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5,750	Cognitive behavioral therapy	Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression, PTSD and anxiety disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on challenging and changing cognitive distortions (such as thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes) and their associated behaviors to improve emotional regulation and develop personal coping strategies that target solving current problems. Though it was originally designed as an approach to treat depression, CBT is often prescribed for the evidence-informed treatment of many mental health and other conditions, including anxiety, substance use disorders, marital problems, ADHD, and eating disorders. CBT is a common form of talk therapy based on the combination of the basic principles from behavioral and cognitive psychology. CBT is based on the belief that thought distortions and maladaptive behaviors play a role in the development and maintenance of many psychological disorders and that symptoms and associated distress can be reduced by teaching new information-processing skills and coping mechanisms. When compared to psychoactive medications, review studies have found CBT alone to be as effective for treating less severe forms of depression, and borderline personality disorder. Some research suggests that CBT is most effective when combined with medication for treating mental disorders, such as major depressive disorder. CBT is recommended as the first line of treatment for the majority of psychological disorders in children and adolescents, including aggression and conduct disorder. Along with interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), CBT is recommended in treatment guidelines as a psychosocial treatment of choice. Recommended by American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, British National Health Service. ==History== === Philosophy === Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of CBT have been identified in various ancient philosophical traditions, particularly Stoicism. Stoic philosophers, particularly Epictetus, believed logic could be used to identify and discard false beliefs that lead to destructive emotions, which has influenced the way modern cognitive-behavioral therapists identify cognitive distortions that contribute to depression and anxiety. Aaron T. Beck's original treatment manual for depression states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers". Another example of Stoic influence on cognitive theorists is Epictetus on Albert Ellis. A key philosophical figure who influenced the development of CBT was John Stuart Mill through his creation of Associationism, a predecessor of classical conditioning and behavioral theory. Principles originating from Buddhism have significantly impacted the evolution of various new forms of CBT, including dialectical behavior therapy, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, spirituality-based CBT, and compassion-focused therapy. The modern roots of CBT can be traced to the development of behavior therapy in the early 20th century, the development of cognitive therapy in the 1960s, and the subsequent merging of the two. ===Behavioral therapy=== Groundbreaking work in behaviorism began with John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner's studies of conditioning in 1920. Behaviorally-centered therapeutic approaches appeared as early as 1924 with Mary Cover Jones' work dedicated to the unlearning of fears in children. These were the antecedents of the development of Joseph Wolpe's behavioral therapy in the 1950s. During the 1950s and 1960s, behavioral therapy became widely used by researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Africa. Their inspiration was by the behaviorist learning theory of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Clark L. Hull. At the same time as Eysenck's work, B. F. Skinner and his associates were beginning to have an impact with their work on operant conditioning. The emphasis on behavioral factors has been described as the "first wave" of CBT. ===Cognitive therapy=== One of the first therapists to address cognition in psychotherapy was Alfred Adler, notably with his idea of basic mistakes and how they contributed to creation of unhealthy behavioral and life goals.Abraham Low believed that someone's thoughts were best changed by changing their actions. Adler and Low influenced the work of Albert Ellis, who developed the earliest cognitive-based psychotherapy called rational emotive behavioral therapy, or REBT. The first version of REBT was announced to the public in 1956. In the late 1950s, Aaron T. Beck was conducting free association sessions in his psychoanalytic practice. During these sessions, Beck noticed that thoughts were not as unconscious as Freud had previously theorized, and that certain types of thinking may be the culprits of emotional distress. It was these two therapies, rational emotive therapy, and cognitive therapy, that started the "second wave" of CBT, which emphasized cognitive factors. Behaviorism was also losing popularity due to the cognitive revolution. The therapeutic approaches of Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck gained popularity among behavior therapists, despite the earlier behaviorist rejection of mentalistic concepts like thoughts and cognitions. In initial studies, cognitive therapy was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive and behavioral techniques were merged into cognitive behavioral therapy. Pivotal to this merging was the successful development of treatments for panic disorder by David M. Clark in the UK and David H. Barlow in the US. ==Medical uses== In adults, CBT has been shown to be an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression, eating disorders, personality disorders, schizophrenia, and as part of the treatment after spinal cord injuries. In children or adolescents, CBT is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression and suicidality, eating disorders obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), tic disorders, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders. CBT has also been used to help improve a variety of childhood disorders, including depressive disorders and various anxiety disorders. CBT has shown to be the most effective intervention for people exposed to adverse childhood experiences in the form of abuse or neglect. Criticism of CBT sometimes focuses on implementations (such as the UK IAPT) which may result initially in low quality therapy being offered by poorly trained practitioners. However, evidence supports the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety and depression. Evidence suggests that the addition of hypnotherapy as an adjunct to CBT improves treatment efficacy for a variety of clinical issues. The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends CBT in the treatment plans for a number of mental health difficulties, including PTSD, OCD, bulimia nervosa, and clinical depression. ===Depression and anxiety disorders=== Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown as an effective treatment for clinical depression. and the APA endorsed Veteran Affairs clinical practice guideline. CBT has been shown to be effective in the treatment of adults with anxiety disorders. There is also evidence that using CBT to treat children and adolescents with anxiety disorders was probably more effective (in the short term) than wait list or no treatment and more effective than attention control treatment approaches. Some meta-analyses find CBT more effective than psychodynamic therapy and equal to other therapies in treating anxiety and depression. A 2024 systematic review found that exposure and response prevention (ERP), a specific form of cognitive behavioral therapy, is considered a first-line treatment for pediatric obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Research indicates that ERP is effective in both in-person and remote settings, providing flexibility in treatment delivery without compromising efficacy. ====Theoretical approaches==== One etiological theory of depression is Aaron T. Beck's cognitive theory of depression. His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations. Beck's theory rests on the aspect of cognitive behavioral therapy known as schemata. Schemata are the mental maps used to integrate new information into memories and to organize existing information in the mind. An example of a schema would be a person hearing the word "dog" and picturing different versions of the animal that they have grouped together in their mind. Beck also described a negative cognitive triad. The cognitive triad is made up of the depressed individual's negative evaluations of themselves, the world, and the future. Beck suggested that these negative evaluations derive from the negative schemata and cognitive biases of the person. According to this theory, depressed people have views such as "I never do a good job", "It is impossible to have a good day", and "things will never get better". A negative schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative schema. Beck further proposed that depressed people often have the following cognitive biases: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralization, magnification, and minimization. These cognitive biases are quick to make negative, generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema. More specifically, a positive cognitive triad requires self-esteem when viewing oneself and hope for the future. A person with a positive cognitive triad has a positive schema used for viewing themself in addition to a positive schema for the world and for the future. Cognitive behavioral research suggests a positive cognitive triad bolsters resilience, or the ability to cope with stressful events. Increased levels of resilience is associated with greater resistance to depression. An internal locus of control exists when an individual views an outcome of a particular action as being reliant on themselves and their personal attributes whereas an external locus of control exists when an individual views other's or some outside, intangible force such as luck or fate as being responsible for the outcome of a particular action. Likewise, a person with a social anxiety disorder who fears public speaking may be instructed to directly confront those fears by giving a speech. This "two-factor" model is often credited to O. Hobart Mowrer. Through exposure to the stimulus, this harmful conditioning can be "unlearned" (referred to as extinction and habituation). CBT for children with phobias is normally delivered over multiple sessions, but one-session treatment has been shown to be equally effective and is cheaper. ====Specialized forms of CBT==== CBT-SP, an adaptation of CBT for suicide prevention (SP), was specifically designed for treating youths who are severely depressed and who have recently attempted suicide within the past 90 days, and was found to be effective, feasible, and acceptable. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is a specialist branch of CBT (sometimes referred to as contextual CBT). ACT uses mindfulness and acceptance interventions and has been found to have a greater longevity in therapeutic outcomes. In a study with anxiety, CBT and ACT improved similarly across all outcomes from pre- to post-treatment. However, during a 12-month follow-up, ACT proved to be more effective, showing that it is a highly viable lasting treatment model for anxiety disorders. Computerized CBT (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating depression and anxiety disorders, including children. Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls. CCBT was found to be equally effective as face-to-face CBT in adolescent anxiety. ====Combined with other treatments==== Studies have provided evidence that when examining animals and humans, that glucocorticoids may lead to a more successful extinction learning during exposure therapy for anxiety disorders. For instance, glucocorticoids can prevent aversive learning episodes from being retrieved and heighten reinforcement of memory traces creating a non-fearful reaction in feared situations. A combination of glucocorticoids and exposure therapy may be a better-improved treatment for treating people with anxiety disorders. ====Prevention==== For anxiety disorders, use of CBT with people at risk has significantly reduced the number of episodes of generalized anxiety disorder and other anxiety symptoms, and also given significant improvements in explanatory style, hopelessness, and dysfunctional attitudes. In another study, 3% of the group receiving the CBT intervention developed generalized anxiety disorder by 12 months postintervention compared with 14% in the control group. Individuals with subthreshold levels of panic disorder significantly benefitted from use of CBT. Use of CBT was found to significantly reduce social anxiety prevalence. For depressive disorders, a stepped-care intervention (watchful waiting, CBT and medication if appropriate) achieved a 50% lower incidence rate in a patient group aged 75 or older. Another depression study found a neutral effect compared to personal, social, and health education, and usual school provision, and included a comment on potential for increased depression scores from people who have received CBT due to greater self recognition and acknowledgement of existing symptoms of depression and negative thinking styles. A further study also saw a neutral result. A meta-study of the Coping with Depression course, a cognitive behavioral intervention delivered by a psychoeducational method, saw a 38% reduction in risk of major depression. ===Bipolar disorder=== Many studies show CBT, combined with pharmacotherapy, is effective in improving depressive symptoms, mania severity and psychosocial functioning with mild to moderate effects, and that it is better than medication alone. INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including bipolar disorder. For people at risk of psychosis, in 2014 the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommended preventive CBT. ===Schizophrenia=== INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including schizophrenia. A 2015 systematic review investigated the effects of CBT compared with other psychosocial therapies for people with schizophrenia and determined that there is no clear advantage over other, often less expensive, interventions but acknowledged that better quality evidence is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. ===Addiction and substance use disorders=== ====Pathological and problem gambling==== CBT is also used for pathological and problem gambling. The percentage of people who problem gamble is 1–3% around the world. Cognitive behavioral therapy develops skills for relapse prevention and someone can learn to control their mind and manage high-risk cases. There is evidence of efficacy of CBT for treating pathological and problem gambling at immediate follow up, however the longer term efficacy of CBT for it is currently unknown. ====Smoking cessation==== CBT looks at the habit of smoking cigarettes as a learned behavior, which later evolves into a coping strategy to handle daily stressors. Since smoking is often easily accessible and quickly allows the user to feel good, it can take precedence over other coping strategies, and eventually work its way into everyday life during non-stressful events as well. CBT aims to target the function of the behavior, as it can vary between individuals, and works to inject other coping mechanisms in place of smoking. CBT also aims to support individuals with strong cravings, which are a major reported reason for relapse during treatment. A 2008 controlled study out of Stanford University School of Medicine suggested CBT may be an effective tool to help maintain abstinence. The results of 304 random adult participants were tracked over the course of one year. During this program, some participants were provided medication, CBT, 24-hour phone support, or some combination of the three methods. At 20 weeks, the participants who received CBT had a 45% abstinence rate, versus non-CBT participants, who had a 29% abstinence rate. Overall, the study concluded that emphasizing cognitive and behavioral strategies to support smoking cessation can help individuals build tools for long term smoking abstinence. Mental health history can affect the outcomes of treatment. Individuals with a history of depressive disorders had a lower rate of success when using CBT alone to combat smoking addiction. A 2019 Cochrane review was unable to find sufficient evidence to differentiate effects between CBT and hypnosis for smoking cessation and highlighted that a review of the current research showed variable results for both modalities. ====Substance use disorders==== Studies have shown CBT to be an effective treatment for substance use disorders. For individuals with substance use disorders, CBT aims to reframe maladaptive thoughts, such as denial, minimizing and catastrophizing thought patterns, with healthier narratives. Specific techniques include identifying potential triggers and developing coping mechanisms to manage high-risk situations. Research has shown CBT to be particularly effective when combined with other therapy-based treatments or medication. INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including alcohol dependency. ===Eating disorders=== Though many forms of treatment can support individuals with eating disorders, CBT is proven to be a more effective treatment than medications and interpersonal psychotherapy alone. While there is evidence to support the efficacy of CBT for bulimia nervosa and binging, the evidence is somewhat variable and limited by small study sizes. INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including bulimia and anorexia nervosa. While the research was focused on adults, cognitive behavioral interventions have also been beneficial to autistic children. A 2021 Cochrane review found limited evidence regarding the efficacy of CBT for obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder stating a need for further study. ===Dementia and mild cognitive impairment=== A Cochrane review in 2022 found that adults with dementia and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) who experience symptoms of depression may benefit from CBT, whereas other counselling or supportive interventions might not improve symptoms significantly. Across 5 different psychometric scales, where higher scores indicate severity of depression, adults receiving CBT reported somewhat lower mood scores than those receiving usual care for dementia and MCI overall. The likelihood of remission from depression also appeared to be 84% higher following CBT, though the evidence for this was less certain. Anxiety, cognition and other neuropsychiatric symptoms were not significantly improved following CBT, however this review did find moderate evidence of improved quality of life and daily living activity scores in those with dementia and MCI. There is strong evidence that CBT-exposure therapy can reduce PTSD symptoms and lead to the loss of a PTSD diagnosis. In addition, CBT has also been shown to be effective for post-traumatic stress disorder in very young children (3 to 6 years of age). There is lower quality evidence that CBT may be more effective than other psychotherapies in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. ===Other uses=== Evidence suggests a possible role for CBT in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), hypochondriasis, and bipolar disorder, CBT has been studied as an aid in the treatment of anxiety associated with stuttering. Initial studies have shown CBT to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adults who stutter, but not in reducing stuttering frequency. There is some evidence that CBT is superior in the long-term to benzodiazepines and the nonbenzodiazepines in the treatment and management of insomnia. Computerized CBT (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating insomnia. Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls. Cochrane Reviews have found no convincing evidence that CBT training helps foster care providers manage difficult behaviors in the youths under their care, nor was it helpful in treating people who abuse their intimate partners. CBT has been applied in both clinical and non-clinical environments to treat disorders such as personality disorders and behavioral problems. INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for personality disorders. ====Individuals with medical conditions==== In the case of people with metastatic breast cancer, data is limited but CBT and other psychosocial interventions might help with psychological outcomes and pain management. A 2015 Cochrane review also found that CBT for symptomatic management of non-specific chest pain is probably effective in the short term. However, the findings were limited by small trials and the evidence was considered of questionable quality. Cochrane reviews have found no evidence that CBT is effective for tinnitus, although there appears to be an effect on management of associated depression and quality of life in this condition. CBT combined with hypnosis and distraction reduces self-reported pain in children. There is limited evidence to support CBT's use in managing the impact of multiple sclerosis, sleep disturbances related to aging, and dysmenorrhea, but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution. Previously CBT has been considered as moderately effective for treating myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), however a National Institutes of Health Pathways to Prevention Workshop stated that in respect of improving treatment options for ME/CFS that the modest benefit from cognitive behavioral therapy should be studied as an adjunct to other methods. The Centres for Disease Control advice on the treatment of ME/CFS makes no reference to CBT while the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence states that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has sometimes been assumed to be a cure for ME/CFS, however, it should only be offered to support people who live with ME/CFS to manage their symptoms, improve their functioning and reduce the distress associated with having a chronic illness. ===Age=== CBT is used to help people of all ages, but the therapy should be adjusted based on the age of the patient with whom the therapist is dealing. Older individuals in particular have certain characteristics that need to be acknowledged and the therapy altered to account for these differences thanks to age. Of the small number of studies examining CBT for the management of depression in older people, there is currently no strong support. ==Description== Mainstream cognitive behavioral therapy assumes that changing maladaptive thinking leads to change in behavior and affect, ===Cognitive distortions=== Therapists use CBT techniques to help people challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace errors in thinking, known as cognitive distortions with "more realistic and effective thoughts, thus decreasing emotional distress and self-defeating behavior". CBT techniques may also be used to help individuals take a more open, mindful, and aware posture toward cognitive distortions so as to diminish their impact. but there is still controversy about the degree to which these traditional cognitive elements account for the effects seen with CBT over and above the earlier behavioral elements such as exposure and skills training. ===Assumptions=== Chaloult, Ngo, Cousineau and Goulet have attempted to identify the main assumptions of cognitive therapy used in CBT based on the research literature (Beck; Walen and Wessler; Beck, Emery and Greenberg, and Auger). They describe fourteen assumptions: Human emotions are primarily caused by people's thoughts and perceptions rather than events. Events, thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and physiological reactions influence each other. Dysfunctional emotions are typically caused by unrealistic thoughts. Reducing dysfunctional emotions requires becoming aware of irrational thoughts and changing them. Human beings have an innate tendency to develop irrational thoughts. This tendency is reinforced by their environment. People are largely responsible for their own dysfunctional emotions, as they maintain and reinforce their own beliefs. Sustained effort is necessary to modify dysfunctional thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Rational thinking usually causes a decrease in the frequency, intensity, and duration of dysfunctional emotions, rather than an absence of affect or feelings. A positive therapeutic relationship is essential to successful cognitive therapy. Cognitive therapy is based on a teacher-student relationship, where the therapist educates the client. Cognitive therapy uses Socratic questioning to challenge cognitive distortions. Homework is an essential aspect of cognitive therapy. It consolidates the skills learned in therapy. The cognitive approach is active, directed, and structured. Cognitive therapy is generally short. Cognitive therapy is based on predictable steps. These steps largely involve learning about the CBT model; making links between thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and physiological reactions; noticing when dysfunctional emotions occur; learning to question the thoughts associated with these emotions; replacing irrational thoughts with others more grounded in reality; modifying behaviors based on new interpretations of events; and, in some cases, learning to recognize and change the major beliefs and attitudes underlying cognitive distortions. Chaloult, Ngo, Cousineau and Goulet have also described the assumptions of behavioral therapy as used in CBT. They refer to the work of Agras, Prochaska and Norcross, and Kirk. The assumptions are: Behaviors play an essential role in the onset, perpetuation and exacerbation of psychopathology. Learning theory is key in understanding the treatment of mental illness, as behaviors can be learned and unlearned. A rigorous evaluation (applied behavior analysis) is essential at the start of treatment. It includes identifying behaviors; precipitating, moderating, and perpetuating factors; the consequences of the behaviors; avoidance, and personal resources. The effectiveness of the treatment is monitored throughout its duration. Behavior therapy is scientific and the different forms of treatment are evaluated with rigorous evidence. Behavior therapy is active, directed, and structured. Together, these sets of assumptions cover the cognitive and behavioral aspects of CBT. ===Phases in therapy=== CBT can be seen as having six phases: After identifying the behaviors that need changing, whether they be in excess or deficit, and treatment has occurred, the psychologist must identify whether or not the intervention succeeded. For example, "If the goal was to decrease the behavior, then there should be a decrease relative to the baseline. If the critical behavior remains at or above the baseline, then the intervention has failed." The re-conceptualization phase makes up much of the "cognitive" portion of CBT. Use of the term CBT may refer to different interventions, including "self-instructions (e.g. distraction, imagery, motivational self-talk), relaxation and/or biofeedback, development of adaptive coping strategies (e.g. minimizing negative or self-defeating thoughts), changing maladaptive beliefs about pain, and goal setting". CBT is used in both individual and group settings, and the techniques are often adapted for self-help applications. Some clinicians and researchers are cognitively oriented (e.g. cognitive restructuring), while others are more behaviorally oriented (e.g. in vivo exposure therapy). Interventions such as imaginal exposure therapy combine both approaches. ===Related techniques=== CBT may be delivered in conjunction with a variety of diverse but related techniques such as exposure therapy, stress inoculation, cognitive processing therapy, cognitive therapy, metacognitive therapy, metacognitive training, relaxation training, dialectical behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy. Some practitioners promote a form of mindful cognitive therapy which includes a greater emphasis on self-awareness as part of the therapeutic process. ==Methods of access== ===Therapist=== A typical CBT program would consist of face-to-face sessions between patient and therapist, made up of 6–18 sessions of around an hour each with a gap of 1–3 weeks between sessions. This initial program might be followed by some booster sessions, for instance after one month and three months. CBT has also been found to be effective if patient and therapist type in real time to each other over computer links. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is most closely allied with the scientist–practitioner model in which clinical practice and research are informed by a scientific perspective, clear operationalization of the problem, and an emphasis on measurement, including measuring changes in cognition and behavior and the attainment of goals. These are often met through "homework" assignments in which the patient and the therapist work together to craft an assignment to complete before the next session. The completion of these assignments – which can be as simple as a person with depression attending some kind of social event – indicates a dedication to treatment compliance and a desire to change. Unlike many other forms of psychotherapy, the patient is very involved in CBT. instead of face-to-face with a human therapist. It is also known as internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy or ICBT. CCBT has potential to improve access to evidence-based therapies, and to overcome the prohibitive costs and lack of availability sometimes associated with retaining a human therapist. In this context, it is important not to confuse CBT with 'computer-based training', which nowadays is more commonly referred to as e-Learning. Although improvements in both research quality and treatment adherence is required before advocating for the global dissemination of CCBT, it has been found in meta-studies to be cost-effective and often cheaper than usual care, including for anxiety and PTSD. Studies have shown that individuals with social anxiety and depression experienced improvement with online CBT-based methods. A study assessing an online version of CBT for people with mild-to-moderate PTSD found that the online approach was as effective as, and cheaper than, the same therapy given face-to-face. In February 2006 NICE recommended that CCBT be made available for use within the NHS across England and Wales for patients presenting with mild-to-moderate depression, rather than immediately opting for antidepressant medication, The 2009 NICE guideline recognized that there are likely to be a number of computerized CBT products that are useful to patients, but removed endorsement of any specific product. ===Smartphone app-delivered=== Another new method of access is the use of mobile app or smartphone applications to deliver self-help or guided CBT. Technology companies are developing mobile-based artificial intelligence chatbot applications in delivering CBT as an early intervention to support mental health, to build psychological resilience, and to promote emotional well-being. Artificial intelligence (AI) text-based conversational application delivered securely and privately over smartphone devices have the ability to scale globally and offer contextual and always-available support. Active research is underway including real-world data studies that measure effectiveness and engagement of text-based smartphone chatbot apps for delivery of CBT using a text-based conversational interface. Recent market research and analysis of over 500 online mental healthcare solutions identified 3 key challenges in this market: quality of the content, guidance of the user and personalisation. A study compared CBT alone with a mindfulness-based therapy combined with CBT, both delivered via an app. It found that mindfulness-based self-help reduced the severity of depression more than CBT self-help in the short-term. Overall, NHS costs for the mindfulness approach were £500 less per person than for CBT. ===Reading self-help materials=== Enabling patients to read self-help CBT guides has been shown to be effective by some studies. However one study found a negative effect in patients who tended to ruminate, and another meta-analysis found that the benefit was only significant when the self-help was guided (e.g. by a medical professional). ===Group educational course=== Patient participation in group courses has been shown to be effective. In a meta-analysis reviewing evidence-based treatment of OCD in children, individual CBT was found to be more efficacious than group CBT. ==Types== ===Brief cognitive behavioral therapy=== Brief cognitive behavioral therapy (BCBT) is a form of CBT which has been developed for situations in which there are time constraints on the therapy sessions and specifically for those struggling with suicidal ideation and/or making suicide attempts. BCBT was based on Rudd's proposed "suicidal mode", an elaboration of Beck's modal theory. BCBT takes place over a couple of sessions that can last up to 12 accumulated hours by design. This technique was first implemented and developed with soldiers on active duty by Dr. M. David Rudd to prevent suicide. ===Structured cognitive behavioral training=== Structured cognitive-behavioral training (SCBT) is a cognitive-based process with core philosophies that draw heavily from CBT. Like CBT, SCBT asserts that behavior is inextricably related to beliefs, thoughts, and emotions. SCBT also builds on core CBT philosophy by incorporating other well-known modalities in the fields of behavioral health and psychology: most notably, Albert Ellis's rational emotive behavior therapy. SCBT differs from CBT in two distinct ways. First, SCBT is delivered in a highly regimented format. Second, SCBT is a predetermined and finite training process that becomes personalized by the input of the participant. SCBT is designed to bring a participant to a specific result in a specific period of time. SCBT has been used to challenge addictive behavior, particularly with substances such as tobacco, alcohol and food, and to manage diabetes and subdue stress and anxiety. SCBT has also been used in the field of criminal psychology in the effort to reduce recidivism. ===Moral reconation therapy=== Moral reconation therapy, a type of CBT used to help felons overcome antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), slightly decreases the risk of further offending. It is generally implemented in a group format because of the risk of offenders with ASPD being given one-on-one therapy reinforces narcissistic behavioral characteristics, and can be used in correctional or outpatient settings. Groups usually meet weekly for two to six months. ===Stress inoculation training=== This type of therapy uses a blend of cognitive, behavioral, and certain humanistic training techniques to target the stressors of the client. This is usually used to help clients better cope with their stress or anxiety after stressful events. This is a three-phase process that trains the client to use skills that they already have to better adapt to their current stressors. The first phase is an interview phase that includes psychological testing, client self-monitoring, and a variety of reading materials. This allows the therapist to individually tailor the training process to the client. ===Mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy=== Mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy (MCBH) is a form of CBT that focuses on awareness in a reflective approach, addressing subconscious tendencies. It is more the process that contains three phases for achieving wanted goals and integrates the principles of mindfulness and cognitive-behavioral techniques with the transformative potential of hypnotherapy. ===Unified Protocol=== The Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders (UP) is a form of CBT, developed by David H. Barlow and researchers at Boston University, that can be applied to a range of anxiety disorders. The rationale is that anxiety and depression disorders often occur together due to common underlying causes and can efficiently be treated together. The UP includes a common set of components: Psycho-education Cognitive reappraisal Emotion regulation Changing behaviour The UP has been shown to produce equivalent results to single-diagnosis protocols for specific disorders, such as OCD and social anxiety disorder. Several studies have shown that the UP is easier to disseminate as compared to single-diagnosis protocols. Culturally adapted CBT The study of psychotherapy across races, religions, and cultures, or "ethno-psycho-therapy", is a relatively new discipline ==Criticisms== ===Relative effectiveness=== The research conducted for CBT has been a topic of sustained controversy. While some researchers write that CBT is more effective than other treatments, and practitioners have questioned the validity of such claims. For example, one study A major criticism has been that clinical studies of CBT efficacy (or any psychotherapy) are not double-blind (i.e., either the subjects or the therapists in psychotherapy studies are not blind to the type of treatment). They may be single-blinded, i.e. the rater may not know the treatment the patient received, but neither the patients nor the therapists are blinded to the type of therapy given (two out of three of the persons involved in the trial, i.e., all of the persons involved in the treatment, are unblinded). The patient is an active participant in correcting negative distorted thoughts, thus quite aware of the treatment group they are in. Pooled data from published trials of CBT in schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), and bipolar disorder that used controls for non-specific effects of intervention were analyzed. This study concluded that CBT is no better than non-specific control interventions in the treatment of schizophrenia and does not reduce relapse rates; treatment effects are small in treatment studies of MDD, and it is not an effective treatment strategy for prevention of relapse in bipolar disorder. For MDD, the authors note that the pooled effect size was very low. ===Declining effectiveness=== Additionally, a 2015 meta-analysis revealed that the positive effects of CBT on depression have been declining since 1977. The overall results showed two different declines in effect sizes: 1) an overall decline between 1977 and 2014, and 2) a steeper decline between 1995 and 2014. Additional sub-analysis revealed that CBT studies where therapists in the test group were instructed to adhere to the Beck CBT manual had a steeper decline in effect sizes since 1977 than studies where therapists in the test group were instructed to use CBT without a manual. The authors reported that they were unsure why the effects were declining but did list inadequate therapist training, failure to adhere to a manual, lack of therapist experience, and patients' hope and faith in its efficacy waning as potential reasons. The authors did mention that the current study was limited to depressive disorders only. ===High drop-out rates=== Furthermore, other researchers write that CBT studies have high drop-out rates compared to other treatments. One meta-analysis found that CBT drop-out rates were 17% higher than those of other therapies. Other researchers analyzing treatments for youths who self-injure found similar drop-out rates in CBT and DBT groups. In this study, the researchers analyzed several clinical trials that measured the efficacy of CBT administered to youths who self-injure. The researchers concluded that none of them were found to be efficacious. Slife and Williams write that one of the hidden assumptions in CBT is that of determinism, or the absence of free will. They argue that CBT holds that external stimuli from the environment enter the mind, causing different thoughts that cause emotional states: nowhere in CBT theory is agency, or free will, accounted for. ===Side effects=== CBT is generally regarded as having very few if any side effects. Calls have been made by some for more appraisal of possible side effects of CBT. Many randomized trials of psychological interventions like CBT do not monitor potential harms to the patient. In contrast, randomized trials of pharmacological interventions are much more likely to take adverse effects into consideration. A 2017 meta-analysis revealed that adverse events are not common in children receiving CBT and, furthermore, that CBT is associated with fewer dropouts than either placebo or medications. Nevertheless, CBT therapists do sometimes report 'unwanted events' and side effects in their outpatients with "negative wellbeing/distress" being the most frequent. ===Socio-political concerns=== The writer and group analyst Farhad Dalal questions the socio-political assumptions behind the introduction of CBT. According to one reviewer, Dalal connects the rise of CBT with "the parallel rise of neoliberalism, with its focus on marketization, efficiency, quantification and managerialism", and he questions the scientific basis of CBT, suggesting that "the 'science' of psychological treatment is often less a scientific than a political contest". In his book, Dalal also questions the ethical basis of CBT. ==Society and culture== The UK's National Health Service announced in 2008 that more therapists would be trained to provide CBT at government expense The NICE said that CBT would become the mainstay of treatment for non-severe depression, with medication used only in cases where CBT had failed. The UK Council for Psychotherapy issued a press release in 2012 saying that the IAPT's policies were undermining traditional psychotherapy and criticized proposals that would limit some approved therapies to CBT,	[ "Rosalie Rayner", "National Institute for Health and Care Excellence", "David H. 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Hull", "John B. Watson", "substance use disorder", "foster care", "e-Learning", "Free association (psychology)", "Social learning theory", "major depressive disorder", "effect size", "B. F. 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5,751	Chinese language	Chinese ( or ) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China, as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora. Approximately 1.39 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language. Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family. Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan. All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic. The earliest attested written Chinese consists of the oracle bone inscriptions created during the Shang dynasty . The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun, a rhyme dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua, based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by the government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas. == Classification == Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, together with Burmese, Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif. Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. == History == The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard. === Old and Middle Chinese === The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to , during the Late Shang. The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts dating to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching. Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles. Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the Qieyun rhyme dictionary (601), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese, borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. === Classical and vernacular written forms === The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia: as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while the written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese. Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period. Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with the May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919. === Rise of northern dialects === After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. The 1324 Zhongyuan Yinyun was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language. Together with the slightly later Menggu Ziyun, this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. Until the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as . For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court. In the 1930s, a standard national language (), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it . The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. In Hong Kong and Macau, Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence. === Influence === Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han dynasty (202 BCE220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The Four Commanderies of Han were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries. Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines. Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters, but later replaced with the alphabet for Korean and supplemented with syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji, and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called hanja is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet. English words of Chinese origin include tea from Hokkien , dim sum from Cantonese , and kumquat from Cantonese . == Varieties == The sinologist Jerry Norman has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke Taishanese, a variety of Yue from a small coastal area around Taishan, Guangdong. In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, Wuzhou and Taishan are located approximately and away from Guangzhou respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the Pearl River, whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of Fujian, the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. === Grouping === Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: Mandarin, including Standard Chinese, the Beijing dialect, Sichuanese, and also the Dungan language spoken in Central Asia Wu, including Shanghainese, Suzhounese, and Wenzhounese Gan Xiang Min, including Fuzhounese, Hainanese, Hokkien and Teochew Hakka Yue, including Cantonese and Taishanese The classification of Li Rong, which is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups: Jin, previously included in Mandarin. Huizhou, previously included in Wu. Pinghua, previously included in Yue. Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan, Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan, and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong. === Standard Chinese === Standard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called ) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called either or ). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers. For example, a Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called ), Hakka, or an Austronesian language. A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong, Cantonese is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau. === Nomenclature === The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language. There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity. The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is , whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called . Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include topolect, lect, vernacular, regional, and variety. == Phonology == Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system, and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules. The structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant, or consonant + glide; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants and can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals , , , the retroflex approximant , and voiceless stops , , , or . Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only , , and . The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English. === Tones === All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable . The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be "checked tones" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: == Grammar == Chinese is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of the more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic , especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonetic erosion: sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including the tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic compounds. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in from ; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of homophones. As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary lists six words that are commonly pronounced as in Standard Chinese: In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced . As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only the first one, , normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable is specifically meant. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, alone, and not , appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as , , , , and . Although many single-syllable morphemes () can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as , which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include , , and . All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages: they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in the form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections—it possesses no tenses, no voices, no grammatical number, and only a few articles. They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as , , and . Chinese has a subject–verb–object word order, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping, and the related subject dropping. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. == Vocabulary == The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. The 2016 edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. === Loanwords === Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably , , and perhaps , , , and . Ancient words borrowed from along the Silk Road during the Old Chinese period include , , and . Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including and . Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as . Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as , generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pali, the liturgical languages of northern India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as , the Chinese lute, or , but from exactly which source is not always clear. === Modern borrowings === Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (calques), phonetic translation (by sound), or a combination of the two. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and international scientific vocabulary, wherein the Latin and Greek components are usually converted one-for-one into the corresponding Chinese characters. The word 'telephone' was initially loaned phonetically as (; Shanghainese )—this word was widely used in Shanghai during the 1920s, but the later , built out of native Chinese morphemes became prevalent. Other examples include Occasionally, compromises between the transliteration and translation approaches become accepted, such as from + . Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes (phono-semantic matching), such as for the video game character 'Mario'. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example for 'Pentium' and for 'Subway'. Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, 'Israel' becomes , and 'Paris' becomes . A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including , , , , , and . The bulk of these words were originally coined in Shanghai during the early 20th century and later loaned from there into Mandarin, hence their Mandarin pronunciations occasionally being quite divergent from the English. For example, in Shanghainese and sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as and . Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French, and were borrowed for 'ballet' and 'champagne' respectively; was borrowed from Italian 'coffee'. The influence of English is particularly pronounced: from the early 20th century, many English words were borrowed into Shanghainese, such as and the aforementioned . Later, American soft power gave rise to , , and . Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as , , , and . With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, , , and . In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as and for 'blog'. Another result of English influence on Chinese is the appearance of so-called spelled with letters from the English alphabet. These have appeared in colloquial usage, as well as in magazines and newspapers, and on websites and television: Since the 20th century, another source of words has been kanji: Japan re-molded European concepts and inventions into , and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, ; in Japanese, which in the original Chinese meant 'the workings of the state', narrowed to 'economy' in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then re-imported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages. == Writing system == The Chinese orthography centers on Chinese characters, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century. Chinese characters denote morphemes independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character is pronounced as in Standard Chinese, in Cantonese and in Hokkien, a form of Min. Most modern written Chinese is in the form of written vernacular Chinese, based on spoken Standard Chinese, regardless of dialectical background. Written vernacular Chinese largely replaced Literary Chinese in the early 20th century as the country's standard written language. However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese. Due to the divergence of variants, some unique morphemes are not found in Standard Chinese. Characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standards to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like and are actively used in Cantonese and Hakka, while being archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The most prominent example of a non-Standard Chinese orthography is Written Cantonese, which is used in tabloids and on the internet among Cantonese speakers in Hong Kong and elsewhere. Chinese had no uniform system of phonetic transcription until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rhyme dictionaries and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character-based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era. In Hunan, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in Nüshu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters. The Dungan language, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in Cyrillic and was previously written in the Arabic script. The Dungan people are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; many Hui people, living mainly in China, also speak the language. === Chinese characters === Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen classified characters into six categories: pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds, and derivative characters. Only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as , , , and . Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as , combining a phonetic component with a semantic component of the radical , a reduced form of . Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century Kangxi Dictionary classified characters under a now-common set of 214 radicals. Modern characters are styled after the regular script. Various other written styles are also used in Chinese calligraphy, including seal script, cursive script and clerical script. Calligraphy artists can write in Traditional and Simplified characters, but they tend to use Traditional characters for traditional art. There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. Traditional characters, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, and many overseas Chinese-speaking communities, largely take their form from received character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty and standardized during the Ming. Simplified characters, introduced by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, especially by adopting common cursive shorthand variants and merging characters with similar pronunciations to the one with the least strokes, among other methods. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters—first by creating its own simplified characters, then by adopting entirely the PRC simplified characters. It has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides practice reading each of these systems, and most Chinese readers are capable of, if not necessarily comfortable with, reading the alternative system through experience and guesswork. A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a mainland newspaper. The PRC defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000. A large unabridged dictionary like the Kangxi dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used. === Romanization === Romanization is the process of transcribing a language into the Latin script. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century. Today the most common romanization for Standard Chinese is Hanyu Pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the PRC, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside. The second-most common romanization system, the Wade–Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels–it is largely an anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and was widely used in Taiwan until 2009. When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles's extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with (pinyin), and with than (Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which are not, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four. For comparison: Other systems include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale system (invented for use by US troops during World War II), as well as distinct systems for the phonetic requirements of Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other varieties. === Other phonetic transcriptions === Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. Bopomofo (or zhuyin) is a semi-syllabary that is still widely used in Taiwan to aid standard pronunciation. There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system. == As a foreign language == With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Standard Chinese instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world. Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities. In 1991, there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test, called Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK), comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate, but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660 and in 2010 to 750,000.	[ "Lower Yangtze Mandarin", "Hong Kong", "Silk Road", "Shang dynasty", "Chinese domination of Vietnam", "Singapore", "Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese", "Altaic", "Southwestern Mandarin", "Yale romanization of Mandarin", "Chinese Buddhism", "pictograph", "checked tone", "Han Chinese", "Shanghainese", "Han unification", "cursive script (East Asia)", "Confucius", "State Language Commission", "orthography", "Taiwanese people", "Taishanese", "lect", "Indo-European", "Central Asia", "Republic of China", "grammatical mood", "Waxianghua", "Late Shang", "I Ching", "Yunjing", "Languages of Singapore", "Pinghua", "logography", "Newspapers of the People's Republic of China", "grammatical inflection", "phono-semantic matching", "Spring and Autumn period", "Cyrillic", "vernacular", "China", "cyrillization", "analytic language", "Chinese calligraphy", "Tibetic languages", "dim sum", "The Economist", "Gobi", "oracle bone inscriptions", "Macau", "language", "Sino-Tibetan language family", "Palladius system", "Written Cantonese", "Japanese language", "CC-CEDICT", "grammatical particle", "Sino-Tibetan language", "Yue Chinese", "NPR", "vowel harmony", "consonant cluster", "hanja", "Qing dynasties", "simplified characters", "Xiao'erjing", "Promote Mandarin Council", "stop consonant", "loanword", "inflectional morphology", "Xinhua News Agency", "Xuanzhou Wu Chinese", "Wang Xizhi", "ideograph", "Jin Chinese", "Four Commanderies of Han", "semivowel", "Old Chinese", "Encyclopedia of China", "triphthong", "Austronesian language", "Chinese exclamative particles", "Wade–Giles", "National Languages Committee", "kanji", "syllabary", "Language Atlas of China", "Semi-cursive script", "Vietnamese language", "Chinese word-segmented writing", "Suzhounese", "tone (linguistics)", "Latin script", "Wu Chinese", "Ancient Greek", "Qieyun", "grammatical voice", "Hakka Chinese", "serial verb construction", "Taiwanese Hokkien", "Diglossia", "Standard Cantonese", "Xiandai Hanyu Cidian", "People's Republic of China", "Old Mandarin", "Nanjing dialect", "Radical (Chinese character)", "ScienceDaily", "phonologically", "consonant", "Sun Yat-sen", "Mario", "koiné language", "pitch accent", "derivational affix", "Dialect continuum", "Throughline", "varieties of Chinese", "Wenzhounese", "null subject language", "sound change", "Dungan language", "Pali", "Taishan, Guangdong", "semi-syllabary", "variety of Chinese", "Nüshu", "Yuen Ren Chao", "koiné", "hutong", "Hanyu Da Zidian", "Neutral tone", "Sinitic languages", "North China Plain", "Chao tone", "Cihai", "Chinese numerals", "Xu Shen", "syllable coda", "Standard Chinese", "Chinese computational linguistics", "sanqu", "Hainanese", "University of Cambridge ESOL examination", "Guangdong", "North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics", "Northern and Southern dynasties", "Vietnamese alphabet", "Romanization", "rhyme table", "calque", "Classic of Poetry", "Book of Documents", "Huizhou Chinese", "Civil Affairs Staging Area", "Chinese Language Standardisation Council", "Proto-Sino-Tibetan", "Gwoyeu Romatzyh", "Xiang Chinese", "phonology of Old Chinese", "proper noun", "classifier (linguistics)", "Classical Chinese grammar", "Beijing", "Tone (linguistics)", "Bound and free morphemes", "Middle Chinese", "rhyme dictionaries", "Taiwan", "official languages of the United Nations", "Analytic language", "Fu Maoji", "Hunan", "Sichuanese Mandarin", "Traditional characters", "grammatical aspect", "Guangzhou", "Western Zhou", "Fuzhounese", "Qing", "Simplified characters", "Language family", "Southern Min", "Chinese braille (disambiguation)", "Central Plains Mandarin", "Danzhou dialect", "Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)", "Dungan people", "Hui people", "Varieties of Chinese", "Arabic script", "Chinese honorifics", "phonetic erosion", "Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi", "vowel", "ʼPhags-pa", "standard language", "Burmese language", "Han dynasty", "pro-drop language", "Sino-Japanese words", "seal script", "language variety", "Austroasiatic", "Cambridge University Press", "Sui dynasty", "monophthong", "Names of China", "Overseas Chinese", "languages of Taiwan", "Tang dynasty", "Menggu Ziyun", "diasystem", "compound word", "Chinese characters", "kumquat", "Malaysia", "Chinese punctuation", "Taipei", "Beijing dialect", "Mandarin Chinese", "Pentium", "Min Chinese", "Mao Zedong", "kana", "Gan Chinese", "topic–comment", "regular script", "Hanyu Da Cidian", "Bluetooth", "Zhonghua Zihai", "anglicization", "Morphology (linguistics)", "Regional language", "Sino-Xenic pronunciations", "Chengyu", "Eastern Han Chinese", "Northern and Southern period", "syllable nucleus", "syntax", "tenses", "diphthong", "soft power", "Song dynasty", "Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den", "written Chinese", "Chinese bronze inscriptions", "Wuzhou", "Yuan dynasty", "Sino-Xenic vocabularies", "international scientific vocabulary", "glyph", "dialect continuum", "Hokkien", "first language", "Classical Chinese", "May Fourth Movement", "Hakka Affairs Council", "Jin dynasty (1115–1234)", "Ming", "Himalayas", "dialect", "measure word", "List of English words of Chinese origin", "mutual intelligibility", "Cantonese", "Teochew dialect", "Simplified Chinese characters", "moraic", "written vernacular Chinese", "Hainan", "Article (grammar)", "shorthand", "Pinyin", "Jerry Norman (sinologist)", "Sanskrit", "inflection", "chữ Nôm", "Jyutping", "subject–verb–object word order", "Zhongyuan Yinyun", "Southeast Asian Massif", "diglossia", "hangul", "Kangxi Dictionary", "Yale romanization of Cantonese", "Christianity in China", "grammatical number", "EFEO Chinese transcription", "homophone", "'Phags-pa script", "Hanyu Pinyin", "Chinese language law", "Shaozhou Tuhua", "syllable onset", "University of Hawaiʻi Press", "Traditional Chinese characters", "New Xiang", "Tibeto-Burman languages", "clerical script", "rhyme dictionary", "Chiang Kai-shek", "Li Rong (linguist)", "Sinitic", "Latin", "Chinese diaspora", "Languages of China", "Bopomofo", "wasei-kango", "Singapore Chinese characters", "Korean language", "Hakka language", "oracle bone", "Nanjing", "morpheme", "Chinese Buddhist canon", "words", "Fujian", "List of ethnic groups in China", "Northern Song", "Subway (restaurant)", "Pearl River", "Ministry of Education (Singapore)", "Protection of the varieties of Chinese" ]
5,759	Complex analysis	Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable, is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex numbers. It is helpful in many branches of mathematics, including algebraic geometry, number theory, analytic combinatorics, and applied mathematics, as well as in physics, including the branches of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, and twistor theory. By extension, use of complex analysis also has applications in engineering fields such as nuclear, aerospace, mechanical and electrical engineering. As a differentiable function of a complex variable is equal to the sum function given by its Taylor series (that is, it is analytic), complex analysis is particularly concerned with analytic functions of a complex variable, that is, holomorphic functions. The concept can be extended to functions of several complex variables. Complex analysis is contrasted with real analysis, which deals with the study of real numbers and functions of a real variable. == History == Complex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics, with roots in the 18th century and just prior. Important mathematicians associated with complex numbers include Euler, Gauss, Riemann, Cauchy, Weierstrass, and many more in the 20th century. Complex analysis, in particular the theory of conformal mappings, has many physical applications and is also used throughout analytic number theory. In modern times, it has become very popular through a new boost from complex dynamics and the pictures of fractals produced by iterating holomorphic functions. Another important application of complex analysis is in string theory which examines conformal invariants in quantum field theory. == Complex functions == A complex function is a function from complex numbers to complex numbers. In other words, it is a function that has a (not necessarily proper) subset of the complex numbers as a domain and the complex numbers as a codomain. Complex functions are generally assumed to have a domain that contains a nonempty open subset of the complex plane. For any complex function, the values z from the domain and their images f(z) in the range may be separated into real and imaginary parts: z=x+iy \quad \text{ and } \quad f(z) = f(x+iy)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y), where x,y,u(x,y),v(x,y) are all real-valued. In other words, a complex function f:\mathbb{C}\to\mathbb{C} may be decomposed into u:\mathbb{R}^2\to\mathbb{R} \quad and \quad v:\mathbb{R}^2\to\mathbb{R}, i.e., into two real-valued functions (u, v) of two real variables (x, y). Similarly, any complex-valued function on an arbitrary set (is isomorphic to, and therefore, in that sense, it) can be considered as an ordered pair of two real-valued functions: or, alternatively, as a vector-valued function from into \mathbb R^2. Some properties of complex-valued functions (such as continuity) are nothing more than the corresponding properties of vector valued functions of two real variables. Other concepts of complex analysis, such as differentiability, are direct generalizations of the similar concepts for real functions, but may have very different properties. In particular, every differentiable complex function is analytic (see next section), and two differentiable functions that are equal in a neighborhood of a point are equal on the intersection of their domain (if the domains are connected). The latter property is the basis of the principle of analytic continuation which allows extending every real analytic function in a unique way for getting a complex analytic function whose domain is the whole complex plane with a finite number of curve arcs removed. Many basic and special complex functions are defined in this way, including the complex exponential function, complex logarithm functions, and trigonometric functions. == Holomorphic functions == Complex functions that are differentiable at every point of an open subset \Omega of the complex plane are said to be holomorphic on In the context of complex analysis, the derivative of f at z_0 is defined to be f'(z_0) = \lim_{z \to z_0} \frac{f(z)-f(z_0)}{z-z_0}. Superficially, this definition is formally analogous to that of the derivative of a real function. However, complex derivatives and differentiable functions behave in significantly different ways compared to their real counterparts. In particular, for this limit to exist, the value of the difference quotient must approach the same complex number, regardless of the manner in which we approach z_0 in the complex plane. Consequently, complex differentiability has much stronger implications than real differentiability. For instance, holomorphic functions are infinitely differentiable, whereas the existence of the nth derivative need not imply the existence of the (n + 1)th derivative for real functions. Furthermore, all holomorphic functions satisfy the stronger condition of analyticity, meaning that the function is, at every point in its domain, locally given by a convergent power series. In essence, this means that functions holomorphic on \Omega can be approximated arbitrarily well by polynomials in some neighborhood of every point in \Omega. This stands in sharp contrast to differentiable real functions; there are infinitely differentiable real functions that are nowhere analytic; see . Most elementary functions, including the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and all polynomial functions, extended appropriately to complex arguments as functions are holomorphic over the entire complex plane, making them entire functions, while rational functions p/q, where p and q are polynomials, are holomorphic on domains that exclude points where q is zero. Such functions that are holomorphic everywhere except a set of isolated points are known as meromorphic functions. On the other hand, the functions and z\mapsto \bar{z} are not holomorphic anywhere on the complex plane, as can be shown by their failure to satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann conditions (see below). An important property of holomorphic functions is the relationship between the partial derivatives of their real and imaginary components, known as the Cauchy–Riemann conditions. If f:\mathbb{C}\to\mathbb{C}, defined by where is holomorphic on a region then for all z_0\in \Omega, \frac{\partial f}{\partial\bar{z}}(z_0) = 0,\ \text{where } \frac\partial{\partial\bar{z}} \mathrel{:=} \frac12\left(\frac\partial{\partial x} + i\frac\partial{\partial y}\right). In terms of the real and imaginary parts of the function, u and v, this is equivalent to the pair of equations u_x = v_y and u_y=-v_x, where the subscripts indicate partial differentiation. However, the Cauchy–Riemann conditions do not characterize holomorphic functions, without additional continuity conditions (see Looman–Menchoff theorem). Holomorphic functions exhibit some remarkable features. For instance, Picard's theorem asserts that the range of an entire function can take only three possible forms: or \{z_0\} for some In other words, if two distinct complex numbers z and w are not in the range of an entire function then f is a constant function. Moreover, a holomorphic function on a connected open set is determined by its restriction to any nonempty open subset. ==Conformal map== == Major results == One of the central tools in complex analysis is the line integral. The line integral around a closed path of a function that is holomorphic everywhere inside the area bounded by the closed path is always zero, as is stated by the Cauchy integral theorem. The values of such a holomorphic function inside a disk can be computed by a path integral on the disk's boundary (as shown in Cauchy's integral formula). Path integrals in the complex plane are often used to determine complicated real integrals, and here the theory of residues among others is applicable (see methods of contour integration). A "pole" (or isolated singularity) of a function is a point where the function's value becomes unbounded, or "blows up". If a function has such a pole, then one can compute the function's residue there, which can be used to compute path integrals involving the function; this is the content of the powerful residue theorem. The remarkable behavior of holomorphic functions near essential singularities is described by Picard's theorem. Functions that have only poles but no essential singularities are called meromorphic. Laurent series are the complex-valued equivalent to Taylor series, but can be used to study the behavior of functions near singularities through infinite sums of more well understood functions, such as polynomials. A bounded function that is holomorphic in the entire complex plane must be constant; this is Liouville's theorem. It can be used to provide a natural and short proof for the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. If a function is holomorphic throughout a connected domain then its values are fully determined by its values on any smaller subdomain. The function on the larger domain is said to be analytically continued from its values on the smaller domain. This allows the extension of the definition of functions, such as the Riemann zeta function, which are initially defined in terms of infinite sums that converge only on limited domains to almost the entire complex plane. Sometimes, as in the case of the natural logarithm, it is impossible to analytically continue a holomorphic function to a non-simply connected domain in the complex plane but it is possible to extend it to a holomorphic function on a closely related surface known as a Riemann surface. All this refers to complex analysis in one variable. There is also a very rich theory of complex analysis in more than one complex dimension in which the analytic properties such as power series expansion carry over whereas most of the geometric properties of holomorphic functions in one complex dimension (such as conformality) do not carry over. The Riemann mapping theorem about the conformal relationship of certain domains in the complex plane, which may be the most important result in the one-dimensional theory, fails dramatically in higher dimensions. A major application of certain complex spaces is in quantum mechanics as wave functions.	[ "physics", "Laurent series", "infinitely differentiable", "Argument (complex analysis)", "Vector calculus", "Constantin Carathéodory", "Elias M. Stein", "analytic combinatorics", "Cauchy integral theorem", "Liouville's theorem (complex analysis)", "aerospace engineering", "Peter Henrici (mathematician)", "function of a real variable", "Cauchy", "Weierstrass", "George N. Watson", "Jerrold E. Marsden", "A Course of Modern Analysis", "holomorphic function", "trigonometric functions", "special functions", "Erwin Kreyszig", "neighborhood (mathematics)", "Max Krook", "natural logarithm", "real analysis", "holomorphic functions", "trigonometric function", "wave function", "open subset", "analytic number theory", "Tristan Needham", "Monodromy theorem", "Domain of a function", "isomorphic", "Imaginary number", "residue (complex analysis)", "Picard theorem", "continuous function", "Walter Rudin", "exponential function", "Édouard Goursat", "Fundamental Theorem of Algebra", "vector-valued function", "entire functions", "differentiable", "Complex Hilbert space", "Euler", "complex logarithm", "Hue", "conformality", "analytic continuation", "mathematical analysis", "complex plane", "brightness", "Aleksei Ivanovich Markushevich", "applied mathematics", "complex numbers", "thermodynamics", "Riemann–Roch theorem", "Edmund T. Whittaker", "isolated singularity", "Taylor series", "List of complex analysis topics", "Reinhold Remmert", "complex number", "Complex geometry", "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "Lars Ahlfors", "meromorphic", "Real number", "ordered pair", "functions of several complex variables", "integer", "Cauchy's integral formula", "Riemann zeta function", "Mark J. Ablowitz", "Edward Charles Titchmarsh", "electrical engineering", "mechanical engineering", "Mikhail Lavrentyev", "Bernhard Riemann", "open set", "twistor theory", "John B. Conway", "complex dynamics", "codomain", "hydrodynamics", "quantum field theory", "Andrew Forsyth", "polynomial", "number theory", "Function series", "real number", "George F. Carrier", "Function (mathematics)", "Region (mathematics)", "Runge's theorem", "geometric progression", "real-valued function", "Analyticity of holomorphic functions", "Essential singularity", "Connected space", "field (mathematics)", "Looman–Menchoff theorem", "Eberhard Freitag", "Andrey Nikolayevich Tikhonov", "Riemann mapping theorem", "string theory", "differentiability", "connected space", "Absolute value", "quantum mechanics", "arc (geometry)", "residue theorem", "Aleksei Sveshnikov", "conformal mapping", "Cauchy–Riemann conditions", "line integral", "power series", "differentiable function", "methods of contour integration", "nuclear engineering", "Riemann surface", "Function of several complex variables", "bounded function", "algebraic geometry", "fractal", "set (mathematics)", "Hypercomplex analysis", "Athanassios S. Fokas", "function (mathematics)", "analytic function", "algebraically closed field", "Henri Cartan" ]
5,760	History of China	The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Yellow River valley, which along with the Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the dynastic cycle: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into the past, making it one of the cradles of civilization. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the Tian Shan, the Tarim Basin, and the Himalayas, as far north as the Sayan Mountains, and as far south as the delta of the Red River. The Neolithic period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The Erlitou culture in the central plains of China is sometimes identified with the Xia dynasty (3rd millennium BC) of traditional Chinese historiography. The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed on oracle bones. Chinese bronze inscriptions, ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include poetry, divination, and records of official speeches. China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. The culture remembered by the earliest extant literature is that of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC), China's Axial Age, during which the Mandate of Heaven was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Wuxing. China was first united under a single imperial state by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. Orthography, weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with the Han dynasty (202 BC220 AD), marking a critical period. A term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known as Han Chinese. The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period. Confucianism was officially sanctioned and its core texts were edited into their received forms. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous Roman Empire: mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards. China became known internationally for its sericulture. When the Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during which Buddhism began to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, while calligraphy, art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere. A period of unity began in 581 with the Sui dynasty, which soon gave way to the long-lived Tang dynasty (608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age. The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's only officially recognized empress, Wu Zetian, reigned during the dynasty's first century. Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors. "Tang people" is the other common demonym for the Han ethnic group. After the Tang fractured, the Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development. Mechanical printing was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are wood-block prints from this era. Song scientific advancement led the world, and the imperial examination system gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in Neo-Confucianism. Eventually, the Mongol Empire conquered all of China, establishing the Yuan dynasty in 1271. Contact with Europe began to increase during this time. Achievements under the subsequent Ming dynasty (1368–1644) include global exploration, fine porcelain, and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring the Grand Canal and Great Wall. Three of the four Classic Chinese Novels were written during the Ming. The Qing dynasty that succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnic Manchu people. The Qianlong emperor ( 1735–1796) commissioned a complete encyclopaedia of imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in the Opium Wars and subsequent unequal treaties. The 1911 Xinhai Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen and others, created the Republic of China. From 1927 to 1949, a costly civil war roiled between the Republican government under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communist-aligned Chinese Red Army, interrupted by the industrialized Empire of Japan invading the divided country until its defeat in the Second World War. After the Communist victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, with the ROC retreating to Taiwan. Both governments still claim sole legitimacy of the entire mainland area. The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed to this day. From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution in mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life. After his death, the government began economic reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and became the world's fastest-growing major economy. China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades since its unification, until it was surpassed by India in 2023. ==Prehistory== ===Paleolithic (1.7 Ma – 12 ka)=== The archaic human species of Homo erectus arrived in Eurasia sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China. The oldest of these is the southwestern Yuanmou Man (; in Yunnan), dated to 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed bushland-forest environment alongside chalicotheres, deer, the elephant Stegodon, rhinos, cattle, pigs, and the giant short-faced hyena. The better-known Peking Man (; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 BP, was discovered in the Zhoukoudian cave alongside scrapers, choppers, and, dated slightly later, points, burins, and awls. Other Homo erectus fossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwestern Lantian Man in Shaanxi, as well minor specimens in northeastern Liaoning and southern Guangdong. The dates of most Paleolithic sites were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern magnetostratigraphy: Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, Xiaochangliang at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, Banshan at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma. Evidence of fire use by Homo erectus occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site of Xihoudu, Shanxi Province. The circumstances surrounding the evolution of Homo erectus to contemporary H. sapiens is debated; the three main theories include the dominant "Out of Africa" theory (OOA), the regional continuity model and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis. Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in Fuyan Cave of Dao County, Hunan. The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinct Ailuropoda baconi panda, the Crocuta ultima hyena, the Stegodon, and the giant tapir. Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago. ===Neolithic=== The Neolithic Age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago. Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago. The Jiahu site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called proto-writing, were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like Taosi and the Liangzhu culture in the Yangtze delta. The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the Longshan culture (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop. Fruit such as peaches, cherries and oranges, as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China. The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC) site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the state of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings. Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangtze valley. A bronze hatchet with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. ==Ancient China== Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang. This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally. The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in this period, with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty. ===Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)=== The Xia dynasty () is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes the Bamboo Annals and Sima Qian's Shiji (). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at Erlitou (1900–1500 BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia. In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts. More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou. === Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)=== Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty (). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at Erligang (modern Zhengzhou). Findings have been found at Yinxu (near modern Anyang, Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during the Late Shang period (). The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the oracle bones, dating from . A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. Throughout their reigns, according to the Shiji, the capital city was moved six times. The final and most important move was to Yin during the reign of Wu Ding . The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty. Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper. ===Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)=== The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the Shang. A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region. Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings. The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven (tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou established two capitals Zongzhou (near modern Xi'an) and Chengzhou (Luoyang), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley. beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famous Spring and Autumn Annals. The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds of settlement states, some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony. The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time. By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period. Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and partitioned the state between them. The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture. ====Warring States period (476–221 BC)==== After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th centuryBC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as the Warring States period. Though the Zhou king nominally remained as such until 256BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power. Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the Zuo Zhuan within the Spring and Autumn Annals (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, dated to 305BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table. The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period. As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of commanderies and prefectures. This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous sheng and xian ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China. The state of Qin became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the Shu capital of Jinsha on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving Chu from its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse. It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade. After Emperor Wu the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang. ==== Xin dynasty ==== In AD 9 the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. ==== Eastern Han ==== Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang, east of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the Eastern Han dynasty. With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang, former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated. The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea, thus reopening the Silk Road, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the arrival of Buddhism. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284. The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific eras of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous polymath Zhang Heng. ===Six Dynasties=== ====Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)==== By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms dramatizes events of this period. The warlord Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han, thus initiating the Wei dynasty. Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families. In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived. ====Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)==== The Jin dynasty reunited China proper for the first time since the end of the Han dynasty, ending the Three Kingdoms era. However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by the War of the Eight Princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang'an. In 317, the Jin prince Sima Rui, based in modern-day Nanjing, became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin. ====Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)==== Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, most of which were founded by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Tibetans. Many had, to some extent, been "sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta. ====Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)==== In the early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and finally Chen. Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify. In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei, a kingdom founded by the Xianbei, a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei, which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han. Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and Taoists had become much more tolerant of each other. ===Mid-imperial China=== ====Sui dynasty (581–618)==== The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded by Emperor Wen in 581 in succession of the Northern Zhou, the Sui went on to conquer the Southern Chen in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system of Three Departments and Six Ministries, imperial examinations for selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of fubing system of the army conscription and the equal-field system of land distributions. These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state. Standardized coinage was enforced throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the Grand Canal was constructed, linking the capitals Daxing (Chang'an) and Luoyang to the wealthy southeast region, and in another route, to the northeast border. The Great Wall was also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of the Korean Peninsula during the Goguryeo–Sui War failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to the fall of the dynasty. ====Tang dynasty (618–907)==== The Tang dynasty was a golden age of Chinese civilization, a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularly poetry, and technology. Buddhism became the predominant religion for the common people. Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, was the largest city in the world during its time. The first emperor, Emperor Gaozu, came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor, Taizong, one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history. Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought neighboring states into a tributary system. Military victories in the Tarim Basin kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such as Guangzhou connected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notably Japan. Internally the Grand Canal linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator travelled to India on his own and returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics." The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy. The government was organized as "Three Departments and Six Ministries" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were joined or replaced by scholar officials selected by imperial examinations, setting patterns for later dynasties. Under the Tang "equal-field system" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to each family according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the fubing system. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however, standing armies had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions granted exemptions. The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress Wu Zetian, the only official empress regnant in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign of Emperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the Aral Sea with at least people. There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese poets, Li Bai and Du Fu. At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the An Lushan Rebellion from 755 to 763 was a watershed event. War, disease, and economic disruption devastated the population and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as jiedushi, gained increasingly autonomous status as the central government lost its ability to control them. