace in Dubrovnik, and the Dubac quarry (a few kilometers east) were used for scenes set in Qarth. Scenes set north of the Wall, in the Frostfangs and at the Fist of the First Men, were filmed in November 2011 in Iceland: on the Vatnajökull glacier near Smyrlabjörg, the Svínafellsjökull glacier near Skaftafell and the Mýrdalsjökull glacier near Vik on Höfðabrekkuheiði.
Third - season production returned to Dubrovnik, with the Walls of Dubrovnik, Fort Lovrijenac and nearby locations again used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. Trsteno Arboretum, a new location, is the garden of the Tyrells in King 's Landing. The third season also returned to Morocco (including the city of Essaouira) to film Daenerys ' scenes in Essos. Dimmuborgir and the Grjótagjá cave in Iceland were used as well. One scene, with a live bear, was filmed in Los Angeles. The production used three units (Dragon, Wolf and Raven) filming in parallel, six directing teams, 257 cast members and 703 crew members.
The fourth season returned to Dubrovnik and included new locations, including Diocletian 's Palace in Split, Klis Fortress north of Split, Perun quarry east of Split, the Mosor mountain range, and Baška Voda further south. Thingvellir National Park in Iceland was used for the fight between Brienne and the Hound. Filming took 136 days and ended on November 21, 2013. The fifth season added Seville, Spain, used for scenes of Dorne, as well as Córdoba.
The sixth season, which began filming in July 2015, returned to Spain and filmed in Navarra, Guadalajara, Seville, Almeria Girona and Peniscola. Filming also returned to Dubrovnik, Croatia.
Filming of the seven episodes of season 7 began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, with other filming in Iceland, Northern Ireland and many locations in Spain. Spain filming locations included Seville, Cáceres, Almodovar del Rio, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. The series also filmed in Dubrovnik, which is used for location of King 's Landing. Filming continued until the end of February 2017 as necessary to ensure winter weather in some of the European locations.
Each ten - episode season of Game of Thrones has four to six directors, who usually direct back - to - back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series ' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: "Blackwater '' and "The Watchers on the Wall ''. Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.
Alik Sakharov was the pilot 's cinematographer. The series has had a number of cinematographers, and has received seven Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series nominations.
Oral Norrey Ottey, Frances Parker, Martin Nicholson, Crispin Green, Tim Porter and Katie Weiland have edited the series for a varying number of episodes. Weiland received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series in 2015.
Michele Clapton was costume designer for Game of Thrones ' first five seasons before she was replaced by April Ferry. Clapton will return to the series as costume designer for the seventh season.
The costumes used in the series drew inspiration from a number of sources, such as Japanese and Persian armour. Dothraki dress resembles that of the Bedouin (one was made out of fish skins to resemble dragon scales), and the Wildlings wear animal skins like the Inuit. Wildling bone armor is made from molds of actual bones, and is assembled with string and latex resembling catgut. Although the extras who play Wildlings and the Night 's Watch often wear hats (normal in a cold climate), members of the principal cast usually do not so viewers can recognize the main characters. Björk 's Alexander McQueen high - neckline dresses inspired Margaery Tyrell 's funnel - neck outfit, and prostitutes ' dresses are designed for easy removal. All clothing used is aged for two weeks so it appears realistic on high - definition television.
About two dozen wigs are used for the actresses. Made of human hair and up to 2 feet (61 cm) in length, they cost up to $7,000 each and are washed and styled like real hair. Applying the wigs is time - consuming; Emilia Clarke, for example, requires about two hours to style her brunette hair with a platinum - blonde wig and braids. Other actors, such as Jack Gleeson and Sophie Turner, receive frequent hair coloring. For characters such as Daenerys (Clarke) and her Dothraki, their hair, wigs and costumes are processed to appear as if they have not been washed for weeks.
For the first three seasons, Paul Engelen was Game of Thrones ' main makeup designer and prosthetic makeup artist with Melissa Lackersteen, Conor O'Sullivan and Rob Trenton. At the beginning of the fourth season Engelen 's team was replaced by Jane Walker and her crew, composed of Ann McEwan and Barrie and Sarah Gower.
For the series ' large number of visual effects, HBO hired British - based BlueBolt and Irish - based Screen Scene for season one. Most of the environment builds were done as 2.5 D projections, giving viewers perspective while keeping the programming from being overwhelming. In 2011, the season - one finale, "Fire and Blood '', was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects.
Because the effects became more complex in subsequent seasons (including CGI creatures, fire, and water), German - based Pixomondo became the lead visual - effects producer; nine of its twelve facilities contributed to the project for season two, with Stuttgart the lead. Scenes were also produced by British - based Peanut FX, Canadian - based Spin VFX, and U.S. - based Gradient Effects. "Valar Morghulis '' and "Valar Dohaeris '' earned Pixomondo Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Visual Effects in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
For season four, HBO added German - based Mackevision to the project. The season - four finale, "The Children '', won the 2014 Emmy Award for Visual Effects. Additional producers for season four included Canadian - based Rodeo FX, German - based Scanline VFX and U.S. - based BAKED FX. The muscle and wing movements of the adolescent dragons in seasons four and five were based largely on those of a chicken. Pixomondo retained a team of 22 to 30 people which focused solely on visualizing Daenerys Targaryen 's dragons, with the average production time per season of 20 to 22 weeks. For the fifth season, HBO added Canadian - based Image Engine and U.S. - based Crazy Horse Effects to its list of main visual - effects producers.
Unusual for a television series, the sound team receives a rough cut of a full season and approaches it as a ten - hour feature film. Although seasons one and two had different sound teams, one team has been in charge of sound since then. For the series 's blood - and - gore sounds, the team often uses a chamois. For dragon screams, mating tortoises and dolphin, seal, lion and bird sounds have been used.
The series ' title sequence was created by production studio Elastic for HBO. Creative director Angus Wall and his collaborators received the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Main Title Design for the sequence, which depicts a three - dimensional map of the series ' fictional world. The map is projected on the inside of a sphere which is centrally lit by a small sun in an armillary sphere. As the camera moves across the map, focusing on the locations of the episode 's events, clockwork mechanisms intertwine and allow buildings and other structures to emerge from the map. Accompanied by the title music, the names of the principal cast and creative staff appear. The sequence concludes after about 90 seconds with the title card and brief opening credits indicating the episode 's writer (s) and director. Its composition changes as the story progresses, with new locations replacing those featuring less prominently or not at all.
The music for the series was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season 's soundtrack, written in about ten weeks before the premiere, was published by Varèse Sarabande in June 2011. Soundtrack albums for subsequent seasons have been released, with tracks by the National, the Hold Steady and Sigur Rós. Djawadi has composed themes for each of the major houses and also for some of the main characters. The themes may evolve over time, as Daenerys Targaryen 's theme started small and then became more powerful after each season. Her theme started first with a single instrument, a cello, and Djawadi later incorporated more instruments for it.
The Westerosi characters of Game of Thrones speak British - accented English, often (but not consistently) with the accent of the English region corresponding to the character 's Westerosi region. The Northerner Eddard Stark speaks in actor Sean Bean 's native northern accent, and the southern lord Tywin Lannister speaks with a southern accent, while characters from Dorne speak English with a Spanish accent. Characters foreign to Westeros often have a non-British accent.
Although the common language of Westeros is represented as English, the producers charged linguist David J. Peterson with constructing Dothraki and Valyrian languages based on the few words in the novels; Dothraki and Valyrian dialogue is often subtitled in English. It has been reported that during the series these fictional languages have been heard by more people than the Welsh, Irish, and Scots Gaelic languages combined.
Game of Thrones is funded by Northern Ireland Screen, a UK government agency financed by Invest NI and the European Regional Development Fund. As of April 2013, Northern Ireland Screen gave the series £ 9.25 million ($14.37 million); according to government estimates, this has benefited the Northern Ireland economy by £ 65 million ($100.95 million).
Tourism Ireland has a Game of Thrones - themed marketing campaign similar to New Zealand 's Tolkien - related advertising. Invest NI and the Northern Ireland Tourist Board also expect the series to generate tourism revenue. According to Arlene Foster, the series has given Northern Ireland the most non-political publicity in its history. The production of Game of Thrones and other TV series also boosted Northern Ireland 's creative industries, contributing to an estimated 12.4 - percent growth in arts, entertainment and recreation jobs between 2008 and 2013 (compared with 4.3 percent in the rest of the UK during the same period).
Tourism organizations elsewhere reported increases in bookings after their locations appeared in Game of Thrones. In 2012, bookings through LateRooms.com increased by 28 percent in Dubrovnik and 13 percent in Iceland. The following year, bookings doubled in Ouarzazate, Morocco (the location of Daenerys ' season - three scenes). Game of Thrones has been attributed as a significant factor in the boom of tourism in Iceland that had a strong impact on its economy. Tourist numbers increased by 30 % in 2015, followed by another 40 % in 2016, with a final figure of 2.4 million visitors expected for 2016, which is around seven times the population of the country.
Game of Thrones is broadcast by HBO in the United States and by its local subsidiaries or other pay television services in other countries, at the same time as in the U.S. or weeks (or months) later. The series ' broadcast in China on CCTV, begun in 2014, was heavily edited to remove scenes of sex and violence in accordance with a Chinese practice of censoring Western TV series to prevent what the People 's Daily calls "negative effects and hidden security dangers ''. This resulted in viewer complaints about the incoherence of what remained. Broadcasters carrying Game of Thrones include Showcase in Australia; HBO Canada, Super Écran and Showcase in Canada; HBO Latin America in Latin America; SoHo and Prime in New Zealand, and Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
The ten episodes of the first season of Game of Thrones were released as a DVD and Blu - ray box set on March 6, 2012. The box set includes extra background and behind - the - scenes material but no deleted scenes, since nearly all the footage shot for the first season was used. The box set sold over 350,000 copies in the first week after release, the largest first - week DVD sales ever for an HBO series, and the series set an HBO - series record for digital - download sales. A collector 's - edition box set was released in November 2012, combining the DVD and Blu - ray versions of the first season with the first episode of season two. A paperweight in the shape of a dragon egg is included in the set.
DVD - Blu - ray box sets and digital downloads of the second season became available on February 19, 2013. First - day sales broke HBO records, with 241,000 box sets sold and 355,000 episodes downloaded. The third season was made available for purchase as a digital download on the Australian iTunes Store, parallel to the U.S. premiere, and was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 18, 2014. The fourth season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on February 17, 2015, and the fifth season on March 15, 2016. The sixth season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. Beginning in 2016, HBO began issuing Steelbook Blu - ray sets which include both Dolby TrueHD 7.1 and Dolby Atmos audio options.
Game of Thrones has been widely pirated, primarily outside the U.S. According to the file - sharing news website TorrentFreak, Game of Thrones has been the most - pirated TV series since 2012, which means it has held the record for six years in a row. Illegal downloads increased to about seven million in the first quarter of 2015, up 45 percent from 2014. An unnamed episode was downloaded about 4,280,000 times through public BitTorrent trackers in 2012, roughly equal to its number of broadcast viewers. Piracy rates were particularly high in Australia, and U.S. Ambassador to Australia Jeff Bleich issued a statement condemning Australian piracy of the series in 2013.
Delays in availability apart from HBO and its affiliates before 2015 and the cost of subscriptions to these services have been cited as causes of the series ' illegal distribution. According to TorrentFreak, a subscription to a service for Game of Thrones would cost up to $25 per month in the United States, up to £ 26 per episode in the UK and up to $52 per episode in Australia.
For "combating piracy '', HBO said in 2013 that it intended to make its content more widely available within a week of the U.S. premiere (including HBO Go). In 2015, the fifth season was simulcast to 170 countries and to HBO Now users. On April 11, the day before the season premiere, screener copies of the first four episodes of the fifth season leaked to a number of file - sharing websites. Within a day of the leak, the files were downloaded over 800,000 times; in one week the illegal downloads reached 32 million, with the season - five premiere alone ("The Wars to Come '') pirated 13 million times. The season - five finale ("Mother 's Mercy '') was the most simultaneously shared file in the history of the BitTorrent filesharing protocol, with over 250,000 simultaneous sharers and over 1.5 million downloads in eight hours. For the sixth season, HBO did not send screeners to the press, so as to prevent the spread of unlicensed copies and possible spoilers.
Observers, including series director David Petrarca and Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes, said that illegal downloads did not hurt the series ' prospects; it benefited from "buzz '' and social commentary, and the high piracy rate did not significantly translate to lost subscriptions. According to Polygon, HBO 's relaxed attitude towards piracy and the sharing of login credentials amounted to a premium - television "free - to - play '' model. At a 2015 Oxford Union debate, series co-creator David Benioff said that he was just glad that people watched the series; illegally downloaded episodes sometimes interested viewers enough to buy a copy, especially in countries where Game of Thrones was not televised. Co-creator D.B. Weiss had mixed feelings, saying that the series was expensive to produce and "if it does n't make the money back, then it ceases to exist ''. However, he was pleased that so many people "enjoy the show so much they ca n't wait to get their hands on it. '' In 2015, Guinness World Records called Game of Thrones the most - pirated television program.
Beginning on January 23, 2015, the last two episodes of season four were shown in 205 IMAX theaters across the United States; Game of Thrones is the first TV series shown in this format. The show earned $686,000 at the box office on its opening day and $1.5 million during its opening weekend; the week - long release grossed $1,896,092.
Game of Thrones was highly anticipated by fans before its premiere, and has become a critical and commercial success. According to The Guardian, by 2014 it was "the biggest drama '' and "the most talked about show '' on television.
Although Game of Thrones was dismissed by some critics before it began, its success has been credited with an increase in the popularity of fantasy themes. On the eve of the second season 's premiere, a CNN.com blog post by Joel Williams read, "After this weekend, you may be hard pressed to find someone who is n't a fan of some form of epic fantasy '' and cited Ian Bogost as saying that the series continues a trend of successful screen adaptations beginning with Peter Jackson 's 2001 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the Harry Potter films establishing fantasy as a mass - market genre; they are "gateway drugs to fantasy fan culture ''. Its success in the face of its genre was attributed by writers to a longing for escapism in popular culture, frequent female nudity and a skill in balancing lighthearted and serious topics (dragons and politics, for example) which provided it with a prestige enjoyed by conventional, top - tier drama series.
The series ' popularity increased sales of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels (republished in tie - in editions), which remained at the top of bestseller lists for months. According to The Daily Beast, Game of Thrones was a favorite of sitcom writers and the series has been referred to in other TV series. With other fantasy series, it has been cited for an increase in the purchase (and abandonment) of huskies and other wolf - like dogs.
Game of Thrones has added to the popular vocabulary. The first season 's scene in which Petyr Baelish explains his motives (or background) while prostitutes had sex in the background gave rise to the word "sexposition '' for providing exposition with sex and nudity. "Dothraki '', the series ' nomadic horsemen, was ranked fourth in a September 2012 Global Language Monitor list of words from television most used on the Internet. In 2012, the media used "Game of Thrones '' as a figure of speech or comparison for situations of intense conflict and deceit, such as the 2012 United States Supreme Court decision regarding healthcare reform legislation, the Syrian Civil War and the ousting of Bo Xilai from the Chinese government.
"Khaleesi '' has increased in popularity as a name for baby girls in the United States. In the novels and the TV series, the word is a title meaning the wife of a Khal (warlord) in the Dothraki language held by Daenerys Targaryen, and not actually a name.
Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim, although the series ' frequent use of nudity and violence has been criticized. Its seasons have appeared on annual "best of '' lists published by The Washington Post (2011), TIME (2011 and 2012) and The Hollywood Reporter (2012).
The performances of the cast have received immense praise. Peter Dinklage 's "charming, morally ambiguous, and self - aware '' Tyrion, who earned him Emmy and Golden Globe awards, was noted. "In many ways, Game of Thrones belongs to Dinklage '', wrote Mary McNamara of the L.A. Times before Tyrion became the series ' central figure in season two. Several critics highlighted performances by actresses and children. Fourteen - year - old Maisie Williams, noted in the first season for her debut as Arya Stark, was singled out for her season - two work with veteran actor Charles Dance (Tywin Lannister). Stephen Dillane has received positive reviews for his performance as Stannis Baratheon, especially in the fifth season, with one critic noting "Whether you like Stannis or not, you have to admit that Stephen Dillane delivered a monumental performance this season. ''
The series has a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 44 reviews. All episodes had positive reviews of 91 percent or higher on Rotten Tomatoes, and a 97 - percent rating (based on 50 reviews) for the season as a whole. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 95 percent and an average score of 8.6 out of 10 (based on 52 reviews). The season has a rating of 96 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 29 reviews. After the first episode aired, the seventh season held a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 29 reviews.
First - season reviewers said the series had high production values, a fully realized world and compelling characters. According to Variety, "There may be no show more profitable to its network than ' Game of Thrones ' is to HBO. Fully produced by the pay cabler and already a global phenomenon after only one season, the fantasy skein was a gamble that has paid off handsomely ''. The second season was also well received. Entertainment Weekly praised its "vivid, vital, and just plain fun '' storytelling and, according to the Hollywood Reporter, the series made a "strong case for being one of TV 's best series ''; its seriousness made it the only drama comparable to Mad Men or Breaking Bad. The New York Times gave the series a mixed review, criticizing its number of characters, their lack of complexity and a meandering plot.
The third season was extremely well received by critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 91 out of 100 (indicating "universal acclaim ''). The fourth season was similarly praised; Metacritic gave it a score of 94 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, again indicating "universal acclaim ''. The fifth season was also well received by critics and has a score of 91 out of 100 (based on 29 reviews) on Metacritic. The sixth season has been praised by critics, though not as highly as its predecessors. It has a score of 73 on Metacritic (based on nine reviews), indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The seventh season scored 77 out of 100 (based on twelve reviews) and was praised for its action sequences and focused central characters, but received criticism for its breakneck pace and plot developments that "defied logic. ''
Despite its otherwise enthusiastic reception by critics, Game of Thrones has been criticized for the amount of female nudity, violence, and sexual violence (especially against women) it depicts, and for the manner in which it depicts these themes. The Atlantic called the series ' "tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and -- especially -- sexual violence '' of the source material "the defining weakness '' of the adaptation. George R.R. Martin responded that he feels obliged to be truthful about history and human nature, and that rape and sexual violence are common in war; and that omitting them from the narrative would have rung false and undermined one of his novels ' themes, its historical realism. HBO said that they "fully support the vision and artistry of Dan and David 's exceptional work and we feel this work speaks for itself. ''
The amount of sex and nudity in the series, especially in scenes that are incidental to the plot, was the focus of much of the criticism aimed at the series in its first and second seasons. Stephen Dillane, who portrays Stannis Baratheon, likened the series ' frequent explicit scenes to "German porn from the 1970s ''. Charlie Anders wrote in io9 that while the first season was replete with light - hearted "sexposition '', the second season appeared to focus on distasteful, exploitative, and dehumanizing sex with little informational content. According to The Washington Post 's Anna Holmes, the nude scenes appeared to be aimed mainly at titillating heterosexual men, right down to the Brazilian waxes sported by the women in the series ' faux - medieval setting, which made these scenes alienating to other viewers. The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan likewise noted that Game of Thrones mostly presented women naked, rather than men, and that the excess of "random boobage '' undercut any aspirations the series might have to address the oppression of women in a feudal society. Saturday Night Live parodied this aspect of the adaptation in a sketch that portrayed the series as retaining a thirteen - year - old boy as a consultant whose main concern was showing as many breasts as possible.
In the third season, which saw Theon Greyjoy lengthily tortured and eventually emasculated, the series was also criticized for its use of torture. New York magazine called the scene "torture porn. '' Madeleine Davies of Jezebel agreed, saying, "it 's not uncommon that Game of Thrones gets accused of being torture porn -- senseless, objectifying violence combined with senseless, objectifying sexual imagery. '' According to Davies, although the series ' violence tended to serve a narrative purpose, Theon 's torture in "The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' was excessive.
A scene in the fourth season 's episode "Breaker of Chains '', in which Jaime Lannister rapes his sister and lover Cersei, triggered a broad public discussion about the series ' depiction of sexual violence against women. According to Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times, the scene caused outrage, in part because of comments by director Alex Graves that the scene became "consensual by the end ''. Itzkoff also wrote that critics fear that "rape has become so pervasive in the drama that it is almost background noise: a routine and unshocking occurrence ''. Sonia Saraiya of The A.V. Club wrote that the series ' choice to portray this sexual act, and a similar one between Daenerys Targaryen and Khal Drogo in the first season -- both described as consensual in the source novels -- as a rape appeared to be an act of "exploitation for shock value ''.
In the fifth season 's episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken '', Sansa Stark is raped by Ramsay Bolton. Most reviewers, including those from Vanity Fair, Salon, The Atlantic, and The Daily Beast, found the scene gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. For example, Joanna Robinson, writing for Vanity Fair, said that the scene "undercuts all the agency that 's been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. '' In contrast, Sara Stewart of The New York Post wondered why viewers were not similarly upset about the many background and minor characters who 'd undergone similar or worse treatment. In response to the scene, pop culture website The Mary Sue announced that it would cease coverage of the series because of the repeated use of rape as a plot device, and U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill said that she would no longer watch it.
As the sixth and seventh seasons saw Daenerys, Sansa and Cersei assume ruling positions, Alyssa Rosenberg of the Washington Post noted that the series could be seen as a "long - arc revenge fantasy about what happens when women who have been brutalized and raped gain power '' -- namely, that their past leaves them too broken to do anything but commit brutal acts in their own turn, and that their personal liberation does not effect the social change needed to protect others from suffering.
A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones have a broad, active international fan base. In 2012 Vulture.com ranked the series ' fans as the most devoted in popular culture, more so than Lady Gaga 's, Justin Bieber 's, Harry Potter 's or Star Wars '. Fans include political leaders such as former U.S. president Barack Obama, former British prime minister David Cameron, former Australian prime minister Julia Gillard and Dutch foreign minister Frans Timmermans, who framed European politics in quotes from Martin 's novels in a 2013 speech.
BBC News said in 2013 that "the passion and the extreme devotion of fans '' had created a phenomenon unlike anything related to other popular TV series, manifesting itself in fan fiction, Game of Thrones - themed burlesque routines and parents naming their children after series characters; writers quoted attributed this success to the rich detail, moral ambiguity, sexual explicitness and epic scale of the series and novels. The previous year, "Arya '' was the fastest - rising girl 's name in the U.S. after it jumped in popularity from 711th to 413th place.
In 2013 about 58 percent of series viewers were male and 42 percent female, and the average male viewer was 41 years old. According to SBS Broadcasting Group marketing director Helen Kellie, Game of Thrones has a high fan - engagement rate; 5.5 percent of the series ' 2.9 million Facebook fans talked online about the series in 2012, compared to 1.8 percent of the more than ten million fans of True Blood (HBO 's other fantasy series). Vulture.com cited Westeros.org and WinterIsComing.net (news and discussion forums), ToweroftheHand.com (which organizes communal readings of the novels) and Podcastoficeandfire.com as fan sites dedicated to the TV and novel series; and podcasts cover Game of Thrones.
Game of Thrones has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, 5 Screen Actors Guild Award, and a Peabody Award. It holds the Emmy - award record for a scripted television series, ahead of Frasier (which received 37). In 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed Game of Thrones as the 40th "best written '' series in television history. In 2015 The Hollywood Reporter placed it at number four on their "best TV shows ever '' list, while in 2016 the series was placed seventh on Empire 's "The 50 best TV shows ever ''. The same year Rolling Stone named it the twelfth "greatest TV Show of all time ''.
The 2011 first season received 13 Emmy nominations (including Outstanding Drama Series), and won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (given to Peter Dinklage for his portrayal of Tyrion Lannister) and Outstanding Main Title Design. Other nominations included Outstanding Directing ("Winter Is Coming '') and Outstanding Writing ("Baelor ''). Dinklage was also named Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globe, Satellite and Scream Awards.