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government came to rely heavily on its salt monopoly. Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were lost for centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy. In late Tang period the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fierce factional strife and corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power. Catastrophically, the Huang Chao Rebellion, from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of the southern port Guangzhou in 879 was followed by the massacre of most of its inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves. By 881, both capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, fell successively. The reliance on ethnic Han and Turkic warlords in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence. Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following Zhu Wen's usurpation led to an era of division. In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them. The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik. The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin (Li Guochang) served the Tang dynasty in fighting against their fellow Turkic people in the Uyghur Khaganate. In 839, when the Uyghur khaganate (Huigu) general Jueluowu (掘羅勿) rose against the rule of then-reigning Zhangxin Khan, he elicited the help from Zhuye Chixin by giving Zhuye 300 horses, and together, they defeated Zhangxin Khan, who then committed suicide, precipitating the subsequent collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate. In the next few years, when Uyghur Khaganate remnants tried to raid Tang borders, the Shatuo participated extensively in counterattacking the Uyghur Khaganate with other tribes loyal to Tang. In 843, Zhuye Chixin, under the command of the Han Chinese officer Shi Xiong with Tuyuhun, Tangut and Han Chinese troops, participated in a raid against the Uyghur khaganate that led to the slaughter of Uyghur forces at Shahu mountain. ====Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)==== The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later) Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou, rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) Tang, Jin and Han were sinicized Shatuo Turks, which ruled over an ethnic majority of Han Chinese in the north. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the "Ten Kingdoms". Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (region along today's Great Wall) were ceded to the emerging Khitan Liao dynasty, which drastically weakened the defense of China proper against northern nomadic empires. To the south, Vietnam gained lasting independence after being a Chinese prefecture for many centuries. With wars dominating in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin, and the establishment of the Song dynasty in 960, which eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms" and reunified China. ===Late imperial China=== ====Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)==== In 960, the Song dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu, with its capital established in Kaifeng (then known as Bianjing). In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most of China proper, while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied by sinicized nomadic empires. The Khitan Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of Northern China. Meanwhile, in what are now the north-western Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia, the Tangut tribes founded the Western Xia dynasty from 1032 to 1227. Aiming to recover the strategic sixteen prefectures lost in the previous dynasty, campaigns were launched against the Liao dynasty in the early Song period, which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liao cavalry swept over the exposed North China Plain and reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission and then agreement to the Chanyuan Treaty, which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditional tributary system. Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the Liao Empire, at the expense of its military might which was derived from its nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social-economical consequences occurred in Song's relations with the Jin dynasty. Within the Liao Empire the Jurchen tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jin cataphract annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the Qara Khitai Empire (Western Liao dynasty). Jin's invasion of the Song dynasty followed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the Jingkang Incident, ending the Northern Song dynasty. Later the entire north of China was conquered. The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of Hangzhou, and initiated the Southern Song dynasty, which ruled territories south of the Huai River. In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended with the Mongol conquest, as Western Xia fell in 1227, the Jin dynasty in 1234, and finally the Southern Song dynasty in 1279. Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. The Song economy, facilitated by technological advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. The population soared to over and the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both the most populous cities in the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there was extensive maritime trade with neighbouring states, such as in South-east Asia, which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange. Giant wooden vessels equipped with compasses traveled throughout the China Seas and northern Indian Ocean. The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritime shipments. With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of paper currency emerged in the western city of Chengdu, as a cheaper supplement to the existing copper coins. The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020–1101) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Inventions such as the hydro-mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain, woodblock printing and paper money were all invented during the Song dynasty, further cementing its status. There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the innovative historical narrative Zizhi Tongjian ("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"). The invention of movable-type printing further facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as Along the River During the Qingming Festival and Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific Lin Tinggui. The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the history of warfare. Gunpowder, while invented in the Tang dynasty, was first put into practical use on the battlefield by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new firearms and siege engines designs. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the Yangtze and Huai River against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established at Dinghai. Paddle-wheel warships equipped with trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs made of gunpowder and lime to effect, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the Battle of Tangdao in the East China Sea, and the Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161. The advances in civilisation during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest of the North and subsequently other areas of the empire, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy. Despite viciously halting Mongol advances for more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the Battle of Yamen in 1279. ====Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)==== The Yuan dynasty was formally proclaimed in 1271, when the Great Khan of Mongol, Kublai Khan, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, assumed the additional title of Emperor of China, and considered his inherited part of the Mongol Empire as a Chinese dynasty. In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war. The Mongol Yuan dynasty became the first conquest dynasty in Chinese history to rule the entirety of China proper and its population as an ethnic minority. The dynasty also directly controlled the Mongol heartland and other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of the eastern Mongol empire, which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia. Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in the invasions of Japan and Vietnam. Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established at Khanbaliq (also known as Dadu, modern-day Beijing). The Grand Canal was reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to lively economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation for Beijing to largely remain as the capital of the successive regimes of the unified Chinese mainland. A series of Mongol civil wars in the late 13th century led to the division of the Mongol Empire. In 1304 the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominal Khagan over western khanates (the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate), which nonetheless remained de facto autonomous. The era was known as Pax Mongolica, when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols. For the first and only time in history, the Silk Road was controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange. A network of roads and a postal system were established to connect the vast empire. Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, with Quanzhou and Hangzhou emerging as the largest ports in the world. Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably the Venetian, Marco Polo, would settle in China for decades. Upon his return, his detail travel record inspired generations of medieval Europeans with the splendors of the far East. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, where paper currency, known at the time as Jiaochao, was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflicted hyperinflation, which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty. While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, their sinicization was of lesser extent compared to earlier conquest dynasties in Chinese history. For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the Mongolian Steppe were held in high regard. On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire. Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance. Large groups of foreign migrants settled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements. The class of scholar officials and intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks. There were prolific works in zaju variety shows and literary songs (sanqu), which were written in a distinctive poetry style known as qu. Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly people. This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed around a quarter of the population of China. Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance. Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters and incompetent, corrupt governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s. After the massive naval engagement at Lake Poyang, Zhu Yuanzhang prevailed over other rebel forces in the south. He proclaimed himself emperor and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368. The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq. The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia and sustained the regime, but the period of Yuan dominance was effectively over for good. Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China. ====Ming dynasty (1368–1644)==== The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as the Hongwu Emperor. The capital was initially set at Nanjing, and was later moved to Beijing from Yongle Emperor's reign onward. Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He. The Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of a Chinese dynasty who was also of peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture. Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previous Song and Yuan dynasties, were less emphasized. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived. The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the "Grand Secretariat" to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline. The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops was created. The Chinese armies conquered and occupied Vietnam for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern Moghulistan. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. In 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu. Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the Ming Great Wall being built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length. At sea the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed the Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the maritime prohibition laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of the Age of Discovery were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being repulsed by the Ming navy at Tuen Mun in 1521 and again in 1522. Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread wokou piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor (1507–1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in Guangdong and Fujian and much military suppression. In addition to raids from Japan by the wokou, raids from Taiwan and the Philippines by the Pisheye also ravaged the southern coasts. The Portuguese were allowed to settle in Macau in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. After the Spanish invasion of the Philippines, trade with the Spanish at Manila imported large quantities of Mexican and Peruvian silver from the Spanish Americas to China. The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the Penghu islands in the Sino-Dutch conflicts of 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead. The Dutch in Taiwan fought with the Ming in the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist Koxinga in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty. In 1556, during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor, the Shaanxi earthquake killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time. The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of the Joseon dynasty, its traditional ally and tributary state. The regional hegemony of the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources. Coincidentally, with Ming's control in Manchuria in decline, the Manchu (Jurchen) tribes, under their chieftain Nurhaci, broke away from Ming's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which was later proclaimed as the Qing dynasty. It went on to subdue the much weakened Korea as its tributary, conquered Mongolia, and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall. The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at the Shanhai Pass to guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internal peasants uprisings. ====Qing dynasty (1644–1912)==== The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the Manchus, it was the second conquest dynasty to rule the entirety of China proper, and roughly doubled the territory controlled by the Ming. The Manchus were formerly known as Jurchens, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and his son, Hong Taiji, declared the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636. The Qing dynasty set up the Eight Banners system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military conquest. Li Zicheng's peasant rebellion captured Beijing in 1644 and the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus allied with the Ming general Wu Sangui to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the Ming remnants in the south. During the Ming-Qing transition, when the Ming dynasty and later the Southern Ming, the emerging Qing dynasty, and several other factions like the Shun dynasty and Xi dynasty founded by peasant revolt leaders fought against each another, which, along with innumerable natural disasters at that time such as those caused by the Little Ice Age and epidemics like the Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty, caused enormous loss of lives and significant harm to the economy. In total, these decades saw the loss of as many as lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts. The early Manchu emperors combined traditions of Inner Asian rule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and were considered a Chinese dynasty. The Manchus enforced a 'queue order', forcing Han Chinese men to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle. Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothing Changshan (bannermen dress and Tangzhuang), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear traditional Han clothing. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered aristocracy and were given annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth. The Kangxi Emperor ordered the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary, the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled. Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing. Conquests in Central Asia in the eighteenth century extended territorial control. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel Kingdom of Tungning, which was founded by the Ming loyalist Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qing defeated the Russians at Albazin, resulting in the Treaty of Nerchinsk. By the end of Qianlong Emperor's long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. The Qing ruled more than one-third of the world's population, and had the largest economy in the world. By area it was one of the largest empires ever. In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842), under which Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and importation of opium (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability. Subsequent military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty. Internally the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), a Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" Hong Xiuquan swept from the south to establish the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and controlled roughly a third of China proper for over a decade. The court in desperation empowered Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan to raise local armies. After initial defeats, Zeng crushed the rebels in the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864. This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million. A string of civil disturbances followed, including the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars, Nian Rebellion, Dungan Revolt, and Panthay Rebellion. All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials used their military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces. Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Patricia Ebrey: "Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations." In the 1920s Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation. He welcomed assistance from the Soviet Union (itself fresh from Lenin's Communist takeover) and he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the Nationalist Party (KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in the Northern Expedition (1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in the south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North and establish the Nationalist government in Nanjing. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and relentlessly purged the Communists elements in his NRA. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic, the CCP forces embarked on the Long March across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, a feat transformed into legend, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi. During the Long March, the communists reorganised under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung). The bitter Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a United Front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), which became a part of World War II, although this alliance was tenuous at best and disagreements, sometimes violent, between the forces were still common. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see Unit 731) and the Three Alls Policy (Sankō Sakusen), namely being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All". During the war, China was recognized as one of the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations, as a tribute to its enduring struggle against the invading Japanese. China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war. Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CCP resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CCP had established control over most of the country. Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonised too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism. During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides. These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres. The Nationalists were slowly routed towards the South. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CCP forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government fled to Taiwan with its forces, along with Chiang and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China troops there. Until the early 1970s the ROC was recognised as the sole legitimate government of China by the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations, refusing to recognise the PRC on account of its status as a communist nation during the Cold War. This changed in 1971 when the PRC was seated in the United Nations, replacing the ROC. The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until 1987, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China. Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated during that period, and crackdowns against dissidents were common. In the 1990s the ROC underwent a major democratic reform, beginning with the 1991 resignation of the members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly elected in 1947. These groups were originally created to represent mainland China constituencies. Also lifted were the restrictions on the use of Taiwanese languages in the broadcast media and in schools. In 1996, the ROC held its first direct presidential election, and the incumbent president, KMT candidate Lee Teng-hui, was elected. In 2000, the KMT status as the ruling party ended when the DPP took power, only to regain its status in the 2008 election by Ma Ying-jeou. Due to the controversial nature of Taiwan's political status, the ROC is currently recognised by merely 12 UN member states and the Holy See as the legitimate government of "China". ===People's Republic of China (since 1949)=== Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to Taipei and maintaining control only over a few islands. The CCP was left in control of mainland China. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China. "Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC. The PRC was shaped by a series of campaigns and five-year plans. The Great Leap Forward, a radical campaign that encompassed numerous attempted economic and social reforms, resulted in tens of millions of deaths. Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted collectivisation and implemented the Laogai camp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which continued until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. Following the Sino-Soviet split and motivated by concerns of invasion by either the Soviet Union or the United States, China initiated the Third Front campaign to develop national defense and industrial infrastructure in its rugged interior. Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise. as market socialism, and officially by the CCP as Socialism with Chinese characteristics. The PRC adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989 the death of former general secretary Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when Army troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in considerable numbers of fatalities. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the communist government. CCP general secretary and PRC president Jiang Zemin and PRC premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%. The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001. By 1997 and 1999, former European colonies of British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau became the Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, respectively. Although the PRC needed economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's natural resources and environment. Another concern was that certain sectors of society were not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this was the wide gap between urban and rural areas in terms of development and prevalence of updated infrastructure. As a result, under former CCP general secretary and President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known . More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land, usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005. For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor. According to the U.S. Department of Defense, as many as 3 million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority groups are being held in China's internment camps which are located in the Xinjiang region and which Western news reports often label as "concentration camps". The camps were established in late 2010s under Xi Jinping's administration. Human Rights Watch says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a people's war on terror, a policy announced in 2014. The use of these centers appears to have ended in 2019 following international pressure. Academic Kerry Brown attributes their closures beginning in late 2019 to the expense required to operate them. China has repeatedly denied this, asserting that the West has never been able to produce reliably-sourced satellite footage of any such detainment or resulting detention of minority groups. Although no comprehensive independent surveys of such centres have been performed as of June 2024, spot checks by journalists have found such sites converted or abandoned. The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which causes the disease COVID-19, was first detected in Wuhan, Hubei in 2019 and led to a global pandemic, causing the majority of the world to enter a period of lockdown for at least a year following. File:PLA Enters Peking.jpg\|The People's Liberation Army enters Beijing in the Pingjin Campaign File:China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing 01.jpg\|People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg\|alt=Blue Sky White Sun Wholly Red Earth\|The flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949.	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5,762	Civil engineering	Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways. Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. Civil engineering can take place in the public sector from municipal public works departments through to federal government agencies, and in the private sector from locally based firms to Fortune Global 500 companies. ==History== === Civil engineering as a discipline === Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental science, mechanics, project management, and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads, and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes' principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations. === Civil engineering profession === Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization, and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used interchangeably. The constructions of pyramids in Egypt (–2500 BC) constitute some of the first instances of large structure constructions in history. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system in modern-day Iran (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than ), the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti () and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: ===Civil engineering education=== The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in civil engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905. In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich), coupled with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives: the Class of Civil Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in 1838, mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers, the private College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840. ==Education== Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology, or a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move on to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students with industry-accredited qualifications, some academic institutions offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest. == Practicing engineers == In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification, and a professional body certifies the degree program. After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), a chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union). There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders. The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients." This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec. No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by. Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law. ==Sub-disciplines== There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction. ===Coastal engineering=== Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively. Coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become popular as well. ===Construction engineering=== Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, and site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural, and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, such as drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitoring supply prices. ===Earthquake engineering=== Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes. ===Environmental engineering=== Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used. Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment, recycling, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions. ===Forensic engineering=== Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents. ===Geotechnical engineering=== Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge from the field of soil science, materials science, mechanics, and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and other structures. Environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo-environmental engineering. Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress), making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult. ===Materials science and engineering=== Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers. Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis. ===Site development and planning=== Site development, also known as site planning, is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from permitting issues and environmental challenges. ===Structural engineering=== Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aerostructure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering. Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructibility, safety, aesthetics and sustainability. ===Surveying=== Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction. Land surveying In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as Cadastral surveying. They collect data on important geological features below and on the land. Construction surveying Construction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks: Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when possible; "lay-out" or "setting-out": placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings; Verifying the location of structures during construction; As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans. ===Transportation engineering=== Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management. ===Municipal or urban engineering=== Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure. In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimization of waste collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority. Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads, parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.) ===Water resources engineering=== Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline, it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. However, the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering concerns the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others. ===Civil engineering systems=== Civil engineering systems is a discipline that promotes using systems thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its broader public context. It posits that the proper development of civil engineering infrastructure requires a holistic, coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the crucial factors that contribute to successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of attention to technical detail. Its purpose is to help integrate the entire civil engineering project life cycle from conception, through planning, designing, making, operating to decommissioning. ==Occupations in Civil Engineering== Following are jobs in civil engineering listed in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles.	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5,763	Cantonese (disambiguation)	Cantonese is a language originating in Canton, Guangdong. Cantonese may also refer to: Yue Chinese, Chinese languages that include Cantonese Cantonese cuisine, the cuisine of Guangdong Province Cantonese people, the native people of Guangdong and Guangxi Lingnan culture, the regional culture often referred to as Cantonese culture	[ "Cantopop", "Lingnan culture", "Cantonese Braille", "Cantonese people", "Yue Chinese", "Cantonese cuisine", "Cantonese" ]
5,765	Çatalhöyük	Çatalhöyük (English: Chatalhoyuk ; ; also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük; from Turkish çatal "fork" + höyük "tumulus") is a tell (a mounded accretion due to long-term human settlement) of a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5600 BC and flourished around 7000 BC. In July 2012, it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Çatalhöyük overlooks the Konya Plain, southeast of the present-day city of Konya (ancient Iconium) in Turkey, approximately from the twin-coned volcano of Mount Hasan. The eastern settlement forms a mound that would have risen about above the plain at the time of the latest Neolithic occupation. There is also a smaller settlement mound to the west and a Byzantine settlement a few hundred meters to the east. The prehistoric mound settlements were abandoned before the Bronze Age. A channel of the Çarşamba River once flowed between the two mounds, and the settlement was built on alluvial clay which may have been favorable for early agriculture. Currently, the closest river is the Euphrates. ==Archaeology== The site was first excavated by James Mellaart in 1958. He later led a team which further excavated there for four seasons between 1961 and 1965. These excavations revealed this section of Anatolia as a centre of advanced culture in the Neolithic period. Excavation revealed 18 successive layers of buildings signifying various stages of the settlement and eras of history. The bottom layer of buildings can be dated as early as 7100 BC while the top layer of the later West Mound is from 5600 BC. Mellaart was banned from Turkey for his involvement in the Dorak affair, in which he published drawings of supposedly important Bronze Age artifacts that later went missing. After this scandal, the site lay idle until 1993, when excavations began under the leadership of Ian Hodder, then at the University of Cambridge. The Hodder-led excavations ended in 2018. Hodder, a former student of Mellaart, chose the site as the first "real world" test of his the controversial theory of post-processual archaeology. The site has always had a strong research emphasis upon engagement with digital methodologies, driven by the project's experimental and reflexive methodological framework. According to Mickel, Hodder's Çatalhöyük Research Project (ÇRP) established itself as a site for progressive methodologiesin terms of adaptable and democratized recording, integration of computerized technologies, sampling strategies, and community involvement." New excavations are being directed by Ali Umut Türkcan from Anadolu University. ==Culture== Çatalhöyük was composed entirely of domestic buildings with no obvious public buildings. While some of the larger rooms have rather ornate murals, the purpose of others remains unclear. The sites were set up as large numbers of buildings clustered together. Households looked to their neighbors for help, trade, and possible marriage for their children. The inhabitants lived in mudbrick houses that were crammed together in an aggregate structure. No footpaths or streets were used between the dwellings, which were clustered in a honeycomb-like maze. Most were accessed by holes in the ceiling and doors on the side of the houses, with doors reached by ladders and stairs. The rooftops were effectively streets. The ceiling openings also served as the only source of ventilation, allowing smoke from the houses' open hearths and ovens to escape. Houses had plaster interiors accessed by squared-off timber ladders or steep stairs. These were usually on the south wall of the room, as were cooking hearths and ovens. The main rooms contained raised platforms that may have been used for a range of domestic activities. Typical houses contained two rooms for everyday activity, such as cooking and crafting. In good weather, many daily activities may also have taken place on the rooftops, which may have formed a plaza. In later periods, large communal ovens appear to have been built on these rooftops. Over time, houses were renewed by partial demolition and rebuilding on a foundation of rubble, which was how the mound was gradually built up. As many as eighteen levels of settlement have been uncovered. As a part of ritual life, the people of Çatalhöyük buried their dead within the village. Although no identifiable temples have been found, the graves, murals, and figurines suggest that the people of Çatalhöyük had a religion rich in symbols. Rooms with concentrations of these items may have been shrines or public meeting areas. Predominant images include men with erect phalluses, hunting scenes, red images of the now extinct aurochs (wild cattle) and stags, and vultures swooping down on headless figures. is frequently cited as the world's oldest map, and the first landscape painting. ==Religion== A feature of Çatalhöyük are its female figurines. Mellaart, the original excavator, argued that these carefully made figurines, carved and molded from marble, blue and brown limestone, schist, calcite, basalt, alabaster, and clay, represented a female deity. Although a male deity existed as well, "statues of a female deity far outnumber those of the male deity, who moreover, does not appear to be represented at all after Level VI". To date, eighteen levels have been identified. These figurines were found primarily in areas Mellaart believed to be shrines. The stately goddess seated on a throne flanked by two lionesses was found in a grain bin, which Mellaart suggests might have been a means of ensuring the harvest or protecting the food supply. Whereas Mellaart excavated nearly two hundred buildings in four seasons, the current excavator, Ian Hodder, spent an entire season excavating one building alone. Hodder and his team, in 2004 and 2005, began to believe that the patterns suggested by Mellaart were false. They found one similar figurine, but the vast majority did not imitate the Mother Goddess style that Mellaart suggested. Instead of a Mother Goddess culture, Hodder points out that the site gives little indication of a matriarchy or patriarchy. In an article in the Turkish Daily News, Hodder is reported as denying that Çatalhöyük was a matriarchal society and quoted as saying "When we look at what they eat and drink and at their social statues, we see that men and women had the same social status. There was a balance of power. Another example is the skulls found. If one's social status was of high importance in Çatalhöyük, the body and head were separated after death. The number of female and male skulls found during the excavations is almost equal." In another article in the Hurriyet Daily News Hodder is reported to say "We have learned that men and women were equally approached". In a report in September 2009 on the discovery of around 2000 figurines Hodder is quoted as saying: Professor Lynn Meskell explained that while the original excavations had found only 200 figures, the new excavations had uncovered 2,000 figures, most of which depicted animals, and fewer than 5% of the figurines depicted women. His theory was developed in the paper "Some remarks on the mythology of the people of Catal Hüyük". == Economy == Çatalhöyük has strong evidence of an egalitarian society, as no houses with distinctive features (belonging to royalty or religious hierarchy for example) have been found so far. The most recent investigations also reveal little social distinction based on gender, with men and women receiving equivalent nutrition and seeming to have equal social status, as typically found in Paleolithic cultures. Children observed domestic areas. They learned how to perform rituals and how to build or repair houses by watching the adults make statues, beads, and other objects. In the upper levels of the site, it becomes apparent that the people of Çatalhöyük were honing skills in agriculture and the domestication of animals. Female figurines have been found within bins used for storage of cereals, such as wheat and barley, and the figurines are presumed to be of a deity protecting the grain. Peas were also grown, and almonds, pistachios, and fruit were harvested from trees in the surrounding hills. Sheep were domesticated and evidence suggests the beginning of cattle domestication as well. However, hunting continued to be a major source of food for the community. Pottery and obsidian tools appear to have been major industries; obsidian tools were probably both used and also traded for items such as Mediterranean sea shells and flint from Syria. Noting the lack of hierarchy and economic inequality, historian and anti-capitalist author Murray Bookchin has argued that Çatalhöyük was an early example of anarcho-communism. Conversely, a 2014 paper argues that the picture of Çatalhöyük is more complex and that while there seemed to have been an egalitarian distribution of cooking tools and some stone tools, unbroken quern-stones and storage units were more unevenly distributed. Private property existed but shared tools also existed. It was also suggested that Çatalhöyük was becoming less egalitarian, with greater inter-generational wealth transmission. ==Museum== In 2023 a new state-of-the-art museum has opened on the site, constructed by the Konya municipality. In October 2024 a bookshop and cafe was added to the site. Non-Turkish visitors are charged five euros per person for entry. There are numerous visitor-activated information kiosks, some of which provide information in English as well as Turkish. Full information on all aspects of the various discoveries is available in eight rooms, including an underground reconstruction of a typical dwelling used by people of 90 centuries ago.	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5,766	Clement Attlee	Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee (3 January 18838 October 1967) was a British statesman who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. Attlee was Deputy Prime Minister during the wartime coalition government under Winston Churchill, and Leader of the Opposition on three occasions: from 1935 to 1940, briefly in 1945 and from 1951 to 1955. He remains the longest serving Labour leader. Attlee was born into an upper middle class family, the son of a wealthy London solicitor. After attending Haileybury College and the University of Oxford, he practised as a barrister. The volunteer work he carried out in London's East End exposed him to poverty, and his political views shifted leftwards thereafter. He joined the Independent Labour Party, gave up his legal career, and began lecturing at the London School of Economics; with his work briefly interrupted by service as an officer in the First World War. In 1919, he became mayor of Stepney and in 1922 was elected to Parliament as the Member for Limehouse. Attlee served in the first Labour minority government led by Ramsay MacDonald in 1924, and then joined the Cabinet during MacDonald's second minority (1929–1931). After retaining his seat in Labour's landslide defeat of 1931, he became the party's Deputy Leader. Elected Leader of the Labour Party in 1935, and at first advocating pacificism and opposing re-armament, he became a critic of Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement in the lead-up to the Second World War. Attlee took Labour into the wartime coalition government in 1940 and served under Winston Churchill, initially as Lord Privy Seal and then as Deputy Prime Minister from 1942. The Labour Party, led by Attlee, won a landslide victory in the 1945 general election, on their post-war recovery platform. They inherited a country close to bankruptcy following the Second World War and beset by food, housing and resource shortages. Attlee led the construction of the first Labour majority government, which aimed to maintain full employment, a mixed economy and a greatly enlarged system of social services provided by the state. To this end, it undertook the nationalisation of public utilities and major industries, and implemented wide-ranging social reforms, including the passing of the National Insurance Act 1946 and National Assistance Act 1948, the formation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948, and the enlargement of public subsidies for council house building. His government also reformed trade union legislation, working practices and children's services; it created the National Parks system, passed the New Towns Act 1946 and established the town and country planning system. Attlee's foreign policy focused on decolonisation efforts, including the partition of India (1947), the independence of Burma and Ceylon, and the dissolution of the British mandates of Palestine and Transjordan. Attlee and Bevin encouraged the United States to take a vigorous role in the Cold War. He supported the Marshall Plan to rebuild Western Europe with American money and, in 1949, promoted the NATO military alliance against the Soviet bloc. After leading Labour to a narrow victory at the 1950 general election, he sent British troops to fight alongside South Korea in the Korean War. Despite his social reforms and economic programme, the pre-existing wartime shortages of food, housing and resources persisted throughout his premiership, alongside recurrent currency crises and dependence on US aid. His party was narrowly defeated by the Conservatives in the 1951 general election, despite winning the most votes. He continued as Labour leader but retired after losing the 1955 general election and was elevated to the House of Lords, where he served until his death in 1967. In public, he was modest and unassuming, but behind the scenes his depth of knowledge, quiet demeanour, objectivity and pragmatism proved decisive. He is often ranked as one of the greatest British prime ministers, receiving particular praise for his government's welfare state reforms, creation of the NHS, continuation of the "Special Relationship" with the US, and involvement in NATO. His parents were "committed Anglicans" who read prayers and psalms each morning at breakfast. Attlee grew up in a two-storey villa with a large garden and tennis court, staffed by three servants and a gardener. His father, a political Liberal, had inherited family interests in milling and brewing, and became a senior partner in the law firm of Druces, also serving a term as president of the Law Society of England and Wales. In 1898 he purchased a estate, Comarques in Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex. At the age of nine, Attlee was sent to board at Northaw Place, a boys' preparatory school in Hertfordshire. In 1896 he followed his brothers to Haileybury College, where he was a middling student. He was influenced by the Darwinist views of his housemaster Frederick Webb Headley, and in 1899 he published an attack on striking London cab-drivers in the school magazine, predicting they would soon have to "beg for their fares". Attlee's father died in 1908, leaving an estate valued for probate at £75,394 (equivalent to £ in ). On 9 February 1915 he was promoted to captain, and on 14 March was appointed battalion adjutant. The 6th South Lancashires were part of the 38th Brigade of the 13th (Western) Division, which served in the Gallipoli campaign in Turkey. Attlee's decision to fight caused a rift between him and his older brother Tom, who, as a conscientious objector, spent much of the war in prison. After a period spent fighting in Gallipoli, Attlee collapsed after falling ill with dysentery and was put on a ship bound for England to recover. When he woke up he wanted to get back to action as soon as possible, and asked to be let off the ship in Malta, where he stayed in hospital in order to recover. His hospitalisation coincided with the Battle of Sari Bair, which saw a large number of his comrades killed. Upon returning to action, he was informed that his company had been chosen to hold the final lines during the evacuation of Suvla. As such, he was the penultimate man to be evacuated from Suvla Bay, the last being General Stanley Maude. The Gallipoli Campaign had been engineered by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. Although it was unsuccessful, Attlee believed that it was a bold strategy which could have been successful if it had been better implemented on the ground. This led to an admiration for Churchill as a military strategist, something which would make their working relationship in later years productive. He later served in the Mesopotamian campaign in what is now Iraq, where in April 1916 he was badly wounded, being hit in the leg by shrapnel from friendly fire while storming an enemy trench during the Battle of Hanna. The battle was an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the Siege of Kut, and many of Attlee's fellow soldiers were also wounded or killed. He was sent firstly to India, and then back to the UK to recover. On 18 December 1916 he was transferred to the Heavy Section of the Machine Gun Corps, and 1 March 1917 he was promoted to the temporary rank of major, leading him to be known as "Major Attlee" for much of the inter-war period. He would spend most of 1917 training soldiers at various locations in England. From 2 to 9 July 1917, he was the temporary commanding officer (CO) of the newly formed L (later 10th) Battalion, the Tank Corps at Bovington Camp, Dorset. From 9 July, he assumed command of the 30th Company of the same battalion; however, he did not deploy to France with it in December 1917, as he was transferred back to the South Lancashire Regiment on 28 November. After fully recovering from his injuries, he was sent to France in June 1918 to serve on the Western Front for the final months of the war. After being discharged from the Army in January 1919, he returned to Stepney, and returned to his old job lecturing part-time at the London School of Economics. ==Early political career== ===Local politics=== Attlee returned to local politics in the immediate post-war period, becoming mayor of the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney, one of London's most deprived inner-city boroughs, in 1919. During his time as mayor, the council undertook action to tackle slum landlords who charged high rents but refused to spend money on keeping their property in habitable condition. The council served and enforced legal orders on homeowners to repair their property. It also appointed health visitors and sanitary inspectors, reducing the infant mortality rate, and took action to find work for returning unemployed ex-servicemen. In 1920, while mayor, he wrote his first book, The Social Worker, which set out many of the principles that informed his political philosophy and that were to underpin the actions of his government in later years. The book attacked the idea that looking after the poor could be left to voluntary action. He wrote that:In a civilised community, although it may be composed of self-reliant individuals, there will be some persons who will be unable at some period of their lives to look after themselves, and the question of what is to happen to them may be solved in three ways – they may be neglected, they may be cared for by the organised community as of right, or they may be left to the goodwill of individuals in the community. [...] Charity is only possible without loss of dignity between equals. A right established by law, such as that to an old age pension, is less galling than an allowance made by a rich man to a poor one, dependent on his view of the recipient's character, and terminable at his caprice. In 1921, George Lansbury, the Labour mayor of the neighbouring borough of Poplar, and future Labour Party leader, launched the Poplar Rates Rebellion; a campaign of disobedience seeking to equalise the poor relief burden across all the London boroughs. Attlee, who was a personal friend of Lansbury, strongly supported this. However, Herbert Morrison, the Labour mayor of nearby Hackney, and one of the main figures in the London Labour Party, strongly denounced Lansbury and the rebellion. During this period, Attlee developed a lifelong dislike of Morrison. ===Member of Parliament=== At the 1922 general election, Attlee became the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Limehouse in Stepney. At the time, he admired Ramsay MacDonald and helped him get elected as Labour Party leader at the 1922 leadership election. He served as MacDonald's Parliamentary Private Secretary for the brief 1922 parliament. His first taste of ministerial office came in 1924, when he served as Under-Secretary of State for War in the short-lived first Labour government, led by MacDonald. Attlee opposed the 1926 General Strike, believing that strike action should not be used as a political weapon. However, when it happened, he did not attempt to undermine it. At the time of the strike, he was chairman of the Stepney Borough Electricity Committee. He negotiated a deal with the Electrical Trade Union so that they would continue to supply power to hospitals, but would end supplies to factories. One firm, Scammell and Nephew Ltd, took a civil action against Attlee and the other Labour members of the committee (although not against the Conservative members who had also supported this). The court found against Attlee and his fellow councillors and they were ordered to pay £300 damages. The decision was later reversed on appeal, but the financial problems caused by the episode almost forced Attlee out of politics. In 1927, he was appointed a member of the multi-party Simon Commission, a royal commission set up to examine the possibility of granting self-rule to India. Due to the time he needed to devote to the commission, and contrary to a promise MacDonald made to Attlee to induce him to serve on the commission, he was not initially offered a ministerial post in the second Labour government, which entered office after the 1929 general election. Attlee's service on the Commission equipped him with a thorough exposure to India and many of its political leaders. By 1933 he argued that British rule was alien to India and was unable to make the social and economic reforms necessary for India's progress. He became the British leader most sympathetic to Indian independence (as a dominion), preparing him for his role in deciding on independence in 1947. In May 1930, Labour MP Oswald Mosley left the party after its rejection of his proposals for solving the unemployment problem, and Attlee was given Mosley's post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. In March 1931, he became Postmaster General, a post he held for five months until August, when the Labour government fell, after failing to agree on how to tackle the financial crisis of the Great Depression. That month MacDonald and a few of his allies formed a National Government with the Conservatives and Liberals, leading them to be expelled from Labour. MacDonald offered Attlee a job in the National Government, but he turned down the offer and opted to stay loyal to the main Labour party. After Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government, Labour was deeply divided. Attlee had long been close to MacDonald and now felt betrayed—as did most Labour politicians. During the course of the second Labour government, Attlee had become increasingly disillusioned with MacDonald, whom he came to regard as vain and incompetent, and of whom he later wrote scathingly in his autobiography. He would write: In the old days I had looked up to MacDonald as a great leader. He had a fine presence and great oratorical power. The unpopular line which he took during the First World War seemed to mark him as a man of character. Despite his mishandling of the Red Letter episode, I had not appreciated his defects until he took office a second time. I then realised his reluctance to take positive action and noted with dismay his increasing vanity and snobbery, while his habit of telling me, a junior Minister, the poor opinion he had of all his Cabinet colleagues made an unpleasant impression. I had not, however, expected that he would perpetrate the greatest betrayal in the political history of this country ... The shock to the Party was very great, especially to the loyal workers of the rank-and-file who had made great sacrifices for these men. ===Deputy Labour Leader=== The general election held in October 1931 proved disastrous for the Labour Party, which lost over 200 seats, returning only 52 MPs to Parliament. The vast majority of the party's senior figures, including the Leader Arthur Henderson, lost their seats. Attlee, however, narrowly retained his Limehouse seat, with his majority being slashed from 7,288 to just 551. He was one of only three Labour MPs who had experience of government to retain their seats, along with George Lansbury and Stafford Cripps. Accordingly, Lansbury was elected Leader unopposed, with Attlee as his deputy. Most of the remaining Labour MPs after 1931 were elderly trade-union officials who could not contribute much to debates; Lansbury was in his 70s, and Stafford Cripps – another main figure of the Labour front-bench who had entered Parliament in January 1931 – lacked parliamentary experience. As one of the most capable and experienced of the remaining Labour MPs, Attlee therefore shouldered a lot of the burden of providing an opposition to the National Government in the years 1931 to 1935; during this time he had to extend his knowledge of subjects which he had not studied in any depth before (such as finance and foreign affairs) in order to provide an effective opposition to the government. Attlee effectively served as Labour's acting-leader for nine months from December 1933, after Lansbury fractured his thigh in an accident; this raised Attlee's public profile considerably. It was during this period, however, that personal financial problems almost forced Attlee to quit politics altogether. His wife had become ill, and at that time there was no separate salary for the Leader of the Opposition. On the verge of resigning from Parliament, he was persuaded to stay by Stafford Cripps, a wealthy socialist, who agreed to make a donation to party funds to pay him an additional salary until Lansbury could take over again. During 1932–33 Attlee flirted with, and then drew back from radicalism – influenced by Stafford Cripps, who was then on the radical wing of the party. He was briefly a member of the Socialist League, which had been formed by former Independent Labour Party (ILP) members who opposed the ILP's disaffiliation from the main Labour Party in 1932. At one point he agreed with the proposition put forward by Cripps that gradual reform was inadequate and that a socialist government would have to pass an emergency powers act, allowing it to rule by decree to overcome any opposition by vested interests until it was safe to restore democracy. He admired Oliver Cromwell's strong-armed rule and use of major generals to control England. After looking more closely at Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, and even his former colleague Oswald Mosley (leader of the new blackshirt fascist movement in Britain), Attlee retreated from radicalism, distanced himself from the League, and argued instead that the Labour Party must adhere to constitutional methods and stand forthright for democracy and against totalitarianism either of the left or of the right. He always supported the crown, and as Prime Minister was close to King George VI. ===Leader of the Opposition=== George Lansbury, a committed pacifist, resigned as the Leader of the Labour Party at the 1935 Party Conference on 8 October, after delegates voted in favour of sanctions against Italy for its aggression against Abyssinia. Lansbury had strongly opposed the policy, and felt unable to continue leading the party. Taking advantage of the disarray in the Labour Party, the Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin announced on 19 October that a general election would be held on 14 November. With no time for a leadership contest, the party agreed that Attlee should serve as interim leader, on the understanding that a leadership election would be held after the general election. Attlee therefore led Labour through the 1935 election, which saw the party stage a partial comeback from its disastrous 1931 performance, winning 38 per cent of the vote, the highest share Labour had won up to that point, and gaining over one hundred seats. Attlee stood in the subsequent leadership election, held soon afterward, where he was opposed by Herbert Morrison, who had just re-entered parliament in the recent election, and Arthur Greenwood: Morrison was seen as the favourite, but was distrusted by many sections of the party, especially the left wing. Arthur Greenwood meanwhile was a popular figure in the party; however, his leadership bid was severely hampered by his alcohol problem. Attlee was able to come across as a competent and unifying figure, particularly having already led the party through a general election. He went on to come first in both the first and second ballots, formally being elected Leader of the Labour Party on 3 December 1935. Throughout the 1920s and most of the 1930s, the Labour Party's official policy had been to oppose rearmament, instead supporting internationalism and collective security under the League of Nations. At the 1934 Labour Party Conference, Attlee declared that, "We have absolutely abandoned any idea of nationalist loyalty. We are deliberately putting a world order before our loyalty to our own country. We say we want to see put on the statute book something which will make our people citizens of the world before they are citizens of this country". During a debate on defence in Commons a year later, Attlee said "We are told (in the White Paper) that there is danger against which we have to guard ourselves. We do not think you can do it by national defence. We think you can only do it by moving forward to a new world. A world of law, the abolition of national armaments with a world force and a world economic system. I shall be told that that is quite impossible". Shortly after those comments, Adolf Hitler proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. Attlee responded the next day noting that Hitler's speech, although containing unfavourable references to the Soviet Union, created "A chance to call a halt in the armaments race ... We do not think that our answer to Herr Hitler should be just rearmament. We are in an age of rearmaments, but we on this side cannot accept that position". Attlee played little part in the events that would lead up to the abdication of Edward VIII, for despite Baldwin's threat to step down if Edward attempted to remain on the throne after marrying Wallis Simpson, Labour was widely accepted not to be a viable alternative government, owing to the National Government's overwhelming majority in the Commons. Attlee, along with Liberal leader Archibald Sinclair, was eventually consulted with by Baldwin on 24 November 1936, and Attlee agreed with both Baldwin and Sinclair that Edward could not remain on the throne, firmly eliminating any prospect of any alternative government forming were Baldwin to resign. In April 1936, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, introduced a Budget which increased the amount spent on the armed forces. Attlee made a radio broadcast in opposition to it, saying: In June 1936, the Conservative MP Duff Cooper called for an Anglo-French alliance against possible German aggression and called for all parties to support one. Attlee condemned this: "We say that any suggestion of an alliance of this kind—an alliance in which one country is bound to another, right or wrong, by some overwhelming necessity—is contrary to the spirit of the League of Nations, is contrary to the Covenant, is contrary to Locarno is contrary to the obligations which this country has undertaken, and is contrary to the professed policy of this Government". At the Labour Party conference at Edinburgh in October Attlee reiterated that "There can be no question of our supporting the Government in its rearmament policy". However, with the rising threat from Nazi Germany, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, this policy eventually lost credibility. By 1937, Labour had jettisoned its pacifist position and came to support rearmament and oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement. However Attlee and the Labour Party strongly opposed conscription when it was passed in April 1939. At the end of 1937, Attlee and a party of three Labour MPs visited Spain and visited the British Battalion of the International Brigades fighting in the Spanish Civil War. One of the companies was named the "Major Attlee Company" in his honour. Attlee was supportive of the Republican government in Spain, and at the 1937 Labour conference moved the wider Labour Party towards opposing what he considered the "farce" of the Non-Intervention Committee organised by the British and French governments. In the House of Commons, Attlee stated, "I cannot understand the delusion that if Franco wins with Italian and German aid, he will immediately become independent. I think it is a ridiculous proposition." Dalton, the Labour Party's spokesman on foreign policy, also thought that Franco would ally with Germany and Italy. However, Franco's subsequent behaviour proved it was not such a ridiculous proposition. As Dalton later acknowledged, Franco skilfully maintained Spanish neutrality, whereas Hitler would likely have occupied Spain if Franco had lost the Civil War. In 1938, Attlee opposed the Munich Agreement, in which Chamberlain negotiated with Hitler to give Germany the German-speaking parts of Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland: We all feel relief that war has not come this time... we cannot, however, feel that peace has been established, but that we have nothing but an armistice in a state of war. We have been unable to go in for care-free rejoicing. We have felt that we are in the midst of a tragedy... [and] humiliation. This has not been a victory for reason and humanity. It has been a victory for brute force. At every stage of the proceedings there have been time limits laid down... [the] terms laid down as ultimata. We have seen to-day a gallant, civilised and democratic people betrayed and handed over to a ruthless despotism... The events of these last few days constitute one of the greatest diplomatic defeats that this country and France have ever sustained. There can be no doubt that it is a tremendous victory for Herr Hitler. Without firing a shot, by the mere display of military force, he has achieved a dominating position in Europe which Germany failed to win after four years of war. He has overturned the balance of power in Europe... [and] destroyed the last fortress of democracy in Eastern Europe which stood in the way of his ambition. He has opened his way to the food, the oil and the resources which he requires in order to consolidate his military power, and he has successfully defeated and reduced to impotence the forces that might have stood against the rule of violence. [...] The cause [of the crisis which we have undergone] was not the existence of minorities in Czechoslovakia; it was not that the position of the Sudeten Germans had become intolerable. It was not the wonderful principle of self-determination. It was because Herr Hitler had decided that the time was ripe for another step forward in his design to dominate Europe... The minorities question is no new one. [...] [And] short of a drastic and entire reshuffling of these populations there is no possible solution to the problem of minorities in Europe except toleration. However, the new Czechoslovakian state did not provide equal rights to the Slovaks and Sudeten Germans, with the historian Arnold J. Toynbee already having noted that "for the Germans, Magyars and Poles, who account between them for more than one quarter of the whole population, the present regime in Czechoslovakia is not essentially different from the regimes in the surrounding countries". Anthony Eden in the Munich debate acknowledged that there had been "discrimination, even severe discrimination" against the Sudeten Germans. In 1937, Attlee wrote a book entitled The Labour Party in Perspective that sold fairly well in which he set out some of his views. He argued that there was no point in Labour compromising on its socialist principles in the belief that this would achieve electoral success. He wrote: "I find that the proposition often reduces itself to this – that if the Labour Party would drop its socialism and adopt a Liberal platform, many Liberals would be pleased to support it. I have heard it said more than once that if Labour would only drop its policy of nationalisation everyone would be pleased, and it would soon obtain a majority. I am convinced it would be fatal for the Labour Party." He also wrote that there was no point in "watering down Labour's socialist creed in order to attract new adherents who cannot accept the full socialist faith. On the contrary, I believe that it is only a clear and bold policy that will attract this support". In the late 1930s, Attlee sponsored a Jewish mother and her two children, enabling them to leave Germany in 1939 and move to the UK. On arriving in Britain, Attlee invited one of the children into his home in Stanmore, north-west London, where he stayed for several months. ==Deputy Prime Minister== Attlee remained as Leader of the Opposition when the Second World War broke out in September 1939. The ensuing disastrous Norwegian campaign would result in a motion of no confidence in Neville Chamberlain. Although Chamberlain survived this, the reputation of his administration was so badly and publicly damaged that it became clear a coalition government would be necessary. Even if Attlee had personally been prepared to serve under Chamberlain in an emergency coalition government, he would never have been able to carry Labour with him. Consequently, Chamberlain tendered his resignation, and Labour and the Conservatives entered a coalition government led by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940, with Attlee joining the Cabinet as Lord Privy Seal on 12 May. Attlee and Churchill quickly agreed that the War Cabinet would consist of three Conservatives (initially Churchill, Chamberlain and Lord Halifax) and two Labour members (initially himself and Arthur Greenwood) and that Labour should have slightly more than one third of the posts in the coalition government. Attlee and Greenwood played a vital role in supporting Churchill during a series of War Cabinet debates over whether or not to negotiate peace terms with Hitler following the Fall of France in May 1940; both supported Churchill and gave him the majority he needed in the War Cabinet to continue Britain's resistance. Only Attlee and Churchill remained in the War Cabinet from the formation of the Government of National Unity in May 1940 through to the election in May 1945. Attlee was initially the Lord Privy Seal, before becoming Britain's first ever Deputy Prime Minister in 1942, as well as becoming the Dominions Secretary and Lord President of the Council on 28 September 1943. Attlee himself played a generally low key but vital role in the wartime government, working behind the scenes and in committees to ensure the smooth operation of government. In the coalition government, three inter-connected committees effectively ran the country. Churchill chaired the first two, the War cabinet and the Defence Committee, with Attlee deputising for him in these, and answering for the government in Parliament when Churchill was absent. Attlee himself instituted, and later chaired the third body, the Lord President's Committee, which was responsible for overseeing domestic affairs. As Churchill was most concerned with overseeing the war effort, this arrangement suited both men. Attlee himself had largely been responsible for creating these arrangements with Churchill's backing, streamlining the machinery of government and abolishing many committees. He also acted as a conciliator in the government, smoothing over tensions which frequently arose between Labour and Conservative Ministers. Many Labour activists were baffled by the top leadership role for a man they regarded as having little charisma; Beatrice Webb wrote in her diary in early 1940: He looked and spoke like an insignificant elderly clerk, without distinction in the voice, manner or substance of his discourse. To realise that this little nonentity is the Parliamentary Leader of the Labour Party ... and presumably the future P.M. [Prime Minister] is pitiable". === 1945 election === Following the defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of the War in Europe in May 1945, Attlee and Churchill favoured the coalition government remaining in place until Japan had been defeated. However, Herbert Morrison made it clear that the Labour Party would not be willing to accept this, and Churchill was forced to tender his resignation as Prime Minister and call an immediate election. The war had set in motion profound social changes within Britain and had ultimately led to a widespread popular desire for social reform. This mood was epitomised in the Beveridge Report of 1942, by the Liberal economist William Beveridge. The Report assumed that the maintenance of full employment would be the aim of post-war governments, and that this would provide the basis for the welfare state. Immediately upon its release, it sold hundreds of thousands of copies. All major parties committed themselves to fulfilling this aim, but most historians say that Attlee's Labour Party was seen by the electorate as the party most likely to follow it through. Labour campaigned on the theme of "Let Us Face the Future", positioning themselves as the party best placed to rebuild Britain following the war, and were widely viewed as having run a strong and positive campaign, while the Conservative campaign centred entirely on Churchill. The News of the World predicted a working Conservative majority, while in Glasgow a pundit forecast the result as Conservatives 360, Labour 220, Others 60. Churchill, however, made some costly errors during the campaign. In particular, his suggestion during one radio broadcast that a future Labour Government would require "some form of a gestapo" to implement their policies was widely regarded as being in very bad taste and massively backfired. When the results of the election were announced on 26 July, they came as a surprise to most, including Attlee himself. Labour had won power by a huge landslide, winning 47.7 per cent of the vote to the Conservatives' 36 per cent. This gave them 393 seats in the House of Commons, a working majority of 146. This was the first time in history that the Labour Party had won a majority in Parliament. When Attlee went to see King George VI at Buckingham Palace to be appointed Prime Minister, the notoriously laconic Attlee and the famously tongue-tied King stood in silence; Attlee finally volunteered the remark, "I've won the election". The King replied "I know. I heard it on the Six O'Clock News". ==Prime Minister== ===Domestic policy=== Francis (1995) argues there was consensus both in the Labour's national executive committee and at party conferences on a definition of socialism that stressed moral improvement as well as material improvement. The Attlee government was committed to rebuilding British society as an ethical commonwealth, using public ownership and controls to abolish extremes of wealth and poverty. Labour's ideology contrasted sharply with the contemporary Conservative Party's defence of individualism, inherited privileges, and income inequality. On 5 July 1948, Clement Attlee replied to a letter dated 22 June from James Murray and ten other MPs who raised concerns about West Indians who arrived on board the . As for the prime minister himself, he was not much focused on economic policy, letting others handle the issues. ====Nationalisation==== Attlee's government also carried out their manifesto commitment for nationalisation of basic industries and public utilities. The Bank of England and civil aviation were nationalised in 1946. Coal mining, the railways, road haulage, canals and Cable and Wireless were nationalised in 1947, and electricity and gas followed in 1948. The steel industry was nationalised in 1951. By 1951 about 20 per cent of the British economy had been taken into public ownership. and improvements in working conditions, especially in regards to safety. As historian Eric Shaw noted of the years following nationalisation, the electricity and gas supply companies became "impressive models of public enterprise" in terms of efficiency, and the National Coal Board was not only profitable, but working conditions for miners had significantly improved as well. Within a few years of nationalisation, a number of progressive measures had been carried out which did much to improve conditions in the mines, including better pay, a five-day working week, a national safety scheme (with proper standards at all the collieries), a ban on boys under the age of 16 going underground, the introduction of training for newcomers before going down to the coalface, and the making of pithead baths into a standard facility. The newly established National Coal Board offered sick pay and holiday pay to miners. As noted by Martin Francis: Union leaders saw nationalisation as a means to pursue a more advantageous position within a framework of continued conflict, rather than as an opportunity to replace the old adversarial form of industrial relations. Moreover, most workers in nationalised industries exhibited an essentially instrumentalist attitude, favouring public ownership because it secured job security and improved wages rather than because it promised the creation of a new set of socialist relationships in the workplace. ====Health==== Attlee's Health Minister, Aneurin Bevan, fought hard against the general disapproval of the medical establishment, including the British Medical Association, by creating the National Health Service in 1948. This was a publicly funded healthcare system, which offered treatment for all, regardless of income, free of charge at the point of use. Reflecting pent-up demand that had long existed for medical services, the NHS treated some 8.5 million dental patients and dispensed more than 5 million pairs of spectacles during its first year of operation. Consultants benefited from the new system by being paid salaries that provided an acceptable standard of living without the need for them to resort to private practice. The NHS brought major improvements in the health of working-class people, with deaths from diphtheria, pneumonia, and tuberculosis significantly reduced. Although there were often disputes about its organisation and funding, British political parties continued to voice their general support for the NHS in order to remain electable. In the field of health care, funds were allocated to modernisation and extension schemes aimed at improving administrative efficiency. Improvements were made in nursing accommodation in order to recruit more nurses and reduce labour shortages which were keeping 60,000 beds out of use, and efforts were made to reduce the imbalance "between an excess of fever and tuberculosis (TB) beds and a shortage of maternity beds". BCG vaccinations were introduced for the protection of medical students, midwives, nurses, and contacts of patients with tuberculosis, a pension scheme was set up for employees of the newly established NHS, The National Health Service (Superannuation) Regulations 1947 laid down a number of provisions for beneficiaries including an officer's pension and retiring allowance, an injury allowance, a short service gratuity, a death gratuity, a widow's pension, and supplementary payments in the case of special classes of officers. Provision was also made for the allocation of part of pension or injury allowance to spouse of dependent. The Radioactive Substances Act 1948 set out general provisions to control radioactive substances. Numerous lesser reforms were also introduced, some of which were of great benefit to certain segments of British society, such as the mentally deficient and the blind. Between 1948 and 1951, Attlee's government increased spending on health from £6 billion to £11 billion: an increase of over 80%, and from 2.1% to 3.6% of GDP. ====Welfare==== The government set about implementing the Wartime plans of William Beveridge's plans for the creation of a 'cradle to grave' welfare state, and set in place an entirely new system of social security. Among the most important pieces of legislation was the National Insurance Act 1946, in which people in work paid a flat rate of national insurance. In return, they (and the wives of male contributors) were eligible for flat-rate pensions, sickness benefit, unemployment benefit, and funeral benefit. Various provisions were included in the National Insurance Act 1946 including unemployment and sickness benefit, maternity grant and attendance allowance, maternity allowance, widow's benefit, widow's pensions in special cases, guardian's allowance, retirement pension, and death grant. Various other pieces of legislation provided for child benefit and support for people with no other source of income. A block grant introduced in 1948 helped the social services provided by local authorities. Personal Social Services or welfare services were developed in 1948 for individual and families in general, particularly special groups such as the mentally disordered, deprived children, the elderly, and the handicapped. The Attlee Government increased pensions and other benefits, with pensions raised to become more of a living income than they had ever been. War pensions and allowances (for both World Wars) were increased by an act of 1946 which gave the wounded man with an allowance for his wife and children if he married after he had been wounded, thereby removing a grievance of more than twenty years standing. Other improvements were made in war pensions during Attlee's tenure as prime minister. A Constant Attendance Allowance was tripled, an Unemployability Allowance was tripled from 10s to 30s a week, and a special hardship allowance of up to £1 a week was introduced. In addition, the 1951 Budget made further improvements in the supplementary allowances for many war pensioners. From 1945 onwards, three out of every four pension claims had been successful, whilst after the First World War only one pension claim in three was allowed. Under the Superannuation (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1948, employees of a body representative of local authorities or of the officers of local authorities could be admitted "on suitable terms to the superannuation fund of a local authority". In 1951, a comforts allowance was introduced that was automatically paid to war pensioners "receiving unemployability supplement and constant attendance allowance". The Personal injuries (Civilians) Scheme of 1947 included various benefits such as an exceptional maximum rate of constant attendance allowance of 40s a week, and an allowance for wear and tear of clothing caused by the use of artificial limbs and appliances. In addition, allowances payable while a pensioner underwent inpatient treatment "are normally no longer subject to a deduction in respect of decreased home expenditure." Various changes were also made in respect of gainfully employed persons who sustained war injuries and civil defence volunteers who war service injuries. These included the provision of allowances for the wife and children for injured persons receiving injury allowance or disablement pension, amendments to the provisions for an allowance to a pensioner deemed unemployable by reason of his pensioned disablement "to secure that he receives in the aggregate by way of unemployability allowance and any social service benefits for which he is eligible at least 20s. a week in addition to his pension," increases in the allowance payable for a wife of a person receiving treatment allowance, unemployability allowance or injury allowance under certain conditions and "if no allowance is payable for a wife, an allowance may be granted for a dependant adult," and a social hardship allowance for partially disabled men "who, though not unemployable, is prevented by his pensioned disablement from resuming his former occupation or taking up one of equivalent standard." Also, "Where a man dies as the direct result of a qualifying injury his widow may be awarded a pension (with allowances for his children) without regard to the date of marriage." A more extensive system of social welfare benefits had been established by the Attlee Government, which did much to reduce acute social deprivation. The cumulative impact of the Attlee's Government's health and welfare policies was such that all the indices of health (such as statistics of school medical or dental officers, or of medical officers of health) showed signs of improvement, with continual improvements in survival rates for infants and increased life expectancy for the elderly. The school leaving age was raised to 15 in 1947, an accomplishment helped brought into fruition by initiatives such as the HORSA ("Huts Operation for Raising the School-leaving Age") scheme and the S.F.O.R.S.A. (furniture) scheme. University scholarships were introduced to ensure that no one who was qualified "should be deprived of a university education for financial reasons", while a large school building programme was organised. A rapid increase in the number of trained teachers took place, and the number of new school places was increased. Under the Education Act of 1946 and the Education (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1948, local authorities were empowered to provide clothing to pupils. Increased Treasury funds were made available for education, particularly for upgrading school buildings suffering from years of neglect and war damage. Prefabricated classrooms were built, and 928 new primary schools were constructed between 1945 and 1950. The provision of free school meals was expanded, and opportunities for university entrants were increased. State scholarships to universities were increased, and the government adopted a policy of supplementing university scholarships awards to a level sufficient to cover fees plus maintenance. In addition, spending on technical education rose, and the number of nursery schools was increased. Salaries for teachers were also improved, and funds were allocated towards improving existing schools. In 1947 the Arts Council of Great Britain was set up to encourage the arts. The Ministry of Education was established under the 1944 Act, and free County Colleges were set up for the compulsory part-time instruction of teenagers between the ages of 15 and 18 who were not in full-time education. An Emergency Training Scheme was also introduced which turned out an extra 25,000 teachers in 1945–1951. In 1947, Regional Advisory Councils were set up to bring together industry and education to find out the needs of young workers "and advise on the provision required, and to secure reasonable economy of provision". That same year, thirteen Area Training Organisations were set up in England and one in Wales to coordinate teacher training. Attlee's government, however, failed to introduce the comprehensive education for which many socialists had hoped. This reform was eventually carried out by Harold Wilson's government. During its time in office, the Attlee government increased spending on education by over 50 per cent, from £6.5 billion to £10 billion. ====Economy==== The most significant problem facing Attlee and his ministers remained the economy, as the war effort had left Britain nearly bankrupt. Overseas investments had been used up to pay for the war. The transition to a peacetime economy, and the maintaining of strategic military commitments abroad led to continuous and severe problems with the balance of trade. This resulted in strict rationing of food and other essential goods continuing in the post war period to force a reduction in consumption in an effort to limit imports, boost exports, and stabilise the Pound Sterling so that Britain could trade its way out of its financial state. The abrupt end of the American Lend-Lease programme in August 1945 almost caused a crisis. Some relief was provided by the Anglo-American loan, negotiated in December 1945. The conditions attached to the loan included making the pound fully convertible to the US dollar. When this was introduced in July 1947, it led to a currency crisis and convertibility had to be suspended after just five weeks. The government was less successful in housing, which was the responsibility of Aneurin Bevan. The government had a target to build 400,000 new houses a year to replace those which had been destroyed in the war, but shortages of materials and manpower meant that less than half this number were built. Nevertheless, millions of people were rehoused as a result of the Attlee government's housing policies. Between August 1945 and December 1951, 1,016,349 new homes were completed in England, Scotland, and Wales. When the Attlee government was voted out of office in 1951, the economy had been improved compared to 1945. The period from 1946 to 1951 saw continuous full employment and steadily rising living standards, which increased by about 10 per cent each year. During that same period, the economy grew by 3 per cent a year, and by 1951 the UK had "the best economic performance in Europe, while output per person was increasing faster than in the United States". Careful planning after 1945 also ensured that demobilisation was carried out without having a negative impact upon economic recovery, and that unemployment stayed at very low levels. ====Energy==== 1947 proved a particularly difficult year for the government; an exceptionally cold winter that year caused coal mines to freeze and cease production, creating widespread power cuts and food shortages. The Minister of Fuel and Power, Emanuel Shinwell was widely blamed for failing to ensure adequate coal stocks, and soon resigned from his post. The Conservatives capitalised on the crisis with the slogan 'Starve with Strachey and shiver with Shinwell' (referring to the Minister of Food John Strachey). The crisis led to an unsuccessful plot by Hugh Dalton to replace Attlee as Prime Minister with Ernest Bevin. Later that year Stafford Cripps tried to persuade Attlee to stand aside for Bevin. These plots petered out after Bevin refused to cooperate. Later that year, Dalton resigned as Chancellor after inadvertently leaking details of the budget to a journalist. He was replaced by Cripps. ===Foreign policy=== In foreign affairs, the Attlee government was concerned with four main issues: post-war Europe, the onset of the Cold War, the establishment of the United Nations, and decolonisation. The first two were closely related, and Attlee was assisted by Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin. Attlee also attended the later stages of the Potsdam Conference, where he negotiated with President Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin.In the immediate aftermath of the war, the Government faced the challenge of managing relations with Britain's former war-time ally, Stalin and the Soviet Union. Ernest Bevin was a passionate anti-communist, based largely on his experience of fighting communist influence in the trade union movement. Bevin's initial approach to the USSR as Foreign Secretary was "wary and suspicious, but not automatically hostile". Attlee himself sought warm relations with Stalin. He put his trust in the United Nations, rejected notions that the Soviet Union was bent on world conquest, and warned that treating Moscow as an enemy would turn it into one. This put Attlee at sword's point with his foreign minister, the Foreign Office, and the military who all saw the Soviets as a growing threat to Britain's role in the Middle East. Suddenly in January 1947, Attlee reversed his position and agreed with Bevin on a hardline anti-Soviet policy. In an early "good-will" gesture that was later heavily criticised, the Attlee government allowed the Soviets to purchase, under the terms of a 1946 UK-USSR Trade agreement, a total of 25 Rolls-Royce Nene jet engines in September 1947 and March 1948. The agreement included an agreement not to use them for military purposes. The price was fixed under a commercial contract; a total of 55 jet engines were sold to the USSR in 1947. However, the Cold War intensified during this period and the Soviets, who at the time were well behind the West in jet technology, reverse-engineered the Nene and installed their own version in the MiG-15 interceptor. This was used to good effect against US-UK forces in the subsequent Korean War, as well as in several later MiG models. After Stalin took political control of most of Eastern Europe, and began to subvert other governments in the Balkans, Attlee's and Bevin's worst fears of Soviet intentions were realised. The Attlee government then became instrumental in the creation of the successful NATO defence alliance to protect Western Europe against any Soviet expansion. In a crucial contribution to the economic stability of post-war Europe, Attlee's Cabinet was instrumental in promoting the American Marshall Plan for the economic recovery of Europe. He called it one of the "most bold, enlightened and good-natured acts in the history of nations". A group of Labour MPs, organised under the banner of "Keep Left", urged the government to steer a middle way between the two emerging superpowers, and advocated the creation of a "third force" of European powers to stand between the US and USSR. However, deteriorating relations between Britain and the USSR, as well as Britain's economic reliance on America following the Marshall Plan, steered policy towards supporting the US. ====Decolonisation==== Decolonisation was never a major election issue, but Attlee gave the matter a great deal of attention and was the chief leader in beginning the process of decolonisation of the British Empire. ===== East Asia ===== In August 1948, the Chinese Communists' victories caused Attlee to begin preparing for a Communist takeover of China. It kept open consulates in Communist-controlled areas and rejected the Chinese Nationalists' requests that British citizens assist in the defence of Shanghai. By December, the government concluded that although British property in China would likely be nationalised, British traders would benefit in the long run from a stable, industrialising Communist China. Retaining Hong Kong was especially important to him; although the Chinese Communists promised to not interfere with its rule, Britain reinforced the Hong Kong Garrison during 1949. When the victorious Chinese Communists government declared on 1 October 1949 that it would exchange diplomats with any country that ended relations with the Chinese Nationalists, Britain became the first western country to formally recognise the People's Republic of China in January 1950. In 1954, a Labour Party delegation including Attlee visited China at the invitation of then Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai. Attlee became the first high-ranking western politician to meet Mao Zedong. ===== South Asia ===== Attlee orchestrated the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947. Attlee in 1928–1934 had been a member of the Indian Statutory Commission (otherwise known as the Simon Commission). He became the Labour Party expert on India and by 1934 was committed to granting India the same independent dominion status that Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa had recently been given. He faced strong resistance from the die-hard Conservative imperialists, led by Churchill, who opposed both independence and efforts led by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to set up a system of limited local control by Indians themselves. Attlee and the Labour leadership were sympathetic to both the Congress led by Jawaharlal Nehru and the Pakistan movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. During the Second World War, Attlee was in charge of Indian affairs. He set up the Cripps Mission in 1942, which tried and failed to bring the factions together. When Congress called for passive resistance in the Quit India movement of 1942–1945, it was the British regime ordered the widespread arrest and internment for the duration of tens of thousands of Congress leaders as part of its efforts to crush the revolt. Labour's election Manifesto in 1945 called for "the advancement of India to responsible self-government". In 1942 the British Raj tried to enlist all major political parties in support of the war effort. Congress, led by Nehru and Gandhi, demanded immediate independence and full control by Congress of all of India. That demand was rejected by the British, and Congress opposed the war effort with its "Quit India" campaign. The Raj immediately responded in 1942 by imprisoning the major national, regional and local Congress leaders for the duration. Attlee did not object. By contrast, the Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, strongly supported the war effort. They greatly enlarged their membership and won favour from London for their decision. Attlee retained a fondness for Congress and until 1946, accepted their thesis that they were a non-religious party that accepted Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and everyone else. Nevertheless, this difference in opinion between the Congress and the Muslim League towards the British war effort encouraged Attlee and his government to consider further negotiations with the Muslim League. The Muslim League insisted that it was the only true representative of all of the Muslims of India. With violence escalating in India after the war, but with British financial power at a low ebb, large-scale military involvement was impossible. Viceroy Wavell said he needed a further seven army divisions to prevent communal violence if independence negotiations failed. No divisions were available; independence was the only option. Given the increasing demands of the Muslim League, independence implied a partition that set off heavily Muslim Pakistan from the main portion of India. After becoming Prime Minister in 1945 Attlee originally planned to give India Dominion status in 1948. Attlee suggested in his memoirs that "traditional" colonial rule in Asia was no longer viable. He said that he expected it to meet renewed opposition after the war both by local national movements as well as by the United States. The prime minister's biographer John Bew says that Attlee hoped for a transition to a multilateral world order and a Commonwealth, and that the old British empire "should not be supported beyond its natural lifespan" and instead be ended "on the right note." His exchequer Hugh Dalton meanwhile feared that post-war Britain could no longer afford to garrison its empire. Ultimately the Labour government gave full independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 through the Indian Independence Act. This involved creating a demarcation between the two regions which was known as the Radcliffe Line. The boundary between the newly created states of Pakistan and India involved the widespread resettlement of millions of Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims. Almost immediately, extreme anti-Hindu and anti-Sikh violence ensued in Lahore, Multan and Dacca when the Punjab province and the Bengal province were split in the Partition of India. This was followed by a rapid increase in widespread anti-Muslim violence in several areas including Amritsar, Rajkot, Jaipur, Calcutta and Delhi. Historian Yasmin Khan estimates that over a million people were killed of which several were women and children. Gandhi himself was assassinated in January 1948. Attlee remarked Gandhi as the "greatest citizen" of India and added, "this one man has been the major factor in every consideration of the Indian problem. He had become the expression of the aspirations of the Indian people for independence". Historian Andrew Roberts says the independence of India was a "national humiliation" but it was necessitated by urgent financial, administrative, strategic and political needs. Churchill in 1940–1945 had tightened the hold on India and imprisoned the Congress leadership, with Attlee's approval. Labour had looked forward to making it a fully independent dominion like Canada or Australia. Many of the Congress leaders in the India had studied in England, and were highly regarded as fellow idealistic socialists by Labour leaders. Attlee was the Labour expert on India and took special charge of decolonisation. Attlee found that Churchill's viceroy, Field Marshal Wavell, was too imperialistic, too keen on military solutions, and too neglectful of Indian political alignments. The eventual appointee for new Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, the dashing war hero and a cousin of the King, was put forward by V. K. Krishna Menon as a candidate acceptable to all, in a series of clandestine meetings with Sir Stafford Scripps, and with Attlee. Attlee also sponsored the peaceful transition to independence in 1948 of Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). ===== Palestine ===== One of the most urgent problems facing Attlee concerned the future of the British mandate in Palestine, which had become too troublesome and expensive to handle. British policies in Palestine were perceived by the Zionist movement and the Truman administration to be pro-Arab and anti-Jewish, and Britain soon found itself unable to maintain public order in the face of a Jewish insurgency and a civil war. During this period, 70,000 Holocaust survivors attempted to reach Palestine as part of the Aliyah Bet refugee movement. Attlee's government tried several tactics to prevent the migration. Five ships were bombed by the Secret Intelligence Service (though with no casualties) with a fake Palestinian group created to take responsibility. The navy apprehended over 50,000 refugees en route, interning them in detention camps in Cyprus. Conditions in the camps were harsh and faced global criticism. Later, the refugee ship Exodus 1947 would be sent back to mainland Europe, instead of being taken to Cyprus. With the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, the camps in Cyprus were eventually closed, with their former occupants finally completing their journey to the new country. ===== Africa ===== The government's policies with regard to the other colonies, particularly those in Africa, focused on keeping them as strategic Cold War assets while modernising their economies. The Labour Party had long attracted aspiring leaders from Africa and had developed elaborate plans before the war. Implementing them overnight with an empty treasury proved too challenging. A major military base was built in Kenya, and the African colonies came under an unprecedented degree of direct control from London. Development schemes were implemented to help solve Britain's post-war balance of payments crisis and raise African living standards. This "new colonialism" worked slowly, and had failures such as the Tanganyika groundnut scheme. ===Elections=== The 1950 election gave Labour a massively reduced majority of five seats compared to the triple-digit majority of 1945. Although re-elected, the result was seen by Attlee as very disappointing, and was widely attributed to the effects of post-war austerity denting Labour's appeal to middle-class voters. With such a small majority leaving him dependent on a small number of MPs to govern, Attlee's second term was much tamer than his first. Some major reforms were nevertheless passed, particularly regarding industry in urban areas and regulations to limit air and water pollution. By 1951, the Attlee government was exhausted, with several of its most senior ministers ailing or ageing, and with a lack of new ideas. Attlee's record for settling internal differences in the Labour Party fell in April 1951, when there was a damaging split over an austerity Budget brought in by the Chancellor, Hugh Gaitskell, to pay for the cost of Britain's participation in the Korean War. Aneurin Bevan resigned to protest against the new charges for "teeth and spectacles" in the National Health Service introduced by that Budget, and was joined in this action by several senior ministers, including the future Prime Minister Harold Wilson, then the President of the Board of Trade. Thus escalated a battle between the left and right wings of the Party that continues today. Finding it increasingly impossible to govern, Attlee's only chance was to call a snap election in October 1951, in the hope of achieving a more workable majority and to regain authority. The gamble failed: Labour narrowly lost to the Conservative Party, despite winning considerably more votes (achieving the largest Labour vote in electoral history). Attlee tendered his resignation as Prime Minister the following day, after six years and three months in office. ==Return to opposition== Following the defeat in 1951, Attlee continued to lead the party as Leader of the Opposition. His last four years as leader were, however, widely seen as one of the Labour Party's weaker periods. One of his main reasons for staying on as leader was to frustrate the leadership ambitions of Herbert Morrison, whom Attlee disliked for both political and personal reasons.}} He retired as Leader of the Labour Party on 7 December 1955, having led the party for twenty years, and on 14 December Hugh Gaitskell was elected as his successor. == Global policy == He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt a Constitution for the Federation of Earth. Attlee was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1954 for his support of the League of Nations and the United Nations, and received further nominations in 1955 and 1964, but was unsuccessful on each occasion. ==Retirement== He subsequently retired from the House of Commons and was elevated to the peerage as Earl Attlee and Viscount Prestwood on 16 December 1955, He believed Eden had been forced into taking a strong stand on the Suez Crisis by his backbenchers. In 1958, Attlee, along with numerous notables, established the Homosexual Law Reform Society: this campaigned for the decriminalisation of homosexual acts in private by consenting adults, a reform that was voted through Parliament nine years later. In May 1961, he travelled to Washington, D.C., to meet with President Kennedy. In 1962, he spoke twice in the House of Lords against the British government's application for the UK to join the European Communities ("Common Market"). In his second speech delivered in November, Attlee claimed that Britain had a separate parliamentary tradition from the Continental European countries that comprised the EC. He also claimed that if Britain became a member, EC rules would prevent the British government from planning the economy and that Britain's traditional policy had been outward-looking rather than Continental. He attended Winston Churchill's funeral in January 1965. He was frail by that time, and had to remain seated in the freezing cold as the coffin was carried, having tired himself out by standing at the rehearsal the previous day. He lived to see the Labour Party return to power under Harold Wilson in 1964, and also to see his old constituency of Walthamstow West fall to the Conservatives in a by-election in September 1967. ==Death== Attlee died peacefully in his sleep of pneumonia, at the age of 84 at Westminster Hospital on 8 October 1967. Two thousand people attended his funeral in November, including the then-Prime Minister Harold Wilson and the Duke of Kent, representing the Queen. He was cremated and his ashes were buried at Westminster Abbey. Upon his death, the title passed to his son Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–1991), who defected from Labour to the SDP in 1981. It is now held by Clement Attlee's grandson John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee. The third earl (a member of the Conservative Party) retained his seat in the Lords as one of the hereditary peers to remain under an amendment to Labour's House of Lords Act 1999. Attlee's estate was sworn for probate purposes at a value of £7,295, (equivalent to £ in ) a relatively modest sum for so prominent a figure, and only a fraction of the £75,394 in his father's estate when he died in 1908. ==Legacy== The quotation about Attlee, "A modest man, but then he has so much to be modest about", is commonly ascribed to Churchill—though Churchill denied saying it, and respected Attlee's service in the War cabinet. Attlee's modesty and quiet manner hid a great deal that has only come to light with historical reappraisal. Attlee himself is said to have responded to critics with a limerick: "There were few who thought him a starter, Many who thought themselves smarter. But he ended PM, CH and OM, an Earl and a Knight of the Garter". His leadership style of consensual government, acting as a chairman rather than a president, won him much praise from historians and politicians alike. Christopher Soames, the British Ambassador to France during the Conservative government of Edward Heath and cabinet minister under Margaret Thatcher, remarked that "Mrs Thatcher was not really running a team. Every time you have a Prime Minister who wants to make all the decisions, it mainly leads to bad results. Attlee didn't. That's why he was so damn good". The journalist and broadcaster Anthony Howard called him "the greatest Prime Minister of the 20th century". Thatcher herself wrote in her 1995 memoirs, which charted her life from her beginnings in Grantham to her victory at the 1979 general election, that she admired Attlee, writing: "Of Clement Attlee, however, I was an admirer. He was a serious man and a patriot. Quite contrary to the general tendency of politicians in the 1990s, he was all substance and no show". Attlee's government presided over the successful transition from a wartime economy to peacetime, tackling problems of demobilisation, shortages of foreign currency, and adverse deficits in trade balances and government expenditure. Further domestic policies that he brought about included the creation of the National Health Service and the post-war welfare state, which became key to the reconstruction of post-war Britain. Attlee and his ministers did much to transform the UK into a more prosperous and egalitarian society during their time in office with reductions in poverty and a rise in the general economic security of the population. In foreign affairs, he did much to assist with the post-war economic recovery of Europe. He proved a loyal ally of the US at the onset of the Cold War. Due to his style of leadership, it was not he, but Ernest Bevin who masterminded foreign policy. It was Attlee's government that decided Britain should have an independent nuclear weapons programme, and work on it began in 1947. Bevin, Attlee's Foreign Secretary, famously stated that "We've got to have it [nuclear weapons] and it's got to have a bloody Union Jack on it". The first operational British nuclear bomb was not detonated until October 1952, about one year after Attlee had left office. Independent British atomic research was prompted partly by the US McMahon Act, which nullified wartime expectations of postwar US–UK collaboration in nuclear research, and prohibited Americans from communicating nuclear technology even to allied countries. British atomic bomb research was kept secret even from some members of Attlee's own cabinet, whose loyalty or discretion seemed uncertain. Although a socialist, Attlee still believed in the British Empire of his youth. He thought of it as an institution that was a power for good in the world. Nevertheless, he saw that a large part of it needed to be self-governing. Using the Dominions of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand as a model, he continued the transformation of the empire into the modern-day British Commonwealth. His greatest achievement, surpassing many of these, was perhaps the establishment of a political and economic consensus about the governance of Britain that all three major parties subscribed to for three decades, fixing the arena of political discourse until the late-1970s. In 2004, he was voted the most successful British Prime Minister of the 20th century by a poll of 139 academics organised by Ipsos MORI. A blue plaque unveiled in 1979 commemorates Attlee at 17 Monkhams Avenue, in Woodford Green in the London Borough of Redbridge. Attlee was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1947. Attlee was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of Queen Mary College on 15 December 1948. In the 1960s a new suburb near Curepipe in British Mauritius was given the name Cité Atlee in his honour. === Statues === On 30 November 1988, a bronze statue of Clement Attlee was unveiled by Harold Wilson (the next Labour Prime Minister after Attlee) outside Limehouse Library in Attlee's former constituency. By then Wilson was the last surviving member of Attlee's cabinet, Limehouse Library was closed in 2003, after which the statue was vandalised. The council surrounded it with protective hoarding for four years, before eventually removing it for repair and recasting in 2009. The restored statue was unveiled by Peter Mandelson in April 2011, in its new position less than a mile away at the Queen Mary University of London's Mile End campus. There is also a statue of Clement Attlee in the Houses of Parliament that was erected, instead of a bust, by parliamentary vote in 1979. The sculptor was Ivor Roberts-Jones. === Cultural depictions === ==Personal life== Attlee met Violet Millar while on a long trip with friends to Italy in 1921. They fell in love and were soon engaged, marrying at Christ Church, Hampstead, on 10 January 1922. It would come to be a devoted marriage, with Attlee providing protection and Violet providing a home that was an escape for Attlee from political turmoil. She died in 1964. They had four children: Lady Janet Helen (1923–2019), she married the scientist Harold Shipton (1920–2007) at Ellesborough Parish Church in 1947. Lady Felicity Ann (1925–2007), married the business executive John Keith Harwood (1926–1989) at Little Hampden in 1955 Martin Richard, Viscount Prestwood, later 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–1991), married Anne Henderson on 16 February 1955. Lady Alison Elizabeth (1930–2016), married Richard Davis at Great Missenden in 1952. === Religious views === Although his parents were devout Anglicans, with one of his brothers becoming a clergyman and one of his sisters a missionary, Attlee himself is usually regarded as an agnostic. In an interview he described himself as "incapable of religious feeling", saying that he believed in "the ethics of Christianity" but not "the mumbo-jumbo". When asked whether he was an agnostic, Attlee replied "I don't know". ==Honours and arms==	[ "University College, Oxford", "Suez Crisis", "Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "13th (Western) Division", "Ellesborough", "Postmaster General of the United Kingdom", "social reform", "Labor vincit omnia", "pacificism", "Indian Statutory Commission", "MiG-15", "Ottoman Empire", "First World War", "Continental Europe", "Secret Intelligence Service", "Abyssinia", "Stanmore", "Cable & Wireless plc", "blue plaque", "Poplar Rates Rebellion", "Limehouse (UK Parliament constituency)", "List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1947", "The Manchester Guardian", "dysentery", "Lord President's Committee", "Death and state funeral of Winston Churchill", "Keep Left (pamphlet)", "Mussolini", "President of the Board of Trade", "Metropolitan Borough of Hackney", "Lord Mountbatten", "1935 United Kingdom general election", "Beveridge Report", "Neville Chamberlain", "Anthony Eden", "child benefit", "Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society", "Sudetenland", "mixed economy", "War cabinet", "David Lloyd George", "Deputy Leader of the Labour Party (UK)", "Arthur Ponsonby, 1st Baron Ponsonby of Shulbrede", "local politics", "Parliamentary Private Secretary", "National Government (United Kingdom)", "Gandhi", "abdication of Edward VIII", "Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)", "National parks of the United Kingdom", "First MacDonald ministry", "British Army", "Art Union of London", "public administration", "Potsdam Conference", "History of the British Labour Party", "1979 United Kingdom general election", "Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi", "partition of India", "Adolf Hitler", "New village", "Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison", "Metropolitan Borough of Poplar", "Prince Edward, Duke of Kent", "Lord President of the Council", "Spanish Civil War", "London", "Partition of India", "United Nations", "Constitution for the Federation of Earth", "House of Lords Act 1999", "Field Marshal Wavell", "Operation Hurricane", "J. R. Clynes", "London School of Economics", "George V", "Anthony Howard (journalist)", "balance of payments", "Iraq", "A. V. Alexander", "1935 Labour Party leadership election", "Dacca", "Leader of the Labour Party (UK)", "first Labour government", "full employment", "Aneurin Bevan", "British Mauritius", "John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee", "British Empire", "Labour Party (UK)", "reverse-engineered", "Little Hampden", "Amritsar", "The New York Times", "George VI", "currency crisis", "hereditary peer", "Addison, Paul", "British War Medal", "comprehensive education", "1955 United Kingdom general election", "New Delhi", "Leader of the Opposition (UK)", "Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs", "First Lord of the Treasury", "British Ceylon", "Manchester University Press", "Prime ministership of Clement Attlee", "1922 Labour Party leadership election (UK)", "1951 United Kingdom general election", "Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for War", "Viscount Prestwood", "Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom", "National Coal Board", "Non-intervention in the Spanish Civil War", "Churchill war ministry", "income redistribution", "Israel", "front-bench", "European theatre of World War II", "Major (United Kingdom)", "1922 United Kingdom general election", "Ministry of Education (United Kingdom)", "Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)", "modern history", "British Medical Association", "Soviet Union", "Marshall Plan", "Stanley Maude", "British Battalion", "slum", "Town and country planning in the United Kingdom", "Peter Mandelson", "Stepney", "Gallipoli campaign", "National Health Service", "Sir John Anderson", "power cuts", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Hugh Dalton", "Monarchy of the United Kingdom", "Dorset", "Mesopotamian campaign", "Second Italo-Ethiopian War", "socialist", "inter-war period", "Hitler", "Berlin Airlift", "1926 General Strike", "public ownership", "totalitarianism", "collective security", "world constitution", "Siege of Kut", "Life (magazine)", "Thorpe-le-Soken", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Norway Debate", "pneumonia", "Shrapnel shell", "Minority report (Poor Law)", "Arnold J. Toynbee", "adjutant", "barrister", "Essex", "British Union of Fascists", "William Beveridge", "Pat Thane", "Ipsos MORI", "Coronet", "Arthur Greenwood", "The Guardian", "Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee", "Walthamstow West", "Cold War (1947–1953)", "Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "war effort", "Cyprus internment camps", "Duff Cooper", "Special Relationship", "appeasement", "Buckingham Palace", "Multan", "Beckett, Francis", "Hereditary peer", "coalition government", "Muhammad Ali Jinnah", "Bank of England", "Ivor Roberts-Jones", "Korean War", "1931 United Kingdom general election", "missionary", "statue of Clement Attlee", "socialism", "London's East End", "wikt:laconic", "Quit India", "independent nuclear deterrent", "Great Depression in the United Kingdom", "social science", "Stanley Baldwin", "V. K. Krishna Menon", "Kingsley Wood", "Zinoviev letter", "conscientious objector", "1914–15 Star", "Harry S. Truman", "Soviet bloc", "Ceylon", "Conservative Party (UK)", "Pan Books", "1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine", "George Lansbury", "Empire of Japan", "Mile End", "Chancellor of the Exchequer", "Hong Kong Garrison", "National Assistance Act 1948", "Law Society of England and Wales", "self-rule", "Munich Agreement", "Somerset", "James Murray (Durham politician)", "Post-war consensus", "Beatrice Webb", "Christopher Soames", "Lord Halifax", "Second MacDonald ministry", "Presidencies and provinces of British India", "The Times", "London Borough of Redbridge", "Curepipe", "convertibility", "Alzheimer's disease", "Hastings Lees-Smith", "J. Keith Harwood", "East End of London", "Rolls-Royce Nene", "nationalisation", "Cold War", "Battle of Hanna", "Ethical socialism", "council house", "Fabian Society", "History of the United Kingdom during the First World War", "upper middle class", "welfare state", "Secretary of State for Health", "Keir Hardie", "Lord Privy Seal", "Nazi Germany", "London Labour Party", "Violet Millar", "balance of trade", "League of Nations", "Frederick Webb Headley", "Lord Temporal", "Malayan Emergency", "Arts Council of Great Britain", "Zionist movement", "Exodus 1947", "Archibald Sinclair", "Secretary of State for Defence", "Punjab Province (British India)", "pacifist", "Royal Tank Regiment", "limerick (poetry)", "Rajkot", "1956 Walthamstow West by-election", "Trade unions in the United Kingdom", "William Ormsby-Gore, 4th Baron Harlech", "House of Lords", "Stalin", "Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain", "Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine", "Ramsay MacDonald", "Jawaharlal Nehru", "Westminster Hospital", "Christ Church, Hampstead", "Tanganyika groundnut scheme", "government expenditure", "Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom)", "Army Reserve (United Kingdom)", "British Rail", "10 Downing Street", "Morgan, Kenneth O.", "Information Research Department", "Territorial Decoration", "Norwegian campaign", "Jaipur", "Elizabeth II", "38th Brigade (United Kingdom)", "National Insurance Act 1946", "Darwinist", "First Lord of the Admiralty", "nuclear deterrent", "British rule in Burma", "President Kennedy", "Homosexual Law Reform Society", "rationing", "1967 Walthamstow West by-election", "Cripps Mission", "Martin Pugh (author)", "Oswald Mosley", "Haileybury College", "New Towns Act 1946", "Haileybury and Imperial Service College", "Margaret Thatcher", "Swing (United Kingdom)", "anti-communist", "British undergraduate degree classification", "European foreign policy of the Chamberlain ministry", "Glasgow", "Mao Zedong", "World Constituent Assembly", "Edward Heath", "National Government (1931–1935)", "Trade agreement", "Royal Air Force", "UnHerd", "social security", "Lahore", "Joseph Stalin", "Queen Mary University of London", "alcohol problem", "national insurance", "Harold Wilson", "called to the bar", "Zhou Enlai", "Humanists UK", "Politicos Publishing", "Balfour Declaration", "Putney", "Jerusalem", "pound sterling", "jet engine", "Briggs Plan", "Northaw Place", "Second premiership of Winston Churchill", "Limehouse Library", "Calcutta", "News of the World", "Marshall Aid", "1945 United Kingdom general election", "Premiership of Clement Attlee", "Arthur Henderson", "wartime economy", "McMahon Act", "landlord", "Lend-Lease", "Indian Independence Act 1947", "John Strachey (politician)", "Herbert Morrison", "The Right Honourable", "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "NATO", "Edward Redhead", "Harold Shipton", "Earl Attlee", "Socialist League (UK, 1932)", "International Brigades", "Hugh Gaitskell", "British Raj", "Valentine McEntee", "second Labour government", "South Lancashire Regiment", "Independent Labour Party", "History of the United Kingdom (1945–present)", "Fleet Town F.C.", "Emirate of Transjordan", "De facto", "Westminster Abbey", "constituency", "The Lord Ponsonby of Shulbrede", "Ernest Bevin", "Government of the United Kingdom", "Frederick Marquis, 1st Earl of Woolton", "Winston Churchill", "Percy Cudlipp", "Hertfordshire", "Oliver Cromwell", "Minister of Fuel and Power", "Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster", "Speak for Britain!: A New History of the Labour Party", "Stafford Cripps", "non-League", "Edward VIII", "Metropolitan Borough of Stepney", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Martin Francis", "University of Oxford", "First premiership of Winston Churchill", "Member of the House of Lords", "Winter of 1946–47 in the United Kingdom", "All-India Muslim League", "Radcliffe Line", "Aliyah Bet", "William Pearce (Liberal politician)", "Union Jack", "Western Front (World War I)", "Mandatory Palestine", "Anglo-American loan", "Simon Commission", "egalitarian", "Toynbee Hall", "Grantham", "European Communities", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Czechoslovakia", "The Jewish Chronicle", "royal commission", "News Chronicle", "British Commonwealth", "John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley", "Comarques, Thorpe-le-Soken", "BCG vaccinations", "decolonisation", "Second World War", "Emanuel Shinwell", "1950 United Kingdom general election", "National Insurance Act", "publicly funded healthcare", "Pathe News", "Martin Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee", "Gallipoli Campaign", "Wallis Simpson", "British re-armament", "Education Act 1944", "HORSA", "Attlee ministry", "Great Missenden", "Victory Medal (United Kingdom)", "Fall of France", "Battle of Sari Bair", "Inner Temple", "Landing at Suvla Bay", "Machine Gun Corps", "1940 British war cabinet crisis", "Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow", "George VI", "Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury", "1929 United Kingdom general election", "Barristers in England and Wales", "Wilfrid Ashley", "Liberal Party (UK)" ]
5,768	Catullus	Gaius Valerius Catullus (; 84 – 54 BC), known as Catullus (), was a Latin neoteric poet of the late Roman Republic. His surviving works remain widely read due to their popularity as teaching tools and because of their personal or sexual themes. ==Life== Gāius Valerius Catullus was born to a leading equestrian family of Verona, in Cisalpine Gaul. The social prominence of the Catullus family allowed the father of Gaius Valerius to entertain Julius Caesar when he was the Promagistrate (proconsul) of both Gallic provinces. In a poem, Catullus describes his happy homecoming to the family villa at Sirmio, on Lake Garda, near Verona; he also owned a villa near the resort of Tibur (modern Tivoli). He appears to have been acquainted with the poet Marcus Furius Bibaculus. A number of prominent contemporaries appear in his poetry, including Cicero, Caesar and Pompey. According to an anecdote preserved by Suetonius, Caesar did not deny that Catullus's lampoons left an indelible stain on his reputation, but when Catullus apologized, he invited the poet for dinner the very same day. The "Lesbia" of his poems is usually identified with Clodia Metelli, a sophisticated woman from the aristocratic house of patrician family Claudii Pulchri, sister of the infamous Publius Clodius Pulcher, and wife to Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (consul of 60 BC). In his poems Catullus describes several stages of their relationship: initial euphoria, doubts, separation, and his wrenching feelings of loss. Clodia had several other partners; "From the poems one can adduce no fewer than five lovers in addition to Catullus: Egnatius (poem 37), Gellius (poem 91), Quintius (poem 82), Rufus (poem 77), and Lesbius (poem 79)." There is also some question surrounding her husband's mysterious death in 59 BC: in his speech Pro Caelio Cicero hints that he may have been poisoned. However, a sensitive and passionate Catullus could not relinquish his flame for Clodia, regardless of her obvious indifference to his desire for a deep and permanent relationship. In his poems, Catullus wavers between devout, sweltering love and bitter, scornful insults that he directs at her blatant infidelity (as demonstrated in poems 11 and 58). His passion for her is unrelenting—yet it is unclear when exactly the couple split up for good. Catullus's poems about the relationship display striking depth and psychological insight. He spent the year from summer 57 to summer 56 BC in Bithynia on the staff of the commander Gaius Memmius. While in the East, he traveled to the Troad to perform rites at his brother's tomb, an event recorded in a moving poem (101). However, Catullus's poems include references to events of 55 BC. Since the Roman consular fasti make it somewhat easy to confuse 87–57 BC with 84–54 BC, many scholars accept the dates 84 BC–54 BC, Though upon his elder brother's death Catullus lamented that their "whole house was buried along" with the deceased, the existence (and prominence) of Valerii Catulli is attested in the following centuries. T. P. Wiseman argues that after the brother's death Catullus could have married, and that, in this case, the later Valerii Catulli may have been his descendants. ==Poetry== ===Sources and organization=== Catullus's poems have been preserved in an anthology of 116 carmina (the actual number of poems may slightly vary in various editions), which can be divided into three parts according to their form: approximately sixty short poems in varying meters, called polymetra, nine longer poems, and forty-eight epigrams in elegiac couplets. Each of these three parts – approximately 860 (or more), 1136, and 330 lines respectively – would fit onto a single scroll. There is no scholarly consensus on whether Catullus himself arranged the order of the poems. The longer poems differ from the polymetra and the epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: several of them are based on the theme of marriage. The longest (64) of 408 lines, contains two myths (the abandonment of Ariadne and the marriage of Peleus and Thetis), one story included inside the other. The polymetra and the epigrams can be divided into four major thematic groups (ignoring a rather large number of poems that elude such categorization): poems to and about his friends (e.g., an invitation like poem 13). erotic poems: some of them about his attraction for a boy named Juventius, but others about women, especially about one he calls "Lesbia" (which likely served as a false name for the married woman Clodia. "Lesbia" served as a source of inspiration for many of his poems). invectives: often rude and sometimes downright obscene poems targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., poem 16), other lovers of Lesbia, well-known poets, and politicians (e.g., Julius Caesar and Cicero). condolences: some poems of Catullus are solemn in nature. 96 comforts a friend in the death of a loved one; several others, most famously 101, lament the death of his brother. Above all other qualities, Catullus seems to have valued , or charm, in his acquaintances, a theme which he explores in a number of his poems. ===Intellectual influences=== Catullus's poetry was influenced by the innovative poetry of the Hellenistic Age, and especially by Callimachus and the Alexandrian school, which had propagated a new style of poetry that deliberately turned away from the classical epic poetry in the tradition of Homer. Cicero called these local innovators neoteroi () or "moderns" (in Latin poetae novi or 'new poets'), in that they cast off the heroic model handed down from Ennius in order to strike new ground and ring a contemporary note. Catullus and Callimachus did not describe the feats of ancient heroes and gods (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g. poem 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art. Catullus described his work as expolitum, or polished, to show that the language he used was very carefully and artistically composed. Catullus was also an admirer of Sappho, a female poet of the seventh century BC. Catullus 51 partly translates, partly imitates, and transforms Sappho 31. Some hypothesize that 61 and 62 were perhaps inspired by lost works of Sappho but this is purely speculative. Both of the latter are epithalamia, a form of laudatory or erotic wedding-poetry that Sappho was famous for. Catullus twice used a meter that Sappho was known for, called the Sapphic stanza, in poems 11 and 51, perhaps prompting his successor Horace's interest in the form. Catullus, as was common to his era, was greatly influenced by stories from Greek and Roman myth. His longer poems—such as 63, 64, 65, 66, and 68—allude to mythology in various ways. Some stories he refers to are the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the departure of the Argonauts, Theseus and the Minotaur, Ariadne's abandonment, Tereus and Procne, as well as Protesilaus and Laodamia. ===Style=== Catullus wrote in many different meters including hendecasyllabic verse and elegiac couplets (common in love poetry). A great part of his poetry shows strong and occasionally wild emotions, especially in regard to Lesbia (e.g., poems 5 and 7). His love poems are very emotional and ardent, and are relatable to this day. Catullus describes his Lesbia as having multiple suitors and often showing little affection towards him. He also demonstrates a great sense of humour such as in Catullus 13. ==Musical settings== The Hungarian-born British composer Matyas Seiber set poem 31 for unaccompanied mixed chorus Sirmio in 1957. The American composer Ned Rorem set Catullus 101 to music for voice and piano; the song, "Catullus: On the Burial of His Brother", was originally published in 1969. Catullus Dreams (2011) is a song cycle by David Glaser set to texts of Catullus, scored for soprano and eight instruments; it premiered at Symphony Space in New York by soprano Linda Larson and Sequitur Ensemble. is a song cycle arranged from 17 of Catullus's poems by American composer Michael Linton. The cycle was recorded in December 2013 and premiered at Carnegie Hall's Weill Recital Hall in March 2014 by French baritone Edwin Crossley-Mercer and pianist Jason Paul Peterson. Thomas Campion also wrote a lute-song entitled "My Sweetest Lesbia" dating from 1601 using his own translation of the first six lines of Catullus 5 followed by two verses of his own; the translation by Richard Crashaw was set to music in a four-part glee by Samuel Webbe Jr. It was also set to music, in a three-part glee by John Stafford Smith. Catullus 5, the love poem , in the translation by Ben Jonson, was set to music in 1606, (lute accompanied song) by Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger. Dutch composer Bertha Tideman-Wijers used Catullus's text for her composition Variations on Valerius "Where that one already turns or turns." The Icelandic composer Jóhann Jóhannsson set Catullus 85 to music; entitled , the song is found on Jóhannsson's album Englabörn, and is sung through a vocoder, and the music is played by a string quartet and piano. Catulli Carmina is a cantata by Carl Orff dating from 1943 that sets texts from Catullus to music. Finnish jazz singer Reine Rimón has recorded poems of Catullus set to standard jazz tunes. ==Cultural depictions== The 1888 play Lesbia by Richard Davey depicts the relationship between Catullus and Lesbia, based on incidents from Catullus's poems. Catullus was the main protagonist of the historical novel Farewell, Catullus (1953) by Pierson Dixon. The novel shows the corruption of Roman society. Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita makes multiple explicit and implicit allusions to Catullus's work. W. G. Hardy's novel The City of Libertines (1957) tells the fictionalized story of Catullus and a love affair during the time of Julius Caesar. The Financial Post described the book as "an authentic story of an absorbing era". A poem by Catullus is being recited to Cleopatra in the eponymous 1963 film when Julius Caesar comes to visit her; they talk about him (Cleopatra: 'Catullus doesn't approve of you. Why haven't you had him killed?' Caesar: 'Because I approve of him.') and Caesar then recites other poems by him. The American poet Louis Zukofsky in 1969 wrote a set of homophonic translations of Catullus that attempted in English to replicate the sound as primary emphasis, rather than the more common emphasis on sense of the originals (although the relationship between sound and sense there is often misrepresented and has been clarified by careful study); his Catullus versions have had extensive influence on contemporary innovative poetry and homophonic translation, including the work of poets Robert Duncan, Robert Kelly, and Charles Bernstein. Robert de Maria wrote a fictional account of Catullus’s life in his 1965 novel “Clodia”. Catullus is the protagonist of Tom Holland's 1995 novel Attis. Catullus appears in Steven Saylor's 1995 novel The Venus Throw as the embittered ex-lover of Clodia, sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher, whom he calls Lesbia.	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Wiseman", "Callimachus", "Pro Caelio", "Catullus 96", "Lolita", "Tom Holland (author)", "Pompey", "Thomas Campion", "Roman Empire", "Catullus 64", "Template:Infobox Writer/doc", "Sappho 31", "Vladimir Nabokov", "Clodia Metelli", "piano", "anthology", "Gaul", "Catullus 65", "Sirmio", "Publius Clodius Pulcher", "Thomas Nelson Winter", "Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger", "Quintus Hortensius", "Alexandrian school", "Hellenistic Age", "Robert Duncan (poet)", "Roman Republic", "Gaius Memmius (praetor 58 BC)", "Pierson Dixon", "Thetis", "Argonauts", "The New Yorker", "Peleus", "Newspapers.com", "string quartet", "Sirmione", "Sapphic stanza", "cantata", "Protesilaus", "Cisalpine Gaul", "Catulli Carmina", "Glee (music)", "Prosody (Latin)", "Lyric poetry", "Samuel Webbe Jr.", "Richard Davey (writer)", "Bertha Tideman-Wijers", "Catullus 13", "Verona, Italy", "Ennius", "Roman province", "Jóhann Jóhannsson", "Ben Jonson", "Poetry of Catullus", "Charles Bernstein (poet)", "Theme (literature)", "Latin", "homophonic translation", "libellus", "Matyas Seiber", "Cornelius Nepos", "Cleopatra (1963 film)", "John Stafford Smith", "hero", "epic poetry", "Steven Saylor", "Troad", "Latin poetry", "epigram", "Obscenity", "Cicero", "Julius Caesar", "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer", "Catullus 63", "Marcus Furius Bibaculus", "condolence", "Lesbia", "Sappho", "Lost literary work", "List of poems by Catullus", "Ned Rorem", "Ariadne", "Rome" ]
5,769	C. S. Forester	Cecil Louis Troughton Smith (27 August 1899 – 2 April 1966), known by his pen name Cecil Scott "C. S." Forester, was an English novelist known for writing tales of naval warfare, such as the 12-book Horatio Hornblower series depicting a Royal Navy officer during the Napoleonic Wars. The Hornblower novels A Ship of the Line and Flying Colours were jointly awarded the 1938 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. Other works include The African Queen and The Good Shepherd, both of which were later adapted as movies. During World War II, he moved to Washington, D.C. where he worked for the British Ministry of Information, writing propaganda for the Allied cause. He subsequently settled in Fullerton, California, where he died in 1966 of complications arising from a stroke. ==Early years== Forester was born in Cairo on 27 August 1899, fifth and youngest child of George Foster Smith and his wife Sarah. His father was an English teacher in a local school set up to give upper-class Egyptian boys an English education. His parents separated when he was young, and his mother took him to London, where he was educated at Alleyn's School and Dulwich College. He began to study medicine at Guy's Hospital, but left without completing his degree. He was somewhat athletic, wore glasses, and had a slender physique. He failed his Army physical and was told that there was no chance that he would be accepted. He began writing seriously, using his pen name, in around 1921. ==Second World War== During the Second World War, Forester moved to the United States, where he worked for the British Ministry of Information and wrote propaganda to encourage the U.S. to join the Allies. He eventually settled in Berkeley, California. In 1942, while he was living in Washington, D.C., he met the young British diplomat Roald Dahl and encouraged him to write about his experiences in the Royal Air Force. According to Dahl's autobiography, Lucky Break, Forester asked him about his experiences as a fighter pilot, and this prompted Dahl to write his first story, "A Piece of Cake". He began the series with Hornblower a captain in the first novel, The Happy Return, which was published in 1937, but demand for more stories led him to fill in Hornblower's life story, and he wrote novels detailing his rise from the rank of midshipman. The last completed novel was published in 1962. Hornblower's fictional adventures were based on real events, but Forester wrote the body of the works carefully to avoid entanglements with real world history, so that Hornblower is always off on another mission when a great naval battle occurs during the Napoleonic Wars. Forester's other novels include The African Queen (1935) and The General (1936); two novels about the Peninsular War, Death to the French (published in the United States as Rifleman Dodd) and The Gun (filmed as The Pride and the Passion in 1957); and seafaring stories that do not involve Hornblower, such as Brown on Resolution (1929), The Captain from Connecticut (1941), The Ship (1943), and Hunting the Bismarck (1959), which was used as the basis of the screenplay for the film Sink the Bismarck! (1960). Several of his novels have been filmed, including The African Queen (1951), directed by John Huston. Forester is also credited as story writer on several films not based on his published novels, including Commandos Strike at Dawn (1942). Forester also wrote several volumes of short stories set during the Second World War. Those in The Nightmare (1954) were based on events in Nazi Germany, ending at the Nuremberg trials. The linked stories in The Man in the Yellow Raft (1969) follow the career of the destroyer USS Boon, while many of the stories in Gold from Crete (1971) follow the destroyer HMS Apache. The last of the stories in Gold from Crete is If Hitler Had Invaded England, which offers an imagined sequence of events starting with Hitler's attempt to implement Operation Sea Lion and culminating in the early military defeat of Nazi Germany in the summer of 1941. His non-fiction works about seafaring include The Age of Fighting Sail (1956), an account of the sea battles between Great Britain and the United States in the War of 1812. Forester also published the crime novels Payment Deferred (1926) and Plain Murder (1930), as well as two children's books. Poo-Poo and the Dragons (1942) was created as a series of stories told to his son George to encourage him to finish his meals. George had mild food allergies and needed encouragement to eat. The Barbary Pirates (1953) is a children's history of early 19th-century pirates. Forester appeared as a contestant on the television quiz programme You Bet Your Life, hosted by Groucho Marx, in an episode broadcast on 1 November 1956. A previously unknown novel of Forester's, The Pursued, was discovered in 2003 and published by Penguin Classics on 3 November 2011. == Personal life == Forester married Kathleen Belcher in 1926. They had two sons, John, born in 1929, and George, born in 1933. The couple divorced in 1945. Kathleen Belcher's greatuncle was Capt. Edward Belcher, RN, who achieved renown as a hydrographer and explorer. After his retirement, Belcher devoted much of his time to writing. After penning biographical material, he turned his hand to naval fiction, inventing a character called Horatio Howard Brenton, and attributing great feats and adventures to him. It is possible that Forester found some inspiration in these stories for his own Horatio Hornblower. In 1947 he married Dorothy Foster. Forester died in Fullerton, California on 2 April 1966. John Forester wrote a two-volume biography of his father, including many elements of Forester's life which became clear to his son only after his father's death.	[ "Sailor of the King", "Horatio Hornblower", "The Gun (novel)", "Commandos Strike at Dawn", "Washington, D.C.", "Lord Hornblower", "David Weber", "Richard Woodman", "Little Brown", "Methuen Publishing", "Roald Dahl", "blue plaque", "Argosy (magazine)", "The Pride and the Passion", "Harry Ransom Center", "Payment Deferred", "The Saturday Evening Post", "You Bet Your Life", "John Forester (cyclist)", "Nazi Germany", "John Huston", "Payment Deferred (film)", "War of 1812", "On Basilisk Station", "Lord Ramage", "The Good Shepherd (novel)", "Hornblower and the Hotspur", "Forever and a Day (1943 film)", "Cairo", "Collier's", "Hornblower and the Crisis", "The Last Encounter", "Alleyn's School", "The Bolitho novels", "C. E. Bechhofer Roberts", "Guy's Hospital", "The Commodore", "Eagle Squadron (film)", "Brown on Resolution (film)", "Aubrey–Maturin series", "Heinemann (publisher)", "Honorverse", "Hornblower (TV series)", "Dudley Pope", "Hornblower in the West Indies", "A Ship of the Line", "Berkeley, California", "The Last Nine Days of the Bismarck", "Greyhound (film)", "Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)", "Penguin Classics", "Edward Belcher", "Adolf Hitler", "Sink the Bismarck!", "Fullerton, California", "Royal Navy", "Groucho Marx", "Allies of World War II", "The General (C. S. Forester novel)", "Patrick O'Brian", "World War II", "Peninsular War", "Nuremberg trials", "Mr. Midshipman Hornblower", "East Dulwich", "Hornblower and the Widow McCool", "Flying Colours (novel)", "Khedivate of Egypt", "Brown on Resolution", "Napoleonic Wars", "Operation Sea Lion", "Second World War", "Hornblower and the Atropos", "The Captain from Connecticut", "The Happy Return", "Doubleday & Company", "The African Queen (film)", "Dulwich College", "Honor Harrington", "Captain Horatio Hornblower", "The Ship (novel)", "John Lane (publisher)", "Lieutenant Hornblower", "The African Queen (novel)", "Death to the French", "Royal Air Force", "James Tait Black Memorial Prize", "Douglas Reeman", "Michael Joseph (publisher)" ]
5,770	List of telephone country codes	Telephone country codes, originally termed International Codes by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (C.C.I.T.T.) in 1960, but also sometimes referred to as "country dial-in codes", or historically "international subscriber dialing" (ISD) codes in the U.K., are telephone number dialing prefixes for reaching subscribers in foreign countries or areas via international telecommunication networks. Country codes are defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in ITU-T standards E.123 and E.164. The prefixes enable international direct dialing (IDD). Country codes constitute the international telephone numbering plan. They are used only when dialing a telephone number in a country or world region other than the caller's. Country codes are dialed before the national telephone number, but require at least one additional prefix, the international call prefix which is an exit code from the national numbering plan to the international one. In most countries, this prefix is 00, an ITU recommendation; it is 011 in the countries of the North American Numbering Plan while a minority of countries use other prefixes. ==Overview== This table lists in its first column the initial digits of the country code shared by each country in each row, which is arranged in columns for the last digit (x). When three-digit codes share a common leading pair, the shared prefix is marked by an arrow, ( ↙ ) pointing down and left to the three-digit codes. Unassigned codes are denoted by a dash (—). Countries are identified by ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes; codes for non-geographic services are denoted by two asterisks (**). ==World numbering zones== The world numbering zones were defined by the C.C.I.T.T. in Recommendation E.29 in 1964. They were generally defined geographically, with exceptions for political and historical alignments. The terminology is largely obsolete. Zone 1, the North American Numbering Plan, uses country code 1 plus a three-digit area code to determine the area served within the United States and its territories, Canada, and much of the Caribbean. Zone 2 uses two two-digit country codes (20, 27) and seven sets of three-digit codes (21x–26x, 29x), mostly to serve Africa, but also Aruba, Faroe Islands, Greenland and British Indian Ocean Territory. Zones 3 and 4 use sixteen two-digit codes (30–34, 36, 39–41, 43–49) and four sets of three-digit codes (35x, 37x, 38x, 42x) to serve Europe. Zone 5 uses eight two-digit codes (51–58) and two sets of three-digit codes (50x, 59x) to serve South and Central America. Zone 6 uses seven two-digit codes (60–66) and three sets of three-digit codes (67x–69x) to serve Southeast Asia and Oceania. Zone 7 uses two digits (7x) to determine the area served: Russia or Kazakhstan. Zone 8 uses four two-digit codes (81, 82, 84, 86) and four sets of three-digit codes (80x, 85x, 87x, 88x) to serve East Asia, South Asia and special services. Zone 9 uses seven two-digit codes (90–95, 98) and three sets of three-digit codes (96x, 97x, 99x) to serve the Middle East, West Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia and Eastern Europe. === Zone 1: North American Numbering Plan (NANP)=== North American Numbering Plan members are assigned three-digit numbering plan area (NPA) codes under the common country code 1, shown in the format 1 (NPA). Within an NPA, all telephone numbers have seven digits. 1 – , including United States territories: 1 (340) – 1 (670) – 1 (671) – 1 (684) – 1 (787, 939) – 1 – 1 – Caribbean nations, Dutch and British Overseas Territories: 1 (242) – 1 (246) – 1 (264) – 1 (268) – 1 (284) – 1 (345) – 1 (441) – 1 (473) – 1 (649) – 1 (658, 876) – 1 (664) – 1 (721) – 1 (758) – 1 (767) – 1 (784) – 1 (809, 829, 849) – 1 (868) – 1 (869) – === Zone 2: Mostly Africa=== (but also Aruba, Faroe Islands, Greenland and British Indian Ocean Territory) 20 – 210 – unassigned 211 – 212 – (including Western Sahara) 213 – 214 – unassigned 215 – unassigned 216 – 217 – unassigned 218 – 219 – unassigned 220 – 221 – 222 – 223 – 224 – 225 – 226 – 227 – 228 – 229 – 230 – 231 – 232 – 233 – 234 – 235 – 236 – 237 – 238 – 239 – 240 – 241 – 242 – 243 – 244 – 245 – 246 – 247 – 248 – 249 – 250 – 251 – 252 – (including ) 253 – 254 – 255 – 255 (24) – , in place of never-implemented 259 256 – 257 – 258 – 259 – unassigned (was intended for People's Republic of Zanzibar but never implemented – see 255 Tanzania) 260 – 261 – 262 – 262 (269,639) – (formerly at 269 Comoros) 263 – 264 – (formerly 27 (6x) as South West Africa) 265 – 266 – 267 – 268 – 269 – (formerly assigned to Mayotte, now at 262) 27 – 28x – unassigned (reserved for country code expansion) 290 – 290 (8) – 291 – 292 – unassigned 293 – unassigned 294 – unassigned 295 – unassigned (formerly assigned to San Marino, now at 378) 296 – unassigned 297 – 298 – 299 – === Zones 3 and 4: Europe=== The larger countries were assigned two-digit codes starting in 1960. Subsequently, beginning in 1964, smaller countries were assigned three-digit codes, which also has been the practice since the 1980s. 30 – 31 – 32 – 33 – 34 – 350 – 351 – 351 (291) – (landlines only) 351 (292) – (landlines only, Horta, Azores area) 351 (295) – (landlines only, Angra do Heroísmo area) 351 (296) – (landlines only, Ponta Delgada and São Miguel Island area) 352 – 353 – 354 – 355 – 356 – 357 – (including ) 358 – 358 (18) – 359 – 36 – (formerly assigned to Turkey, now at 90) 37 – formerly assigned to East Germany until its reunification with West Germany, now part of 49 Germany 370 – 371 – 372 – 373 – 374 – 375 – 376 – (formerly 33 628) 377 – (formerly 33 93) 378 – (interchangeably with 39 0549; earlier was allocated 295 but never used) 379 – (assigned but uses 39 06698). 38 – formerly assigned to Yugoslavia until its break-up in 1991 380 – 381 – 382 – 383 – 384 – unassigned 385 – 386 – 387 – 388 – unassigned (formerly assigned to the European Telephony Numbering Space) 389 – 39 – 39 (0549) – (interchangeably with 378) 39 (06 698) – (assigned 379 but not in use) 40 – 41 – 41 (91) – Campione d'Italia, an Italian enclave. 91 is the prefix for the Swiss canton Ticino in which the enclave resides. Its phone system is fully integrated into the Swiss system. 42 – formerly assigned to Czechoslovakia, later to its breakup successors (CZ, SK) until 1997 420 – 421 – 422 – unassigned 423 – (formerly at 41 (75)) 424 – unassigned 425 – unassigned 426 – unassigned 427 – unassigned 428 – unassigned 429 – unassigned 43 – 44 – 44 (1481) – 44 (1534) – 44 (1624) – 45 – 46 – 47 – 47 (79) – 48 – 49 – === Zone 5: South and Central Americas=== 500 – 500 – 501 – 502 – 503 – 504 – 505 – 506 – 507 – 508 – 509 – 51 – 52 – 53 – 54 – 55 – 56 – 57 – 58 – 590 – (including Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin) 591 – 592 – 593 – 594 – 595 – 596 – (formerly assigned to Peru, now 51) 597 – 598 – 599 – Former , now grouped as follows: 599 3 – 599 4 – 599 5 – unassigned (formerly assigned to Sint Maarten, now included in NANP as 1 (721)) 599 7 – 599 8 – unassigned (formerly assigned to Aruba, now at 297) 599 9 – === Zone 6: Southeast Asia and Oceania=== 60 – 61 – (see also 672 below) 61 (8 9162) – 61 (8 9164) – 62 – 63 – 64 – 64 – 65 – 66 – 670 – (formerly 62/39 during the Indonesian occupation; formerly assigned to Northern Mariana Islands, now part of NANP as 1 (670)) 671 – unassigned (formerly assigned to Guam, now part of NANP as 1 (671)) 672 – Australian External Territories (see also 61 Australia above); formerly assigned to Portuguese Timor (see 670) 672 (1) – Australian Antarctic Territory 672 (3) – 673 – 674 – 675 – 676 – 677 – 678 – 679 – 680 – 681 – 682 – 683 – 684 – unassigned (formerly assigned to American Samoa, now part of NANP as 1 (684)) 685 – 686 – 687 – 688 – 689 – 690 – 691 – 692 – 693 – unassigned 694 – unassigned 695 – unassigned 696 – unassigned 697 – unassigned 698 – unassigned 699 – unassigned === Zone 7: Russia and neighboring regions === Formerly assigned to the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991. 7 (1–5, 8–9) – 7 (840, 940) – (formerly 995 (44)) 7 (850, 929) – (formerly 995 (34)) 7 (0, 6–7) – (reserved 997 but abandoned in November 2023) === Zone 8: East Asia, South Asia, and special services=== 800 – Universal International Freephone Service 801 – unassigned 802 – unassigned 803 – unassigned 804 – unassigned 805 – unassigned 806 – unassigned 807 – unassigned 808 – Universal International Shared Cost Numbers 809 – unassigned 81 – 82 – 83x – unassigned (reserved for country code expansion) 93 – 94 – 95 – 960 – 961 – 962 – 963 – 964 – 965 – 966 – 967 – 968 – 969 – unassigned (formerly assigned to South Yemen until its unification with North Yemen, now part of 967 Yemen) 970 – (interchangeably with 972) 971 – 972 – (also , interchangeably with 970) 973 – 974 – 975 – 976 – 977 – 978 – unassigned (formerly assigned to Dubai, now part of 971 United Arab Emirates) 979 – Universal International Premium Rate Service (UIPRS); (formerly assigned to Abu Dhabi, now part of 971 United Arab Emirates) 98 – 990 – unassigned 991 – unassigned (formerly used for International Telecommunications Public Correspondence Service) 992 – 993 – 994 – 995 – 995 (34) – formerly (now 7 (850, 929)) 995 (44) – formerly (now 7 (840, 940)) 996 – 997 – (reserved but abandoned in November 2023; uses 7 (6xx, 7xx)) 998 – 999 – unassigned (reserved for future global service) ==Alphabetical order== ==Locations without country code== In Antarctica, telecommunication services are provided by the parent country of each base: Other places with no country codes in use, although a code may be reserved:	[ "+241", "+248", "+502", "+374", "Hong Kong", "+245", "+33", "Novolazarevskaya Station", "Kenya", "International Premium Rate Service", "Saint Helena", "Marshall Islands", "SANAE", "Captain Arturo Prat Base", "Singapore", "+233", "+243", "+376", "Poland", "German reunification", "+290", "Caribbean Netherlands", "Uzbekistan", "Telephone numbers in Ivory Coast", "+240", "+356", "+878", "+263", "+249", "Montserrat", "+92", "Brazil", "Vernadsky Research Base", "+800", "Machu Picchu Research Station", "Africa", "+298", "Afghanistan", "Area code 473", "+853", "Mauritius", "+593", "+40", "Horta, Azores", "Asuka Station (Antarctica)", "Guam", "+389", "Bermuda", "+31", "Oman", "Canada", "+54", "+251", "New Zealand", "Guinea-Bissau", "South Asia", "+218", "+692", "Telephone numbers in the Pitcairn Islands", "+995 44", "+355", "St. Kitts and Nevis", "Ghana", "List of North American Numbering Plan area codes", "+966", "Concordia Station", "+266", "+359", "Czech Republic", "+90 392", "+223", "+235", "Mizuho Station (Antarctica)", "Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Base", "Central Asia", "+290 8", "Liberia", "El Salvador", "Latvia", "+250", "+267", "Vanuatu", "Sint Maarten", "Bolivia", "+261", "Telephone numbers in Israel", "International Networks (country code)", "Libya", "+228", "Åland", "+973", "São Tomé and Príncipe", "North Korea", "Signy Research Station", "+672", "+691", "+262", "+260", "Telephone numbers in Mauritania", "China", "+37", "Jamaica", "Montenegro", "+378", "Telephone numbers in Ghana", "Area code 658", "Telephone numbers in Kenya", "Brunei Darussalam", "Kyrgyzstan", "Telephone numbers in Jan Mayen", "+507", "Saint Barthélemy", "Nigeria", "+264", "Isle of Man", "+44 1481", "Syria", "mos:SECTIONANCHOR", "Progress Station", "Faroe Islands", "+689", "country codes", "European Telephony Numbering Space", "+7 840", "Iceland", "+358 18", "+247", "Macau", "Russia", "Iraq", "+590", "Dissolution of Czechoslovakia", "Byrd Station", "+598", "Costa Rica", "+252", "Scott Base", "Telephone numbers in Puerto Rico", "+230", "+232", "+595", "+352", "Australia", "Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva", "+48", "Telephone numbers in Norfolk Island", "+65", "South West Africa", "Republic of Congo", "Armenia", "Republic of Ireland", "Dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Nepal", "Grenada", "+420", "+997", "+41", "Comoros", "Halley Research Station", "Iran", "Colombia", "Telephone numbers in Christmas Island", "+213", "Telephone numbers in Djibouti", "Uruguay", "Telephone numbers in Cameroon", "+506", "Ponta Delgada", "Nauru", "Neumayer Station III", "Sierra Leone", "+509", "Guatemala", "San Martín Base", "Cyprus", "Seychelles", "+808", "Kunlun Station", "West Asia", "+221", "Eswatini", "Telephone numbers in Russia", "+382", "Laos", "+49", "Universal International Freephone Service", "Honduras", "+269", "Malawi", "Norway", "Maldives", "ISO 3166-1 alpha-2", "+353", "Area code 664", "+30", "+599 8", "+675", "Christmas Island", "+297", "Telephone numbers in Equatorial Guinea", "Benin", "Pitcairn Islands", "Moldova", "Kosovo", "British Virgin Islands", "+265", "+678", "Burkina Faso", "+995", "Guinea", "+998", "Angola", "+965", "Telephone numbers in Tristan da Cunha", "Israel", "Neumayer Station II", "+56", "Soviet Union", "Telephone numbers in San Marino", "Telephone numbers in Oceania", "Telephone numbers in Gabon", "Telephone numbers in the Dominican Republic", "Spain", "State of Palestine", "+673", "Kiribati", "Telephone numbers in Guinea-Bissau", "+591", "Area code 246", "Area code 284", "+229", "People's Republic of 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"+677", "Niue", "+246" ]
5,771	Christopher Marlowe	Christopher Marlowe ( ; baptised 26 February 156430 May 1593), also known as Kit Marlowe, was an English playwright, poet, and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe is among the most famous of the Elizabethan playwrights. Based upon the "many imitations" of his play Tamburlaine, modern scholars consider him to have been the foremost dramatist in London in the years just before his mysterious early death. Some scholars also believe that he greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was baptised in the same year as Marlowe and later succeeded him as the preeminent Elizabethan playwright. Marlowe was the first to achieve critical reputation for his use of blank verse, which became the standard for the era. His plays are distinguished by their overreaching protagonists. Themes found within Marlowe's literary works have been noted as humanistic with realistic emotions, which some scholars find difficult to reconcile with Marlowe's "anti-intellectualism" and his catering to the prurient tastes of his Elizabethan audiences for generous displays of extreme physical violence, cruelty, and bloodshed. Events in Marlowe's life were sometimes as extreme as those found in his plays. Differing sensational reports of Marlowe's death in 1593 abounded after the event and are contested by scholars today owing to a lack of good documentation. There have been many conjectures as to the nature and reason for his death, including a vicious bar-room fight, blasphemous libel against the church, homosexual intrigue, betrayal by another playwright, and espionage from the highest level: the Privy Council of Elizabeth I. An official coroner's account of Marlowe's death was discovered only in 1925, and it did little to persuade all scholars that it told the whole story, nor did it eliminate the uncertainties present in his biography. ==Early life== Christopher Marlowe, the second of nine children, and oldest child after the death of his sister Mary in 1568, was born to Canterbury shoemaker John Marlowe and his wife Katherine, daughter of William Arthur of Dover. He was baptised at St George's Church, Canterbury, on 26 February 1564 (1563 in the old style dates in use at the time, which placed the new year on 25 March). Marlowe's birth was likely to have been a few days before, making him about two months older than William Shakespeare, who was baptised on 26 April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon. By age 14, Marlowe was a pupil at The King's School, Canterbury on a scholarship Some critics believe that Marlowe sought to disseminate these views in his work and that he identified with his rebellious and iconoclastic protagonists. Plays had to be approved by the Master of the Revels before they could be performed and the censorship of publications was under the control of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Presumably these authorities did not consider any of Marlowe's works to be unacceptable other than the Amores. ===Sexuality=== It has been claimed that Marlowe was homosexual. Some scholars argue that the identification of an Elizabethan as gay or homosexual in the modern sense is "anachronistic," saying that for the Elizabethans the terms were more likely to have been applied to homoerotic affections or sexual acts rather than to what we currently understand as a settled sexual orientation or personal role identity. Other scholars argue that the evidence is inconclusive and that the reports of Marlowe's homosexuality may be rumours produced after his death. Richard Baines reported Marlowe as saying: "all they that love not Tobacco & Boies were fools". David Bevington and Eric C. Rasmussen describe Baines's evidence as "unreliable testimony" and "[t]hese and other testimonials need to be discounted for their exaggeration and for their having been produced under legal circumstances we would now regard as a witch-hunt". Literary scholar J. B. Steane considered there to be "no evidence for Marlowe's homosexuality at all". Edward the Second contains the following passage enumerating homosexual relationships: Marlowe wrote the only play about the life of Edward II up to his time, taking the humanist literary discussion of male sexuality much further than his contemporaries. The play was extremely bold, dealing with a star-crossed love story between Edward II and Piers Gaveston. Though it was a common practice at the time to reveal characters as homosexual to give audiences reason to suspect them as culprits in a crime, Christopher Marlowe's Edward II is portrayed as a sympathetic character. The decision to start the play Dido, Queen of Carthage with a homoerotic scene between Jupiter and Ganymede that bears no connection to the subsequent plot has long puzzled scholars. ===Arrest and death=== In early May 1593, several bills were posted about London threatening the Protestant refugees from France and the Netherlands who had settled in the city. One of these, the "Dutch church libel", written in rhymed iambic pentameter, contained allusions to several of Marlowe's plays and was signed, "Tamburlaine". On 11 May 1593 the Privy Council ordered the arrest of those responsible for the libels. The next day, Marlowe's colleague Thomas Kyd was arrested and when his lodgings were searched, a three-page fragment of a heretical tract was found. On being charged with atheism and tortured, Kyd declared the document to be Marlowe's, and to have been shuffled together with his own papers when they were writing together in the same chamber two years previously. In a second letter, Kyd said they had both been working for an aristocratic patron (probably Ferdinando Stanley), and he described Marlowe as blasphemous, disorderly, holding treasonous opinions, being an irreligious reprobate and "intemperate & of a cruel hart". A warrant for Marlowe's arrest was issued on 18 May 1593, when the Privy Council apparently knew that he might be found staying with Thomas Walsingham, whose father was a first cousin of the late Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's principal secretary in the 1580s and a man more deeply involved in state espionage than any other member of the Privy Council. Marlowe duly presented himself on 20 May 1593 but there apparently being no Privy Council meeting on that day, was instructed to "give his daily attendance on their Lordships, until he shall be licensed to the contrary". On Wednesday, 30 May 1593, Marlowe was killed. Various accounts of Marlowe's death were current over the next few years. In his Palladis Tamia, published in 1598, Francis Meres says Marlowe was "stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love" as punishment for his "epicurism and atheism". In 1917, in the Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Sidney Lee wrote, on slender evidence, that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight. His claim was not much at variance with the official account, which came to light only in 1925, when the scholar Leslie Hotson discovered the coroner's report of the inquest on Marlowe's death, held two days later on Friday 1 June 1593, by the Coroner of the Queen's Household, William Danby. The complete text of the inquest report was published by Leslie Hotson in his book, The Death of Christopher Marlowe, in the introduction to which Professor George Lyman Kittredge wrote: "The mystery of Marlowe's death, heretofore involved in a cloud of contradictory gossip and irresponsible guess-work, is now cleared up for good and all on the authority of public records of complete authenticity and gratifying fullness". However, this confidence proved to be fairly short-lived. Hotson had considered the possibility that the witnesses had "concocted a lying account of Marlowe's behaviour, to which they swore at the inquest, and with which they deceived the jury", but decided against that scenario. Others began to suspect that this theory was indeed the case. Writing to the Times Literary Supplement shortly after the book's publication, Eugénie de Kalb disputed that the struggle and outcome as described were even possible, and Samuel A. Tannenbaum insisted the following year that such a wound could not have possibly resulted in instant death, as had been claimed. Even Marlowe's biographer John Bakeless acknowledged that "some scholars have been inclined to question the truthfulness of the coroner's report. There is something queer about the whole episode", and said that Hotson's discovery "raises almost as many questions as it answers". It has also been discovered more recently that the apparent absence of a local county coroner to accompany the Coroner of the Queen's Household would, if noticed, have made the inquest null and void. One of the main reasons for doubting the truth of the inquest concerns the reliability of Marlowe's companions as witnesses. As an agent provocateur for the late Sir Francis Walsingham, Robert Poley was a consummate liar, the "very genius of the Elizabethan underworld", and was on record as saying "I will swear and forswear myself, rather than I will accuse myself to do me any harm". The other witness, Nicholas Skeres, had for many years acted as a confidence trickster, drawing young men into the clutches of people involved in the money-lending racket, including Marlowe's apparent killer, Ingram Frizer, with whom he was engaged in such a swindle. Despite their being referred to as generosi (gentlemen) in the inquest report, the witnesses were professional liars. Some biographers, such as Kuriyama and Downie, take the inquest to be a true account of what occurred, but in trying to explain what really happened if the account was not true, others have come up with a variety of murder theories: Jealous of her husband Thomas's relationship with Marlowe, Audrey Walsingham arranged for the playwright to be murdered. He was accidentally killed while Frizer and Skeres were pressuring him to pay back money he owed them. Marlowe was murdered at the behest of several members of the Privy Council, who feared that he might reveal them to be atheists. The Queen ordered his assassination because of his subversive atheistic behaviour. Frizer murdered him because he envied Marlowe's close relationship with his master Thomas Walsingham and feared the effect that Marlowe's behaviour might have on Walsingham's reputation. Marlowe's death was faked to save him from trial and execution for subversive atheism. Since there are only written documents on which to base any conclusions, and since it is probable that the most crucial information about his death was never committed to paper, it is unlikely that the full circumstances of Marlowe's death will ever be known. ==Reputation among contemporary writers== For his contemporaries in the literary world, Marlowe was above all an admired and influential artist. Within weeks of his death, George Peele remembered him as "Marley, the Muses' darling"; Michael Drayton noted that he "Had in him those brave translunary things / That the first poets had" and Ben Jonson even wrote of "Marlowe's mighty line". Thomas Nashe wrote warmly of his friend, "poor deceased Kit Marlowe," as did the publisher Edward Blount in his dedication of Hero and Leander to Sir Thomas Walsingham. Among the few contemporary dramatists to say anything negative about Marlowe was the anonymous author of the Cambridge University play The Return from Parnassus (1598) who wrote, "Pity it is that wit so ill should dwell, / Wit lent from heaven, but vices sent from hell". The most famous tribute to Marlowe was paid by Shakespeare in As You Like It, where he not only quotes a line from Hero and Leander ("Dead Shepherd, now I find thy saw of might, 'Who ever lov'd that lov'd not at first sight?) but also gives to the clown Touchstone the words "When a man's verses cannot be understood, nor a man's good wit seconded with the forward child, understanding, it strikes a man more dead than a great reckoning in a little room." This appears to be a reference to Marlowe's murder which involved a fight over the "reckoning," the bill, as well as to a line in Marlowe's Jew of Malta, "Infinite riches in a little room." Shakespeare was much influenced by Marlowe in his work, as can be seen in the use of Marlovian themes in Antony and Cleopatra, The Merchant of Venice, Richard II and Macbeth (Dido, Jew of Malta, Edward II and Doctor Faustus, respectively). In Hamlet, after meeting with the travelling actors, Hamlet requests the Player perform a speech about the Trojan War, which at 2.2.429–432 has an echo of Marlowe's Dido, Queen of Carthage. In Love's Labour's Lost Shakespeare brings on a character "Marcade" (three syllables) in conscious acknowledgement of Marlowe's character "Mercury", also attending the King of Navarre, in Massacre at Paris. The significance, to those of Shakespeare's audience who were familiar with Hero and Leander, was Marlowe's identification of himself with the god Mercury. ==Shakespeare authorship theory== An argument has arisen about the notion that Marlowe faked his death and then continued to write under the assumed name of William Shakespeare. Academic consensus rejects alternative candidates for authorship of Shakespeare's plays and sonnets, including Marlowe. ==Literary career== ===Plays=== Six dramas have been attributed to the authorship of Christopher Marlowe either alone or in collaboration with other writers, with varying degrees of evidence. The writing sequence or chronology of these plays is mostly unknown and is offered here with any dates and evidence known. Among the little available information we have, Dido is believed to be the first Marlowe play performed, while it was Tamburlaine that was first to be performed on a regular commercial stage in London in 1587. Believed by many scholars to be Marlowe's greatest success, Tamburlaine was the first English play written in blank verse and, with Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy, is generally considered the beginning of the mature phase of the Elizabethan theatre. The play Lust's Dominion was attributed to Marlowe upon its initial publication in 1657, though scholars and critics have almost unanimously rejected the attribution. He may also have written or co-written Arden of Faversham. ===Poetry and translations=== Publication and responses to the poetry and translations credited to Marlowe primarily occurred posthumously, including: Amores, first book of Latin elegiac couplets by Ovid with translation by Marlowe (c. 1580s); copies publicly burned as offensive in 1599. The Passionate Shepherd to His Love, by Marlowe. (c. 1587–1588); a popular lyric of the time. Hero and Leander, by Marlowe (c. 1593, unfinished; completed by George Chapman, 1598; printed 1598). Pharsalia, Book One, by Lucan with translation by Marlowe. (c. 1593; printed 1600) ===Collaborations=== Modern scholars still look for evidence of collaborations between Marlowe and other writers. In 2016, one publisher was the first to endorse the scholarly claim of a collaboration between Marlowe and the playwright William Shakespeare: Henry VI by William Shakespeare is now credited as a collaboration with Marlowe in the New Oxford Shakespeare series, published in 2016. Marlowe appears as co-author of the three Henry VI plays, though some scholars doubt any actual collaboration. ===Contemporary reception=== Marlowe's plays were enormously successful, possibly because of the imposing stage presence of his lead actor, Edward Alleyn. Alleyn was unusually tall for the time and the haughty roles of Tamburlaine, Faustus and Barabas were probably written for him. Marlowe's plays were the foundation of the repertoire of Alleyn's company, the Admiral's Men, throughout the 1590s. One of Marlowe's poetry translations did not fare as well. In 1599, Marlowe's translation of Ovid was banned and copies were publicly burned as part of Archbishop Whitgift's crackdown on offensive material. ==Chronology of dramatic works== (Patrick Cheney's 2004 Cambridge Companion to Christopher Marlowe presents an alternative timeline based upon printing dates.) ===Dido, Queen of Carthage (–1587)=== First official record 1594 First published 1594; posthumously First recorded performance between 1587 and 1593 by the Children of the Chapel, a company of boy actors in London. Significance This play is believed by many scholars to be the first play by Christopher Marlowe to be performed. Attribution The title page attributes the play to Marlowe and Thomas Nashe, yet some scholars question how much of a contribution Nashe made to the play. Evidence No manuscripts by Marlowe exist for this play. === Tamburlaine, Part I (); Part II (–1588) === First official record 1587, Part I First published 1590, Parts I and II in one octavo, London. No author named. First recorded performance 1587, Part I, by the Admiral's Men, London. Significance Tamburlaine is the first example of blank verse used in the dramatic literature of the Early Modern English theatre. Attribution Author name is missing from first printing in 1590. Attribution of this work by scholars to Marlowe is based upon comparison to his other verified works. Passages and character development in Tamburlane are similar to many other Marlowe works. Evidence No manuscripts by Marlowe exist for this play. Parts I and II were entered into the Stationers' Register on 14 August 1590. The two parts were published together by the London printer, Richard Jones, in 1590; a second edition in 1592, and a third in 1597. The 1597 edition of the two parts were published separately in quarto by Edward White; part I in 1605, and part II in 1606. Evidence No manuscripts by Marlowe exist for this play. The two earliest-printed extant versions of the play, A and B, form a textual problem for scholars. Both were published after Marlowe's death and scholars disagree which text is more representative of Marlowe's original. Some editions are based on a combination of the two texts. Late-twentieth-century scholarly consensus identifies 'A text' as more representative because it contains irregular character names and idiosyncratic spelling, which are believed to reflect the author's handwritten manuscript or "foul papers". In comparison, 'B text' is highly edited with several additional scenes possibly written by other playwrights. ===Edward the Second ()=== First official record 1593 First published 1590; earliest extant edition 1594 octavo First recorded performance 1592, performed by the Earl of Pembroke's Men. Significance Considered by recent scholars as Marlowe's "most modern play" because of its probing treatment of the private life of a king and unflattering depiction of the power politics of the time. The 1594 editions of Edward II and of Dido are the first published plays with Marlowe's name appearing as the author. Attribution Earliest extant edition of 1594. Evidence The play was entered into the Stationers' Register on 6 July 1593, five weeks after Marlowe's death. ===The Massacre at Paris (–1593)=== First official record , alleged foul sheet by Marlowe of "Scene 19"; although authorship by Marlowe is contested by recent scholars, the manuscript is believed written while the play was first performed and with an unknown purpose. First published undated, or later, octavo, London; while this is the most complete surviving text, it is near half the length of Marlowe's other works and possibly a reconstruction. The printer and publisher credit, "E.A. for Edward White," also appears on the 1605/06 printing of Marlowe's Tamburlaine. It features the silent "English Agent", whom tradition has identified with Marlowe and his connexions to the secret service. Highest grossing play for Lord Strange's Men in 1593. Attribution A 1593 loose manuscript sheet of the play, called a foul sheet, is alleged to be by Marlowe and has been claimed by some scholars as the only extant play manuscript by the author. It could also provide an approximate date of composition for the play. When compared with the extant printed text and his other work, other scholars reject the attribution to Marlowe. The only surviving printed text of this play is possibly a reconstruction from memory of Marlowe's original performance text. Current scholarship notes that there are only 1147 lines in the play, half the amount of a typical play of the 1590s. Other evidence that the extant published text may not be Marlowe's original is the uneven style throughout, with two-dimensional characterisations, deteriorating verbal quality and repetitions of content. Evidence Never appeared in the Stationer's Register. ==Memorials== The Muse of Poetry, a bronze sculpture by Edward Onslow Ford references Marlowe and his work. It was erected on Buttermarket, Canterbury in 1891, and now stands outside the Marlowe Theatre in the city. Controversially, a question mark was added to his generally accepted date of death. On 25 October 2011 a letter from Paul Edmondson and Stanley Wells was published by The Times newspaper, in which they called on the Dean and Chapter to remove the question mark on the grounds that it "flew in the face of a mass of unimpugnable evidence". In 2012, they renewed this call in their e-book Shakespeare Bites Back, adding that it "denies history" and again the following year in their book Shakespeare Beyond Doubt. The Marlowe Theatre in Canterbury, Kent, UK, was named for Marlowe in 1949. ==Marlowe in fiction== Marlowe has been used as a character in books, theatre, film, television, games and radio. ==Modern compendia== Modern scholarly collected works of Marlowe include: The Complete Works of Christopher Marlowe (edited by Roma Gill in 1986; Clarendon Press published in partnership with Oxford University Press) The Complete Plays of Christopher Marlowe (edited by J. B. Steane in 1969; edited by Frank Romany and Robert Lindsey, Revised Edition, 2004, Penguin) ==Works of Marlowe in performance== ===Radio=== BBC Radio broadcast adaptations of Marlowe's six plays from May to October 1993. ===Royal Shakespeare Company=== Royal Shakespeare Company Dido, Queen of Carthage, directed by Kimberly Sykes, with Chipo Chung as Dido. Swan Theatre, 2017. Tamburlaine the Great, directed by Terry Hands, with Anthony Sher as Tamburlaine. Swan Theatre, 1992; Barbican Theatre, 1993. Tamburlaine the Great directed by Michael Boyd, with Jude Owusu as Tamburlaine. Swan Theatre, 2018. The Jew of Malta, directed by Barry Kyle, with Jasper Britton as Barabas. Swan Theatre, 1987; People's Theatre, and Barbican Theatre, 1988. The Jew of Malta, directed by Justin Audibert, with Jasper Britton as Barabas. Swan Theatre, 2015. Edward II, directed by Gerard Murphy, with Simon Russell Beale as Edward. Swan Theatre, 1990. Edward II, directed by Daniel Raggett, with Daniel Evans as Edward. Swan Theatre, 2025. Doctor Faustus, directed by John Barton, with Ian McKellen as Faustus. Nottingham Playhouse and Aldwych Theatre, 1974, and Royal Shakespeare Theatre, 1975. Doctor Faustus directed by Barry Kyle with Gerard Murphy as Faustus, Swan Theatre and Pit Theatre, 1989. ===Royal National Theatre=== Royal National Theatre Tamburlaine, directed by Peter Hall, with Albert Finney as Tamburlaine. Olivier Theatre, 1976. Edward II, directed by Joe Hill-Gibbins, with John Heffernan as Edward. Olivier Theatre, 2013. ===Shakespeare's Globe=== Shakespeare's Globe Dido, Queen of Carthage, directed by Tim Carroll, with Rakie Ayola as Dido, 2003. Edward II, directed by Timothy Walker, with Liam Brennan as Edward, 2003. ===Malthouse Theatre=== The Marlowe Sessions Dido, Queen of Carthage, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Stephen Unwin, with Thalissa Teixeira as Dido, 2022. Tamburlaine The Great, Part 1, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Phillip Breen, with Alan Cox as Tamburlaine, 2022. The Jew of Malta, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Stephen Unwin, with Adrian Schiller as Barrabus, 2022. Tamburlaine the Great, Part 2, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Phillip Breen, with Alan Cox as Tamburlaine, 2022. Edward the Second, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Abigail Rokison, with Jack Holden as Edward II, 2022. The Massacre at Paris, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Abigail Rokison, with Michael Maloney as Guise, 2022. Dr Faustus, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Phillip Breen, with Dominic West as Faustus and Talulah Riley as Mephistopheles, 2022. The Poetry of Christopher Marlowe, Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Philip Bird, read by Jack Holden, Fisayo Akinade and Philip Bird, 2022. ===Other stage=== Tamburlaine. Yale University, 1919. Tamburlaine, directed by Tyrone Guthrie, with Donald Wolfit as Tamburlaine. The Old Vic, 1951. Doctor Faustus, co-directed by Orson Welles and John Houseman, with Welles as Faustus and Jack Carter as Mephistopheles. Maxine Elliott's Theatre, 1937. Doctor Faustus, directed by Adrian Noble. Royal Exchange, 1981. Edward II, directed by Toby Robertson, with John Barton as Edward. Cambridge, 1951. Edward II, directed by Toby Robertson, with Derek Jacobi as Edward. Cambridge, 1958. Edward II, directed by Toby Robertson, with Ian McKellen as Edward. Assembly Rooms, 1969. Edward II, directed by Jim Stone, Washington Stage Company, 1993; Edward II, directed by Jozsef Ruszt. Budapest, 1998; Edward II, directed by Michael Grandage, with Joseph Fiennes as Edward. Crucible Theatre, 2001. The Massacre in Paris, directed by Patrice Chéreau. France, 1972. ===Stage adaptations=== Edward II, Phoenix Society, London, 1923. Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England, by Bertolt Brecht (the first play he directed). Munich Chamber Theatre, Germany, 1924. The Life of Edward II of England, by Marlowe and Bertold Brecht, directed by Frank Dunlop. National Theatre, 1968. Edward II, adapted as a ballet, choreographed by David Bintley. Stuttgart Ballet, 1995. Doctor Faustus, additional text by Colin Teevan, directed by Jamie Lloyd, with Kit Harington as Faustus. Duke of York's Theatre, 2016. Faustus, That Damned Woman by Chris Bush, directed by Caroline Byrne. Lyric Theatre, 2020. ===Film=== Doctor Faustus, based on Nevill Coghill's 1965 production, adapted for Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor, 1967. Edward II, directed by Derek Jarman, 1991. Faust, with some Marlowe dialogue, directed by Jan Švankmajer, 1994.	[ "succession to Elizabeth's throne", "Amores (Ovid)", "Stratford-upon-Avon", "Elizabethan theatre", "John de Critz", "Tamburlaine the Great", "Olivier Theatre", "Privy Council of the United Kingdom", "France", "Henry VI, Part 1", "atheism", "Edward Onslow Ford", "Sidney Lee", "Parnassus plays", "The Times", "Frederick S. Boas", "Flushing, Netherlands", "Nottingham Playhouse", "Project Gutenberg", "octavo", "Donald Wolfit", "Adrian Noble", "Munich", "In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)", "Achilles", "Jack Holden (actor)", "Sodom and Gomorrah", "Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall", "Lust's Dominion", "elegiac couplet", "Duke of York's Theatre", "Elizabeth I of England", "The Merchant of Venice", "Foul papers", "BBC Radio", "Royal Shakespeare Company", "Leslie Hotson", "Thomas Kyd", "Coroner of the Queen's Household", "Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex", "Anachronism", "Simon Russell Beale", "Touchstone (As You Like It)", "Deal with the Devil", "Stuttgart Ballet", "Master of the Revels", "Dictionary of National Biography", "Royal National Theatre", "John the Evangelist", "Jack Carter (stage actor)", "Walter Raleigh", "Babington plot", "confidence trickster", "Jew of Malta", "Albert Finney", "Marlovian theory of Shakespeare authorship", "Toby Robertson", "Peter Hall (director)", "hobgoblins", "Joe Hill-Gibbins", "Orson Welles", "heresy", "Roman Catholic", "Alan Cox (actor)", "Renaissance humanism", "Swan Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon", "Tim Carroll", "David Bintley", "English College, Douai", "anti-intellectualism", "J. B. Steane", "Hero and Leander (poem)", "Samuel A. Tannenbaum", "Marlowe Memorial", "William Shakespeare", "David Bevington", "Lansdowne MS.", "Doctor Faustus (play)", "The School of Night", "Frank Dunlop (director)", "Fisayo Akinade", "Alexander the Great", "Baptism", "extant literature", "Cambridge", "Derek Jarman", "Richard II (play)", "The Old Vic", "Lyric Theatre (Hammersmith)", "Stationers' Register", "Protestants", "Michael Grandage", "Talulah Riley", "Edward II (play)", "espionage", "James I of England", "Ganymede (mythology)", "Counterfeit money", "Faust", "Ian McKellen", "Chris Bush (playwright)", "Francis Walsingham", "Dominic West", "The Rose (theatre)", "Buttery (shop)", "New Testament", "Alcibiades", "Mercury (mythology)", "St. Bartholomew's Day massacre", "Richard Burton", "Epicureanism", "Robert Poley", "Oxford University Press", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Augustus", "Times Literary Supplement", "Barry Kyle", "English renaissance theatre", "Mephistopheles", "Jan Švankmajer", "Nicholas Skeres", "bugbear", "Notes and Queries", "Macbeth", "People's Theatre, Newcastle upon Tyne", "Elizabethan Religious Settlement", "Tyrone Guthrie", "quarto", "Canterbury", "Eric C. Rasmussen", "Hamlet", "Lord Strange's Men", "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love", "Doctor Faustus (1967 film)", "Westminster Abbey", "Privy Council of England", "Newgate Prison", "Spanish Netherlands", "As You Like It", "Routledge", "Michael Boyd (theatre director)", "loanshark", "John Whitgift", "Rheims", "Poets' Corner", "Gerard Murphy (Irish actor)", "Derek Jacobi", "blasphemous libel", "Stephen Unwin", "Assembly Rooms (Edinburgh)", "Corpus Christi College, Cambridge", "Jasper Britton", "Old Testament", "English Renaissance", "Admiral's Men", "Aldwych Theatre", "Royal Exchange, Manchester", "George Peele", "iambic pentameter", "Barbican Centre", "Jamie Lloyd (director)", "Nevill Coghill", "Old Style and New Style dates", "idiosyncratic", "Federal Theatre Project", "William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley", "John Houseman", "Anastasia Hille", "The Spanish Tragedy", "Rake (character)", "Thomas Watson (poet)", "Secretary of State (England)", "Thomas Walsingham (literary patron)", "English Renaissance theatre", "Michael Drayton", "Adrian Schiller", "Arbella Stuart", "humanistic", "Jupiter (mythology)", "Palladis Tamia", "Elizabeth Taylor", "Maxine Elliott's Theatre", "Thalissa Teixeira", "Thomas Nashe", "The Massacre at Paris", "Deptford, London", "Norton Folgate", "Elizabethan era", "Kit Harington", "Elizabeth I", "The Guardian", "Shakespeare's Globe", "bronze sculpture", "Antony and Cleopatra", "Children of the Chapel", "London", "Edward II (ballet)", "Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Francis Meres", "William Danby (coroner)", "Audrey Walsingham", "Seminary priest", "Bertolt Brecht", "Joseph Fiennes", "Dover", "Catholics", "Colin Teevan", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Hylas", "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography", "Charles Nicholl (author)", "drama", "George Lyman Kittredge", "Ben Jonson", "Thomas Harriot", "George Chapman", "Patrice Chéreau", "coroner", "Arden of Faversham", "Deptford", "Memorial reconstruction", "Anthony Sher", "Deptford St Nicholas", "Park Honan", "Socrates", "Folger Shakespeare Library", "John Proctor (historian)", "Edward II (film)", "Trinity College, Oxford", "Marlowe Theatre", "blank verse", "Tamburlaine", "Cautionary Towns", "Ovid", "Ingram Frizer", "Richard Baines", "Royal Shakespeare Theatre", "Edward II", "John Barton (director)", "John Heffernan (British actor)", "Michael Maloney", "Yale University", "Hercules", "Samuel Rowley", "Stanley Wells", "Cicero", "Pharsalia", "The Oxford Shakespeare", "Ray Mia", "Crucible Theatre", "Baedeker Blitz", "The King's School, Canterbury", "Eleanor Bull", "Latin language", "Roma Gill", "Daniel Evans (actor)", "Rakie Ayola", "John Puckering", "Edward Alleyn", "Philip Bird", "Love's Labour's Lost", "Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby", "Dido, Queen of Carthage (play)", "Terry Hands", "Lucan", "Abigail Rokison", "foul papers", "The Jew of Malta", "William Stanley (Elizabethan)", "Chipo Chung", "Patroclus", "Barbican Theatre", "Kent", "Shakespeare", "Marlowe portrait", "Church of England", "Hephaestion" ]