In 2012, the second season received six Emmy Awards from 11 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage).
The 2013 third season received 16 Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Emilia Clarke), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Diana Rigg) and Outstanding Writing ("The Rains of Castamere ''), winning two Creative Arts Emmys.
In 2014, the fourth season received four Emmys from 19 nominations, which included Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Lena Headey), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Rigg), Outstanding Directing ("The Watchers on the Wall '') and Outstanding Writing ("The Children '').
The 2015 fifth season won the most Primetime Emmy Awards for a series in a year (12 awards from 24 nominations), including Outstanding Drama Series; other wins included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Directing ("Mother 's Mercy '') and Outstanding Writing ("Mother 's Mercy ''), and eight were Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
In 2016, the sixth season received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards (23). It won for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), Outstanding Writing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), and nine Creative Arts Emmys. Nominations included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage and Kit Harington), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Clarke, Headey and Maisie Williams), Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Max von Sydow) and Outstanding Directing ("The Door '').
In 2018, the seventh season received the most nominations at the 70th Primetime Emmy Awards (22). Nominations include Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Lena Headey), Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Peter Dinklage and Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Diana Rigg), Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series (David Benioff and D.B. Weiss for "The Dragon and the Wolf ''), and Outstanding Direting for a Drama Series (Jeremy Podeswa for "The Dragon and the Wolf '' and Alan Taylor for "Beyond the Wall '').
The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday - night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on - demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode. For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most - viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos). For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record. By the sixth season the average per - episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is ''. By season seven, average viewer numbers had increased to over 30 million per episode across all platforms.
The series set records on pay - television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms) and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).
The following graph indicates first - airing viewer numbers in the US:
The series has inspired four video games based on the TV series and novels. The strategy game Game of Thrones Ascent ties into the HBO series, making characters and settings available to players as they appear on television. Behaviour Interactive is developing a free - to - play strategy game based on the series for mobile devices.
HBO has licensed a variety of merchandise based on Game of Thrones, including games, replica weapons and armor, jewelry, bobblehead dolls by Funko, beer by Ommegang and apparel. High - end merchandise includes a $10,500 Ulysse Nardin wristwatch and a $30,000 resin replica of the Iron Throne. In 2013 and 2014, a traveling exhibition of costumes, props, armor and weapons from the series visited major cities in Europe and the Americas.
Thronecast: The Official Guide to Game of Thrones, a series of podcasts presented by Geoff Lloyd and produced by Koink, has been released on the Sky Atlantic website and the UK iTunes store during the series ' run; a new podcast, with analysis and cast interviews, is released after each episode. In 2014 and 2015 HBO commissioned Catch the Throne, two rap albums about the series.
A companion book, Inside HBO 's Game of Thrones (ISBN 978 - 1 - 4521 - 1010 - 3) by series writer Bryan Cogman, was published on September 27, 2012. The 192 - page book, illustrated with concept art and behind - the - scenes photographs, covers the creation of the series ' first two seasons and its principal characters and families.
After the Thrones is a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series. It airs on HBO Now the Monday after each sixth - season episode. The Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience, a 28 - city orchestral tour which will perform the series ' soundtrack with composer Ramin Djawadi, is scheduled to begin February 15, 2017 in Kansas City, Missouri.
Each season 's Blu - ray and DVD set contains several short animated sequences narrated by the cast as their characters as they detail events in the history of Westeros. For the seventh season, this is to include the animated prequel series Game of Thrones: Conquest & Rebellion, illustrated in a different animation style than previous videos. The series focuses on Aegon Targaryen 's conquest of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros.
After years of speculation about possible successor shows, in May 2017 HBO commissioned five screenwriters -- Max Borenstein, Jane Goldman, Brian Helgeland, Carly Wray and a fifth writer yet to be announced -- to develop individual Game of Thrones successor series. All of the writers are to be working individually with George R.R. Martin. Martin said that all the concepts under discussion are prequels, and some may be set outside Westeros. He also ruled out Robert 's Rebellion (the overthrow of Daenerys 's father by Robert Baratheon) as a possible idea. D.B. Weiss and David Benioff said that they would not be involved with any of the projects, and want to enjoy the successor series as fans. Martin is co-writing two of the four announced scripts. HBO announced in September 2017 that Game of Thrones writer Bryan Cogman would be developing a fifth prequel series.
On June 8, 2018, HBO commissioned a pilot to a Game of Thrones prequel series from Goldman as showrunner and Martin as co-creator. The prequel was described as taking place thousands of years before the events of Game of Thrones.
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who has made the most goals in the world cup
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FIFA World Cup top goalscorers - wikipedia
More than 2,500 goals have been scored at the 21 editions of the FIFA World Cup final tournaments, not counting penalties scored during shoot - outs. Since the first goal scored by French player Lucien Laurent at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, more than 1,250 footballers have scored goals at the World Cup, of which just 97 have scored at least five.
The top goalscorer of the inaugural competition was Argentina 's Guillermo Stábile with eight goals. Since then, only 22 players have scored more at all the games played at the World Cup than Stábile did throughout the 1930 tournament. The first was Hungary 's Sándor Kocsis with eleven in 1954. At the next tournament, France 's Just Fontaine improved on this record with 13 goals in only six games. Gerd Müller scored 10 for West Germany in 1970 and broke the overall record when he scored his 14th goal at the World Cup during West Germany 's win at the 1974 final. His record stood for more than three decades until Ronaldo 's 15 goals between 1998 and 2006 for Brazil. Germany 's Miroslav Klose went on to score a record 16 goals across four consecutive tournaments between 2002 and 2014. Only two other players have surpassed 10 goals at the World Cup: Pelé with 12 between 1958 and 1970 for Brazil, and Jürgen Klinsmann with 11 between 1990 and 1998 for Germany.
Of all the players who have played at the World Cup, only six have scored, on average, at least two goals per game played: Kocsis, Fontaine, Stábile, Russia 's Oleg Salenko, Switzerland 's Josef Hügi, and Poland 's Ernst Wilimowski -- the latter scored four in his single World Cup game in 1938. The top 97 goalscorers have represented 28 nations, with 14 players scoring for Brazil, and another 14 for Germany or West Germany. In total, 64 footballers came from UEFA (Europe), 29 from CONMEBOL (South America), and only four from elsewhere: Cameroon, Ghana, Australia, and the United States.
Fontaine holds the record for the most goals scored at a single tournament, with 13 goals in 1958. The players that came closest to this record were Kocsis in 1954, Müller in 1970 and Portugal 's Eusébio in 1966, with 11, 10 and 9, respectively. The lowest scoring tournament 's top scorer was in 1962, when six players tied at only four goals each. Across the 21 editions of the World Cup, 30 footballers have been credited with the most tournament goals, and no one has achieved this feat twice. Nine of them scored at least seven goals in a tournament, while Brazil 's Jairzinho became the only footballer to score at least seven goals without being the top goalscorer of that tournament in 1970. These 30 top goalscorers played for 19 nations, the most (five) for Brazil. Another five came from other South American countries, with the remaining 20 coming from Europe. Excluding the 2010 edition, all the top tournament scorers won the Golden Boot.
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when does dbz super episode 104 come out
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List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterwards, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and a new threat to his Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later, the Z Fighters participate in a universal tournament held by Zeno - sama to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament, then their entire universe will be erased.
Twelve pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and ten ending themes. For the first 76 episodes, the opening theme is "Chōzetsu ☆ Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. Beginning with episode 77, the second opening theme is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' and Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. For the first 12 episodes, the ending theme is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme from episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme from episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme from episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. Beginning with episode 109, the tenth ending theme is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by the rock band RottenGraffty.
The anime episodes are being released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia and India in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super started airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting January 7, 2017.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
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barney in how i met your mother real name
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Neil Patrick Harris - wikipedia
Neil Patrick Harris (born June 15, 1973) is an American actor, writer, producer, comedian, magician, and singer. He is known primarily for his comedy roles on television and his dramatic and musical stage roles. On television, he is known for playing the title character on Doogie Howser, M.D. (1989 -- 1993), Barney Stinson on How I Met Your Mother (2005 -- 2014, for which he was nominated for four Emmy Awards), and Count Olaf on A Series of Unfortunate Events (2017 --).
Harris is also known for his role as the title character in Joss Whedon 's musical Dr. Horrible 's Sing - Along Blog (2008) and a fictional version of himself in the Harold & Kumar film series (2004 -- 2011). His other films include Starship Troopers (1997), Beastly (2011), The Smurfs (2011), The Smurfs 2 (2013), A Million Ways to Die in the West (2014), and Gone Girl (2014). In 2014, he starred in the title role in Hedwig and the Angry Inch on Broadway, for which he won the 2014 Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Musical.
Harris has hosted the Tony Awards in 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2013, for which he won several special class Emmy Awards. He also hosted the Primetime Emmy Awards in 2009 and 2013, and hosted the 87th Academy Awards in 2015, thus making him the first openly gay man to host the Academy Awards.
Harris was named one of Time magazine 's 100 Most Influential People in 2010. He is married to David Burtka. In 2010, they had twins using surrogacy.
Harris was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico and grew up Ruidoso, New Mexico, with his elder brother and their parents, Sheila Gail (née Scott; born 1946) and Ronald Gene Harris (born 1946). His parents were lawyers and also ran a restaurant. He attended La Cueva High School in Albuquerque, graduating with high honors in 1991.
Harris began his career as a child actor and was discovered by playwright Mark Medoff at a drama camp in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Medoff later cast him in the 1988 drama film Clara 's Heart, starring Whoopi Goldberg and based on the novel of the same name by Joseph Olshan. Clara 's Heart earned Harris a Golden Globe nomination. The same year, he starred in Purple People Eater, a children 's fantasy.
Harris ' first film role as an adult was 1995 's Animal Room, although he portrayed a teenager. His subsequent film work has included supporting roles in The Next Best Thing, Undercover Brother, and Starship Troopers. Harris plays a fictionalized, hyper - womanising, lewd version of himself, in many ways a polar - opposite to his actual self, in the Harold and Kumar stoner comedy films Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle, Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay, and A Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas.
In 2010, Harris provided voice acting for the role of the adult Dick Grayson (Nightwing) in the animated film Batman: Under the Red Hood and the beagle Lou in the film Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore. The same year, he played the lead in the indie comedy The Best and the Brightest. On March 7, 2010, he made a surprise appearance at the 82nd Academy Awards, delivering the opening musical number. He starred in the films The Smurfs (2011) and The Smurfs 2 (2013).
In 2014, Harris showed a more serious side in Gone Girl, directed by David Fincher. Harris co-starred in the film as Desi Collings, the wealthy and obsessed ex-boyfriend of Amy Dunne, played by Rosamund Pike. Harris has said: "I was pinching myself at the opportunity '' to work with Fincher, he received general praise from critics for his performance, as did the film.
On February 22, 2015, Harris hosted the 87th Academy Awards; it was his first time hosting the ceremony, and the first time an openly gay man hosted the Academy Awards.
Harris has worked on Broadway in both musical and dramatic roles. He played Tobias Ragg in the 2001 concert performances of Sweeney Todd. In 2002, he performed beside Anne Heche in Proof. In 2003, he took the role of the Emcee in Cabaret alongside Deborah Gibson and Tom Bosley. As a result of his critically acclaimed performance in Cabaret, Harris was named the top - drawing headliner in the role of the Emcee by GuestStarCasting.com, outranking fellow celebrity stars John Stamos and Alan Cumming. In 2004, he performed the dual role of the Balladeer and Lee Harvey Oswald on Broadway in the musical revival of Stephen Sondheim 's Assassins. He also sang the role of Charles (first played by Anthony Perkins) on the Nonesuch recording of Sondheim 's Evening Primrose and portrayed Mark Cohen in the 1997 touring company of the musical Rent, a role he satirized on the January 10, 2009, episode of Saturday Night Live, which he hosted.
In 2010, Harris directed a production of the rock musical Rent at the Hollywood Bowl; he cast his Beastly co-star Vanessa Hudgens as Mimi. In 2011, Harris played the lead role of Bobby in Stephen Sondheim 's Company with the New York Philharmonic in concert, opposite Patti LuPone and others. The same year, he directed The Expert at the Card Table at Broad Stage 's Edye in Santa Monica, California.
Harris has hosted the Tony Awards four times: the 63rd Tony Awards on June 7, 2009, 65th Tony Awards on June 12, 2011, the 66th Tony Awards on June 10, 2012, and the 67th Tony Awards on June 9, 2013. Only Dame Angela Lansbury, with five ceremonies, has hosted the Tony Awards more times. Hosting the Tony Awards has earned him three Emmy Awards; in 2010, 2012, and 2013 for the 63rd, 65th, and 66th respectively.
A week after hosting the Tonys, it was announced that Harris would portray the titular role in the first Broadway production of the rock musical Hedwig and the Angry Inch, which he did from March through August 2014. Harris went on to win the 2014 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.
Beginning in 1989, Harris played the title role of a child prodigy doctor in Doogie Howser, M.D., for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe. After the show 's four - season run ended in 1993, Harris played a number of guest roles on television series, including Murder She Wrote. From 1999 to 2000, he starred with Tony Shalhoub in the NBC sitcom Stark Raving Mad, which lasted 22 episodes. He has played lead roles in a number of made - for - television features including Snowbound: The Jim and Jennifer Stolpa Story in 1994, My Ántonia in 1995, The Christmas Wish in 1998, Joan of Arc in 1999, The Wedding Dress in 2001, and The Christmas Blessing in 2005.
From 2005 to 2014, Harris played Barney Stinson, a serial womanizer, in the CBS ensemble sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The role earned him Emmy nominations every year from 2007 to 2010.
In 2008, Harris guest - starred on Sesame Street as the Sesame Street Fairy Shoe Person. In 2009, he hosted the 7th Annual TV Land Awards and appeared as a guest judge on Season 9 of American Idol.
Harris hosted the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards on September 20, 2009. On August 21, 2010, he won two Emmy Awards at the Creative Arts Emmy Awards ceremony, one of which was for his guest performance in the television series Glee. Harris hosted the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards on September 22, 2013, marking his second time hosting the event.
After a preview at the San Diego Comic - Con, a musical episode of Batman: The Brave and the Bold featuring Harris as the villainous Music Meister premiered on October 23, 2009, on Cartoon Network. As a character who could make anyone do his bidding by singing, he spent most of the episode singing several original songs.
In 2010, Harris filmed a pilot episode for an American adaptation of the British game show The Cube as host, though it was not picked up to series.
In 2014, Harris turned down the chance to replace David Letterman as host of the Late Show on CBS, stating that he feared he would get bored of the repetition that hosting a nightly talk show would entail. He also rejected the suggestion of replacing Craig Ferguson as host of The Late Late Show on the same grounds.
On September 15, 2015, Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris, a live variety series hosted by Harris on NBC, made its debut but was cancelled after an eight - episode run.
On January 15, 2016, Netflix cast Harris in the television adaptation of A Series of Unfortunate Events, in which he stars as Count Olaf, the main antagonist.
On March 31, 2017, NBC picked up Harris ' game show titled Genius Junior, the format will test the smarts of the most brilliant children in the country. Harris will serve as host and executive producer. The series received a 10 - episode order and will debut sometime in the 2017 -- 2018 season.
Harris is a fan of magic, like his character on How I Met Your Mother. His character in American Horror Story: Freak Show was also a magician. Harris ' Glee character performed magic as well. He previously served as the President of the Board of Directors of Hollywood 's Magic Castle. Harris won the Tannen 's Magic Louis Award in 2006 and hosted the 2008 World Magic Awards on October 11, 2008. Additionally, Harris and partner David Burtka were guests of honor for a Top Chef Masters episode which took place at the Magic Castle.
In 2007, Harris worked with Mike Nelson on an audio commentary for RiffTrax. The two "riffed '' on the film Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. Harris is a big fan of the cult TV series Nelson worked on, Mystery Science Theater 3000. Harris was interviewed for a 1992 Comedy Central special This Is MST3K hosted by Penn Jillette about the series and its fans. In 2008, Harris played the title role in Joss Whedon 's musical web series Dr. Horrible 's Sing - Along Blog alongside Nathan Fillion and Felicia Day. The first episode of the series debuted on July 15, 2008. He has also provided his voice for the Disney California Adventure Park attraction California Screamin '.
On December 11, 2010, Harris hosted the Spike Video Game Awards.
In October 2014, Harris released a memoir titled Neil Patrick Harris: Choose Your Own Autobiography, which is structured like a Choose Your Own Adventure book. His autobiography spent two weeks on The New York Times Best Seller List. His debut young adult novel, The Magic Misfits, was released in November 2017 and is the first in a four - book series of the same name.
Harris confirmed that he is gay on November 4, 2006, by saying, "I am happy to dispel any rumors or misconceptions and am quite proud to say that I am a very content gay man living my life to the fullest and feel most fortunate to be working with wonderful people in the business I love. ''
Harris attended the Emmy Awards in September 2007 with his fiancé David Burtka, later confirming the relationship. In an interview on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Harris said his relationship with Burtka began in 2004. On August 14, 2010, Harris announced that he and Burtka were expecting twins via a surrogate mother. Their son, Gideon Scott, and daughter, Harper Grace, were born in October 2010.
Following the passage of the Marriage Equality Act in New York on June 24, 2011, Harris and Burtka announced their engagement via Twitter, stating that they had proposed to each other five years earlier but kept the engagement secret until same - sex marriage became legal. On September 8, 2014, Harris announced on his Twitter page that David Burtka and he were married over the weekend in Italy. Pamela Fryman, the long - time director of How I Met Your Mother, officiated the wedding while Elton John performed at the reception.
Harris lives in New York City in the Upper Manhattan neighborhood of Harlem.
Alongside his acting career, Harris has supported and contributed to various charities, organization, and foundations. These include:
In October 2014, Harris attended a dinner for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and in September 2016, he and his husband were the honorary hosts of a culinary cookout to help raise money for the Alex 's Lemonade Stand Foundation.
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who created the names of the week days
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French Republican calendar - wikipedia
The French Republican Calendar (French: calendrier républicain français), also commonly called the French Revolutionary Calendar (calendrier révolutionnaire français), was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871. The revolutionary system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and was part of a larger attempt at decimalisation in France (which also included decimal time of day, decimalisation of currency, and metrication).
Sylvain Maréchal, prominent anticlerical atheist, published the first edition of his Almanach des Honnêtes - gens (Almanac of Honest People) in 1788. On pages 14 -- 15 appears a calendar, consisting of twelve months. The first month is "Mars, ou Princeps '' (March, or First), the last month is "Février, ou Duodécembre '' (February, or Twelfth). (The months of September (meaning "the seventh '') through December (meaning "the tenth '') are already numeric names, although their meanings do not match their positions in either the Julian or the Gregorian calendar since the Romans changed the first month of a year from March to January.) The lengths of the months are the same; however, the 10th, 20th, and 30th are singled out of each month as the end of a décade (group of ten). Individual days were assigned, instead of to the traditional saints, to people noteworthy for mostly secular achievements; 25 December is assigned to both Jesus and Newton.
Later editions of the almanac would switch to the Republican Calendar.
The days of the French Revolution and Republic saw many efforts to sweep away various trappings of the ancien régime (the old feudal monarchy); some of these were more successful than others. The new Republican government sought to institute, among other reforms, a new social and legal system, a new system of weights and measures (which became the metric system), and a new calendar. Amid nostalgia for the ancient Roman Republic, the theories of the Enlightenment were at their peak, and the devisers of the new systems looked to nature for their inspiration. Natural constants, multiples of ten, and Latin as well as Ancient Greek derivations formed the fundamental blocks from which the new systems were built.
The new calendar was created by a commission under the direction of the politician Charles - Gilbert Romme seconded by Claude Joseph Ferry and Charles - François Dupuis. They associated with their work the chemist Louis - Bernard Guyton de Morveau, the mathematician and astronomer Joseph - Louis Lagrange, the astronomer Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande, the mathematician Gaspard Monge, the astronomer and naval geographer Alexandre Guy Pingré, and the poet, actor and playwright Fabre d'Églantine, who invented the names of the months, with the help of André Thouin, gardener at the Jardin des Plantes of the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. As the rapporteur of the commission, Charles - Gilbert Romme presented the new calendar to the Jacobin - controlled National Convention on 23 September 1793, which adopted it on 24 October 1793 and also extended it proleptically to its epoch of 22 September 1792. It is because of his position as rapporteur of the commission that the creation of the republican calendar is attributed to Romme.
The calendar is often called the "French Revolutionary Calendar '' because it was created during the Revolution, but this is somewhat of a misnomer. Indeed, there was initially a debate as to whether the calendar should celebrate the Great Revolution, which began in July 1789, or the Republic, which was established in 1792. Immediately following 14 July 1789, papers and pamphlets started calling 1789 year I of Liberty and the following years II and III. It was in 1792, with the practical problem of dating financial transactions, that the legislative assembly was confronted with the problem of the calendar. Originally, the choice of epoch was either 1 January 1789 or 14 July 1789. After some hesitation the assembly decided on 2 January 1792 that all official documents would use the "era of Liberty '' and that the year IV of Liberty started on 1 January 1792. This usage was modified on 22 September 1792 when the Republic was proclaimed and the Convention decided that all public documents would be dated Year I of the French Republic. The decree of 2 January 1793 stipulated that the year II of the Republic began on 1 January 1793; this was revoked with the introduction of the new calendar, which set 22 September 1793 as the beginning of year II. The establishment of the Republic was used as the epochal date for the calendar; therefore, the calendar commemorates the Republic, not the Revolution. In France, it is known as the calendrier républicain as well as the calendrier révolutionnaire.
French coins of the period naturally used this calendar. Many show the year (French: an) in Arabic numbers, although Roman numerals were used on some issues. Year 11 coins typically have a "XI '' date to avoid confusion with the Roman "II ''.
The French Revolution is usually considered to have ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire, Year VIII (9 November 1799), the coup d'état of Napoléon Bonaparte against the established constitutional regime of the Directoire.
The Concordat of 1801 re-established the Roman Catholic Church as an official institution in France, although not as the state religion of France. The concordat took effect from Easter Sunday, 28 Germinal, Year XI (8 April 1802); it restored the names of the days of the week to the ones from the Gregorian Calendar, and fixed Sunday as the official day of rest and religious celebration. However, the other attributes of the republican calendar, the months, and years, remained as they were.
The French Republic ended with the coronation of Napoleon I as Empereur des Français (Emperor of the French) on 11 Frimaire, Year XIII (2 December 1804), but the republican calendar would remain in place for another year. Napoléon finally abolished the republican calendar with effect from 1 January 1806 (the day after 10 Nivôse Year XIV), a little over twelve years after its introduction. It was, however, used again briefly during the short period of the Paris Commune, 6 -- 23 May 1871 (16 Floréal -- 3 Prairial Year LXXIX).
Some legal texts that were adopted when the Republican Calendar was officially in use are still in force in France and other nations or territories which at the time were incorporated into revolutionary France, such as present - day Belgium, Luxembourg and the German territories to the west of the Rhine river. These documents have kept their original dates for legal accuracy and citation purposes.
Years appear in writing as Roman numerals (usually), with epoch 22 September 1792, the beginning of the "Republican Era '' (the day the French First Republic was proclaimed, one day after the Convention abolished the monarchy). As a result, Roman Numeral I indicates the first year of the republic, that is, the year before the calendar actually came into use. By law, the beginning of each year was set at midnight, beginning on the day the apparent autumnal equinox falls at the Paris Observatory.
There were twelve months, each divided into three ten - day weeks called décades. The tenth day, décadi, replaced Sunday as the day of rest and festivity. The five or six extra days needed to approximate the solar or tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year and called complementary days. This arrangement was an almost exact copy of the calendar used by the Ancient Egyptians, though in their case the beginning of the year was marked by summer solstice rather than autumn equinox.
A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a "Franciade ''. The name "Olympique '' was originally proposed but changed to Franciade to commemorate the fact that it had taken the revolution four years to establish a republican government in France.
The leap year was called Sextile, an allusion to the "bissextile '' leap years of the Julian and Gregorian calendars, because it contained a sixth complementary day.
Each day in the Republican Calendar was divided into ten hours, each hour into 100 decimal minutes, and each decimal minute into 100 decimal seconds. Thus an hour was 144 conventional minutes (more than twice as long as a conventional hour), a minute was 86.4 conventional seconds (44 % longer than a conventional minute), and a second was 0.864 conventional seconds (13.6 % shorter than a conventional second).
Clocks were manufactured to display this decimal time, but it did not catch on. Mandatory use of decimal time was officially suspended 7 April 1795, although some cities continued to use decimal time as late as 1801.
The numbering of years in the Republican Calendar by Roman numerals ran counter to this general decimalization tendency.
The Republican calendar year began the day the autumnal equinox occurred in Paris, and had twelve months of 30 days each, which were given new names based on nature, principally having to do with the prevailing weather in and around Paris.
* Note: On many printed calendars of Year II (1793 -- 94), the month of Thermidor was named Fervidor (from Latin fervens, "hot '').
Most of the month names were new words coined from French, Latin, or Greek. The endings of the names are grouped by season. "Dor '' means "giving '' in Greek.
In Britain, a contemporary wit mocked the Republican Calendar by calling the months: Wheezy, Sneezy and Freezy; Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery; Hoppy, Croppy and Poppy. The Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle suggested somewhat more serious English names in his 1837 work The French Revolution: A History, namely Vintagearious, Fogarious, Frostarious, Snowous, Rainous, Windous, Buddal, Floweral, Meadowal, Reapidor, Heatidor, and Fruitidor. Like the French originals, they are neologisms suggesting a meaning related to the season.
The month is divided into three décades or "weeks '' of ten days each, named simply:
Décades were abandoned in Floréal an X (April 1802).
The Catholic Church used a calendar of saints, which named each day of the year after an associated saint. To reduce the influence of the Church, Fabre d'Églantine introduced a Rural Calendar in which each day of the year had a unique name associated with the rural economy, stated to correspond to the time of year. Every décadi (ending in 0) was named after an agricultural tool. Each quintidi (ending in 5) was named for a common animal. The rest of the days were named for "grain, pasture, trees, roots, flowers, fruits '' and other plants, except for the first month of winter, Nivôse, during which the rest of the days were named after minerals.
Our starting point was the idea of celebrating, through the calendar, the agricultural system, and of leading the nation back to it, marking the times and the fractions of the year by intelligible or visible signs taken from agriculture and the rural economy. (...)
As the calendar is something that we use so often, we must take advantage of this frequency of use to put elementary notions of agriculture before the people -- to show the richness of nature, to make them love the fields, and to methodically show them the order of the influences of the heavens and of the products of the earth.
The priests assigned the commemoration of a so - called saint to each day of the year: this catalogue exhibited neither utility nor method; it was a collection of lies, of deceit or of charlatanism.
We thought that the nation, after having kicked out this canonised mob from its calendar, must replace it with the objects that make up the true riches of the nation, worthy objects not from a cult, but from agriculture -- useful products of the soil, the tools that we use to cultivate it, and the domesticated animals, our faithful servants in these works; animals much more precious, without doubt, to the eye of reason, than the beatified skeletons pulled from the catacombs of Rome.
So we have arranged in the column of each month, the names of the real treasures of the rural economy. The grains, the pastures, the trees, the roots, the flowers, the fruits, the plants are arranged in the calendar, in such a way that the place and the day of the month that each product occupies is precisely the season and the day that Nature presents it to us.
Five extra days -- six in leap years -- were national holidays at the end of every year. These were originally known as les sans - culottides (after sans - culottes), but after year III (1795) as les jours complémentaires:
Below are the Gregorian dates each Republican year (an in French) began while the calendar was in effect.
* Extra (sextile) day inserted before date, due to previous leap year
The calendar was abolished in the year XIV (1805). After this date, opinions seem to differ on the method by which the leap years would have been determined if the calendar were still in force. There are at least four hypotheses used to convert dates from the Gregorian calendar:
The following table shows when several years of the Republican Era begin on the Gregorian calendar, according to each of the four above methods:
XV (15)
1806
23 September
23 September
23 September
23 September
XVI (16)
1807
24 September *
23 September
24 September *
24 September *
XVII (17)
1808
23 September
23 September *
23 September
23 September
XVIII (18)
1809
23 September
23 September
23 September
23 September
XIX (19)
1810
23 September
23 September
23 September
23 September
XX (20)
1811
23 September
23 September
24 September *
23 September
CCXXV (225)
2016
22 September
22 September *
22 September
23 September *
CCXXVI (226)
2017
22 September
22 September
22 September
23 September
CCXXVII (227)
2018
23 September *
22 September
22 September
23 September
CCXXVIII (228)
2019
23 September
22 September
23 September *
23 September
* Extra (sextile) day inserted before date, due to previous leap year
For this calendar, the Romme method of calculating leap years is used. Other methods may differ by one day. Time may be cached and therefore not accurate. Decimal time is according to Paris mean time, which is 9 minutes 21 seconds (6.49 decimal minutes) ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. This is as time of page generated (Tue 2017 - 11 - 14 08: 41: 31 UTC, Tue 2017 - 11 - 14 08: 50: 52 TMP (Gregorian calendar, conventional time),. 36216 decimal UT, Unix timestamp 1510648891) (update)
Leap years in the calendar are a point of great dispute, due to the contradicting statements in the establishing decree stating:
Each year begins at midnight, with the day on which the true autumnal equinox falls for the Paris Observatory.
and:
The four - year period, after which the addition of a day is usually necessary, is called the Franciade in memory of the revolution which, after four years of effort, led France to republican government. The fourth year of the Franciade is called Sextile.
These two specifications are incompatible, as leap years defined by the autumnal equinox in Paris do not recur on a regular four year schedule. Thus, the years III, VII, and XI were observed as leap years, and the years XV and XX were also planned as such, even though they were five years apart.
A fixed arithmetic rule for determining leap years was proposed in the name of the Committee of Public Education by Gilbert Romme on 19 Floréal An III (8 May 1795). The proposed rule was to determine leap years by applying the rules of the Gregorian calendar to the years of the French Republic (years IV, VIII, XII, etc. were to be leap years) except that year 4000 (the last year of ten 400 - year periods) should be a common year instead of a leap year. Because he was shortly after sentenced to the guillotine, this proposal was never adopted and the original astronomical rule continued, which excluded any other fixed arithmetic rule. The proposal was intended to avoid uncertain future leap years caused by the inaccurate astronomical knowledge of the 1790s (even today, this statement is still valid due to the uncertainty in ΔT). In particular, the committee noted that the autumnal equinox of year 144 was predicted to occur at 11: 59: 40 pm local apparent time in Paris, which was closer to midnight than its inherent 3 to 4 minute uncertainty.
The calendar was abolished by an act dated 22 Fructidor an XIII (9 September 1805) and signed by Napoleon, which referred to a report by Michel - Louis - Étienne Regnaud de Saint - Jean d'Angély and Jean Joseph Mounier, listing two fundamental flaws.
The report also noted that the 10 - day décade was unpopular and had already been suppressed three years earlier in favor of the 7 - day week, removing what was considered by some as one of the calendar 's main benefits. The 10 - day décade was unpopular with laborers because they received only one full day of rest out of ten, instead of one in seven, although they also got a half - day off on the fifth day. It also, by design, conflicted with Sunday religious observances.
Another criticism of the calendar was that despite the poetic names of its months, they are tied to the climate and agriculture of metropolitan France and therefore not applicable to France 's overseas territories.
The "18 Brumaire '' or "Brumaire '' was the coup d'état of Napoleon Bonaparte on 18 Brumaire An VIII (9 November 1799), which many historians consider as the end of the French Revolution. Karl Marx 's 1852 essay The 18th Brumaire of Louis Napoléon compares the 1851 coup of Louis Napoléon to his uncle 's earlier coup.
Another famous revolutionary date is 9 Thermidor An II (27 July 1794), the date the Convention turned against Robespierre, who, along with others associated with the Mountain, was guillotined the following day. Based on this event, the term "Thermidorian '' entered the Marxist vocabulary as referring to revolutionaries who destroy the revolution from the inside and turn against its true aims. For example, Leon Trotsky and his followers used this term about Joseph Stalin.
Émile Zola 's novel Germinal takes its name from the calendar 's month of Germinal.
The seafood dish lobster thermidor was probably named after the 1891 play Thermidor, set during the Revolution.
The French frigates of the Floréal class all bear names of Republican months.
The Convention of 9 Brumaire An III, 30 October 1794, established the École Normale Supérieure. The date appears prominently on the entrance to the school.
The French composer Fromental Halévy was named after the feast day of ' Fromental ' in the Revolutionary Calendar, which occurred on his birthday in year VIII (27 May 1799).
Neil Gaiman 's The Sandman series, included a story called Thermidor which takes place on that month during the French Revolution.
The Liavek shared world series uses a calendar which is a direct translation of the French Republican calendar.
Sarah Monette 's Doctrine of Labyrinths series borrows the Republican calendar for one of the two competing calendars (their usage splits between social classes) in the fictional city of Mélusine.
Jacques Rivette 's 1974 film Celine and Julie Go Boating refers to the calendar and its hours of the day.
Alain Tanner 's 1979 film Messidor presents a haphazard summer road trip of two young women in Switzerland.
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where do the majority metis live in canada
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Métis in Canada - wikipedia
WikiProject
First Nations
Inuit
Métis
The Métis in Canada (/ meɪˈtiː /; Canadian French: (meˈt͡sɪs); European French: (meˈtis); Michif: (mɪˈtʃɪf)) are a group of peoples in Canada who trace their descent to First Nations peoples and European settlers. They are recognized as one of Canada 's aboriginal peoples under the Constitution Act of 1982, along with First Nations and Inuit peoples. As of 2011, they number over 451,797. Métis in Canada represent the majority of those identifying as Métis (smaller communities also exist in the United States).
While the Métis initially developed as the mixed - race descendants of early unions between First Nations people and colonial - era European settlers (usually indigenous women and settler men), within generations (particularly in central and western Canada), a distinct Métis culture developed. The early mothers were usually Wabanaki, Algonquin, Saulteaux, Cree, Ojibwe, Menominee, or of mixed descent from these peoples. Their unions with European men were often of the type known as Marriage à la façon du pays ("according to the custom of the country '').
After New France was ceded to Great Britain 's control, there was an important distinction between French Métis born of francophone voyageur fathers, and the Anglo - Métis (known as "countryborn '') descended from English or Scottish fathers. Today these two cultures have essentially coalesced into one Métis tradition, which does not preclude a range of other Métis cultural expressions across Canada. Such mixed - race people were historically referred to by other terms, many of which are now considered to be offensive, such as Mixed - bloods, Half - breeds, Bois - Brûlés, Bungi, Black Scots, and Jackatars. However, the contemporary Métis are a specific indigenous people and culture; the term does not apply to every person of "mixed '' heritage or ancestry.
While people of Métis culture or heritage are found across Canada, in the more restrictive sense, the traditional Métis "homeland '' includes much of the Canadian Prairies centering on southern and central parts of Manitoba. Closely related are the Métis in the United States, primarily those in border areas like northern Michigan, the Red River Valley, and eastern Montana. These were areas in which there was considerable Aboriginal and European mixing due to the 19th - century fur trade.
In 2011, 451,795 people in Canada identified as Métis. They represented 32.3 % of the total Aboriginal population and 1.4 % of the total Canadian population. Most Métis people today are not the direct result of intermarriage between First Nations and Europeans. The vast majority of those who identify as Métis are the descendants of unions between generations of Métis individuals.
Over the past century, countless Métis have assimilated into the general European Canadian populations, making Métis heritage (and thereby Aboriginal ancestry) more common than is generally realized. Geneticists estimate that 50 percent of today 's population in Western Canada have some Aboriginal blood. They could be classified as Métis by any genetic measure but most are not part of its ethnic culture. Unlike First Nations peoples, there is no distinction between "status '' and "non-status '' Métis. In 2003, the Supreme Court of Canada define Métis as someone who self - identifies as Métis, has an ancestral connection to the historic Métis community, and is accepted by the modern community with continuity to the historic Metis community.
The most well - known and historically documented mixed - ancestry population in Canadian history are the groups who developed during the fur trade in south - eastern Rupert 's Land, primarily in the Red River Settlement (now Manitoba) and the Southbranch Settlements (Saskatchewan). In the late nineteenth century, they organized politically (led by men who had European educations) and had confrontations with the Canadian government. This was not the only place where métissage (mixing) between European and Indigenous people occurred. It was part of the history of colonization from the earliest days of settlements on the Atlantic Coast throughout the Americas. The strong sense of ethnic national identity among the mostly French - and Michif - speaking Métis along the Red River, demonstrated during the Riel Rebellions, resulted in wider use of the term "Métis '' as the main word used by Canadians for all mixed Euro - Native groups.
Continued organizing and political activity resulted in "the Métis '' gaining official recognition from the national government as one of the recognized Aboriginal groups in S. 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982, which states:
35. (1) The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the Aboriginal People of Canada are hereby recognized and affirmed.
Section - 35 (2) does not define criteria for an individual who is Métis. This has left open the question of whether "Métis '' in this context should apply only to the descendants of the Red River Métis or to all mixed - ancestry groups and individuals. Many members of First Nations may have mixed ancestry, but identify primarily by the tribal nation, rather than as Métis. Since passage of the 1982 act, many groups in Canada who are not related to the Red River Métis have adopted the word "Métis '' as a descriptor.
It is not clear who has the moral and legal authority to define the word "Métis ''. There is no comprehensive legal definition of Métis status in Canada; this is in contrast to the Indian Act which creates an Indian Register for all (Status) First Nations people. Some commentators have argued that one of the rights of an indigenous people is to define its own identity, precluding the need for a government - sanctioned definition. The question is open as to who should receive Aboriginal rights flowing from Métis identity. No federal legislation defines the Métis.
Alberta is the only province to have defined the term in law. The Métis Settlements Act defines a Métis as "a person of Aboriginal ancestry who identifies with Métis history and culture '' in the context of creating a test for legal eligibility for membership in one of Alberta 's eight Métis settlements. This test excludes people who are Status Indians (that is, a member of a First Nation), an exclusion which was upheld by the Supreme Court in Alberta v. Cunningham (2011).
The number of people self - identifying as Métis has risen sharply since the late 20th century: between 1996 and 2006, the population of Canadians who self - identify as Métis nearly doubled to approximately 390,000. Until R v. Powley (2003), there was no legal definition of Métis. The case involved a claim by Steven Powley and his son Rodney, two members of the Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario Métis community, who were asserting Métis hunting rights. The Supreme Court of Canada outlined three broad factors to identify Métis who have rights as Aboriginal peoples:
All three factors must be present for an individual to qualify under the legal definition of Métis. In addition, the court stated that
(t) he term Métis in s. 35 does not encompass all individuals with mixed Indian and European heritage; rather, it refers to distinctive peoples who, in addition to their mixed ancestry, developed their own customs, ways of life, and recognizable group identity separate from their Indian or Inuit and European forebears. The court was explicit that its ten - point test is not a comprehensive definition of Métis.
Questions remain as to whether Métis have treaty rights; this is an explosive issue in the Canadian Aboriginal community today. Some say that as only First Nations could legitimately sign treaties with the government so, by definition, Métis have no Treaty rights. One treaty names Metis in the title: the Halfbreed (Métis in the French version) Adhesion to Treaty 3. Another, the Robinson Superior Treaty of 1850, listed 84 persons classified as "half - breeds '' in the Treaty, so included them and their descendants. Hundreds, if not thousands, of Métis were initially included in a number of other treaties, and then excluded under later amendments to the Indian Act.
Two main groups claim to speak for the Métis in Canada: the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (CAP) and the Métis National Council (MNC). Each uses different approaches to define Métis individuals. The CAP, which has nine regional affiliates, represents all Aboriginal people who are not part of the reserve system, including Métis and non-Status Indians. It does not define Métis and uses a broad conception based on self - identification.
The MNC broke away from the CAP 's predecessor in 1983 because, it says "(i) ts pan-Aboriginal approach to issues did not allow the Métis Nation to effectively represent itself ''. MNC views the Métis as a single nation with a common history and culture centred on the fur trade of "west central North America '' in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
In 2003 the MNC, which has five provincial affiliates, adopted its own "Definition of Métis '' as follows:
Métis means a person who self - identifies as a Métis, is distinct from other aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation ancestry, and is accepted by the Métis Nation.
Besides these two national umbrella groups, several local, independent Métis organizations have been founded in Canada. In Northern Canada neither the CAP nor the MNC have affiliates; here local Métis organizations deal directly with the federal government and are part of the Aboriginal land claims process. Three of the comprehensive settlements (modern treaties) in force in the Northwest Territories include benefits for Métis people who can prove local Aboriginal ancestry prior to 1921 (Treaty 11).
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, the relevant federal ministry, deals with both the CAP and the MNC; it does not support a particular definition of Métis. It has begun to work with the provincial member organizations of the MNC to help build up a registry of their members.
In response to the Powley ruling, Métis organizations have begun issuing Métis identification cards to their members, similar to the Status cards used by Registered Indians. Several organizations are registered with the Canadian government to provide Métis cards. The criteria to receive a card and the rights associated with the card vary with each organization. For example, for membership in the Métis Nation of Alberta, an applicant must provide a documented genealogy and family tree dating to the mid 1800s, proving descent from one or more members of historic Métis groups. The Canadian Métis Council will accept persons of mixed blood (European / Aboriginal blood (Indian ancestry)) and that is distinct from Indian and Inuit, and has genealogical ties to Aboriginal ancestry.
The Métis Nation of Ontario requires that successful applicants for what it calls "citizenship '', must "see themselves and identify themselves as distinctly Métis. This requires that individuals make a positive choice to be culturally and identifiably Métis ''. They note that "an individual is not Métis simply because he or she has some Aboriginal ancestry, but does not have Indian or Inuit status ''. It also requires proof of Métis ancestry: "This requires a genealogical connection to a ' Métis ancestor ' -- not an Indian or aboriginal ancestor ''.
Cultural definitions of Métis identity informs legal and political ones.
The 1996 Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples stated:
Many Canadians have mixed Aboriginal / non-Aboriginal ancestry, but that does not make them Métis or even Aboriginal... What distinguishes Métis people from everyone else is that they associate themselves with a culture that is distinctly Métis.
Traditional markers of Métis culture include use of creole Aboriginal - European languages, such as Michif (French - Cree - Dene) and Bungi (Cree - Ojibwa - English); distinctive clothing, such as the arrow sash (ceinture flêchée); and a rich repertoire of fiddle music, jigs and square dances, and practicing a traditional economy based on hunting, trapping, and gathering. But, there is increasing recognition that not all Métis hunted, or wore the sash, or spoke a creole language. The term métis is a French adjective meaning "mixed '' and in its larger sense applies to all persons of mixed Euro - Indigenous heritage, the noun Métis is specific to the people on the Métis Nation.
During the height of the North American fur trade from 1650 onward, many French Canadian and British fur traders married First Nations and Inuit women, mainly First Nations Cree, Ojibwa, or Saulteaux located in the Great Lakes area and to the west. The majority of these fur traders were French and Scottish; the French were Catholic. These marriages are commonly referred to as marriage à la façon du pays or marriage according to the "custom of the country. '' Their children often grew up primarily in their mothers ' cultures but were often also introduced to Catholicism and indigenous belief systems. In many cases, as the fur traders lived with the native women at the location of their tribes, the children grew up in primarily First Nations societies.
But, as more Métis lived in communities with a fur trapping tradition, they created a new distinct Aboriginal people in North America. First Nations women were the link between cultures; they provided companionship for the fur traders, introductions to their people and culture, and also aided in their survival. First Nations women were able to translate the native languages, sewed new clothing for their husbands, and generally were involved in resolving any cultural issues that arose. The First Peoples had survived in the west for thousands of years, so the fur traders benefited greatly from their First Nations wives ' knowledge of the land and its resources. Métis people were thought of as the bond between the Europeans and First Nations and Inuit peoples of Canada. As adults, the men often worked as interpreters as well as fur trappers in their turn.
According to historian Jacob A. Schooley, the Métis developed over at least two generations and with different classes. In the first stage, "servant '' (employee) traders of the fur trade companies, known as wintering partners, would stay for the season with First Nations bands, and make a "country marriage '' with a high - status native woman. This woman and her children would move to live in the vicinity of a trading post, becoming "House Indians '' (as they were called by the company men). House Indians eventually formed distinct bands. Children raised within these "House Indian '' bands often became employees of the companies in turn. (Foster cites the legendary York boat captain Paulet Paul as an example). Eventually this second - generation group ended employment with the company and became "freemen '' traders and trappers. They lived with their families raising children in a distinct culture that valued free trading and the buffalo hunt in particular. He considered that the third generation, who were sometimes Métis on both sides, were the first true Métis. He suggests that in the Red River region, many "House Indians '' (and even some non - "House '' First Nations) were assimilated into Métis culture due to the Catholic church 's strong presence in that region. In the Fort Edmonton region, many House Indians never adopted a Métis identity but continued to identify primarily as "Cree '' and so on.
The Métis played a vital role in the success of the western fur trade. They were skilled hunters and trappers, and were raised to appreciate both Aboriginal and European cultures. Métis understanding of both societies and customs helped bridge cultural gaps, resulting in better trading relationships. The Hudson 's Bay Company discouraged unions between their fur traders and First Nations and Inuit women, while the North West Company (the English - speaking Quebec - based fur trading company) supported such marriages. Trappers typically took First Nations women as wives, too, and operated outside company strictures. The Métis were respected as valuable employees of both fur trade companies, due to their skills as voyageurs, buffalo hunters, and interpreters, and their knowledge of the lands.
In 1812, many immigrants (mainly Scottish farmers) moved to the Red River Valley in present - day Manitoba. The Hudson 's Bay Company, which nominally owned the territory then called Rupert 's Land, assigned plots of land to the settlers. The allocation of Red River land caused conflict with those already living in the area as well as with the North West Company, whose trade routes had been cut in half. Many Métis were working as fur traders with both the North West Company and the Hudson 's Bay Company. Others were working as free traders, or buffalo hunters supplying pemmican to the fur trade. The buffalo were declining in number, and the Métis and First Nations had to go farther and farther west to hunt them. Profits from the fur trade were declining because a reduction in European demand due to changing tastes, as well as the need for the Hudson 's Bay Company to extend its reach farther from its main posts to get furs.
Most references to the Métis in the 19th century applied to the Plains Métis, particularly the Red River Métis. But, the Plains Métis tended to identify by occupational categories: buffalo hunters, and pemmican and fur traders, and "tripmen '' in the York boat fur brigades among the men; and moccasin sewers and cooks among the women. The largest community in Assiniboine - Red River district had a different lifestyle and culture from those located in the Saskatchewan, Athabasca, and Peace river valleys to the west.
The Government of Canada exerted its power over the people living in Rupert 's Land after it acquired the land in the mid-19th century from the Hudson 's Bay Company. The Métis and the Anglo - Métis (commonly known as Countryborn, children of First Nations women and Orcadian, Scottish or English men), joined forces to stand up for their rights. They wanted to protect their traditional way of life against an aggressive and distant Anglo - Canadian government and its local colonizing agents. During this time the Canadian government signed treaties (known as the "Numbered Treaties '') with various First Nations. These Nations ceded property rights to almost the entire western plains to the Government of Canada. In return for their ceding traditional lands, the Canadian government promised food, education, medical help, and other kinds of support. While the Métis generally did not sign any treaty as a group, they were sometimes included, even listed as "half - breeds '' in some records.