5,772	Cricket (disambiguation)	Cricket is a bat-and-ball sport contested by two teams. Cricket also commonly refers to: Cricket (insect) Cricket(s) or The Cricket(s) may also refer to: ==Film and television== The Cricket (1917 film), a silent American drama film The Cricket (1980 film), an erotic drama film Crickets (film), a 2006 Japanese drama film "Cricket" (Bluey), a 2023 television episode "Cricket" (Knots Landing), a 1982 television episode "Cricket" (Servant), a 2019 television episode Christine Blair or Cricket, a character in The Young and the Restless Cricket, a character in To Have and Have Not (film) Matthew "Rickety Cricket" Mara, a character in It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia Cricket Green, a main character in Big City Greens ==Literature== Cricket (magazine), an American literary magazine for children The Cricket (magazine), a 1960s music magazine "Chrząszcz" or "Cricket", a poem by Jan Brzechwa Cricket, a character in Fire on the Mountain (1988 novel) ==Military== Cricket-class destroyer, a 1906 class of Royal Navy coastal destroyers , lead ship of the class , a gunboat HMS Cricket (shore establishment), Hampshire, 1943–1946 ==Music== The Crickets, a rock and roll band formed by Buddy Holly Cricket (musical), a musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice Crickets (album), by Joe Nichols, 2013 Cricket (producer), Kosovo-Albanian record producer Crickets, a video album by Dredg released alongside their 2002 album El Cielo "Crickets", a song by Drop City Yacht Club "Cricket", a song by the Kinks from Preservation Act 1 ==Vehicles== Cricket (1914 automobile), an early American automobile Plymouth Cricket (disambiguation), two automobiles == Other uses == Cricket (darts), a game using the standard 20-number dartboard Cricket (roofing), a ridge structure designed to divert water on a roof Cricket (series), a series of cricket video games Cricket (warning sound), an audible warning in the cockpits of commercial aircraft Cricket dolls, a talking doll released by Playmates Toys in 1986 Cricket, North Carolina, United States Cricket Wireless, wireless service provider, a subsidiary of AT&T Inc. Programmable Cricket, robotic toys Clicker or cricket, a noisemaker Cricket, a variation of the float breakdancing technique Cricket, a data collection software on top of RRDtool Cricket (dog), a puppy killed by South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem	[ "The Cricket (1917 film)", "Cricket (Bluey)", "Cricket (series)", "Cricket (warning sound)", "Shturcite", "Cricket (roofing)", "Cricket (1914 automobile)", "Cricket Wireless", "The Crickets", "Drop City Yacht Club", "float (b-boy move)", "Crickets (film)", "Programmable Cricket", "Fire on the Mountain (1988 novel)", "Cricket St Thomas", "List of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia characters", "Cricket (darts)", "Cricket warbler", "Plymouth Cricket (disambiguation)", "Cricket-class destroyer", "Cricut", "Crickette Sanz", "Big City Greens", "HMS Cricket (shore establishment)", "Cricket (musical)", "Cricket, North Carolina", "Cricket (insect)", "Colomban Cri-cri", "El Cielo (album)", "Cricket (Knots Landing)", "Cricket (producer)", "Chrząszcz", "Cricket (dog)", "Clicker", "Crickett Smith", "Crickets (album)", "Tettigoniidae", "Cricket (magazine)", "Cricket", "Cricket dolls", "Christine Blair", "To Have and Have Not (film)", "The Cricket (magazine)", "The Cricket (1980 film)", "Preservation Act 1", "RRDtool", "Cricket (Servant)" ]
5,776	Caving	Caving, also known as spelunking (United States and Canada) and potholing (United Kingdom and Ireland), is the recreational pastime of exploring wild cave systems (as distinguished from show caves). In contrast, speleology is the scientific study of caves and the cave environment. The challenges involved in caving vary according to the cave being visited; in addition to the total absence of light beyond the entrance, negotiating pitches, squeezes, Cave diving is a distinct, and more hazardous, sub-speciality undertaken by a small minority of technically proficient cavers. In an area of overlap between recreational pursuit and scientific study, the most devoted and serious-minded cavers become accomplished at the surveying and mapping of caves and the formal publication of their efforts. These are usually published freely and publicly, especially in the UK and other European countries, although in the US they are generally more private. Although caving is sometimes categorized as an "extreme sport," cavers do not commonly use this terminology and typically dislike the term being used in reference to caving, as it implies a disregard for safety. Though caving is a fairly safe sport compared to other activities that are sometimes classified as "extreme sports", incidents do occur. These tend to be related to flooding, hypothermia, rock falls, caver falls, SRT accidents, or some combination of these. Many caving skills overlap with those involved in canyoning and mine and urban exploration. == Motivation == Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the outdoor activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving. Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers, while others are engaged in cave photography. == Etymology == The term potholing refers to the act of exploring potholes, a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves. Clay Perry, an American caver of the 1940s, wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England. This group referred to themselves as spelunkers, a term derived from the Latin ("cave, cavern, den"). This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas. Throughout the 1950s, spelunking was the general term used for exploring caves in US English. It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US. In the 1960s, the terms spelunking and spelunker began to be considered déclassé among experienced enthusiasts. In 1985, Steve Knutson – editor of the National Speleological Society (NSS) publication American Caving Accidents – made the following distinction: This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and T-shirts displayed by some cavers: "Cavers rescue spelunkers". Nevertheless, outside the caving community, "spelunking" and "spelunkers" predominately remain neutral terms referring to the practice and practitioners, without any respect to skill level. == History == In the mid-19th century, John Birkbeck explored potholes in England, notably Gaping Gill in 1842 and Alum Pot in 1847–8, returning there in the 1870s. In the mid-1880s, Herbert E. Balch began exploring Wookey Hole Caves and in the 1890s, Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills. One of the oldest established caving clubs, Yorkshire Ramblers' Club, was founded in 1892. Caving as a specialized pursuit was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938), who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac, in France, as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110-metre wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. In the 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France (Causses and Pyrenees) transformed cave exploration into both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly, Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time, surveying mostly caves in Southwest France. During World War II, an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier, Fernand Petzl, Charles Petit-Didier and others explored the Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble, which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's "monkeys", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in a cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system. In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington, known as "Vertical Bill", further developed the single-rope technique (SRT) in the late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar. In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll, that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to vertical caving. Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl. The development of the rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of vertical exploration to a wider range of cavers. == Practice and equipment == Hard hats are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric LED lights are most common. Many cavers carry two or more sources of light – one as primary and the others as backup in case the first fails. More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails. Carbide lamp systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner's equipment, and are still used by some cavers, particularly on remote expeditions where electric charging facilities are not available. The type of clothes worn underground varies according to the environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture. In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece ("furry") suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura) or waterproof (e.g., PVC) material. Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing is used, to provide some abrasion protection while remaining as cool as possible. Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages. On the feet boots are worn – hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies) often with neoprene socks ("wetsocks") in wetter caves. Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Depending on the nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion or cold. In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants. Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches (single rope technique or SRT) or for protection. Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight- (or figure-of-nine-) loop, bowline, alpine butterfly, and Italian hitch. Ropes are usually rigged using bolts, slings, and carabiners. In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use a flexible metal ladder. In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food. Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried. On longer trips, containers for securely transporting feces out of the cave are carried. During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave – some cavers have stayed underground for many days, or in particularly extreme cases, for weeks at a time. This is particularly the case when exploring or mapping extensive cave systems, where it would be impractical to retrace the route back to the surface regularly. Such long trips necessitate the cavers carrying provisions, sleeping, and cooking equipment. == Safety == Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling, flooding, falling rocks and physical exhaustion are the main risks. Rescuing people from underground is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialized courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue. This said, caving is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving). As in all physical sports, knowing one's limitations is key. Caving in warmer climates carries the risk of contracting histoplasmosis, a fungal infection that is contracted from bird or bat droppings. It can cause pneumonia and can disseminate in the body to cause continued infections. In many parts of the world, leptospirosis, a type of bacterial infection spread by animals including rats, is a distinct threat. The presence of rat urine in rainwater or precipitation that enters the cave's water system is the primary vector of infection. Complications are uncommon, but can be serious. These safety risks while caving can be minimized by using a number of techniques: Checking that there is no danger of flooding during the expedition. Rainwater funneled underground can flood a cave very quickly, trapping people in cut-off passages and drowning them. In the UK, drowning accounts for almost half of all caving fatalities (see List of UK caving fatalities). Using teams of several cavers, preferably at least four. If an injury occurs, one caver stays with the injured person while the other two go out for help, providing assistance to each other on their way out. Notifying people outside the cave as to the intended return time. After an appropriate delay without a return, these will then organize a search party (usually made up by other cavers trained in cave rescues, as even professional emergency personnel are unlikely to have the skills to effect a rescue in difficult conditions). Use of helmet-mounted lights (hands-free) with extra batteries. American cavers recommend a minimum of three independent sources of light per person, but two lights is common practice among European cavers. Sturdy clothing and footwear, as well as a helmet, are necessary to reduce the impact of abrasions, falls, and falling objects. Synthetic fibers and woolens, which dry quickly, shed water, and are warm when wet, are vastly preferred to cotton materials, which retain water and increase the risk of hypothermia. It is also helpful to have several layers of clothing, which can be shed (and stored in the pack) or added as needed. In watery cave passages, polypropylene thermal underwear or wetsuits may be required to avoid hypothermia. Cave passages look different from different directions. In long or complex caves, even experienced cavers can become lost. To reduce the risk of becoming lost, it is necessary to memorize the appearance of key navigational points in the cave as they are passed by the exploring party. Each member of a cave party shares responsibility for being able to remember the route out of the cave. In some caves it may be acceptable to mark a small number of key junctions with small stacks or "cairns" of rocks, or to leave a non-permanent mark such as high-visibility flagging tape tied to a projection. Vertical caving uses ladders or single rope technique (SRT) to avoid the need for climbing passages that are too difficult. SRT is a complex skill and requires proper training and well-maintained equipment. Some drops that are abseiled down may be as deep as several hundred meters (for example Harwoods Hole). ==Cave conservation== Many cave environments are very fragile. Many speleothems can be damaged by even the slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath. Research suggests that increased carbon dioxide levels can lead to "a higher equilibrium concentration of calcium within the drip waters feeding the speleothems, and hence causes dissolution of existing features." In 2008, researchers found evidence that respiration from cave visitors may generate elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in caves, leading to increased temperatures of up to 3 °C and a dissolution of existing features. the US Fish & Wildlife Service has called for a moratorium effective March 26, 2009, on caving activity in states known to have hibernacula (MD, NY, VT, NH, MA, CT, NJ, PA, VA, and WV) affected by WNS, as well as adjoining states. Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as a pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step. Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under all but the most gentle touch. In 1988, concerned that cave resources were becoming increasingly damaged through unregulated use, Congress enacted the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act, giving land management agencies in the United States expanded authority to manage cave conservation on public land. == Caving organizations == Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations. The oldest of these is the French Federation of Speleology (originally Société de spéléologie) founded by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895, which produced the first periodical journal in speleology, Spelunca. The first University-based speleological institute in the world was founded in 1920 in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, by Emil Racovita, a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica. The British Speleological Association was established in 1935. In the United States, the National Speleological Society in the US was founded in 1941; however, it was originally formed as the Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939. An international speleological congress was proposed at a meeting in Valence-sur-Rhone, France in 1949 and first held in 1953 in Paris. The International Union of Speleology (UIS) was founded in 1965.	[ "Medical gloves", "hypothermia", "cave rescue", "New England", "Dent de Crolles", "Cave diving", "cave", "Bill Cuddington", "Washington, D.C.", "pastime", "Alum Pot", "Underwater diving", "leptospirosis", "show cave", "Kentucky", "Cave survey", "carabiner", "urban exploration", "Petzl", "American English", "Pierre Chevalier (caver)", "Pyrenees", "polypropylene", "Emil Racovita", "sling (climbing equipment)", "extreme sport", "Wetsuit", "International Union of Speleology", "Knee", "mine exploration", "Flood", "Bird migration", "speleothem", "neoprene", "Cluj-Napoca", "Harwoods Hole", "Americas", "Pitch (ascent/descent)", "John Birkbeck", "single-rope technique", "Knot", "Causses", "LED", "outdoor activity", "Italian hitch", "drowning", "Fernand Petzl", "cave digging", "Clay Perry", "Robert de Joly", "Herbert E. Balch", "flagging (tape)", "National Speleological Society", "ro:Speologie", "Vacuum excavation", "sand", "figure-of-eight loop", "Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand", "England", "clothes", "bowline", "Abseiling", "Cueva del Viento", "List of UK caving fatalities", "Hard hat", "Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988", "caves of the Mendip Hills", "vi:Thám hiểm hang động", "Jumar", "Pit cave", "Headlamp (outdoor)", "pneumonia", "flooding", "Alps", "First aid", "California", "Floyd Collins", "hibernation", "white nose syndrome", "Polyvinyl chloride", "Grenoble", "public utilities", "alpine butterfly knot", "Wookey Hole Caves", "speleology", "organic material", "bumper sticker", "Bat", "histoplasmosis", "vertical caving", "figure-of-nine loop", "British Speleological Association", "World War II", "bolt (climbing)", "Fatigue (medical)", "feces", "helmet", "flowstone", "Gouffre de Padirac", "Latin", "Petzl Croll", "French Federation of Speleology", "Édouard-Alfred Martel", "Norbert Casteret", "Guy de Lavaur", "boot", "urine", "Caving in New Zealand", "cordura", "canyoning", "Single-rope technique", "Alabama cave shrimp", "Carbide lamp", "Wool", "wellies", "silt", "Lava River Cave", "ladder", "falling (accident)", "Gaping Gill", "Earth", "Mammoth Cave National Park", "Yorkshire Ramblers' Club", "mountaineering", "British Caving Association", "Elbow-joint" ]
5,778	Cave	Caves or caverns are natural voids under the Earth's surface. Caves often form by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground. Exogene caves are smaller openings that extend a relatively short distance underground (such as rock shelters). Caves which extend further underground than the opening is wide are called endogene caves. Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves and the cave environment. Visiting or exploring caves for recreation may be called caving, potholing, or spelunking. ==Formation types== The formation and development of caves is known as speleogenesis; it can occur over the course of millions of years. Caves can range widely in size, and are formed by various geological processes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, erosion by water, tectonic forces, microorganisms, pressure, and atmospheric influences. Isotopic dating techniques can be applied to cave sediments, to determine the timescale of the geological events which formed and shaped present-day caves. Most caves are formed in limestone by dissolution. Caves can be classified in various other ways as well, including a contrast between active and relict: active caves have water flowing through them; relict caves do not, though water may be retained in them. Types of active caves include inflow caves ("into which a stream sinks"), outflow caves ("from which a stream emerges"), and through caves ("traversed by a stream"). ===Solutional=== Solutional caves or karst caves are the most frequently occurring caves. Such caves form in rock that is soluble; most occur in limestone, but they can also form in other rocks including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt, and gypsum. Except for salt caves, solutional caves result when rock is dissolved by natural acid in groundwater that seeps through bedding planes, faults, joints, and comparable features. Over time cracks enlarge to become caves and cave systems. The largest and most abundant solutional caves are located in limestone. Limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and naturally occurring organic acids. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as karst, characterized by sinkholes and underground drainage. Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation. These include flowstones, stalactites, stalagmites, helictites, soda straws and columns. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called speleothems. The portions of a solutional cave that are below the water table or the local level of the groundwater will be flooded. Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes. This gas mixes with groundwater and forms H2SO4 (sulfuric acid). The acid then dissolves the limestone from below, rather than from above, by acidic water percolating from the surface. ===Primary=== Caves formed at the same time as the surrounding rock are called primary caves. Lava tubes are formed through volcanic activity and are the most common primary caves. As lava flows downhill, its surface cools and solidifies. Hot liquid lava continues to flow under that crust, and if most of it flows out, a hollow tube remains. Such caves can be found in the Canary Islands, Jeju-do, the basaltic plains of Eastern Idaho, and in other places. Kazumura Cave near Hilo, Hawaii is a remarkably long and deep lava tube; it is . Lava caves include but are not limited to lava tubes. Other caves formed through volcanic activity include rifts, lava molds, open vertical conduits, inflationary, blisters, among others. ===Sea or littoral=== Sea caves are found along coasts around the world. A special case is littoral caves, which are formed by wave action in zones of weakness in sea cliffs. Often these weaknesses are faults, but they may also be dykes or bedding-plane contacts. Some wave-cut caves are now above sea level because of later uplift. Elsewhere, in places such as Thailand's Phang Nga Bay, solutional caves have been flooded by the sea and are now subject to littoral erosion. Sea caves are generally around in length, but may exceed . ===Erosional=== Erosional caves are those that form entirely by erosion by flowing streams carrying rocks and other sediments. These can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks such as granite. Generally there must be some zone of weakness to guide the water, such as a fault or joint. A subtype of the erosional cave is the wind or aeolian cave, carved by wind-born sediments. ===Glacier=== Glacier caves are formed by melting ice and flowing water within and under glaciers. The cavities are influenced by the very slow flow of the ice, which tends to collapse the caves again. Glacier caves are sometimes misidentified as "ice caves", though this latter term is properly reserved for bedrock caves that contain year-round ice formations. ===Fracture=== Fracture caves are formed when layers of more soluble minerals, such as gypsum, dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks of stone. ===Talus=== Talus caves are formed by the openings among large boulders that have fallen down into a random heap, often at the bases of cliffs. These unstable deposits are called talus or scree, and may be subject to frequent rockfalls and landslides. ===Anchialine=== Anchialine caves are caves, usually coastal, containing a mixture of freshwater and saline water (usually sea water). They occur in many parts of the world, and often contain highly specialized and endemic fauna. ==Physical patterns== Branchwork caves resemble surface dendritic stream patterns; they are made up of passages that join downstream as tributaries. Branchwork caves are the most common of cave patterns and are formed near sinkholes where groundwater recharge occurs. Each passage or branch is fed by a separate recharge source and converges into other higher order branches downstream. Angular network caves form from intersecting fissures of carbonate rock that have had fractures widened by chemical erosion. These fractures form high, narrow, straight passages that persist in widespread closed loops. The longest surveyed underwater cave, and second longest overall, is Sistema Ox Bel Ha in Yucatán, Mexico at . The deepest known cave—measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point—is Veryovkina Cave in Abkhazia, Georgia, with a depth of . This was the first cave to be explored to a depth of more than . (The first cave to be descended below was Gouffre Berger in France.) The Sarma and Illyuzia-Mezhonnogo-Snezhnaya caves in Georgia, (, and respectively) are the current second- and third-deepest caves. The deepest reached by a remotely operated underwater vehicle in an underwater cave is , in the Hranice Abyss in the Czech Republic. The Miao Room is the world's largest known room by volume, with a measured volume of . The largest known room by surface is Sarawak Chamber, in the Gunung Mulu National Park (Miri, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia), a sloping, boulder strewn chamber with an area of . The highest surveyed cave in the world is Qaqa Mach'ay in the Peruvian Andes at an elevation of 4930m above sea level. Subsequent GPS measurements suggest this is understated. ===Five longest surveyed=== Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, US\|name=UNESCO}} stenciled, mostly left hands are shown.]] People have made use of caves throughout history. The earliest human fossils found in caves come from a series of caves near Krugersdorp and Mokopane in South Africa. The cave sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai B, Drimolen, Malapa, Cooper's D, Gladysvale, Gondolin and Makapansgat have yielded a range of early human species dating back to between three and one million years ago, including Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus sediba and Paranthropus robustus. However, it is not generally thought that these early humans were living in the caves, but that they were brought into the caves by carnivores that had killed them. The first early hominid ever found in Africa, the Taung Child in 1924, was also thought for many years to come from a cave, where it had been deposited after being predated on by an eagle. However, this is now debated (Hopley et al., 2013; Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.). Caves do form in the dolomite of the Ghaap Plateau, including the Early, Middle and Later Stone Age site of Wonderwerk Cave; however, the caves that form along the escarpment's edge, like that hypothesised for the Taung Child, are formed within a secondary limestone deposit called tufa. There is numerous evidence for other early human species inhabiting caves from at least one million years ago in different parts of the world, including Homo erectus in China at Zhoukoudian, Homo rhodesiensis in South Africa at the Cave of Hearths (Makapansgat), Homo neanderthalensis and Homo heidelbergensis in Europe at Archaeological Site of Atapuerca, Homo floresiensis in Indonesia, and the Denisovans in southern Siberia. In southern Africa, early modern humans regularly used sea caves as shelter starting about 180,000 years ago when they learned to exploit the sea for the first time. The oldest known site is PP13B at Pinnacle Point. This may have allowed rapid expansion of humans out of Africa and colonization of areas of the world such as Australia by 60–50,000 years ago. Throughout southern Africa, Australia, and Europe, early modern humans used caves and rock shelters as sites for rock art, such as those at Giant's Castle. Among the known sacred caves are China's Cave of a Thousand Buddhas and the sacred caves of Crete. Paleolithic cave paintings have been found throughout the world dating from 64,800 years old for non-figurative art and 43,900 years old for figurative art. ==Caves and acoustics== The importance of sound in caves predates a modern understanding of acoustics. Archaeologists have uncovered relationships between paintings of dots and lines, in specific areas of resonance, within the caves of Spain and France, as well as instruments depicting paleolithic motifs, indicators of musical events and rituals. Clusters of paintings were often found in areas with notable acoustics, sometimes even replicating the sounds of the animals depicted on the walls. The human voice was also theorized to be used as an echolocation device to navigate darker areas of the caves where torches were less useful. Dots of red ochre are often found in spaces with the highest resonance, where the production of paintings was too difficult. Caves continue to provide usage for modern-day explorers of acoustics. Today Cumberland Caverns provides one of the best examples for modern musical usages of caves. Not only are the caves utilized for reverberation, but for the dampening qualities of their abnormal faces as well. The irregularities in the walls of the Cumberland Caverns diffuse sounds bouncing off the walls and give the space an almost recording studio-like quality. During the 20th century musicians began to explore the possibility of using caves as locations as clubs and concert halls, including the likes of Dinah Shore, Roy Acuff, and Benny Goodman. Unlike today, these early performances were typically held in the mouths of the caves, as the lack of technology made depths of the interior inaccessible with musical equipment. In Luray Caverns, Virginia, a functioning organ has been developed that generates sound by mallets striking stalactites, each with a different pitch.	[ "Precipitation (chemistry)", "Capri", "Canary Islands", "stalactite", "Shuanghedong Cave Network", "sulfuric acid", "National Geographic News", "carbonic acid", "Texas blind salamander", "Homo floresiensis", "Malapa", "Mount Sodom", "Veryovkina Cave", "chalk", "show cave", "Kentucky", "Washington (state)", "ice cave", "volcanic", "Cystopteris bulbifera", "Sarawak", "National Geographic Society", "Pyrenees", "scree", "Madagascar dry deciduous forests", "Phang Nga Bay", "Taung Child", "Brazil", "troglobite", "lava", "speleothem", "olm", "Hawaii", "Eastern Idaho", "Quảng Bình Province", "Hranice Abyss", "Giant's Castle", "Kazumura Cave", "Carlsbad Cavern", "Hilo", "landslide", "Homo neanderthalensis", "Before Present", "Homo heidelbergensis", "Salt cave", "Argentina", "Miao Room", "Ogof Craig a Ffynnon", "limestone", "Creep (deformation)", "Mammoth Cave", "stygoxene", "Nature (journal)", "Qaqa Mach'ay", "Fault (geology)", "water table", "Homo erectus", "Kermanshah", "Yucatán Peninsula", "Jeju Province", "Slovenia", "UNESCO Publishing", "Pinnacle Point", "Kromdraai", "Planetary surface", "Vietnam", "stygophile", "Tooth cave spider", "Makapansgat", "Gunung Mulu National Park", "Drimolen", "trogloxene", "bedding planes", "Czech Republic", "Slovakia", "Swartkrans", "Lechuguilla Cave", "sinkhole", "New Mexico", "speleogenesis", "Sistema Dos Ojos", "groundwater recharge", "calcium carbonate", "Luray Caverns", "Nova (American TV series)", "soda straw", "Hawaii (island)", "Phaidon Press", "Santa Cruz Island", "Pit cave", "cave paintings", "rockfall", "California", "Slovak Karst", "Denisovans", "petroglyph", "Sterkfontein", "groundwater", "China", "Vrtoglavica Cave", "Roy Acuff", "YouTube", "tufa", "Italy", "rock shelter", "Caving", "Bat", "Miri", "cave cricket", "stalagmite", "Thailand", "flowstone", "Dolomite (rock)", "Mexican free-tailed bat", "Lamprechtsofen", "weathering", "Big Four Mountain", "organ (music)", "helictite", "Australopithecus africanus", "organic acid", "Lava tube", "Paranthropus robustus", "Homo rhodesiensis", "Archaeological Site of Atapuerca", "Perito Moreno, Santa Cruz", "Cumberland Caverns", "Cave insects", "hydrogen sulfide", "Abkhazia", "La Verna cave", "Georgia (country)", "Sarma, Georgia", "Sarawak Chamber", "South Dakota", "Solvation", "Malaysia", "gray bat", "Finland", "Alabama cave shrimp", "Iran", "Australopithecus sediba", "Zhoukoudian", "Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park", "cave salamander", "Son Doong Cave", "sacred caves of Crete", "South Wales", "St Cuthberts Swallet", "Borneo", "Jewel Cave", "Illyuzia-Mezhonnogo-Snezhnaya", "Cave of Maltravieso", "Sistema Sac Actun", "Speleology", "stygobite", "gypsum", "Sistema Ox Bel Ha", "troglophile", "fossil", "Earth", "karst", "marble", "Wonderwerk Cave", "remotely operated underwater vehicle", "Benny Goodman", "Liphistiidae", "Gouffre Berger", "Dinah Shore" ]
5,781	Chinese numerals	Chinese numerals are words and characters used to denote numbers in written Chinese. Today, speakers of Chinese languages use three written numeral systems: the system of Arabic numerals used worldwide, and two indigenous systems. The more familiar indigenous system is based on Chinese characters that correspond to numerals in the spoken language. These may be shared with other languages of the Chinese cultural sphere such as Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese. Most people and institutions in China primarily use the Arabic or mixed Arabic-Chinese systems for convenience, with traditional Chinese numerals used in finance, mainly for writing amounts on cheques, banknotes, some ceremonial occasions, some boxes, and on commercials. The other indigenous system consists of the Suzhou numerals, or huama, a positional system, the only surviving form of the rod numerals. These were once used by Chinese mathematicians, and later by merchants in Chinese markets, such as those in Hong Kong until the 1990s, but were gradually supplanted by Arabic numerals. == Basic counting in Chinese == The Chinese character numeral system consists of the Chinese characters used by the Chinese written language to write spoken numerals. Similar to spelling-out numbers in English (e.g., "one thousand nine hundred forty-five"), it is not an independent system per se. Since it reflects spoken language, it does not use the positional system as in Arabic numerals, in the same way that spelling out numbers in English does not. === Ordinary numerals === There are characters representing the numbers zero through nine, and other characters representing larger numbers such as tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands and hundred millions. There are two sets of characters for Chinese numerals: one for everyday writing, known as (), and one for use in commercial, accounting or financial contexts, known as ( or 'capital numbers'). The latter were developed by Wu Zetian () and were further refined by the Hongwu Emperor (). They arose because the characters used for writing numerals are geometrically simple, so simply using those numerals cannot prevent forgeries in the same way spelling numbers out in English would. A forger could easily change the everyday characters (30) to (5000) just by adding a few strokes. That would not be possible when writing using the financial characters (30) and (5000). They are also referred to as "banker's numerals" or "anti-fraud numerals". For the same reason, rod numerals were never used in commercial records. 1. Wugniu is a pan-Wu romanization scheme, but the exact romanization depends on the variety. The romanization listed here is specifically for Shanghainese. === Regional usage === Interior zeroes before the unit position (as in 1002) must be spelt explicitly. The reason for this is that trailing zeroes (as in 1200) are often omitted as shorthand, so ambiguity occurs. One zero is sufficient to resolve the ambiguity. Where the zero is before a digit other than the units digit, the explicit zero is not ambiguous and is therefore optional, but preferred. Thus: ===Fractional values=== To construct a fraction, the denominator is written first, followed by , then the literary possessive particle , and lastly the numerator. This is the opposite of how fractions are read in English, which is numerator first. Each half of the fraction is written the same as a whole number. For example, to express "two thirds", the structure "three parts of-this two" is used. Mixed numbers are written with the whole-number part first, followed by , then the fractional part. Percentages are constructed similarly, using as the denominator. (The number 100 is typically expressed as , like the English 'one hundred'. However, for percentages, is used on its own.) Because percentages and other fractions are formulated the same, Chinese are more likely than not to express 10%, 20% etc. as 'parts of 10' (or , , etc. i.e. ; , ; , etc.) rather than "parts of 100" (or , , etc. i.e. ; , ; , etc.) In Taiwan, the most common formation of percentages in the spoken language is the number per hundred followed by the word , a contraction of the Japanese ; , itself taken from 'percent'. Thus 25% is ; . Decimal numbers are constructed by first writing the whole number part, then inserting a point (), and finally the fractional part. The fractional part is expressed using only the numbers for 0 to 9, similarly to English. functions as a number and therefore requires a measure word. For example: . ===Ordinal numbers=== Ordinal numbers are formed by adding before the number. The Heavenly Stems are a traditional Chinese ordinal system. ===Negative numbers=== Negative numbers are formed by adding before the number. ===Usage=== Chinese grammar requires the use of classifiers (measure words) when a numeral is used together with a noun to express a quantity. For example, "three people" is expressed as , "three ( particle) person", where / is a classifier. There exist many different classifiers, for use with different sets of nouns, although / is the most common, and may be used informally in place of other classifiers. Chinese uses cardinal numbers in certain situations in which English would use ordinals. For example, (literally "three story/storey") means "third floor" ("second floor" in British ). Likewise, (literally "twenty-one century") is used for "21st century". Numbers of years are commonly spoken as a sequence of digits, as in ("two zero zero one") for the year 2001. Names of months and days (in the Western system) are also expressed using numbers: ("one month") for January, etc.; and ("week one") for Monday, etc. There is only one exception: Sunday is , or informally , both literally "week day". When meaning "week", "" and "" are interchangeable. "" or "" means "day of worship". Chinese Catholics call Sunday "" , "Lord's day". Full dates are usually written in the format 2001年1月20日 for January 20, 2001 (using "year", "month", and "day") – all the numbers are read as cardinals, not ordinals, with no leading zeroes, and the year is read as a sequence of digits. For brevity the , and may be dropped to give a date composed of just numbers. For example "6-4" in Chinese is "six-four", short for "month six, day four" i.e. June Fourth, a common Chinese shorthand for the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests (because of the violence that occurred on June 4). For another example 67, in Chinese is sixty seven, short for year nineteen sixty seven, a common Chinese shorthand for the Hong Kong 1967 leftist riots. == Counting rod and Suzhou numerals == In the same way that Roman numerals were standard in ancient and medieval Europe for mathematics and commerce, the Chinese formerly used the rod numerals, which is a positional system. The Suzhou numerals () system is a variation of the Southern Song rod numerals. Nowadays, the huāmǎ system is only used for displaying prices in Chinese markets or on traditional handwritten invoices. ==Hand gestures== There is a common method of using of one hand to signify the numbers one to ten. While the five digits on one hand can easily express the numbers one to five, six to ten have special signs that can be used in commerce or day-to-day communication. ==Historical use of numerals in China== Most Chinese numerals of later periods were descendants of the Shang dynasty oracle numerals of the 14th century BC. The oracle bone script numerals were found on tortoise shell and animal bones. In early civilizations, the Shang were able to express any numbers, however large, with only nine symbols and a counting board though it was still not positional. Some of the bronze script numerals such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, and 13 became part of the system of rod numerals. In this system, horizontal rod numbers are used for the tens, thousands, hundred thousands etc. It is written in Sunzi Suanjing that "one is vertical, ten is horizontal". The counting rod numerals system has place value and decimal numerals for computation, and was used widely by Chinese merchants, mathematicians and astronomers from the Han dynasty to the 16th century. In 690 AD, Wu Zetian promulgated Zetian characters, one of which was . The word is now used as a synonym for the number zero. Alexander Wylie, Christian missionary to China, in 1853 already refuted the notion that "the Chinese numbers were written in words at length", and stated that in ancient China, calculation was carried out by means of counting rods, and "the written character is evidently a rude presentation of these". After being introduced to the rod numerals, he said "Having thus obtained a simple but effective system of figures, we find the Chinese in actual use of a method of notation depending on the theory of local value [i.e. place-value], several centuries before such theory was understood in Europe, and while yet the science of numbers had scarcely dawned among the Arabs." During the Ming and Qing dynasties (after Arabic numerals were introduced into China), some Chinese mathematicians used Chinese numeral characters as positional system digits. After the Qing period, both the Chinese numeral characters and the Suzhou numerals were replaced by Arabic numerals in mathematical writings. == Cultural influences == Traditional Chinese numeric characters are also used in Japan and Korea and were used in Vietnam before the 20th century. In vertical text (that is, read top to bottom), using characters for numbers is the norm, while in horizontal text, Arabic numerals are most common. Chinese numeric characters are also used in much the same formal or decorative fashion that Roman numerals are in Western cultures. Chinese numerals may appear together with Arabic numbers on the same sign or document.	[ "Chaozhou dialect", "tera-", "0.1", "exa-", "Hong Kong", "Shang dynasty", "mahjong", "Chinese measure word", "Hongwu Emperor", "1,000,000", "megabyte", "Song dynasty", "written Chinese", "Orders of magnitude (numbers)", "Japanese numerals", "numeral (linguistics)", "Alexander Wylie (missionary)", "O mark", "Ming dynasty", "kilo-", "Northeastern Mandarin", "quecto-", "cardinal number", "Hokkien", "4 (number)", "classifier (linguistics)", "8 (number)", "1 E8", "Asaṃkhyeya", "-yllion", "Chinese classifier", "May 30 Movement", "Ganges", "100 (number)", "Taiwan", "Shanghainese", "Sunzi Suanjing", "CJK Unified Ideographs", "Chinese written language", "Roman numerals", "Celestial stem", "Cantonese", "Teochew dialect", "Chinese cultural sphere", "square (algebra)", "yocto-", "Chinese characters of Empress Wu", "Southern Min", "6 (number)", "Radiotelephony procedure", "milli-", "1,000,000,000", "7 (number)", "1 (number)", "long and short scales", "Vietnam", "Pinyin", "1000 (number)", "Sanskrit", "one", "megahertz", "denominator", "Heavenly Stems", "numeral system", "Jyutping", "nano-", "giga-", "rod numerals", "Republic of China", "hundredth", "Standard Cantonese", "People's Republic of China", "quetta-", "numerator", "9 (number)", "10000 (number)", "Yellow Emperor", "2 (number)", "ronna-", "Chinese grammar", "Korea", "40 (number)", "zepto-", "30 (number)", "Ordinal number", "hecto-", "100,000", "Han dynasty", "Dates in Chinese", "peta-", "Arabic numerals", "1989 Tiananmen Square protests", "0 (number)", "100,000,000", "Storey", "written Hokkien", "Romanization of Wu Chinese", "Qing dynasty", "10,000", "10 (number)", "SI prefix", "femto-", "Min Nan", "List of Chinese classifiers", "varieties of Chinese", "Vietnamese numerals", "deca-", "Mixed number", "ronto-", "micro-", "10,000,000", "number", "deci-", "myriad", "atto-", "Chinese Catholics", "yotta-", "Min varieties", "Standard Mandarin", "Chinese characters", "Variant Chinese characters", "Numbers in Chinese culture", "pico-", "Buddhist texts", "Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn", "Suzhou numerals", "order of magnitude", "Literary Chinese", "counting rods", "zetta-", "200 (number)", "Korean numerals", "5 (number)", "Wu Zetian", "3 (number)", "20 (number)", "Huzhou", "mega-", "CJK Symbols and Punctuation", "Hong Kong 1967 leftist riots", "Japan", "centi-", "chengyu", "oracle bone script", "List of CJK Unified Ideographs", "Classifier (linguistics)" ]
5,783	Computer program	A computer program is a sequence or set of instructions in a programming language for a computer to execute. It is one component of software, which also includes documentation and other intangible components. A computer program in its human-readable form is called source code. Source code needs another computer program to execute because computers can only execute their native machine instructions. Therefore, source code may be translated to machine instructions using a compiler written for the language. (Assembly language programs are translated using an assembler.) The resulting file is called an executable. Alternatively, source code may execute within an interpreter written for the language. If the executable is requested for execution, then the operating system loads it into memory and starts a process. The central processing unit will soon switch to this process so it can fetch, decode, and then execute each machine instruction. If the source code is requested for execution, then the operating system loads the corresponding interpreter into memory and starts a process. The interpreter then loads the source code into memory to translate and execute each statement. Running the source code is slower than running an executable. Moreover, the interpreter must be installed on the computer. ==Example computer program== The "Hello, World!" program is used to illustrate a language's basic syntax. The syntax of the language BASIC (1964) was intentionally limited to make the language easy to learn. For example, variables are not declared before being used. Also, variables are automatically initialized to zero. 10 INPUT "How many numbers to average?", A 20 FOR I = 1 TO A 30 INPUT "Enter number:", B 40 LET C = C + B 50 NEXT I 60 LET D = C/A 70 PRINT "The average is", D 80 END Once the mechanics of basic computer programming are learned, more sophisticated and powerful languages are available to build large computer systems. ==History== Improvements in software development are the result of improvements in computer hardware. At each stage in hardware's history, the task of computer programming changed dramatically. ===Analytical Engine=== In 1837, Jacquard's loom inspired Charles Babbage to attempt to build the Analytical Engine. The names of the components of the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled. The device had a store which consisted of memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 50 decimal digits each. Numbers from the store were transferred to the mill for processing. The engine was programmed using two sets of perforated cards. One set directed the operation and the other set inputted the variables. However, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together. Ada Lovelace worked for Charles Babbage to create a description of the Analytical Engine (1843). The description contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first computer program. It is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move the tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm. The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state. All present-day computers are Turing complete. ===ENIAC=== The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) was built between July 1943 and Fall 1945. It was a Turing complete, general-purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create the circuits. At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together. Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied , and consumed $650 per hour (in 1940s currency) in electricity when idle. It ran from 1947 until 1955 at Aberdeen Proving Ground, calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns. ===Stored-program computers=== Instead of plugging in cords and turning switches, a stored-program computer loads its instructions into memory just like it loads its data into memory. As a result, the computer could be programmed quickly and perform calculations at very fast speeds. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly built the ENIAC. The two engineers introduced the stored-program concept in a three-page memo dated February 1944. Later, in September 1944, John von Neumann began working on the ENIAC project. On June 30, 1945, von Neumann published the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, which equated the structures of the computer with the structures of the human brain. The IBM System/360 (1964) was a family of computers, each having the same instruction set architecture. The Model 20 was the smallest and least expensive. Customers could upgrade and retain the same application software. The Model 195 was the most premium. Each System/360 model featured multiprogramming A committee was formed that included COBOL, Fortran and ALGOL programmers. The purpose was to develop a language that was comprehensive, easy to use, extendible, and would replace Cobol and Fortran. Computers manufactured until the 1970s had front-panel switches for manual programming. The computer program was written on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration, an execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also were automatically inputted via paper tape, punched cards or magnetic-tape. After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches, and the execute button was pressed. Following World War II, tube-based technology was replaced with point-contact transistors (1947) and bipolar junction transistors (late 1950s) mounted on a circuit board. The goal is to alter the electrical resistivity and conductivity of a semiconductor junction. First, naturally occurring silicate minerals are converted into polysilicon rods using the Siemens process. The Czochralski process then converts the rods into a monocrystalline silicon, boule crystal. The crystal is then thinly sliced to form a wafer substrate. The planar process of photolithography then integrates unipolar transistors, capacitors, diodes, and resistors onto the wafer to build a matrix of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors. The MOS transistor is the primary component in integrated circuit chips. The terms microprocessor and central processing unit (CPU) are now used interchangeably. However, CPUs predate microprocessors. For example, the IBM System/360 (1964) had a CPU made from circuit boards containing discrete components on ceramic substrates. ===Sac State 8008=== The Intel 4004 (1971) was a 4-bit microprocessor designed to run the Busicom calculator. Five months after its release, Intel released the Intel 8008, an 8-bit microprocessor. Bill Pentz led a team at Sacramento State to build the first microcomputer using the Intel 8008: the Sac State 8008 (1972). Its purpose was to store patient medical records. The computer supported a disk operating system to run a Memorex, 3-megabyte, hard disk drive. IBM embraced the Intel 8088 when they entered the personal computer market (1981). As consumer demand for personal computers increased, so did Intel's microprocessor development. The succession of development is known as the x86 series. The x86 assembly language is a family of backward-compatible machine instructions. Machine instructions created in earlier microprocessors were retained throughout microprocessor upgrades. This enabled consumers to purchase new computers without having to purchase new application software. The major categories of instructions are: Memory instructions to set and access numbers and strings in random-access memory. Integer arithmetic logic unit (ALU) instructions to perform the primary arithmetic operations on integers. Floating point ALU instructions to perform the primary arithmetic operations on real numbers. Call stack instructions to push and pop words needed to allocate memory and interface with functions. Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) instructions to increase speed when multiple processors are available to perform the same algorithm on an array of data. ===Changing programming environment=== VLSI circuits enabled the programming environment to advance from a computer terminal (until the 1990s) to a graphical user interface (GUI) computer. Computer terminals limited programmers to a single shell running in a command-line environment. During the 1970s, full-screen source code editing became possible through a text-based user interface. Regardless of the technology available, the goal is to program in a programming language. ==Programming paradigms and languages== Programming language features exist to provide building blocks to be combined to express programming ideals. Ideally, a programming language should: For example, different paradigms may differentiate: They follow a set of rules called a syntax. The purpose of defining a solution in terms of its formal language is to generate an algorithm to solve the underlining problem. ===Generations of programming language=== The evolution of programming languages began when the EDSAC (1949) used the first stored computer program in its von Neumann architecture. Programming the EDSAC was in the first generation of programming language. The first generation of programming language is machine language. Machine language requires the programmer to enter instructions using instruction numbers called machine code. For example, the ADD operation on the PDP-11 has instruction number 24576. The second generation of programming language is assembly language. Labels allow the programmer to work with variable names. The assembler will later translate labels into physical memory addresses. Operations allow the programmer to work with mnemonics. The assembler will later translate mnemonics into instruction numbers. Operands tell the assembler which data the operation will process. Comments allow the programmer to articulate a narrative because the instructions alone are vague. The key characteristic of an assembly language program is it forms a one-to-one mapping to its corresponding machine language target. The third generation of programming language uses compilers and interpreters to execute computer programs. The distinguishing feature of a third generation language is its independence from particular hardware. Early languages include Fortran (1958), COBOL (1959), ALGOL (1960), and BASIC (1964). Whereas third-generation languages historically generated many machine instructions for each statement, C has statements that may generate a single machine instruction. Moreover, an optimizing compiler might overrule the programmer and produce fewer machine instructions than statements. Today, an entire paradigm of languages fill the imperative, third generation spectrum. The fourth generation of programming language emphasizes what output results are desired, rather than how programming statements should be constructed. A declaration introduces a variable name to the computer program and assigns it to a datatype – for example: var x: integer; An expression yields a value – for example: 2 + 2 yields 4 A statement might assign an expression to a variable or use the value of a variable to alter the program's control flow – for example: x := 2 + 2; if x = 4 then do_something(); ====Fortran==== FORTRAN (1958) was unveiled as "The IBM Mathematical FORmula TRANslating system". It was designed for scientific calculations, without string handling facilities. Along with declarations, expressions, and statements, it supported: arrays. subroutines. "do" loops. It succeeded because: programming and debugging costs were below computer running costs. it was supported by IBM. applications at the time were scientific. However, non-IBM vendors also wrote Fortran compilers, but with a syntax that would likely fail IBM's compiler. The US Department of Defense influenced COBOL's development, with Grace Hopper being a major contributor. The statements were English-like and verbose. The goal was to design a language so managers could read the programs. However, the lack of structured statements hindered this goal. COBOL's development was tightly controlled, so dialects did not emerge to require ANSI standards. As a consequence, it was not changed for 15 years until 1974. The 1990s version did make consequential changes, like object-oriented programming. Emerging from a committee of European and American programming language experts, it used standard mathematical notation and had a readable, structured design. Algol was first to define its syntax using the Backus–Naur form. One region is called the initialized data segment, where variables declared with default values are stored. The other region is called the block started by segment, where variables declared without default values are stored. Variables stored in the global and static data region have their addresses set at compile time. They retain their values throughout the life of the process. The global and static region stores the global variables that are declared on top of (outside) the main() function. Global variables are visible to main() and every other function in the source code. On the other hand, variable declarations inside of main(), other functions, or within { } block delimiters are local variables. Local variables also include formal parameter variables. Parameter variables are enclosed within the parenthesis of a function definition. Parameters provide an interface to the function. Local variables declared using the static prefix are also stored in the global and static data region. Variables placed in the stack are populated from top to bottom. are called automatic variables Like the stack, the addresses of heap variables are set during runtime. An out of memory error occurs when the heap pointer and the stack pointer meet. C provides the malloc() library function to allocate heap memory. Populating the heap with data is an additional copy function. Variables stored in the heap are economically passed to functions using pointers. Without pointers, the entire block of data would have to be passed to the function via the stack. ====C++==== In the 1970s, software engineers needed language support to break large projects down into modules. One obvious feature was to decompose large projects physically into separate files. A less obvious feature was to decompose large projects logically into abstract data types. Object-oriented imperative languages developed by combining the need for classes and the need for safe functional programming. A function, in an object-oriented language, is assigned to a class. An assigned function is then referred to as a method, member function, or operation. Object-oriented programming is executing operations on objects. Object-oriented languages support a syntax to model subset/superset relationships. In set theory, an element of a subset inherits all the attributes contained in the superset. For example, a student is a person. Therefore, the set of students is a subset of the set of persons. As a result, students inherit all the attributes common to all persons. Additionally, students have unique attributes that other people do not have. Object-oriented languages model subset/superset relationships using inheritance. Object-oriented programming became the dominant language paradigm by the late 1990s. It was designed to expand C's capabilities by adding the object-oriented facilities of the language Simula. An object-oriented module is composed of two files. The definitions file is called the header file. Here is a C++ header file for the GRADE class in a simple school application: // grade.h // ------- // Used to allow multiple source files to include // this header file without duplication errors. // ---------------------------------------------- ifndef GRADE_H define GRADE_H class GRADE { public: // This is the constructor operation. // ---------------------------------- GRADE ( const char letter ); // This is a class variable. // ------------------------- char letter; // This is a member operation. // --------------------------- int grade_numeric( const char letter ); // This is a class variable. // ------------------------- int numeric; }; endif A constructor operation is a function with the same name as the class name. It is executed when the calling operation executes the new statement. A module's other file is the source file. Here is a C++ source file for the GRADE class in a simple school application: // grade.cpp // --------- include "grade.h" GRADE::GRADE( const char letter ) { // Reference the object using the keyword 'this'. // ---------------------------------------------- this->letter = letter; // This is Temporal Cohesion // ------------------------- this->numeric = grade_numeric( letter ); } int GRADE::grade_numeric( const char letter ) { if ( ( letter == 'A' \|\| letter == 'a' ) ) return 4; else if ( ( letter == 'B' \|\| letter == 'b' ) ) return 3; else if ( ( letter == 'C' \|\| letter == 'c' ) ) return 2; else if ( ( letter == 'D' \|\| letter == 'd' ) ) return 1; else if ( ( letter == 'F' \|\| letter == 'f' ) ) return 0; else return -1; } Here is a C++ header file for the PERSON class in a simple school application: // person.h // -------- ifndef PERSON_H define PERSON_H class PERSON { public: PERSON ( const char name ); const char name; }; endif Here is a C++ source file for the PERSON class in a simple school application: // person.cpp // ---------- include "person.h" PERSON::PERSON ( const char name ) { this->name = name; } Here is a C++ header file for the STUDENT class in a simple school application: // student.h // --------- ifndef STUDENT_H define STUDENT_H include "person.h" include "grade.h" // A STUDENT is a subset of PERSON. // -------------------------------- class STUDENT : public PERSON{ public: STUDENT ( const char name ); GRADE grade; }; endif Here is a C++ source file for the STUDENT class in a simple school application: // student.cpp // ----------- include "student.h" include "person.h" STUDENT::STUDENT ( const char name ): // Execute the constructor of the PERSON superclass. // ------------------------------------------------- PERSON( name ) { // Nothing else to do. // ------------------- } Here is a driver program for demonstration: // student_dvr.cpp // --------------- include include "student.h" int main( void ) { STUDENT student = new STUDENT( "The Student" ); student->grade = new GRADE( 'a' ); std::cout // Notice student inherits PERSON's name << student->name << ": Numeric grade = " << student->grade->numeric << "\n"; return 0; } Here is a makefile to compile everything: makefile -------- all: student_dvr clean: rm student_dvr .o student_dvr: student_dvr.cpp grade.o student.o person.o c++ student_dvr.cpp grade.o student.o person.o -o student_dvr grade.o: grade.cpp grade.h c++ -c grade.cpp student.o: student.cpp student.h c++ -c student.cpp person.o: person.cpp person.h c++ -c person.cpp ===Declarative languages=== Imperative languages have one major criticism: assigning an expression to a non-local variable may produce an unintended side effect. Declarative languages generally omit the assignment statement and the control flow. They describe what computation should be performed and not how to compute it. Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind a functional language is to use lambda calculus as a guide for a well defined semantic. In mathematics, a function is a rule that maps elements from an expression to a range of values. Consider the function: times_10(x) = 10 * x The expression 10 * x is mapped by the function times_10() to a range of values. One value happens to be 20. This occurs when x is 2. So, the application of the function is mathematically written as: times_10(2) = 20 A functional language compiler will not store this value in a variable. Instead, it will push the value onto the computer's stack before setting the program counter back to the calling function. The calling function will then pop the value from the stack. Imperative languages do support functions. Therefore, functional programming can be achieved in an imperative language, if the programmer uses discipline. However, a functional language will force this discipline onto the programmer through its syntax. Functional languages have a syntax tailored to emphasize the what. A functional program is developed with a set of primitive functions followed by a single driver function. Moreover, their lack of side-effects have made them popular in parallel programming and concurrent programming. However, application developers prefer the object-oriented features of imperative languages. It is tailored to process lists. A full structure of the data is formed by building lists of lists. In memory, a tree data structure is built. Internally, the tree structure lends nicely for recursive functions. The syntax to build a tree is to enclose the space-separated elements within parenthesis. The following is a list of three elements. The first two elements are themselves lists of two elements: ((A B) (HELLO WORLD) 94) Lisp has functions to extract and reconstruct elements. The function head() returns a list containing the first element in the list. The function tail() returns a list containing everything but the first element. The function cons() returns a list that is the concatenation of other lists. Therefore, the following expression will return the list x: cons(head(x), tail(x)) One drawback of Lisp is when many functions are nested, the parentheses may look confusing. Also, Lisp is not concerned with the datatype of the elements at compile time. Instead, it assigns (and may reassign) the datatypes at runtime. Assigning the datatype at runtime is called dynamic binding. Whereas dynamic binding increases the language's flexibility, programming errors may linger until late in the software development process. stands for "Meta Language". ML checks to make sure only data of the same type are compared with one another. For example, this function has one input parameter (an integer) and returns an integer: ML is not parenthesis-eccentric like Lisp. The following is an application of times_10(): times_10 2 It returns "20 : int". (Both the results and the datatype are returned.) Like Lisp, ML is tailored to process lists. Unlike Lisp, each element is the same datatype. Moreover, ML assigns the datatype of an element at compile time. Assigning the datatype at compile time is called static binding. Static binding increases reliability because the compiler checks the context of variables before they are used. ====Prolog==== Prolog (1972) stands for "PROgramming in LOGic". It is a logic programming language, based on formal logic. The language was developed by Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel in Marseille, France. It is an implementation of Selective Linear Definite clause resolution, pioneered by Robert Kowalski and others at the University of Edinburgh. The building blocks of a Prolog program are facts and rules. Here is a simple example: cat(tom). % tom is a cat mouse(jerry). % jerry is a mouse animal(X) :- cat(X). % each cat is an animal animal(X) :- mouse(X). % each mouse is an animal big(X) :- cat(X). % each cat is big small(X) :- mouse(X). % each mouse is small eat(X,Y) :- mouse(X), cheese(Y). % each mouse eats each cheese eat(X,Y) :- big(X), small(Y). % each big animal eats each small animal After all the facts and rules are entered, then a question can be asked: Will Tom eat Jerry? ?- eat(tom,jerry). true The following example shows how Prolog will convert a letter grade to its numeric value: numeric_grade('A', 4). numeric_grade('B', 3). numeric_grade('C', 2). numeric_grade('D', 1). numeric_grade('F', 0). numeric_grade(X, -1) :- not X = 'A', not X = 'B', not X = 'C', not X = 'D', not X = 'F'. grade('The Student', 'A'). ?- grade('The Student', X), numeric_grade(X, Y). X = 'A', Y = 4 Here is a comprehensive example: 1) All dragons billow fire, or equivalently, a thing billows fire if the thing is a dragon: billows_fire(X) :- is_a_dragon(X). 2) A creature billows fire if one of its parents billows fire: billows_fire(X) :- is_a_creature(X), is_a_parent_of(Y,X), billows_fire(Y). 3) A thing X is a parent of a thing Y if X is the mother of Y or X is the father of Y: is_a_parent_of(X, Y):- is_the_mother_of(X, Y). is_a_parent_of(X, Y):- is_the_father_of(X, Y). 4) A thing is a creature if the thing is a dragon: is_a_creature(X) :- is_a_dragon(X). 5) Norberta is a dragon, and Puff is a creature. Norberta is the mother of Puff. is_a_dragon(norberta). is_a_creature(puff). is_the_mother_of(norberta, puff). Rule (2) is a recursive (inductive) definition. It can be understood declaratively, without the need to understand how it is executed. Rule (3) shows how functions are represented by using relations. Here, the mother and father functions ensure that every individual has only one mother and only one father. Prolog is an untyped language. Nonetheless, inheritance can be represented by using predicates. Rule (4) asserts that a creature is a superclass of a dragon. Questions are answered using backward reasoning. Given the question: ?- billows_fire(X). Prolog generates two answers : X = norberta X = puff Practical applications for Prolog are knowledge representation and problem solving in artificial intelligence. ===Object-oriented programming=== Object-oriented programming is a programming method to execute operations (functions) on objects. The basic idea is to group the characteristics of a phenomenon into an object container and give the container a name. The operations on the phenomenon are also grouped into the container. This programming method need not be confined to an object-oriented language. In an object-oriented language, an object container is called a class. In a non-object-oriented language, a data structure (which is also known as a record) may become an object container. To turn a data structure into an object container, operations need to be written specifically for the structure. The resulting structure is called an abstract datatype. However, inheritance will be missing. Nonetheless, this shortcoming can be overcome. Here is a C programming language header file for the GRADE abstract datatype in a simple school application: /* grade.h / / ------- / / Used to allow multiple source files to include / / this header file without duplication errors. / / ---------------------------------------------- / ifndef GRADE_H define GRADE_H typedef struct { char letter; } GRADE; / Constructor / / ----------- / GRADE grade_new( char letter ); int grade_numeric( char letter ); endif The grade_new() function performs the same algorithm as the C++ constructor operation. Here is a C programming language source file for the GRADE abstract datatype in a simple school application: /* grade.c / / ------- / include "grade.h" GRADE grade_new( char letter ) { GRADE grade; / Allocate heap memory / / -------------------- / if ( ! ( grade = calloc( 1, sizeof ( GRADE ) ) ) ) { fprintf(stderr, "ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\n", __FILE__, __FUNCTION__, __LINE__ ); exit( 1 ); } grade->letter = letter; return grade; } int grade_numeric( char letter ) { if ( ( letter == 'A' \|\| letter == 'a' ) ) return 4; else if ( ( letter == 'B' \|\| letter == 'b' ) ) return 3; else if ( ( letter == 'C' \|\| letter == 'c' ) ) return 2; else if ( ( letter == 'D' \|\| letter == 'd' ) ) return 1; else if ( ( letter == 'F' \|\| letter == 'f' ) ) return 0; else return -1; } In the constructor, the function calloc() is used instead of malloc() because each memory cell will be set to zero. Here is a C programming language header file for the PERSON abstract datatype in a simple school application: / person.h / / -------- / ifndef PERSON_H define PERSON_H typedef struct { char name; } PERSON; /* Constructor / / ----------- / PERSON person_new( char name ); endif Here is a C programming language source file for the PERSON abstract datatype in a simple school application: / person.c / / -------- / include "person.h" PERSON person_new( char name ) { PERSON person; if ( ! ( person = calloc( 1, sizeof ( PERSON ) ) ) ) { fprintf(stderr, "ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\n", __FILE__, __FUNCTION__, __LINE__ ); exit( 1 ); } person->name = name; return person; } Here is a C programming language header file for the STUDENT abstract datatype in a simple school application: /* student.h / / --------- / ifndef STUDENT_H define STUDENT_H include "person.h" include "grade.h" typedef struct { / A STUDENT is a subset of PERSON. / / -------------------------------- / PERSON person; GRADE grade; } STUDENT; / Constructor / / ----------- / STUDENT student_new( char name ); endif Here is a C programming language source file for the STUDENT abstract datatype in a simple school application: / student.c / / --------- / include "student.h" include "person.h" STUDENT student_new( char name ) { STUDENT student; if ( ! ( student = calloc( 1, sizeof ( STUDENT ) ) ) ) { fprintf(stderr, "ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\n", __FILE__, __FUNCTION__, __LINE__ ); exit( 1 ); } /* Execute the constructor of the PERSON superclass. / / ------------------------------------------------- / student->person = person_new( name ); return student; } Here is a driver program for demonstration: / student_dvr.c / / ------------- / include include "student.h" int main( void ) { STUDENT student = student_new( "The Student" ); student->grade = grade_new( 'a' ); printf( "%s: Numeric grade = %d\n", /* Whereas a subset exists, inheritance does not. / student->person->name, / Functional programming is executing functions just-in-time (JIT) / grade_numeric( student->grade->letter ) ); return 0; } Here is a makefile to compile everything: makefile -------- all: student_dvr clean: rm student_dvr .o student_dvr: student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o gcc student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o -o student_dvr grade.o: grade.c grade.h gcc -c grade.c student.o: student.c student.h gcc -c student.c person.o: person.c person.h gcc -c person.c The formal strategy to build object-oriented objects is to: Identify the objects. Most likely these will be nouns. Identify each object's attributes. What helps to describe the object? Identify each object's actions. Most likely these will be verbs. Identify the relationships from object to object. Most likely these will be verbs. For example: A person is a human identified by a name. A grade is an achievement identified by a letter. A student is a person who earns a grade. ===Syntax and semantics=== The syntax of a computer program is a list of production rules which form its grammar. A programming language's grammar correctly places its declarations, expressions, and statements. Complementing the syntax of a language are its semantics. The semantics describe the meanings attached to various syntactic constructs. A syntactic construct may need a semantic description because a production rule may have an invalid interpretation. Also, different languages might have the same syntax; however, their behaviors may be different. The syntax of a language is formally described by listing the production rules. Whereas the syntax of a natural language is extremely complicated, a subset of the English language can have this production rule listing: a sentence is made up of a noun-phrase followed by a verb-phrase; a noun-phrase is made up of an article followed by an adjective followed by a noun; a verb-phrase is made up of a verb followed by a noun-phrase; an article is 'the'; an adjective is 'big' or an adjective is 'small'; a noun is 'cat' or a noun is 'mouse'; a verb is 'eats'; The words in bold-face are known as non-terminals. The words in 'single quotes' are known as terminals. From this production rule listing, complete sentences may be formed using a series of replacements. The process is to replace non-terminals with either a valid non-terminal or a valid terminal. The replacement process repeats until only terminals remain. One valid sentence is: sentence noun-phrase verb-phrase article adjective noun verb-phrase the adjective noun verb-phrase the big noun verb-phrase the big cat verb-phrase the big cat verb noun-phrase the big cat eats noun-phrase the big cat eats article adjective noun the big cat eats the adjective noun the big cat eats the small noun the big cat eats the small mouse However, another combination results in an invalid sentence: the small mouse eats the big cat Therefore, a semantic is necessary to correctly describe the meaning of an eat activity. One production rule listing method is called the Backus–Naur form (BNF). BNF describes the syntax of a language and itself has a syntax. This recursive definition is an example of a metalanguage. ::= ::= + \| - ::= \| ::= 0 \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 Notice the recursive production rule: ::= \| This allows for an infinite number of possibilities. Therefore, a semantic is necessary to describe a limitation of the number of digits. Notice the leading zero possibility in the production rules: ::= \| ::= 0 \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 Therefore, a semantic is necessary to describe that leading zeros need to be ignored. Two formal methods are available to describe semantics. They are denotational semantics and axiomatic semantics. ==Software engineering and computer programming== Software engineering is a variety of techniques to produce quality computer programs. Computer programming is the process of writing or editing source code. In a formal environment, a systems analyst will gather information from managers about all the organization's processes to automate. This professional then prepares a detailed plan for the new or modified system. The plan is analogous to an architect's blueprint. The critical factors to achieve this objective are: Development costs. Uniqueness costs. A reusable system may be expensive. However, it might be preferred over a limited-use system. Hardware costs. Operating costs. Applying a systems development process will mitigate the axiom: the later in the process an error is detected, the more expensive it is to correct. ===Waterfall model=== The waterfall model is an implementation of a systems development process. As the waterfall label implies, the basic phases overlap each other: The investigation phase is to understand the underlying problem. The analysis phase is to understand the possible solutions. The design phase is to plan the best solution. The implementation phase is to program the best solution. The maintenance phase lasts throughout the life of the system. Changes to the system after it is deployed may be necessary. Faults may exist, including specification faults, design faults, or coding faults. Improvements may be necessary. Adaption may be necessary to react to a changing environment. ===Computer programmer=== A computer programmer is a specialist responsible for writing or modifying the source code to implement the detailed plan. However, adding programmers to a project may not shorten the completion time. Instead, it may lower the quality of the system. Chances are a module will execute modules located in other source code files. Therefore, computer programmers may be programming in the large: programming modules so they will effectively couple with each other. Modules have a function, context, and logic: The function of a module is what it does. The context of a module are the elements being performed upon. The logic of a module is how it performs the function. The module's name should be derived first by its function, then by its context. Its logic should not be part of the name. Coupling is a judgement of the relationship between a module's context and the elements being performed upon. ===Cohesion=== The levels of cohesion from worst to best are: Coincidental Cohesion: A module has coincidental cohesion if it performs multiple functions, and the functions are completely unrelated. For example, function read_sales_record_print_next_line_convert_to_float(). Coincidental cohesion occurs in practice if management enforces silly rules. For example, "Every module will have between 35 and 50 executable statements." The input to the method is a data-flow diagram. A data-flow diagram is a set of ovals representing modules. Each module's name is displayed inside its oval. Modules may be at the executable level or the function level. The diagram also has arrows connecting modules to each other. Arrows pointing into modules represent a set of inputs. Each module should have only one arrow pointing out from it to represent its single output object. (Optionally, an additional exception arrow points out.) A daisy chain of ovals will convey an entire algorithm. The input modules should start the diagram. The input modules should connect to the transform modules. The transform modules should connect to the output modules. ==Functional categories== Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories are application software and system software. System software includes the operating system, which couples computer hardware with application software. Both application software and system software execute utility programs. At the hardware level, a microcode program controls the circuits throughout the central processing unit. ===Application software=== Application software is the key to unlocking the potential of the computer system. Enterprise application software bundles accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications. Examples include enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software. Enterprise applications may be developed in-house as a one-of-a-kind proprietary software. Alternatively, they may be purchased as off-the-shelf software. Purchased software may be modified to provide custom software. If the application is customized, then either the company's resources are used or the resources are outsourced. Outsourced software development may be from the original software vendor or a third-party developer. The potential advantages of in-house software are features and reports may be developed exactly to specification. Management may also be involved in the development process and offer a level of control. Management may decide to counteract a competitor's new initiative or implement a customer or vendor requirement. A merger or acquisition may necessitate enterprise software changes. The potential disadvantages of in-house software are time and resource costs may be extensive. Specialty companies provide hardware, custom software, and end-user support. They may speed the development of new applications because they possess skilled information system staff. The biggest advantage is it frees in-house resources from staffing and managing complex computer projects. The term operating system may refer to two levels of software. The operating system may refer to the kernel program that manages the processes, memory, and devices. More broadly, the operating system may refer to the entire package of the central software. The package includes a kernel program, command-line interpreter, graphical user interface, utility programs, and editor. which is also known as a context switch. The kernel creates a process control block when a computer program is selected for execution. However, an executing program gets exclusive access to the central processing unit only for a time slice. To provide each user with the appearance of continuous access, the kernel quickly preempts each process control block to execute another one. The goal for system developers is to minimize dispatch latency. The kernel program should perform memory management. When the kernel initially loads an executable into memory, it divides the address space logically into regions. The kernel maintains a master-region table and many per-process-region (pregion) tables—one for each running process. If so, the kernel accesses the memory management unit to populate the physical data region and translate the address. The kernel allocates memory from the heap upon request by a process. The kernel transmits and receives packets on behalf of processes. One key service is to find an efficient route to the target system. The kernel program should provide system level functions for programmers to use. Programmers access files through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level I/O interface. The low-level interface includes file creation, file descriptors, file seeking, physical reading, and physical writing. Programmers create processes through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level interface. Programmers perform date/time arithmetic through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level time interface. The kernel program should provide a communication channel between executing processes. For a large software system, it may be desirable to engineer the system into smaller processes. Processes may communicate with one another by sending and receiving signals. Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are typically written in higher-level languages like C, Objective-C, and Swift. ===Utility program=== A utility program is designed to aid system administration and software execution. Operating systems execute hardware utility programs to check the status of disk drives, memory, speakers, and printers. A utility program may optimize the placement of a file on a crowded disk. System utility programs monitor hardware and network performance. When a metric is outside an acceptable range, a trigger alert is generated. Utility programs include compression programs so data files are stored on less disk space. (Advances in hardware have migrated these operations to hardware execution circuits.)—the computer's real hardware. The digital logic level is the boundary between computer science and computer engineering. A logic gate is a tiny transistor that can return one of two signals: on or off. Having one transistor forms the NOT gate. Connecting two transistors in series forms the NAND gate. Connecting two transistors in parallel forms the NOR gate. Connecting a NOT gate to a NAND gate forms the AND gate. Connecting a NOT gate to a NOR gate forms the OR gate. These five gates form the building blocks of binary algebra—the digital logic functions of the computer. Microcode instructions are mnemonics programmers may use to execute digital logic functions instead of forming them in binary algebra. They are stored in a central processing unit's (CPU) control store. These hardware-level instructions move data throughout the data path. The micro-instruction cycle begins when the microsequencer uses its microprogram counter to fetch the next machine instruction from random-access memory. The next step is to decode the machine instruction by selecting the proper output line to the hardware module. The final step is to execute the instruction using the hardware module's set of gates. Instructions to perform arithmetic are passed through an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The ALU has circuits to perform elementary operations to add, shift, and compare integers. By combining and looping the elementary operations through the ALU, the CPU performs its complex arithmetic. Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the memory controller. Memory controller microcode instructions manipulate two registers. The memory address register is used to access each memory cell's address. The memory data register is used to set and read each cell's contents. Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the many computer buses. The disk controller bus writes to and reads from hard disk drives. Data is also moved between the CPU and other functional units via the peripheral component interconnect express bus.	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5,785	Crime	In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. The notion that acts such as murder, rape, and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the criminal law of each relevant jurisdiction. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, in some common law nations no such comprehensive statute exists. The state (government) has the power to severely restrict one's liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere. If found guilty, an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment, life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, death. Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (actus reus) mustwith certain exceptionsbe accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (mens rea). From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties. English criminal law and the related common law of Commonwealth countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: common law offences. The courts used the concept of malum in se to develop various common law offences. === Sociology === As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause harm and violate social norms. Under this definition, crime is a type of social construct, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal. In legal systems based on legal moralism, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in liberal democratic societies that prioritize individualism and multiculturalism over other moral beliefs. Paternalism defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self. === Psychology === Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment. == History == === Early history === Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient criminal codes. The earliest known criminal code was the Code of Ur-Nammu (), and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the Code of Hammurabi. The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia. The Romans systematized law and applied their system across the Roman Empire. The initial rules of Roman law regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved dominion. Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years. Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with sin and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the Abrahamic religions. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin. Islamic law developed its own system of criminal justice as Islam spread in the seventh and eighth centuries. === Post-classical era === In post-classical Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of feudalism. In some places, such as the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy, feudal justice survived into the 19th century. Common law first developed in England under the rule of Henry II in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data. === Modern era === In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as Thomas Hobbes saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century. Imprisonment developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing urbanization and industrialization in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field. Anthropological criminology was popularized by Cesare Lombroso in the late-19th century. This was a biological determinist school of thought based in social darwinism, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The eugenics movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors. The concept of crime underwent a period of change as modernism was widely accepted in the years following World War II. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from antisocial behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward social democracy and centre-left politics. Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of mass media through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as Jeffrey Dahmer, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing DNA profiling as a new method to prevent and analyze crime. == Criminal law == Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in civil law, common law, Islamic law, or socialist law. Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a feud that lasts over several generations. === Criminalization === The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant human rights considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment. === Law enforcement === The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through law enforcement agencies, such as police, which are empowered to arrest suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant, community policing, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life. === Criminal procedure === When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a sentence to determine the penalty for the crime. === Liability === If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime. === International criminal law === International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. As with all international law, these laws are created through treaties and international custom, and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states. International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish tribunals to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide. == Types == === White-collar crime === White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include wage theft, fraud, bribery, Ponzi schemes, insider trading, labor racketeering, embezzlement, cybercrime, copyright infringement, money laundering, identity theft, and forgery. === Blue-collar crime === Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower social class as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include Narcotic production or distribution, sexual assault, theft, burglary, assault or murder. === Violent crime === Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent aggression against another person. Common examples of violent crime include homicide, assault, sexual assault, and robbery. Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as self-defense, use of force, and acts of war. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation. Examples of financial crimes include counterfeiting, smuggling, tax evasion, and bribery. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In occupational crime, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions. === Public order crime === Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include gambling, drug-related crime, public intoxication, prostitution, loitering, breach of the peace, panhandling, vagrancy, street harassment, excessive noise, and littering. Public order crime is associated with the broken windows theory, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered victimless crimes in which no specific victim can be identified. Most nations in the Western world have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era. Adultery, fornication, blasphemy, apostasy, and invoking the name of God are commonly recognized as crimes in theocratic societies or those heavily influenced by religion. === Political crime === Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include subversion, rebellion, treason, mutiny, espionage, sedition, terrorism, riot, and unlawful assembly. Political crimes are associated with the political agenda of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political dissidents. Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality. State crime that is carried out by the state to repress law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime. === Inchoate crime === Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include attempt and conspiracy. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that renunciation of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime. == Participants == === Criminal === A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame. === Victim === A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with post-traumatic stress and a long-term decrease in quality of life. Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected. Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as domestic violence, embezzlement, child abuse, and bullying. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves. The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for deterrence. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human animals were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s. The gap to official statistics is generally smaller with higher severity of the crime. Clearance rate measures the fraction of crimes where a criminal charge has been laid or the responsible person convicted. Fear of crime can be distinct from crime probability. === Public perception === Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and crime fiction. Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with alarmism and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends. Selection bias in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect. As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable. == Criminal justice == === Natural-law theory === Justifying the state's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of natural law. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of morality or constructs them. Thomas Aquinas wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts". He regarded people as by nature rational beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s, William Blackstone described the thesis: "This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original." But John Austin (1790–1859), an early positivist, applied utilitarianism in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, H.L.A. Hart saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end. Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal logic and consistency, and that the state's agents used state power with responsibility. Ronald Dworkin rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of deference (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make. There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice. === Corrections and punishment === Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to censure the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential. Retributive justice seeks to create a system of accountability and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of deterrence that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment. Rehabilitation seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent recidivism. Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening social networks, reducing poverty, influencing values, and providing therapy for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include counseling or vocational education. Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited rule of law, crime may be punished extralegally through mob rule and lynching. Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives. == Criminology == The study of crime is called criminology. Criminology is a subfield of sociology that addresses issues of social norms, social order, deviance, and violence. It includes the motivations and consequences of crime and its perpetrators, as well as preventative measures, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including social control theory, subcultural theory, strain theory, differential association, and labeling theory. A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as unemployment and income inequality, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can deter crime in some cases. Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Crime distribution shows a long tail with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high recidivism, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.	[ "loitering", "income inequality", "eugenics", "wage theft", "sociology", "rationality", "Oxford University Press", "criminal psychology", "breach of the peace", "human rights", "modernism", "fornication", "Dissident", "crime fiction", "liberal democratic", "Paternalism", "logic", "Islam", "police", "rule of law", "Social norm", "criminal charge", "Sentence (law)", "wrong", "Common law (legal system)", "vocational education", "criminal procedure", "street harassment", "Russian Empire", "child abuse", "utilitarianism", "censure", "subversion", "deterrence theory", "socialist law", "Anthropological criminology", "confidence trick", "Jeffrey Dahmer", "evil", "natural law", "Selection bias", "criminal law", "bullying", "Code of Ur-Nammu", "mob rule", "accountability", "social darwinism", "Aggressive panhandling", "individualism", "theocratic", "civil procedure", "Western world", "genocide", "trial", "social class", "Under-reporting", "cost–benefit analysis", "common law", "renunciation", "War crime", "Political repression", "breach of contract", "Adultery", "Law enforcement agency", "reason", "Criminal procedure", "espionage", "jurisdiction", "Ronald Dworkin", "Category of being", "social order", "industrialization", "treason", "fraud", "crime statistics", "differential association", "consistency", "actus reus", "Crime of opportunity", "robbery", "Islamic law", "identity theft", "Code of Hammurabi", "embezzlement", "rape", "feud", "public intoxication", "Roman Empire", "common law offence", "Capital punishment", "violation of the law", "social democracy", "Prevention of Crimes Act 1871", "occupational crime", "apostasy", "Law and order (politics)", "Henry II of England", "political agenda", "deterrence (psychology)", "criminal code", "morality", "William Blackstone", "use of force", "statute", "attempt", "forensic science", "smuggling", "law", "Genetics and crime", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Guilt (law)", "Strict liability", "Fear of crime", "John Austin (legal philosophy)", "community policing", "gambling", "English criminal law", "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain", "Sex differences in crime", "counseling", "Criminal code", "recidivism", "Ponzi scheme", "feudalism", "lynching", "Suspect", "littering", "drug-related crime", "penology", "alarmism", "vagrancy", "dark figure of crime", "domestic violence", "life imprisonment", "post-classical", "Schøyen Collection", "Abrahamic religion", "Deterrence (penology)", "sin", "H. L. A. Hart", "crime of passion", "Victim study", "malum in se", "community sentence", "self-defense", "theft", "urbanization", "Tribunal", "Crime harm index", "burglary", "liberty", "quality of life", "coercion", "State (polity)", "social integration", "mutiny", "statutory", "crimes against humanity", "Legal positivism", "labeling theory", "Common law", "counterfeiting", "harm", "Imprisonment", "animal", "arrest", "sovereignty", "forgery", "Social responsibility", "Customary international law", "Criminal justice", "Crime displacement", "Forms of government", "Anti-social behaviour", "deference", "Thomas Aquinas", "murder", "Roman law", "Cesare Lombroso", "homicide", "sexual assault", "Kingdom of Italy", "World War II", "biological determinist", "copyright infringement", "terrorism", "Victimless crime", "Value (ethics and social sciences)", "Thomas Hobbes", "multiculturalism", "cybercrime", "probability", "private law", "Crime prevention", "Conviction", "post-traumatic stress", "psychiatry", "conspiracy", "Retributive justice", "Rehabilitation (penology)", "Civil law (common law)", "imprisonment", "tort", "Noise regulation", "The New Oxford Companion to Law", "riot", "State crime", "Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992", "rebellion", "long tail", "Organized crime", "blasphemy", "victimology", "Victimology", "violence", "Strain theory (sociology)", "treaties", "mens rea", "vandalism", "sedition", "unlawful assembly", "therapy", "crime prevention", "social norm", "Racketeering", "Social network", "subcultural theory", "Deviance (sociology)", "bribery", "anthropological criminology", "social control theory", "Rule of law", "mass media", "unemployment", "insider trading", "tax evasion", "legal moralism", "poverty", "Clearance rate", "aggression", "acts of war", "broken windows theory", "Ancient Rome", "money laundering", "DNA profiling", "prostitution", "assault", "Motivations for hate crime", "Social constructionism", "centre-left politics" ]
5,786	California Institute of Technology	The California Institute of Technology (branded as Caltech) is a private research university in Pasadena, California, United States. The university is responsible for many modern scientific advancements and is among a small group of institutes of technology in the United States that are devoted to the instruction of pure and applied sciences. Caltech has six academic divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering, managing $332 million in research grants as of 2010. Its primary campus is located approximately northeast of downtown Los Angeles, in Pasadena. First-year students are required to live on campus, and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus housing system at Caltech. Students agree to abide by an honor code which allows faculty to assign take-home examinations. The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division III's Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC). Scientists and engineers at or from the university have played an essential role in many modern scientific breakthroughs and innovations, including advances in space research, sustainability science, quantum physics, and seismology. , there are 80 Nobel laureates who have been affiliated with Caltech, making it the institution with the highest number of Nobelists per capita in America. This includes 47 alumni and faculty members (48 prizes, with chemist Linus Pauling being the only individual in history to win two unshared prizes). In addition, 68 National Medal of Science Recipients, 43 MacArthur Fellows, 15 National Medal of Technology and Innovation recipients, 11 astronauts, 5 Science Advisors to the President, 4 Fields Medalists, and 6 Turing Award winners have been affiliated with Caltech. == History == === Throop College === Caltech started as a vocational school founded in present-day Old Pasadena on Fair Oaks Avenue and Chestnut Street on September 23, 1891, by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop. The school was known successively as Throop University, Throop Polytechnic Institute (and Manual Training School) and Throop College of Technology before acquiring its current name in 1920. The vocational school was disbanded and the preparatory program was split off to form the independent Polytechnic School in 1907. At a time when scientific research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale, a solar astronomer from the University of Chicago, founded the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1904. He joined Throop's board of trustees in 1907, and soon began developing the university, and the whole of Pasadena, into a major scientific and cultural destination. He engineered the appointment of James A. B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but very capable in administration and fund-raising, to Throop's presidency in 1908. Scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money () to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus. === World Wars === In 1910, Throop moved to its current site. Arthur Fleming donated the land for the permanent campus site. Theodore Roosevelt delivered an address at Throop Institute on March 21, 1911, and he declared: I want to see institutions like Throop turn out perhaps ninety-nine of every hundred students as men who are to do given pieces of industrial work better than any one else can do them; I want to see those men do the kind of work that is now being done on the Panama Canal and on the great irrigation projects in the interior of this country—and the one-hundredth man I want to see with the kind of cultural scientific training that will make him and his fellows the matrix out of which you can occasionally develop a man like your great astronomer, George Ellery Hale. Also in 1911, a bill was introduced in the California Legislature calling for the establishment of a publicly funded "California Institute of Technology," with an initial budget of a million dollars, ten times the budget of Throop at the time. The board of trustees offered to turn Throop over to the state, but the presidents of Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley successfully lobbied to defeat the bill, which allowed Throop to develop as the only scientific research-oriented educational institute in southern California, public or private, until the onset of World War II necessitated the broader development of research-based science education. The promise of Throop attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes from MIT to develop the institution and assist in establishing it as a center for science and technology. With the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems. While he supported the idea of federal appropriations for science, he took exception to a federal bill that would have funded engineering research at land-grant colleges, and instead sought to raise a $1 million national research fund entirely from private sources. To that end, as Hale wrote in The New York Times: Throop College of Technology, in Pasadena California has recently afforded a striking illustration of one way in which the Research Council can secure co-operation and advance scientific investigation. This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, could be of great service in any broad scheme of cooperation. President Scherer, hearing of the formation of the council, immediately offered to take part in its work, and with this object, he secured within three days an additional research endowment of one hundred thousand dollars. Through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science. The new funds were designated for physics research, and ultimately led to the establishment of the Norman Bridge Laboratory, which attracted experimental physicist Robert Andrews Millikan from the University of Chicago in 1917. During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC. Subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech. Albert Einstein arrived on the Caltech campus for the first time in 1931 to polish up his Theory of General Relativity, and he returned to Caltech subsequently as a visiting professor in 1932 and 1933. During World War II, Caltech was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. The United States Navy also maintained a naval training school for aeronautical engineering, resident inspectors of ordinance and naval material, and a liaison officer to the National Defense Research Committee on campus. During the war, some scientists from Caltech, including J. Robert Oppenheimer, Richard Tolman, and Robert Bacher, were instrumental in the Manhattan Project and contributed to critical aspects of the atomic bomb's development. Caltech was also directly involved in other bomb-related research with a group led by Charles Lauritsen which assisted in the development of the high-explosive lenses used in the Fat Man implosion bomb, crucial to the Trinity Test and the subsequent bombing of Nagasaki. Lauritsen’s team at Caltech developed detonators that would later be used in atomic bombs. In November 1943, Caltech and the U.S. Navy established the Naval Ordnance Test Station (NOTS) in Inyokern, California, near the Mojave Desert to work on aircraft ordnance and rocket development. One of the most successful innovations was the development of the 5-inch High-Velocity Aircraft Rocket, commonly known as the "Holy Moses," which was used in combat against enemy fortifications and ships. The partnership between the Navy and Caltech continued to deepen throughout the war, leading to the creation of several military technologies, and by 1945, the focus of Caltech’s war contributions expanded further with Project Camel, a collaboration between the Naval Ordnance Test Station and the Manhattan Project. Caltech scientists worked on a variety of assignments, including B-29 airdrop tests of model atomic bombs and the manufacturing of explosives for use in the atomic bomb’s implosion mechanism. Early in the war, Caltech scientists, including Lauritsen’s son, Thomas Lauritsen, worked on various rocket designs at the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory. === Project Vista === From April to December 1951, Caltech was the host of a federal classified study, Project Vista. The selection of Caltech as host for the project was based on the university's expertise in rocketry and nuclear physics. In response to the war in Korea and the pressure from the Soviet Union, the project was Caltech's way of assisting the federal government in its effort to increase national security. The project was created to study new ways of improving the relationship between tactical air support and ground troops. The Army, Air Force, and Navy sponsored the project; however, it was under contract with the Army. The study was named after the hotel, Vista del Arroyo Hotel, which housed the study. The study operated under a committee with the supervision of President Lee A. DuBridge. William A. Fowler, a professor at Caltech, was selected as research director. More than a fourth of Caltech's faculty and a group of outside scientists staffed the project. Moreover, the number increases if one takes into account visiting scientists, military liaisons, secretarial, and security staff. In compensation for its participation, the university received about $750,000. === Post-war growth === From the 1950s to 1980s, Caltech was the home of Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman, whose work was central to the establishment of the Standard Model of particle physics. Feynman was also widely known outside the physics community as an exceptional teacher and a colorful, unconventional character. During Lee A. DuBridge's tenure as Caltech's president (1946–1969), Caltech's faculty doubled and the campus tripled in size. DuBridge, unlike his predecessors, welcomed federal funding of science. New research fields flourished, including chemical biology, planetary science, nuclear astrophysics, and geochemistry. A 200-inch telescope was dedicated on nearby Palomar Mountain in 1948 and remained the world's most powerful optical telescope for over forty years. Caltech opened its doors to female undergraduates during the presidency of Harold Brown in 1970, and they made up 14% of the entering class. The portion of female undergraduates has been increasing since then. The earliest was a 1968 protest outside the NBC Burbank studios, in response to rumors that NBC was to cancel Star Trek. In 1973, the students from Dabney House protested a presidential visit with a sign on the library bearing the simple phrase "Impeach Nixon". The following week, Ross McCollum, president of the National Oil Company, wrote an open letter to Dabney House stating that in light of their actions he had decided not to donate one million dollars to Caltech. The Dabney family, being Republicans, disowned Dabney House after hearing of the protest. === 21st century === Since 2000, the Einstein Papers Project has been located at Caltech. The project was established in 1986 to assemble, preserve, translate, and publish papers selected from the literary estate of Albert Einstein and from other collections. In fall 2008, the freshman class was 42% female, a record for Caltech's undergraduate enrollment. In 2010, Caltech, in partnership with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and headed by Professor Nathan Lewis, established a DOE Energy Innovation Hub aimed at developing revolutionary methods to generate fuels directly from sunlight. This hub, the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, will receive up to $122 million in federal funding over five years. Since 2012, Caltech began to offer classes through massive open online courses (MOOCs) under Coursera, from 2013, edX, and bootcamps. Jean-Lou Chameau, the eighth president, announced on February 19, 2013, that he would be stepping down to accept the presidency at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. Thomas F. Rosenbaum was announced to be the ninth president of Caltech on October 24, 2013, and his term began on July 1, 2014. In 2019, Caltech received a gift of $750 million for sustainability research from the Resnick family of The Wonderful Company. The gift is the largest ever for environmental sustainability research and the second-largest private donation to a US academic institution (after Bloomberg's gift of $1.8 billion to Johns Hopkins University in 2018). On account of President Robert A. Millikan's affiliation with the Human Betterment Foundation, in January 2021, the Caltech Board of Trustees authorized the removal of Millikan's name (and the names of five other historical figures affiliated with the Foundation), from campus buildings.]] Caltech's primary campus is located in Pasadena, California, approximately northeast of downtown Los Angeles. It is within walking distance of Old Town Pasadena and the Pasadena Playhouse District and therefore the two locations are frequent getaways for Caltech students. In 1917 Hale hired architect Bertram Goodhue to produce a master plan for the campus. Goodhue conceived the overall layout of the campus and designed the physics building, Dabney Hall, and several other structures, in which he sought to be consistent with the local climate, the character of the school, and Hale's educational philosophy. Goodhue's designs for Caltech were also influenced by the traditional Spanish mission architecture of Southern California. During the 1960s, Caltech underwent considerable expansion, in part due to the philanthropy of alumnus Arnold O. Beckman. In 1953, Beckman was asked to join the Caltech Board of Trustees. In 1971 a magnitude-6.6 earthquake in San Fernando caused some damage to the Caltech campus. Engineers who evaluated the damage found that two historic buildings dating from the early days of the Institute—Throop Hall and the Goodhue-designed Culbertson Auditorium—had cracked. New additions to the campus include the Cahill Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics and the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Center for Information Science and Technology, which opened in 2009, and the Warren and Katherine Schlinger Laboratory for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering followed in March 2010. The institute also concluded an upgrading of the South Houses in 2006. In late 2010, Caltech completed a 1.3 MW solar array projected to produce approximately 1.6 GWh in 2011. == Organization and administration == Caltech is incorporated as a non-profit corporation and is governed by a privately appointed 46-member board of trustees who serve five-year terms of office and retire at the age of 72. Thomas F. Rosenbaum became the ninth president of Caltech in 2014. Caltech's endowment is governed by a permanent trustee committee and administered by an investment office. The institute is organized into six primary academic divisions: Biology and Biological Engineering (founded 1927), Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (founded 1926), Engineering and Applied Science (founded 1926), Geological and Planetary Sciences (founded 1927), Humanities and Social Sciences (founded 1926), Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy (founded 1926). Given Caltech's historical prestige and the small size of its faculty in many major fields, the institution is exceptionally careful in selecting candidates. This rigorous process can result in some positions remaining unfilled for several years until the right candidate is found. Caltech dedicates significant resources to attract top-tier faculty and provides them with substantial financial support to foster their research and academic endeavors. The voting faculty of Caltech include all professors, instructors, research associates and fellows, and the University Librarian. Faculty are responsible for establishing admission requirements, academic standards, and curricula. The Faculty Board is the faculty's representative body and consists of 18 elected faculty representatives as well as other senior administration officials. Full-time professors are expected to teach classes, conduct research, advise students, and perform administrative work such as serving on committees. The JPL Director also serves as a Caltech Vice President and is responsible to the President of the Institute for the management of the laboratory. In December 2023, graduate students and postdoctoral researchers filed to be recognized for collective bargaining as Caltech Grad researchers and Postdocs United, in affiliation with the United Auto Workers (C/GPU-UAW). On January 31st and February 1st, 2024 a vote was held by the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). In February 2024, the NLRB certified that 1335 of 1997 eligible workers voted, with 78% voting in favor of unionization. In May 2024, contract negotiations began. In December 2024, C/GPU-UAW members held a strike authorization vote, 1441 participating in the vote, and 86% voting in favor of authorizing the C/GPU bargaining team to call a strike, if necessary. == Academics == Caltech is a small four-year, highly residential research university with slightly more students in graduate programs than undergraduate. The institute has been accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges since 1949. Caltech is on the quarter system: the fall term starts in late September and ends before Christmas, the second term starts after New Year's Day and ends in mid-March, and the third term starts in late March or early April and ends in early June. ===Rankings=== Caltech was ranked within the top ten universities in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, QS World University Rankings, and Academic Ranking of World Universities. For 2022, U.S. News & World Report ranked Caltech as tied for 9th in the United States among national universities overall, 11th for most innovative, and 15th for best value. U.S. News & World Report also ranked the graduate programs in chemistry and earth sciences first among national universities. === Undergraduate admissions=== Admission to Caltech is extremely rigorous. Prior to going test blind, Caltech students had the highest test scores in the nation. In admissions for the Class of 2028 (entering 2024), Caltech was ranked the hardest college in America to gain acceptance to by admit rate, at an all-time low of 2.7%. For the freshmen who enrolled in 2019 (Class of 2023) the middle 50% range of SAT were 740–780 for evidence-based reading and writing and 790–800 for math, and 1530–1570 total. The middle 50% range ACT Composite score was 35–36. The SAT Math Level 2 middle 50% range was 800–800. The middle 50% range for the SAT Physics Subject Test was 760–800; SAT Chemistry Subject Test was 760–800; SAT Biology Subject Tests was 760–800. In June 2020, Caltech announced a test-blind policy where they would not require nor consider test scores for the next two years. The moratorium was extended twice, starting July 2021, but was subsequently cancelled starting with the Class of 2029. The institute is need-blind for domestic applicants. For the Class of 2027 (enrolled Fall 2023), Caltech received 13,136 applications and accepted 412 applicants for a 3.14% admit rate; 270 enrolled. The subsequent year, for the Class of 2028, Caltech reduced the number of seats by almost one hundred, accepting 315 applicants out of approximately 13,000 total applications. For the Class of 2025, 32% were of underrepresented ancestry (which includes students who self-identify as American Indian/Alaska Native, Hispanic/Latino, Black/African American, and/or Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander), and 6% were foreign students. In 2012–2013, Caltech awarded $17.1 million in need-based aid, $438k in non-need-based aid, and $2.51 million in self-help support to enrolled undergraduate students. The average financial aid package of all students eligible for aid was $38,756 and students graduated with an average debt of $15,090. Caltech also offers interdisciplinary programs in Applied Physics, Biochemistry, Bioengineering, Computation and Neural Systems, Control and Dynamical Systems, Environmental Science and Engineering, Geobiology and Astrobiology, Geochemistry, and Planetary Astronomy. The most popular options are Chemical Engineering, Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Physics. The most popular majors of the class of 2023 were Computer Science, Mechanical Engineering, Physics, and Electrical Engineering. Prior to the entering class of 2013, Caltech required students to take a core curriculum of five terms of mathematics, five terms of physics, two terms of chemistry, one term of biology, two terms of lab courses, one term of scientific communication, three terms of physical education, and 12 terms of humanities and social science. Since 2013, only three terms each of mathematics and physics have been required by the institute, with the remaining two terms each required by certain options. A typical class is worth 9 academic units and given the extensive core curriculum requirements in addition to individual options' degree requirements, students need to take an average of 40.5 units per term (more than four classes) to graduate in four years. 36 units is the minimum full-time load, 48 units is considered a heavy load, and registrations above 51 units require an overload petition. Approximately 20 percent of students double-major. This is achievable since the humanities and social sciences majors have been designed to be done in conjunction with a science major. Although choosing two options in the same division is discouraged, it is still possible. First-year students are enrolled in first-term classes based upon results of placement exams in math, physics, chemistry, and writing and take all classes in their first two terms on a Pass/Fail basis. Caltech offers co-operative programs with other schools, such as the Pasadena Art Center College of Design and Occidental College. According to a PayScale study, Caltech graduates earn a median early career salary of $83,400 and $143,100 mid-career, placing them in the top 5 among graduates of US colleges and universities. The average net return on investment over a period of 20 years is $887,000, the tenth-highest among US colleges. Caltech offers Army and Air Force ROTC in cooperation with the University of Southern California. A key aspect of the admission process is the matching of faculty and an applicant's research interests. Historically, many programs required applicants to submit GRE scores. However, in recent years, many departments have made the GRE optional or no longer require it at all. The graduate instructional programs emphasize doctoral studies and are dominated by science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields. To aid in this, some graduate options include rotations in research labs, facilitating a better match with faculty research groups that align with the students' scientific interests. Up to three rotations in the first year are allowed in some options. Caltech provides on-campus housing options for incoming graduate students. All new graduate students are guaranteed housing in their first year, with a variety of living experiences available to suit different needs. Approximately half of Caltech's graduate student population resides in campus housing. The application period for new student housing opens on April 15, 2023, and closes on April 30, 2023. Post-first year, students participate in a housing lottery, with the results announced two months prior to the contract end date, aiding in planning for those who need to seek off-campus housing. The research facilities at Caltech are available to graduate students, but there are opportunities for students to work in facilities of other universities, research centers (such as NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory), and private industries. The graduate student to faculty ratio is 4:1. A joint program also exists between Caltech and the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, the UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, and the Kaiser Permanente Bernard J. Tyson School of Medicine, which grants MD/PhD degrees. Students in this program do their preclinical and clinical work at USC, UCLA, or KPSOM, and their PhD work with any member of the Caltech faculty, including the Biology, Chemistry, and Engineering and Applied Sciences Divisions. The MD degree would be from the student's respective medical school and the PhD would be awarded from Caltech. Approximately 99 percent of doctoral students have full financial support. Financial support for graduate students comes in the form of fellowships, research assistantships, teaching assistantships or a combination of fellowship and assistantship support. Graduate students are bound by the same honor code as the undergraduates, allowing for take-home examinations. The Graduate Honor Council oversees any violations of the code. == Research == Caltech is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". Caltech was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and remains a research university with "very high" research activity, primarily in STEM fields. 66th among all universities in the U.S. and 17th among private institutions without medical schools for 2008. The largest federal agencies contributing to research are NASA, National Science Foundation, Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Defense, and Department of Energy. Caltech received $144 million in federal funding for the physical sciences, $40.8 million for the life sciences, $33.5 million for engineering, $14.4 million for environmental sciences, $7.16 million for computer sciences, and $1.97 million for mathematical sciences in 2008. The institute was awarded an all-time high funding of $357 million in 2009. Active funding from the National Science Foundation Directorate of Mathematical and Physical Science (MPS) for Caltech stands at $343 million , the highest for any educational institution in the nation, and higher than the total funds allocated to any state except California and New York. In 2005, Caltech had dedicated to research: to physical sciences, to engineering, and to biological sciences. In addition to managing JPL, Caltech also operates the Palomar Observatory in San Diego County, the Owens Valley Radio Observatory in Bishop, California, the Submillimeter Observatory and W. M. Keck Observatory at the Mauna Kea Observatory, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory at Livingston, Louisiana and Richland, Washington, and Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory in Corona del Mar, California. The Institute launched the Kavli Nanoscience Institute at Caltech in 2006, the Keck Institute for Space Studies in 2008, and is also the current home for the Einstein Papers Project. The Spitzer Science Center (SSC), part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center located on the Caltech campus, is the data analysis and community support center for NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. Caltech partnered with UCLA to establish a Joint Center for Translational Medicine (UCLA-Caltech JCTM), which conducts experimental research into clinical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as cancer. In 1997, Caltech partnered with UCLA to train physician-scientists. Caltech operates several TCCON stations as part of an international collaborative effort of measuring greenhouse gases globally. One station is on campus. Undergraduates at Caltech are also encouraged to participate in research. About 80% of the class of 2010 did research through the annual Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships (SURF) program at least once during their stay, and many continued during the school year. Students write and submit SURF proposals for research projects in collaboration with professors, and about 70 percent of applicants are awarded SURFs. The program is open to both Caltech and non-Caltech undergraduate students. It serves as preparation for graduate school and helps to explain why Caltech has the highest percentage of alumni who go on to receive a PhD of all the major universities. The licensing and transferring of technology to the commercial sector is managed by the Office of Technology Transfer (OTT). OTT protects and manages the intellectual property developed by faculty members, students, other researchers, and JPL technologists. Caltech receives more invention disclosures per faculty member than any other university in the nation. , 1891 patents were granted to Caltech researchers since 1969. == Students == Caltech enrolled 987 undergraduate students and 1,410 graduate students for the 2021–2022 school year. Women made up 45% of the undergraduate and 33% of the graduate student body. The four-year graduation rate is 79% and the six-year rate is 92%, but substantially higher than it was in the 1960s and 1970s. Students majoring in STEM fields traditionally have graduation rates below 70%. == Student life == === House system === During the early 20th century, a Caltech committee visited several universities and decided to transform the undergraduate housing system from fraternities to a house system. Four South Houses (or Hovses, as styled in the stone engravings) were built: Blacker House, Dabney House, Fleming House and Ricketts House. In the 1960s, three North Houses were built: Lloyd House, Page House, and Ruddock House, and during the 1990s, Avery House. The four South Houses closed for renovation in 2005 and reopened in 2006. The latest addition to residential life at Caltech is Bechtel Residence, which opened in 2018. It is not affiliated with the house system. All first- and second-year students live on campus in the house system or in the Bechtel Residence. On account of Albert B. Ruddock's affiliation with the Human Betterment Foundation, in January 2021, the Caltech Board of Trustees authorized the removal of Ruddock's name from campus buildings. Caltech's mascot is the Beaver, a homage to nature's engineer. Its teams are members of the NCAA Division III and compete in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC), which Caltech co-founded in 1915. On January 6, 2007, the Beavers' men's basketball team snapped a 207-game losing streak to Division III schools, beating Bard College 81–52. It was their first Division III victory since 1996. Until their win over Occidental College on February 22, 2011 the team had not won a game in SCIAC play since 1985. Ryan Elmquist's free throw with 3.3 seconds in regulation gave the Beavers the victory. The documentary film Quantum Hoops concerns the events of the Beavers' 2005–06 season. On January 13, 2007, the Caltech women's basketball team snapped a 50-game losing streak, defeating the Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens 55–53. The women's program, which entered the SCIAC in 2002, garnered their first conference win. On the bench as honorary coach for the evening was Robert Grubbs, 2005 Nobel laureate in Chemistry. The team went on to beat Whittier College on February 10, for its second SCIAC win, and placed its first member on the All Conference team. In 2007, 2008, and 2009, the women's table tennis team (a club team) competed in nationals. The women's Ultimate club team, known as "Snatch", has also been very successful in recent years, ranking 44 of over 200 college teams in the Ultimate Player's Association. On February 2, 2013, the Caltech baseball team ended a 228-game losing streak, the team's first win in nearly 10 years. The track and field team's home venue is at the South Athletic Field in Tournament Park, the site of the first eight Rose Bowl games. The school also sponsored an intercollegiate football team from 1973 through 1977, and played part of its home schedule at the Rose Bowl. === Performing and visual arts === The Caltech/Occidental College Orchestra is a full seventy-piece orchestra composed of students, faculty, and staff at Caltech and nearby Occidental College. The orchestra gives three pairs of concerts annually, at both Caltech and Occidental College. There are also two Caltech Jazz Bands and a Concert Band, as well as an active chamber music program. For vocal music, Caltech has a mixed-voice Glee Club and the smaller Chamber Singers. The theater program at Caltech is known as TACIT, or Theater Arts at the California Institute of Technology. There are two to three plays organized by TACIT per year, and they were involved in the production of the PHD Movie, released in 2011. === Student life traditions === ==== Annual events ==== Every Halloween, Dabney House conducts the infamous "Millikan pumpkin-drop experiment" from the top of Millikan Library, the highest point on campus. According to tradition, a claim was once made that the shattering of a pumpkin frozen in liquid nitrogen and dropped from a sufficient height would produce a triboluminescent spark. This yearly event involves a crowd of observers, who try to spot the elusive spark. The title of the event is an oblique reference to the famous Millikan oil-drop experiment which measured e, the elemental unit of electrical charge. On Ditch Day, the seniors ditch school, leaving behind elaborately designed tasks and traps at the doors of their rooms to prevent underclassmen from entering. Over the years this has evolved to the point where many seniors spend months designing mechanical, electrical, and software obstacles to confound the underclassmen. Each group of seniors designs a "stack" to be solved by a handful of underclassmen. The faculty have been drawn into the event as well, and cancel all classes on Ditch Day so the underclassmen can participate in what has become a highlight of the academic year. Another long-standing tradition is the playing of Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries" at 7:00 each morning during finals week with the largest, loudest speakers available. The playing of that piece is not allowed at any other time (except if one happens to be listening to the entire 14 hours and 5 minutes of The Ring Cycle), and any offender is dragged into the showers to be drenched in cold water fully dressed. ==== Pranks ==== Caltech students have been known for their many pranks (also known as "RFs"). The two most famous in recent history are the changing of the Hollywood Sign to read "Caltech", by judiciously covering up certain parts of the letters, and the changing of the scoreboard to read Caltech 38, MIT 9 during the 1984 Rose Bowl Game. But the most famous of all occurred during the 1961 Rose Bowl Game, where Caltech students altered the flip-cards that were raised by the stadium attendees to display "Caltech", and several other "unintended" messages. This event is now referred to as the Great Rose Bowl Hoax. In recent years, pranking has been officially encouraged by Tom Mannion, Caltech's Assistant VP for Student Affairs and Campus Life. "The grand old days of pranking have gone away at Caltech, and that's what we are trying to bring back," reported the Boston Globe. In December 2011, Caltech students went to New York and pulled a prank in Manhattan's Greenwich Village. The prank involved making The Cube sculpture look like the Aperture Science Weighted Companion Cube from the video game Portal. Caltech pranks have been documented in three Legends of Caltech books, the most recent of which was edited by alumni Autumn Looijen '99 and Mason Porter '98 and published in May 2007. ===== Rivalry with MIT ===== In 2005, a group of Caltech students pulled a string of pranks during MIT's Campus Preview Weekend for admitted students. These include covering up the word Massachusetts in the "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" engraving on the main building façade with a banner so that it read "That Other Institute of Technology". A group of MIT hackers responded by altering the banner so that the inscription read "The Only Institute of Technology." Caltech students also passed out T-shirts to MIT's incoming freshman class that had MIT written on the front and "...because not everyone can go to Caltech" along with an image of a palm tree on the back. MIT retaliated in April 2006, when students posing as the Howe & Ser (Howitzer) Moving Company stole the 130-year-old, 1.7-ton Fleming House cannon and moved it over 3,000 miles to their campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts for their 2006 Campus Preview Weekend, repeating a similar prank performed by nearby Harvey Mudd College in 1986. Thirty members of Fleming House traveled to MIT and reclaimed their cannon on April 10, 2006. On April 13, 2007 (Friday the 13th), a group of students from The California Tech, Caltech's campus newspaper, arrived and distributed fake copies of The Tech, MIT's campus newspaper, while prospective students were visiting for their Campus Preview Weekend. Articles included "MIT Invents the Interweb", "Architects Deem Campus 'Unfortunate, and "Infinite Corridor Not Actually Infinite". In December 2009, some Caltech students declared that MIT had been sold and had become the Caltech East campus. A "sold" banner was hung on front of the MIT dome building and a "Welcome to Caltech East: School of the Humanities" banner over the Massachusetts Avenue Entrance. Newspapers and T-shirts were distributed, and door labels and fliers in the infinite corridor were put up in accordance with the "curriculum change." In September 2010, MIT students attempted to put a TARDIS, the time machine from the BBC's Doctor Who, onto a roof. Caught in mid-act, the prank was aborted. In January 2011, Caltech students in conjunction with MIT students helped put the TARDIS on top of Baxter. Caltech students then moved the TARDIS to UC Berkeley and Stanford. In April 2014, during MIT's Campus Preview Weekend, a group of Caltech students handed out mugs emblazoned with the MIT logo on the front and the words "The Institute of Technology" on the back. When heated, the mugs turn orange, display a palm tree, and read "Caltech The Hotter Institute of Technology." Identical mugs continue to be sold at the Caltech campus store. ==== Honor code ==== Life in the Caltech community is governed by the honor code, which simply states: "No member of the Caltech community shall take unfair advantage of any other member of the Caltech community." This is enforced by a Board of Control, which consists of undergraduate students, and by a similar body at the graduate level, called the Graduate Honor Council. The honor code aims at promoting an atmosphere of respect and trust that allows Caltech students to enjoy privileges that make for a more relaxed atmosphere. For example, the honor code allows professors to make the majority of exams as take-home, allowing students to take them on their own schedule and in their preferred environment. Through the late 1990s, the only exception to the honor code, implemented earlier in the decade in response to changes in federal regulations, concerned the sexual harassment policy. Today, there are myriad exceptions to the honor code in the form of new Institute policies such as the fire policy and alcohol policy. Although both policies are presented in the Honor System Handbook given to new members of the Caltech community, some undergraduates regard them as a slight against the honor code and the implicit trust and respect it represents within the community. In recent years, the Student Affairs Office has also taken up pursuing investigations independently of the Board of Control and Conduct Review Committee, an implicit violation of both the honor code and written disciplinary policy that has contributed to further erosion of trust between some parts of the undergraduate community and the administration. == Notable people == As of October 2024, Caltech has 48 Nobel laureates to its name awarded to 26 alumni, 4 postdocs, and 17 non-alumni professors. The 26 alumni include five Caltech professors (Carl D. Anderson, Linus Pauling, William A. Fowler, Edward B. Lewis, and Kip Thorne). Among the 17 non-alumni professors, 14 were in residence at Caltech at the time of the award; David Baltimore, who shared the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1975, became Caltech President in 1997; Renato Dulbecco, who shared the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1975, credited his Prize to the time he had spent at Caltech; John Hopfield, who won the Prize in Physics in 2024, is the Dickinson Professor Emeritus at Caltech. The total number of Nobel Prizes is 48 because Pauling received prizes in both Chemistry and Peace. Eight faculty and alumni have received a Crafoord Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, while 58 have been awarded the U.S. National Medal of Science, and 11 have received the National Medal of Technology. As of October 2022, 30 alumni and 16 non-alumni faculty have won the Nobel Prize. The Turing Award, the "Nobel Prize of Computer Science", has been awarded to six alumni, and one has won the Fields Medal. Many alumni have participated in scientific research. Some have concentrated their studies on the very small universe of atoms and molecules. Nobel laureate Carl D. Anderson (BS 1927, PhD 1930) proved the existence of positrons and muons, Nobel laureate Edwin McMillan (BS 1928, MS 1929) synthesized the first transuranium element, Nobel laureate Leo James Rainwater (BS 1939) investigated the non-spherical shapes of atomic nuclei, and Nobel laureate Douglas D. Osheroff (BS 1967) studied the superfluid nature of helium-3. Donald Knuth (PhD 1963), the "father" of the analysis of algorithms, wrote The Art of Computer Programming and created the TeX computer typesetting system, which is commonly used in the scientific community. Bruce Reznick (BS 1973) is a mathematician noted for his contributions to number theory and the combinatorial-algebraic-analytic investigations of polynomials. Narendra Karmarkar (MS 1979) is known for the interior point method, a polynomial algorithm for linear programming known as Karmarkar's algorithm. Other alumni have turned their gaze to the universe. C. Gordon Fullerton (BS 1957, MS 1958) piloted the third Space Shuttle mission. Astronaut (and later, United States Senator) Harrison Schmitt (BS 1957) was the only geologist to have walked on the surface of the Moon. Astronomer Eugene Merle Shoemaker (BS 1947, MS 1948) co-discovered Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (a comet which crashed into the planet Jupiter) and was the first person buried on the Moon (by having his ashes crashed into the Moon). Astronomer George O. Abell (BS 1951, MS 1952, PhD 1957) while a grad student at Caltech participated in the National Geographic Society-Palomar Sky Survey. This ultimately resulted in the publication of the Abell Catalogue of Clusters of Galaxies, the definitive work in the field. Undergraduate alumni founded, or co-founded, companies such as LCD manufacturer Varitronix, Hotmail, Compaq, MathWorks (which created Matlab), and database provider Imply, while graduate students founded, or co-founded, companies such as Intel, TRW, and the non-profit educational organization, the Exploratorium. Arnold Beckman (PhD 1928) invented the pH meter and commercialized it with the founding of Beckman Instruments. His success with that company enabled him to provide seed funding for William Shockley (BS 1932), who had co-invented semiconductor transistors and wanted to commercialize them. Shockley became the founding Director of the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory division of Beckman Instruments. Shockley had previously worked at Bell Labs, whose first president was another alumnus, Frank Jewett (BS 1898). Because his aging mother lived in Palo Alto, California, Shockley established his laboratory near her in Mountain View, California. Shockley was a co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956, but his aggressive management style and odd personality at the Shockley Lab became unbearable. In late 1957, eight of his researchers resigned and with support from Sherman Fairchild formed Fairchild Semiconductor. Among the "traitorous eight" was Gordon E. Moore (PhD 1954), who later left Fairchild to co-found Intel. Other offspring companies of Fairchild Semiconductor include National Semiconductor and Advanced Micro Devices, which in turn spawned more technology companies in the area. Shockley's decision to use silicon instead of germanium as the semiconductor material, coupled with the abundance of silicon semiconductor related companies in the area, gave rise to the term "Silicon Valley" to describe that geographic region surrounding Palo Alto. Caltech alumni also held public offices, with Mustafa A.G. Abushagur (PhD 1984) the Deputy Prime Minister of Libya and Prime Minister-Elect of Libya, James Fletcher (PhD 1948) the 4th and 7th Administrator of NASA, Steven Koonin (PhD 1972) the Undersecretary of Energy for Science, and Regina Dugan (PhD 1993) the 19th director of DARPA. The 20th director for DARPA, Arati Prabhakar, is also a Caltech alumna (PhD 1984) as well as Charles Elachi (Phd 1971), former director of the Jet Propulsion Lab. Arvind Virmani is a former Chief Economic Adviser to the Government of India. In 2013, President Obama announced the nomination of France Cordova (PhD 1979) as the director of the National Science Foundation and Ellen Williams (PhD 1982) as the director for ARPA-E. File:Carl anderson.1937.jpg\|Nobel laureate Carl David Anderson, BS 1927, PhD 1930, discoverer of the positron and the muon File:Douglas Osheroff.jpg\|Nobel laureate Douglas D. Osheroff, BS 1967 File:William Shockley, Stanford University.jpg\|Nobel laureate William Shockley, BS 1932, co-inventor of the solid state transistor, father of Silicon Valley File:Edwin McMillan Nobel.jpg\|Nobel laureate Edwin McMillan, BS 1928, MS 1929 File:VernonSmith2.jpg\|Nobel laureate Vernon Smith, BS 1949 File:Fernando Corbato.jpg\|Turing Award laureate Fernando J. Corbató, BS 1950 File:KnuthAtOpenContentAlliance.jpg\|Turing Award laureate Donald Knuth, PhD 1963, "father" of the analysis of algorithms, creator of TeX typesetting system File:John McCarthy Stanford.jpg\|Turing Award laureate John McCarthy, BS 1948, inventor of the Lisp programming language File:Gordon Fullerton 1989.jpg\|Astronaut C. Gordon Fullerton, BS 1957, MS 1958 File:Harrison H. Schmitt.jpg\|Astronaut and United States Senator Harrison Schmitt, BS 1957, the only geologist to have walked on the Moon File:Dr Mustafa Abushagur.JPG\|Libyan Deputy Prime Minister & Libyan Prime Minister-Elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur, PhD 1984 File:Tsien Hsue-shen.jpg\|Qian Xuesen, PhD 1939, co-founder of JPL, "Father" of Chinese rocketry File:Arnold Beckman early portrait 2.65.tif\|Arnold Orville Beckman, PhD 1928, inventor of the pH meter, founder of Beckman Instruments and the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation File:Gordon Moore.jpg\|Gordon Moore, PhD 1954, co-founder of Intel, coined the observation Moore's Law File:Carver Mead at CHM Apr-2005.jpg\|National Medal of Technology laureate Carver Mead, BS 1956, MS 1957, PhD 1960 File:Benoit Mandelbrot mg 1804b.jpg\|Benoit Mandelbrot, MS 1948, Engineering 1949, father of fractal geometry, namesake of the Mandelbrot set File:Charlie Munger (cropped).jpg\|Charlie Munger, studied meteorology at Caltech, investor, Vice Chairman of Berkshire Hathaway File:Frank Capra.JPG\|Frank Capra, BS Chemical Engineering 1918 (when Caltech was known as the "Throop Institute"); winner of six Academy Awards in directing and producing; producer and director of It's a Wonderful Life File:Kip Thorne at Caltech.jpg\|Nobel laureate Kip Thorne, BS 1962, known for his prolific contributions in gravitation physics and astrophysics and co-founding of LIGO File:France A. Córdova official photo.jpg\|France A. Córdova, PhD 1978, Astrophysicist and 14th Director of the National Science Foundation File:Stephen Wolfram PR.jpg\|Stephen Wolfram, PhD 1979, creator of Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha; one of the first MacArthur Fellows in 1981 File:Stanislav Smirnov.jpg\|Stanislav Smirnov, PhD 1996, 2010 Fields Medal winner for his work on the mathematical foundations of statistical physics, particularly finite lattice models File:Carolyn Porco 01.jpg\|Carolyn Porco, PhD 1983, planetary scientist who led the imaging team on the Cassini mission in orbit around Saturn File:Eric Betzig.jpg\|Nobel laureate Eric Betzig, BS 1983, known for his work on fluorescence microscopy and photoactivated localization microscopy File:DARPA Director Dr regina dugan.jpeg\|Regina E. Dugan, PhD 1993, businesswoman and inventor, first female director of the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) File:Ardem Patapoutian by C Michel 67.jpg\|Ardem Patapoutian, PhD 1996, 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, known for his work in characterizing receptors that detect pressure, menthol, and temperature File:John Francis Clauser (cropped).jpg\|John Clauser, BS 1964, 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics, known for the Clauser–Horne–Shimony–Holt inequality in quantum physics === Faculty and staff === Richard Feynman was among the most well-known physicists associated with Caltech, having published the Feynman Lectures on Physics, an undergraduate physics text, and popular science texts such as Six Easy Pieces for the general audience. The promotion of physics made him a public figure of science, although his Nobel-winning work in quantum electrodynamics was already very established in the scientific community. Murray Gell-Mann, a Nobel-winning physicist, introduced a classification of hadrons and went on to postulate the existence of quarks, which is currently accepted as part of the Standard Model. Long-time Caltech President Robert Andrews Millikan was the first to calculate the charge of the electron with his well-known oil-drop experiment, while Richard Chace Tolman is remembered for his contributions to cosmology and statistical mechanics. 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics winner H. David Politzer is a current professor at Caltech, as is astrophysicist and author Kip Thorne and eminent mathematician Barry Simon. Linus Pauling pioneered quantum chemistry and molecular biology, and went on to discover the nature of the chemical bond in 1939. Seismologist Charles Richter, also an alumnus, developed the magnitude scale that bears his name, the Richter magnitude scale for measuring the power of earthquakes. One of the founders of the geochemistry department, Clair Patterson was the first to accurately determine the age of the Earth via lead:uranium ratio in meteorites. In engineering, Theodore von Kármán made many key advances in aerodynamics, notably his work on supersonic and hypersonic airflow characterization. A repeating pattern of swirling vortices is named after him, the von Kármán vortex street. Participants in von Kármán's GALCIT project included Frank Malina, who helped develop the WAC Corporal, which was the first U.S. rocket to reach the edge of space, Jack Parsons, a pioneer in the development of liquid and solid rocket fuels who designed the first castable composite-based rocket motor, and Qian Xuesen, who was dubbed the "Father of Chinese Rocketry". More recently, Michael Brown, a professor of planetary astronomy, discovered many trans-Neptunian objects, most notably the dwarf planet Eris, which prompted the International Astronomical Union to redefine the term "planet". David Baltimore, the Robert A. Millikan Professor of Biology, and Alice Huang, Senior Faculty Associate in Biology, served as the presidents of AAAS from 2007 to 2008 and 2010 to 2011, respectively. 33% of the faculty are members of the National Academy of Sciences or Engineering and/or fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. This is the highest percentage of any faculty in the country with the exception of the graduate institution Rockefeller University. The average salary for assistant professors at Caltech is $111,300, associate professors $121,300, and full professors $172,800. Caltech faculty are active in applied physics, astronomy and astrophysics, biology, biochemistry, biological engineering, chemical engineering, computer science, geology, mechanical engineering, and physics. === Presidents === The following persons had led Caltech since 1921: == Caltech startups == Over the years Caltech has actively promoted the commercialization of technologies developed within its walls. Through its Office of Technology Transfer & Corporate Partnerships, scientific breakthroughs have led to the transfer of numerous technologies in a wide variety of scientific-related fields such as photovoltaic, radio-frequency identification (RFID), semiconductors, hyperspectral imaging, electronic devices, protein design, solid state amplifiers and many more. Companies such as Quora, Contour Energy Systems, Impinj, Fulcrum Microsystems, Nanosys, Inc., Photon etc., Xencor, and Wavestream Wireless have emerged from Caltech. == In media and popular culture == Caltech has appeared in many works of popular culture, both as itself and in disguised form. On television, it played a prominent role and was the workplace of all four male lead characters and one female lead character in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory. Caltech is also the inspiration, and frequent film location, for the California Institute of Science in Numb3rs. On film, the Pacific Tech of The War of the Worlds and Real Genius and Quantum Hoops, its men's basketball team. Caltech is also prominently featured in many comics and television series by Marvel Entertainment. In Marvel Comics, the university serves as the alma mater of Hulk, Mister Fantastic, Bill Foster (Black Goliath), and Madman. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Bruno Carrelli (Kamala Khan's best friend and love interest) attends Caltech in the miniseries Ms. Marvel. Given its Los Angeles-area location, the grounds of the Institute are often host to short scenes in movies and television. The Athenaeum dining club appears in the Beverly Hills Cop series, The X-Files, True Romance, and The West Wing.	[ "Dabney House", "massive open online course", "Sabeer Bhatia", "private university", "dwarf planet", "Exploratorium", "Harvey Mudd College", "House System at Caltech", "academic honor code", "oil-drop experiment", "Marvel Entertainment", "Athenaeum at Caltech", "York Liao", "United States Navy", "Standard Model", "PHD Comics", "US-China University Presidents Roundtable", "Bruce Reznick", "Einstein Papers Project", "Mustafa A.G. Abushagur", "Numbers (TV series)", "W. W. Norton & Company", "Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency", "Advanced Micro Devices", "Mathematica", "Bureau of Ordnance", "Robert A. 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Corbató", "Richland, Washington", "Benoit Mandelbrot", "Arthur Amos Noyes", "William Bennett Munro", "Western Association of Schools and Colleges", "Pell grant", "Carver Mead", "alma mater (song)", "Paul Dirac", "William Shockley", "Beverly Hills Cop (film series)", "Beckman Instruments", "meteorology", "Holy Moses (rocket)", "Stephen Wolfram", "MathWorks", "Sheldon Glashow", "United States Senate", "Robert Grubbs", "Aperture Science", "Crafoord Prize", "Whittier College", "Moore's law", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "American middle class", "American lower class", "National Academy of Sciences", "Six Easy Pieces", "Eris (dwarf planet)", "National Collegiate Athletic Association", "Bard College", "Marvin L. Goldberger", "Infrared Processing and Analysis Center", "Portal (video game)", "Werner Heisenberg", "H. David Politzer", "Panama Canal", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "Non-Hispanic whites", "hypersonic", "Rose Bowl Game", "physicist", "Tiny Tim (rocket)", "Charlie Munger", "downtown Los Angeles", "Rockefeller University", "High Velocity Aircraft Rocket", "Nobel Prize", "Karmarkar's algorithm", "Xencor", "QS World University Rankings", "research university", "Carl David Anderson", "vortices", "Spitzer Space Telescope", "Association of American Universities", "Chief Economic Adviser to the Government of India", "Frank Malina", "federally funded research and development center", "Engineering education", "Playhouse District, Pasadena, California", "Palo Alto, California", "Sherman Fairchild", "MacArthur Fellows Program", "James D. Watson", "Intel", "UC Berkeley", "Bruno Carrelli", "Pomona College", "John Gurdon", "Art Center College of Design", "Ardem Patapoutian", "photovoltaic", "Robert Bacher", "Bell Labs", "muon", "John McCarthy (computer scientist)", "University of California", "Hendrik Lorentz", "Stanislav Smirnov", "chromosome", "Hotmail", "Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens", "quantum electrodynamics", "pH meter", "Frank Capra", "Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences", "Edwin McMillan", "House System at the California Institute of Technology", "Mason Porter", "Gordon E. Moore", "1971 San Fernando earthquake", "Total Carbon Column Observing Network", "Silicon Valley", "NCAA Division III", "Asian Americans", "residential college", "aeronautics", "Hulk", "San Diego County, California", "Caltech Submillimeter Observatory", "Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Stephen Hawking", "Mountain View, California", "superfluid", "AllBusiness" ]
5,790	Carlo Goldoni	Carlo Osvaldo Goldoni (, also , ; 25 February 1707 – 6 February 1793) was an Italian playwright and librettist from the Republic of Venice. His works include some of Italy's most famous and best-loved plays. Audiences have admired the plays of Goldoni for their ingenious mix of wit and honesty. His plays offered his contemporaries images of themselves, often dramatizing the lives, values, and conflicts of the emerging middle classes. Though he wrote in French and Italian, his plays make rich use of the Venetian language, regional vernacular, and colloquialisms. Goldoni also wrote under the pen name and title Polisseno Fegeio, Pastor Arcade, which he claimed in his memoirs the "Arcadians of Rome" bestowed on him. == Biography == === Memoirs === There is an abundance of autobiographical information on Goldoni, most of which comes from the introductions to his plays and from his Memoirs. However, these memoirs are known to contain many errors of fact, especially about his earlier years. In these memoirs, he paints himself as a born comedian, careless, light-hearted and with a happy temperament, proof against all strokes of fate, yet thoroughly respectable and honourable. === Early life and studies === Goldoni was born in Venice in 1707, the son of Margherita Salvioni (or Saioni) and Giulio Goldoni. In his memoirs, Goldoni describes his father as a physician, and claims that he was introduced to theatre by his grandfather Carlo Alessandro Goldoni. In reality, it seems that Giulio was an apothecary; as for the grandfather, he had died four years before Carlo's birth. In any case, Goldoni was deeply interested in theatre from his earliest years, and all attempts to direct his activity into other channels were of no avail; his toys were puppets, and his books were plays. His father placed him under the care of the philosopher Caldini at Rimini but the youth soon ran away with a company of strolling players and returned to Venice. In 1723 his father matriculated him into the stern Collegio Ghislieri in Pavia, which imposed the tonsure and monastic habits on its students. However, he relates in his Memoirs that a considerable part of his time was spent reading Greek and Latin comedies. He had already begun writing at this time and, in his third year, he composed a libellous poem (Il colosso) in which he ridiculed the daughters of certain Pavian families. As a result of that incident (and/or of a visit with some schoolmates to a local brothel), he was expelled from the school and had to leave the city (1725). He studied law at Udine, and eventually took his degree at University of Modena. He was employed as a law clerk at Chioggia and Feltre, after which he returned to his native city and began practising. Educated as a lawyer, and holding lucrative positions as secretary and counsellor, he seemed, indeed, at one time to have settled down to the practice of law, but following an unexpected summons to Venice, after an absence of several years, he changed his career, and thenceforth he devoted himself to writing plays and managing theatres. His father died in 1731. In 1732, to avoid an unwanted marriage, he left the town for Milan and then for Verona where the theatre manager Giuseppe Imer helped him on his way to becoming a comical poet as well as introducing him to his future wife, Nicoletta Conio. Goldoni returned with her to Venice, where he stayed until 1743. === Theatrical career === Goldoni entered the Italian theatre scene with a tragedy, Amalasunta, produced in Milan. The play was a critical and financial failure. Submitting it to Count Prata, director of the opera, he was told that his piece "was composed with due regard for the rules of Aristotle and Horace, but not according to those laid down for the Italian drama." "In France", continued the count, "you can try to please the public, but here in Italy it is the actors and actresses whom you must consult, as well as the composer of the music and the stage decorators. Everything must be done according to a certain form which I will explain to you." Goldoni thanked his critic, went back to his inn and ordered a fire, into which he threw the manuscript of his Amalasunta. His next play, Belisario, written in 1734, was more successful, though of its success he afterwards professed himself ashamed. During this period he also wrote librettos for opera seria and served for a time as literary director of the San Giovanni Grisostomo, Venice's most distinguished opera house. He wrote other tragedies for a time, but he was not long in discovering that his bent was for comedy. He had come to realize that the Italian stage needed reforming; adopting Molière as his model, he went to work in earnest and in 1738 produced his first real comedy, L'uomo di mondo ("The Man of the World"). During his many wanderings and adventures in Italy, he was constantly at work and when, at Livorno, he became acquainted with the manager Medebac, he determined to pursue the profession of playwriting in order to make a living. He was employed by Medebac to write plays for his theatre in Venice. He worked for other managers and produced during his stay in that city some of his most characteristic works. He also wrote Momolo Cortesan in 1738. By 1743, he had perfected his hybrid style of playwriting (combining the model of Molière with the strengths of Commedia dell'arte and his own wit and sincerity). This style was typified in La Donna di garbo, the first Italian comedy of its kind. After 1748, Goldoni collaborated with the composer Baldassare Galuppi, making significant contributions to the new form of 'opera buffa'. Galuppi composed the score for more than twenty of Goldoni's librettos. As with his comedies, Goldoni's opera buffa integrates elements of the Commedia dell'arte with recognisable local and middle-class realities. His operatic works include two of the most successful musical comedies of the eighteenth century, Il filosofo di campagna (The Country Philosopher), set by Galuppi (1752) and La buona figliuola (The Good Girl), set by Niccolò Piccinni (1760). Goldoni enjoyed considerable popularity in France; in 1769, when he retired to Versailles, the King gave him a pension. He lost this pension after the French Revolution. The Convention eventually voted to restore his pension the day after his death. It was restored to his widow, at the pleading of the poet André Chénier; "She is old", he urged, "she is seventy-six, and her husband has left her no heritage save his illustrious name, his virtues and his poverty." == Goldoni's impact on Italian theatre == In his Memoirs Goldoni amply discusses the state of Italian comedy when he began writing. At that time, Italian comedy revolved around the conventionality of the Commedia dell'arte, or improvised comedy. Goldoni took to himself the task of superseding the comedy of masks and the comedy of intrigue with representations of actual life and manners through the characters and their behaviours. He maintained that Italian life and manners were susceptible of artistic treatment such as had not been given them before. His works are a lasting monument to the changes that he initiated: a dramatic revolution that had been attempted but not achieved before. Goldoni's importance lies in providing good examples rather than precepts. Goldoni says that he took for his models the plays of Molière and that whenever a piece of his own succeeded he whispered to himself: "Good, but not yet Molière". Goldoni's plays are gentler and more optimistic in tone than Molière's. It was this very success that was the object of harsh critiques by Carlo Gozzi, who accused Goldoni of having deprived the Italian theatre of the charms of poetry and imagination. The great success of Gozzi's fairy dramas so irritated Goldoni that it led to his self-exile to France. Goldoni gave to his country a classical form, which, though it has since been cultivated, has yet to be cultivated by a master. == Themes == Goldoni's plays that were written while he was still in Italy ignore religious and ecclesiastical subjects. This may be surprising, considering his staunch Catholic upbringing. No thoughts are expressed about death or repentance in his memoirs or in his comedies. After his move to France, his position became clearer, as his plays took on a clear anti-clerical tone and often satirized the hypocrisy of monks and of the Church. Goldoni was inspired by his love of humanity and the admiration he had for his fellow men. He wrote, and was obsessed with, the relationships that humans establish with one another, their cities and homes, and the study of philosophy. The moral and civil values that Goldoni promotes in his plays are those of rationality, civility, humanism, the importance of the rising middle class, a progressive stance on state affairs, honour and honesty. Goldoni had a dislike for arrogance, intolerance and the abuse of power. Goldoni's main characters are no abstract examples of human virtue, nor monstrous examples of human vice. They occupy the middle ground of human temperament. Goldoni maintains an acute sensibility for the differences in social classes between his characters as well as environmental and generational changes. Goldoni pokes fun at the arrogant nobility and the pauper who lacks dignity. == Venetian and Tuscan == As in other theatrical works of the time and place, the characters in Goldoni's Italian comedies spoke originally either the literary Tuscan variety (which became modern Italian) or the Venetian dialect, depending on their station in life. However, in some printed editions of his plays, he often turned the Venetian texts into Tuscan, too. == Goldoni in popular culture == One of his best-known works is the comic play Servant of Two Masters, which has been translated and adapted internationally numerous times. In 1966 it was adapted into an opera buffa by the American composer Vittorio Giannini. In 2011, Richard Bean adapted the play for the National Theatre of Great Britain as One Man, Two Guvnors. Its popularity led to a transfer to the West End and in 2012 to Broadway. The film Carlo Goldoni – Venice, Grand Theatre of the World, directed by Alessandro Bettero, was released in 2007 and is available in English, Italian, French, and Japanese. == Selected works == The following is a small sampling of Goldoni's enormous output. === Tragedies === Rosmonda (1734) Griselda (1734) === Tragicomedies === Belisario (1734) Don Giovanni Tenorio o sia Il dissoluto, "The Dissolute" (1735) Rinaldo di Montalbano (1736) === Comedies === Il servitore di due padroni, (1745) "The Servant of Two Masters" (now often retitled Arlecchino servitore di due padroni "Harlequin Servant of two Masters") I due gemelli veneziani, "The Two Venetian Twins" (1747) La vedova scaltra, "The Shrewd Widow" (1748) La putta onorata, "The Honorable Maid" (1749) Il cavaliere e la dama, "The Gentleman and the Lady" (1749) La famiglia dell'antiquario, "The Antiquarian's Family" (1750) Il teatro comico, "The Comical Theatre" (1750–1751) Il bugiardo, "The Liar" (1750–1751) Il vero amico, "The True Friend" (1750) translated by Anna Cuffaro I pettegolezzi delle donne, "Women's Gossip" (1750–1751) La locandiera, "The Mistress of the Inn" (1751) Il feudatario "The Feudal Lord" (1752) Gl'innamorati, "The Lovers" (1759) I rusteghi, "The Boors" (1760) Le baruffe chiozzotte, "The Chioggia Scuffles" (1762) Gli amori di Zelinda e Lindoro, "The Love of Zelinda and Lindoro" (1764) === Opera seria libretti === Amalasunta (1732) Gustavo primo, re di Svezia (c. 1738) Oronte, re de' Sciti (1740) Statira (c. 1740) ===Opera buffa libretti=== La contessina (The Young Countess) by Maccari (1743) L'Arcadia in Brenta (The Arcadia in Brenta) by Galuppi (1749) Il mondo della luna (The World on the Moon), set to music by Galuppi (1750), Haydn (1777), Paisiello (1782) and other composers. Il filosofo di campagna (The Country Philosopher) by Galuppi (1754) Il mercato di Malmantile (The Malmantile Market) by Fischietti (1757) Buovo d'Antona, set to music by Tommaso Traetta (1758, incorrectly recorded as 1750 in Zatta's edition) La buona figliuola (The Good Girl) by Niccolò Piccinni (1760) Lo speziale (The Apothecary) by Joseph Haydn (1768) La finta semplice (The Fake Innocent) by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1769) Le pescatrici (The Fisherwomen) by Haydn (1770), Florian Leopold Gassmann (1771) === Intermezzo libretti === Le donne vendicate, "The Revenge of the Women" (1751) === Cantatas and serenades === La ninfa saggia, "The Wise Nymph" (17??) Gli amanti felici, "The Happy Lovers" (17??) === Poetry === Il colosso, a satire against Pavia girls which led to Goldoni being expelled from Collegio Ghislieri (1725) Il quaresimale in epilogo (1725–1726) === Books === Nuovo teatro comico, "New Comic Theater", plays. Pitteri, Venice (1757) Mémoires, "Memoirs". Paris (1787) Goldoni's collected works. Zalta, Venice (1788–1795) === Selected translations of Goldoni's works=== Il vero amico, "The True Friend" translated by Anna Cuffaro. Publisher: Sparkling Books. Archifanfaro, translated by W. H. Auden with an introduction by Michael Andre in Unmuzzled OX.	[ "Pasquale Anfossi", "Catholic Church", "I pettegolezzi delle donne", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "Le donne vendicate", "Il mondo della luna", "comedy", "Carlo Gozzi", "tonsure", "libel", "La vedova scaltra", "Versailles (city)", "opera buffa", "Marie Antoinette", "opera seria", "Venice", "Aristotle", "Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo", "Il mondo della luna (Paisiello)", "Catholic Encyclopedia", "Pavia", "Le pescatrici", "Verona", "Marcello Bernardini", "Molière", "Griselda (Vivaldi)", "Galuppi", "Servant of Two Masters", "W. H. Auden", "Richard Bean", "Gl'innamorati", "Giacomo Maccari", "Republic of Venice", "French Revolution", "University of Modena", "Louis XV", "Commedia dell'arte", "Baldassare Galuppi", "Rimini", "Amalasunta", "Livorno", "Niccolò Piccinni", "Buovo d'Antona (Traetta)", "libretto", "Teatro San Luca", "Louis XVI", "Le bourru bienfaisant", "tragicomedy", "Dauphin of France", "Venetian language", "monk", "Playwright", "Comedy (drama)", "Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari", "Italians", "Gli amori di Zelinda e Lindoro", "Brenta, Lombardy", "Arcadia (utopia)", "Vittorio Giannini", "Collegio Ghislieri", "apothecary", "Chioggia", "Milan", "West End theatre", "opera house", "philosophy", "Il teatro comico", "ecclesiastical", "Il cavaliere e la dama", "Vendramin", "Catholic", "librettos", "Domenico Fischietti", "La putta onorata", "Théâtre-Italien", "religious", "Il filosofo di campagna", "Joseph Haydn", "anti-clerical", "Il vero amico", "Pontifical Academy of Arcadia", "Lo speziale", "Broadway theatre", "tragedy", "Vincenzo Righini", "Udine", "André Chénier", "Classicism", "The Mistress of the Inn", "Tommaso Traetta", "La finta semplice", "La locandiera", "I rusteghi", "Latin", "One Man, Two Guvnors", "La buona figliuola", "librettist", "Ulisse Cambi", "Gustavo primo, re di Svezia", "memoirs", "La famiglia dell'antiquario", "Il mondo della luna (Galuppi)", "Il feudatario", "Florian Leopold Gassmann", "Horace", "Il bugiardo", "Unmuzzled OX", "physician", "Il servitore di due padroni", "pen name", "Paris", "Feltre", "I due gemelli veneziani", "Venetian dialect", "middle class", "National Theatre of Great Britain", "Michael Andre", "Adélaïde of France (1732–1800)", "poetry", "Le baruffe chiozzotte" ]
5,793	Cumulative distribution function	In probability theory and statistics, the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of a real-valued random variable X, or just distribution function of X, evaluated at x, is the probability that X will take a value less than or equal to x. Every probability distribution supported on the real numbers, discrete or "mixed" as well as continuous, is uniquely identified by a right-continuous monotone increasing function (a càdlàg function) F \colon \mathbb R \rightarrow [0,1] satisfying \lim_{x\rightarrow-\infty}F(x)=0 and \lim_{x\rightarrow\infty}F(x)=1. In the case of a scalar continuous distribution, it gives the area under the probability density function from negative infinity to x. Cumulative distribution functions are also used to specify the distribution of multivariate random variables. ==Definition== The cumulative distribution function of a real-valued random variable X is the function given by where the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable X takes on a value less than or equal to x. The probability that X lies in the semi-closed interval (a,b], where a < b, is therefore using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus; i.e. given F(x), f(x) = \frac{dF(x)}{dx} as long as the derivative exists. The CDF of a continuous random variable X can be expressed as the integral of its probability density function f_X as follows: \bar F_X(x) \leq \frac{\operatorname{E}(X)}{x} . As x \to \infty, \bar F_X(x) \to 0, and in fact \bar F_X(x) = o(1/x) provided that \operatorname{E}(X) is finite. Proof: Assuming X has a density function f_X, for any c > 0 \operatorname{E}(X) = \int_0^\infty x f_X(x) \, dx \geq \int_0^c x f_X(x) \, dx + c\int_c^\infty f_X(x) \, dx Then, on recognizing \bar F_X(c) = \int_c^\infty f_X(x) \, dx and rearranging terms, 0 \leq c\bar F_X(c) \leq \operatorname{E}(X) - \int_0^c x f_X(x) \, dx \to 0 \text{ as } c \to \infty as claimed. For a random variable having an expectation, \operatorname{E}(X) = \int_0^\infty \bar F_X(x) \, dx - \int_{-\infty}^0 F_X(x) \, dx and for a non-negative random variable the second term is 0. If the random variable can only take non-negative integer values, this is equivalent to \operatorname{E}(X) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \bar F_X(n). ===Folded cumulative distribution=== While the plot of a cumulative distribution F often has an S-like shape, an alternative illustration is the folded cumulative distribution or mountain plot, which folds the top half of the graph over, that is F_\text{fold}(x)=F(x)1_{\{F(x)\leq 0.5\}}+(1-F(x))1_{\{F(x)>0.5\}} where 1_{\{A\}} denotes the indicator function and the second summand is the survivor function, thus using two scales, one for the upslope and another for the downslope. This form of illustration emphasises the median, dispersion (specifically, the mean absolute deviation from the median) and skewness of the distribution or of the empirical results. ===Inverse distribution function (quantile function)=== If the CDF F is strictly increasing and continuous then F^{-1}( p ), p \in [0,1], is the unique real number x such that F(x) = p . This defines the inverse distribution function or quantile function. Some distributions do not have a unique inverse (for example if f_X(x)=0 for all a, causing F_X to be constant). In this case, one may use the generalized inverse distribution function, which is defined as F^{-1}(p) = \inf \{x \in \mathbb{R}: F(x) \geq p \}, \quad \forall p \in [0,1]. Example 1: The median is F^{-1}( 0.5 ). Example 2: Put \tau = F^{-1}( 0.95 ) . Then we call \tau the 95th percentile. Some useful properties of the inverse cdf (which are also preserved in the definition of the generalized inverse distribution function) are: F^{-1} is nondecreasing F^{-1}(F(x)) \leq x F(F^{-1}(p)) \geq p F^{-1}(p) \leq x if and only if p \leq F(x) If Y has a U[0, 1] distribution then F^{-1}(Y) is distributed as F. This is used in random number generation using the inverse transform sampling-method. If \{X_\alpha\} is a collection of independent F-distributed random variables defined on the same sample space, then there exist random variables Y_\alpha such that Y_\alpha is distributed as U[0,1] and F^{-1}(Y_\alpha) = X_\alpha with probability 1 for all \alpha. The inverse of the cdf can be used to translate results obtained for the uniform distribution to other distributions. === Empirical distribution function === The empirical distribution function is an estimate of the cumulative distribution function that generated the points in the sample. It converges with probability 1 to that underlying distribution. A number of results exist to quantify the rate of convergence of the empirical distribution function to the underlying cumulative distribution function. ==Multivariate case== ===Definition for two random variables=== When dealing simultaneously with more than one random variable the joint cumulative distribution function can also be defined. For example, for a pair of random variables X,Y, the joint CDF F_{XY} is given by given the joint probability mass function in tabular form, determine the joint cumulative distribution function. Solution: using the given table of probabilities for each potential range of X and Y, the joint cumulative distribution function may be constructed in tabular form: ===Definition for more than two random variables=== For N random variables X_1,\ldots,X_N, the joint CDF F_{X_1,\ldots,X_N} is given by Interpreting the N random variables as a random vector \mathbf{X} = (X_1, \ldots, X_N)^T yields a shorter notation: F_{\mathbf{X}}(\mathbf{x}) = \operatorname{P}(X_1 \leq x_1,\ldots,X_N \leq x_N) ===Properties=== Every multivariate CDF is: Monotonically non-decreasing for each of its variables, Right-continuous in each of its variables, 0\leq F_{X_1 \ldots X_n}(x_1,\ldots,x_n)\leq 1, \lim_{x_1,\ldots,x_n \to+\infty}F_{X_1 \ldots X_n}(x_1,\ldots,x_n)=1 and \lim_{x_i\to-\infty}F_{X_1 \ldots X_n}(x_1,\ldots,x_n)=0, for all . Not every function satisfying the above four properties is a multivariate CDF, unlike in the single dimension case. For example, let F(x,y)=0 for x or x+y or y and let F(x,y)=1 otherwise. It is easy to see that the above conditions are met, and yet F is not a CDF since if it was, then \operatorname{P}\left(\frac{1}{3} < X \leq 1, \frac{1}{3} < Y \leq 1\right)=-1 as explained below. The probability that a point belongs to a hyperrectangle is analogous to the 1-dimensional case: F_{X_1,X_2}(a, c) + F_{X_1,X_2}(b, d) - F_{X_1,X_2}(a, d) - F_{X_1,X_2}(b, c) = \operatorname{P}(a < X_1 \leq b, c < X_2 \leq d) = \int \cdots ==Complex case== ===Complex random variable=== The generalization of the cumulative distribution function from real to complex random variables is not obvious because expressions of the form P(Z \leq 1+2i) make no sense. However expressions of the form P(\Re{(Z)} \leq 1, \Im{(Z)} \leq 3) make sense. Therefore, we define the cumulative distribution of a complex random variables via the joint distribution of their real and imaginary parts: F_Z(z) = F_{\Re{(Z)},\Im{(Z)}}(\Re{(z)},\Im{(z)}) = P(\Re{(Z)} \leq \Re{(z)} , \Im{(Z)} \leq \Im{(z)}). ===Complex random vector=== Generalization of yields F_{\mathbf{Z}}(\mathbf{z}) = F_{\Re{(Z_1)},\Im{(Z_1)}, \ldots, \Re{(Z_n)},\Im{(Z_n)}}(\Re{(z_1)}, \Im{(z_1)},\ldots,\Re{(z_n)}, \Im{(z_n)}) = \operatorname{P}(\Re{(Z_1)} \leq \Re{(z_1)},\Im{(Z_1)} \leq \Im{(z_1)},\ldots,\Re{(Z_n)} \leq \Re{(z_n)},\Im{(Z_n)} \leq \Im{(z_n)}) as definition for the CDS of a complex random vector \mathbf{Z} = (Z_1,\ldots,Z_N)^T. ==Use in statistical analysis== The concept of the cumulative distribution function makes an explicit appearance in statistical analysis in two (similar) ways. Cumulative frequency analysis is the analysis of the frequency of occurrence of values of a phenomenon less than a reference value. The empirical distribution function is a formal direct estimate of the cumulative distribution function for which simple statistical properties can be derived and which can form the basis of various statistical hypothesis tests. Such tests can assess whether there is evidence against a sample of data having arisen from a given distribution, or evidence against two samples of data having arisen from the same (unknown) population distribution. ===Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Kuiper's tests=== The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an ideal distribution. The closely related Kuiper's test is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week. For instance Kuiper's test might be used to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the year or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month.	[ "Lebesgue integral", "Characteristic function (probability theory)", "expected value", "discrete random variable", "random variable", "L1-norm", "Uniform distribution (continuous)", "hyperrectangle", "skewness", "Joint probability distribution", "standard normal table", "quantile function", "probability theory", "Support (measure theory)", "Riemann–Stieltjes integral", "p-value", "normal distribution", "continuous function", "Normal distribution", "Kolmogorov–Smirnov test", "monotone increasing", "Expected value", "right-continuous", "mean absolute deviation", "Weibull distribution", "mean", "Paul Lévy (mathematician)", "survival analysis", "statistics", "Ogive (statistics)", "dispersion (statistics)", "càdlàg", "indicator function", "Distribution fitting", "Binomial distribution", "Kuiper's test", "absolute continuity", "Power law", "Fundamental Theorem of Calculus", "Exponential distribution", "engineering", "multivariate random variable", "probability distribution", "almost everywhere", "discontinuity (mathematics)", "Monotonic function", "probability mass function", "continuous distribution", "median (statistics)", "continuous random variable", "survival function", "standard deviation", "probability density function", "inverse transform sampling", "Springer Science+Business Media", "random number generation", "empirical distribution function", "Cumulative frequency analysis", "Continuous variable", "survivor function", "interval (mathematics)", "Poisson distribution", "derivative", "complex random variable", "statistical hypothesis test", "probability", "random vector", "Descriptive statistics", "hypothesis test", "Markov's inequality", "Stretched exponential function", "test statistic" ]