Louis Riel, well educated in Eastern schools, was the son of one leader and became a leader himself of the Métis in the Red River area. He denounced the government in a speech delivered in late August 1869 from the steps of Saint Boniface Cathedral. The Métis became more fearful when the Canadian government appointed the notoriously anti-French William McDougall as the Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories on September 28, 1869, in anticipation of a formal transfer of lands to take effect in December. The Red River Rebellion of 1869 broke out. Riel executed a dissident Protestant, an act that haunted the rest of his career. The government compromised, resulting in the Manitoba Act and that province 's entry into the Canadian Confederation. Due to the execution Riel was charged and fled to the United States in exile.
In March 1885, the Métis heard that a contingent of 500 North - West Mounted Police was heading west. They organized using their traditional organizations and formed the Provisional Government of Saskatchewan, with Pierre Parenteau as President and Gabriel Dumont as adjutant - general. Riel took charge of a few hundred armed men. They suffered defeat by Canadian armed forces in a conflict known as the North West Rebellion, which occurred in northern Saskatchewan from March 26 to May 12, 1885. Gabriel Dumont fled to the United States, while Riel, Poundmaker and Big Bear surrendered. Big Bear and Poundmaker each were convicted and received a three - year sentence. On July 6, 1885, Riel was convicted of high treason and was sentenced to hang. Riel appealed but he was executed on November 16, 1885.
Issues of land ownership became a central theme, as they sold most of the 600,000 acres they received.
During the 1930s, political activism arose in Métis communities in Alberta and Saskatchewan over land rights, and some filed land claims for the return of certain lands. Five men, sometimes dubbed "The Famous Five '', (James P. Brady, Malcolm Norris, Peter Tomkins Jr., Joe Dion, Felix Callihoo) were instrumental in having the Alberta government form the 1934 "Ewing Commission '', headed by Albert Ewing, to deal with land claims. The Alberta government passed the Métis Population Betterment Act in 1938. The act provided funding and land to the Métis. (The provincial government later rescinded portions of the land in certain areas.)
The Métis settlements in Alberta are the only recognized land base of Métis in Canada and are represented and governed collectively by a unique Métis government known as the Métis Settlements General Council (MSGC), also known as the "All - Council ''. The MSGC is the provincial, national, and international representative of the Federated Metis Settlements and holds fee simple land title via Letters Patents of 1.25 million acres of land, making the MSGC the largest land holder in the province other than the Crown in the Right of Alberta. The MSGC is the only recognized Metis Governerment in Canada with prescribed land, power, and jurisdiction via the Metis Settlements Act (legislation arsing from legal action taken up by the Metis Settlemetns against the Crown in the 1970 's). The Métis Settlements consist of predominantly Indigenous Métis populations native to Northern Alberta -- unique from those of the Red River, the Great Lakes, and other migrant Métis from further east. However, following the Riel and Dumont Resistances some Red - River Métis fled westward, marrying into the contemporary Métis Settlement populations during the end of the 19th century and into the early 20th century. Historically referred to as the "Nomadic Half - breeds '', the Métis of Northern Alberta have a unique history and their fight for land is still evident today with the eight contemporary Métis settlements.
During the 1930s, political activism arose in Métis communities in Alberta and Saskatchewan over land rights, and some filed land claims for the return of certain lands.
Following the formal establishment of the Métis Settlements, then called Half - Breed Colonies, in the 1930 's by distinct Métis political organization, the Metis populations in Northern Alberta would become the only Metis to secure collectively - held Metis lands. During renewed Indigenous activism during the 1960s into the 1970s, political organizations were formed or revived among the Métis. In Alberta, the Métis Settlements united as: The "Alberta Federation of Métis Settlement Associations '' in the mid-1970s. Today, the Federation is represented by the Métis Settlements General Council. During the constitutional talks of 1982, the Métis were recognized as one of the three Aboriginal peoples of Canada, in part by the Federation of Metis Settlements. In 1990, the Alberta government, following years of conferences and negotiations between the Federation of Métis Settlements (FMS) and the Crown in the Right of Alberta, restored land titles to the northern Métis communities through the "Métis Settlement Act '', replacing the Métis Betterment Act. Originally the first Métis settlements in Alberta were called colonies and consisted of:
In the 1960s, the settlements of Marlboro, Touchwood, Cold Lake, and Wolf Lake were dissolved by Order - and - Council by the Alberta Government and the remaining Metis Settlers were forced to move into one of the eight remaining Metis Settlements -- leaving the 8 contemporary Métis Settlements.
The position of Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians was created in 1985 as a portfolio in the Canadian Cabinet. The Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development is officially responsible only for Status Indians and largely with those living on Indian reserves. The new position was created in order provide a liaison between the federal government and Métis and non-status Aboriginal peoples, urban Aboriginals, and their representatives.
The Provisional Government of Saskatchewan was the name given by Louis Riel to the independent state he declared during the North - West Rebellion of 1885 in what is today the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The governing council was named the Exovedate, Latin for "of the flock ''. The council debated issues ranging from military policy to local bylaws and theological issues. It met at Batoche, Saskatchewan, and exercised real authority only over the Southbranch Settlement. The provisional government collapsed that year after the Battle of Batoche.
The Métis National Council was formed in 1983, following the recognition of the Métis as an Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, in Section Thirty - five of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Métis National Council is composed of five provincial Métis organizations, namely,
The Métis people hold province - wide ballot box elections for political positions in these associations, held at regular intervals, for regional and provincial leadership. Métis citizens and their communities are represented and participate in these Métis governance structures by way of elected Locals or Community Councils, as well as provincial assemblies held annually.
The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (CAP) and its nine regional affiliates represent all Aboriginal people who are not part of the reserve system, including Métis and non-Status Indians.
Due to differences, the Métis Nation of Canada was founded on January 21, 2009, by Bryce Fequet. The Métis Nation of Canada states that it "is a ' National ' organization with a growing membership from all regions of Canada and is the ' national representative ' of its members ''. They are not affiliated with the Métis National Council.
Due to political differences to the MNBC, a separate Métis organization in British Columbia was formed in June 2011; it is called the British Columbia Métis Federation (BCMF). They have no affiliation with the Métis National Council and have not been officially recognized by the government.
The Canadian Métis Council -- Intertribal is based in New Brunswick and is not affiliated with the Métis National Council.
The Ontario Métis Aboriginal Association -- Woodland Métis is based in Ontario and is not affiliated with the Métis National Council. Its representatives think the MNC is too focused on the Métis of the prairies.
The Nation Métis Québec is not affiliated with the Métis National Council.
None of these claim to represent all Métis. Other Métis registry groups also focus on recognition and protection of their culture and heritage. They reflect their communities ' particular extensive kinship ties and culture that resulted from settlement in historic villages along the fur trade.
A majority of the Métis once spoke, and many still speak, either Métis French or an indigenous language such as Mi'kmaq, Cree, Anishinaabemowin, Denésoliné, etc. A few in some regions spoke a creole or mixed language called Michif. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of the Métis pronunciation of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis today predominantly speak French, with English a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. Métis French is best preserved in Canada.
Michif is most used in the United States, notably in the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation of North Dakota. There Michif is the official language of the Métis who reside on this Chippewa (Ojibwe) reservation. After years of decline in use of these languages, the provincial Métis councils are encouraging their revival, teaching in schools and use in communities. The encouragement and use of Métis French and Michif is growing due to outreach after at least a generation of decline.
The 19th - century community of Anglo - Métis, more commonly known as Countryborn, were children of people in the Rupert 's Land fur trade; they were typically of Orcadian, Scottish, or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent. Their first languages would have been Aboriginal (Cree language, Saulteaux language, Assiniboine language, etc.) and English. The Gaelic and Scots spoken by Scots and Orcadians became part of the creole language referred to as "Bungee ''.
The Métis flag is one of the oldest patriotic flags originating in Canada. The Métis have two flags. Both flags use the same design of a central infinity symbol, but are different colours. The red flag was the first flag used. It is currently the oldest flag made in Canada that is still in use. The first red flag was given to Cuthbert Grant in 1815 by the North - West Company. The red flag was also used at the Battle of Seven Oaks, "La Grnoullière '' in 1816. Contrary to popular beliefs the red and blue are not cultural or linguistique identifiers and do not represent the companies.
The term Métis was originally used simply to refer to mixed - race children of the union of Frenchmen (Europeans) and Native women. The first records of "Métis '' were made by 1600 on the East Coast of Canada (Acadia), where French exploration and settlement started.
As French Canadians followed the fur trade to the west, they made more unions with different First Nations women, including the Cree. Descendants of English or Scottish and natives were historically called "half - breeds '' or "country born ''. They sometimes adopted a more agrarian culture of subsistence farming and tended to be reared in Protestant denominations. The term eventually evolved to refer to all ' half - breeds ' or persons of mixed First Nations - European ancestry, whether descended from the historic Red River Métis or not.
Lower case ' m ' métis refers to those who are of mixed native and other ancestry, recognizing the many people of varied racial ancestry. Capital ' M ' Métis refers to a particular sociocultural heritage and an ethnic self - identification that is based on more than racial classification. Some argue that people who identify as métis should not be included in the definition of ' Métis '. Others view this distinction as recent, artificial, and offensive, criticized for creating from what are newly imagined and neatly defined ethnological boundaries, justification to exclude "other Métis ''.
Some Métis have proposed that only the descendants of the Red River Métis should be constitutionally recognized, as they had developed the most distinct culture as a people in historic times. Such a limitation would result in excluding some of the Maritime, Quebec, and Ontario Métis, classifying them simply by the lower case m métis status. In a recent decision (Daniels v Canada (Indian Affairs and Northern Development) 2016 SCC 12), the Supreme Court of Canada has rejected such homogenizing and essentializing definition of Métis identity based on a narrow nationalistic interpretation of Métis identity, recognizing the diversity of Métis communities across Canada, including the existence of Métis communities in Nova Scotia at para 17:
(17) There is no consensus on who is considered Métis or a non-status Indian, nor need there be. Cultural and ethnic labels do not lend themselves to neat boundaries. ' Métis ' can refer to the historic Métis community in Manitoba 's Red River Settlement or it can be used as a general term for anyone with mixed European and Aboriginal heritage. Some mixed - ancestry communities identify as Métis, others as Indian:
According to the 2006 census in Canada, a total of 389,780 individuals identified as Métis. Alberta had the largest Métis population among the provinces and territories, with 85,495 self - identifying as Métis; of these 7,990 are members of one of Alberta 's unique Métis settlements.
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name the type of cartilage that is found in a meniscus
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Meniscus (Anatomy) - wikipedia
A meniscus is a crescent - shaped fibrocartilaginous anatomical structure that, in contrast to an articular disk, only partly divides a joint cavity. In humans they are present in the knee, wrist, acromioclavicular, sternoclavicular, and temporomandibular joints; in other animals they may be present in other joints.
Generally, the term ' meniscus ' is used to refer to the cartilage of the knee, either to the lateral or medial meniscus. Both are cartilaginous tissues that provide structural integrity to the knee when it undergoes tension and torsion. The menisci are also known as "semi-lunar '' cartilages, referring to their half - moon, crescent shape.
The term meniscus is from Ancient Greek μηνίσκος (meniskos), meaning ' crescent '.
The menisci of the knee are two pads of fibrocartilaginous tissue which serve to disperse friction in the knee joint between the lower leg (tibia) and the thigh (femur). They are concave on the top and flat on the bottom, articulating with the tibia. They are attached to the small depressions (fossae) between the condyles of the tibia (intercondyloid fossa), and towards the center they are unattached and their shape narrows to a thin shelf. The blood flow of the meniscus is from the periphery (outside) to the central meniscus. Blood flow decreases with age and the central meniscus is avascular by adulthood, leading to very poor healing rates.
The menisci act to disperse the weight of the body and reduce friction during movement. Since the condyles of the femur and tibia meet at one point (which changes during flexion and extension), the menisci spread the load of the body 's weight. This differs from sesamoid bones, which are made of osseous tissue and whose function primarily is to protect the nearby tendon and to increase its mechanical effect.
In sports and orthopedics, people will sometimes speak of "torn cartilage '' and actually be referring to an injury to one of the menisci. There are two general types of meniscus injuries, acute tears that are often the result of trauma or a sports injury and chronic or wear - and - tear type tears. Acute tears have many different shapes (vertical, horizontal, radial, oblique, complex) and sizes. They are often treated with surgical repair depending upon the patient 's age as they rarely heal on their own. Chronic tears are treated symptomatically: physical therapy with or without the addition of injections and anti-inflammatory medications. If the tear causes continued pain, swelling, or knee dysfunction, then the tear can be removed or repaired surgically. The unhappy triad is a set of commonly co-occurring knee injuries which includes injury to the medial meniscus.
Conservative management is often considered first for a smaller or chronic tear that does not appear amenable to surgical repair. It consists of activity modification, physical therapy for strengthening and range of motion, electro - acupuncture.
Two surgeries of the meniscus are most common. Depending on the type and location of the tear, the patient 's age, and physician 's preference, injured menisci are usually either repaired or removed, in part or completely (meniscectomy). Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Many studies show the meniscus serves a purpose and therefore doctors will attempt to repair when possible. However, the meniscus has poor blood supply, and, therefore, healing can be difficult. Traditionally it was thought that if there is no chance of healing, then it is best to remove the damaged and non-functional meniscus, although at least one study has shown that there is little significance if a meniscectomy is done. However, resuming high intensity activities may be impossible without surgery as the tear may flap around, causing the knee to lock.
A 2017 clinical practice guideline strongly recommends against surgery in nearly all patients with degenerative knee disease.
The term meniscus derives from Greek μηνίσκος meniskos, "crescent ''. Meniskos (μηνίσκος), "small moon '', is diminutive of μήνη, "moon ''. The word was also used for curved things in general, such as a necklace or a line of battle.
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lord of the rings and the hobbit in order
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The Hobbit (film series) - wikipedia
The Hobbit is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson. They are based on the 1937 novel The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien, with large portions of the trilogy inspired by the appendices to The Return of the King, which expand on the story told in The Hobbit, as well as new material and characters written especially for the films. Together they act as a prequel to Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. The films are subtitled An Unexpected Journey (2012), The Desolation of Smaug (2013), and The Battle of the Five Armies (2014).
The screenplay was written by Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, Jackson, and Guillermo del Toro, who was originally chosen to direct before his departure from the project. The films take place in the fictional world of Middle - earth sixty years before the beginning of The Lord of the Rings, and follow hobbit Bilbo Baggins (Martin Freeman), who is convinced by the wizard Gandalf the Grey (Ian McKellen) to accompany thirteen dwarves, led by Thorin Oakenshield (Richard Armitage), on a quest to reclaim the Lonely Mountain from the dragon Smaug (voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch). The films also expand upon certain elements from the novel and other source material, such as Gandalf 's investigation at Dol Guldur, and the pursuit of Azog and Bolg, who seek vengeance against Thorin and his ancestors.
The films feature an ensemble cast that also includes James Nesbitt, Ken Stott, Evangeline Lilly, Lee Pace and Luke Evans, with several actors reprising their roles from The Lord of the Rings, including Cate Blanchett, Orlando Bloom, Ian Holm, Christopher Lee, Hugo Weaving, Elijah Wood and Andy Serkis. The films also feature Manu Bennett, Sylvester McCoy, Stephen Fry, Mikael Persbrandt, Barry Humphries, and Lawrence Makoare. Also returning for production, among others, were illustrators John Howe and Alan Lee, art director Dan Hennah, cinematographer Andrew Lesnie, and composer Howard Shore, while props were again crafted by Weta Workshop, with visual effects managed by Weta Digital.
The first film in the series premiered at the Embassy Theatre in Wellington, New Zealand on 28 November 2012. One hundred thousand people lined the red carpet on Courtenay Place, and the entire event was broadcast live on television in New Zealand and streamed over the Internet. The second film of the series premiered at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles, California on 2 December 2013. The third and final film premiered at Leicester Square in London on 1 December 2014.
The series was a major financial success, with the films classified as one of the highest - grossing film series of all time, going on to outgross The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. Although critically considered to be inferior to The Lord of the Rings, it was nominated for various awards and won several, though not as many as its predecessor.
Jackson and Walsh originally expressed interest in filming The Hobbit in 1995, then envisaging it as part one of a trilogy (part two would have been based on The Lord of the Rings). Frustration arose when Jackson 's producer, Harvey Weinstein, discovered that Saul Zaentz had production rights to The Hobbit, but that distribution rights still belonged to United Artists (which had kept those rights, believing that filmmakers would prefer to adapt The Hobbit rather than The Lord of the Rings). The United Artists studio and its parent corporation Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer was for sale in 2005, but Weinstein 's attempts to buy the movie rights from the studio were unsuccessful. Weinstein asked Jackson to press on with adapting The Lord of the Rings. Ultimately, The Lord of the Rings was produced by New Line Cinema, not the Weinsteins, and their rights to film The Hobbit were set to expire in 2010. In September 2006, the new ownership and management of Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer expressed interest in teaming up with New Line and Jackson to make The Hobbit.
In March 2005, Jackson launched a lawsuit against New Line, claiming he had lost revenue from merchandising, video and computer games releases associated with The Fellowship of the Ring. He did not seek a specific settlement, but requested an audit to see whether New Line had withheld money owed him. Although Jackson wanted it settled before he would make the film, he felt the lawsuit was minor and that New Line would still let him make The Hobbit. New Line co-founder Robert Shaye was annoyed with the lawsuit and said in January 2007 that Jackson would never again direct a film for New Line, accusing him of being greedy. MGM boss Harry Sloan halted development, as he wanted Jackson to be involved. By August, after a string of flops, Shaye tried to repair his relationship with the director. He said, "I really respect and admire Peter and would love for him to be creatively involved in some way in The Hobbit. '' The following month, New Line was fined $125,000 for failing to provide requested accounting documents.
On 16 December 2007, New Line and MGM announced that Jackson would be executive producer of The Hobbit and its sequel. The two studios would co-finance the film and the latter studio (via 20th Century Fox) would distribute the film outside North America -- New Line 's first ever such deal with another major studio. Each film 's budget was estimated at US $150 million, which compares to the US $94 million budget for each of the films in Jackson 's Lord of the Rings trilogy. After completion of the merger of New Line Cinema with Warner Bros. in February 2008, the two parts were announced as scheduled for release in December 2011 and 2012. Producer Mark Ordesky, the executive producer of The Lord of the Rings, planned to return to supervise the prequels. Jackson explained he chose not to direct because it would have been unsatisfying to compete with his previous films.
In February 2008, the Tolkien Estate (through The Tolkien Trust, a British charity) and HarperCollins Publishers filed a suit against New Line for breach of contract and fraud and demanded $220 million in compensation for The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The suit claimed New Line had only paid the Estate an upfront fee of $62,500, despite the trilogy 's gross of an estimated $6 billion worldwide from box office receipts and merchandise sales. The suit claimed the Estate was entitled to 7.5 % of all profits made by any Tolkien films, as established by prior deals. The suit also sought to block the filming of The Hobbit. The suit was settled in September 2009 for an undisclosed amount. However the Tolkien Trust 's 2009 accounts show that it received a payment from New Line Cinema of £ 24 million, (a little over US $38 million). This amount was the Trust 's estimated share in respect of the gross profit participation due for the films based on "The Lord of the Rings ''. Christopher Tolkien said: "The trustees regret that legal action was necessary but are glad that this dispute has been settled on satisfactory terms that will allow the Tolkien Trust properly to pursue its charitable objectives. The trustees acknowledge that New Line may now proceed with its proposed film of The Hobbit. ''
Despite the legal suits, development proceeded and in April 2008, Guillermo del Toro was hired to direct the film. Del Toro has said he was a fan of Jackson 's trilogy and had discussed directing a film adaptation of Halo with him in 2005. Though that project stalled, they kept in contact. In a 2006 interview, del Toro was quoted saying "I do n't like little guys and dragons, hairy feet, hobbits, (...) I do n't like sword and sorcery, I hate all that stuff ''. After he signed on to direct in April 2008, Del Toro posted on TheOneRing.net forums that he had been enchanted by The Hobbit as a child, but found that Tolkien 's other books "contain (ed) geography and genealogy too complex for my prepubescent brain ''. In taking the job of director, del Toro was now "reading like a madman to catch up with a whole new land, a continent of sorts -- a cosmology created by brilliant philologist turned Shaman ''. He also posted that his appreciation of Tolkien was enhanced by his knowledge of the fantasy genre and the folklore research he had undertaken while making his own fantasy films.
Pre-production began around August 2008, with del Toro, Jackson, Walsh and Philippa Boyens writing the scripts. Del Toro collaborated with Jackson, Walsh and Boyens via videoconferencing and flew every three weeks, back and forth from Los Angeles (where some of the designs were done) to New Zealand to visit them. Del Toro spent his mornings writing and afternoons looking at material related to Tolkien to help him understand the writer 's work. He watched World War I documentaries and asked for book recommendations from Jackson, who is a collector of World War I memorabilia. Del Toro felt Tolkien 's experiences in that war influenced his stories.
By November 2008, del Toro had said that he, Jackson, Walsh and Boyens would realise something new about the story every week and the script was continually changing. The writing hours increased to twelve each day, as they dedicated three weeks to finally deciding the films ' structures. During the first few months of 2009, writing would start from 8: 30 am and end at 3: 00 pm when del Toro would meet with Weta (i.e., Weta Workshop and Weta Digital film effects companies). Completion of the story outlines and treatments ended in March 2009 and the studios approved the start of writing the screenplay. Filming was expected to take place throughout 2010 in New Zealand, with del Toro renovating the Hobbiton sets in Matamata. For his part, Jackson had kept the Rivendell scale model and the Bag End set (which he has used as a guest house) from the trilogy. During the middle of the shoot, there was expected to be a break which would have allowed del Toro to edit The Hobbit while sets would be altered for the second film. The director expected the shoot to last 370 days.
Jackson revealed in late November 2009 that he anticipated that the script for The Hobbit would not be finished until the beginning of 2010, delaying the start of production until the middle of that summer (several months later than previously anticipated). The announcement created doubts about whether the film would make its previously - announced release dates of December 2011 and December 2012. Jackson reiterated that no casting decisions had been made. On 22 January 2010, Alan Horn said the first film would likely not be released until the fourth quarter of 2012.
Del Toro and Jackson had a positive working relationship, in which they compromised on disagreements for the benefit of the film. Del Toro believed he would be able to shoot the film himself, although Jackson noted he had similar hopes for filming all of his trilogy and offered to help as second unit director. Del Toro planned on shooting the film in the trilogy 's 2.35: 1 aspect ratio, rather than his signature 1.85: 1 ratio. He hoped to collaborate again with cinematographer Guillermo Navarro.
Del Toro shares Jackson 's passion for scale models and background paintings, though he wanted to increase the use of animatronics; "We really want to take the state - of - the - art animatronics and take a leap ten years into the future with the technology we will develop for the creatures in the movie. We have every intention to do for animatronics and special effects what the other films did for virtual reality. '' Spectral Motion (Hellboy, Fantastic Four) was among those del Toro wanted to work with again. Some characters would have been created by mixing computer - generated imagery with animatronics and some would have been created solely with animatronics or animation. Gollum would be entirely digital again; as del Toro noted, "if it ai n't broke, why fix it? ''
Del Toro said that he interpreted The Hobbit as being set in a "world that is slightly more golden at the beginning, a very innocent environment '' and the film would need to "(take) you from a time of more purity to a darker reality throughout the film, but (in a manner) in the spirit of the book ''. He perceived the main themes as loss of innocence, which he likened to the experience of England after World War I, and greed, which he said Smaug and Thorin Oakenshield represent. Bilbo Baggins reaffirms his personal morality during the story 's third act as he encounters Smaug and the Dwarves ' greed. He added, "The humble, sort of a sturdy moral fibre that Bilbo has very much represents the idea that Tolkien had about the little English man, the average English man '', and the relationship between Bilbo and Thorin would be the heart of the film. The Elves will also be less solemn.