5,794	Central tendency	In statistics, a central tendency (or measure of central tendency) is a central or typical value for a probability distribution. Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often called averages. The term central tendency dates from the late 1920s. The central tendency of a distribution is typically contrasted with its dispersion or variability; dispersion and central tendency are the often characterized properties of distributions. Analysis may judge whether data has a strong or a weak central tendency based on its dispersion. ==Measures== The following may be applied to one-dimensional data. Depending on the circumstances, it may be appropriate to transform the data before calculating a central tendency. Examples are squaring the values or taking logarithms. Whether a transformation is appropriate and what it should be, depend heavily on the data being analyzed. Arithmetic mean or simply, mean: the sum of all measurements divided by the number of observations in the data set. Median: the middle value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set. The median and the mode are the only measures of central tendency that can be used for ordinal data, in which values are ranked relative to each other but are not measured absolutely. Mode: the most frequent value in the data set. This is the only central tendency measure that can be used with nominal data, which have purely qualitative category assignments. Generalized mean: A generalization of the Pythagorean means, specified by an exponent. Geometric mean: the nth root of the product of the data values, where there are n of these. This measure is valid only for data that are measured on a strictly positive scale. Harmonic mean: the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the data values. This measure is valid only for data that are measured either on a strictly positive or a strictly negative scale. Weighted arithmetic mean: an arithmetic mean that incorporates weighting to certain data elements. Truncated mean or trimmed mean: the arithmetic mean of data values after a certain number or proportion of the highest and lowest data values have been discarded. Interquartile mean: a truncated mean based on data within the interquartile range. Midrange: the arithmetic mean of the maximum and minimum values of a data set. Midhinge: the arithmetic mean of the first and third quartiles. Quasi-arithmetic mean: A generalization of the generalized mean, specified by a continuous injective function. Trimean: the weighted arithmetic mean of the median and two quartiles. Winsorized mean: an arithmetic mean in which extreme values are replaced by values closer to the median. Any of the above may be applied to each dimension of multi-dimensional data, but the results may not be invariant to rotations of the multi-dimensional space. Geometric median: the point minimizing the sum of distances to a set of sample points. This is the same as the median when applied to one-dimensional data, but it is not the same as taking the median of each dimension independently. It is not invariant to different rescaling of the different dimensions. Quadratic mean (often known as the root mean square): useful in engineering, but not often used in statistics. This is because it is not a good indicator of the center of the distribution when the distribution includes negative values. Simplicial depth: the probability that a randomly chosen simplex with vertices from the given distribution will contain the given center Tukey median: a point with the property that every halfspace containing it also contains many sample points ==Solutions to variational problems== Several measures of central tendency can be characterized as solving a variational problem, in the sense of the calculus of variations, namely minimizing variation from the center. That is, given a measure of statistical dispersion, one asks for a measure of central tendency that minimizes variation: such that variation from the center is minimal among all choices of center. In a quip, "dispersion precedes location". These measures are initially defined in one dimension, but can be generalized to multiple dimensions. This center may or may not be unique. In the sense of spaces, the correspondence is: The associated functions are called -norms: respectively 0-"norm", 1-norm, 2-norm, and ∞-norm. The function corresponding to the 0 space is not a norm, and is thus often referred to in quotes: 0-"norm". In equations, for a given (finite) data set , thought of as a vector , the dispersion about a point is the "distance" from to the constant vector in the -norm (normalized by the number of points ): f_p(c) = \left\\| \mathbf{x} - \mathbf{c} \right\\|_p := \bigg( \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n \left\| x_i - c\right\| ^p \bigg) ^{1/p} For and these functions are defined by taking limits, respectively as and . For the limiting values are and for , so the difference becomes simply equality, so the 0-norm counts the number of unequal points. For the largest number dominates, and thus the ∞-norm is the maximum difference. ===Uniqueness=== The mean (L2 center) and midrange (L∞ center) are unique (when they exist), while the median (L1 center) and mode (L0 center) are not in general unique. This can be understood in terms of convexity of the associated functions (coercive functions). The 2-norm and ∞-norm are strictly convex, and thus (by convex optimization) the minimizer is unique (if it exists), and exists for bounded distributions. Thus standard deviation about the mean is lower than standard deviation about any other point, and the maximum deviation about the midrange is lower than the maximum deviation about any other point. The 1-norm is not strictly convex, whereas strict convexity is needed to ensure uniqueness of the minimizer. Correspondingly, the median (in this sense of minimizing) is not in general unique, and in fact any point between the two central points of a discrete distribution minimizes average absolute deviation. The 0-"norm" is not convex (hence not a norm). Correspondingly, the mode is not unique – for example, in a uniform distribution any point is the mode. ===Clustering=== Instead of a single central point, one can ask for multiple points such that the variation from these points is minimized. This leads to cluster analysis, where each point in the data set is clustered with the nearest "center". Most commonly, using the 2-norm generalizes the mean to k-means clustering, while using the 1-norm generalizes the (geometric) median to k-medians clustering. Using the 0-norm simply generalizes the mode (most common value) to using the k most common values as centers. Unlike the single-center statistics, this multi-center clustering cannot in general be computed in a closed-form expression, and instead must be computed or approximated by an iterative method; one general approach is expectation–maximization algorithms. ===Information geometry=== The notion of a "center" as minimizing variation can be generalized in information geometry as a distribution that minimizes divergence (a generalized distance) from a data set. The most common case is maximum likelihood estimation, where the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) maximizes likelihood (minimizes expected surprisal), which can be interpreted geometrically by using entropy to measure variation: the MLE minimizes cross-entropy (equivalently, relative entropy, Kullback–Leibler divergence). A simple example of this is for the center of nominal data: instead of using the mode (the only single-valued "center"), one often uses the empirical measure (the frequency distribution divided by the sample size) as a "center". For example, given binary data, say heads or tails, if a data set consists of 2 heads and 1 tails, then the mode is "heads", but the empirical measure is 2/3 heads, 1/3 tails, which minimizes the cross-entropy (total surprisal) from the data set. This perspective is also used in regression analysis, where least squares finds the solution that minimizes the distances from it, and analogously in logistic regression, a maximum likelihood estimate minimizes the surprisal (information distance). ==Relationships between the mean, median and mode== For unimodal distributions the following bounds are known and are sharp: \frac{ \sigma } \le \sqrt{ 3 } , \frac{ \sigma } \le \sqrt{ 0.6 } , \frac{ \sigma } \le \sqrt{ 3 } , where μ is the mean, ν is the median, θ is the mode, and σ is the standard deviation. For every distribution, \frac{ \sigma } \le 1.	[ "root mean square", "logistic regression", "closed-form expression", "coercive function", "International Statistical Institute", "Winsorized mean", "k-means clustering", "Harmonic mean", "Geometric median", "frequency distribution", "Population mean", "probability distribution", "arithmetic mean", "convex function", "Trimean", "median", "Arithmetic mean", "Level of measurement", "strictly convex function", "average absolute deviation", "Location parameter", "surprisal", "continuous function", "categorical variable", "Multiplicative inverse", "Entropy (statistics)", "cross-entropy", "maximum deviation", "variation ratio", "generalized mean", "Simplicial depth", "centroid", "cluster analysis", "data", "Mode (statistics)", "Midhinge", "p-norm", "quartile", "information geometry", "Generalized mean", "mean", "averages", "statistics", "geometric median", "maximum likelihood estimation", "Midrange", "Pythagorean means", "Truncated mean", "regression analysis", "least squares", "binary data", "injective function", "Outlier", "unimodal distribution", "expectation–maximization algorithm", "divergence (statistics)", "interquartile range", "Mean", "Nth root", "normal distribution", "Median", "statistical dispersion", "Expected value", "Interquartile mean", "relative entropy", "Quasi-arithmetic mean", "Sample mean", "midrange", "Weighted arithmetic mean", "Central moment", "sample size", "simplex", "empirical measure", "iterative method", "Tukey median", "standard deviation", "Geometric mean", "calculus of variations", "k-medians clustering", "function (mathematics)", "Quadratic mean", "Lp space" ]
5,796	Celebrity	Celebrity is a condition of fame and broad public recognition of a person or group due to the attention given to them by mass media. The word is also used to refer to famous individuals. A person may attain celebrity status by having great wealth, participation in sports or the entertainment industry, their position as a political figure, or even their connection to another celebrity. 'Celebrity' usually implies a favorable public image, as opposed to the neutrals 'famous' or 'notable', or the negatives 'infamous' and 'notorious'. ==History== In his 2020 book Dead Famous: An Unexpected History Of Celebrity, British historian Greg Jenner uses the definition: Although his book is subtitled "from Bronze Age to Silver Screen", and despite the fact that "Until very recently, sociologists argued that celebrity was invented just over 100 years ago, in the flickering glimmer of early Hollywood" and the suggestion that some medieval saints might qualify, Jenner asserts that the earliest celebrities lived in the early 1700s, his first example being Henry Sacheverell. Athletes in Ancient Greece were welcomed home as heroes, had songs and poems written in their honor, and received free food and gifts from those seeking celebrity endorsement. Ancient Rome similarly lauded actors and notorious gladiators, and Julius Caesar appeared on a coin in his own lifetime (a departure from the usual depiction of battles and divine lineage). In the early 12th century, Thomas Becket became famous following his murder, the first possible case of posthumous popularity. The Christian Church promoted him as a martyr, and images of him and scenes from his life became widespread in just a few years. In a pattern often repeated, what started as an explosion of popularity (often referred to with the suffix 'mania') turned into long-lasting fame: pilgrimages to Canterbury Cathedral, where he was killed, became instantly fashionable, and the fascination with his life and death inspired plays and films. The cult of personality (particularly in the west) can be traced back to the Romantics in the 18th century, whose livelihood as artists and poets depended on the currency of their reputation. Lord Byron became a celebrity in 1812 after the publication of the first two cantos of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. "I awoke one morning and found myself famous," he said. According to McGann: "He rapidly became the most brilliant star in the dazzling world of Regency London." Establishing cultural hot spots became important in generating fame, such as in London and Paris in the 18th and 19th centuries. Newspapers started including "gossip" columns, and certain clubs and events became places to be seen to receive publicity. David Lodge called Charles Dickens the "first writer to feel the intense pressure of being simultaneously an artist and an object of unrelenting public interest and adulation", and Juliet John backed up the claim for Dickens "to be called the first self-made global media star of the age of mass culture." Theatrical actors were often considered celebrities. Restaurants near theaters, where actors would congregate, began putting up caricatures or photographs of actors on celebrity walls in the late 19th century. The subject of widespread public and media interest, Lillie Langtry, made her West End theatre debut in 1881 causing a sensation in London by becoming the first socialite to appear on stage. The following year she became the poster-girl for Pears Soap, becoming the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product. In 1895, poet and playwright Oscar Wilde became the subject of "one of the first celebrity trials". Another example of celebrities in the entertainment industry was in music, beginning in the mid-19th century. Never seen before in music, many people engaged in an immense fan frenzy called Lisztomania that began in 1841. This created the basis for the behavior fans have around their favorite musicians in modern society. The movie industry spread around the globe in the first half of the 20th century, creating the first film celebrities. The term celebrity was not always tied to actors in films however, especially when cinema was starting as a medium. As Paul McDonald states in The Star System: Hollywood's Production of Popular Identities, "In the first decade of the twentieth century, American film production companies withheld the names of film performers, despite requests from audiences, fearing that public recognition would drive performers to demand higher salaries." Public fascination went well beyond the on-screen exploits of movie stars, and their private lives became headline news: for example, in Hollywood the marriages of Elizabeth Taylor and in Bollywood the affairs of Raj Kapoor in the 1950s. Like theatrical actors before them, movie actors were the subjects of celebrity walls in restaurants they frequented, near movie studios, most notably at Sardi's in Hollywood. which he later insisted was not a boast, and that he was not in any way comparing himself with Christ, gives an insight into both the adulation and notoriety that fame can bring. Unlike movies, television created celebrities who were not primarily actors; for example, presenters, talk show hosts, and newsreaders. However, most of these are only famous within the regions reached by their particular broadcaster, and only a few such as Oprah Winfrey, Jerry Springer, or David Frost could be said to have broken through into wider stardom. Television also gave exposure to sportspeople, notably Pelé after his emergence at the 1958 FIFA World Cup, with Barney Ronay in The Guardian stating, "What is certain is that Pelé invented this game, the idea of individual global sporting superstardom, and in a way that is unrepeatable now." In the '60s and early '70s, the book publishing industry began to persuade major celebrities to put their names on autobiographies and other titles in a genre called celebrity publishing. In most cases, the book was not written by the celebrity but by a ghostwriter, but the celebrity would then be available for a book tour and appearances on talk shows. ==Wealth== ===Forbes Celebrity 100=== Forbes magazine releases an annual Forbes Celebrity 100 list of the highest-paid celebrities in the world. The total earnings for all top celebrity 100 earners totaled $4.5 billion in 2010 alone. For instance, Forbes ranked media mogul and talk show host, Oprah Winfrey as the top earner "Forbes magazine's annual ranking of the most powerful celebrities", with earnings of $290 million in the past year. Forbes cites that Lady Gaga reportedly earned over $90 million in 2010. In 2011, golfer Tiger Woods was one of highest-earning celebrity athletes, with an income of $74 million and is consistently ranked one of the highest-paid athletes in the world. Beyoncé has also appeared in the top ten in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2017, and topped the list in 2014 with earnings of $115 million. Cristiano Ronaldo followed by Lionel Messi in 2020 became the first two athletes in a team sport to surpass $1 billion in earnings during their careers. Forbes also lists the top-earning deceased celebrities, with singer Michael Jackson, fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien and children's author Roald Dahl each topping the annual list with earnings of $500 million over the course of a year. ===Entrepreneurship and endorsements=== Celebrity endorsements have proven very successful around the world where, due to increasing consumerism, a person owns a "status symbol" by purchasing a celebrity-endorsed product. Although it has become commonplace for celebrities to place their name with endorsements onto products just for quick money, some celebrities have gone beyond merely using their names and have put their entrepreneurial spirit to work by becoming entrepreneurs by attaching themselves in the business aspects of entertainment and building their own business brand beyond their traditional salaried activities. Along with investing their salaried wages into growing business endeavors, several celebrities have become innovative business leaders in their respective industries. Numerous celebrities have ventured into becoming business moguls and established themselves as entrepreneurs, idolizing many well known business leaders such as Bill Gates, Richard Branson and Warren Buffett. For instance, former basketball player Michael Jordan became an entrepreneur involved with many sports-related ventures including investing a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, Paul Newman started his own salad dressing business after leaving behind a distinguished acting career, and rap musician Birdman started his own record label, clothing line, and an oil business while maintaining a career as a rap artist. In 2014, David Beckham became co-owner of new Major League Soccer team Inter Miami, which began playing in 2020. Former Brazil striker and World Cup winner Ronaldo became the majority owner of La Liga club Real Valladolid in 2018. Other celebrities such as Tyler Perry, George Lucas, and Steven Spielberg have become successful entrepreneurs through starting their own film production companies and running their own movie studios beyond their traditional activities. Tabloid magazines and talk TV shows bestow a great deal of attention to celebrities. To stay in the public eye and build wealth in addition to their salaried labor, numerous celebrities have begun participating and branching into various business ventures and endorsements, which include: animation, publishing, fashion designing, cosmetics, consumer electronics, household items and appliances, cigarettes, soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, hair care, hairdressing, jewelry design, fast food, credit cards, video games, writing, and toys. In addition to these, some celebrities have been involved with some business and investment-related ventures also include: sports team ownership, fashion retailing, establishments such as restaurants, cafes, hotels, and casinos, movie theaters, advertising and event planning, management-related ventures such as sports management, financial services, model management, and talent management, record labels, film production, television production, publishing books and music, massage therapy, salons, health and fitness, and real estate. ==Famous for being famous== Famous for being famous, in popular culture terminology, refers to someone who attains celebrity status for no particular identifiable reason, or who achieves fame through association with a celebrity. The term is a pejorative, suggesting the target has no particular talents or abilities. British journalist Malcolm Muggeridge made the first known usage of the phrase in the introduction to his book Muggeridge Through The Microphone: BBC Radio and Television (1967) in which he wrote:In the past if someone was famous or notorious, it was for something—as a writer or an actor or a criminal; for some talent or distinction or abomination. Today one is famous for being famous. People who come up to one in the street or in public places to claim recognition nearly always say: "I've seen you on the telly!" The coinages "famesque" and "celebutante" are of similar pejorative gist. This shift has sparked criticism for promoting superficial recognition over substantive achievements and reflects broader changes in how fame and success are perceived in modern culture. ==Mass media phenomena== Mass media has dramatically reshaped the concept of celebrity by amplifying visibility and extending fame globally. With the rise of television, social media, and reality TV, individuals can achieve stardom not just through traditional talents but also through their personal lives and online presence. This heightened visibility brings intense public scrutiny, where every detail of a celebrity's life is subject to constant media coverage. Celebrities often become brands themselves, influencing trends and consumer behavior while navigating the pressures of privacy erosion and mental health challenges. Celebrities may be resented for their accolades, and the public may have a love/hate relationship with celebrities. Due to the high visibility of celebrities' private lives, their successes and shortcomings are often made very public. Celebrities are alternately portrayed as glowing examples of perfection, when they garner awards, or as decadent or immoral if they become associated with a scandal. When seen in a positive light, celebrities are frequently portrayed as possessing skills and abilities beyond average people; for example, celebrity actors are routinely celebrated for acquiring new skills necessary for filming a role within a very brief time, and to a level that amazes the professionals who train them. Similarly, some celebrities with very little formal education can sometimes be portrayed as experts on complicated issues. Some celebrities have been very vocal about their political views. For example, Matt Damon expressed his displeasure with 2008 US vice presidential nominee Sarah Palin, as well as with the 2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis. ==Internet== Also known as being internet famous. ===Social networking and video hosting=== Most high-profile celebrities participate in social networking services and photo or video hosting platforms such as YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat. Social networking services allow celebrities to communicate directly with their fans, removing the "traditional" media. Through social media, many people outside of the entertainment and sports sphere become a celebrity in their own sphere. Social media humanizes celebrities in a way that arouses public fascination as evident by the success of magazines such as Us Weekly and People Weekly. Celebrity blogging has also spawned stars such as Perez Hilton who is known for not only blogging but also outing celebrities. Social media and the rise of the smartphone has changed how celebrities are treated and how people gain the platform of fame. Websites like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube allow people to become a celebrity in a different manner. For example, Justin Bieber got his start on YouTube by posting videos of him singing. His fans were able to directly contact him through his content and were able to interact with him on several social media platforms. The internet, as said before, also allows fans to connect with their favorite celebrity without ever meeting them in person. Social media sites have also contributed to the fame of certain celebrities, such as Tila Tequila who became known through MySpace. ===Asia=== A report by the BBC highlighted a longtime trend of Asian internet celebrities called Wanghong in Chinese. According to the BBC, there are two kinds of online celebrities in China—those who create original content, such as Papi Jiang, who is regularly censored by Chinese authorities for cursing in her videos, and Wanghongs fall under the second category, as they have clothing and cosmetics businesses on Taobao, China's equivalent of Amazon. Celebrities also typically have security staff at their home or properties, to protect them and their belongs from similar threats. =="Fifteen minutes of fame"== "15 minutes of fame" is a phrase often used as slang to short-lived publicity. Certain "15 minutes of fame" celebrities can be average people seen with an A-list celebrity, who are sometimes noticed on entertainment news channels such as E! News. These are ordinary people becoming celebrities, often based on the ridiculous things they do. "In fact, many reality show contestants fall into this category: the only thing that qualifies them to be on TV is that they're real." ==Health implications== Common threats such as stalking have spawned celebrity worship syndrome where a person becomes overly involved with the details of a celebrity's personal life. Psychologists have indicated that though many people obsess over glamorous film, television, sport and music stars, the disparity in salaries in society seems to value professional athletes and entertainment industry-based professionals. One study found that singers, musicians, actors and athletes die younger on average than writers, composers, academics, politicians and businesspeople, with a greater incidence of cancer and especially lung cancer. However, it was remarked that the reasons for this remained unclear, with theories including innate tendencies towards risk-taking as well as the pressure or opportunities of particular types of fame. Fame might have negative psychological effects. An academic study on the subject said that fame has an addictive quality to it. When a celebrity's fame recedes over time, the celebrity may find it difficult to adjust psychologically. Recently, there has been more attention toward the impact celebrities have on health decisions of the population at large. It is believed that the public will follow celebrities' health advice to some extent. This can have positive impacts when the celebrities give solid, evidence-informed health advice, however, it can also have detrimental effects if the health advice is not accurate enough.	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Tolkien", "Birdman (rapper)", "Superstar", "Tiger Woods", "Internet celebrity", "talk show host", "Celebrity branding", "1958 FIFA World Cup", "Papi Jiang", "Descendants of the Sun", "List of celebrity inventors", "House of the Tragic Poet", "jewelry design", "Naples National Archeological Museum", "Lisztomania", "Oxford University Press", "Nike, Inc.", "Fame in the 20th century", "consumer electronics", "Michael Jackson", "Henry Sacheverell", "talent management", "Teen Idol", "H&M", "Inter Miami CF", "Athlete", "United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011", "the Tramp", "Music publisher (popular music)", "Leonid Grinin", "Richard Schickel", "list of entertainment industry topics", "publicist", "Perez Hilton", "popular culture", "business mogul", "Pompeii", "Andrey Korotayev", "George Lucas", "Gossip magazine", "Charlotte Bobcats", "Forbes", "Lillie Langtry", "Scientific celebrity", "bodyguard", "Major League Soccer", "Forbes list of the world's highest-paid dead celebrities", "List of celebrities with advanced degrees", "wealth", "PepsiCo", "News1130", "West End theatre", "Farce", "Greg Jenner", "Elvis Presley", "sportsperson", "Beyoncé", "Paul Newman", "Michael Jordan", "Richard Branson", "Cristiano Ronaldo", "Barney Ronay", "Editorial URSS", "Thomas Becket", "Elizabeth Taylor", "personal assistant", "media mogul", "Dwayne Johnson", "Pelé", "soft drink", "E! News", "movie studio", "The Guardian", "film production", "McDonald's", "n:An interview with gossip columnist Michael Musto on the art of celebrity journalism", "Radio personality", "celebrity worship syndrome", "Tom Cruise", "famesque", "Sarah Palin", "Bollywood", "television", "pejorative", "Inter Miami", "Real Valladolid", "television producer", "Cult of personality", "movie star", "Selling out", "Charles Dickens", "Jonathan Goldman", "the Beatles", "John Lennon", "Katy Perry", "Adidas", "AT&T", "psychological", "Look-alike", "socialite", "Crypto.com", "Madonna", "Autumn in My Heart", "David Lodge (author)", "wikt:broke", "Walmart", "stalking", "Q Score", "Infamy", "The Oprah Winfrey Show", "The Coca-Cola Company", "mass media", "Julius Caesar", "ghostwriter", "State Farm", "All-star", "Oscar Wilde", "reality TV", "Justin Bieber", "Regency era", "Talent agent", "celebrity wall", "modeling agency", "Ancient Rome", "oil well", "addiction", "Us Weekly", "home appliance", "Social networking service", "fashion design", "Wanghong economy", "Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)", "Bill Gates", "Lionel Messi" ]
5,797	Cluster sampling	In statistics, cluster sampling is a sampling plan used when mutually homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical population. It is often used in marketing research. In this sampling plan, the total population is divided into these groups (known as clusters) and a simple random sample of the groups is selected. The elements in each cluster are then sampled. If all elements in each sampled cluster are sampled, then this is referred to as a "one-stage" cluster sampling plan. If a simple random subsample of elements is selected within each of these groups, this is referred to as a "two-stage" cluster sampling plan. A common motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce the total number of interviews and costs given the desired accuracy. For a fixed sample size, the expected random error is smaller when most of the variation in the population is present internally within the groups, and not between the groups. ==Cluster elemental== The population within a cluster should ideally be as heterogeneous as possible, but there should be homogeneity between clusters. Each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the total population. The clusters should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. A random sampling technique is then used on any relevant clusters to choose which clusters to include in the study. In single-stage cluster sampling, all the elements from each of the selected clusters are sampled. In two-stage cluster sampling, a random sampling technique is applied to the elements from each of the selected clusters. The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the sampling unit so sampling is done on a population of clusters (at least in the first stage). In stratified sampling, the sampling is done on elements within each stratum. In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are sampled. A common motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency. This contrasts with stratified sampling where the motivation is to increase precision. There is also multistage cluster sampling, where at least two stages are taken in selecting elements from clusters. ==When clusters are of different sizes== Without modifying the estimated parameter, cluster sampling is unbiased when the clusters are approximately the same size. In this case, the parameter is computed by combining all the selected clusters. When the clusters are of different sizes there are several options: One method is to sample clusters and then survey all elements in that cluster. Another method is a two-stage method of sampling a fixed proportion of units (be it 5% or 50%, or another number, depending on cost considerations) from within each of the selected clusters. Relying on the sample drawn from these options will yield an unbiased estimator. However, the sample size is no longer fixed upfront. This leads to a more complicated formula for the standard error of the estimator, as well as issues with the optics of the study plan (since the power analysis and the cost estimations often relate to a specific sample size). A third possible solution is to use probability proportionate to size sampling. In this sampling plan, the probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size, so a large cluster has a greater probability of selection than a small cluster. The advantage here is that when clusters are selected with probability proportionate to size, the same number of interviews should be carried out in each sampled cluster so that each unit sampled has the same probability of selection. ==Applications of cluster sampling== An example of cluster sampling is area sampling or geographical cluster sampling. Each cluster is a geographical area in an area sampling frame. Because a geographically dispersed population can be expensive to survey, greater economy than simple random sampling can be achieved by grouping several respondents within a local area into a cluster. It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the estimators, but cost savings may make such an increase in sample size feasible. For the organization of a population census, the first step is usually dividing the overall geographic area into enumeration areas or census tracts for the field work organization. Enumeration areas may be also useful as first-stage units for cluster sampling in many types of surveys. When a population census is outdated, the list of individuals should not be directly used as sampling frame for a socio-economic survey. Updating the whole census is economically unfeasible. A good alternative may be keeping the old enumeration areas, with some update in highly dynamic areas, such as urban suburbs, selecting a sample of enumeration areas and updating the list of individuals or households only in the selected enumeration areas. Cluster sampling is used to estimate low mortalities in cases such as wars, famines and natural disasters. === Fisheries science === It is almost impossible to take a simple random sample of fish from a population, which would require that individuals are captured individually and at random. This is because fishing gears capture fish in groups (or clusters). In commercial fisheries sampling, the costs of operating at sea are often too large to select hauls individually and at random. Therefore, observations are further clustered by either vessel or fishing trip. === Economics === The World Bank has applied adaptive cluster sampling to study informal businesses in developing countries in a cost efficient manner, as the informal sector is not captured by official records and too expensive to be studied through simple random sampling. The approach follows a two-stage sampling whereby adaptive cluster sampling is used to generate an estimate of the universe of informal businesses in operations, while the second stage to obtain a random sample about the characteristics of those businesses. ==Advantages== Can be cheaper than other sampling plans – e.g. fewer travel expenses, and administration cost. Feasibility: This sampling plan takes large populations into account. Since these groups are so small, deploying any other sampling plan would be very costly. Economy: The regular two major concerns of expenditure, i.e., traveling and listing, are greatly reduced in this method. For example: Compiling research information about every household in a city would be very costly, whereas compiling information about various blocks of the city will be more economical. Here, traveling as well as listing efforts will be greatly reduced. Reduced variability: in the rare case of a negative intraclass correlation between subjects within a cluster, the estimators produced by cluster sampling will yield more accurate estimates than data obtained from a simple random sample (i.e. the design effect will be larger than 1). This is not a commonplace scenario. Major use: when the sampling frame of all elements is not available we can resort only to cluster sampling. ==Disadvantages== Higher sampling error, which can be expressed by the design effect: the ratio between the variance of an estimator made from the samples of the cluster study and the variance of an estimator obtained from a sample of subjects in an equally reliable, randomly sampled unclustered study. The larger the intraclass correlation is between subjects within a cluster the worse the design effect becomes (i.e. the larger it gets from 1. Indicating a larger expected increase in the variance of the estimator). In other words, the more there is heterogeneity between clusters and more homogeneity between subjects within a cluster, the less accurate our estimators become. This is because in such cases we are better on sampling as many clusters as we can and making do with a small sample of subjects from within each cluster (i.e. two-stage cluster sampling). Complexity. Cluster sampling is more sophisticated and requires more attention with how to plan and how to analyze (i.e.: to take into account the weights of subjects during the estimation of parameters, confidence intervals, etc.) ==More on cluster sampling== ===Two-stage cluster sampling=== Two-stage cluster sampling, a simple case of multistage sampling, is obtained by selecting cluster samples in the first stage and then selecting a sample of elements from every sampled cluster. Consider a population of N clusters in total. In the first stage, n clusters are selected using the ordinary cluster sampling method. In the second stage, simple random sampling is usually used. It is used separately in every cluster and the numbers of elements selected from different clusters are not necessarily equal. The total number of clusters N, the number of clusters selected n, and the numbers of elements from selected clusters need to be pre-determined by the survey designer. Two-stage cluster sampling aims at minimizing survey costs and at the same time controlling the uncertainty related to estimates of interest. This method can be used in health and social sciences. For instance, researchers used two-stage cluster sampling to generate a representative sample of the Iraqi population to conduct mortality surveys. Sampling in this method can be quicker and more reliable than other methods, which is why this method is now used frequently. ===Inference when the number of clusters is small=== Cluster sampling methods can lead to significant bias when working with a small number of clusters. For instance, it can be necessary to cluster at the state or city-level, units that may be small and fixed in number. Microeconometrics methods for panel data often use short panels, which is analogous to having few observations per clusters and many clusters. The small cluster problem can be viewed as an incidental parameter problem. While the point estimates can be reasonably precisely estimated, if the number of observations per cluster is sufficiently high, we need the number of clusters G\rightarrow \infty for the asymptotics to kick in. If the number of clusters is low the estimated covariance matrix can be downward biased. Small numbers of clusters are a risk when there is serial correlation or when there is intraclass correlation as in the Moulton context. When having few clusters, we tend to underestimate serial correlation across observations when a random shock occurs, or the intraclass correlation in a Moulton setting. Several studies have highlighted the consequences of serial correlation and highlighted the small-cluster problem. In the framework of the Moulton factor, an intuitive explanation of the small cluster problem can be derived from the formula for the Moulton factor. Assume for simplicity that the number of observations per cluster is fixed at n. Below, V_{c}(\beta) stands for the covariance matrix adjusted for clustering, V(\beta) stands for the covariance matrix not adjusted for clustering, and ρ stands for the intraclass correlation: \frac{V_{c}(\hat\beta)}{V(\hat\beta)}=1+(n-1)\rho The ratio on the left-hand side indicates how much the unadjusted scenario overestimates the precision. Therefore, a high number means a strong downward bias of the estimated covariance matrix. A small cluster problem can be interpreted as a large n: when the data is fixed and the number of clusters is low, the number of data within a cluster can be high. It follows that inference, when the number of clusters is small, will not have the correct coverage.	[ "Observational error", "marketing research", "estimator", "sampling (statistics)", "sampling error", "Stratified sampling", "Simple random sample", "Sampling (statistics)", "famine", "war", "design effect", "geographical cluster sampling", "sampling frame", "statistics", "census", "World Bank", "fishing gear", "multistage sampling", "Census tract", "simple random sample", "area sampling frame", "statistical population", "stratified sampling", "Simple random sampling", "area sampling", "Multistage sampling", "natural disaster", "simple random sampling", "intraclass correlation" ]
5,804	Charles Baudelaire	Charles Pierre Baudelaire (, ; ; 9 April 1821 – 31 August 1867) was a French poet, essayist, translator and art critic. His poems are described as exhibiting mastery of rhyme and rhythm, containing an exoticism inherited from the Romantics, and are based on observations of real life. His most famous work, a book of lyric poetry titled Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), expresses the changing nature of beauty in the rapidly industrialising Paris caused by Haussmann's renovation of Paris during the mid-19th century. Baudelaire's original style of prose-poetry influenced a generation of poets including Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé. He coined the term modernity (modernité) to designate the fleeting experience of life in an urban metropolis, and the responsibility of artistic expression to capture that experience. Marshall Berman has credited Baudelaire as being the first Modernist. ==Early life== Baudelaire was born in Paris, France, on 9 April 1821, and baptized two months later at Saint-Sulpice Catholic church. His father, Joseph-François Baudelaire, a senior civil servant and amateur artist, who at 60, was 34 years older than Baudelaire's 26-year-old mother, Caroline (née Dufaÿs); she was his second wife. Joseph-François died during Baudelaire's childhood, at rue Hautefeuille, Paris, on 10 February 1827. The following year, Caroline married Lieutenant Colonel , who later became a French ambassador to various noble courts. Baudelaire's biographers have often seen this as a crucial moment, considering that finding himself no longer the sole focus of his mother's affection left him with a trauma, which goes some way to explaining the excesses later apparent in his life. He stated in a letter to her that, "There was in my childhood a period of passionate love for you." Baudelaire regularly begged his mother for money throughout his career, often promising that a lucrative publishing contract or journalistic commission was just around the corner. Baudelaire was educated in Lyon, where he boarded. At 14, he was described by a classmate as "much more refined and distinguished than any of our fellow pupils ... we are bound to one another ... by shared tastes and sympathies, the precocious love of fine works of literature." Baudelaire was erratic in his studies, at times diligent, at other times prone to "idleness". Later, he attended the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, studying law, a popular course for those not yet decided on any particular career. He began to frequent prostitutes and may have contracted gonorrhea and syphilis during this period. He also began to run up debts, mostly for clothes. Upon gaining his degree in 1839, he told his brother "I don't feel I have a vocation for anything." His stepfather had in mind a career in law or diplomacy, but instead Baudelaire decided to embark upon a literary career. His mother later recalled: "Oh, what grief! If Charles had let himself be guided by his stepfather, his career would have been very different ... He would not have left a name in literature, it is true, but we should have been happier, all three of us." His stepfather sent him on a voyage to Calcutta, India in 1841 in the hope of ending his dissolute habits. The trip provided strong impressions of the sea, sailing, and exotic ports, that he later employed in his poetry. Baudelaire later exaggerated his aborted trip to create a legend about his youthful travels and experiences, including "riding on elephants". On returning to the taverns of Paris, he began to compose some of the poems of "Les Fleurs du Mal". At 21, he received a sizable inheritance but squandered much of it within a few years. His family obtained a decree to place his property in trust, which he resented bitterly, at one point arguing that allowing him to fail financially would have been the one sure way of teaching him to keep his finances in order. Baudelaire became known in artistic circles as a dandy and free-spender, going through much of his inheritance and allowance in a short period of time. During this time, Jeanne Duval, a Haitian born actress became his mistress. She was rejected by his family. His mother thought Duval a "Black Venus" who "tortured him in every way" and drained him of money at every opportunity. Baudelaire made a suicide attempt during this period. He took part in the Revolutions of 1848 and wrote for a revolutionary newspaper. However, his interest in politics was passing, as he was later to note in his journals. In the early 1850s, Baudelaire struggled with poor health, pressing debts, and irregular literary output. He often moved from one lodging to another to escape creditors. He undertook many projects that he was unable to complete, though he did finish translations of stories by Edgar Allan Poe. Upon the death of his stepfather in 1857, Baudelaire received no mention in the will but he was heartened nonetheless that the division with his mother might now be mended. At 36, he wrote to her: "believe that I belong to you absolutely, and that I belong only to you." His mother died on 16 August 1871, outliving her son by almost four years. ==Publishing career== His first published work, under the pseudonym Baudelaire Dufaÿs, was his art review "Salon of 1845", which attracted immediate attention for its boldness. Many of his critical opinions were novel in their time, including his championing of Delacroix, and some of his views seem remarkably in tune with the future theories of the Impressionist painters. In 1846, Baudelaire wrote his second Salon review, gaining additional credibility as an advocate and critic of Romanticism. His continued support of Delacroix as the foremost Romantic artist gained widespread notice. The following year Baudelaire's novella La Fanfarlo was published. ===The Flowers of Evil=== Baudelaire was a slow and very attentive worker. However, he often was sidetracked by indolence, emotional distress and illness, and it was not until 1857 that he published Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), his first and most famous volume of poems. Some of these poems had already appeared in the Revue des deux mondes (Review of Two Worlds) in 1855, when they were published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet-Malassis. Some of the poems had appeared as "fugitive verse" in various French magazines during the previous decade. The poems found a small, yet appreciative audience. However, greater public attention was given to their subject matter. The effect on fellow artists was, as Théodore de Banville stated, "immense, prodigious, unexpected, mingled with admiration and with some indefinable anxious fear". Gustave Flaubert, recently attacked in a similar fashion for Madame Bovary (and acquitted), was impressed and wrote to Baudelaire: "You have found a way to rejuvenate Romanticism...You are as unyielding as marble, and as penetrating as an English mist." The principal themes of sex and death were considered scandalous for the period. He also touched on lesbianism, sacred and profane love, metamorphosis, melancholy, the corruption of the city, lost innocence, the oppressiveness of living, and wine. Notable in some poems is Baudelaire's use of imagery of the sense of smell and of fragrances, which is used to evoke feelings of nostalgia and past intimacy. The book, however, quickly became a byword for unwholesomeness among mainstream critics of the day. Some critics called a few of the poems "masterpieces of passion, art and poetry," but other poems were deemed to merit no less than legal action to suppress them. J. Habas led the charge against Baudelaire, writing in : "Everything in it which is not hideous is incomprehensible, everything one understands is putrid." Baudelaire responded to the outcry in a prophetic letter to his mother: "You know that I have always considered that literature and the arts pursue an aim independent of morality. Beauty of conception and style is enough for me. But this book, whose title (Fleurs du mal) says everything, is clad, as you will see, in a cold and sinister beauty. It was created with rage and patience. Besides, the proof of its positive worth is in all the ill that they speak of it. The book enrages people. Moreover, since I was terrified myself of the horror that I should inspire, I cut out a third from the proofs. They deny me everything, the spirit of invention and even the knowledge of the French language. I don't care a rap about all these imbeciles, and I know that this book, with its virtues and its faults, will make its way in the memory of the lettered public, beside the best poems of V. Hugo, Th. Gautier and even Byron." Baudelaire, his publisher and the printer were successfully prosecuted for creating an offense against public morals. They were fined, but Baudelaire was not imprisoned. Six of the poems were suppressed, but printed later as Les Épaves (The Wrecks) (Brussels, 1866). Another edition of Les Fleurs du mal, without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861. Many notables rallied behind Baudelaire and condemned the sentence. Victor Hugo wrote to him: "Your fleurs du mal shine and dazzle like stars...I applaud your vigorous spirit with all my might." Baudelaire did not appeal the judgment, but his fine was reduced. Nearly 100 years later, on 11 May 1949, Baudelaire was vindicated, the judgment officially reversed, and the six banned poems reinstated in France. Other works in the years that followed included Petits Poèmes en prose (Small Prose poems); a series of art reviews published in the Pays, Exposition universelle (Country, World Fair); studies on Gustave Flaubert (in L'Artiste, 18 October 1857); on Théophile Gautier (Revue contemporaine, September 1858); various articles contributed to Eugène Crépet's Poètes français; Les Paradis artificiels: opium et haschisch (French poets; Artificial Paradises: opium and hashish) (1860); and Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac (A Final Chapter of the history of works of Balzac) (1880), originally an article "Comment on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie" ("How one pays one's debts when one has genius"), in which his criticism turns against his friends Honoré de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, and Gérard de Nerval. By 1859, his illnesses, his long-term use of laudanum, his life of stress, and his poverty had taken a toll and Baudelaire had aged noticeably. But at last, his mother relented and agreed to let him live with her for a while at Honfleur. Baudelaire was productive and at peace in the seaside town, his poem Le Voyage being one example of his efforts during that time. In 1860, he became an ardent supporter of Richard Wagner. His financial difficulties increased again, however, particularly after his publisher Poulet Malassis went bankrupt in 1861. In 1864, he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the hope of selling the rights to his works and to give lectures. His long-standing relationship with Jeanne Duval continued on-and-off, and he helped her to the end of his life. Baudelaire's relationships with actress Marie Daubrun and with courtesan Apollonie Sabatier, though the source of much inspiration, never produced any lasting satisfaction. He smoked opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. Baudelaire suffered a massive stroke in 1866 and paralysis followed. After more than a year of aphasia, he received the last rites of the Catholic Church. The last year of his life was spent in a semi-paralyzed state in various "maisons de santé" in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on 31 August 1867. His funeral was held at the Saint-Honoré d'Eylau church, with a few dozen persons in attendance. Baudelaire is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris. Many of Baudelaire's works were published posthumously. After his death, his mother paid off his substantial debts, and she found some comfort in Baudelaire's emerging fame. "I see that my son, for all his faults, has his place in literature." She lived another four years. ==Poetry== Baudelaire is one of the major innovators in French literature. His poetry is influenced by the French romantic poets of the earlier 19th century, although its attention to the formal features of verse connects it more closely to the work of the contemporary "Parnassians". As for theme and tone, his works exhibit the rejection of the belief in the supremacy of nature and the fundamental goodness of man as typically espoused by the romantics and expressed by them in rhetorical, effusive and public voice in favor of a new urban sensibility, an awareness of individual moral complexity, an interest in vice (linked with decadence) and refined sensual and aesthetic pleasures, and the use of urban subject matter, such as the city, the crowd, individual passers-by, all expressed in highly ordered verse, sometimes through a cynical and ironic voice. Formally, the use of sound to create atmosphere, and of "symbols" (images that take on an expanded function within the poem), betray a move towards considering the poem as a self-referential object, an idea further developed by the Symbolists Verlaine and Mallarmé, who acknowledge Baudelaire as a pioneer in this regard. Beyond his innovations in versification and the theories of symbolism and "correspondences", an awareness of which is essential to any appreciation of the literary value of his work, aspects of his work that regularly receive much critical discussion include the role of women, the theological direction of his work and his alleged advocacy of "satanism", his experience of drug-induced states of mind, the figure of the dandy, his stance regarding democracy and its implications for the individual, his response to the spiritual uncertainties of the time, his criticisms of the bourgeois, and his advocacy of modern music and painting (e.g., Wagner, Delacroix). He made Paris the subject of modern poetry. He brought the city's details to life in the eyes and hearts of his readers. ==Critiques== Baudelaire was an active participant in the artistic life of his times. As critic and essayist, he wrote extensively and perceptively about the luminaries and themes of French culture. He was frank with friends and enemies, rarely took the diplomatic approach and sometimes responded violently verbally, which often undermined his cause. His associations were numerous, including Gustave Courbet, Honoré Daumier, Félicien Rops, Franz Liszt, Champfleury, Victor Hugo, Gustave Flaubert, and Balzac. ===Edgar Allan Poe=== In 1847, Baudelaire became acquainted with the works of Poe, in which he found tales and poems that had, he claimed, long existed in his own brain but never taken shape. Baudelaire saw in Poe a precursor and tried to be his French contemporary counterpart. From this time until 1865, he was largely occupied with translating Poe's works; his translations were widely praised. Baudelaire was not the first French translator of Poe, but his "scrupulous translations" were considered among the best. These were published as Histoires extraordinaires (Extraordinary stories) (1856), Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires (New extraordinary stories) (1857), Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka, and Histoires grotesques et sérieuses (Grotesque and serious stories) (1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his Œuvres complètes (Complete works) (vols. v. and vi.). ===Eugène Delacroix=== A strong supporter of the Romantic painter Delacroix, Baudelaire called him "a poet in painting". Baudelaire also absorbed much of Delacroix's aesthetic ideas as expressed in his journals. As Baudelaire elaborated in his "Salon of 1846", "As one contemplates his series of pictures, one seems to be attending the celebration of some grievous mystery...This grave and lofty melancholy shines with a dull light.. plaintive and profound like a melody by Weber." ===Richard Wagner=== Baudelaire had no formal musical training, and knew little of composers beyond Beethoven and Weber. Weber was in some ways Wagner's precursor, using the leitmotif and conceiving the idea of the "total art work" ("Gesamtkunstwerk"), both of which gained Baudelaire's admiration. Before even hearing Wagner's music, Baudelaire studied reviews and essays about him, and formulated his impressions. Later, Baudelaire put them into his non-technical analysis of Wagner, which was highly regarded, particularly his essay "Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris". Baudelaire's reaction to music was passionate and psychological. "Music engulfs (possesses) me like the sea." Baudelaire's writings contributed to the elevation of Wagner and to the cult of Wagnerism that swept Europe in the following decades. ===Théophile Gautier=== Gautier, writer and poet, earned Baudelaire's respect for his perfection of form and his mastery of language, though Baudelaire thought he lacked deeper emotion and spirituality. Both strove to express the artist's inner vision, which Heinrich Heine earlier stated: "In artistic matters, I am a supernaturalist. I believe that the artist can not find all his forms in nature, but that the most remarkable are revealed to him in his soul." Gautier's frequent meditations on death and the horror of life are themes which influenced Baudelaire's writings. In gratitude for their friendship and commonality of vision, Baudelaire dedicated Les Fleurs du mal to Gautier. ===Édouard Manet=== Manet and Baudelaire became constant companions from around 1855. In the early 1860s, Baudelaire accompanied Manet on daily sketching trips and often met him socially. Manet also lent Baudelaire money and looked after his affairs, particularly when Baudelaire went to Belgium. Baudelaire encouraged Manet to strike out on his own path and not succumb to criticism. "Manet has great talent, a talent which will stand the test of time. But he has a weak character. He seems to me crushed and stunned by shock." In his painting Music in the Tuileries, Manet includes portraits of his friends Théophile Gautier, Jacques Offenbach, and Baudelaire. While it's difficult to differentiate who influenced whom, both Manet and Baudelaire discussed and expressed some common themes through their respective arts. Baudelaire praised the modernity of Manet's subject matter: "almost all our originality comes from the stamp that 'time' imprints upon our feelings." When Manet's famous Olympia (1865), a portrait of a nude prostitute, provoked a scandal for its blatant realism mixed with an imitation of Renaissance motifs, Baudelaire worked privately to support his friend, though he offered no public defense (he was ill at the time). When Baudelaire returned from Belgium after his stroke, Manet and his wife were frequent visitors at the nursing home and she played passages from Wagner for Baudelaire on the piano. ===Nadar=== Nadar (Félix Tournachon) was a noted caricaturist, scientist and important early photographer. Baudelaire admired Nadar, one of his close friends, and wrote: "Nadar is the most amazing manifestation of vitality." They moved in similar circles and Baudelaire made many social connections through him. Nadar's ex-mistress Jeanne Duval became Baudelaire's mistress around 1842. Baudelaire became interested in photography in the 1850s, and denouncing it as an art form, advocated its return to "its real purpose, which is that of being the servant to the sciences and arts". Photography should not, according to Baudelaire, encroach upon "the domain of the impalpable and the imaginary". Nadar remained a stalwart friend right to Baudelaire's last days and wrote his obituary notice in . ==Philosophy== Many of Baudelaire's philosophical proclamations were considered scandalous and intentionally provocative in his time. He wrote on a wide range of subjects, drawing criticism and outrage from many quarters. Along with Poe, Baudelaire named the arch-reactionary Joseph de Maistre as his maître à penser and adopted increasingly aristocratic views. In his journals, he wrote: ==Influence and legacy== Baudelaire's influence on the direction of modern French (and English) language literature was considerable. The most significant French writers to come after him were generous with tributes; four years after his death, Arthur Rimbaud praised him in a letter as "the king of poets, a true God". In 1895, Stéphane Mallarmé published "Le Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire", a sonnet in Baudelaire's memory. Marcel Proust, in an essay published in 1922, stated that, along with Alfred de Vigny, Baudelaire was "the greatest poet of the nineteenth century". In the English-speaking world, Edmund Wilson credited Baudelaire as providing an initial impetus for the Symbolist movement by virtue of his translations of Poe. In 1930, T. S. Eliot, while asserting that Baudelaire had not yet received a "just appreciation" even in France, claimed that the poet had "great genius" and asserted that his "technical mastery which can hardly be overpraised ... has made his verse an inexhaustible study for later poets, not only in his own language". In a lecture delivered in French on "Edgar Allan Poe and France" (Edgar Poe et la France) in Aix-en-Provence in April 1948, Eliot stated that "I am an English poet of American origin who learnt his art under the aegis of Baudelaire and the Baudelairian lineage of poets." Eliot also alluded to Baudelaire's poetry directly in his own poetry. For example, he quoted the last line of Baudelaire's "Au Lecteur" in the last line of Section I of The Waste Land. At the same time that Eliot was affirming Baudelaire's importance from a broadly conservative and explicitly Christian viewpoint, left-wing critics such as Wilson and Walter Benjamin were able to do so from a dramatically different perspective. Benjamin translated Baudelaire's Tableaux Parisiens into German and published a major essay on translation as the foreword. In the late 1930s, Benjamin used Baudelaire as a starting point and focus for Das Passagenwerk, his monumental attempt at a materialist assessment of 19th-century culture. For Benjamin, Baudelaire's importance lay in his anatomies of the crowd, of the city and of modernity. He says that, in Les Fleurs du mal, "the specific devaluation of the world of things, as manifested in the commodity, is the foundation of Baudelaire's allegorical intention." François Porché published a poetry collection called Charles Baudelaire: Poetry Collection in memory of Baudelaire. The novel A Singular Conspiracy (1974) by Barry Perowne is a fictional treatment of the unaccounted period in Edgar Allan Poe's life from January to May 1844, in which (among other things) Poe becomes involved with a young Baudelaire in a plot to expose Baudelaires' stepfather to blackmail, to free up Baudelaires' patrimony. Vanderbilt University has "assembled one of the world's most comprehensive research collections on ... Baudelaire". ==Works== Salon de 1845, 1845 Salon de 1846, 1846 La Fanfarlo, 1847 Les Fleurs du mal, 1857 Les paradis artificiels, 1860 Réflexions sur Quelques-uns de mes Contemporains, 1861 Le Peintre de la Vie Moderne, 1863 Curiosités Esthétiques, 1868 L'art romantique, 1868 Le Spleen de Paris, 1869. Paris Spleen (Contra Mundum Press: 2021) Translations from Charles Baudelaire, 1869 (Early English translation of several of Baudelaire's poems, by Richard Herne Shepherd) Œuvres Posthumes et Correspondance Générale, 1887–1907 Fusées, 1897 Mon Cœur Mis à Nu, 1897. My Heart Laid Bare & Other Texts (Contra Mundum Press: 2017; 2020) Œuvres Complètes, 1922–53 (19 vols.) Mirror of Art, 1955 The Essence of Laughter, 1956 Curiosités Esthétiques, 1962 The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays, 1964 Baudelaire as a Literary Critic, 1964 Arts in Paris 1845–1862, 1965 Selected Writings on Art and Artists, 1972 Selected Letters of Charles Baudelaire, 1986 Twenty Prose Poems, 1988 Critique d'art; Critique musicale, 1992 Belgium Stripped Bare (Contra Mundum Press: 2019) ===Musical adaptations=== Henri Duparc: "L'Invitation au voyage" (1870) and "La vie antérieure" (1884) Claude Debussy: Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire (1890) Léo Ferré: Les Fleurs du mal (1957), Léo Ferré chante Baudelaire (1967), and the posthumous Les Fleurs du mal (suite et fin) (2008) Serge Gainsbourg: "Baudelaire" (1962) Ruth White: Flowers of Evil (1969) Diamanda Galás: The Litanies of Satan (1982) Gérard Pape: La Tristesse de la lune (1986) The Cure: "How Beautiful You Are" (1987, on Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me) Marc Almond: "Abel And Cain (Abel et Cain)" and "Remorse of the Dead (Remords posthume)" (1993, on Absinthe) Mark-Anthony Turnage: Two Baudelaire Songs (2003–04) Alcest: "Élévation" (2005, on Le Secret) Amesoeurs: "Recueillement" (2009, on Amesoeurs) Rotting Christ: "Les litanies de Satan" (2016, on Rituals) Pierre Lapointe: "Le serpent qui danse" (2022, on L'heure mauve) Mandy, Indiana: "Mosaick" and "The Driving Rain (18)" (2023, on I've Seen a Way)	[ "Kiss Me, Kiss Me, Kiss Me", "Henri Duparc (composer)", "Théophile Gautier", "lyric poetry", "Gérard Pape", "Richard Wagner", "Arcades Project", "Serge Gainsbourg", "Marshall Berman", "Le Figaro", "dandy", "Honfleur", "last rites", "Amesoeurs", "Claude Debussy", "leitmotif", "Gustave Courbet", "Les Fleurs du mal", "translator", "Stéphane Mallarmé", "Edmund Wilson", "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater", "Revue des deux mondes", "Eugène Delacroix", "Arthur Rimbaud", "Saint-Sulpice, Paris", "Alcest", "Carl Maria von Weber", "Jacques Offenbach", "essay", "Le Secret (EP)", "Marcel Proust", "Amesoeurs (album)", "Marc Almond", "Vincent Vidal", "The Painter of Modern Life", "I've Seen a Way", "Edgar Allan Poe", "Differences (journal)", "Auguste Poulet-Malassis", "laudanum", "Gustave Flaubert", "Walter Benjamin", "Gérard de Nerval", "Victor Hugo", "Merriam-Webster", "Édouard Manet", "Claude Pichois", "Lyon", "Mandy, Indiana", "Le Spleen de Paris", "French poetry", "Music in the Tuileries", "prose poetry", "Left-wing politics", "Heinrich Heine", "Les Paradis artificiels", "Barry Perowne", "Le Tintamarre", "Théodore de Banville", "maître à penser", "T. S. Eliot", "L'heure mauve", "Modernism", "aphasia", "Vanderbilt University", "Haussmann's renovation of Paris", "Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire", "Sleeping Venus (Giorgione)", "Graham Robb", "Wagner controversies", "Diamanda Galás", "Apollonie Sabatier", "The Waste Land", "Ruth White (composer)", "Thomas De Quincey", "Franz Liszt", "Balzac", "Romanticism", "Joseph de Maistre", "Les paradis artificiels", "Paul Verlaine", "Absinthe (Marc Almond album)", "François Porché", "Léo Ferré", "Jeanne Duval", "La Fanfarlo", "The Litanies of Satan", "Rotting Christ", "Lycée Louis-le-Grand", "The Cure", "Olympia (painting)", "Roy Campbell (poet)", "modernity", "Champfleury", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)", "Historical materialism", "Pierre Lapointe", "Madame Bovary", "Épater la bourgeoisie", "opium", "art critic", "Decadent movement", "Mark-Anthony Turnage", "Cimetière du Montparnasse", "Revolutions of 1848 in France", "Paris", "Rituals (Rotting Christ album)", "Nadar (photographer)", "Les Fleurs du mal (suite et fin)", "L'Artiste", "Honoré Daumier", "National Gallery (London)", "aristocracy", "Les Fleurs du mal (Léo Ferré album)", "Sanatorium", "Eureka: A Prose Poem", "Alfred de Vigny", "Félicien Rops", "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket", "Léo Ferré chante Baudelaire", "Honoré de Balzac", "Symbolism (arts)" ]
5,808	Casey at the Bat	"Casey at the Bat: A Ballad of the Republic, Sung in the Year 1888" is a mock-heroic poem written in 1888 by Ernest Thayer. It was first published in The San Francisco Examiner (then called The Daily Examiner) on June 3, 1888, under the pen name "Phin", based on Thayer's college nickname, "Phinney". It has become one of the best-known poems in American literature. ==Synopsis== A baseball team from the fictional town of "Mudville" (the home team) is losing by two runs in its last inning. Both the team and its fans, a crowd of 5,000, believe that they can win if Casey, Mudville's star player, gets to bat. However, Casey is scheduled to be the fifth batter of the inning, and the first two batters (Cooney and Barrows) fail to get on base. The next two batters (Flynn and Jimmy Blake) are perceived to be weak hitters with little chance of reaching base to allow Casey a chance to bat. Surprisingly, Flynn hits a single, and Blake follows with a double that allows Flynn to reach third base. Both runners are now in scoring position and Casey represents the potential winning run. Casey is so sure of his abilities that he does not swing at the first two pitches, both called strikes. On the last pitch, the overconfident Casey strikes out swinging, ending the game and sending the crowd home unhappy. ==Text== The text is filled with references to baseball as it was in 1888, which in many ways is not far removed from today's version. As a work, the poem encapsulates much of the appeal of baseball, including the involvement of the crowd. It also has a fair amount of baseball jargon that can pose challenges for the uninitiated. This is the complete poem as it originally appeared in The Daily Examiner. After publication, various versions with minor changes were produced. ==Inspiration== Thayer said he chose the name "Casey" after a non-player of Irish ancestry he once knew named Daniel H. Casey; it is open to debate whom, if anyone, he modeled the character after. It has been reported that Thayer's best friend Samuel Winslow, who played baseball at Harvard, was the inspiration for Casey. Another classmate of Thayer at Harvard—Edward Terry Sanford—also has been put forward as a possible model for Casey, in part on the ground that Thayer and Sanford were both members of a student group at Harvard (the OK Society) that played some baseball in the mid-1880s. Sanford would go on to a distinguished career in the law, culminating in his appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1923. Another candidate is National League player Mike "King" Kelly, who became famous when Boston paid Chicago a record $10,000 for him. He had a personality that fans liked to cheer or jeer. After the 1887 season, Kelly went on a playing tour to San Francisco. Thayer, who wrote "Casey" in 1888, covered the San Francisco leg for the San Francisco Examiner. Thayer, in a letter he wrote in 1905, mentions Kelly as showing "impudence" in claiming to have written the poem. The author of the 2004 definitive biography of Kelly—which included a close tracking of his vaudeville career—did not find Kelly claiming to have been the author. ==Composition and publication history== "Casey at the Bat" was first published in The Daily Examiner on June 3, 1888. A month after the poem was published, it was reprinted as "Kelly at the Bat" in the New York Sporting Times. Aside from omitting the first five verses, the only changes from the original are substitutions of Kelly for Casey, and Boston for Mudville. King Kelly, then of the Boston Beaneaters, was one of baseball's two biggest stars at the time (along with Cap Anson). In 1897, the magazine Current Literature noted the two versions and said, "The locality, as originally given, is Mudville, not Boston; the latter was substituted to give the poem local color." ==Live performances== DeWolf Hopper gave the poem's first stage recitation on August 14, 1888, at New York's Wallack Theatre as part of the comic opera Prinz Methusalem in the presence of the Chicago White Stockings and New York Giants baseball teams; August 14, 1888 was also Thayer's 25th birthday. Hopper became known as an orator of the poem, and recited it more than 10,000 times (by his count—some tabulations are as much as four times higher) before his death. On a 1997 CD set with memorable moments and stories from the game of baseball titled Take Me Out to the Ball Game produced by Jerry Hoffman and Douglas Duer, a Vincent Price oration of the poem is a slightly altered version of the original. In 1998, actor Sir Derek Jacobi recorded the poem with composer/arranger Randol Alan Bass and the National Symphony of London, with the composer conducting. This work, titled "Casey at the Bat", has been recorded by the Boston Pops Orchestra, Keith Lockhart conducting. In 2013, Dave Jageler and Charlie Slowes, both radio announcers for the Washington Nationals, each made recordings of the poem for the Library of Congress to mark the 125th anniversary of its first publication. ==Mudville== A rivalry of sorts has developed between two cities claiming to be the Mudville described in the poem. Residents of Holliston, Massachusetts, where there is a neighborhood called Mudville, claim it as the Mudville described in the poem. Thayer grew up in nearby Worcester, Massachusetts, where he wrote the poem in 1888; his family owned a wool mill less than from Mudville's baseball field. However, residents of Stockton, California—which was known for a time as Mudville prior to incorporation in 1850—also lay claim to being the inspiration for the poem. In 1887, Thayer covered baseball for The Daily Examiner—owned by his Harvard classmate William Randolph Hearst—and is said to have covered the local California League team, the Stockton Ports. For the 1902 season, after the poem became popular, Stockton's team was renamed the Mudville Nine. The team reverted to the Mudville Nine moniker for the 2000 and 2001 seasons. The Visalia Rawhide, another California League team, currently keeps Mudville alive playing in Mudville jerseys on June 3 each year. Despite the towns' rival claims, Thayer himself told the Syracuse Post-Standard that "the poem has no basis in fact." In 1927, a feature-length silent film Casey at the Bat was released, starring Wallace Beery, Ford Sterling, and ZaSu Pitts. At least three other films based on Thayer's poem preceded this 1927 release: an Edison short in 1899, another short starring Harry T. Morey in 1913, and a five-reel feature starring DeWolf Hopper in 1916. Walt Disney Productions produced an Animated Segment adaptation of the poem for the film Make Mine Music (1946) and uses the original text, but is set in 1902 according to the opening song's lyrics, instead of 1888. This version is recited by Jerry Colonna. It was later released as an individual short on July 16, 1954. A sequel short was also produced Casey Bats Again and released on June 18, 1954. A 1976 animated short adaptation, featuring narration by Paul Frees, was released in 1976 by Fine Arts Films. In 1986, Elliott Gould starred as "Casey" in the Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales and Legends adaptation of the story, which also starred Carol Kane, Howard Cosell, Bob Uecker, Bill Macy and Rae Dawn Chong. The screenplay, adapted from the poem, was written by Andy Borowitz and the production was directed by David Steinberg. In The Dream Team (1989), Michael Keaton's character announces that "there is no joy in Mudville" after giving a fellow mental patient three "strikes" for psychotic behavior. In 1993 the last paragraph is quoted in the film Short Cuts (by Robert Altman), when Lyle Lovett as Andy Bitkower is calling anonymously Andie MacDowell as Ann Finnigan in minute 01:34:58. === Radio === The poem was adapted for an episode of On Stage that aired on CBS on April 16, 1953. It was written by E. Jack Neuman and starred Elliott Lewis, Cathy Lewis, Hy Averback, Herb Butterfield, Byron Kane, Peter Leeds, Hal March, Howard McNear, and Sidney Miller. Radio personality Casey Kasem self-identified on-air as "Casey at the mic." ===Television=== Jackie Gleason in his "Reginald Van Gleason III" persona (in full Mudville baseball uniform) performed a recitation of the poem on his And Awaaaay We Go! album. Season 1, episode 35 of The Twilight Zone, "The Mighty Casey", concerns a baseball player who is actually a robot (June 17, 1960). In the Northern Exposure episode "The Graduate", Chris Stevens gains his Master's degree in Comparative literature by subjecting his assessors to a spirited re-enactment of the poem. In General Hospital, Steve Hardy performs the poem during the 1994 Nurses' Ball while dressed in a Mudville baseball uniform. He concludes by telling the audience not to worry because Casey is married to the Mudville owner's daughter. In How I Met Your Mother, the episode "Bedtime Stories" (which is done entirely in rhymes) features a subplot called "Mosby At The Bat". The start of that section of the episode begins with "The outlook wasn't brilliant for poor Ted's romantic life", a line based on the opening of the original poem. In One Tree Hill, season 8 episode "The Man Who Sailed Around His Soul" was a flashback-heavy episode revolving around a baseball game with Jamie Scott narrating the poem throughout. ===Music=== Art-song composer Sidney Homer turned the poem into a song. Sheet music was published by G. Schirmer in 1920 as part of Six Cheerful Songs to Poems of American Humor. William Schuman composed an opera, The Mighty Casey (1953), based on the poem. The song "No Joy in Mudville" from Death Cab for Cutie's album We Have the Facts and We're Voting Yes directly references the poem. The song "Centerfield" by John Fogerty includes the line "Well, I spent some time in the Mudville Nine, watchin' it from the bench. You know I took some lumps when the Mighty Casey struck out." The song "No Joy In Pudville" by Steroid Maximus is a reference to this poem. Joe Walsh's 1973 song "Rocky Mountain Way" features the lyrics "Bases are loaded/ And Casey's at bat/ Playin' it play-by-play/ Time to change the batter." In 2008 American composer Randol Alan Bass used the song "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" by Alfred Von Tilzer and Jack Norworth in Casey at the Bat, a setting of the poem for concert band and narrator. ===Theatre=== "Casey at the Bat" was adapted into a 1953 opera by American composer William Schuman. An orchestral adaptation by composer Frank Proto has been recorded by the Cincinnati Pops orchestra conducted by Erich Kunzel with baseball star Johnny Bench narrating. The Dallas Symphony commissioned an arrangement of "Casey" by Randol Alan Bass in 2001, which he later arranged for concert band. ==Derivations== For a relatively short poem apparently dashed off quickly (and denied by its author for years), "Casey at the Bat" had a profound effect on American popular culture. It has been recited, re-enacted, adapted, dissected, parodied, and subjected to just about every other treatment one could imagine. In this version, Rice cites the nickname "Strike-Out Casey", hence the influence on Casey Stengel's name. Casey's team is down three runs by the last of the ninth, and once again Casey is down to two strikes—with the bases full this time. However, he connects, and hits the ball so far that it is never found. "Casey - Twenty Years Later", by Clarence P. McDonald (1908), imagines a different redemption for Casey, long after his retirement. The poem, which was indeed published twenty years after the original, in the San Francisco Examiner, sees Casey attending a championship game between the fictional team of "Bugville" and an unspecified opponent. In a losing effort, Bugville's players are benched and injured throughout the game, until the captain is forced to call for a volunteer from the attendees. An aged Casey answers the call and fills the role surprisingly well, culminating with him hitting the game-winning home run, in his first swing at bat. He then reveals his identity to the joyous fans and players. In response to the popularity of the 1946 Walt Disney animated adaptation, Disney made a sequel, Casey Bats Again (1954), in which Casey's nine daughters redeem his reputation. In 1988, on the 100th anniversary of the poem, Sports Illustrated writer Frank Deford constructed a fanciful story (later expanded to book form) for what happened before and after the famous ball game. ===Parodies=== Of the many parodies made of the poem, some of the notable ones include: Mad magazine republished the original version of the poem in the 1950s with artwork by Jack Davis and no alterations to the text. Later lampoons in Mad included "'Cool' Casey at the Bat" (1960), an interpretation of the poem in beatnik style, with artwork by Don Martin although the ending still has Casey striking out; "Casey at the Dice" in 1969, about a professional gambler; "Casey at the Contract Talks" in 1974 (which ends with the owner telling Casey to "practice hard at home this year 'cause now you've struck out twice"); Casey at the Talks" in 1977, a "modern" version of the famed poem in which Mudville tries unsuccessfully to sign free agent Casey [the last line of which is "Mighty Casey has held out"]; "Baseball at the Bat", a satire on baseball itself, "Howard at the Mike", about Howard Cosell; "Casey at the Byte" (1985), a tale of a cocky young computer expert who accidentally erases the White House Budget Plan; "Clooney as the Bat", a mockery of George Clooney's role as Batman in Batman and Robin; and in 2006 as "Barry at the Bat", poking fun at Barry Bonds' alleged involvement in the BALCO scandal; in 2001, "Jordan at the Hoop", satirizing Michael Jordan's return to the NBA and his time with the Washington Wizards; and in 2012, "Casey at the Trial", satirizing Casey Anthony's acquittal in the case of the death of her daughter Caylee. It also includes a "Poetry Round Robin" where famous poems are rewritten in the style of the next poet in line, featured Casey at the Bat as written by Edgar Allan Poe. Sportswriter Leonard Koppett claimed in a 1979 tongue-in-cheek article that the published poem omits 18 lines penned by Thayer, which changed the overall theme of the poem. Koppett added lines, claiming to have transcribed them off an old phonograph recording, that take the pitch count on Casey to full. Meanwhile, his uncle Arnold stirs up wagering action in the stands, before a wink passes between them. Casey throws the game. Foster Brooks ("the Lovable Lush" from the Dean Martin Show) wrote "Riley on the Mound", which recounts the story from the pitcher's perspective. *In his 1987 Baseball Abstract, Bill James published "Casey Chases A Knuckler", which employed a five-line stanza and AAAAB structure, about former MLB knuckleball pitcher Charlie Hough Author Phil Bolsta penned a parody entitled "Hrbek at the Bat" about Twins slugger Kent Hrbek which was published in 1987 in the Minneapolis Review of Baseball. Radio performer Garrison Keillor's parodic version of the poem reimagines the game as a road game, instead of a home game, for the Mudville team. The same events occur with Casey striking out in the ninth inning as in the original poem, but with everything told from the perspective of other team. An episode of Tiny Toon Adventures featured a short titled "Buster at the Bat", where Sylvester provides narration as Buster goes up to bat. The poem was parodied again for an episode of Animaniacs, this time with Wakko as the title character and Yakko narrating. Both versions end on a happier note with the main character hitting a home run. In the fourth season of Garfield and Friends the episode entitled "Mind Over Matter/Orson at the Bat/Multiple Choice Cartoon" features Wade Duck narrating a parody of the poem as Orson Pig experiences it in a dream sequence. In The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius episode "Return of the Nanobots", Cindy's poem is identical to the ending of "Casey at the Bat" but replaces Mudville with Retroville and the last famed line with "cause Jimmy is an idiot!" The New York Times published a parody by Hart Seely and Frank Cammuso in which the poem was narrated by Phil Rizzuto, a New York Yankees announcer who was known to veer off on tangents while calling the game. The poem was later published in Seely and Cammuso's book, 2007 Eleven And Other American Comedies. David Pogue penned a parody version titled 'A Desktop Critic: Steven Saves the Mac' for Macworld magazine that ran in their October 1999 issue. It tells the story of Steve Jobs' triumphant return to a struggling Apple Inc and his early efforts to reverse the company's fortunes. Dick Flavin wrote a version titled Teddy at the Bat, after Boston Red Sox legend Ted Williams died in July 2002. Flavin performed the poem at Fenway Park during the night-long tribute to Williams done at the park later that month. The poem replaced Flynn and Blake with Bobby Doerr and Johnny Pesky, the batters who preceded Williams in the 1946 Red Sox lineup. In 2000, Michael J. Farrand adapted the rhyming scheme, tone, and theme of the poem—while reversing the outcome—to create his poem "The Man Who Gave All the Dreamers in Baseball Land Bigger Dreams to Dream" about Kirk Gibson's home run off Dennis Eckersley in Game 1 of the 1988 World Series. The poem appears at the Baseball Almanac. Norman Jackman wrote a reversed-outcome version in 1951 called "Bobby Thomson at the Bat," which went unknown for over 60 years until the San Francisco Giants published it in 2012. It's about Thomson's famous home run in a 1951 Giant-Dodger playoff game. In 2016, the poem was accepted into the poetry files of the National Baseball Library and Archive of the Hall of Fame. The New York Times best-selling author and poet laureate of The Ringer, Shea Serrano, penned a loving tribute to NBA player Gordon Hayward in the vein of "Casey at the Bat" in 2017. Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster created "Shakespearean Baseball", featuring William Shakespeare-esque characters and dialogue in a skit based upon the poem. They performed the play on The Ed Sullivan Show and on Canadian TV numerous times between the 1950s and 1980s. Baseball writer and Villanova professor Mitchell Nathanson updated the poem for contemporary times in 2019, publishing "Casey @ the Bat" in The Washington Post. ===Translations=== There are three known translations of the poem into a foreign language, one in French, written in 2007 by French Canadian linguist Paul Laurendeau, with the title Casey au bâton, and two in Hebrew. One by the sports journalist Menachem Less titled "התור של קייסי לחבוט" [Hator Shel Casey Lachbot, and the other more recent and more true to the original cadence and style by Jason H. Elbaum called קֵיסִי בַּמַּחְבֵּט [Casey BaMachbayt]. ===Names=== Casey Stengel describes in his autobiography how his original nickname "K.C." (for his hometown, Kansas City, Missouri) evolved into "Casey". It was influenced not just by the name of the poem, which was widely popular in the 1910s, but also because he tended to strike out frequently in his early career so fans and writers started calling him "strikeout Casey". ==Contemporary culture== ===Video games=== The poem is referenced in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game EarthBound, where a weapon is named the Casey Bat, which is the strongest weapon in the game, but will only hit 25% of the time. ===Television=== A recurring character in the Pokémon anime, a girl who is a very enthusiastic fan of baseball, is named "Casey" in the English version in reference to the poem. Season 1, episode 35 of The Twilight Zone was named "The Mighty Casey" in reference to the poem's lead character, though the plot is unrelated. The title of Season 3, episode 17 of The Simpsons, "Homer at the Bat", is a reference to the poem. A third-season episode of Storm Chasers was titled "Sean Casey At Bat". The episode featured Casey (a chaser) intercepting a tornado for the first time in TIV 2. In the show Friends, Ross clarifies how to spell "Casey" as in "at the bat" in the Season 2, episode 14 titled "The One with the Prom Video." In the show Containment, Season 1, episode 6 takes its name, "He Stilled the Rising Tumult", from the poem. In the show Black Mirror, Season 6, episode 3, "Beyond the Sea" quotes the poem. ===Theme parks=== Casey's Corner is a baseball-themed restaurant in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, which serves primarily hotdogs. Pictures of Casey and the pitcher from the Disney animated adaptation are hanging on the walls, and a life-size statue of a baseball player identified as "Casey" stands just outside the restaurant. Additionally, the scoreboard in the restaurant shows that Mudville lost to the visitors by two runs. A hot dog restaurant featuring the Disney character can be found at Disneyland Paris' Disneyland Park since its opening in 1992, under the name Casey's Corner. A game called Casey at the Bat is in the Games of the Boardwalk at the Disneyland Resort's Disney California Adventure. ===Theatre=== In Cabaret (1993) Clifford Bradshaw recites the end of "Mighty Casey" to Sally Bowles. ===Postage stamp=== On July 11, 1996, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp depicting "Mighty Casey." The stamp was part of a set commemorating American folk heroes. Other stamps in the set depicted Paul Bunyan, John Henry, and Pecos Bill.	[ "Foster Brooks", "Syracuse Post-Standard", "Hal March", "Time, Inc.", "Disneyland Paris", "Kansas City, Missouri", "Tiny Toon Adventures", "How I Met Your Mother", "Garfield and Friends", "The San Francisco Examiner", "Stephen King", "Washington Nationals", "King Kelly", "Shot Heard 'Round the World (baseball)", "epitome", "Sally Bowles", "American Heritage (magazine)", "Batman & Robin (film)", "National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum", "Joe Walsh", "Kent Hrbek", "James Earl Jones", "ballad", "Phonofilm", "The Dream Team (1989 film)", "opera", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Michael J. Astrue", "New York Giants (baseball)", "Apple Inc", "Super Nintendo Entertainment System", "University of California, Santa Barbara", "Bush league", "Thomas Edison", "Visalia Rawhide", "John Fogerty", "Paul Frees", "Bill James", "Marvel Comics", "Elliott Gould", "CBS Radio", "Byron Kane", "Johnny Bench", "We Have the Facts and We're Voting Yes", "Johnny Pesky", "New York City", "Wallace Tripp", "Beyond the Sea (Black Mirror)", "Current Literature", "Bill Macy", "comic opera", "Prairie Home Companion", "Carol Kane", "Russell Hunting", "Holliston, Massachusetts", "Robert Altman", "Mad (magazine)", "Steve Jobs", "William Shakespeare", "Cooperstown", "legend", "Aristophanes", "Edgar Allan Poe", "Bob Uecker", "vaudeville", "Cap Anson", "Centerfield (song)", "National Recording Registry", "William Schuman", "Run (baseball)", "Prinz Methusalem", "Storm Chasers (TV series)", "Friends", "Harvard University", "Casey at the Bat (1927 film)", "United States", "DC Comics", "Batman", "Walt Disney World", "George Clooney", "Yakko, Wakko, and Dot", "Pecos Bill", "Garrison Keillor", "Stockton Ports", "Paul Bunyan", "Philly Pops", "Casey Kasem", "parody", "Fenway Park", "Hy Averback", "Make Mine Music", "Steven Reineke", "Penn & Teller", "Sidney Homer", "beatnik", "Don Martin (cartoonist)", "NBA", "Penn Jillette", "Not Brand Echh", "Disneyland Resort", "Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra", "Barry Bonds", "Bobby Doerr", "Steroid Maximus", "Casey Stengel", "Worcester, Massachusetts", "David Steinberg", "Boston", "Dick Flavin (poet)", "Samuel Winslow", "EarthBound", "comic verse", "Dennis Eckersley", "World Series", "Cabaret (musical)", "Containment (TV series)", "Cincinnati Pops", "Ogg", "animated short", "Bedtime Stories (How I Met Your Mother)", "Lee De Forest", "One Tree Hill (TV series)", "Macworld", "On Stage (radio show)", "Disney California Adventure Park", "Literary theme", "Walt Disney Productions", "Villanova University", "commemorative stamp", "Frank Proto", "Casey at the Bat (1916 film)", "Sports Illustrated", "Wallace Beery", "Jamie Scott (One Tree Hill)", "Michael Jordan", "recitation", "Wallack Theatre", "Tug McGraw", "Vincent Price", "Howard Cosell", "Andy Borowitz", "Animaniacs", "Peter Leeds", "Jackie Gleason", "Jerry Colonna (entertainer)", "Dave Jageler", "DeWolf Hopper", "Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project", "Sir Derek Jacobi", "William Randolph Hearst", "Black Mirror", "United States Postal Service", "YouTube", "Frank Deford", "History of the Chicago Cubs", "Washington Wizards", "Andie MacDowell", "Chicago White Stockings (1870–1889)", "Library of Congress", "Harry T. Morey", "Death of Caylee Anthony", "Cincinnati Pops Orchestra", "Ted Williams", "Edward Terry Sanford", "Lyle Lovett", "Sylvester (Looney Tunes)", "Stockton, California", "General Hospital", "American literature", "Ernest Thayer", "tragedy", "Vertigo Comics", "straitjacket", "Master's degree", "The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius", "Rich Dworsky", "Dante", "Cathy Lewis", "Comparative literature", "BALCO", "animated cartoon", "Phil Rizzuto", "Peter Nero", "David Pogue", "Literary adaptation", "Jack Davis (cartoonist)", "Charlie Hough", "Pokémon (anime)", "Disneyland Park (Paris)", "Baseball Almanac", "mock-heroic", "Sidney Miller (actor)", "Leonard Koppett", "Steve Hardy (General Hospital)", "Kurtis Scaletta", "Frank Cammuso", "Homer at the Bat", "Casey Bats Again", "Rae Dawn Chong", "baseball", "Baseball league", "San Francisco Examiner", "rhyming scheme", "mustache cup", "Fables (comics)", "The Washington Post", "Rocky Mountain Way (song)", "The Simpsons", "Michael Keaton", "E. Jack Neuman", "Charlie Slowes", "Crepe Suzette", "Elliott Lewis (actor)", "Grantland Rice", "silent film", "The Ed Sullivan Show", "Strikeout", "Walt Disney", "California League", "Randol Alan Bass", "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)", "Ford Sterling", "Johnny Appleseed", "Cylinder Audio Archive", "Erich Kunzel", "pen name", "Gordon Hayward", "Hulk", "ZaSu Pitts", "New York Yankees", "Death Cab for Cutie", "scoring position", "The New York Times", "Kirk Gibson's 1988 World Series home run", "Shelley Duvall", "1902 in baseball", "San Francisco Giants", "Wayne and Shuster", "Northern Exposure", "Boston Red Sox", "History of the Boston Braves", "John Henry (folklore)", "Shakespeare", "Magic Kingdom", "Shea Serrano", "folk hero", "Short Cuts" ]
5,810	Classical guitar	The classical guitar, also known as Spanish guitar, is a member of the guitar family used in classical music and other styles. An acoustic wooden string instrument with strings made of gut or nylon, it is a precursor of the modern steel-string acoustic and electric guitars, both of which use metal strings. Classical guitars derive from instruments such as the lute, the vihuela, the gittern (the name being a derivative of the Greek "kithara"), which evolved into the Renaissance guitar and into the 17th and 18th-century baroque guitar. Today's modern classical guitar was established by the late designs of the 19th-century Spanish luthier, Antonio Torres Jurado. For a right-handed player, the traditional classical guitar has 12 frets clear of the body and is properly held up by the left leg, so that the hand that plucks or strums the strings does so near the back of the sound hole (this is called the classical position). However, the right-hand may move closer to the fretboard to achieve different tonal qualities. The player typically holds the left leg higher by the use of a foot rest. The modern steel string guitar, on the other hand, usually has 14 frets clear of the body (see Dreadnought) and is commonly held with a strap around the neck and shoulder. The phrase "classical guitar" may refer to either of two concepts other than the instrument itself: The instrumental finger technique common to classical guitar—individual strings plucked with the fingernails or, less frequently, fingertips The instrument's classical music repertoire The term modern classical guitar sometimes distinguishes the classical guitar from older forms of guitar, which are in their broadest sense also called classical, or more specifically, early guitars. Examples of early guitars include the six-string early romantic guitar ( – 1880), and the earlier baroque guitars with five courses. The materials and the methods of classical guitar construction may vary, but the typical shape is either modern classical guitar or that historic classical guitar similar to the early romantic guitars of Spain, France and Italy. Classical guitar strings once made of gut are now made of materials such as nylon or fluoropolymers (especially PVDF), typically with silver-plated copper fine wire wound about the acoustically lower (d-A-E in standard tuning) strings. A guitar family tree may be identified. The flamenco guitar derives from the modern classical, but has differences in material, construction and sound. ==Contexts== The classical guitar has a long history and one is able to distinguish various: instruments repertoire (composers and their compositions, arrangements, improvisations) Both instrument and repertoire can be viewed from a combination of various perspectives: Historical (chronological period of time) Baroque guitar – 1600 to 1750 Early romantic guitars – 1750 to 1850 (for music from the Classical and Romantic periods) Modern classical guitars Geographical Spanish guitars (Torres), French guitars (René Lacôte, ...), German guitars (Herrmann Hauser), etc. Cultural Baroque court music, nineteenth-century opera and its influences, nineteenth-century folk songs, Latin American music ==Historical perspective== ===Early guitars=== While "classical guitar" is today mainly associated with the modern classical guitar design, there is an increasing interest in early guitars; and understanding the link between historical repertoire and the particular period guitar that was originally used to perform this repertoire. The musicologist and author Graham Wade writes: Nowadays it is customary to play this repertoire on reproductions of instruments authentically modelled on concepts of musicological research with appropriate adjustments to techniques and overall interpretation. Thus over recent decades we have become accustomed to specialist artists with expertise in the art of vihuela (a 16th-century type of guitar popular in Spain), lute, Baroque guitar, 19th-century guitar, etc. Different types of guitars have different sound aesthetics, e.g. different colour-spectrum characteristics (the way the sound energy is spread in the fundamental frequency and the overtones), different response, etc. These differences are due to differences in construction; for example, modern classical guitars usually use a different bracing (fan-bracing) from that used in earlier guitars (they had ladder-bracing); and a different voicing was used by the luthier. There is a historical parallel between musical styles (baroque, classical, romantic, flamenco, jazz) and the style of "sound aesthetic" of the musical instruments used, for example: Robert de Visée played a baroque guitar with a very different sound aesthetic from the guitars used by Mauro Giuliani and Luigi Legnani – they used 19th-century guitars. These guitars in turn sound different from the Torres models used by Segovia that are suited for interpretations of romantic-modern works such as Moreno Torroba. When considering the guitar from a historical perspective, the musical instrument used is as important as the musical language and style of the particular period. As an example: It is impossible to play a historically informed de Visee or Corbetta (baroque guitarist-composers) on a modern classical guitar. The reason is that the baroque guitar used courses, which are two strings close together (in unison), that are plucked together. This gives baroque guitars an unmistakable sound characteristic and tonal texture that is an integral part of an interpretation. Additionally, the sound aesthetic of the baroque guitar (with its strong overtone presence) is very different from modern classical type guitars, as is shown below. Today's use of Torres and post-Torres type guitars for repertoire of all periods is sometimes critically viewed: Torres and post-Torres style modern guitars (with their fan-bracing and design) have a thick and strong tone, very suitable for modern-era repertoire. However, they are considered to emphasize the fundamental too heavily (at the expense of overtone partials) for earlier repertoire (Classical/Romantic: Carulli, Sor, Giuliani, Mertz, ...; Baroque: de Visee, ...; etc.). "Andrés Segovia presented the Spanish guitar as a versatile model for all playing styles" While fan-braced modern classical Torres and post-Torres style instruments coexisted with traditional ladder-braced guitars at the beginning of the 20th century, the older forms eventually fell away. Some attribute this to the popularity of Segovia, considering him "the catalyst for change toward the Spanish design and the so-called 'modern' school in the 1920s and beyond." The styles of music performed on ladder-braced guitars were becoming unfashionable—and, e.g., in Germany, more musicians were turning towards folk music (Schrammel-music and the Contraguitar). This was localized in Germany and Austria and became unfashionable again. On the other hand, Segovia was playing concerts around the world, popularizing modern classical guitar—and, in the 1920s, Spanish romantic-modern style with guitar works by Moreno Torroba, de Falla, etc. The 19th-century classical guitarist Francisco Tárrega first popularized the Torres design as a classical solo instrument. However, some maintain that Segovia's influence led to its domination over other designs. Factories around the world began producing them in large numbers. ====Characteristics==== Vihuela, renaissance guitars and baroque guitars have a bright sound, rich in overtones, and their courses (double strings) give the sound a very particular texture. Early guitars of the classical and romantic period (early romantic guitars) have single strings, but their design and voicing are still such that they have their tonal energy more in the overtones (but without starved fundamental), giving a bright intimate tone. Later in Spain a style of music emerged that favoured a stronger fundamental:"With the change of music a stronger fundamental was demanded and the fan bracing system was approached. ... the guitar tone has been changed from a transparent tone, rich in higher partials to a more 'broad' tone with a strong fundamental." Thus modern guitars with fan bracing (fan strutting) have a design and voicing that gives them a thick, heavy sound, with far more tonal energy found in the fundamental. ==Style periods== ===Renaissance=== Composers of the Renaissance period who wrote for four-course guitar include Alonso Mudarra, Miguel de Fuenllana, Adrian Le Roy, , Guillaume de Morlaye, and . Instrument Four-course guitar ===Baroque=== Some well known composers of the Baroque guitar were Gaspar Sanz, Robert de Visée, Francesco Corbetta and Santiago de Murcia. Examples of instruments Baroque guitar by Nicolas Alexandre Voboam II: This French instrument has the typical design of the period with five courses of double-strings and a flat back. Baroque guitar attributed to Matteo Sellas : This Italian instrument has five courses and a rounded back. ===Classical and romantic=== From approximately 1780 to 1850, the guitar had numerous composers and performers including: Filippo Gragnani (1767–1820) Antoine de Lhoyer (1768–1852) Ferdinando Carulli (1770–1841) Wenzel Thomas Matiegka (1773–1830) Francesco Molino (1774–1847) Fernando Sor (1778–1839) – 1850) Mauro Giuliani (1781–1829) Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840) Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849) Luigi Legnani (1790–1877) Matteo Carcassi (1792–1853) Napoléon Coste (1805–1883) Johann Kaspar Mertz (1806–1856) Giulio Regondi (1822–1872) Hector Berlioz studied the guitar as a teenager; Franz Schubert owned at least two and wrote for the instrument; and Ludwig van Beethoven, after hearing Giuliani play, commented the instrument was "a miniature orchestra in itself". Niccolò Paganini was also a guitar virtuoso and composer. He once wrote: "I love the guitar for its harmony; it is my constant companion in all my travels". He also said, on another occasion: "I do not like this instrument, but regard it simply as a way of helping me to think." ===Francisco Tárrega=== The guitarist and composer Francisco Tárrega (November 21, 1852 – December 15, 1909) was one of the great guitar virtuosos and teachers and is considered the father of modern classical guitar playing. As a professor of guitar at the conservatories of Madrid and Barcelona, he defined many elements of the modern classical technique and elevated the importance of the guitar in the classical music tradition. ===Modern period=== At the beginning of the 1920s, Andrés Segovia popularized the guitar with tours and early phonograph recordings. Segovia collaborated with the composers Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Turina with the aim of extending the guitar repertoire with new music. Segovia's tour of South America revitalized public interest in the guitar and helped the guitar music of Manuel Ponce and Heitor Villa-Lobos reach a wider audience. The composers Alexandre Tansman and Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco were commissioned by Segovia to write new pieces for the guitar. Luiz Bonfá popularized Brazilian musical styles such as the newly created Bossa Nova, which was well received by audiences in the USA. ===="New music" – avant-garde==== The classical guitar repertoire also includes modern contemporary works – sometimes termed "New Music" – such as Elliott Carter's Changes, Cristóbal Halffter's Codex I, Luciano Berio's Sequenza XI, Maurizio Pisati's Sette Studi, Maurice Ohana's Si Le Jour Paraît, Sylvano Bussotti's Rara (eco sierologico), Ernst Krenek's Suite für Guitarre allein, Op. 164, Franco Donatoni's Algo: Due pezzi per chitarra, Paolo Coggiola's Variazioni Notturne, etc. Performers who are known for including modern repertoire include Jürgen Ruck, Elena Càsoli, Leo Brouwer (when he was still performing), John Schneider, Reinbert Evers, Maria Kämmerling, Siegfried Behrend, David Starobin, Mats Scheidegger, Magnus Andersson, etc. This type of repertoire is usually performed by guitarists who have particularly chosen to focus on the avant-garde in their performances. Within the contemporary music scene itself, there are also works which are generally regarded as extreme. These include works such as Brian Ferneyhough's Kurze Schatten II, Sven-David Sandström's away from and Rolf Riehm's Toccata Orpheus etc. which are notorious for their extreme difficulty. There are also a variety of databases documenting modern guitar works such as [http://www.sheerpluck.de/ Sheer Pluck and others. ==Background== The evolution of the classical guitar and its repertoire spans more than four centuries. It has a history that was shaped by contributions from earlier instruments, such as the lute, the vihuela, and the baroque guitar. ==History== ===Overview of the classical guitar's history=== The origins of the modern guitar are not known with certainty. Some believe it is indigenous to Europe, while others think it is an imported instrument. Guitar-like instruments appear in ancient carvings and statues recovered from Egyptian, Sumerian, and Babylonian civilizations. This means that contemporary Iranian instruments such as the tanbur and setar are distantly related to the European guitar, as they all derive ultimately from the same ancient origins, but by very different historical routes and influences. Gitterns called "guitars" were already in use since the 13th century, but their construction and tuning were different from modern guitars. The time where the most changes were made to the guitar was in the 1500s to the 1800s. ===Renaissance guitar=== Alonso de Mudarra's book Tres Libros de Música, published in Spain in 1546, contains the earliest known written pieces for a four-course guitarra. This four-course "guitar" was popular in France, Spain, and Italy. In France this instrument gained popularity among aristocrats. A considerable volume of music was published in Paris from the 1550s to the 1570s: Simon Gorlier's Le Troysième Livre... mis en tablature de Guiterne was published in 1551. In 1551 Adrian Le Roy also published his Premier Livre de Tablature de Guiterne, and in the same year he also published Briefve et facile instruction pour apprendre la tablature a bien accorder, conduire, et disposer la main sur la Guiterne. Robert Ballard, Grégoire Brayssing from Augsburg, and Guillaume Morlaye ( – ) significantly contributed to its repertoire. Morlaye's Le Premier Livre de Chansons, Gaillardes, Pavannes, Bransles, Almandes, Fantasies – which has a four-course instrument illustrated on its title page – was published in partnership with Michel Fedenzat, and among other music, they published six books of tablature by lutenist Albert de Rippe (who was very likely Guillaume's teacher). ===Vihuela=== The written history of the classical guitar can be traced back to the early 16th century with the development of the vihuela in Spain. While the lute was then becoming popular in other parts of Europe, the Spaniards did not take to it well because of its association with the Moors. Instead, the lute-like vihuela appeared with two more strings that gave it more range and complexity. In its most developed form, the vihuela was a guitar-like instrument with six double strings made of gut, tuned like a modern classical guitar with the exception of the third string, which was tuned half a step lower. It has a high sound and is rather large to hold. Few have survived and most of what is known today come from diagrams and paintings. ===Baroque guitar=== ==="Early romantic guitar" or "Guitar during the Classical music era"=== The earliest extant six-string guitar is believed to have been built in 1779 by Gaetano Vinaccia (1759 – after 1831) in Naples, Italy; however, the date on the label is a little ambiguous. The Vinaccia family of luthiers is known for developing the mandolin. This guitar has been examined and does not show tell-tale signs of modifications from a double-course guitar. The authenticity of guitars allegedly produced before the 1790s is often in question. This also corresponds to when Moretti's 6-string method appeared, in 1792. ===Modern classical guitar=== The modern classical guitar was developed in the 19th century by Antonio de Torres Jurado, Ignacio Fleta, Hermann Hauser Sr., and Robert Bouchet. The Spanish luthier and player Antonio de Torres gave the modern classical guitar its definitive form, with a broadened body, increased waist curve, thinned belly, and improved internal bracing. The modern classical guitar replaced an older form for the accompaniment of song and dance called flamenco, and a modified version, known as the flamenco guitar, was created. === American Classical Guitar Music === American classical guitar music represents a distinctive evolution within the classical guitar tradition in the United States. It blends European classical techniques with elements from American folk, blues, and other local musical styles. Pioneering figures such as Justin Holland and William Foden laid the groundwork, while later innovators like Aaron Shearer, Christopher Parkening, and Jason Vieaux have significantly influenced performance practices, pedagogy, and repertoire in America. For more detailed information on this American evolution, please see the article on American Classical Guitar Music. ===Technique=== The fingerstyle is used fervently on the modern classical guitar. The thumb traditionally plucks the bass – or root note – whereas the fingers ring the melody and its accompanying parts. Often classical guitar technique involves the use of the nails of the right hand to pluck the notes. Noted players were: Francisco Tárrega, Emilio Pujol, Andrés Segovia, Julian Bream, Agustín Barrios, and John Williams (guitarist). ==Performance== The modern classical guitar is usually played in a seated position, with the instrument resting on the left lap – and the left foot placed on a footstool. Alternatively – if a footstool is not used – a guitar support can be placed between the guitar and the left lap (the support usually attaches to the instrument's side with suction cups). (There are of course exceptions, with some performers choosing to hold the instrument another way.) Right-handed players use the fingers of the right hand to pluck the strings, with the thumb plucking from the top of a string downwards (downstroke) and the other fingers plucking from the bottom of the string upwards (upstroke). The little finger in classical technique as it evolved in the 20th century is used only to ride along with the ring finger without striking the strings and to thus physiologically facilitate the ring finger's motion. In contrast, Flamenco technique, and classical compositions evoking Flamenco, employ the little finger semi-independently in the Flamenco four-finger rasgueado, that rapid strumming of the string by the fingers in reverse order employing the back of the fingernail—a familiar characteristic of Flamenco. Flamenco technique, in the performance of the rasgueado also uses the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb: the string is hit not only with the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip but also with the outer, fingernail side. This was also used in a technique of the vihuela called dedillo which has recently begun to be introduced on the classical guitar. Some modern guitarists, such as Štěpán Rak and Kazuhito Yamashita, use the little finger independently, compensating for the little finger's shortness by maintaining an extremely long fingernail. Rak and Yamashita have also generalized the use of the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb (the same technique as in the rasgueado of the Flamenco: as explained above the string is hit not only with the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip but also with the outer, fingernail side) both as a free stroke and as a rest stroke. ===Direct contact with strings=== As with other plucked instruments (such as the lute), the musician directly touches the strings (usually plucking) to produce the sound. This has important consequences: Different tone/timbre (of a single note) can be produced by plucking the string in different manners (apoyando or tirando) and in different positions (such as closer and further away from the guitar bridge). For example, plucking an open string will sound brighter than playing the same note(s) on a fretted position (which would have a warmer tone). The instrument's versatility means it can create a variety of tones, but this finger-picking style also makes the instrument harder to learn than a standard acoustic guitar's strumming technique. ===Fingering notation=== In guitar scores the five fingers of the right-hand (which pluck the strings) are designated by the first letter of their Spanish names namely p = thumb (pulgar), i = index finger (índice), m = middle finger (mayor), a = ring finger (anular), c = little finger or pinky (meñique/chiquito) The four fingers of the left hand (which fret the strings) are designated 1 = index, 2 = major, 3 = ring finger, 4 = little finger. 0 designates an open string—a string not stopped by a finger and whose full length thus vibrates when plucked. It is rare to use the left hand thumb in performance, the neck of a classical guitar being too wide for comfort, and normal technique keeps the thumb behind the neck. However Johann Kaspar Mertz, for example, is notable for specifying the thumb to fret bass notes on the sixth string, notated with an up arrowhead (⌃). Scores (contrary to tablatures) do not systematically indicate the string to pluck (though the choice is usually obvious). When indicating the string is useful, the score uses the numbers 1 to 6 inside circles (highest-pitch sting to lowest). Scores do not systematically indicate fretboard positions (where to put the first finger of the fretting hand), but when helpful (mostly with barrés chords) the score indicates positions with Roman numerals from the first position I (index finger on the 1st fret: F-B flat-E flat-A flat-C-F) to the twelfth position XII (index finger on the 12th fret: E-A-D-G-B-E. The 12th fret is where the body begins) or even higher up to position XIX (the classical guitar most often having 19 frets, with the 19th fret being most often split and not being usable to fret the 3rd and 4th strings). ===Alternation=== To achieve tremolo effects and rapid, fluent scale passages, the player must practice alternation, that is, never plucking a string with the same finger twice in a row. Using p to indicate the thumb, i the index finger, m the middle finger and a the ring finger, common alternation patterns include: i-m-i-m : Basic melody line on the treble strings. Has the appearance of "walking along the strings". This is often used for playing Scale (music) passages. p-i-m-a-i-m-a : Arpeggio pattern example. However, there are many arpeggio patterns incorporated into the classical guitar repertoire. p-a-m-i-p-a-m-i : Classical guitar tremolo pattern. p-m-p-m : A way of playing a melody line on the lower strings. ==Repertoire== Music written specifically for the classical guitar dates from the addition of the sixth string (the baroque guitar normally had five pairs of strings) in the late 18th century. A guitar recital may include a variety of works, e.g., works written originally for the lute or vihuela by composers such as John Dowland (b. England 1563) and Luis de Narváez (b. Spain ), and also music written for the harpsichord by Domenico Scarlatti (b. Italy 1685), for the baroque lute by Sylvius Leopold Weiss (b. Germany 1687), for the baroque guitar by Robert de Visée (b. France ) or even Spanish-flavored music written for the piano by Isaac Albéniz (b. Spain 1860) and Enrique Granados (b. Spain 1867). The most important composer who did not write for the guitar but whose music is often played on it is Johann Sebastian Bach (b. Germany 1685), whose baroque lute, violin, and cello works have proved highly adaptable to the instrument. Of music written originally for guitar, the earliest important composers are from the classical period and include Fernando Sor (b. Spain 1778) and Mauro Giuliani (b. Italy 1781), both of whom wrote in a style strongly influenced by Viennese classicism. In the 19th-century guitar composers such as Johann Kaspar Mertz (b. Slovakia, Austria 1806) were strongly influenced by the dominance of the piano. Not until the end of the nineteenth century did the guitar begin to establish its own unique identity. Francisco Tárrega (b. Spain 1852) was central to this, sometimes incorporating stylized aspects of flamenco's Moorish influences into his romantic miniatures. This was part of late 19th century mainstream European musical nationalism. Albéniz and Granados were central to this movement; their evocation of the guitar was so successful that their compositions have been absorbed into the standard guitar repertoire. The steel-string and electric guitars characteristic to the rise of rock and roll in the post-WWII era became more widely played in North America and the English-speaking world. Agustín Barrios Mangoré of Paraguay composed many works and brought into the mainstream the characteristics of Latin American music, as did the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos. Andrés Segovia commissioned works from Spanish composers such as Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Rodrigo, Italians such as Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco and Latin American composers such as Manuel Ponce of Mexico. Other prominent Latin American composers are Leo Brouwer of Cuba, Antonio Lauro of Venezuela and Enrique Solares of Guatemala. Julian Bream of Britain managed to get nearly every British composer from William Walton and Benjamin Britten to Peter Maxwell Davies to write significant works for guitar. Bream's collaborations with tenor Peter Pears also resulted in song cycles by Britten, Lennox Berkeley and others. There are significant works by composers such as Hans Werner Henze of Germany, Gilbert Biberian of England and Roland Chadwick of Australia. The classical guitar also became widely used in popular music and rock & roll in the 1960s after guitarist Mason Williams popularized the instrument in his instrumental hit Classical Gas. Guitarist Christopher Parkening is quoted in the book Classical Gas: The Music of Mason Williams as saying that it is the most requested guitar piece besides Malagueña and perhaps the best-known instrumental guitar piece today. In the field of New Flamenco, the works and performances of Spanish composer and player Paco de Lucía are known worldwide. Not many classical guitar concertos were written through history. Nevertheless, some guitar concertos are nowadays widely known and popular, especially Joaquín Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez (with the famous theme from 2nd movement) and Fantasía para un gentilhombre. Composers, who also wrote famous guitar concertos are: Antonio Vivaldi (originally for mandolin or lute), Mauro Giuliani, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Manuel Ponce, Leo Brouwer, Lennox Berkeley and Malcolm Arnold. Nowadays, more and more contemporary composers decide to write a guitar concerto, among them Bosco Sacro by Federico Biscione, for guitar and string orchestra, is one of the most inspired. ==Physical characteristics== The classical guitar is distinguished by a number of characteristics: It is an acoustic instrument. The sound of the plucked string is amplified by the soundboard and resonant cavity of the guitar. It has six strings, though some classical guitars have seven or more strings. All six strings are made from nylon, or nylon wrapped with metal, as opposed to the metal strings found on other acoustic guitars. Nylon strings also have a much lower tension than steel strings, as do the predecessors to nylon strings, gut strings (made from ox or sheep gut). The lower three strings ('bass strings') are wound with metal, commonly silver-plated copper. Because of the low string tension The neck can be made entirely of wood without a steel truss rod The interior bracing can be lighter Typical modern six-string classical guitars are 48–54 mm wide at the nut, compared to around 42 mm for electric guitars. Classical fingerboards are normally flat and without inlaid fret markers, or just have dot inlays on the side of the neck—steel string fingerboards usually have a slight radius and inlays. Classical guitarists use their right hand to pluck the strings. Players may shape their fingernails for a brighter tone and feel against the strings. Strumming is a less common technique in classical guitar, and is often referred to by the Spanish term "rasgueo", or for strumming patterns "rasgueado", and uses the backs of the fingernails. Rasgueado is integral to Flamenco guitar. Machine heads at the headstock of a classical guitar point backwards—in contrast to most steel-string guitars, which have machine heads that point outward. The overall design of a Classical Guitar is very similar to the slightly lighter and smaller Flamenco guitar. ===Parts=== Parts of typical classical guitars include: Headstock Nut Machine heads (or pegheads, tuning keys, tuning machines, tuners) Frets Neck Heel Body Bridge Bottom deck Soundboard Body sides Sound hole, with rosette inlay Strings Saddle (Bridge nut) Fretboard ====Fretboard==== The fretboard (also called the fingerboard) is a piece of wood embedded with metal frets that constitutes the top of the neck. It is flat or slightly curved. The curvature of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a hypothetical circle of which the fretboard's surface constitutes a segment. The smaller the fretboard radius, the more noticeably curved the fretboard is. Fretboards are most commonly made of ebony, but may also be made of rosewood, some other hardwood, or of phenolic composite ("micarta"). ====Frets==== Frets are the metal strips (usually nickel alloy or stainless steel) embedded along the fingerboard and placed at points that divide the length of string mathematically. The strings' vibrating length is determined when the strings are pressed down behind the frets. Each fret produces a different pitch and each pitch spaced a half-step apart on the 12 tone scale. The ratio of the widths of two consecutive frets is the twelfth root of two (\sqrt[12]{2}), whose numeric value is about 1.059463. The twelfth fret divides the string into two exact halves and the 24th fret (if present) divides the string in half yet again. Every twelve frets represents one octave. This arrangement of frets results in equal tempered tuning. ====Neck==== A classical guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively constitute its neck. The wood for the fretboard usually differs from the wood in the rest of the neck. The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used. The most common scale length for classical guitar is 650mm (calculated by measuring the distance between the end of the nut and the center of the 12th fret, then doubling that measurement). However, scale lengths may vary from 635-664mm or more. ====Neck joint or 'heel'==== This is the point where the neck meets the body. In the traditional Spanish neck joint, the neck and block are one piece with the sides inserted into slots cut in the block. Other necks are built separately and joined to the body either with a dovetail joint, mortise or flush joint. These joints are usually glued and can be reinforced with mechanical fasteners. Recently many manufacturers use bolt-on fasteners. Bolt-on neck joints were once associated only with less expensive instruments but now some top manufacturers and hand builders are using variations of this method. Some people believed that the Spanish-style one piece neck/block and glued dovetail necks have better sustain, but testing has failed to confirm this. While most traditional Spanish style builders use the one-piece neck/heel block, Fleta, a prominent Spanish builder, used a dovetail joint due to the influence of his early training in violin making. One reason for the introduction of mechanical joints was to make it easier to repair necks. This is more of a problem with steel string guitars than with nylon strings, which have about half the string tension. This is why nylon string guitars often do not include a truss rod either. ====Body==== The body of the instrument is a major determinant of the overall sound variety for acoustic guitars. The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element often made of spruce or red cedar. Considered the most prominent factor in determining the sound quality of a guitar, this thin (often 2 or 3 mm thick) piece of wood has a uniform thickness and is strengthened by different types of internal bracing. The back is made in rosewood and Brazilian rosewood is especially coveted, but mahogany or other decorative woods are sometimes used. The majority of the sound is caused by the vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it. Different patterns of wood bracing have been used through the years by luthiers (Torres, Hauser, Ramírez, Fleta, and C.F. Martin being among the most influential designers of their times); to not only strengthen the top against collapsing under the tremendous stress exerted by the tensioned strings, but also to affect the resonance of the top. Some contemporary guitar makers have introduced new construction concepts such as "double-top" consisting of two extra-thin wooden plates separated by Nomex, or carbon-fiber reinforced lattice – pattern bracing. The back and sides are made out of a variety of woods such as mahogany, maple, cypress Indian rosewood and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra). Each one is chosen for its aesthetic effect and structural strength, and such choice can also play a role in determining the instrument's timbre. These are also strengthened with internal bracing, and decorated with inlays and purfling. Antonio de Torres Jurado proved that it was the top, and not the back and sides of the guitar that gave the instrument its sound, in 1862 he built a guitar with back and sides of papier-mâché. (This guitar resides in the Museu de la Musica in Barcelona, and before the year 2000 it was restored to playable condition by the brothers Yagüe, Barcelona). The body of a classical guitar is a resonating chamber that projects the vibrations of the body through a sound hole, allowing the acoustic guitar to be heard without amplification. The sound hole is normally a single round hole in the top of the guitar (under the strings), though some have different placement, shapes, or numbers of holes. How much air an instrument can move determines its maximum volume. ====Binding, purfling and kerfing==== The top, back and sides of a classical guitar body are very thin, so a flexible piece of wood called kerfing (because it is often scored, or kerfed so it bends with the shape of the rim) is glued into the corners where the rim meets the top and back. This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints. During final construction, a small section of the outside corners is carved or routed out and filled with binding material on the outside corners and decorative strips of material next to the binding, which are called purfling. This binding serves to seal off the endgrain of the top and back. Binding and purfling materials are generally made of either wood or high-quality plastic materials. ====Bridge==== The main purpose of the bridge on a classical guitar is to transfer the vibration from the strings to the soundboard, which vibrates the air inside of the guitar, thereby amplifying the sound produced by the strings. The bridge holds the strings in place on the body. Also, the position of the saddle, usually a strip of bone or plastic that supports the strings off the bridge, determines the distance to the nut (at the top of the fingerboard). ===Sizes=== The modern full-size classical guitar has a scale length of around , with an overall instrument length of . The scale length has remained quite consistent since it was chosen by the originator of the instrument, Antonio de Torres. This length may have been chosen because it's twice the length of a violin string. As the guitar is tuned to one octave below that of the violin, the same size gut could be used for the first strings of both instruments. Smaller-scale instruments are produced to assist children in learning the instrument as the smaller scale leads to the frets being closer together, making it easier for smaller hands. The scale-size for the smaller guitars is usually in the range , with an instrument length of . Full-size instruments are sometimes referred to as 4/4, while the smaller sizes are 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, and even as small as 1/8 for very small children. However, there is not a standardized set of dimensions for fractional guitars, and their size difference is not linear from a full size guitar. ==Tuning== A variety of different tunings are used. The most common by far, which one could call the "standard tuning" is: eI – b – g – d – A – E The above order is the tuning from the 1st string (highest-pitched string e'—spatially the bottom string in playing position) to the 6th string – lowest-pitched string E—spatially the upper string in playing position, and hence comfortable to pluck with the thumb. The explanation for this "asymmetrical" tuning (in the sense that the maj 3rd is not between the two middle strings, as in the tuning of the viola da gamba) is probably that the guitar originated as a 4-string instrument (actually an instrument with 4 double courses of strings, see above) with a maj 3rd between the 2nd and 3rd strings, and it only became a 6-string instrument by gradual addition of a 5th string and then a 6th string tuned a 4th apart: "The development of the modern tuning can be traced in stages. One of the tunings from the 16th century is C-F-A-D. This is equivalent to the top four strings of the modern guitar tuned a tone lower. However, the absolute pitch for these notes is not equivalent to modern "concert pitch". The tuning of the four-course guitar was moved up by a tone and toward the end of the 16th century, five-course instruments were in use with an added lower string tuned to A. This produced A-D-G-B-E, one of a wide number of variant tunings of the period. The low E string was added during the 18th century." This tuning is such that neighboring strings are at most 5 semitones apart. There are also a variety of commonly used alternate tunings. The most common is known as Drop D tuning which has the 6th string tuned down from an E to a D.	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Martin & Company", "Peter Pears", "tirando", "Siegfried Behrend", "Roland Chadwick", "Maurice Ohana", "headstock", "fluoropolymer", "Gaetano Vinaccia", "Frequency", "Alonso Mudarra", "Category:Classical guitarists", "Guillaume de Morlaye", "romantic guitar", "Franz Schubert", "song cycles", "Flamenco", "Lennox Berkeley", "guitar", "List of classical guitarists", "Musical repertoire", "A440 (pitch standard)", "Course (music)", "Alonso de Mudarra", "Enrique Solares", "guitar tuning", "apoyando", "Tension (mechanics)", "List of composers for the classical guitar (nationality)", "Alexandre Tansman", "Baroque guitar", "Giulio Regondi", "Julian Bream", "tanbur", "Antonio Lauro", "middle C", "Napoléon Coste", "Brian Ferneyhough", "Ernst Krenek", "Gaspar Sanz", "Six-string alto guitar", "foot rest", "luthier", "Classical guitar strings", "arrangement", "Antonio Vivaldi", "Guitar Foundation of America", "International classical guitar competitions", "Renaissance", "purfling", "Early classical guitar recordings", "Lute", "José Ramírez (luthier)", "nylon", "Antonio Torres Jurado", "String instrument", "Guitarra morisca", "Manuel Ponce", "Malcolm Arnold", "Vihuela", "Fret", "Rolf Riehm", "Steel-string acoustic guitar", "Bass guitar", "René François Lacôte", "Johann Kaspar Mertz", "Guitarra latina", "Peter Maxwell Davies", "Gilbert Biberian", "Concierto de Aranjuez", "Sound board (music)", "John Schneider (guitarist)", "Italy", "rosewood", "Luciano Berio", "Extended-range classical guitar", "Headstock", "Hector Berlioz", "fingerboard", "Luiz Bonfá", "Mats Scheidegger", "Sylvius Leopold Weiss", "Sound hole", "twelfth root of two", "Plucked string instrument", "Luigi Legnani", "New Flamenco", "Reinbert Evers", "Leo Brouwer", "setar", "Isaac Albéniz", "fretboard", "Enrique Granados", "Benjamin Britten", "ebony", "endgrain", "Chordophone", "Agustín Barrios", "Antonio de Torres Jurado", "Herrmann Hauser", "Nicholas Alexandre Voboam II", "rasgueado", "Scientific pitch notation", "dedillo", "Contraguitar", "Elliott Carter", "Romantic music", "classical music", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "William Walton", "Scale (music)", "American Classical Guitar Music", "Filippo Gragnani", "Joaquín Turina", "Scale (string instruments)", "Electric guitar", "Wenzel Thomas Matiegka", "Francisco Tárrega", "Santiago de Murcia", "Franco Donatoni", "pizzicato", "Fretboard", "Baroque", "Dreadnought (guitar type)", "Andrés Segovia", "Guitar", "steel-string acoustic guitar", "John Dowland", "Brahms guitar", "John Williams (guitarist)", "mahogany", "Gittern", "Thuja plicata", "Domenico Scarlatti", "Agustín Barrios Mangoré", "flamenco", "Paco de Lucía", "Federico Moreno Torroba", "equal temperament", "Greg Smallman", "Deutsches Museum", "Niccolò Paganini", "minor second", "Luis de Narváez", "Joaquín Rodrigo" ]
5,813	C. S. Lewis	Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer, literary scholar, and Anglican lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Magdalen College, Oxford (1925–1954), and Magdalene College, Cambridge (1954–1963). He is best known as the author of The Chronicles of Narnia, but he is also noted for his other works of fiction, such as The Screwtape Letters and The Space Trilogy, and for his non-fiction Christian apologetics, including Mere Christianity, Miracles, and The Problem of Pain. Lewis was a close friend of J. R. R. Tolkien, author of The Lord of the Rings. Both men served on the English faculty at Oxford University and were active in the informal Oxford literary group known as the Inklings. According to Lewis's 1955 memoir Surprised by Joy, he was baptized in the Church of Ireland but fell away from his faith during adolescence. Lewis returned to Anglicanism at the age of 32, owing to the influence of Tolkien and other friends, and he became an "ordinary layman of the Church of England". Lewis's faith profoundly affected his work, and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim. Lewis wrote more than 30 books which have been translated into more than 30 languages and have sold millions of copies. The books that make up The Chronicles of Narnia have sold the most and have been popularized on stage, TV, radio, and cinema. His philosophical writings are widely cited by Christian scholars from many denominations. In 1956, Lewis married American writer Joy Davidman; she died of cancer four years later at the age of 45. Lewis died on 22 November 1963 from kidney failure, at age 64. In 2013, on the 50th anniversary of his death, Lewis was honoured with a memorial in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey. ==Life== ===Childhood=== Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast in Ulster, Ireland (before partition), on 29 November 1898. His father was Albert James Lewis (1863–1929), a solicitor whose father Richard Lewis had come to Ireland from Wales during the mid-19th century. Lewis's mother was Florence Augusta Lewis Hamilton (1862–1908), known as Flora, the daughter of Thomas Hamilton, a Church of Ireland priest, and the great-granddaughter of both Bishop Hugh Hamilton and John Staples. She was the first female mathematics graduate to study at Queen’s College Belfast. Lewis had an elder brother, Warren Hamilton Lewis (known as "Warnie"). He was baptized on 29 January 1899 by his maternal grandfather in St Mark's Church, Dundela. When his dog Jacksie was fatally struck by a horse-drawn carriage, the four-year-old Lewis adopted the name Jacksie. At first, he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life. When he was seven, his family moved into "Little Lea", the family home of his childhood, in the Strandtown area of East Belfast. As a boy, Lewis was fascinated with anthropomorphic animals; he fell in love with Beatrix Potter's stories and often wrote and illustrated his own animal tales. Along with his brother Warnie, he created the world of Boxen, a fantasy land inhabited and run by animals. Lewis loved to read from an early age. His father's house was filled with books; he later wrote that finding something to read was as easy as walking into a field and "finding a new blade of grass". Lewis was schooled by private tutors until age nine, when his mother died in 1908 from cancer. His father then sent him to England to live and study at Wynyard School in Watford, Hertfordshire. Lewis's brother had enrolled there three years previously. Not long after, the school was closed due to a lack of pupils. Lewis then attended Campbell College in the east of Belfast about a mile from his home, but left after a few months due to respiratory problems. He was then sent back to England to the health-resort town of Malvern, Worcestershire, where he attended the preparatory school Cherbourg House, which Lewis referred to as "Chartres" in his autobiography. It was during this time that he abandoned the Christianity he was taught as a child and became an atheist. During this time he also developed a fascination with European mythology and the occult. In September 1913, Lewis enrolled at Malvern College, where he remained until the following June. He found the school socially competitive, and some of the fellow pupils of his house, such as Donald Hardman, had mixed feelings about him. Hardman later recalled: He was a bit of a rebel; he had a wonderful sense of humour and was a past master of mimicry. I think he took his work seriously, but nothing else; never took any interest in games and never played any so for as I can remember unless he had to. ... I met him in Oxford after the war and noticed he had changed, but was staggered to find him the author of The Screwtape Letters. When I knew him I can only describe him as a riotously amusing atheist. He really was pretty foul mouthed about it. After leaving Malvern, he studied privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor and former headmaster of Lurgan College. As a teenager, Lewis was wonderstruck by the songs and legends of what he called Northernness, the ancient literature of Scandinavia preserved in the Icelandic sagas. These legends intensified an inner longing that he would later call "joy". He also grew to love nature; its beauty reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature. His teenage writings moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began experimenting with different art forms such as epic poetry and opera to try to capture his new-found interest in Norse mythology and the natural world. Studying with Kirkpatrick ("The Great Knock", as Lewis afterward called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology and sharpened his debate and reasoning skills. In 1916, Lewis was awarded a scholarship at University College, Oxford. ==="My Irish life"=== Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock on first arriving in England: "No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England," Lewis wrote in Surprised by Joy. "The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons. But what was worst was the English landscape ... I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal." From boyhood, Lewis had immersed himself in Norse and Greek mythology, and later in Irish mythology and literature. He also expressed an interest in the Irish language, though there is not much evidence that he laboured to learn it. He developed a particular fondness for W. B. Yeats, in part because of Yeats's use of Ireland's Celtic heritage in poetry. In a letter to a friend, Lewis wrote, "I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats. He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology." In 1921, Lewis met Yeats twice, since Yeats had moved to Oxford. Lewis was surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the Celtic Revival movement, and wrote: "I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish – if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish." Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major Dublin publishers, writing: "If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school." After his conversion to Christianity, his interests gravitated towards Christian theology and away from pagan Celtic mysticism (as opposed to Celtic Christian mysticism). Lewis occasionally expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism towards the English. Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman, he wrote: "Like all Irish people who meet in England, we ended by criticisms on the invincible flippancy and dullness of the Anglo-Saxon race. After all, there is no doubt, ami, that the Irish are the only people: with all their faults, I would not gladly live or die among another folk." Throughout his life, he sought out the company of other Irish people living in England and visited Northern Ireland regularly. In 1958 he spent his honeymoon there at the Old Inn, Crawfordsburn, which he called "my Irish life". Various critics have suggested that it was Lewis's dismay over the sectarian conflict in his native Belfast which led him to eventually adopt such an ecumenical brand of Christianity. As one critic has said, Lewis "repeatedly extolled the virtues of all branches of the Christian faith, emphasising a need for unity among Christians around what the Catholic writer called 'Mere Christianity', the core doctrinal beliefs that all denominations share". Paul Stevens of the University of Toronto wrote an opinion that "Lewis' mere Christianity masked many of the political prejudices of an old-fashioned Ulster Protestant, a native of middle-class Belfast for whom British withdrawal from Northern Ireland even in the 1950s and 1960s was unthinkable." ===First World War and Oxford University=== Lewis entered Oxford in the 1917 summer term, studying at University College, and shortly after, he joined the Officers' Training Corps at the university as his "most promising route into the army". From there, he was drafted into a Cadet Battalion for training. He was depressed and homesick during his convalescence and, upon his recovery in October, he was assigned to duty in Andover, England. He was demobilized in December 1918 and soon restarted his studies. In a later letter, Lewis stated that his experience of the horrors of war, along with the loss of his mother and unhappiness in school, were the basis of his pessimism and atheism. After Lewis returned to Oxford University, he received a First in Honour Moderations (Greek and Latin literature) in 1920, a First in Greats (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in English in 1923. In 1924 he became a Philosophy tutor at University College and, in 1925, was elected a Fellow and Tutor in English Literature at Magdalen College, where he served for 29 years until 1954. ===Janie Moore=== During his army training, Lewis shared a room with another cadet, Edward Courtnay Francis "Paddy" Moore (1898–1918). Maureen Moore, Paddy's sister, said that the two made a mutual pact that if either died during the war, the survivor would take care of both of their families. Paddy was killed in action in 1918 and Lewis kept his promise. Paddy had earlier introduced Lewis to his mother, Janie King Moore, and a friendship quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was 18 when they met, and Janie, who was 45. The friendship with Moore was particularly important to Lewis while he was recovering from his wounds in hospital, as his father did not visit him. Lewis lived with and cared for Moore until she was hospitalized in the late 1940s. He routinely introduced her as his mother, referred to her as such in letters, and developed a deeply affectionate friendship with her. Lewis's own mother had died when he was a child, while his father was distant, demanding, and eccentric. Speculation regarding their relationship resurfaced with the 1990 publication of A. N. Wilson's biography of Lewis. Wilson (who never met Lewis) attempted to make a case for their having been lovers for a time. Wilson's biography was not the first to address the question of Lewis's relationship with Moore. George Sayer knew Lewis for 29 years, and he had sought to shed light on the relationship during the period of 14 years before Lewis's conversion to Christianity. In his biography Jack: A Life of C. S. Lewis, he wrote: Later Sayer changed his mind. In the introduction to the 1997 edition of his biography of Lewis he wrote: However, the romantic nature of the relationship is doubted by other writers; for example, Philip Zaleski and Carol Zaleski write in The Fellowship that Lewis spoke well of Mrs. Moore throughout his life, saying to his friend George Sayer, "She was generous and taught me to be generous, too." In December 1917, Lewis wrote in a letter to his childhood friend Arthur Greeves that Janie and Greeves were "the two people who matter most to me in the world". In 1930, Lewis moved into The Kilns with his brother Warnie, Mrs. Moore, and her daughter Maureen. The Kilns was a house in the district of Headington Quarry on the outskirts of Oxford, now part of the suburb of Risinghurst. They all contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which eventually passed to Maureen, who by then was Dame Maureen Dunbar, when Warren died in 1973. Moore had dementia in her later years and was eventually moved into a nursing home, where she died in 1951. Lewis visited her every day in this home until her death. ===Return to Christianity=== Lewis was raised in a religious family that attended the Church of Ireland. He became an atheist at age 15, though he later described his young self as being paradoxically "very angry with God for not existing" and "equally angry with him for creating a world". His early separation from Christianity began when he started to view his religion as a chore and a duty; around this time, he also gained an interest in the occult, as his studies expanded to include such topics. Lewis quoted Lucretius (De rerum natura, 5.198–9) as having one of the strongest arguments for atheism: which he translated poetically as follows: Had God designed the world, it would not be A world so frail and faulty as we see. (This is a highly poetic, rather than a literal translation. A more literal translation, by William Ellery Leonard, reads: "That in no wise the nature of all things / For us was fashioned by a power divine – / So great the faults it stands encumbered with.") Lewis's interest in the works of the Scottish writer George MacDonald was part of what turned him from atheism. This can be seen particularly well through this passage in Lewis's The Great Divorce, chapter nine, when the semi-autobiographical main character meets MacDonald in Heaven: He eventually returned to Christianity, having been influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and friend J. R. R. Tolkien, whom he seems to have met for the first time on 11 May 1926, as well as the book The Everlasting Man by G. K. Chesterton. Lewis vigorously resisted conversion, noting that he was brought into Christianity like a prodigal, "kicking, struggling, resentful, and darting his eyes in every direction for a chance to escape". He described his last struggle in Surprised by Joy: After his conversion to theism in 1929, Lewis converted to Christianity in 1931, following a long discussion during a late-night walk along Addison's Walk with close friends Tolkien and Hugo Dyson. He records making a specific commitment to Christian belief while on his way to the zoo with his brother. He became a member of the Church of England – somewhat to the disappointment of Tolkien, who had hoped that he would join the Catholic Church. Lewis was a committed Anglican who upheld a largely orthodox Anglican theology, though in his apologetic writings, he made an effort to avoid espousing any one denomination. In his later writings, some believe that he proposed ideas such as purification of venial sins after death in purgatory (The Great Divorce and Letters to Malcolm) and mortal sin (The Screwtape Letters), which are generally considered to be Roman Catholic teachings, although they are also widely held in Anglicanism (particularly in high church Anglo-Catholic circles). Regardless, Lewis considered himself an entirely orthodox Anglican to the end of his life, reflecting that he had initially attended church only to receive communion and had been repelled by the hymns and the poor quality of the sermons. He later came to consider himself honoured by worshipping with men of faith who came in shabby clothes and work boots and who sang all the verses to all the hymns. ===Second World War=== After the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the Lewises took child evacuees from London and other cities into The Kilns. Lewis was only 40 when the war began, and he tried to re-enter military service, offering to instruct cadets; however, his offer was not accepted. He rejected the recruiting office's suggestion of writing columns for the Ministry of Information in the press, as he did not want to "write lies" to deceive the enemy. He later served in the local Home Guard in Oxford. These broadcasts were appreciated by civilians and servicemen at that stage. For example, Air Chief Marshal Sir Donald Hardman wrote: "The war, the whole of life, everything tended to seem pointless. We needed, many of us, a key to the meaning of the universe. Lewis provided just that." The youthful Alistair Cooke was less impressed, and in 1944 described "the alarming vogue of Mr. C.S. Lewis" as an example of how wartime tends to "spawn so many quack religions and Messiahs". The broadcasts were anthologized in Mere Christianity. From 1941, Lewis was occupied at his summer holiday weekends visiting R.A.F. stations to speak on his faith, invited by Chaplain-in-Chief Maurice Edwards. It was also during the same wartime period that Lewis was invited to become first President of the Oxford Socratic Club in January 1942, a position that he enthusiastically held until he resigned on appointment to Cambridge University in 1954. ===Honour declined=== Lewis was named on the last list of honours by George VI in December 1951 as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) but declined so as to avoid association with any political issues. ===Chair at Cambridge University=== In 1954, Lewis accepted the newly founded chair in Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he finished his career. He maintained a strong attachment to the city of Oxford, keeping a home there and returning on weekends until his death in 1963. ===Joy Davidman=== In later life, Lewis corresponded with Joy Davidman Gresham, an American writer of Jewish background, a former Communist, and a convert from atheism to Christianity. She was separated from her alcoholic and abusive husband, novelist William L. Gresham, and came to England with her two sons, David and Douglas. Lewis at first regarded her as an agreeable intellectual companion and personal friend, and it was on this level that he agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her so that she could continue to live in the UK. They were married at the register office, 42 St Giles', Oxford, on 23 April 1956. Lewis's brother Warren wrote: "For Jack the attraction was at first undoubtedly intellectual. Joy was the only woman whom he had met ... who had a brain which matched his own in suppleness, in width of interest, and in analytical grasp, and above all in humour and a sense of fun." After complaining of a painful hip, she was diagnosed with terminal bone cancer, and the relationship developed to the point that they sought a Christian marriage. Since she was divorced, this was not straightforward in the Church of England at the time, but a friend, the Rev. Peter Bide, performed the ceremony at her bed in the Churchill Hospital on 21 March 1957. Gresham's cancer soon went into remission, and the couple lived together as a family with Warren Lewis until 1960, when her cancer recurred. She died on 13 July 1960. Earlier that year, the couple took a brief holiday in Greece and the Aegean; Lewis was fond of walking but not of travel, and this marked his only crossing of the English Channel after 1918. Lewis's book A Grief Observed describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that he originally released it under the pseudonym N. W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him. Ironically, many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief. After Lewis's death, his authorship was made public by Faber, with the permission of the executors. Lewis had adopted Gresham's two sons and continued to raise them after her death. Douglas Gresham is a Christian like Lewis and his mother, while David Gresham turned to his mother's ancestral faith, becoming Orthodox Jewish in his beliefs. His mother's writings had featured the Jews in an unsympathetic manner, particularly on shechita (ritual slaughter). David informed Lewis that he was going to become a shohet, a ritual slaughterer, to present this type of Jewish religious functionary to the world in a more favourable light. In a 2005 interview, Douglas Gresham acknowledged that he and his brother were not close, although they had corresponded via email. David died on 25 December 2014. In 2020, Douglas revealed that his brother had died at a Swiss mental hospital, and that when David was a young man he had been diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. ===Illness and death=== In early June 1961, Lewis became infected with recurrent nephritis which progressed to chronic low-grade sepsis. His illness caused him to miss the autumn term at Cambridge, though his health gradually began improving in 1962 and he returned that April. His health continued to improve and, according to his friend George Sayer, Lewis was fully himself by early 1963. On 15 July that year, Lewis fell ill and was admitted to the hospital; he had a heart attack at 5:00 pm the next day and lapsed into a coma, but unexpectedly woke the following day at 2:00 pm. After he was discharged from the hospital, Lewis returned to the Kilns, though he was too ill to return to work. As a result, he resigned from his post at Cambridge in August 1963. Lewis's condition continued to decline, and he was diagnosed with end-stage kidney failure in mid-November. He collapsed in his bedroom at 5:30 pm on 22 November, at age 64, and died a few minutes later. He is buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church, Headington, Oxford. His brother Warren died on 9 April 1973 and was buried in the same grave. Media coverage of Lewis's death was largely overshadowed by news of the assassination of John F. Kennedy, which occurred on the same day (approximately 55 minutes following Lewis's collapse), as did the death of English writer Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World. This coincidence was the inspiration for Peter Kreeft's book Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley. Lewis is commemorated on 22 November in the church calendar of the Episcopal Church. ==Career== ===Scholar=== Lewis began his academic career as an undergraduate student at Oxford University, where he won a triple first, the highest honours in three areas of study. He was then elected a Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, where he worked for nearly thirty years, from 1925 to 1954. In 1954, he was awarded the newly founded chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Cambridge University, and was elected a fellow of Magdalene College. Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory. His The Allegory of Love (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives such as the Roman de la Rose. Lewis was commissioned to write the volume English Literature in the Sixteenth Century (Excluding Drama) for the Oxford History of English Literature. His book A Preface to Paradise Lost is still cited as a criticism of that work. His last academic work, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, a reference to the "discarded image" of the cosmos. Lewis was a prolific writer, and his circle of literary friends became an informal discussion society known as the "Inklings", including J. R. R. Tolkien, Nevill Coghill, Lord David Cecil, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and his brother Warren Lewis. Glyer points to December 1929 as the Inklings' beginning date. Lewis's friendship with Coghill and Tolkien grew during their time as members of the Kolbítar, an Old Norse reading group that Tolkien founded and which ended around the time of the inception of the Inklings. At Oxford, he was the tutor of poet John Betjeman, critic Kenneth Tynan, mystic Bede Griffiths, novelist Roger Lancelyn Green and Sufi scholar Martin Lings, among many other undergraduates. The religious and conservative Betjeman detested Lewis, whereas the anti-establishment Tynan retained a lifelong admiration for him. Of Tolkien, Lewis writes in Surprised by Joy: ===Novelist=== In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote several popular novels, including the science fiction Space Trilogy for adults and the Narnia fantasies for children. Most deal implicitly with Christian themes such as sin, humanity's fall from grace, and redemption. His first novel after becoming a Christian was The Pilgrim's Regress (1933), which depicted his journey to Christianity in the allegorical style of John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. The book was poorly received by critics at the time, The second novel, Perelandra, depicts a new Garden of Eden on the planet Venus, a new Adam and Eve, and a new "serpent figure" to tempt Eve. The story can be seen as an account of what might have happened if the terrestrial Adam had defeated the serpent and avoided the Fall of Man, with Ransom intervening in the novel to "ransom" the new Adam and Eve from the deceptions of the enemy. The third novel, That Hideous Strength, develops the theme of nihilistic science threatening traditional human values, embodied in Arthurian legend. Many ideas in the trilogy, particularly opposition to dehumanization as portrayed in the third book, are presented more formally in The Abolition of Man, based on a series of lectures by Lewis at Durham University in 1943. Lewis stayed in Durham, where he says he was overwhelmed by the magnificence of the cathedral. That Hideous Strength is in fact set in the environs of "Edgestow" university, a small English university like Durham, though Lewis disclaims any other resemblance between the two. Walter Hooper, Lewis's literary executor, discovered a fragment of another science-fiction novel apparently written by Lewis called The Dark Tower. Ransom appears in the story but it is not clear whether the book was intended as part of the same series of novels. The manuscript was eventually published in 1977, though Lewis scholar Kathryn Lindskoog doubts its authenticity. The Chronicles of Narnia, considered a classic of children's literature, is a series of seven fantasy novels. Written between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by Pauline Baynes, the series is Lewis's most popular work, having sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages . It has been adapted several times, complete or in part, for radio, television, stage and cinema. In 1956, the final novel in the series, The Last Battle, won the Carnegie Medal. The books contain Christian ideas intended to be easily accessible to young readers. In addition to Christian themes, Lewis also borrows characters from Greek and Roman mythology, as well as traditional British and Irish fairy tales. Lewis's last novel, Till We Have Faces, a retelling of the myth of Cupid and Psyche, was published in 1956. Although Lewis called it "far and away my best book", it was not as well-reviewed as his previous work. Lewis's last novel was Till We Have Faces, which he thought of as his most mature and masterly work of fiction but which was never a popular success. It is a retelling of the myth of Cupid and Psyche from the unusual perspective of Psyche's sister. It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit. Before Lewis's conversion to Christianity, he published two books: Spirits in Bondage, a collection of poems, and Dymer, a single narrative poem. Both were published under the pen name Clive Hamilton. Other narrative poems have since been published posthumously, including Launcelot, The Nameless Isle, and The Queen of Drum. He also wrote The Four Loves, which rhetorically explains four categories of love: friendship, eros, affection, and charity. In 2009, a partial draft was discovered of Language and Human Nature, which Lewis had begun co-writing with J. R. R. Tolkien, but which was never completed. In 2024 an original poem was discovered in a collection of documents in Special Collections at the University of Leeds. Its Old English title, "Mód Þrýþe Ne Wæg", is not easily translated into modern English and references the epic poem Beowulf. The poem was addressed to professor of English Eric Valentine Gordon and his wife Dr Ida Gordon. He has been called "The Apostle to the Skeptics" due to his approach to religious belief as a sceptic, and his following conversion. Lewis was very interested in presenting an argument from reason against metaphysical naturalism and for the existence of God. Mere Christianity, The Problem of Pain, and Miracles were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity, such as the question, "How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?" He also became a popular lecturer and broadcaster, and some of his writing originated as scripts for radio talks or lectures (including much of Mere Christianity). According to George Sayer, losing a 1948 debate with Elizabeth Anscombe, also a Christian, led Lewis to re-evaluate his role as an apologist, and his future works concentrated on devotional literature and children's books. Anscombe had a completely different recollection of the debate's outcome and its emotional effect on Lewis. Noteworthy too is Roger Teichman's suggestion in The Philosophy of Elizabeth Anscombe that the intellectual impact of Anscombe's paper on Lewis's philosophical self-confidence should not be over-rated: "... it seems unlikely that he felt as irretrievably crushed as some of his acquaintances have made out; the episode is probably an inflated legend, in the same category as the affair of Wittgenstein's Poker. Certainly, Anscombe herself believed that Lewis's argument, though flawed, was getting at something very important; she thought that this came out more in the improved version of it that Lewis presented in a subsequent edition of Miracles – though that version also had 'much to criticize in it'." Lewis wrote an autobiography titled Surprised by Joy, which places special emphasis on his own conversion. His most famous works, the Chronicles of Narnia, contain many strong Christian messages and are often considered allegory. Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory, maintained that the books were not allegory, and preferred to call the Christian aspects of them "suppositional". As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs. Hook in December 1958: Prior to his conversion, Lewis used the word "Moslem" to refer to Muslims, adherents of Islam; following his conversion, however, he started using "Mohammedans" and described Islam as a Christian heresy rather than an independent religion. ===="Trilemma"==== In a much-cited passage from Mere Christianity, Lewis challenged the view that Jesus was a great moral teacher but not God. He argued that Jesus made several implicit claims to divinity, which would logically exclude that claim: Although this argument is sometimes called "Lewis's trilemma", Lewis did not invent it but rather developed and popularized it. It has also been used by Christian apologist Josh McDowell in his book More Than a Carpenter. It has been widely repeated in Christian apologetic literature but largely ignored by professional theologians and biblical scholars. Lewis's Christian apologetics, and this argument in particular, have been criticized. Philosopher John Beversluis described Lewis's arguments as "textually careless and theologically unreliable", and this particular argument as logically unsound and an example of a false dilemma. The Anglican New Testament scholar N. T. Wright criticizes Lewis for failing to recognize the significance of Jesus's Jewish identity and setting – an oversight which "at best, drastically short-circuits the argument" and which lays Lewis open to criticism that his argument "doesn't work as history, and it backfires dangerously when historical critics question his reading of the gospels", although he argues that this "doesn't undermine the eventual claim". Lewis used a similar argument in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, when the old Professor advises his young guests that their sister's claims of a magical world must logically be taken as either lies, madness, or truth. and "On the Pains of Animals". ==Political views== Lewis eschewed political involvement and partisan politics, took little interest in transitory political issues, and held many politicians in disdain. He refused a knighthood for fear that his detractors might then use it to accuse him of holding a political viewpoint, and he saw his role as a Christian apologist. His worldview was Christian, but he also did not believe in establishment of Christian parties. He avoided the political sphere, although he was not ignorant of it. He did not see himself as a political philosopher, but his work, The Abolition of Man (1943) defends objective value and the concept of natural law. Lewis referred to this work as almost his own favourite, although he felt it had been largely ignored. The Abolition of Man was not presented as something new. Instead, he paid attention to ideas, with the intent of recovering them. In The Abolition of Man, "Lewis offered the postmodern world a vision of reality that could make sense of our lived moral experiences, and he put forth a powerful defense of natural law as a necessary basis for "the very idea of a rule which is not tyranny or an obedience which is not slavery". ==Legacy== Lewis continues to attract a wide readership. In 2008, The Times ranked him eleventh on their list of "the 50 greatest British writers since 1945". Readers of his fiction are often unaware of what Lewis considered the Christian themes of his works. His Christian apologetics are read and quoted by members of many Christian denominations. In 2013, on the 50th anniversary of his death, Lewis joined some of Britain's greatest writers recognized at Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey. The dedication service, at noon on 22 November 2013, included a reading from The Last Battle by Douglas Gresham, younger stepson of Lewis. Flowers were laid by Walter Hooper, trustee and literary advisor to the Lewis Estate. An address was delivered by former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams. The floor stone inscription is a quotation from an address by Lewis: {{blockquote\|I believe in Christianity as I believe that the Sun has risen, not only because I see it but because by it I see everything else. In 1985, the screenplay Shadowlands by William Nicholson dramatized Lewis's life and relationship with Joy Davidman Gresham. It was aired on British television starring Joss Ackland and Claire Bloom. This was also staged as a theatre play starring Nigel Hawthorne in 1989 and made into the 1993 feature film Shadowlands starring Anthony Hopkins and Debra Winger. Many books have been inspired by Lewis, including A Severe Mercy by his correspondent and friend Sheldon Vanauken. The Chronicles of Narnia has been particularly influential. Modern children's literature has been more or less influenced by Lewis's series, such as Daniel Handler's A Series of Unfortunate Events, Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl, Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, and J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter. Pullman is an atheist and is known to be sharply critical of C. S. Lewis's work, accusing Lewis of featuring religious propaganda, misogyny, racism, and emotional sadism in his books. However, he has also modestly praised The Chronicles of Narnia for being a "more serious" work of literature in comparison with Tolkien's "trivial" The Lord of the Rings. Authors of adult fantasy literature such as Tim Powers have also testified to being influenced by Lewis's work. Most of Lewis's posthumous work has been edited by his literary executor Walter Hooper. Kathryn Lindskoog, an independent Lewis scholar, argued that Hooper's scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis. Lewis's stepson, Douglas Gresham, denies the forgery claims, saying that "[t]he whole controversy thing was engineered for very personal reasons ... Her fanciful theories have been pretty thoroughly discredited." A bronze statue of Lewis's character Digory from The Magician's Nephew stands in Belfast's Holywood Arches in front of the Holywood Road Library. Several C. S. Lewis Societies exist around the world, including one which was founded in Oxford in 1982. The C.S. Lewis Society at the University of Oxford meets at Pusey House during term time to discuss papers on the life and works of Lewis and the other Inklings, and generally appreciate all things Lewisian. Live-action film adaptations have been made of three of The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (2005), Prince Caspian (2008) and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (2010). Lewis is featured as a main character in The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica series by James A. Owen. He is one of two characters in Mark St. Germain's 2009 play Freud's Last Session, which imagines a meeting between Lewis, aged 40, and Sigmund Freud, aged 83, at Freud's house in Hampstead, London, in 1939, as the Second World War is about to break out. In 2023, Freud's Last Session was released as a movie starring Anthony Hopkins as Freud and Matthew Goode as Lewis. The movie had additional characters as well, including Anna Freud, played by Liv Lisa Fries. In 2021, The Most Reluctant Convert, a biographical drama about Lewis's life and conversion, was released. The CS Lewis Nature Reserve, on ground owned by Lewis, lies behind his house, The Kilns. There is public access.	[ "Leatherhead railway station", "University College, Oxford", "Liv Lisa Fries", "Lucretius", "Charles Williams (British writer)", "argument from reason", "First World War", "A Series of Unfortunate Events", "Beatrix Potter", "Beatrice Portinari", "Aegean Sea", "Shell (projectile)", "A. N. Wilson", "Daniel Handler", "Kenneth Tynan", "Magdalene College, Cambridge", "The Great Divorce", "Deadline Hollywood", "Martin Lings", "Hell", "Second Lieutenant", "allegory", "G. E. M. Anscombe", "Celtic Revival", "Catholic Church in the United Kingdom", "Watford", "Sarasota Herald-Tribune", "Headington Quarry", "Belfast", "Helen Gardner (critic)", "theism", "Alastair Fowler", "The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica", "Michael Ward (scholar)", "Ulster Protestants", "Honour Moderations", "nephritis", "Durham Cathedral", "British Army", "metaphysical naturalism", "paganism", "Bede Griffiths", "Ecumenism", "Nevill Coghill", "The Space Trilogy", "Christopher Derrick", "Officers' Training Corps", "anti-establishment", "The Discarded Image", "Holy Trinity Church, Headington Quarry", "anthropomorphic", "occult", "St Mark's Church, Dundela", "The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe", "Shadowlands (1993 film)", "Middle-earth", "St Giles', Oxford", "God in the Dock", "Perelandra", "tongue-in-cheek", "Courtly love", "Marion E. Wade Center", "Risinghurst", "Joel D. Heck", "existence of God", "LaSalle, Illinois", "Queen’s College Belfast", "quisling", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "Celtic mythology", "Anna Freud", "Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II", "Elwin Ransom", "Colin Duriez", "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", "Adam and Eve", "Fellow", "Church of England", "Purgatory", "Tyndale House", "The Pilgrim's Regress", "Harry Potter", "Strandtown", "The Dark Tower (1977 novel)", "Giovanni Calabria", "Clyde S. Kilby", "Somerset Light Infantry", "Sheldon Vanauken", "San Francisco Chronicle", "Donald Hardman", "Episcopal Church (United States)", "Remission (medicine)", "Anglo-Saxons", "Wittgenstein's Poker", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader", "Maurice Edwards", "Dymer (poem)", "Harcourt Brace Jovanovich", "high church", "George MacDonald", "Harry Lee Poe", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "Regional accents of English speakers", "supposition", "commissioned officer", "The Chronicles of Narnia", "Laura Miller (writer)", "trench warfare", "The Problem of Pain", "That Hideous Strength", "William Lindsay Gresham", "Chartres", "false dilemma", "dementia", "Miracles (book)", "Hugo Dyson", "Poets' Corner", "philology", "Johan Huizinga", "Fall of Man", "Preparatory school (United Kingdom)", "University of Toronto", "Eoin Colfer", "The Most Reluctant Convert", "Culture shock", "Irish language", "Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)", "The Pilgrim's Progress", "The Allegory of Love", "Joy Davidman", "Oxford University", "Anglican doctrine", "Aldous Huxley", "The Guardian", "Friendly fire", "civil marriage", "Wheaton College (Illinois)", "Pauline Baynes", "Parable of the Prodigal Son", "Socratic Club", "Cupid and Psyche", "Philip Pullman", "The Lord of the Rings", "Anglican Theological Review", "Boxen (C. S. Lewis)", "Communist Party USA", "Touchstone (magazine)", "A Severe Mercy", "chauvinism", "George Roberts (publisher)", "Malvern College", "Digory Kirke", "Prometheus Books", "Beowulf", "University of Cambridge", "The Encyclopedia of Fantasy", "Norse mythology", "Open Court Publishing Company", "myth", "G. K. Chesterton", "David Mills (editor)", "Michael White (author)", "Matthew Goode", "sepsis", "Lurgan College", "Battle of Cambrai (1917)", "Battle of the Lys (1918)", "Roman mythology", "A Grief Observed", "Greek mythology", "The Everlasting Man", "Tim Powers", "Language and Human Nature", "English Channel", "Artemis Fowl (series)", "His Dark Materials", "Phantastes", "The Times", "Spirits in Bondage", "purgatory", "Queen's University of Belfast", "Protagonist", "Pusey House, Oxford", "CS Lewis Nature Reserve", "Papist", "Peter Kreeft", "Garden of Eden", "Kathryn Lindskoog", "Brave New World", "storge", "BBC", "Anthony Hopkins", "Irish mythology", "The Screwtape Letters", "Christian Focus Publications", "The Kilns", "Alistair Cooke", "Eros (concept)", "Crawfordsburn", "Oxford University Press", "lay theologian", "Literae Humaniores", "University of Kentucky Press", "Narnia", "Shadowlands (TV Movie)", "United Kingdom", "Home Guard (United Kingdom)", "Douglas Gresham", "Early Irish literature", "agape", "Anglicanism", "Mere Christianity", "English studies", "Lord David Cecil", "Roger Lancelyn Green", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", "Dante Alighieri", "Anglo-Catholic", "Christian denomination", "register office", "N. T. Wright", "The New Yorker", "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell", "Malvern, Worcestershire", "Argument from poor design", "Church of Ireland", "Headington", "Wales", "Letters to Malcolm", "Faber and Faber", "Operation Michael", "nursing home", "Nigel Hawthorne", "J. K. Rowling", "autobiography", "Ancient Celtic religion", "Celtic Christianity", "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)", "The Magician's Nephew", "Greek literature", "James Como", "epic poetry", "British undergraduate degree classification", "Marriage in England and Wales", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "Atheism", "venial sin", "academia", "Christian theology", "Royal Air Force", "Literary estate", "shechita", "end-stage kidney failure", "Partition of Ireland", "Out of the Silent Planet", "Joan K. Ostling", "atheism", "Magdalen College, Oxford", "Official", "Mohammedan", "Addison's Walk", "mental hospital", "William T. Kirkpatrick", "Irish people", "Claire Bloom", "The Last Battle", "opera", "Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life", "Chaplain-in-Chief", "Campbell College", "Respiratory disease", "William Blake", "Space Trilogy", "Icelandic sagas", "Modern Philology", "natural law", "Holywood, County Down", "The Independent", "Professor of Medieval and Renaissance English (Cambridge)", "Ulster", "The Chronicles of Narnia (film series)", "The Queen of Drum", "The Washington Times", "Late Middle Ages", "Mark St. Germain", "Charles A. Huttar", "Joss Ackland", "Eucharist", "Anglican", "Joseph Pearce", "bone cancer", "University of Massachusetts Press", "Template:Infobox writer/doc", "Till We Have Faces", "John Bunyan", "Damnation", "John Staples", "The Abolition of Man", "Clyde Kilby", "mortal sin", "Orthodox Judaism", "Heaven", "Divine Comedy", "demobilized", "Joy Gresham", "George Sayer (biographer)", "demon", "Freud's Last Session", "Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "Martyn Lloyd-Jones", "Westminster Abbey", "Worcestershire", "Maureen Dunbar", "The Four Loves", "Owen Barfield", "Hertfordshire", "apologetics", "Rowan Williams", "English Renaissance", "Dublin", "W. B. Yeats", "Christian apologetics", "American Jews", "Andover, Hampshire", "D. W. Robertson Jr.", "Harper & Row", "Oxford", "biographical drama", "The Blitz", "paranoid schizophrenia", "shohet", "University of Leeds", "The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian", "University of Michigan", "Sigmund Freud", "William Nicholson (writer)", "E. V. Gordon", "Wynyard School", "Hugh Hamilton (bishop)", "Roman de la Rose", "Surprised by Joy", "Inklings", "W. B. Eerdmans", "Durham University", "Carnegie Medal (literary award)", "Between Heaven and Hell (novel)", "Churchill Hospital", "Second World War", "James A. Owen", "Christianity Today", "narrative poetry", "assassination of John F. Kennedy", "Warren Lewis", "conversion to Christianity", "John Betjeman", "The Lost Road and Other Writings", "philia", "Josh McDowell", "William Griffin (author)", "Aleister Crowley", "Alister McGrath", "Walter Hooper", "George VI", "River Somme", "Debra Winger", "Latin literature" ]
5,814	Chinese dominoes	Chinese dominoes are used in several tile-based games, namely, tien gow, pai gow, tiu u and kap tai shap. In Cantonese they are called (), which literally means "bone tiles"; it is also the name of a northern Chinese game, where the rules are quite different from the southern Chinese version of tien gow. ==History== Ming author Xie Zhaozhe (1567–1624) records the legend of dominoes having been presented to Song Emperor Huizong in 1112. However the contemporary Li Qingzhao (1084 – ) made no mention of dominoes in her compendium of games. In China, early "domino" tiles were functionally identical to playing cards. An identifiable version of Chinese dominoes developed in the 12th or 13th century. The oldest confirmed written mention of dominoes in China comes from the Former Events in Wulin (i.e. the capital Hangzhou) written by the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) author Zhou Mi (1232–1298), who listed "pupai" (gambling plaques or dominoes) as well as dice as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Song Emperor Xiaozong (). Andrew Lo asserts that Zhou Mi meant dominoes when referring to pupai, since the Ming author Lu Rong (1436–1494) explicitly defined pupai as dominoes (in regards to a story of a suitor who won a maiden's hand by drawing out four winning pupai from a set). In the Encyclopedia of a Myriad of Treasures, Zhang Pu (1602–1641) described the game of laying out dominoes as pupai, although the character for pu had changed, yet retained a similar pronunciation. During the Qing dynasty (1644-1912), the suits known as "Chinese" and "barbarian" were renamed to "civil" and "military" respectively to avoid offending the ruling Manchus. Tiles with blank ends, like those found in Western "double-six" dominoes, once existed during the 17th century. These games employed two sets of "double-six" tiles. It is possible that these were the types of dominoes that made it to Europe the following century. However, the 32-piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus have no blank faces, differs from the 28-piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century. Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century. Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European ones. Traditional Chinese domino games include Tien Gow, Pai Gow, Che Deng, and others. ==Deck composition and ranking== {\|class="wikitable floatright" style="font-size:85%;text-align:center;width:30em;" \|+Dice combinations and domino equivalents The 32-tile set is divided into two "suits" or groups called "military" and "civil". There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group. There are two each of the eleven civil suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of the ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2). while the harmony () of the three have been in dice and domino games since at least the Ming dynasty. Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them. ===Military suit=== The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total pips or points on the tiles. For example, the "nines" (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the "eights" (2-6 and 3-5). The rankings of the individual tiles are similar in most games. However, the ranking of combinations of tiles is slightly different in Pai Gow and Tien Gow. Since there is only one of each military tile, these are usually grouped in four mixed "pairs" of equivalent total points: nines, eights, sevens, and fives; for example, the 3-6 and 4-5 tiles "match" because they have same total points (nine) and both are in the military suit. Among the military tiles, individual tiles of the same pair rank equally, such as 1-4 and 2-3, each totaling five. The 2-4 (six) and 1-2 (three) military tiles also are paired together in many games despite the nominal difference in total points. They are the only tiles in the entire set that have no corresponding tile in the military suit, considering sums. In Pai Gow both of these tiles may be scored as three or six, depending on which is more advantageous. This pair when played together is considered a suit on its own, called the gi jun ( supreme). ==Bone tiles game== The eponymous game of Bone Tiles (gǔpái in Mandarin) is played in northern and central China and as far south as Hunan. The name suggests that it is or became the default game played with dominoes in those regions. It is a trick-taking game similar to Tien Gow but has been simplified. In single-tile tricks, the civil and military suits have been merged into a single suit. In double-tile tricks, there is a new ranking order similar to Pai Gow. Triple-tile and quadruple-tile tricks are not allowed as in older versions of Tien Gow. Scoring has been simplified to number of stacks won.	[ "Prunus mume", "Stewart Culin", "Asia Society", "Hunan", "Emperor Xiaozong of Song", "International Playing-Card Society", "The Playing-Card", "Cantonese", "mahjong", "Emperor Huizong of Song", "Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies", "domino", "Digging Flowers", "pagat.com", "Ming dynasty", "Song Dynasty", "tile-based game", "Chinese playing cards", "dice", "University of London", "Wen and wu", "Li Qingzhao", "Yuan Dynasty", "it:Domino cinesi", "Qing dynasty", "hendiatris", "Qu You", "Hangzhou", "pai gow", "Tien Gow", "Hua–Yi distinction", "Suit (cards)", "Manchu people", "Pai Gow", "zh:纸骨牌", "Si Chuan Cards", "trick-taking game", "ebony", "Xiangqi", "Western world", "Lu Rong" ]