Del Toro met concept artists John Howe and Alan Lee, Weta Workshop head Richard Taylor, and make - up artist Gino Acevedo in order to keep continuity with the previous films, and he also hired comic book artists to complement Howe 's and Lee 's style on the trilogy, including Mike Mignola and Wayne Barlowe, who began work around April 2009. He has also considered looking at Tolkien 's drawings and using elements of those not used in the trilogy. As Tolkien did not originally intend for the magic ring Bilbo finds to be the all - powerful talisman of evil it is revealed to be in The Lord of the Rings, del Toro said he would address its different nature in the story, but not so much as to draw away from the story 's spirit. Each Dwarf would need to look different from the others. Del Toro would have redesigned the Goblins and Wargs and the Mirkwood spiders would also have looked different from Shelob. Del Toro felt the Wargs had to be changed because "the classical incarnation of the demonic wolf in Nordic mythology is not a hyena - shaped creature ''.
Del Toro also wanted the animals to speak so that Smaug 's speech would not be incongruous, though he explained portraying the talking animals would be more about showing that other characters can understand them. Smaug would not have a "snub Simian (mouth) in order to achieve a dubious lip - synch ''. Del Toro stated that Smaug would be the first character design begun and the last to be approved.
Del Toro and Jackson considered the sudden introduction of Bard the Bowman and Bilbo 's unconsciousness during the Battle of the Five Armies to be "less cinematic moments '' reminiscent of the novel 's greater "fairy tale world '' than The Lord of the Rings, and they would change them to make The Hobbit feel more like the trilogy. However, del Toro did say he considered some of these moments iconic and would require the "fairy tale logic (to) work as is ''.
Several actors were considered by del Toro for roles in the film. He wrote the part of Beorn specifically for American actor Ron Perlman. Del Toro had originally considered asking Perlman to voice the dragon Smaug, but decided against this. Del Toro met with English actor Brian Blessed to discuss the possibility of him playing Thorin Oakenshield. The director later stated that he thought Ian McShane "would make the most perfect dwarf ''. Frequent del Toro collaborator Doug Jones said that he would love to play the Elvenking Thranduil, but del Toro later stated that he had another role (or roles) in mind for the actor. Del Toro was the one who originally pushed to cast Sylvester McCoy as Radagast the Brown, a choice Peter Jackson later followed. While del Toro initially wanted Ian Holm to reprise the role of Bilbo Baggins, he also said that he "absolutely '' supported the casting of Martin Freeman as the character, and wanted all other returning Lord of the Rings characters to be played by the original actors where possible.
In December 2012, Philippa Boyens expressed regret that del Toro 's version of the film remained unmade. She revealed that it would have had a different script and visual elements, and would more closely have resembled a fairy tale. Boyens stated that the most significant script change was to Bilbo 's characterisation: "It shifted and changed into someone who, rather than being slightly younger and more innocent in the world, once had a sense of longing for adventure and has lost it and become fussy and fusty. ''
In 2010, del Toro left the project because of ongoing delays. On 28 May he explained at a press conference that owing to MGM 's financial troubles the Hobbit project had then not been officially green - lit at the time. "There can not be any start dates until the MGM situation gets resolved... We have designed all the creatures. We 've designed the sets and the wardrobe. We have done animatics and planned very lengthy action sequences. We have scary sequences and funny sequences and we are very, very prepared for when it 's finally triggered, but we do n't know anything until MGM is solved. '' Two days later, del Toro announced at TheOneRing.net that "In light of ongoing delays in the setting of a start date for filming '', he would "take leave from helming '', further stating that "the mounting pressures of conflicting schedules have overwhelmed the time slot originally allocated for the project. (...) I remain an ally to it and its makers, present and future, and fully support a smooth transition to a new director ''. Reports began to surface around the Internet about possible directors; apparently the studios wanted Jackson, but such names as Neill Blomkamp, Brett Ratner, David Yates and David Dobkin were mentioned.
However, this incident received negative reaction from many Hobbit fans, who were angry at MGM for delaying the project. They also tried willing the studio to sell their rights to Warner Bros. On 27 July, del Toro responded to these angry fans, saying that "it was n't just MGM. These are very complicated movies, economically and politically. ''
On 25 June 2010, Jackson was reported to be in negotiations to direct the two - part film. On 15 October 2010, New Line Cinema and Warner Bros. confirmed that The Hobbit was to proceed filming with Jackson as director and that the film would be in 3D. As well as confirming Jackson as director, the film was reported to be greenlit, with principal photography to begin in February 2011. Jackson stated that "Exploring Tolkien 's Middle - earth goes way beyond a normal film - making experience. It 's an all - immersive journey into a very special place of imagination, beauty and drama. ''
On 24 September 2010, the International Federation of Actors issued a Do Not Work order, advising members of its member unions (including the Screen Actors Guild) that "The producers... have refused to engage performers on union - negotiated agreements. '' This would subject actors who work on the film to possible expulsion from the union. In response, Warner Bros. and New Line Cinema considered taking the production elsewhere, with Jackson mentioning the possibility of filming in Eastern Europe.
Partly out of fear for the Tolkien tourism effect, on 25 October 2010, thousands of New Zealanders organised protest rallies imploring that production remain in New Zealand, arguing that shifting production to locations outside New Zealand would potentially cost the country 's economy up to $1.5 billion. After two days of talks with the New Zealand government (including involvement by Prime Minister John Key), Warner Bros. executives decided on 27 October to film The Hobbit in New Zealand as originally planned. In return, the government agreed to introduce legislation to remove the right of workers to organise trade unions in the film production industry, and to give money to big budget films made in New Zealand. The legislation reversed a decision by the New Zealand Supreme Court called Bryson v Three Foot Six Ltd holding that under the Employment Relations Act 2000, a model maker named Mr Bryson was an "employee '' who could organise a union to defend his interests. The Employment Relations (Film Production Work) Amendment Bill passed all three readings under urgency on 29 October 2010, 66 votes in favour to 50 opposed. The government 's legislation has been criticised as breaching the International Labour Organization 's core ILO Convention 87 on freedom of association, and giving an unfair subsidy to protect multinational business interests.
Some have subsequently called the price (further financial subsidies and specific laws made for the producers ' benefit) that New Zealand had to pay to retain the movie ' extortionate '. It was also argued that the discussion had occurred in a climate of ' hyperbole and hysteria '.
In February 2013, emails and documents released under orders of the Ombudsman showed that the union representing actors had already reached an agreement with Warner two days before 20 October protest, but Warner refused to confirm the deal publicly. One union representative said those on the march were ' patsies ' that had been fooled into thinking the production would be taken offshore. Further emails released showed Government ministers knew a deal had been reached a week before the protest, despite claiming negotiations were still happening.
The project had been envisaged as two parts since 2006, but the proposed contents of the parts changed during development. MGM expressed interest in a second film in 2006, set between The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Jackson concurred, stating that "one of the drawbacks of The Hobbit is its relatively light weight compared to LOTR (Lord of the Rings)... There 's a lot of sections in which a character like Gandalf disappears for a while. -- he references going off to meet with the White Council, who are actually characters like Galadriel and Saruman and people that we see in Lord of the Rings. He mysteriously vanishes for a while and then comes back, but we do n't really know what goes on. '' Jackson was also interested in showing Gollum 's journey to Mordor and Aragorn setting a watch on the Shire.
After his hiring in 2008, del Toro confirmed the sequel would be about "trying to reconcile the facts of the first movie with a slightly different point of view. You would be able to see events that were not witnessed in the first. '' He also noted the story must be drawn from only what is mentioned in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, as they do not have the rights to The Silmarillion and Unfinished Tales. Del Toro also added (before writing began) that if they could not find a coherent story for the second film, they would just film The Hobbit, stating "The Hobbit is better contained in a single film and kept brisk and fluid with no artificial ' break point '. '' By November 2008, he acknowledged that the book was more detailed and eventful than people may remember. He decided to abandon the "bridge film '' concept, feeling that it would be better for the two parts to contain only material from The Hobbit:
when you lay out the cards fro (sic) the story beats contained within the book (before even considering any apendix (sic) material) the work is enormous and encompasses more than one film. That 's why we are thinking of the two instalments as parts of a single narrative. That 's why I keep putting down the use of a "bridge '' film (posited initially). I think the concept as such is not relevant any more. I believe that the narrative and characters are rich enough to fit in two films.
Del Toro said that he was faced with two possible places to split the story, including Smaug 's defeat. He noted the second film would need to end by leading directly into The Fellowship of the Ring. In June 2009, del Toro revealed he had decided where to divide the story based on comments from fans about signifying a change in Bilbo 's relationship with the dwarves. The second film 's story would also have depended on how many actors could have reprised their roles.
Although The Hobbit was originally made as a two - part film, on 30 July 2012, Jackson confirmed plans for a third film, turning his adaptation of The Hobbit into a trilogy. According to Jackson, the third film would make extensive use of the appendices that Tolkien wrote to expand the story of Middle - Earth (published in the back of The Return of the King). While the third film, which as its title indicates, depicts the Battle of the Five Armies, largely made use of footage originally shot for the first and second films, it required additional filming as well. The second film was retitled The Desolation of Smaug and the third film was titled There and Back Again in August 2012. On 24 April 2014, the third film was renamed The Battle of the Five Armies. On the title change, Jackson said, "There and Back Again felt like the right name for the second of a two film telling of the quest to reclaim Erebor, when Bilbo 's arrival there, and departure, were both contained within the second film. But with three movies, it suddenly felt misplaced -- after all, Bilbo has already arrived "there '' in the Desolation of Smaug ". Shaun Gunner, the chairman of The Tolkien Society, supported the decision: "' The Battle of the Five Armies ' much better captures the focus of the film but also more accurately channels the essence of the story. ''
The following is a list of cast members who voiced or portrayed characters appearing in The Hobbit films.
In early October 2010, it was confirmed by the studio that Martin Freeman had officially been cast in the role of Bilbo Baggins. It was revealed that he had earlier been approached by the producers to play a role in the films, but was forced to turn it down because of scheduling conflicts with the BBC television series Sherlock. At the time, Freeman was quoted as saying, "(I) f something could be worked out, that would be great. I did it (turned down the role) with a heavy heart, definitely. '' On his casting, Peter Jackson was quoted as saying, "Despite the various rumours and speculation surrounding this role, there has only ever been one Bilbo Baggins for us. There are a few times in your career when you come across an actor who you know was born to play a role, but that was the case as soon as I met Martin Freeman. He is intelligent, funny, surprising and brave -- exactly like Bilbo and I feel incredibly proud to be able to announce that he is our Hobbit. ''
Later in October, it was revealed that several other cast members had joined the project, including Richard Armitage as Thorin Oakenshield, Graham McTavish as Dwalin, Aidan Turner as Kíli, Mark Hadlow as Dori, John Callen as Óin, Stephen Hunter as Bombur and Peter Hambleton as Glóin. On the casting of Armitage, Jackson was quoted as saying, "Richard is one of the most exciting and dynamic actors working on screen today and we know he is going to make an amazing Thorin Oakenshield. We can not wait to start this adventure with him and feel very lucky that one of the most beloved characters in Middle Earth is in such good hands. '' McTavish was quoted on his casting, "I think that I would be very lucky indeed if ever again in my career, I was offered an opportunity that was going to be so iconic in its influence and scale with regards to The Hobbit. I ca n't think of anything comparable. '' Following McTavish 's casting, scheduling conflicts arose while he was working on Uncharted 3: Drake 's Deception, resulting in the game 's storyline being modified so that McTavish could go to New Zealand to work on the film. On the casting of Turner, Jackson stated, "Aidan is a wonderfully gifted young actor who hails from Ireland. I 'm sure he will bring enormous heart and humor to the role of Kíli. '' On the casting of Hadlow, Jackson said, "I have worked with Mark Hadlow on many projects (Meet the Feebles and King Kong); he is a fantastic actor. I am thrilled to be working with (him) on these movies. '' Hadlow also plays Bert the Stone - troll. On his casting Callen stated, "I did wonder about my casting and how they had made the choice -- maybe the long hair and the beard sold it, I thought. But now that has all gone. Given that Óin is almost 200 years old I can presume only that it was the age. '' On being cast in the role, Hunter said, "Being cast in The Hobbit is really exciting and really an honour. I auditioned for the original Lord of the Rings way back when I signed with my agent in New Zealand. When I saw the films I thought, ' Man, I so want to do The Hobbit. ' ''
On 1 November 2010, Jackson confirmed that James Nesbitt and Adam Brown had been added to the cast to play Bofur and Ori respectively. It was previously reported that Nesbitt was in negotiations for a part in the film. Jackson was quoted on Nesbitt 's casting as saying, "James 's charm, warmth and wit are legendary as is his range as an actor in both comedic and dramatic roles. We feel very lucky to be able to welcome him as one of our cast. '' Nesbitt 's daughters also appear in the film series as Sigrid and Tilda, the daughters of Bard the Bowman. Commenting on Brown 's casting, Jackson was quoted as saying, "Adam is a wonderfully expressive actor and has a unique screen presence. I look forward to seeing him bring Ori to life. '' The role also marked Brown 's first film appearance.
On 7 December 2010, it was revealed that several other cast members had joined the project, including Cate Blanchett as Galadriel, Sylvester McCoy as Radagast the Brown, Mikael Persbrandt as Beorn, William Kircher as Bifur, Ken Stott as Balin and Jed Brophy as Nori. Blanchett was the first returning cast member from The Lord of the Rings film trilogy to be cast in the films, even though her character does not appear in the novel. On her casting, Jackson said, "Cate is one of my favorite actors to work with and I could n't be more thrilled to have her reprise the role she so beautifully brought to life in the earlier films. '' McCoy, the former Doctor Who star, who appeared alongside McKellen in a Royal Shakespeare Company 's King Lear, was confirmed to be in negotiations to play a major role as a "wizard '' in October 2010, leading to speculation he could appear as Radagast the Brown. During the production of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, McCoy had been contacted about playing the role of Bilbo and was kept in place as a potential Bilbo for six months before Jackson went with Ian Holm. On the casting of Persbrandt, Jackson was quoted as saying, "The role of Beorn is an iconic one and Mikael was our first choice for the part. Since seeing him read for the role we ca n't imagine anyone else playing this character. '' On the casting of Stott, Jackson commented "Fran and I have long been fans of Ken 's work and are excited he will be joining us on this journey. '' The casting of Brophy came after his collaboration with Jackson on several films, including Braindead, Heavenly Creatures, and all three Lord of the Rings films as various creatures.
On 7 January 2011, TheOneRing.net confirmed that Elijah Wood had joined the cast to reprise his role of Frodo Baggins in the project. As Frodo had n't been born during the events of The Hobbit, the inclusion of Frodo indicated that parts of the story would take place shortly before or during the events of The Lord of the Rings. According to TheOneRing.net, "As readers of ' The Hobbit ' know, the tale of ' The Downfall of The Lord of the Rings ' and ' The Hobbit or There and Back Again, ' are contained in the fictional ' Red Book of Westmarch. ' In Peter Jackson 's LOTR films, the book is shown on screen and written in by Bilbo and Frodo and handed off to Samwise Gamgee... The fictional book and either the telling from it or the reading of it, will establish Frodo in the film experiencing Bilbo 's story. Viewers are to learn the tale of ' The Hobbit ' as a familiar Frodo gets the tale as well. ''
On 10 January 2011, it was confirmed that Ian McKellen and Andy Serkis would reprise their respective roles of Gandalf the Grey and Gollum from The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. Although both actors were expected to return for their roles McKellen was previously quoted in July 2010 on TVNZ 's Good Morning that: "I 'm not under contract and my time is running out. I do n't want to give the producers the impression that I 'm sitting waiting. '' It was later revealed that Serkis would also serve as second unit director on the films. Serkis stated, "I think I understand Peter 's sensibility and we have a common history of understanding Middle - earth. A lot of the crew from The Lord of the Rings was returning to work on The Hobbit. There is really a sense of Peter wanting people around him who totally understand the material and the work ethic. ''
On 11 January 2011, it was confirmed that Christopher Lee would reprise his role as Saruman the White. Lee had originally said he would have liked to have shown how Saruman is first corrupted by Sauron, but would not be comfortable flying to New Zealand at his age. Lee went on to say that if a film were made, he would love to voice Smaug, as it would mean he could record his part in England and not have to travel. On 10 January 2011, it was reported that Lee had entered into negotiations to reprise the role of Saruman.
On 21 March 2011, Jeffrey Thomas joined the project as the character of Thrór, as did Mike Mizrahi as Thráin II.
On 4 April 2011, Bret McKenzie was added to the cast as Lindir. His father Peter McKenzie played the role of Elendil in The Lord of the Rings.
On 22 April 2011, Jackson confirmed via Facebook that Ian Holm had been added to the cast as old Bilbo Baggins. During the early stages of pre-production, former director Guillermo del Toro indicated that he was interested in having Holm reprise the role of Bilbo, but acknowledged that he might be too old to take on such a physically demanding role. On his potential casting, del Toro stated, "(Holm) certainly is the paragon we aspire to. He will be involved in some manner, I 'm sure. '' He also indicated that he was open to the possibility of Holm narrating the films. On 10 January 2011, Deadline Hollywood reported that Holm had entered into negotiations to play the older Bilbo. On 3 March 2011, Holm revealed that he had been in talks with the producers about reprising the role, but that he had not heard back from them yet.
In the early stages of production, the role of Thranduil had been linked to actor Doug Jones but on 29 April 2011, Jackson reported on Facebook that the role had gone to Lee Pace. On his casting, Jackson said, "Casting these Tolkien stories is very difficult, especially the Elven characters and Lee has always been our first choice for Thranduil. He 's going to be great. We loved his performance in a movie called The Fall a few years ago and have been hoping to work with him since. When we were first discussing who would be right for Thranduil, Lee came into mind almost immediately. ''
On 30 April 2011, Jackson announced that Dean O'Gorman had been hired for the role of Fíli. Jackson stated, "Dean 's a terrific Kiwi actor, who I am thrilled to be working with. '' O'Gorman was a last minute replacement for Rob Kazinsky had originally been cast for the role in October 2010, but left the film on 24 April 2011 "for personal reasons ''.
Hugo Weaving 's return to the role of Elrond was officially confirmed on 1 May 2011.
On 19 May 2011, Stephen Fry and Ryan Gage were confirmed to join the project as Master of Lake - town and Alfrid respectively. Fry spoke of his role, saying "My character is an opportunity for sheer grossness... (Peter Jackson) had me eating testicles... gross appetites. I must n't give too much away but I 've got a bald cap and then on top of that a really bad combover wig and this wispy mustache and wispy beard and horrible blotchy skin and disgusting fingernails... And generally speaking a really unappetising piece of work. And a coward to boot and very, very greedy. '' Gage was originally cast to play Drogo Baggins in December 2010, though according to Jackson, "Ryan is a great young actor who we originally cast in a small role, but we liked him so much, we promoted him to the much larger Alfrid part ''.
On 27 May 2011, Peter Jackson announced via Facebook that Orlando Bloom would reprise his role as Legolas. Bloom revealed on 25 April 2011 that he had been in contact with Jackson, who had given him a copy of the screenplay and said that there was a high probability that he would return. He was quoted as saying, "I 'm going to bet on it... But I ca n't really talk too much about it because it 's still sort of in the ether. But I would love to go back to work with Peter Jackson. It would be an honour. ''
19 June 2011, it was revealed that several other cast members had joined the project, including Luke Evans in the role of Bard the Bowman, Evangeline Lilly as Tauriel, Barry Humphries as the Great Goblin and Benedict Cumberbatch as Smaug and The Necromancer. Cumberbatch portrayed both of his roles through motion capture, as did Humphries for his character. The casting of Cumberbatch was prematurely revealed by his Sherlock co-star Martin Freeman during the BAFTA Television Awards in May 2011. Speculations of his undisclosed role were further fuelled when Ian McKellen wrote on his blog that Philippa Boyens showed him Cumberbatch 's screen test, stating that it was "electrifying, vocally and facially ''. Peter Jackson finally revealed on his Facebook page that Cumberbatch was set to play Smaug. Following this, it was also confirmed that he would be portraying The Necromancer as well.
Billy Connolly joined the cast as Dáin II Ironfoot on 9 February 2012. Connolly said of his character "... this guy will terrify the life out of you. I have a mohawk and tattoos on my head. ''
In addition, John Bell plays Bain, Manu Bennett plays Azog, Craig Hall plays Galion, Ben Mitchell plays Narzug, John Rawls plays Yazneg, Stephen Ure plays Fimbul and Grinnah, Kiran Shah plays a goblin scribe, and Stephen Colbert was cast in an undisclosed cameo. Conan Stevens was to play Bolg, but he eventually played a Gundabad Orc, also known as Keeper of Dungeons.
Principal photography began on 21 March 2011 in Wellington, New Zealand. Filming took place at Wellington Stone Street Studios, the town of Matamata and at other undisclosed locations around New Zealand.
The costumes for each of the Dwarves included six wigs and eight beards, which were worn by the actors, stunt doubles, and stand - ins.
During July 2011, scenes from The Hobbit were filmed at Pinewood Studios, England. Sets were constructed on the F Stage and N&P Stages for the shoot. Jackson recorded a video blog from the set, which featured Christopher Lee in full makeup and costume as Saruman.
The second block of shooting in New Zealand began at the end of August and was completed in December 2011.
Principal photography ended on 6 July 2012, after 266 days of filming.
During May 2013, additional filming for the second and third films began in New Zealand and lasted for 10 weeks.
The films were filmed in 3D using Red Epic cameras. According to a production diary video, 48 Epic cameras were used during the film 's production. The production employed a specialty rig designed by 3ality Technica, using two cameras and a mirror in order to achieve an intraocular effect similar to that of human sight (the distance between the eyes). This is how the depth required for 3D film is achieved.
In April 2011, Jackson revealed through his Facebook page that he would film The Hobbit at 48 fps (frames per second) instead of the normal 24 fps.
Additionally, the films were filmed at a 5K resolution, native to the Red Epic cameras, which provides a more detailed picture than the conventional 4K resolution. The films were recorded digitally onto 128 GB solid - state drives that fit into the Red Epic camera.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) asked the New Zealand government to investigate allegations that 27 animals used for the film died due to poor living conditions. Claims also include sheep falling into sinkholes, chickens being mauled by unsupervised dogs, a horse falling over a steep embankment, and another one being left on the ground for three hours after being hobbled. PETA says that instead of "vainly defending himself '', Peter Jackson should be giving a "firm assurance that this will never happen again ''. They also called Jackson a "CGI master '', stating that he could easily make convincing CGI animals, instead of using actual ones. Peter Jackson denied these allegations in a press conference hours before the premiere of the first film stating that there was "Absolutely none; no mistreatment, no abuse ''. Warner Bros. also released a statement which joined Peter Jackson in denying the allegations, questioning the timing and claiming the primary source of the allegations could be traced to freelance animal wranglers who had been dismissed by the production over a year earlier "for cause ''.
The music of The Hobbit film series was composed, produced and (in the case of the first film) orchestrated and conducted by Howard Shore, who scored all three The Lord of the Rings films. Recording sessions for the first film began on 20 August 2012, at Abbey Road Studios. The second and third films were recorded in New Zealand.
Unlike with the Lord of the Rings, which only received an expanded release after 2005, each Hobbit soundtrack was released in a two - CD, two - hour release. The music features 64 - 70 new leitmotives, about 40 leitmotives returning from The Lord of the Rings, and a variety of none - orchestral instruments, including bagpipes, didgeridoo s and a whole Gamelan orchestra.
The score for An Unexpected Journey was primarily played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra (as it was for The Lord of the Rings), London Voices and Tiffin ' Boys choir, although Jackson and Shore chose the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra (which participated in scoring a large section of the Fellowship of the Ring) to score The Desolation of Smaug and The Battle of the Five Armies. Additional musicians, including two gamelan orchestras, and the London Voices and Tiffin ' boys choir, augmented the orchestra. Musicians Neil Finn and Ed Sheeran contributed to the score as well as some actors including Richard Armitage and the cast of dwarves, James Nesbitt and Barry Humphries (in the extended edition). Clara Sanabras and Grace Davidson sang the soprano parts.
As with The Lord of the Rings trilogy, Weta Digital was involved in the creation of special effects. However, as opposed to The Lord of the Rings, where the actors who played Orcs portrayed them through full - body makeup and prosthetics, many of those actors in The Hobbit had computer - generated faces in order to portray them. Many of the actors who played Orcs in this trilogy portrayed them through performance capture. Also, motion capture was used in order to be created places as depicted in the film.
The world premiere for The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey took place on 28 November 2012 in Wellington, New Zealand, with the film 's wide release in New Zealand on 12 December. 100,000 people lined the red carpet on Wellington 's Courtenay Place for the premiere. The entire event was also broadcast live on TV3 and streamed over the Internet. Tickets to the film 's midnight screenings in New Zealand sold out within minutes of going on sale, prompting director Peter Jackson to say that the fans who missed out "may get something special '' which could include getting to see the film "possibly even a minute or two before anyone else ''. The film was released on 13 December 2012 in the United Kingdom and 14 December 2012 for some other parts of the world. It has a runtime of 169 minutes (2 hours and 49 minutes). The film grossed over $1 billion at the box office, surpassing both The Fellowship of the Ring and The Two Towers nominally.
The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug premiered on 2 December 2013 in Los Angeles, and was released internationally from 11 December 2013. It grossed over $958 million in box office worldwide. Like the previous installment, it surpassed both The Fellowship of the Ring and The Two Towers in nominal box office performance.
The final film The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies premiered on 11 December 2014 in London, and was released internationally from 12 December 2014. The release for the third film was originally set for an 18 July 2014 release, but was pushed back when X-Men: Days of Future Past, was announced to be released on the same date, as direct competition to the third installment. It grossed over $956 million in worldwide level in box office, and as the previous two films, it surpassed both The Fellowship of the Ring and The Two Towers nominally, although it did n't manage to surpass the previous two films of the series.
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey was released on Blu - ray and DVD in United States on 19 March 2013, and was released in the United Kingdom on 8 April 2013. As of 7 July 2013, DVD / Blu - ray sales in the United States were reported to be around $29,527,413, with almost 3 million units sold. An Extended Edition containing 13 minutes of additional footage and original music was released on DVD and Blu - ray on 5 November 2013 in the US, and on 11 November 2013 in the UK.
The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug was released on DVD and Blu - ray on 7 April 2014 in the United Kingdom and on 8 April 2014 in the United States. An Extended Edition containing 25 minutes of additional footage and original music was released on 3 November 2014 in the UK, and on 4 November 2014 in the US.
The Hobbit: The Battle of The Five Armies was released on Blu - ray and DVD on 23 March 2015 in the United Kingdom and on 24 March in the United States. An Extended Edition of the film containing 20 minutes of additional footage and original music was released on 17 November 2015 in the United States and on 23 November in the United Kingdom.
An Unexpected Journey has won the "Technical Achievement '' award by the Houston Film Critics Society, who also nominated it for "Best Original Song '', the award for "Outstanding Virtual Cinematography '' by the Visual Effects Society, and the Empire Awards for "Best Actor '' and "Best Sci - Fi / Fantasy ''. Among others, the film has also received three Academy Award nominations, a nomination from the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association, four nominations from the Broadcast Film Critics Association, six nominations from the Visual Effects Society, and three nominations from the Phoenix Film Critics Society.
At an industry event screening in April 2012, Peter Jackson showed a ten - minute clip of the film, and the new High Frame Rate 48 fps format received "an underwhelming reaction at best '', while Variety stated that the footage "looked distinctively sharper and more immediate than everything shown before it, giving the 3D smoother movement and crisp sharpness ''. It also reported that it lost "the cinematic glow of the industry - standard 24 fps '' and that "human actors seemed overlit and amplified in a way that many compared to modern sports broadcasts... and daytime television ''. One projectionist complained that "it looked like a made - for - TV movie ''.
Peter Jackson claimed that the poor reception "was n't particularly surprising '' because "it does take you a while to get used to it. Ten minutes is sort of marginal, it probably needed a little bit more ''. However, once the entire film was released, many critics retained their complaints. While many noted the clarity and immediacy of the action scenes, they also criticised the picture quality as "hyper - real, '' clear enough to detect "painted sets '' and "prosthetic noses ''. Some critics did respond positively to the overall effect of the higher frame rate, saying it just takes a while to get used to -- still allowing that the extra clarity can make some scenes look like "actors on a set rather than a scene in a movie ''.
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey was also released in the current 24 fps standard in many theatres, some of which had not yet switched from film to digital projection.
On 6 October 2011, Warner Bros. Consumer Products and U.S. toy company The Bridge Direct announced their partnership on worldwide master toy rights for The Hobbit films. The toy line will include action figures, playsets and role - play accessories like swords and battle axes representing the characters and weapons in the films.
The first wave of toy products hit store shelves in October 2012, ahead of the release of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey. U.S. retailers that carry the toy line include Toys "R '' Us, Kmart, and Walmart. Games Workshop released miniatures from The Hobbit as part of The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game. The company has had rights to produce miniatures from the original book for some years but has not released any lines, save for a stand - alone game based on the Battle of Five Armies, with original designs not related to The Lord of the Rings films.
While a number of companies were vying for The Hobbit deal, Warner Bros. Consumer Products awarded the license to Bridge Direct partly because some of its execs and staffers had worked on The Lord of the Rings toy line during their tenure at other toy companies, including Toy Biz and Play Along. The Bridge Direct, run by toy business veteran Jay Foreman, is best known for toys such as Inkoos activity plush, and the Zhu Zhu Pets plush line.
On 16 December 2011, Warner Bros. Consumer Products and Lego announced the development of figures and play sets based on the upcoming adaptations of The Hobbit as well as The Lord of the Rings. The launch of the Lego The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey was released to coincide with the release of the film adaptation 's first part in December 2012.
Following the expiration in 2008 of Electronic Arts ' license to The Lord of the Rings, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment acquired the rights to develop a video game based on The Hobbit. When Guillermo del Toro was set to direct he had stated that a video game, if it were to be made, would not be released to tie - in with The Hobbit film, but rather after their release. Del Toro had stated that while he would like to be involved in the video game 's creation, making it at the same time as the film would complicate things due to a "tight schedule ''. In October 2011, Warner Bros. confirmed that a Hobbit video game would be released in 2012, before the first film 's release. However, the studio did not confirm whether or not the game would be a tie - in with the film.
Warner Brothers developed two free - to - play online strategy games in collaboration with Kabam for promoting the film series which were The Hobbit: Kingdoms of Middle Earth released for Android and iOS on 8 November 2012 and The Hobbit: Armies of the Third Age playable online on web browsers and as a Facebook app that was released on 21 March 2013.
Monolith Productions developed Guardians of Middle - earth, which was released on 4 December 2012 for PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Network, and 5 December 2012 for Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade. Guardians of Middle - earth delivers a multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game set in Middle - earth and crafted specifically for the console systems. Gamers can play in teams of up to 10 players in strategic five versus five competitive multiplayer battle arenas in the epic setting of Middle - earth. Players can develop and master more than 20 guardians, including Gandalf, Sauron, Gollum and many more, forming memorable and unlikely alliances with and against friends. Gamers can connect via an in - game voice communication system, as well as access a comprehensive online stat and leader board system where they can track friends ' victories and defeats. The game featured tie - ins to the released The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey motion picture which released on 14 December 2012.
On 25 November, Warner Brothers confirmed Lego The Hobbit video game. The game 's levels only took place in the first two films. The game was released 8 April 2014.
Two video games were developed to coincide with the film 's theatrical release.
A tie - in fighting video game was released simultaneously with the film for Android and iOS platforms which received negative reviews from critics and users.
Shadow of Mordor was a critically acclaimed Action - adventure video game released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 & Xbox One in October 2014 and for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on 21 November, nearly a week prior to The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies world premiere in London, on 1 December. The events of the game take place directly after Sauron fled to Mordor, escaping The White Council, which was shown at the beginning of the film. The game was planned to act as an overlap between The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.
In January 2015 a fan going by the name of "TolkienEditor '' recut the three Hobbit films into a single, four - and - a-half - hour film that removed much content that many fans had complained about. Much of this material was seen as superfluous, admittedly added by Jackson at the request of the studio, in order to make the films more appealing to a wider audience.
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where do us citizens need a visa to travel
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Visa Requirements for United States Citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for United States citizens and non-citizen nationals are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of the United States.
As of 19 January 2018, holders of a United States passport could travel to 174 countries and territories without a travel visa, or with visa on arrival, and the United States passport was ranked joint 4th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index.
General visa requirements of sovereign countries towards United States citizens:
Visa requirements for United States citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries not mentioned in the list above, and restricted zones:
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries including Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea and the United States demand all passengers to be fingerprinted on arrival.
Some countries (for example, Canada and United States) routinely deny entry to foreigners who have a criminal record.
The United States Passport Card can be used as an alternative to the booklet passport when travelling to and from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda and many Caribbean islands at sea ports - of - entry or land border crossings.
The APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) is meant to facilitate travel for U.S. citizens engaged in verified business in the APEC region.
The U.S. ABTC will enable access to a dedicated fast - track lane for expedited immigration processing at participating foreign some APEC member airports. U.S. APEC Business Travel Card holders may also use the Global Entry kiosks at participating airports upon their U.S. return. But the U.S. APEC Business Travel Card ca n't be used in lieu of a visa to enter an APEC member country. Other countries ' APEC cards can be used in lieu of visas. But the U.S. has decided not to participate in the visa reciprocity part of the program because the government is unwilling to waive visa interviews. Legislation authorizes the Department of Homeland Security to issue U.S. APEC Business Travel Cards only through Sept. 30, 2018, unless the law is amended to extend that date.
The United States has the most diplomatic missions out of any country in the world. See also List of diplomatic missions of the United States.
The Department of State regularly publishes travel warnings or travel alerts.
These are the numbers of visits by U.S. nationals to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
5,900 2,000 2,700 1,200
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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what is the oldest parade in the united states
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Saint Patrick 's Day in the United States - wikipedia
Saint Patrick 's Day, although a legal holiday only in Suffolk County, Massachusetts (where it is recognized alongside Evacuation Day) and Savannah, Georgia, is nonetheless widely recognized and celebrated throughout the United States. It is primarily celebrated as a recognition of Irish and Irish American culture; celebrations include prominent displays of the color green, eating and drinking, religious observances, and numerous parades. The holiday has been celebrated on the North American continent since the late 18th century.
According to the National Retail Federation, consumers in the United States spent $4.4 billion on St. Patrick 's Day in 2016. This amount is down from the $4.8 billion spent in 2014.
The world 's first recorded St Patrick 's Day celebration was in St. Augustine, Florida, in the year 1600 according to Dr. Michael Franicis 's 2017 research in the Spanish Archives of the Indies. Franicis discovered the first St. Patrick Day Parade was also in St. Augustine in 1601.. Both were organized by the Spanish Colony 's Irish vicar Ricardo Artur (Richard Arthur).
The Charitable Irish Society of Boston organized the first observance of Saint Patrick 's Day in the Thirteen Colonies in 1737. Surprisingly, the celebration was not Catholic in nature, Irish immigration to the colonies having been dominated by Protestants. The society 's purpose in gathering was simply to honor its homeland, and although they continued to meet annually to coordinate charitable works for the Irish community in Boston, they did not meet on 16 March again until 1794. During the observance of the day, individuals attended a service of worship and a special dinner.
New York 's first Saint Patrick 's Day observance was similar to that of Boston. It was held on 16 March 1762 in the home of John Marshall, an Irish Protestant, and over the next few years informal gatherings by Irish immigrants were the norm. The first recorded parade in New York was by Irish soldiers in the British Army in 1766. The first documented St. Patrick 's Day Celebration in Philadelphia was held in 1771. Philadelphia 's Friendly Sons of St. Patrick was found to honor St. Patrick and to provide relief to Irish immigrants in the city. Irish Americans have celebrated St. Patrick 's Day in Philadelphia since their arrival in America. General George Washington, a member of Philadelphia 's Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, actively encouraged Irish American patriots to join the Continental Army. In 1780, while camped in Morristown, NJ, General Washington allowed his troops a holiday on 17 March "as an act of solidarity with the Irish in their fight for independence. '' This event became known as The Saint Patrick 's Day Encampment of 1780.
Irish patriotism in New York City continued to soar, and the parade in New York City continued to grow. Irish aid societies like Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick and the Hibernian Society were created and marched in the parades. Finally when many of these aid societies joined forces in 1848, the parade became not only the largest parade in the United States but one of the largest in the world.
The City of Savannah, Georgia, has hosted Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations since 1824. It boasts a celebration rivaling that of New York City in size and fervor. Unlike any other cities, Savannah 's historic parade is always held on March 17, not on the neighboring weekend. Festivities begin more than a week in advance with communal rituals and commemorative ceremonies, such as the St. Patrick 's Parade. Such events were, in fact, the main factors in shaping Irish - American identity as recognized today. In fact, leading up to the 1870s, Irish - American identity in the United States was reworked through the shifting character of the Saint Patrick 's Day rituals and features under three separate occasions: initially, in 1853 when it undertook a "spiritual rhetoric '' notion, then when it became known as a "reformulated memory of an Irish past couched in terms of vengeance against Britain '' to, finally, adopting a "sectarian catholic nationalism '' attitude in the 1870s and 1880s.
In fact, ceremonies represent the very "junctures at which processes of identity formation surface through representation, '' which implies that ritual practices represent the molding tools people turn to in order to build a national identity. Furthermore, incorporating "the analysis of commemorative rituals '' becomes a valuable element "in the context of broader historical studies '' as such analysis reveals much about the collective conscience of the Irish - American community.
There is a clear gradual shift toward a nationalist attitude in the Irish - American Diaspora which can be detected in the prose of Doheny 's commemorative speech in 1853, but the "complete ascendency to a nationalist (approach) in Irish identity '' truly came in the 1870s and 1880s. More important, there were already numerous evidences of a national identity present in the Irish Catholic labouring classes prior to the settlement of an Irish - Catholic community in America. Despite the longing memory of a loved lost Ireland, the main factor that contributed to creating a clear "sense of group unity '' in the Irish - American community really came with the hatred sentiments that were felt towards "British oppression and resistance ''.
Furthermore, there is a turnover in perspectives towards the causes of the Great famine in the mind of the Irish - American that can be traced: one that varies from a "mourning religious view '', seen in Archbishop Hughes ' sermon, to a perspective that shifts the blame towards the British monarchy for its indifference and greed, seen in Cahill 's speech in 1860. From that point on, all the following commemorative speeches on the Saint Patrick 's Day invoked nationalist themes such as "British hatred '' and "heroic struggle '' and led the way for the creation of a "new parade '' which gained in adherents and absorbed "elements of American patriotism and full - fledged nationalism ''. The end result was such that the Irish - American community came to regard itself in the 1870s as a community that defined itself by dual loyalties on one hand, and in another as "a unified common organism, '' which gathered in strength on the basis that they had a common past, "not a religious one but one that centered on the common Irish experience of British oppression and suffering ''. In other words, this goes to show that the shifting character of commemorative rituals experienced during the Saint Patrick 's parade have influenced the development of American culture in a larger sense, since it contributed to enriching its heritage and making of its Irish - American Diaspora a prideful concept to be celebrated and admired.
In every year since 1991, March has been proclaimed Irish - American Heritage Month by the US Congress or President due to the date of Saint Patrick 's Day. Christian denominations in the United States observing this feast day include the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Protestant Episcopal Church, and the Roman Catholic Church. Today, Saint Patrick 's Day is widely celebrated in America by Irish and non-Irish alike. For most Irish - Americans, this holiday is both religious and festive. It is one of the leading days for consumption of alcohol in the United States, as individuals are allowed to break their Lenten sacrifices for the day in order to celebrate Saint Patrick 's Day. The consumption of artificially colored green beer is a common celebration. Green Beer Day, for instance, is a tradition among students at Miami University (Miami of Ohio), dating to 1952; the day has been held on the Thursday before spring break due to the fact that Saint Patrick 's Day often occurs during the spring recess. The holiday has been criticized for promoting over-indulgence in alcohol, resulting in drunk driving, property damage, absenteeism, public urination and vomiting, and other ill effects. A notable difference between traditions widely observed in the United States versus those of Ireland is the consumption of corned beef, which is not a traditional Irish dish, but rather one that was adopted by the new immigrants upon their arrival in the 19th Century.
Many people choose to wear green colored clothing and items. Traditionally, those who are caught not wearing green are pinched "affectionately ''.
Seattle and other cities paint the traffic stripe of their parade routes green. Chicago dyes its river green and has done so since 1962 when sewer workers used green dye to check for sewer discharges and had the idea to turn the river green for Saint Patrick 's Day. Originally 100 pounds of vegetable dye was used to turn the river green for a whole week but now only forty pounds of dye is used and the color only lasts for several hours. Indianapolis also dyes its main canal green. Savannah dyes its downtown city fountains green. Missouri University of Science and Technology - St Pat 's Board Alumni paint 12 city blocks kelly green with mops before the annual parade. In Jamestown, New York, the Chadakoin River (a small tributary that connects Conewango Creek with its source at Chautauqua Lake) is dyed green each year.
Columbia, South Carolina, dyes its fountain green in the area known as Five Points (a popular collegiate location near the University of South Carolina). A two - day celebration is held over St Patrick 's Day weekend. In Boston, Evacuation Day is celebrated as a public holiday for Suffolk County. While officially commemorating the British departure from Boston, it was made an official holiday after Saint Patrick 's Day parades had been occurring in Boston for several decades and is believed to have been popularized because of its falling on the same day as Saint Patrick 's Day. Since 1992, the participation of gay and lesbian people in the Boston parade has been disputed and this was the subject of the 1995 U.S. Supreme Court case Hurley v. Irish - American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston. The New York parade has experienced a similar controversy since 1991, with boycotts by Mayors Menino and Dinkins, and De Blasio, and Walsh expected to boycott in 2014.
In the Northeastern United States, peas are traditionally planted on Saint Patrick 's Day.
Many parades are held to celebrate the holiday. The longest - running public parades are:
People in Atlanta, Georgia celebrate St. Patrick 's Day by holding a parade that courses through several blocks of a main portion of the city, particularly on Peachtree Street in Midtown Atlanta. In 2012, what was called the largest Irish flag in history was used in Atlanta 's parade. The St. Patrick 's Day parade has been held in Atlanta since 1858. In the 2014 parade, more than 200 units participated from across the South, and as far away as Ireland.
A parade is held the Sunday before St. Patrick 's Day, annually since the 1856, starting at the Washington Monument and ends at Market Place in the Inner Harbor. The Shamrock 5k is held just before the parade starts. There are large events held in the Federal Hill, Canton, Inner Harbor, and Fell 's Point neighborhoods. The parade in Baltimore is the largest in Maryland.
St. Patrick 's Day is indirectly observed as an official holiday in Boston, as it coincides with the official Evacuation Day holiday observed annually since 1901 to commemorate the day in 1776 that British troops ended their occupation of Boston. A large St. Patrick 's Day parade is held in South Boston, Massachusetts. The 3.2 - mile parade route starts at Andrew Square (at Broadway MBTA Red Line stop), at the intersection of Dorchester Avenue and Broadway in South Boston, Massachusetts, and travels Dorchester Street to Telegraph Street looping through Dorchester Heights and then bearing right onto East Fourth Street it continues down to ' P ' Street bearing left onto East Broadway where it ends (at the Andrew MBTA Red Line stop). Major George F.H. Murray of the Ninth Regiment of the Army was the first chief marshal of Boston 's St Patrick 's Day parade in 1901. In 2015 the first gay groups (Boston Pride and OutVets) marched in Boston 's St. Patrick 's Day parade.
The city of Buffalo has two full Saint Patrick 's Day parades. The first is the "Old Neighborhood Parade, '' in its 24th year in 2017, which takes place in the city 's historic Old First Ward in South Buffalo on the Saturday nearest Saint Patrick 's Day (before or after); through 2015, that parade followed a route used by the original Saint Patrick 's Day parades in Buffalo, until crowd concerns and drunken rowdiness forced the city to reroute the parade through wider roads in the First Ward. The older, larger "Buffalo Saint Patrick 's Day Parade '' (in its 75th consecutive year in 2017) also takes place, usually on the day after the Old Neighborhood parade. That parade runs from Niagara Square along Delaware Avenue to North Street. The latter parade is the third largest parade in New York State behind the New York City Parade and the Pearl River Parade.
In addition to the full parades, Talty 's Tavern in South Buffalo also holds a spoof parade that lasts only one block.
Butte Montana 's mining history brought in a large population of Irish immigrants, to the point that Gaelic was spoken as a common language in the mines and Butte had the highest percentage of Irish population of any city in America, including Boston. Today, the city 's population is under 40,000 people, and the annual St. Patrick 's Day celebration brings in roughly 30,000 visitors each year, nearly doubling the city 's population for the day. Butte has a long history of running a parade through the Uptown District of the city and hosting music at a number of venues, including numerous bars, including one featuring booths created from church pews that had been imported from Dublin and a stone imported from County Clare at the door for visitors to touch. Until 2013 there was no open container law in Butte, and the current ordinance only prohibits open containers between 2: 00 am and 8: 00 am. The day 's events have a reputation for rowdy celebrations.
The Irish comprise one of the largest ethnic groups in Chicago. Although the Irish are present throughout the city, the Beverly, Bridgeport, Morgan Park, and Mount Greenwood neighborhoods have had strong Irish - Catholic populations as does the adjacent suburbs of Blue Island, Alsip, Merrionette Park, and Oak Lawn. People on the south side that are of Irish heritage are known as the "South Side Irish, '' and have long had an influential role in the political and economic scene of the city. They even have their own song that features lines pronouncing pride in Irish - American heritage.
The city has many different Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations, the most famous being the dyeing of the Chicago River. Each year, the city hosts a parade downtown, which is preceded by the dyeing of the Chicago River. The dyeing of the river involves thousands of people lining the banks of the river and watching as a boat releases dye into the river and turns the river a kelly green color. The Chicago Journeymen Plumbers Union Local 130 has historically sponsored the river dyeing and know the secret to the dye mix.
Another famous celebration is the South Side Irish parade. This is known as more of a celebration by those of Irish heritage rather than a popular activity attended by people of all heritages like the downtown celebration has been known. This parade features traditional Irish dancers, as well as various businesses and organisations from around the city. This parade has been scaled back in recent years as the Saint Patrick 's Day committee announced that it was becoming too large for the community to handle. In 2010, the South Side Parade was suspended. Due in part to pressure from community businesses -- particularly pubs and package goods stores -- as well as local churches on the city, the parade was reinstated in 2012. Of the various St. Patrick 's Day parades in Chicago, the South Side parade tries to be family friendly and currently has a zero tolerance policy for public alcohol consumption while attending the parade.
The Chicago White Sox baseball team, who play on the South side, are known for their "Halfway to Saint Patrick 's Day '' promotion held in September, when the team wears white jerseys with green pinstripes and caps, in lieu of the usual black.
As Ohio 's largest and oldest St. Patrick 's Day celebration, Cleveland has honored its Irish heritage with an annual Saint Patrick 's Day parade first begun in 1842. The parade always occurs on March 17, no matter the day of the week. Originally held in the city 's nearby westside neighborhoods, where a higher percentage of the population was of Irish descent, the parade route today runs along Superior Avenue, downtown, from East 18th Street to Public Square.
In recent years, over 15,000 registered participants march in the parade and display their floats in front of hundreds of thousands of spectators. A new record attendance was set in 2012 with over 500,000 people.
As part of the parade ceremonies, a Grand Marshal is annually chosen to preside over the procession. This is an honorary title given to a man "usually in his senior years, who has contributed significantly to the advancement of the Irish Activities in Cleveland. '' This recognition has been part of the parade since 1935, while "Mother of the Year '' was established as a distinguished position since 1963.
Each year Saint Patrick 's in Five Points welcomes over 40,000 people living the luck of the Irish and celebrating all things Gaelic. Continually growing and improving, the festival includes a 10K and 5K run, a fun - filled parade, family entertainment, Irish food and craft offerings, child attraction, the Pot O ' Gold Playland, a swinging shag dance exhibition and DJ throwdown, as well as five outdoor stages with live music hosting over 25 musical acts.
The city of Dallas, Texas has held a Saint Patrick 's Day parade since 1979 down Greenville Avenue. It is the largest celebration in the city. It was almost canceled in 2012 due to rising costs, but was saved by local resident billionaire Mark Cuban.
St. Patrick 's Day was first formally celebrated in Detroit in 1808. The current parade, sponsored by the United Irish Societies, began in 1959. It is held in Detroit 's Corktown neighborhood, named after the its Irish residents who primarily immigrated from County Cork.
The "World 's Smallest Saint Patrick 's Day Parade '' occurs in Enterprise, Alabama, each year. A person of Irish descent, generally dressed in festive garb and carrying a large Irish flag, is the only person in the parade. He, or she, walks one block from the courthouse to the Boll Weevil Monument and back to the courthouse. The parade is reported by local and national news.
The New Jersey city of Hoboken has held an annual Saint Patrick 's Day parade since 1986. The parade takes place at 1 pm and marches down Washington Street from 14th Street to 1st Street.
Over the years, there has been much controversy surrounding the public intoxication during this event. The city has issued a zero tolerance policy, and has been enacting $2,000 minimum fines for any alcohol - related offence.
This western Massachusetts factory town was the site of massive Irish immigration in the 19th century and hosts a parade its organizers claim is the second largest in the United States. It is scheduled on the Sunday following Saint Patrick 's Day each year. Attendance exceeds 300,000, with over 25,000 marchers through a 2.3 - mile route in the city of 40,000. A 10K road race and many events create a remarkable festival weekend. Each year an Irish - American who has distinguished himself or herself in his or her chosen profession is awarded the John F. Kennedy National Award. JFK was a National Award Winner in the 1958 Holyoke Parade. Other winners include author Tom Clancy, Homeland Security Director Tom Ridge, and actor Pat O'Brien
The Hot Springs, Arkansas, parade is among world 's shortest and is held annually on historic Bridge Street, designated "The Shortest Street in the World '' in the 1940s by Ripley 's Believe It or Not. The street is 98 feet long, making it suitable for the shortest Saint Patrick 's Day parade in the world.
Mal 's St. Paddy 's Parade in downtown Jackson started in 1983 and has grown each year. The parade is the brainchild of Jackson entrepreneur Malcolm White, who is now the executive director of the Mississippi Arts Commission. For years, a highlight of the parade was the Sweet Potato Queens, who started a separate parade in 2011 because their ranks of marchers had grown too numerous.
The Southern Nevada (formerly Las Vegas) Sons and Daughters of Erin have put on a parade since 1966. It was formerly held on Fremont Street in downtown Las Vegas, later moved to 4th Street. Since 2005, the parade has been held in downtown Henderson. It is the biggest parade in the state of Nevada with over 100 entries. The celebration includes a three - day festival, carnival and classic car show in Old Town Henderson.
Maryville, Missouri, home of Northwest Missouri State University, annually holds a parade sponsored by The Palms Bar and Grill that has been recognised by the Guinness Book of World Records as the shortest Saint Patrick 's Day parade. It runs approximately 1 / 2 of a block.
Historically the largest entry port for Irish immigrants in the US South, New Orleans has maintained a large population of Irish heritage. The earliest record of Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations in the city is 1809. Saint Patrick 's Day traditions going back to the 19th century continue, including multiple block parties and parades.
The New Orleans parades are mostly based around neighborhood and community organizations. Major parades include the Irish Channel parade, the Downtown Irish Parade starting in the Bywater neighborhood, multiple parades in the French Quarter, and a combined Irish - Italian Parade celebrating both Saint Patrick 's Day and Saint Joseph 's Day. As with many parades in New Orleans, the influence of Mardi Gras is apparent, with some of the floats being reused from local Carnival parades, and beads and trinkets being thrown to those along the parade route. New Orleans Saint Patrick 's Day parades are also famous for throwing onions, carrots, cabbages, potatoes, and other ingredients for making an Irish stew.
Various suburbs and surrounding communities also hold celebrations, including parades in Metairie, Slidell, and an Irish Italian Isleño Parade in Chalmette.
The New York parade not only has become the largest Saint Patrick 's Day parade in the world but is also one of the oldest civilian parades in the world. In a typical year, 150,000 marchers participate in it, including bands, firefighters, military and police groups, county associations, emigrant societies and social and cultural clubs with two million spectators line the streets. The parade marches up the 1.5 - mile route along 5th Avenue in Manhattan, is a five - hour procession, and is always led by the 69th Infantry Regiment (New York). The commissioner of the parade always asks the commanding officer if the 69th is ready, to which the response is, "The 69th is always ready. '' New York politicians -- or those running for office -- are always found prominently marching in the parade. Former New York City Mayor Ed Koch (who was of Jewish ethnicity) once proclaimed himself "Ed O'Koch '' for the day, and he continued to don an Irish sweater and march every year up until 2003, even though he was no longer in office.
For many years the parade banned gay groups, saying groups could not display banners identifying their sexuality. On September 3, 2014, the organizers of the parade announced a decision to lift the ban on gay groups, saying they preferred to keep the parade non-political and the ban was having the opposite effect. In 2015 OUT@NBCUniversal, an organization of gay employees of NBCUniversal, became the first gay group to march in the parade.
In 1989 Dorothy Hayden Cudahy became the first female Grand Marshal of the New York City Saint Patrick 's Day Parade; in 1984 she had become the first woman, as well as the first American - born person, to be elected president of the County Kilkenny Association.
The New York parade is moved to the previous Saturday (16 March) in years where 17 March is a Sunday. The event also has been moved on the rare occasions when, due to Easter 's falling on a very early date, 17 March would land in Holy Week. This same scenario arose again in 2008, when Easter fell on 23 March, but the festivities occurred on their normal date and were enjoyed by a record number of viewers. In many other American cities (such as Philadelphia), the parade is always held on the Sunday before 17 March, regardless of the liturgical calendar.
Omaha 's "Stockyards '' opened in 1883 and was once considered the largest livestock market in the world. This led to many ethnic groups ' settling in the surrounded area, one of which is Irish. The Irish were the third largest ethnic group in South Omaha in the 20th century. Today the Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH) Sarpy County Division 's St. Patrick 's Day Parade has more than 130 entries and lasts more than 90 minutes as it snakes through downtown and the Old Market.
Pearl River attracts a crowd of 100,000 people, making it the second largest parade in New York state behind the New York City Parade. The parade started in 1963.
The St. Patrick Society sponsors a St. Patrick 's Day Parade and Party on March 17 of each year. The Parade participants march along the designated parade route through downtown Peoria. Awards are presented in the following parade categories: Business Entries, Family Entries, and Organizational Entries. The Parade route ends near the designated site of the family - focused St. Patrick 's Day Party where families (Irish Clans) meet and enjoy Irish Music, Irish Dance and Irish refreshments.
St. Patrick 's Day in Pittsburgh is consistently ranked as one of the biggest and best St. Patrick 's Day celebrations in the United States. The parade in Pittsburgh dates back to 1869 and continues to draw record numbers of people out to celebrate as over 23,000 march in the parade which attracts almost 500,000 out to party. The city basically shuts down for the day to celebrate as the downtown area and many of the cities bridges and tunnels are filled with patrons heading out for the day 's festivities. Pittsburgh also has one of the highest percentage of its population that identifies as Irish (over 13.5 %) as any city in the U.S.
One of the largest in the nation, the St. Patrick 's Day parade in Philadelphia is held on the Sunday before every St. Patrick 's Day, and began there in 1771. Prior to the first parade, the Irish were already celebrating St. Patrick 's Day in Philadelphia. Before the America republic was founded, Irishmen came together in 1771 to pay honor to Ireland 's patron as founding members of the Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick for the relief of Emigrants from Ireland. George Washington, who has encouraged the many Irish soldiers under his command during the American Revolution to fete St. Patrick 's Day, was an honorary member of this society. The designation of March 17 as a day of special observance was a very early Philadelphia custom.
In 2013, the parade included about 20,000 participants in more than 150 groups. Participants included marching bands, youth groups, music dance groups, Irish associations, float riders and operators, and flag carriers. After years of being on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway in Central Philadelphia, the 2017 parade route started at John F. Kennedy Boulevard and 16th Street. It then continues its approach to Philadelphia City Hall, goes down 15th Street around City Hall to approach Market Street. It then goes down Market past Independence Hall and reaches its conclusion at Penn 's Landing.
A large Irish population in this cluster of Midwestern cities hosts an impressive St. Patrick 's Day parade. It is "the only bi-state St. Patrick 's Day Parade in the USA '', according to the St. Patrick 's Day Society of the Quad Cities (http://www.stpatsqc.com/GrandParade.htm), crossing the Centennial Bridge from Rock Island, Illinois into Davenport, Iowa. Being so close to Chicago, this parade still gathers around 200,000 annually on its historical parade route. Some travel experts have labeled it as one of the top St. Patrick 's Day parades in North America. Much of this is due to the unique nature and small town hospitality you get in the Quad Cities. The whole area combined is a population of around 350,000, with Davenport being the largest city at just under 100,000.
Rolla is home to the Missouri University of Science & Technology (formerly known as University of Missouri - Rolla, and Missouri School of Mines), an engineering college. Inasmuch as Saint Patrick is the patron saint of engineers, the school and town 's celebrations start ten days before Saint Patrick 's Day, with a downtown parade held the Saturday before Saint Patrick 's. A royal court is crowned, and the streets in the city 's downtown area are painted solid green. Each year 's celebrations are said to be "The Best Ever. '' In 2008, Rolla celebrated its "100th Annual Best Ever Saint Patrick 's Day 2008 '' celebration.
In previous years, a pit of green liquid was made by students as part of the festivities, and named ' Alice ' -- stepping into Alice was a rite of bravery. In recent years the university faculty has banned the practice out of health concerns.
San Diego 's 2015 St. Patrick 's Day Parade and Festival is the 35th Anniversary of the largest St. Patrick 's Day Parade west of the Mississippi. Lasting two hours and featuring over 120 entries, the theme for the day is "Celebrating Faith and Freedom '' as designated by the Irish Congress of Southern California (ICSC). Enjoyed by more than 30,000, the St. Patrick 's Day Parade and Festival includes three performance stages, a Kid 's Zone, a Celtic Village, dozens of crafts and food booths, two beer gardens hosted by Guinness. Held in Balboa Park, the event was founded by James Foley who had helped organize the St. Patrick 's Day Parade in Hartford, Connecticut before he and his wife, Pat, moved to San Diego to open the Blarney Stone Pub.
There has been a Saint Patrick 's Day celebration in San Francisco since 1852. San Francisco has always had a large Irish American population and for many decades Irish Americans were the largest ethnic group in San Francisco. However, as of the early 21st century, the largest ethnic group in San Francisco is Chinese Americans and most of the Irish Americans have moved to the suburban parts of the San Francisco Bay Area. Each year, however, Irish from all over the San Francisco Bay Area come into San Francisco to march in or to see the Saint Patrick 's Day parade march down Market Street, held the Sunday before Saint Patrick 's Day. Numerous people from all ethnic groups can be seen wearing green in San Francisco on Saint Patrick 's Day.
The annual Saint Patrick 's Day celebration includes a 5K Fun Run and Walk, a pancake breakfast, a festival, and a parade. The parade is popular with residents and visitors from outside Dublin alike, and has been growing in popularity each year. It is sponsored by the Dublin Host Lions Club and features bands and colorful floats. The Dublin firefighters sponsor the pancake breakfast, and tours of the firehouse are popular with children. The festival continues all weekend, and features food, games, kiddie rides, arts & crafts, and information about local organizations. The festival had been held near the end of the parade route in Shamrock Village on Amador Valley Blvd., but was relocated to the Civic Center on Dublin Blvd., in 2007, moving it closer to the growing population in the eastern part of Dublin.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin,_California#Saint_Patrick.27s_Day_Celebration
One of the largest parades is held in Savannah, Georgia. The parade held in Savannah is the largest in Georgia. Many Irish settled in Savannah even in the earliest years since those freed from debtors ' prison were invited to join General James Oglethorpe 's fledging colony. There is a Mass at the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist prior to the parade. In the early 1960s, there was an attempt to dye the Savannah River green, but all it produced was an irregular green stripe in the middle of the river. In 2006, the Tánaiste was featured in the parade. The parade travels through Savannah 's Historic District.
Some confusion exists about the year of the first Saint Patrick 's Day parade in Savannah. There is some evidence that a private parade was held by "an unidentified group '' referred to as "Fencibles '' on 17 March 1813. Another source states that the first St. Patrick 's Day celebration in Savannah was held in 1818. However, it is generally accepted that the first publicly held Saint Patrick 's Day procession was in 1824, organized by the Hibernian Society.
The 2012 Parade included over 360 participants making it the largest parade in the history of the City of Savannah. Organizers say that the 2012 crowd was well over a million people.
Due to the rich history of Scranton participation in Saint Patrick 's Day festivities it is one of the oldest parades in the United States. It has been going on annually since 1862 by the Saint Patrick 's Day Parade Association of Lackawanna County and the parade has got attention nationally as being one of the better Saint Patrick 's Day parades. The parade route begins on Wyoming Avenue and loops up to Penn Avenue and then Lackawanna Avenue before going back down over Jefferson Avenue to get to Washington Avenue. Since 1962 the St. Patrick 's Parade Day Association of Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, has conducted this nationally acclaimed parade the weekend before the feast of St. Patrick.
Seattle Washington 's Saint Patrick 's Day Parade, recognized by CNN in 2009 as one of the "Five places to get your green on '' in America, travels along a 1 - mile route through the Emerald City 's downtown financial and retail core the Saturday before Saint Patrick 's Day. Seattle 's Saint Patrick 's Day Celebration is the largest and oldest in the Northwestern United States. In 2009, some 20,000 spectators and groups from throughout the Northwest turned out for the city 's Irish shenanigans. Along with the annual "Laying ' O the Green '' where Irish revellers mark the path of the next morning 's procession with a mile - long green stripe, the Seattle parade marks the high - point of Seattle 's Irish Week festivities. The week - long civic celebration organized by the city 's Irish Heritage Club (4) includes the annual Society of the Friends of Saint Patrick Dinner where a century - old Irish Shillelagh has been passed to the group 's new president for 70 years, an Irish Soda Bread Baking Contest, a Mass for Peace that brings together Catholics and others in a Protestant church, and the annual Irish Week Festival, which takes place around Saint Patrick 's Day is enormous, including step dancing, food, historical and modern exhibitions, and Irish lessons. Many celebrities of Irish descent visit Seattle during its Saint Patrick 's Day Celebration. In 2010 The Right Honorable Desmond Guinness, a direct descendant of Guinness Brewery founder Arthur Guinness, will serve as the parade 's grand marshal. In 2009, The Tonight Show 's Conan O'Brien made a guest appearance at the annual Mayor 's Proclamation Luncheon at local Irish haunt F.X. McCrory 's. And in 2008, European Union Ambassador to the US and former Irish Prime Minister John Bruton served as the parade 's grand marshal and marched alongside Tom Costello, the mayor of Galway, Seattle 's Irish sister city. Spokane, in eastern Washington, also hosts a Saint Patrick 's Day Parade.
In the city of Syracuse, NY, Saint Patrick 's celebrations are traditionally begun with the delivery of green beer to Coleman 's Irish Pub on the last Sunday of February. Coleman 's is located in the Tipperary Hill section of the city. Tipperary Hill is home to the World - famous "Green - on - Top '' Traffic Light and is historically the Irish section in Syracuse. Saint Patrick 's Day is rung in at midnight with the painting of a Shamrock under the Green - Over-Red traffic light. Syracuse boasts the largest Saint Patrick 's Day celebration per - capita in the United States with their annual Syracuse Saint Patrick 's Parade, founded by Nancy Duffy, an honoured journalist in the Central New York area and an active community leader, and Daniel F. Casey, a local Irishman and businessman. "The parade remains a major annual event, typically drawing an estimated crowd of more than 100,000 visitors to downtown Syracuse, as well as 5,000 to 6,000 marchers. ''
The Tallahassee Irish Society has been hosting an annual Saint Patrick 's Day event in Tallahassee since 1999. In 2010, along with the City of Tallahassee, the first annual Saint Patrick 's Day parade and Downtown Get Down is being hosted along Adams Street.
A one - day music festival with a parade called National ShamrockFest has been held in Washington, D.C. each year since 2000 in association with Saint Patrick 's Day. Approximately 40,000 people attend each year.
The St. Patrick 's Parade of Washington, D.C. was first held in 1971. The parade route runs down Constitution Avenue from 7th to 17th Streets, N.W and features marching bands, pipe bands, Irish dance schools, military, police, and fire departments, as well as floats and novelty groups.
The Worcester County St. Patrick 's Day Parade has been held annually on the Sunday before St. Patrick 's Day since 1983. The parade route runs along Park Avenue, beginning at Mill St. and ending at Elm Park. The parade can often see crowds of over 100,000 people.
Although Major League Baseball is still in its preseason spring training phase when Saint Patrick 's Day rolls around, some teams celebrate by wearing holiday - themed uniforms. The Cincinnati Reds were the first team to wear Saint Patrick 's Day hats in 1978. The Philadelphia Phillies hold the distinction of being the first baseball team to wear green uniforms on Saint Patricks Day. The tradition was started by Phillies pitcher Tug McGraw, who dyed his uniform green the night before March 17, 1981. Along with the Phillies, many other teams have since started wearing Saint Patrick 's day themed jerseys, including the Boston Red Sox in 2004, who were also the second team to wear Saint Patrick 's Day hats in 1990; the green uniforms have also been worn twice during the regular season, in 2007 and 2008, as a tribute to the NBA 's Boston Celtics, whose primary color is green. Since then it has become a tradition of many sports teams to also wear special uniforms to celebrate the holiday. The Los Angeles Dodgers also have a history with the Irish - American community. With the O'Malley family owning the team and more recently Frank McCourt, the Dodgers have had team celebrations or worn green jerseys on Saint Patrick 's Day. The Detroit Tigers and Philadelphia Phillies also wear Saint Patrick 's Day caps and jerseys. Other teams celebrate by wearing kelly green hats. These teams include: the Chicago Cubs, the Chicago White Sox, the New York Mets, the San Diego Padres, the Atlanta Braves, the Pittsburgh Pirates, the Kansas City Royals, the Seattle Mariners and the St. Louis Cardinals. The Washington Nationals have fan green hat day on 17 September to represent 6 months to Saint Patrick 's Day. The White Sox belatedly celebrate Saint Patrick 's Day every second week of September by wearing a variation of their pinstriped home uniforms, featuring green instead of black, as part of their "Halfway to St. Patrick 's '' promotion.
Nearly all Major League Baseball teams now produce Saint Patrick 's Day merchandise, including Kelly green hats, jerseys, and T - shirts.
Four National Basketball Association teams adopt their third jerseys exclusively for Saint Patrick 's Day (or Saint Patrick 's Day week). During Saint Patrick 's Day week, the Boston Celtics, whose road jersey is green, wear their gold / green jerseys, the Chicago Bulls wear their black / green alternate jersey which was introduced in the 2005 -- 06 season, and the Toronto Raptors wear their black / green alternate jerseys which was introduced during the 2007 -- 08 season. During Saint Patrick 's Day games, the New York Knicks wear their green / orange alternate, which they adopted in the 2005 -- 06 season, but in the 2009 -- 10 season, they adopted it for both March 17 and Christmas (the league makes a conscious effort to schedule games between teams with green uniforms and red uniforms on the holiday).
The practice is not present in college basketball, due to the holiday being largely overshadowed by Championship Week and the subsequent NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, NIT and lesser tournaments.
The New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League traditionally wear their throwback uniforms, which include green in the color scheme (green was removed from the Devils ' uniforms in 1992), on Saint Patrick 's Day and did so for their 2010 and 2012 games against the Pittsburgh Penguins. They also wore them, albeit belatedly, on March 18, 2011 against the Washington Capitals; the Devils played a road game on March 17. Although the Devils, Dallas Stars and Minnesota Wild (the last two of which have green in their regular color schemes) are the only U.S. - based teams to wear green on ice, the league has offered a line of holiday - themed gear to its fans in recent years. The Buffalo Sabres also donned green and white Irish - inspired practice jerseys (complete with insular script for the names and captain designations) prior to their March 16, 2014, March 17, 2015 and March 17, 2018 games (the team switched to their regular gold third jerseys prior to the games themselves); the jerseys were auctioned off for charity after each game. In recent years, many minor - league hockey teams have chosen to wear special commemorative green Jerseys to mark the occasion.
The Buffalo Bandits of the National Lacrosse League (like the NHL 's Sabres, owned by Terrence Pegula) introduced a special black - and - green third jersey on their Saint Patrick 's Day 2012 game, which was likewise auctioned off for charity.
The only other major American sport, football, is out of season during the Saint Patrick 's Day holiday. The National Football League does sell Saint Patrick 's Day merchandise for its teams, however.
The Saint Patrick 's Day Test (also known as the Donnybrook Cup) is an international rugby league football match played between the United States and Ireland. The competition was first started in 1995 with Ireland winning the first two tests with the US winning the last 4 in 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2004. The game is usually held on or around 17 March to coincide with Saint Patrick 's Day.
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ubi caritas et amor deus ibi est translation
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Ubi caritas - wikipedia
Ubi caritas is a hymn of the Western Church, long used as one of the antiphons for the washing of feet on Maundy Thursday. The Gregorian melody was composed sometime between the fourth and tenth centuries, though some scholars believe the text dates from early Christian gatherings before the formalization of the Mass. It is usually sung at Eucharistic Adoration and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament and on Holy Thursday evening at the Mass of the Lord 's Supper. The current Roman Catholic Missal (1970, 3rd typical edition 2000) reassigned it from the foot - washing mandatum to the offertory procession at the Holy Thursday Mass of the Lord 's Supper, and it also is found in current Anglican and Lutheran hymnals.
In the second typical edition (1975) of the current Roman Missal, the antiphonal response was altered to read "Ubi caritas est vera, Deus ibi est, '' after certain very early manuscripts. This translates as: "Where charity is true, God is there. ''
In 1960, a translation, "Where Charity and Love Prevail '', was copyrighted, set to the hymn tune CHRISTIAN LOVE in common metre; Dom Paul Benoit, OSB adapted this tune from the chant tune for Veni redemptor gentium. The Taizé chant by Jacques Berthier (1978) uses only the words of the refrain, with verses taken from I Corinthians 13: 2 - 8. Maurice Duruflé 's choral setting makes use of the Gregorian melody, using only the words of the refrain and the first stanza. Paul Halley combined phrases of the original chant melody sung in Latin with other songs in the track Ubi caritas on his 1991 album Angel on a Stone Wall.
More recent versions of the hymn for choir have been composed by David Conte, Stephen DeCesare, Ola Gjeilo, and University of Aberdeen professor Paul Mealor. Mealor 's setting, entitled "Ubi Caritas et Amor, '' was included in the ceremony at the 2011 Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton.
Maurice Duruflé set the prayer in Latin as No. 1 of his Quatre Motets sur des thèmes grégoriens.
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walking dead season 8 last episode air date
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The Walking Dead (season 8) - Wikipedia
The eighth season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 22, 2017, and concluded on April 15, 2018, consisting of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The executive producers are Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple as showrunner for his fifth and final season. The eighth season has received positive reviews from critics.
This season adapts material from issues # 115 -- 126 of the comic book series and focuses on Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), his group of survivors and everyone at the Alexandria Safe - Zone, the Hilltop, the Kingdom, and later the Scavengers going to war with Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan) and the Saviors.
The eighth season features twenty series regulars overall. For this season, Katelyn Nacon, Khary Payton, Steven Ogg, and Pollyanna McIntosh were promoted to series regular status, after previously having recurring roles, while Seth Gilliam and Ross Marquand were added to the opening credits.
The Walking Dead was renewed by AMC for a 16 - episode eighth season on October 16, 2016. Production began on April 25, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia. On July 12, 2017, production was shut down after stuntman John Bernecker was killed, after falling more than 20 feet onto a concrete floor. Production resumed on July 17.
The season premiere, which also serves as the series ' milestone 100th episode, was directed by executive producer Greg Nicotero.
In November 2017, it was announced that Lennie James who portrays Morgan Jones, would be leaving The Walking Dead after the conclusion of this season, and he will join the cast of the spin - off series Fear the Walking Dead.
The first trailer for the season was released on July 21, 2017 at the San Diego Comic - Con. The second trailer was released on February 1, 2018 for the second part of the season.
On March 15, 2018, it was announced that the season finale and the fourth season premiere of Fear the Walking Dead would be screened at AMC, Regal, and Cinemark theaters across the United States on April 15, the same day as the TV airing, for "Survival Sunday: The Walking Dead & Fear the Walking Dead ''. The episodes marked the first crossover between the two series. The cinema screening also included an extra half - hour of exclusive bonus content.
The eighth season of The Walking Dead has received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a score of 71 % with an average rating of 6.94 out of 10, based on 13 reviews, and an average episode score 72 %. The site 's critical consensus reads: "The Walking Dead 's eighth season energizes its characters with some much - needed angst and action, though it 's still occasionally choppy and lacking forward - moving plot progression. ''
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
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when do joey and chandler move back to their apartment
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Friends (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Friends, an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, premiered on NBC on September 25, 1997. Friends was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The season contains 24 episodes and concluded airing on May 7, 1998. It was one of three seasons included on TV Guide 's list of the Top 100 TV Seasons.
Phoebe does n't know what to do when Frank Jr. visits with his new wife and asks her to carry their child. She visits her birth mother who tells her it is n't a good idea. To support this, she gives Phoebe a puppy, but only for three days to prove it will be hard to give it up. Phoebe decides she will carry their baby because when it 's over, they will be so happy, making Phoebe feel good. Meanwhile, Monica teaches Chandler the secrets of a woman 's seven erogenous zones, for which Kathy is extremely grateful.
Phoebe 's uterus is examined for implantation of the embryos. A seemingly harmless game between the guys and the girls escalates into a full - blown contest to see which pair knows more personal data about the other. The guys end up betting the chick and the duck, and the girls end up betting their apartment. When the guys win, Rachel tells them that it was just a game but the guys continue to move in. At the end, Phoebe tells everyone she 's pregnant.
50th Primetime Emmy Awards
14th TCA Awards
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4. describe the csma/cd and csma/ca processes
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Carrier - sense multiple access with collision detection - wikipedia
Carrier - sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA / CD) is a media access control method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking. It uses carrier - sensing to defer transmissions until no other stations are transmitting. This is used in combination with collision detection in which a transmitting station detects collisions by sensing transmissions from other stations while it is transmitting a frame. When this collision condition is detected, the station stops transmitting that frame, transmits a jam signal, and then waits for a random time interval before trying to resend the frame.
CSMA / CD is a modification of pure carrier - sense multiple access (CSMA). CSMA / CD is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating transmission as soon as a collision is detected, thus shortening the time required before a retry can be attempted.
The following procedure is used to initiate a transmission. The procedure is complete when the frame is transmitted successfully or a collision is detected during transmission.
Methods for collision detection are media dependent. On a shared, electrical bus such as 10BASE5 or 10BASE2, collisions can be detected by comparing transmitted data with received data or by recognizing a higher than normal signal amplitude on the bus. On all other media, a carrier sensed on the receive channel while transmitting triggers a collision event. Repeaters or hubs detect collisions on their own and propagate jam signals.
The following procedure is used to resolve a detected collision. The procedure is complete when retransmission is initiated or the retransmission is aborted due to numerous collisions.
This can be likened to what happens at a dinner party, where all the guests talk to each other through a common medium (the air). Before speaking, each guest politely waits for the current speaker to finish. If two guests start speaking at the same time, both stop and wait for short, random periods of time (in Ethernet, this time is measured in microseconds). The hope is that by each choosing a random period of time, both guests will not choose the same time to try to speak again, thus avoiding another collision.
The jam signal or jamming signal is a signal that carries a 32 - bit binary pattern sent by a data station to inform the other stations of the collision and that they must not transmit.
The maximum jam - time is calculated as follows: The maximum allowed diameter of an Ethernet installation is limited to 232 bits. This makes a round - trip - time of 464 bits. As the slot time in Ethernet is 512 bits, the difference between slot time and round - trip - time is 48 bits (6 bytes), which is the maximum "jam - time ''.
This in turn means: A station noting a collision has occurred is sending a 4 to 6 byte long pattern composed of 16 1 - 0 bit combinations. Note: The size of this jam signal is clearly beyond the minimum allowed frame - size of 64 bytes.
The purpose of this is to ensure that any other node which may currently be receiving a frame will receive the jam signal in place of the correct 32 - bit MAC CRC, this causes the other receivers to discard the frame due to a CRC error.
A late collision is a type of collision that happens further into the packet than is allowed for by the protocol standard in question. In 10 megabit shared medium Ethernet, if a collision error occurs after the first 512 bits of data are transmitted by the transmitting station, a late collision is said to have occurred. Importantly, late collisions are not re-sent by the NIC unlike collisions occurring before the first 64 octets; it is left for the upper layers of the protocol stack to determine that there was loss of data.
As a correctly set up CSMA / CD network link should not have late collisions, the usual possible causes are full - duplex / half - duplex mismatch, exceeded Ethernet cable length limits, or defective hardware such as incorrect cabling, non-compliant number of hubs in the network, or a bad NIC.
The channel capture effect is a phenomenon where one user of a shared medium "captures '' the medium for a significant time. During this period (usually 16 frames), other users are denied use of the medium. This effect was first seen in networks using CSMA / CD on Ethernet. Because of this effect, the most data - intense connection dominates the multiple - access wireless channel. This happens in Ethernet links because of the way nodes "back off '' from the link and attempt to re-access it. In the Ethernet protocol, when a communication collision happens (when two users of the medium try to send at the same time), each user waits for a random period of time before re-accessing the link. However, a user will wait ("back off '') for a random amount of time proportional to the number of times it has successively tried to access the link. The channel capture effect happens when one user continues to "win '' the link.
For example, user A and user B both try to access a quiet link at the same time. Since they detect a collision, user A waits for a random time between 0 and 1 time units and so does user B. Let 's say user A chooses a lower back - off time. User A then begins to use the link and B allows it to finish sending its frame. If user A still has more to send, then user A and user B will cause another data collision. A will once again choose a random back - off time between 0 and 1, but user B will choose a back - off time between 0 and 3 -- because this is his second time colliding in a row. Chances are A will "win '' this one again. If this continues, A will most likely win all the collision battles, and after 16 collisions (the number of tries before a user backs down for an extended period of time), user A will have "captured '' the channel.
The ability of one node to capture the entire medium is decreased as the number of nodes increases. This is because as the number of nodes increases, there is a higher probability that one of the "other '' nodes will have a lower back - off time than the capturing node.
The channel capture effect creates a situation where one station is able to transmit while others are continually backing off, thus leading to a situation of short - term unfairness. Yet, the situation is long - term fair because every station has the opportunity to "capture '' the medium once one station is done transmitting. The efficiency of the channel is increased when one node has captured the channel.
A negative side effect of the capture effect would be the idle time created due to stations backing off. Once one station is finished transmitting on the medium, large idle times are present because all other stations were continually backing off. In some instances, back - off can occur for so long that some stations actually discard packets because maximum attempt limits have been reached.
CSMA / CD was used in now - obsolete shared media Ethernet variants (10BASE5, 10BASE2) and in the early versions of twisted - pair Ethernet which used repeater hubs. Modern Ethernet networks, built with switches and full - duplex connections, no longer need to use CSMA / CD because each Ethernet segment, or collision domain, is now isolated. CSMA / CD is still supported for backwards compatibility and for half - duplex connections. The IEEE 802.3 standard, which defines all Ethernet variants, for historical reasons still bears the title "Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA / CD) access method and physical layer specifications '' until 802.3 - 2008, which uses new name "IEEE Standard for Ethernet ''.
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a journey to the beginning of time (1955)
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Journey to the Beginning of time - wikipedia
Journey to the Beginning of Time (Czech: Cesta do pravěku, literally "Journey into prehistory '') is a 1955 Czechoslovak children 's science fiction feature film directed by Karel Zeman. Produced using a combination of 2 - D and 3 - D models, it was the first of Zeman 's productions to include actors in conjunction with stop - motion and special effects, and won awards at the International Film Festivals of Venice and Mannheim. The documentary - type nature of the film showing extinct animal species behaving naturally in their own environments was most unusual for its era and foreshadowed many later TV productions that would depict prehistoric life for educational rather than purely entertainment purposes. Cesta do pravěku should not be confused with a dubbed and partly re-filmed US version of the film that was released in 1966 under the title Journey to the Beginning of Time.
Journey to the Beginning of Time is according to server Kinobox the best Czech science fiction film of all time.
The story involves four teenage friends who take a rowboat along a "river of time '' that flows into a mysterious cave and emerges on the other side onto a strange, primeval landscape. The boy actors were Josef Lukáš (Petr, the main narrator), Petr Herrmann (Toník, who also narrates in part), Zdeněk Husták (Jenda), and Vladimír Bejval (Jirka). As they make their way upstream, they realise that they are travelling progressively farther back in time, and face various perils as they do so (but learn much about prehistoric life in the process). The animals depicted in Cesta do pravěku were never shown interacting with animals of other periods and it is assumed that different parts of the river represented distinct time periods. The plot is somewhat similar to that of the novel Plutonia (1915) by the Russian palaeontologist Vladimir Obruchev, in which a team of Russian explorers enter the Earth 's crust via an Arctic portal (a huge depression in the Earth surface created many millions of years previously by the impact of a giant asteroid, into which prehistoric animals had entered), and follow a river that leads them through a sequence of past geological eras and associated animal life. Some scenes in Cesta do pravěku recall Arthur Conan Doyle 's 1912 novel The Lost World, with four male protagonists exploring a prehistoric world where they find evidence of native human habitation, are attacked by a group of enraged pterosaurs, witness a twilight fight between a carnivorous dinosaur and a herbivorous one, encounter a Stegosaurus up - close, and see one of their members (Petr) pursued by a Phorusrhacos.
Zeman 's use of unorthodox and seamless production techniques ensured that the film was free of jerky stop - motion sequences and grainy splicing of stop - motion with real - time footage that characterised Hollywood 's animated films until the advent of computer - generated imagery. Filming took place on the Morava river near Bzenec town in the Czech Republic at the nature reserve named (in Czech) Osypané břehy and on studio sets.
Zeman was heavily influenced by the palaeo - art of the celebrated Czech artist Zdeněk Burian (1905 - 1981), and much of the film 's imagery was inspired by Burian reconstructions that had been painted under the guidance of Czech palaeontologist Josef Augusta (1903 - 1968). In some scenes, 2 - D ' profile ' images of animals originally depicted by Burian were filmed in real time (as in the Styracosaurus sequences), whilst other well - known Burian scenes were recreated in stop - motion using a combination of 2 - D and 3 - D models (as in the Deinotherium and Uintatherium sequences). Possibly for the sake of continuity, Zeman also used models or 2 - D profiles when depicting extant species including bison, a python, flamingos, vultures, various antelopes, giraffes, and a jaguar (which was briefly spliced with footage of a real animal in one of only three instances of live species footage). In some scenes, miniature models of the actors and their boat / raft were also animated.
In addition to numerous miniature animal models and 2 - D ' profiles ', Zeman also used larger models of heads and bodies of animals (including a full - size ' dead ' Stegosaurus and swimming woolly rhino, Brontosaurus and Trachodon models), as well as life - sized model plants (as in the Carboniferous forest sequence, and the encounter with the Styracosaurus). The use of 2 - D profiles and 3 - D models animated by concealed means had the advantage of filming in real time without the need for labour - intensive stop - motion. Two of the film 's prehistoric species were not based on Burian images; the Stegosaurus and the Ceratosaurus with which it fights in a twilight scene (it remains unclear as to why Zeman did not use Burian images in these instances).
Cesta do pravěku was made on what would be considered a small budget by western film - makers. It discussed the various time epochs as defined by palaeontologists and the types of animals typical of those periods, using information known in the 1950s. Whilst many animated feature films, particularly those in the US, used models of prehistoric animals in contrived sequences, Zeman instead depicted animals acting naturally in their own environments as if being filmed for a documentary, with the actors observing from the relative safety of the river. Such a philosophy was unusual at the time and was more typical of later TV productions that depicted prehistoric animals in an educational context (including the BBC 's Walking with Dinosaurs and Walking with Beasts series) which became popular following the advent of computer - generated imagery that negated the need for time - consuming, highly skilled manual animation. The original release of Zeman 's film was 93 minutes, although the East German release had a slightly shorter running time.
In 1966, another version of the film was released in the US by William Cayton whose company had been marketing Russian animated cartoons and feature films from the 1940s and 1950s, especially those of the famous Soyuzmultfilm studios (well known titles included The Firebird, The Frog Prince, Beauty & the Beast, The Space Explorers, and The Twelve Months). The films were dubbed, sometimes re-titled, partitioned into chapters and distributed to US TV stations. In the case of Cesta do pravěku, Cayton replaced the opening and closing scenes of the original with new footage of American boys who entered the film in a dream sequence whilst visiting the American Museum of Natural History in New York. The film was copied to poor quality film stock and edited into short segments (about six minutes each) for presentation as a serial, syndicated to various children 's television programs. The US version was released on VHS video by Goodtimes in 1994. Because of the new sequences, none of the actors ' faces could be shown until the original footage began.
In April 2001 Cesta do pravěku was screened at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in Brooklyn, New York, as part of the retrospective entitled The Fabulous World of Karel Zeman. In 2010, it featured at the 50th Zlín Film Festival (May 30 - June 6) in the Czech Republic, one day of which (June 4) was dedicated to Karel Zeman to honour the centenary of his birth. The four original actors also attended the ceremonies (three from the Czech Republic and one - Vladimír Bejval - from the US).
In 2004 a DVD version of the film appeared in Japan, in Germany in 2005, and Spain in 2007. The Japanese and Spanish versions had different digital masters. The first German DVD had no digitally remastered images, but another German version with Czech and German dialogue, and 15 min of extras showing some of Zeman 's filming techniques, was released in Jan 2010. This version used some modified sound effects for the dubbing, and the picture quality is below that of the original. Unfortunately the announced DVD of the original was held back for licence - juridical reasons and it remained unavailable commercially (as of April 2011) although copies of the original circulate amongst enthusiasts.
Several scenes of the film were used by the British ABC (Associated British Corporation) in the 1961 television serial Pathfinders to Venus. The scenes were that of the Pteranodons flying overhead and the battle between the Ceratosaurus and the Stegosaurus.
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how many episodes in foyle's war season 5
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Foyle 's War (Series 5) - wikipedia
Series 5 of the ITV programme Foyle 's War was first aired in 2008; comprising three episodes, it is set in the period from April 1944 to May 1945.
Foyle has been in "retirement '' after his resignation a year earlier at the end of Casualties of War. Stewart has been removed as a police driver (in the Mechanised Transport Corps) by Foyle 's replacement, Meredith, and has been working as a librarian in the Air Ministry 's cartography facility at Beverley Lodge for last six months. She is also "assisting '' Foyle as his typist in writing his book on the Hastings Constabulary (even though she does not appear to be that capable). In addition, her uncle Aubrey Stewart (Brian Poyser), a priest, returns from the episode "The French Drop '', when he visits Hastings for the bishop 's conference. Milner, unhappy since Foyle 's departure, seeks his counsel after finding Meredith difficult to work with and considers leaving Hasting. However, by the end of the episode, the original team is reunited when Foyle and Milner both decide to stay, and Stewart quits to rejoin them.
The episode mentions increased troop movements down to the south coast and that "the end of the war is in sight '', indicating a pre-D Day setting. The cartography activity at fictitious Beverly Lodge (filmed at Langley Park, Slough, Berkshire) is based on the activities of the secret map - making activities undertaken at Hughenden Manor during World War II, which was not known until two years before the shooting of this episode. Anthony Horowitz, based much of the story on the experiences of Victor Gregory, a cartographer at Hughenden, and who was engaged as a consultant during the shooting of the episode. Another theme is various efforts by the Church to: preach forgiveness of the enemy; establish relations with the German church (such as the German Confessing Church); and, grant Germany a conditional (rather than unconditional) surrender to prevent the unnecessary killing of innocents by indiscriminate bombing of German cities. The efforts of Dietrich Bonhoeffer are mentioned, as are events reflecting the real - life George Bell, Bishop of Chichester.
Novak was in Paris during the invasion of Poland, and his wife and (survivor) daughter remained there. During the episode, we learn of their transfer to a ghetto (probably the Lublin Ghetto), and then the Majdanek concentration camp, news of which triggers Novak 's suicide attempt. Further, his uncle was apparently a Polish chess grandmaster. Dawson had been a prisoner since the Battle of Dunkirk, five years earlier, but recently escaped and is suffering from frostbite. Tommy Crooks, a 15 - year - old missing former child - evacuee, arrives to stay with Sir John and Lady Muriel Sackville, the gentry who had lived in the newly converted hospital, and whose son was killed in the raid on Dieppe. As a telegram boy, Crooks was traumatised by the reactions of those he delivered bad news to, and also the recent death of his mother in a V - 1 rocket attack. His father, Morris, arrives in Hastings seeking his return.
German POW 's are being billeted near Hastings at the Bexhill - on - Sea POW Camp. At the Ruby Cinema, the 1944 film Going My Way, starring Bing Crosby, is being screened, along with a Pathe News newsreel. The radio news report heard by Novak was by BBC correspondent Alexander Werth. Also, Brooke discusses a staff football betting pool at the station, in which they win £ 100, which Foyle suggests dontating to Jewish refugees. The fictional article in the episode is in the October 1944 issue of The Journal of Mental Science, titled The Mental Trauma of War: Some Case Studies and published by the Royal Medico - Psychological Association. Foyle is also seen looking through newspapers dated 14 October 1944, including Daily Mirror, Daily Express, and The Daily Telegraph.
Kieffer (from Series 4 "Invasion '') returns in this episode, and we learn of his wife and two children. Also returning are Foyle 's son, who had been flying in Malta prior to discharge, and Pierce (from Series 2 "War Games '' and Series 3 "The French Drop ''). With the war in Europe winding down, Foyle is retiring and the station is being moved to another location. Milner received a promotion to DI and transfer to Brighton, while Edith, his new wife, is expecting their first child, a daughter. When the delivery starts, Foyle gets behind the wheel and drives them to the hospital. Stewart is uneasy with her career post war, and Foyle suggests volunteering for SSAFA. Andrew Foyle attempts to apologise and propose to Stewart and rekindle their friendship and romance.
A major plotline is the Slapton Sands disaster and the subsequent cover - up. Others include the ongoing preparations for the celebration of VE Day in Hastings (including profiteering on the sale of flags and bunting) and the difficulties experienced by returning servicemen adapting to civilian life. One inconsistency is that Andrew says he wo n't continue as a pilot because "sinusitis has affected my vision '', but sinusitis, while a reason for temporary grounding because of the pain caused by unpressurised cockpits, extremely rarely affects vision permanently. Several newspapers are used as props: Foyle is seen reading a copy of The Hastings Chronicle with a "Hitler Dead '' headline; a few days later, a child reads The Evening News stating Germany Surrenders; and, in the station, Brooke discusses a Jane comic from The Daily Mirror. The episode ends with Churchill 's victory speech and It 's a Lovely Day Tomorrow, sung by Vera Lynn.
Series Five was broadcast in the United States on PBS stations on Masterpiece Mystery! as Foyle 's War V on 7 and 14 June 2009, and on Netflix as of April 2014.
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who has the most soccer goals in history
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List of men 's footballers with 500 or more goals - wikipedia
In top - level football, at least 28 players have scored 500 or more goals over the course of their career, according to research by the Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation. Only players who were active in top division football for all or most of their careers are considered. The ranking below takes into account goals scored in official matches played with national teams at all age levels and clubs in all divisions.
Unverified data is excluded from players ' data; goal and match totals may be higher. Players in bold are currently active; data is accurate as of the 25 August 2018.
Source: Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation
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church of the sacred heart of jesus singapore
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Church of the Sacred Heart, Singapore - wikipedia
The Church of the Sacred Heart (Chinese: 圣 心 堂) is a Roman Catholic church in Singapore. It was founded in 1910 and is one of the oldest parishes in the Archdiocese. The church 's feast day is the Solemnity of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, which falls 19 days after Pentecost Sunday.
Fundraising for the church was begun in 1908 and the church was completed in 1910.
The finances for the construction were largely donated by 3 wealthy Chinese benefactors, one of which was Mr Jacobe Low Kiok Chiang (1843 -- 1911), the founder of the Bangkok and Singapore - based merchant firm, Kiam Hoa Heng. Mr Low was of Teochew descent and was born in Shantou, China. The Church was built mainly for a Cantonese congregation.
On 15 February 1942, the church was damaged by Japanese artillery fire.
The church was first renovated in 1969 and a 3 - storey Parish Welfare Hall was established on 21 February 1971. Prior to the completion of the new Community Building in 2008, the top level was used for catechism classes, the second level was a canteen, while the ground level housed a small carpark.
In 2008, the church was renovated again by Parish priest Rev Fr Paul Tay. A 71⁄2 storey community building which houses meeting, catechism and prayer rooms, priest offices, as well as a new cafeteria, was constructed to cater to the needs of the parishioners. A columbarium was also constructed directly behind the main church building. Previously, Fr Tay was also involved in the construction of a columbarium in the Church of St Theresa, as well as the establishment of the Church of the Holy Trinity which has since become the largest parish in Singapore.
The church comprises a main church building, where Masses are celebrated, a 3 - storey Parish Welfare Hall, as well as a 71⁄2 storey Community Building which sits on freehold land beside the Church. The land was vacant for many years but has now been put to good use.
In 2008, a 71⁄2 storey church community building was built to fulfil the needs of the parish community. Costing an estimated S $ 4.5 million, the building was constructed on freehold land and was completed in 2008 with a total floor area of 3,100 square metres. It was designed to blend in with the facade and structure of two existing shop - houses.
The building currently houses meeting, catechism and prayer rooms, a music studio, a cafeteria and refreshment area, priest offices, a religious bookshop, as well as carparks on the 1st, 4th and 5th storeys. Directly next to the multi-purpose hall, where the cafeteria is now located, is a chapel, which is now used for weekday Masses celebrated from Monday to Thursday. Masses on Friday, as well as special feast days that fall on weekdays continue to be celebrated in the main church building. These days include Holy Days of Obligation such as Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and All Souls ' Day, among others.
Following his appointment as Apostolic Nuncio to Singapore in January 2011, Archbishop Leopoldo Girelli briefly resided in the church 's community building, which also acted as the Vatican Embassy in Singapore.
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