5,816	Cenozoic	The Cenozoic Era ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance of mammals, insects, birds and angiosperms (flowering plants). It is the latest of three geological eras of the Phanerozoic Eon, preceded by the Mesozoic and Paleozoic. The Cenozoic started with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, when many species, including the non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the Chicxulub impactor. The Cenozoic is also known as the Age of Mammals because the terrestrial animals that dominated both hemispheres were mammalsthe eutherians (placentals) in the Northern Hemisphere and the metatherians (marsupials, now mainly restricted to Australia and to some extent South America) in the Southern Hemisphere. The extinction of many groups allowed mammals and birds to greatly diversify so that large mammals and birds dominated life on Earth. The continents also moved into their current positions during this era. The climate during the early Cenozoic was warmer than today, particularly during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. However, the Eocene to Oligocene transition and the Quaternary glaciation dried and cooled Earth. ==Nomenclature== Cenozoic derives from the Greek words ( 'new') and ( 'life'). The name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist John Phillips (1800–1874), who originally spelled it Kainozoic. The era is also known as the Cænozoic, Caenozoic, or Cainozoic (). In name, the Cenozoic () is comparable to the preceding Mesozoic ('middle life') and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras, as well as to the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon. ==Divisions== The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary; and seven epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene. The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2009. In 2004, the Tertiary Period was officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helps palaeontologists better organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time. Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it. ===Paleogene=== The Paleogene spans from the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene, 23.03 million years ago. It features three epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene. The Paleocene Epoch lasted from 66 million to 56 million years ago. Modern placental mammals originated during this time. The devastation of the K–Pg extinction event included the extinction of large herbivores, which permitted the spread of dense but usually species-poor forests. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of Earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and the subcontinent of India were separated from each other. Afro-Eurasia was separated by the Tethys Sea, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the isthmus had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once predominated were extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such as creodonts (extinct carnivores, unrelated to existing Carnivora). The Eocene Epoch ranged from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago. In the Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger forms, as in the Paleocene. Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the top of the food chains were huge birds, such as Paracrax. Carbon dioxide levels were approximately 1,400 ppm. The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Mid-Eocene, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current between Australia and Antarctica formed. This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which, by that time, had become almost fully aquatic. Mammals like Andrewsarchus were at the top of the food-chain. The Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the evolution of grasses. The end of the Eocene was marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, the European face of which is known as the Grande Coupure. The Oligocene Epoch spans from 33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago. The Oligocene featured the expansion of grasslands which had led to many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved in this period too. A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect. Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger. ===Neogene=== The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features two epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene. The Miocene Epoch spans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which grasses spread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense of forests. Kelp forests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such as sea otters. During this time, Perissodactyla thrived, and evolved into many different varieties. Apes evolved into 30 species. The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of the Arabian Peninsula, leaving only remnants as the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas. This increased aridity. Many new plants evolved: 95% of modern seed plants families were present by the end of the Miocene. The Pliocene Epoch lasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago. The Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species of flora and fauna. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because the ice ages reduced sea levels, disconnecting the Atlantic from the Mediterranean, and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers). Australopithecus evolved in Africa, beginning the human branch. The Isthmus of Panama formed, and animals migrated between North and South America during the great American interchange, wreaking havoc on local ecologies. Climatic changes brought: savannas that are still continuing to spread across the world; Indian monsoons; deserts in central Asia; and the beginnings of the Sahara desert. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the glaciations of the Quaternary, such as the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Baltic Sea. ===Quaternary=== The Quaternary spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the Phanerozoic Eon. It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene. The Pleistocene lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked by ice ages as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. There were at least four separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40° N in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts. Many animals evolved including mammoths, giant ground sloths, dire wolves, sabre-toothed cats, and Homo sapiens. 100,000 years ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts in Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive humans. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species, such as Neanderthals. All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent. It still retains many large animals, such as hippos. The Holocene began 11,700 years ago and lasts to the present day. All recorded history and "the Human history" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene Epoch. Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the Industrial Revolution. This is sometimes referred to as the "Sixth Extinction". It is often cited that over 322 recorded species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution, but the rate may be as high as 500 vertebrate species alone, the majority of which have occurred after 1900. ==Tectonics== Geologically, the Cenozoic is the era when the continents moved into their current positions. Australia-New Guinea, having split from Pangea during the early Cretaceous, drifted north and, eventually, collided with Southeast Asia; Antarctica moved into its current position over the South Pole; the Atlantic Ocean widened and, later in the era (2.8 million years ago), South America became attached to North America with the isthmus of Panama. India collided with Asia creating the Himalayas; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing the Tethys Ocean and creating the Zagros Mountains, around . The break-up of Gondwana in Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large African rivers including the Congo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Limpopo and Zambezi. ==Climate== In the Cretaceous, the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles, there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today. This continued for the first 10 million years of the Paleocene, culminating in the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum about . Around , Earth entered a period of long term cooling. This was mainly due to the collision of India with Eurasia, which caused the rise of the Himalayas: the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with in the air, causing a long-term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Around , permanent ice began to build up on Antarctica. The cooling trend continued in the Miocene, with relatively short warmer periods. When South America became attached to North America creating the Isthmus of Panama around , the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the Humboldt and Gulf Stream currents, eventually leading to the glaciations of the Quaternary ice age, the current interglacial of which is the Holocene Epoch. Recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency, oxygen isotope record, and tectonic plate subduction rate, which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary, climate and plate tectonic activity, shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on million years' timescale in the Cenozoic Era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of ~13 Myr during most of the time. The levels of carbonate ions in the ocean fell over the course of the Cenozoic. ==Life== Early in the Cenozoic, following the K-Pg event, the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic. Birds also diversified rapidly; some flightless birds grew larger than humans. These species are sometimes referred to as "terror birds", and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every available niche (both marine and terrestrial), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals. The ranges of many Cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled. During the Cenozoic, mammals proliferated from a few small, simple, generalised forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals. The Cenozoic is just as much the age of savannas, the age of co-dependent flowering plants and insects, and the age of birds. Grasses also played a very important role in this era, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them. One group that diversified significantly in the Cenozoic as well were the snakes. Evolving in the Cenozoic, the variety of snakes increased tremendously, resulting in many colubrids, following the evolution of their current primary prey source, the rodents. In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by the gastornithid birds, terrestrial crocodylians like Pristichampsus, large sharks such as Otodus, and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like uintatheres, mesonychians, and pantodonts. But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over. The Cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, including chalicotheres, creodonts, whales, primates, entelodonts, sabre-toothed cats, mastodons and mammoths, three-toed horses, giant rhinoceros like Paraceratherium, the rhinoceros-like brontotheres, various bizarre groups of mammals from South America, such as the vaguely elephant-like pyrotheres and the dog-like marsupial relatives called borhyaenids and the monotremes and marsupials of Australia. Mammal evolution in the Cenozoic was predominantly shaped by climatic and geological processes. Cenozoic calcareous nannoplankton experienced rapid rates of speciation and reduced species longevity, while suffering prolonged declines in diversity during the Eocene and Neogene. Diatoms, in contrast, experienced major diversification over the Eocene, especially at high latitudes, as the world's oceans cooled. Diatom diversification was particularly concentrated at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. A second major pulse of diatom diversification occurred over the course of the Middle and Late Miocene.	[ "Salento", "placental", "International Journal of Earth Sciences", "Orange River", "insect", "creodont", "great American interchange", "primate", "Herbivore", "bat", "Online Etymology Dictionary", "glaciations", "Iridium", "Tertiary Period", "Eon (geology)", "Human history", "isthmus of Panama", "Miocene Epoch", "creodonts", "Quaternary", "Australia (continent)", "Red Sea", "mammal", "Nile", "International Commission on Stratigraphy", "Eocene", "Sahara", "mastodon", "Paleogene", "Isthmus of Panama", "Eocene–Oligocene extinction event", "Geologic time scale", "marsupial", "Paraceratherium", "sabre-toothed cat", "Africa", "Hudson Bay", "continent", "Pangea", "Chicxulub impactor", "Industrial Revolution", "Namib Desert", "brontothere", "Paleobiology (journal)", "K-Pg extinction event", "Great Lakes", "Tunisia", "Wild horse", "Caspian Sea", "whale", "Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary", "Himalayas", "Zagros Mountains", "South Pole", "Epoch (geology)", "savanna", "Pliocene", "desert", "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event", "Nature (journal)", "Humboldt Current", "Mammal evolution", "mammoth", "dire wolves", "Geology", "Terrestrial animal", "Baltic Sea", "Gastornithidae", "Andrewsarchus", "Oxford University Press", "Mediterranean Sea", "monotreme", "Carnivora", "uintathere", "ice ages", "Diatom", "metatheria", "ice age", "Phanerozoic", "crocodylian", "terrestrial animal", "rodent", "Neanderthal", "Paleocene", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America", "Oligocene", "snake", "pantodont", "Marine mammal", "Torre Sant'Andrea", "woolly rhino", "Oligocene Epoch", "flowering plant", "Afro-Eurasia", "dinosaurs", "desiccation", "Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum", "Phanerozoic Eon", "Homo sapiens", "grasses", "El Kef", "Paleozoic", "Paracrax", "Insect", "Pleistocene", "Eocene Epoch", "Geomorphology (journal)", "Pliocene Epoch", "Kalahari Desert", "Earth and Planetary Science Letters", "Late Cenozoic Ice Age", "Mesonychia", "colubrids", "Asia", "Italy", "Antarctica", "Grande Coupure", "Grasses", "Miocene", "Neogene", "Tethys Ocean", "Apes", "Parts per million", "Atlantic Ocean", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Geological Society of America Bulletin", "Tethys Sea", "epoch (geology)", "Mesozoic", "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences", "Holocene", "chalicothere", "K–Pg extinction event", "Science (journal)", "eutheria", "Australopithecus", "Panthera spelaea", "pyrotheria", "Quaternary glaciation", "Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction Event", "Australia", "John Phillips (geologist)", "Late Cretaceous", "Pristichampsus", "rhinoceros", "Spermatophyte", "Calcareous nannofossils", "Black Sea", "South America", "reindeer", "giant ground sloths", "Niger River", "Cretaceous", "Limpopo River", "entelodont", "Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences", "three-toed horse", "Kelp", "Otodus", "Zambezi River", "monsoon", "sea otter", "Congo River", "Gulf Stream", "ecological niche", "Paleocene Epoch", "Sixth Extinction", "Antarctic Circumpolar Current", "South-east Asia", "Lexico", "Perissodactyla", "Era (geology)", "North America", "palaeontologist", "borhyaenidae", "Arabian Peninsula", "interglacial", "bird", "terror bird", "Sahara desert" ]
5,820	Confucianism	Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius in the Hundred Schools of Thought era (c. 500 BCE), Confucianism integrates philosophy, ethics, and social governance, with a core focus on virtue, social harmony, and familial responsibility. Confucianism emphasizes virtue through self-cultivation and communal effort. While Confucianism does not emphasize an omnipotent deity, it upholds tian as a transcendent moral order. Confucius regarded himself as a transmitter of cultural values from the preceding Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou dynasties. Suppressed during the Legalist Qin dynasty (c. 200 BCE), Confucianism flourished under the Han dynasty (c. 130 BCE), displacing the proto-Taoist Huang–Lao tradition to become the dominant ideological framework, while blending with the pragmatic teachings of Legalism. The Tang dynasty (c. 600 CE) witnessed a response to the rising influence of Buddhism and Taoism in the development of Neo-Confucianism, a reformulated philosophical system that became central to the imperial examination system and the scholar-official class of the Song dynasty (c. 1000 CE). The abolition of the imperial examination system in 1905 marked the decline of state-endorsed Confucianism. In the early 20th century, Chinese reformers associated Confucianism with China's Century of Humiliation, and embraced alternative ideologies such as the "Three Principles of the People" and Maoism. Nevertheless, Confucianism endured as a cultural force, influencing East Asian economic and social structures into the modern era. Confucian work ethic was credited with the rise of the East Asian economy in the late twentieth century. A modern Confucian revival has gained momentum in academic and cultural circles, culminating in the establishment of a national Confucian Church in China in 2015, reflecting renewed interest in Confucian ideals as a foundation for social and moral values. American philosopher Herbert Fingarette describes Confucianism as a philosophical system which regards "the secular as sacred". ==Terminology== There is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to "Confucianism". The closest catch-all term for Confucianism is the word ru (). Its literal meanings in modern Chinese include 'scholar', 'learned', or 'refined man'. In Old Chinese the word had a distinct set of meanings, including 'to tame', 'to mould', 'to educate', and 'to refine'. Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: – "the ru school of thought"; – "ru religious doctrine"; – "ru studies"; – "Confucius's religious doctrine"; – "Confucius's family's business", a pejorative phrase used during the New Culture Movement and the Cultural Revolution. The terms that use ru do not use the name "Confucius" at all, but instead focus on the ideal of the Confucian man. The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. Robert Eno argues that the term has been "burdened... with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". Ruism, as he states, is more faithful to the original Chinese name for the school. This translation of the word ru is followed by e.g. Yuri Pines. According to Zhou Youguang, ru originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people. In the Western world, the character for water is often used as a symbol for Confucianism, which is not the case in modern China. However, the five phases were used as important symbols representing leadership in Han dynasty thought, including Confucianist works. ===Five Classics and the Confucian vision=== Traditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of the Five Classics which were the basic texts of Confucianism, all edited into their received versions around 500 years later by Imperial Librarian Liu Xin. The scholar Yao Xinzhong allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that "nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics". The sixth classic similar to the Classic of Poetry was the Classic of Music. It was lost during the Han dynasty. Music carried an invaluable tool to induce focus in performing rituals. These were the internal (music) and external (rites) keys to harmonizing society. Yao suggests that most modern scholars hold the "pragmatic" view that Confucius and his followers did not intend to create a system of classics, but nonetheless "contributed to their formation". The scholar Tu Weiming explains these classics as embodying "five visions" which underlie the development of Confucianism: I Ching (Classic of Change or Book of Changes), generally held to be the earliest of the classics, shows a metaphysical vision which combines divinatory art with numerological technique and ethical insight; philosophy of change sees cosmos as interaction between the two energies yin and yang; universe always shows organismic unity and dynamism. Classic of Poetry or Book of Songs is the earliest anthology of Chinese poems and songs, with the earliest strata antedating the Zhou conquest. It shows the poetic vision in the belief that poetry and music convey common human feelings and mutual responsiveness. Book of Documents or Book of History is a compilation of speeches of major figures and records of events in ancient times, embodying the political vision and addressing the kingly way in terms of the ethical foundation for humane government. The documents show the sagacity, filial piety, and work ethic of mythical sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu, who established a political culture which was based on responsibility and trust. Their virtue formed a covenant of social harmony which did not depend on punishment or coercion. Book of Rites describes the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty. This social vision defined society not as an adversarial system based on contractual relations but as a network of kinship groups bound by cultural identity and ritual practice, socially responsible for one another and the transmission of proper antique forms. The four functional occupations are cooperative (farmer, scholar, artisan, merchant). Spring and Autumn Annals chronicles the period to which it gives its name, Spring and Autumn period (771–481 BC), from the perspective of Confucius's home state of Lu. These events emphasise the significance of collective memory for communal self-identification, for reanimating the old is the best way to attain the new. ==Doctrines== ===Theory and theology=== Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and tian ("heaven"), or the relationship between humanity and heaven. The principle or way of Heaven (tian li or tian tao) is the order of the world and the source of divine authority. Tian li or tian tao is monistic, meaning that it is singular and indivisible. Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. This transformation of the self is extended to family and society to create a harmonious community. Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused civil religion in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth (), the sovereign or the government (), ancestors (), and masters (). According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang, in Chinese cosmology, which is not merely Confucian but shared by many Chinese religions, "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" (hundun and qi), and is organized through the polarity of yin and yang that characterises any thing and life. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not creation 'ex nihilo. "Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and the active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order). Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world."' Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation—that is to say self-cultivation and world redemption—in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without". Ren, translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which a person may achieve oneness with Heaven by comprehending their origin in Heaven, and therefore divine essence. In the , it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated... compassion is aroused". "Lord Heaven" and "Jade Emperor" were terms for a Confucianist supreme deity who was an anthropomorphized tian, and some conceptions of it thought of the two names as synonymous. ====Tian and the gods==== Tian, a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to 'Heaven and Earth' (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is impossible to give a single English translation. Confucius used the term in a mystical way. He wrote in the Analects (7.23) that tian gave him life, and that tian watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of tian, and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that tian spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that tian was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao: "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world", although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of tian or the tao, and/or gods from Chinese folk religion. These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven. Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature. However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature as well as what Confucius saw as the main tao, the "[Way] of Heaven." ===Social morality and ethics=== As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at ancestral shrines. Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic. The Five Constants are: Confucius also defined ren in the following way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others." Another meaning of ren is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself." Confucius also said, "ren is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." Ren is close to man and never leaves him. ====Rite and centring==== Li () is a word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy. Li is variously translated as 'rite' or 'reason', 'ratio' in the pure sense of Vedic ('right', 'order') when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as 'customs', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes the invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centering" ( or ). Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces. Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation... rice and millet, fish and meat... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of li. Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of li. Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising li. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. ====Loyalty==== Loyalty () is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)." Similarly, Mencius also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy." Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him. A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary. At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action. During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as Wang Yangming promoted individuality and independent thinking as a counterweight to subservience to authority. The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check. Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of the Ming-Qing transition. ====Filial piety==== In Confucian philosophy, is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female. The Confucian classic Xiaojing ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiao. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his disciple Zeng Shen, is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xiao. In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following the parents' wishes is not considered to be xiao; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is "The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers. ===Relationships=== Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility (renqing) extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony: Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian cultures even to this day. The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals. ===Junzi=== The junzi ('lord's son') is a Chinese philosophical term often translated as "gentleman" or "superior person" and employed by Confucius in the Analects to describe the ideal man. In Confucianism, the sage or wise is the ideal personality; however, it is very hard to become one of them. Confucius created the model of junzi, gentleman, which may be achieved by any individual. Later, Zhu Xi defined junzi as second only to the sage. There are many characteristics of the junzi: he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable. The junzi disciplines himself. Ren is fundamental to become a junzi. As the potential leader of a nation, a son of the ruler is raised to have a superior ethical and moral position while gaining inner peace through his virtue. To Confucius, the junzi sustained the functions of government and social stratification through his ethical values. Despite its literal meaning, any righteous man willing to improve himself may become a junzi. In contrast to the junzi, the xiaoren (, "small or petty person") does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate gains. The petty person is egotistic and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. Should the ruler be surrounded by xiaoren as opposed to junzi, his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness. Examples of such xiaoren individuals may range from those who continually indulge in sensual and emotional pleasures all day to the politician who is interested merely in power and fame; neither sincerely aims for the long-term benefit of others. The junzi enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself. It is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example. The ultimate goal is that the government behaves much like a family, the junzi being a beacon of filial piety. ===Rectification of names=== Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. Fundamentally, then, social disorder may stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was the . He gave an explanation of this concept to one of his disciples: Xunzi chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names () that directly corresponded with actualities (), but later generations confused terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong. Since social harmony is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and "undertakings [would] not [be] completed." ==History== ===Metaphysical antecedents=== According to He Guanghu, Confucianism may be identified as a continuation of the Shang-Zhou (–256 BC) official religion, or the Chinese aboriginal religion which has lasted uninterrupted for three thousand years. Both the dynasties worshipped a supreme "godhead", called Shangdi ('Highest Deity') or Di by the Shang and Tian ('Heaven') by the Zhou. Shangdi was conceived as the first ancestor of the Shang royal house, an alternate name for him being the "Supreme Progenitor" (). Shang theology viewed the multiplicity of gods of nature and ancestors as parts of Di. Di manifests as the Wufang Shangdi with the winds () as its cosmic will. With the Zhou dynasty, which overthrew the Shang, the name for the supreme godhead became tian. While the Shang identified Shangdi as their ancestor-god to assert their claim to power by divine right, the Zhou transformed this claim into a legitimacy based on moral power, the Mandate of Heaven. In Zhou theology, Tian had no singular earthly progeny, but bestowed divine favour on virtuous rulers. Zhou kings declared that their victory over the Shang was because they were virtuous and loved their people, while the Shang were tyrants and thus were deprived of power by Tian. John C. Didier and David Pankenier relate the shapes of both the ancient Chinese characters for Di and Tian to the patterns of stars in the northern skies, either drawn, in Didier's theory by connecting the constellations bracketing the north celestial pole as a square, or in Pankenier's theory by connecting some of the stars which form the constellations of the Big Dipper and broader Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor (Little Dipper). Cultures in other parts of the world have also conceived these stars or constellations as symbols of the origin of things, the supreme godhead, divinity and royal power. The supreme godhead was also identified with the dragon, symbol of unlimited power (qi), of the protean primordial power which embodies both yin and yang in unity, associated to the constellation Draco which winds around the north ecliptic pole, and slithers between the Little and Big Dipper. ===Zhou traditions wane=== By the 6th century BC, the power of Tian and the symbols that represented it on earth (architecture of cities, temples, altars and ritual vessels, and the Zhou system of rites) became "diffuse" and claimed by different potentates in the Zhou states to legitimise economic, political, and military ambitions. Communication with the divine no longer was an exclusive privilege of the Zhou royal house, but might be bought by anyone able to afford the elaborate ceremonies and the old and new rites required to access the authority of Tian. Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as traditions, or traditions outside of the official system, developed as attempts to access the will of Tian. As central political authority crumbled in the wake of the collapse of the Western Zhou, the population lost faith in the official tradition, which was no longer perceived as an effective way to communicate with Heaven. The traditions of the and of the Yijing flourished. Chinese thinkers, faced with this challenge to legitimacy, diverged in a "Hundred Schools of Thought", each positing its own philosophical lens for understanding the processes of the world. Confucius (551–479 BC) appeared in this period of political reconfiguration and spiritual questioning. He was educated in Shang–Zhou traditions, which he contributed to transmit and reformulate giving centrality to self-cultivation and agency of humans, and the educational power of the self-established individual in assisting others to establish themselves (the ). As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of perceived moral decline. Confucius saw an opportunity to reinforce values of compassion and tradition into society, with the intended goal of reconstructing what he believed to be a lost perfect moral order of high antiquity. Disillusioned with the culture, opposing scholars, and religious authorities of the time, he began to advance an ethical interpretation of traditional Zhou religion. In his view, the power of Tian is pervasive, and responds positively to the sincere heart driven by humaneness and rightness, decency and altruism. Confucius conceived these qualities as the foundation needed to restore socio-political harmony. Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access Tian, but he thought that the crucial knot was the reverent inner state that participants enter prior to engaging in the ritual acts. Confucius is said to have amended and recodified the classical books inherited from the Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties, and to have composed the Spring and Autumn Annals. ===Confucianism rises=== Philosophers in the Warring States period, both focused on state-endorsed ritual and non-aligned to state ritual built upon Confucius's legacy, compiled in the Analects, and formulated the classical metaphysics that became the lash of Confucianism. In accordance with Confucius, they identified mental tranquility as the state of Tian, or , which in each individual is the Heaven-bestowed divine power to rule one's own life and the world. They also extended the theory, proposing the oneness of production and reabsorption into the cosmic source, and the possibility to understand and therefore reattain it through correct state of mind. This line of thought would have influenced all Chinese individual and collective-political mystical theories and practices thereafter. In the Han dynasty, Confucians beginning with Dong Zhongshu synthesised Warring States Confucianism with ideas of yin and yang, and wuxing, as well as folk superstition and the prior schools that led up to the School of Naturalists. In the 460s, Confucianism competed with Chinese Buddhism and "traditional Confucianism" was "a broad cosmology that was as much about personal ethics as about spiritual beliefs" and had roots that went back to Confucianist philosophers from over a thousand years before. ===Decline=== The Confucian examination system was abolished in Korea in 1894, in China in 1905, and in Vietnam in 1919. This meant that conformity to Confucian ideology was no longer a prerequisite for a career in the civil service or politics, allowing persons of other ideologies (notably Nationalism and Socialism) to attain leading positions in society. ==Organisation and liturgy== Since the 2000s, there has been a growing identification of the Chinese intellectual class with Confucianism. In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people through standardisation and development of doctrines, rituals, organisations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organisations. although this is rarely done in modern times. Given Confucianism's place of importance in historical Chinese governments, the argument has been made that Imperial China's wars were Confucianism's wars, but the connection between Confucianism and war is not so direct or simple. Modern Confucianism is the descendant of movements that greatly changed how they practiced the teachings of Confucius and his disciples from previous orthodox teachings. ==Governance== A key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself according to the universal order. When actual, the king's personal virtue (de) spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. This idea is developed further in the Great Learning and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei: the less the king does, the more gets done. By being the "calm center" around which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole. This idea may be traced back to the ancient shamanic beliefs of the king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth. The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven, one of the most vital concepts in imperial-era political theory. Some Confucianists believed they held the power to define the hierarchy of divinities, by bestowing titles upon mountains, rivers and dead people, acknowledging them as powerful and therefore establishing their cults. Confucianism, despite supporting the importance of obeying national authority, places this obedience under absolute moral principles that curbed the willful exercise of power, rather than being unconditional. Submission to authority was only taken within the context of the moral obligations that rulers had toward their subjects, in particular ren. Confucians—including the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as Xunzi—have always recognised the right of revolution against tyranny. ==Meritocracy== Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (Analects 7.1), he did produce a number of new ideas. Many European and American admirers such as Voltaire and Herrlee G. Creel point to the revolutionary idea of replacing nobility of blood with nobility of virtue. Junzi ('lord's son'), which originally signified the younger, non-inheriting, offspring of a noble, became, in Confucius's work, an epithet having much the same meaning and evolution as the English "gentleman". A virtuous commoner who cultivates his qualities may be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "petty person". That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society. Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the imperial examination system in China. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family. The Chinese imperial examination system started in the Sui dynasty. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing a set of written government examinations. Confucian political meritocracy is not merely a historical phenomenon. The practice of meritocracy still exists across China and East Asia today, and a wide range of contemporary intellectuals—from Daniel Bell to Tongdong Bai, Joseph Chan, and Jiang Qing—defend political meritocracy as a viable alternative to liberal democracy. In Just Hierarchy, Daniel Bell and Wang Pei argue that hierarchies are inevitable. Faced with ever-increasing complexity at scale, modern societies must build hierarchies to coordinate collective action and tackle long-term problems such as climate change. In this context, people need not—and should not—want to flatten hierarchies as much as possible. They ought to ask what makes political hierarchies just and use these criteria to decide the institutions that deserve preservation, those that require reform, and those that need radical transformation. They call this approach "progressive conservatism", a term that reflects the ambiguous place of the Confucian tradition within the Left-Right dichotomy. Bell, Wang, and Bai all criticize liberal democracy to argue that government the people may not be government the people in any meaningful sense of the term. They argue that voters tend to act in irrational, tribal, short-termist ways; they are vulnerable to populism and struggle to account for the interests of future generations. In other words, at a minimum, democracy needs Confucian meritocratic checks. This system aligns with what Harvard historian James Hankins calls "virtue politics", or the idea that institutions should be built to select the most competent and virtuous rulers—as opposed to institutions concerned first and foremost with limiting the power of rulers. While contemporary defenders of Confucian political meritocracy all accept this broad frame, they disagree with each other on three main questions: institutional design, the means by which meritocrats are promoted, and the compatibility of Confucian political meritocracy with liberalism. ===Institutional design=== Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers. Jiang's aim is to construct a legitimacy that will go beyond what he sees as the atomistic, individualist, and utilitarian ethos of modern democracies and ground authority in something sacred and traditional. While Jiang's model is closer to an ideal theory than Bell's proposals, it represents a more traditionalist alternative. Tongdong Bai presents an in-between solution by proposing a two-tiered bicameral system. Other Confucians have criticized Confucian meritocrats like Bell for their rejection of democracy. For them, Confucianism does not have to be premised on the assumption that meritorious, virtuous political leadership is inherently incompatible with popular sovereignty, political equality and the right to political participation. These thinkers accuse the meritocrats of overestimating the flaws of democracy, mistaking temporary flaws for permanent and inherent features, and underestimating the challenges that the construction of a true political meritocracy poses in practice—including those faced by contemporary China and Singapore. Franz Mang claims that, when decoupled from democracy, meritocracy tends to deteriorate into an oppressive regime under putatively "meritorious" but actually "authoritarian" rulers; Mang accuses Bell's China model of being self-defeating, as—Mang claims—the CCP's authoritarian modes of engagement with the dissenting voices illustrate. He Baogang and Mark Warren add that "meritocracy" should be understood as a concept describing a regime's character rather than its type, which is determined by distribution of political power—on their view, democratic institutions can be built which are meritocratic insofar as they favour competence. Roy Tseng, drawing on the New Confucians of the twentieth century, argues that Confucianism and liberal democracy can enter into a dialectical process, in which liberal rights and voting rights are rethought into resolutely modern, but nonetheless Confucian ways of life. This synthesis, blending Confucians rituals and institutions with a broader liberal democratic frame, is distinct from both Western-style liberalism—which, for Tseng, suffers from excessive individualism and a lack of moral vision—and from traditional Confucianism—which, for Tseng, has historically suffered from rigid hierarchies and sclerotic elites. Against defenders of political meritocracy, Tseng claims that the fusion of Confucian and democratic institutions can conserve the best of both worlds, producing a more communal democracy which draws on a rich ethical tradition, addresses abuses of power, and combines popular accountability with a clear attention to the cultivation of virtue in elites. ==Influence== ===In 17th-century Europe=== The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit missionaries stationed in China. Matteo Ricci was among the very earliest to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta wrote about the life and works of Confucius in Latin in 1687. Translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. Confucianism influenced the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was attracted to the philosophy because of its perceived similarity to his own. It is postulated that certain elements of Leibniz's philosophy, such as "simple substance" and "Pre-established harmony", were borrowed from his interactions with Confucianism. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying the sociopolitical hierarchy of China as a model for Europe: ===In modern times=== Important military and political figures in modern Chinese history continued to be influenced by Confucianism, like the Muslim warlord Ma Fuxiang. The New Life Movement in the early 20th century was also influenced by Confucianism. Referred to variously as the Confucian hypothesis and as a debated component of the more all-encompassing Asian Development Model, there exists among political scientists and economists a theory that Confucianism plays a large latent role in the ostensibly non-Confucian cultures of modern-day East Asia, in the form of the rigorous work ethic it endowed those cultures with. These scholars have held that, if not for Confucianism's influence on these cultures, many of the people of the East Asia region would not have been able to modernise and industrialise as quickly as Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea and even China have done. For example, the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam was devastating, but over the last few decades Vietnam has been re-developing in a very fast pace. Most scholars attribute the origins of this idea to futurologist Herman Kahn's World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond. Other studies, for example Cristobal Kay's Why East Asia Overtook Latin America: Agrarian Reform, Industrialization, and Development, have attributed the Asian growth to other factors, for example the character of agrarian reforms, "state-craft" (state capacity), and interaction between agriculture and industry. Historical and current Confucianists were and are often environmentalists ===On Chinese martial arts=== After Confucianism had become the official 'state religion' in China, its influence penetrated all walks of life and all streams of thought in Chinese society for the generations to come. This did not exclude martial arts culture. Though in his own day, Confucius had rejected the practice of Martial Arts (with the exception of Archery), he did serve under rulers who used military power extensively to achieve their goals. In later centuries, Confucianism heavily influenced many educated martial artists of great influence, such as Sun Lutang, especially from the 19th century onwards, when bare-handed martial arts in China became more widespread and had begun to more readily absorb philosophical influences from Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism. ==Criticism== Confucius and Confucianism were opposed or criticised from the start, including Laozi's philosophy and Mozi's critique, and Legalists such as Han Fei ridiculed the idea that virtue would lead people to be orderly. In modern times, waves of opposition and vilification showed that Confucianism, instead of taking credit for the glories of Chinese civilisation, now had to take blame for its failures. The Taiping Rebellion described Confucianism sages as well as gods in Taoism and Buddhism as devils. ===Contradiction with modernist values=== In the New Culture Movement, Lu Xun criticised Confucianism for shaping Chinese people into the condition they had reached by the late Qing dynasty: his criticisms are expressed metaphorically in the work "Diary of a Madman", in which traditional Chinese Confucian society is portrayed as feudalistic, hypocritical, socially cannibalistic, despotic, fostering a "slave mentality" favouring despotism, lack of critical thinking and blind obedience and worship of authority, fuelling a form of "Confucian authoritarianism" which persists into the present day. Leftists during the Cultural Revolution described Confucius as the representative of the slave-owning class. In South Korea, there has long been criticism. Some South Koreans believe Confucianism has not contributed to the modernisation of South Korea. For example, South Korean writer Kim Kyong-il wrote a book in 1998 entitled "Confucius Must Die For the Nation to Live" (, gongjaga jug-eoya naraga sanda). Kim said that filial piety is one-sided and blind, and if it continues, social problems will continue as government keeps forcing Confucian filial obligations onto families. ===Women in Confucian thought=== Confucianism "largely defined the mainstream discourse on gender in China from the Han dynasty onward." Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood. In the later dynasties, more emphasis was placed on the virtue of chastity. The Song dynasty Confucian Cheng Yi stated that: "To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter." Though the repercussions for widows at times went beyond poverty and loneliness, as for some the preservation of chastity resulted in suicide. The ideal of a chaste widow became an extremely high honor and esteem, especially for a woman who chose to end her life after her husband's death. Many instances of such acts were recorded in, Biographies of Virtuous Women, "a collection of stories of women who distinguished themselves by committing suicide after their husband’s deaths to guard their chastity and purity". Though it can be contested whether all these instances can be deemed self-sacrificing for the virtue of chastity, as it became common practice for women to be forced to commit suicide after their husband's death. This resulted from the honor which chaste widowhood garnered, lending itself to the husband's family as well as his clan or village. Some critics have also accused the prominent Song neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi for believing in the inferiority of women and that men and women need to be kept strictly separate, while Sima Guang also believed that women should remain indoors and not deal with the matters of men in the outside world. Finally, scholars have discussed the attitudes toward women in Confucian texts such as Analects. In a much-discussed passage, women are grouped together with , meaning people of low status or low morals) and described as being difficult to cultivate or deal with. Many traditional commentators and modern scholars have debated over the precise meaning of the passage, and whether Confucius referred to all women or just certain groups of women. Further analysis suggests, however, that women's place in Confucian society may be more complex. Moreover, some Confucian texts like Dong Zhongshu's Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals have passages that suggest a more equal relationship between a husband and his wife. More recently, some scholars have also begun to discuss the viability of constructing a "Confucian feminism". ==Catholic controversy over Chinese rites== Ever since Europeans first encountered Confucianism, the issue of how Confucianism should be classified has been subject to debate. In the 16th and the 17th centuries, the earliest European arrivals in China, the Christian Jesuits, considered Confucianism to be an ethical system, not a religion, and one that was compatible with Christianity. The Jesuits, including Matteo Ricci, saw Chinese rituals as "civil rituals" that could co-exist alongside the spiritual rituals of Catholicism. The Dominicans and Franciscans argued that Chinese ancestral worship was a form of idolatry that was contradictory to the tenets of Christianity. This view was reinforced by Pope Benedict XIV, who ordered a ban on Chinese rituals, Some critics view Confucianism as definitely pantheistic and nontheistic, in that it is not based on the belief in the supernatural or in a personal god existing separate from the temporal plane. Confucius views about tian and about the divine providence ruling the world, can be found above (in this page) and in Analects 6:26, 7:22, and 9:12, for example. On spirituality, Confucius said to Chi Lu, one of his students: "You are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve spirits?" Attributes such as ancestor worship, ritual, and sacrifice were advocated by Confucius as necessary for social harmony; these attributes may be traced to the traditional Chinese folk religion. Scholars recognise that classification ultimately depends on how one defines religion. Using stricter definitions of religion, Confucianism has been described as a moral science or philosophy. But using a broader definition, such as Frederick Streng's characterisation of religion as "a means of ultimate transformation", Confucianism could be described as a "sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities". With the latter definition, Confucianism is religious, even if non-theistic, in the sense that it "performs some of the basic psycho-social functions of full-fledged religions".	[ "Western culture", "anu", "Hong Kong", "Junzi", "Shang dynasty", "Radical 85", "Three Principles of the People", "Singapore", "Paragon House", "conformity", "Cultural Revolution", "Li (Neo-Confucianism)", "Herman Kahn", "Ming dynasty", "Ban Zhao", "Chinese ritual bronzes", "Hundred Schools of Thought", "Confucian churches", "Michele Ruggieri", "Chinese Buddhism", "Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues", "yin and yang", "King of the gods", "Religious Confucianism", "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Qinghe County, Hebei", "hundun", "right of revolution", "List of Confucian states and dynasties", "Confucius", "Confucius Institute", "Monad (philosophy)", "Jeju Province", "theism", "harmonious society", "dingir", "Sun Lutang", "I Ching", "Laozi", "Kang Youwei", "Xunzi (book)", "ancestral temples", "altruistic", "Pope Benedict XIV", "Spring and Autumn period", "Xin (philosophy)", "China", "Ren (Confucianism)", "ritual", "Encyclopedia Britannica", "sacrifice", "wu (shaman)", "Sino-Platonic Papers", "Gadjah Mada University", "Chinese folk religion", "Confucianism in the United States", "Duanmu Ci", "Jesuit China missions", "Zhang (surname)", "Polaris", "Yale University", "anthropomorphized", "Deism", "University of Hawaii Press", "shen (Chinese religion)", "Hackett Publishing Company", "Chinese gods and immortals", "Wenzhou", "Xunzi (philosopher)", "Wufang Shangdi", "tian", "Zeng Shen", "Cangnan County", "Lu Xun", "Shandong", "Religious humanism", "Ursa Minor", "Old Chinese", "Wisdom", "virtue", "Four occupations", "Yuan Chang (official)", "New York City", "Liu Zhi (scholar)", "Liu Xin (scholar)", "Hu Shih", "Chinese classics", "Qufu", "Large seal script", "creatio ex nihilo", "Mesopotamia", "He Guanghu", "Wang Yangming", "Edo Neo-Confucianism", "lineage church", "Confucian rites", "The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation", "celestial pole", "Economy of East Asia", "ancestor", "Lu (state)", "Vietnam", "Zhejiang", "Temple of Confucius", "Korean Confucianism", "Mohism", "Small seal script", "Chinese poetry", "Prospero Intorcetta", "Western Han", "Yijing", "Confucian art", "Chinese salvationist religion", "cosmos", "Taoism", "Holy Confucian Church", "ṛta", "Academies of Classical Learning", "Yi (philosophy)", "pantheism", "East Asia", "Philosophy", "Qing dynasty", "Vietnamese philosophy", "Dong Zhongshu", "Consanguinism", "Mencius", "Guizhou", "Sinology", "physis", "Ursa Major", "Chinese culture", "economic inequality", "Herrlee G. 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Hobson", "Warring States period", "Bunkyō", "Japan", "orthopraxy", "Confucian Shenism", "Vietnam War", "Kelly James Clark", "Great Learning", "Proselytism", "School of Naturalists", "filial piety", "Pope Pius XII", "Classic of Poetry", "Book of Documents", "Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals", "Book of Rites", "Confucianism in Indonesia", "Zhou Youguang", "Big Dipper", "Spring and Autumn Annals", "New Life Movement", "David Christian (historian)", "Beijing", "Lessons for Women", "nontheism", "Neo-Confucianism", "Taiwan", "Transition from Ming to Qing", "Mozi", "Western Zhou", "reason", "ancient China", "Hinduism", "Ren (philosophy)", "Duke Jing of Qi", "Matteo Ricci", "Oxford University Press", "Guiyang", "Taiping Rebellion", "meritocracy", "Jesuits", "Han Kitab", "qi", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Yan Hui (disciple of Confucius)", "Herbert Fingarette", "Legalism (Chinese philosophy)", "Hui people", "Family as a model for the state", "imperial examination", "460s", "self-cultivation", "Classic of Filial Piety", "Century of humiliation", "Han dynasty", "Loyalty", "Chinese dragon", "Cult of widow chastity", "Harmonious Society", "Xinzhong Yao", "Age of Enlightenment", "Tu Weiming", "Chinese philosophy", "Daniel A. Bell", "Cambridge University Press", "Diary of a Madman (Lu Xun)", "Sui dynasty", "Mandate of Heaven", "Overseas Chinese", "Tang dynasty", "Sima Guang", "Ancient Chinese states", "Filial piety", "guoxue", "Chinese characters", "Malaysia", "Confucian view of marriage", "Classic of Music", "Cheng Yi (philosopher)", "Jiang Qing (Confucian)", "Buddhism", "The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars", "Tian", "DK (publisher)", "Tokyo", "Dominican Order", "oracle bone script", "Wuxi", "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "lineage churches", "Korean shamanism", "Zhou dynasty", "Shanxi", "Chinese ancestral worship", "Shenzhen", "Han Fei", "Islam", "Song dynasty", "National Geographic Society", "civil religion", "Di (Chinese concept)", "Jiangyin", "Shanghai", "Pre-established harmony", "ancestor worship", "Daoism", "Four Books and Five Classics", "Maoism", "Vintage Books", "Ma Fuxiang", "Hai Rui", "Stephan Feuchtwang", "University of Toronto Press", "New Culture Movement", "Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)", "Draco (constellation)", "Confucian", "convention (norm)", "Against Political Equality", "Voltaire", "Ritual", "Jade Emperor", "Philosophy East and West", "ancestral home (Chinese)", "Franciscans", "Brahman", "Routledge", "Imperial examination", "ancestral shrines", "South Korea", "Records of the Three Kingdoms", "Korea", "orbital pole", "Taoists", "Hebei", "emperors of China", "tao", "Vietnamese folk religion", "Li (Confucianism)", "Huang–Lao", "egotistic", "state religion", "Radical orthodoxy", "state capacity", "Qin dynasty", "Dongping County", "pole star", "Zhuge Liang", "Latin", "William Edward Soothill", "gentleman", "De (Chinese)", "Wu Daozi", "Monadology", "Confucian court examination system in Vietnam", "Xin (virtue)", "Zhu Xi", "D.C. Lau", "state church", "Grand chancellor (China)", "Fujian", "cross potent", "Jiangsu", "wu wei", "monism", "Confucian church", "ren (Confucianism)", "Shangdi", "Analects", "Frederick Streng" ]
5,822	Chinese philosophy	Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments. The Han dynasty Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian looked back on the Warring States era and grouped the thinkers into the major philosophical schools, Confucianism, Legalism, and Taoism, along with philosophies that later fell into obscurity, like Agriculturalism, Mohism, Chinese Naturalism, and the Logicians. Even in modern society, Confucianism is still the creed of social behaviour. ==Chinese philosophy as a philosophy== The debate over whether the thought of ancient Chinese masters should be called philosophy has been discussed since the introduction of this academic discipline into China. See Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy for details. ==Early beliefs== Early Shang dynasty thought was based on cycles like the 10 stems and 12 earthly branches. This notion stems from what the people of the Shang dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycles, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy, in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized. When the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the Mandate of Heaven. This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a justification for Zhou rule it is said that the Duke of Zhou made the early solar terms by measuring with a gnomon that was added to make the complete solar terms. He is also said to have used try squares and wrote the Zhoubi Suanjing with his astrologer. Several early beliefs might be found in the Guicang and perhaps the earliest Chinese book, the small calendar of the Xia in Da Dai Liji, though debated to exist the Xia dynasty is said to be its origin. ==Overview== Confucianism developed during the Spring and Autumn period from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), who considered himself a retransmitter of Zhou values. His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. The Analects stress the importance of ritual, but also the importance of ren, which loosely translates as "human-heartedness", Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating one of the world's first meritocracies, which holds that one's status should be determined by education and character rather than ancestry, wealth, or friendship. Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of East Asia. Before the Han dynasty the largest rivals to Confucianism were Chinese Legalism, and Mohism. Confucianism largely became the dominant philosophical school of China during the early Han dynasty following the replacement of its contemporary, the more Taoist Huang-Lao. Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with the unpopular authoritarian rule of Qin Shi Huang, however, many of its ideas and institutions would continue to influence Chinese philosophy throughout the Han dynasty and after. Mohism, though initially popular due to its emphasis on brotherly love versus harsh Legalism, fell out of favour during the Han dynasty due to the efforts of Confucians in establishing their views as political orthodoxy. The Six Dynasties era saw the rise of the Xuanxue philosophical school and the maturation of Chinese Buddhism, which had entered China from India during the Late Han dynasties. By the time of the Tang dynasty five-hundred years after Buddhism's arrival into China, it had transformed into a thoroughly Chinese religious philosophy dominated by the school of Zen Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism became highly popular during the Song dynasty and Ming dynasty due in large part to the eventual combination of Confucian and Buddhist and even Taoist Philosophy. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Chinese philosophy integrated concepts from Western philosophy. Anti-Qing dynasty revolutionaries, involved in the Xinhai Revolution, saw Western philosophy as an alternative to traditional philosophical schools; students in the May Fourth Movement called for completely abolishing the old imperial institutions and practices of China. During this era, Chinese scholars attempted to incorporate Western philosophical ideologies such as democracy, Marxism, socialism, liberalism, republicanism, anarchism and nationalism into Chinese philosophy. The most notable examples are Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People ideology and Mao Zedong's Maoism, a variant of Marxism–Leninism. In the modern People's Republic of China, the official ideology is Deng Xiaoping's "market economy socialism". Although the People's Republic of China has been historically hostile to the philosophy of ancient China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. In the post-Chinese economic reform era, modern Chinese philosophy has reappeared in forms such as New Confucianism. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due. Chinese philosophy still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even Southeast Asia. ==Ancient philosophy== === Spring and Autumn period === Around 500 BCE, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved into the Spring and Autumn period, the classic period of Chinese philosophy began. This is known as the Hundred Schools of Thought (; zhūzǐ bǎijiā; "various scholars, hundred schools"). This period is considered the golden age of Chinese philosophy. Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent Warring States period, the four most influential ones were Confucianism, Daoism (often spelled "Taoism"), Mohism and Legalism. ==== Confucianism ==== Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of Confucius collected and written by his disciples after his death in The Analects, and in the Warring States period, Mencius in The Mencius and Xunzi in The Xunzi. It is a system of moral, social, political, and religious thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 20th century. Some Westerners have considered it to have been the "state religion" of imperial China because of its lasting influence on Asian culture. Its influence also spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and many other Asian countries. Confucianism reached its peak of influence during the Tang and Song dynasties under a rebranded Confucianism called Neo-Confucianism. Confucius expanded on the already present ideas of Chinese religion and culture to reflect the time period and environment of political chaos during the Warring States period. Because Confucius embedded the Chinese culture so heavily into his philosophy it was able to resonate with the people of China. However, the relationship between Confucianism and contemporary Chinese society is continuously transforming, reflecting the evolving cultural, political, and social landscape of modern China. The major Confucian concepts include filial piety, loyalty (), li (ritual), ren (humanity or humaneness), the rectification of names (i.e., to ensure everything is what its name implies it should be),. Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the Golden Rule. The concepts yin and yang represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change. The Confucian idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent of the idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", often attributed to Hegel, which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both. Confucius heavily emphasized the idea of microcosms in society (subunits of family and community) success's were the foundations for a successful state or country. Confucius believed in the use of education to further knowledge the people in ethics, societal behavior, and reverence in other humans. With the combination of education, successful family, and his ethical teachings he believed he could govern a well established society in China. ==== Taoism ==== Taoism arose as a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the Tao Te Ching (ascribed to Laozi) and the Zhuangzi (partly ascribed to Zhuang Zhou). The word Tao (; also transliterated as Dao) literally means 'path' or 'way'. However, in Taoism it refers more often to a meta-physical force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt. All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct Way to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction (wu wei), the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practice Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside." Most of Taoism's focus is on the notion that human attempts to make the world better actually make the world worse. Therefore, it is better to strive for harmony, minimising potentially harmful interference with nature or in human affairs. === Warring States period === ==== Legalism ==== Philosopher Han Fei synthesized together earlier the methods of his predecessors, which famous historian Sima Tan posthumously termed Legalism. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", late pre-Han dynasty reformers emphasized rule by law. In Han Fei's philosophy, a ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity: Fa (): law or principle. Shu (): method, tactic, art, or statecraft. Shi (): legitimacy, power, or charisma. What has been termed by some as the intrastate Realpolitik of the Warring States period was highly progressive, and extremely critical of the Confucian and Mohist schools. But that of the Qin dynasty would be blamed for creating a totalitarian society, thereby experiencing decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment". In Han Fei's philosophy the ruler possessed authority regarding reward and penalty, enacted through law. Shang Yang and Han Fei promoted absolute adherence to the law, regardless of the circumstances or the person. Ministers were only to be rewarded if their words were accurate to the results of their proposals. Legalism, in accordance with Shang Yang's interpretation, could encourage the state to be a militaristic autarky. ====Naturalists==== The School of Naturalists or the School of Yin-yang () was a Warring States era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the wuxing; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school. His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). In its early days, this theory was most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi. In later periods, these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief. This school was absorbed into Taoism's alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into the Chinese medical framework. The earliest surviving recordings of this are in the Mawangdui texts and Huangdi Neijing. ==== Mohism ==== Mohism (Moism), founded by Mozi, promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit. Everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war. Mozi was strongly against Confucian ritual, instead emphasizing pragmatic survival through farming, fortification, and statecraft. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the Will of Heaven, but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism. ==== Logicians ==== The logicians (School of Names) were concerned with logic, paradoxes, names and actuality (similar to Confucian rectification of names). The logician Hui Shi was a friendly rival to Zhuangzi, arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner. Another logician, Gongsun Long, originated the famous When a White Horse is Not a Horse dialogue. ==== Agriculturalists ==== Agriculturalism was an early agrarian social and political philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. The philosophy is founded on the notion that human society originates with the development of agriculture, and societies are based upon "people's natural propensity to farm." The Agriculturalists believed that the ideal government, modeled after the semi-mythical governance of Shennong, is led by a benevolent king, one who works alongside the people in tilling the fields. The Agriculturalist king is not paid by the government through its treasuries; his livelihood is derived from the profits he earns working in the fields, not his leadership. Unlike the Confucians, the Agriculturalists did not believe in the division of labour, arguing instead that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarian self sufficiency. The Agriculturalists supported the fixing of prices, in which all similar goods, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price. Buddhism brought to China the idea of many hells, where sinners went, but the deceased sinners souls could be saved by pious acts. During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy. ===Schools of thought=== ==== Neo-Confucianism ==== Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism combined those ideas into a more metaphysical framework. Its concepts include li (principle, akin to Plato's forms), qi (vital or material force), taiji (the Great Ultimate), and xin (mind). Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073) is commonly seen as the first true "pioneer" of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy. Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and religious Daoism. Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts. Neo-Confucianist philosophers like Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming are seen as the most important figures of Neo-Confucianism. File:Zhu-xi1.gif\|Zhu Xi was a leading figure in Neo-Confucianism. File:Wang-yang-ming.jpg\|Wang Yangming was an important figure in Neo-Confucianism. == Modern era == During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also begun to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. Chinese philosophy never developed the concept of human rights, so that classical Chinese lacked words for them. In 1864, W.A.P. Martin had to invent the word quanli () to translate the Western concept of "rights" in the process of translating Henry Wheaton's Elements of International Law into classical Chinese. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls such as the May Fourth Movement to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Zedong added Marxism, Stalinism, Chinese Marxist Philosophy and other communist thought. When the Chinese Communist Party took over in 1949, previous schools of thought were denounced as backward, and later purged during the Cultural Revolution as part of the campaign against the Four Olds. During the Xi Jinping administration, the People's Republic of China has promoted a revival in Chinese philosophy. In 2024, East China Normal University established the Chinese Zhuzi Research Institute to promote the study of Chinese philosophies. === New Confucianism === == Philosophers == Confucius, seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists. Mencius, Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration Xun Zi, another Confucius' follower, closer to realism, teacher of Han Fei and Li Si Zhu Xi, founder of Neo-Confucianism Wang Yangming, most influential proponent of "state of mind." () Laozi, the semi-mythical founder of Taoist school. Zhuang Zhou, said to be the author of the Zhuangzi. Lie Yukou, said to be the author of the Liezi. Yang Zhu, proposed ethical egoism and founded Yangism. Mozi, the founder of Mohist school. Shang Yang, Legalist founder and pivotal Qin reformer Han Fei, one of the most notable theoreticians of Legalism Li Si, major proponent and practitioner of Legalism == Concepts == Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns. Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are: Dao (the Way, or one's doctrine) De (virtue, power) Li (principle, Law) Qi (vital energy or material force) The Tai-chi (Great Heavenly Axis) forms a unity of the two complementary polarities, Yin and Yang. The word Yin originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the dark, passive, feminine principle; whereas Yang (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, masculine principle. Yin and Yang are not antagonistic, they alternate in inverse proportion to one another—like the rise and fall of a wave and are known by their comparison. Among the commonalities of Chinese philosophies are: The tendency not to view man as separate from nature. Questions about the nature and existence of a monotheistic deity, which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy, have not been important in Chinese philosophies or a source of great conflict in Chinese traditional religion. The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide. The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.	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5,823	Confucius	Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the philosophy and teachings of Confucius. His philosophical teachings, called Confucianism, emphasized personal and governmental morality, harmonious social relationships, righteousness, kindness, sincerity, and a ruler's responsibilities to lead by virtue. Confucius considered himself a transmitter for the values of earlier periods which he claimed had been abandoned in his time. He advocated for filial piety, endorsing strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, the respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. Confucius recommended a robust family unit as the cornerstone for an ideal government. He championed the Silver Rule, or a negative form of the Golden Rule, advising, "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself." The time of Confucius's life saw a rich diversity of thought, and was a formative period in China's intellectual history. His ideas gained in prominence during the Warring States period, but experienced setback immediately following the Qin conquest. Under Emperor Wu of Han, Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with affiliated works becoming mandatory readings for career paths leading to officialdom. During the Tang and Song dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in the West as Neo-Confucianism, and later as New Confucianism. From ancient dynasties to the modern era, Confucianism has integrated into the Chinese social fabric and way of life. Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited many of the ancient texts including all of the Five Classics. However, modern scholars exercise caution in attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself, for at least some of the texts and philosophy associated with him were of a more ancient origin. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but not until many years after his death. ==Name== The name "Confucius" is a Latinized form of the Mandarin Chinese (, "Master Kong"), and was coined in the late 16th century by early Jesuit missionaries to China. Confucius's family name was Kong () and his given name was Qiu (). His courtesy name, a capping (guan: ) given at his coming of age ceremony, and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni (), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family. ==Life== ===Early life=== It is thought that Confucius was born on 28 September 551 BCE, in Zou (, in modern Shandong). The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu, who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu. Not all modern scholars accept Confucius's descent from Song nobility. Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai () in poverty. His mother later died at less than 40 years of age. At age 19, he married Lady Qiguan (), and a year later the couple had their first child, their son Kong Li (). Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child and one was named Kong Jiao (). Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts. Confucius was born into the class of shi (), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial. ===Political career=== In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of , Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of , the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year (), Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime. The Xunzi says that once assuming the post, Confucius ordered the execution of Shaozheng Mao, another Lu state official and scholar whose lectures attracted the three thousand disciples several times except Yan Hui. Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, eloquent duplicity, erudition in bizarre facts and generosity to evildoers'. Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In , Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the state of Qi. The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in . Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao, a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore the power of the duke. However, Dubs is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee. During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep the duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground. The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi—as it could have harbored such rebels—or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character. When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. The Zuo Zhuan recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to Qi, and cause the destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls. Later in , Duke Ding of Lu personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in the Zuo Zhuan and the Records of the Grand Historian, Confucius departed his homeland in after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive. ===Exile=== The Shiji stated that the neighboring Qi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state. After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around the principality states of north-east and central China including Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented. ===Return home=== According to the Zuozhuan, Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu. The Shiji depicts him spending his last years teaching 3000 pupils, with 72 or 77 accomplished disciples that mastered the Six Arts. Meanwhile, Confucius dedicated himself in transmitting the old wisdom by writing or editing the Five Classics. During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime. Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Confucius was buried on the bank of the Sishui River, to the north of Qufu City in Shandong Province. Starting as a humble tomb, the cemetery of Confucius had been expanded by emperors since the Han Dynasty. To date, the Cemetery of Confucius (孔林) covers an area of 183 hectares with more than 100,000 graves of the Kong descendants, it is included in the World Heritage List for its cultural and architectural value. ==Philosophy== In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that they can capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", to aid their self-cultivation to become a perfect man. For example, the Annals would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events; the Book of Odes reflects the "mood and concerns" of the commoners and their view on government; while the Book of Changes encompasses the key theory and practice of divination. Although some Chinese people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue that its values are secular and that it is less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious. Confucius was considered more of a humanist than a spiritualist, his discussions on afterlife and views concerning Heaven remained indeterminate, and he is largely unconcerned with spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of souls. ===Ethics=== One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology. His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote: This remark was considered a strong manifestation of Confucius' advocacy in humanism. One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule, sometimes called the "Silver Rule" owing to its negative form: Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness. The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in lǐ () is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. Some believed that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony. In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts. In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest or profitableness (). While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the right thing for its own sake, without regarding the material gains. Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (). Rén consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness. Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little. Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven () that could unify the "world" (, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules. While Confucius supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary. ===Music and poetry=== Music was one of the six arts that students needed to master, together with archery, charioteering, mathematics, calligraphy, and a partner to music, the purpose of rituals. Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order. Unlike other philosophers around the world, Confucius viewed music and music theory beyond a mere art form or curriculum subject, and stated that it was intrinsically intertwined with rites in structuring man. "Music is that which moves man from the internal; rites are that which affects man on the external. Music brings about harmony. Rites ensure obedience." To Confucius, music created the focus necessary to unite and harmonize man. Thus, music and rites together were more than beneficial but were to make people act in a manner compatible with heaven and earth. The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth." Therefore, the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper. In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of poetry in the intellectual and moral development of an individual: {{poemquote\|The Master said, "My children, why do you not study the ? serve to stimulate the mind. They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. They teach the art of sociability. They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince. From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants." ==Legacy== Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma. Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius () and Xunzi () both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius () articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xunzi () underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism. This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which held that humanity and righteousness were not sufficient in government, and that rulers should instead rely on statecrafts, punishments, and law. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Si, Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty, convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou dynasty before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Emperor Wu of Han, the works attributed to Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi, whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming dynasty and even the Yuan dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them. During the Song dynasty, Confucianism was revitalized in a movement known as Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism was a revival of Confucianism that expanded on classical theories by incorporating metaphysics and new approaches to self-cultivation and enlightenment, influenced by Buddhism and Daoism. The most renowned scholar of this period was Zhu Xi. There are clear Buddhist and Daoist influences in the Neo-Confucian advocacy of "quiet sitting" (meditation) as a technique of self-cultivation that leads to transformative experiences of insight." In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century. The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty. The first known effort was by Michele Ruggieri, who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in Salerno. Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits—Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet, and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687. François Noël, after failing to persuade ClementXI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius did not constitute idolatry, completed the Confucian canon at Prague in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first translation of the collected works of Mencius. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The Ahmadiyya believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as were Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages. According to the Siddhar tradition of Tamil Nadu, Confucius is one of the 18 esteemed Siddhars of yore, and is better known as Kalangi Nathar or Kamalamuni. The Thyagaraja Temple in Thiruvarur, Tamil Nadu is home to his Jeeva Samadhi. In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker. ===Teaching and Disciples=== Confucius was regarded as the first teacher who advocated for public welfare and the spread of education in China. Confucius devoted his entire life, from a relatively young age, to teaching. He pioneered private education adopting a curriculum known as the Six Arts, aimed at making education accessible to all social classes, and believed in its power to cultivate character rather than merely vocational skills. Confucius not only made teaching his profession but also contributed to the development of a distinct class of professionals in ancient China—the gentlemen who were neither farmers, artisans, merchants, nor officials but instead dedicated themselves to teaching and potential government service. Confucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000 students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding. His disciples and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential intellectual force in the Warring States period. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian dedicated a chapter in his Records of the Grand Historian to the biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in their time and afterward. Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his collective biography, while Kongzi Jiayu, another early source, records 76, not completely overlapping. The two sources together yield the names of 96 disciples. Twenty-two of them are mentioned in the Analects, while the Mencius records 24. Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a bundle of dried meat from any prospective student. According to his disciple Zigong, his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn anybody away. Most of them came from Lu, Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over China, with six from the state of Wey (such as Zigong), three from Qin, two each from Chen and Qi, and one each from Cai, Chu, and Song. Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and Gongye Chang. His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation. Confucius's favorite disciple was Yan Hui, most probably one of the most impoverished of them all. Sima Niu, in contrast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state. Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became well learned in the principles and methods of government. He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual. Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence. Even though Confucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable. In fact, the disciple Zilu even died defending his ruler in Wey. Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup, which narrowly failed. As a likely consequence, it was after this that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to government positions. A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which were arranged by Confucius. By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu state over the ruling ducal house. Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment. Confucius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family. ===In the West=== The influence of Confucius has been observed on multiple Western thinkers, including Niels Bohr, Benjamin Franklin, Allen Ginsberg, Thomas Jefferson, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Robert Cummings Neville, Alexander Pope, Ezra Pound, François Quesnay, Friedrich Schiller, Voltaire, and Christian Wolff. ===Visual portraits=== No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han dynasty that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher. An early verbal portrayal of Confucius is found in the chapter "External Things" () of the book Zhuangzi (), finished in about 3rd BCE, long after Confucius's death. The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of the Han dynasty ruler Marquis of Haihun (died ). The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror. In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty, it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong. In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi. The South Wall Frieze in the courtroom of the Supreme Court of the United States depicts Confucius as a teacher of harmony, learning, and virtue. ===Fictional portrayals=== There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: the 1940 film Confucius starring Tang Huaiqiu, and the 2010 film Confucius starring Chow Yun-fat. Confucius appears as a leader in Civilization VII, leading China. ===Memorials=== Soon after Confucius's death, Qufu, his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. The Han dynasty Records of the Grand Historian records that it had already become a place of pilgrimage for ministers. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. There are also numerous temples dedicated to Confucius and distinguished Confucian scholars. These temples have been used for ceremonies paying tribute to Confucius as a revered Master, honoring his guiding principles that have shaped Chinese society. Followers of Confucianism have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius () every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li () as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius's birth. In the 20th century, this tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance. In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius () is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day or Christmas Day do in the Western world. In South Korea, a grand-scale memorial ceremony called Seokjeon Daeje is held twice a year on Confucius's birthday and the anniversary of his death, at Confucian academies across the country and Sungkyunkwan in Seoul. ===Descendants=== Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis 35 times since Gaozu of the Han dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke 42 times from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation. During the Southern Song dynasty, the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou in Zhejiang, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000. The Hanlin Academy rank of Wujing boshi 五經博士 was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng. The leader of the southern branch was 孔祥楷 Kong Xiangkai. In 1351, during the reign of Emperor Toghon Temür of the Yuan dynasty, 54th-generation Kong Shao () moved from China to Korea during the Goryeo dynasty, and was received courteously by Princess Noguk (the Mongolian-born queen consort of the future king Gongmin). After being naturalized as a subject of Goryeo, he changed the hanja of his name from "昭" to "紹" (both pronounced so in Korean), married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo (), 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan (), whose ancestral seat was located in Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province. In 1794, during the reign of King Jeongjo, the clan then changed its name to Gokbu Gong clan () in honor of Confucius's birthplace Qufu (). Famous descendants include actors such as Gong Yoo (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) and Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); and artists such as male idol group B1A4 member Gongchan (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriter Minzy (real name Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great aunt, traditional folk dancer (공옥진). Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on 1 January 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman. Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today. A descendant of Confucius, H. H. Kung, was the Premier of the Republic of China. One of his sons, (孔令傑), married Debra Paget who gave birth to Gregory Kung (). Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation, has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC), he has two million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated three million in all. Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China. and in 1715 in Xuanwei in Yunnan province. Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga (), a Muslim woman, and Kong Yanrong (), 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480, and are found among the Hui and Dongxiang peoples. The new genealogy includes the Muslims. Kong Dejun () is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius. Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members of the collateral branches in mainland China. Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time. The aim of the genetic test was to help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records to prove their descent. However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing. Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance ... It's not just a scientific question." The main branch of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all. In 2013, a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the same Y chromosome as reported by Fudan University. The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the CGCC. Women are now included for the first time.	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5,826	Complex number	In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^{2}= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the form a + bi, where and are real numbers. Because no real number satisfies the above equation, was called an imaginary number by René Descartes. For the complex number is called the ', and is called the '. The set of complex numbers is denoted by either of the symbols \mathbb C or . Despite the historical nomenclature, "imaginary" complex numbers have a mathematical existence as firm as that of the real numbers, and they are fundamental tools in the scientific description of the natural world. Complex numbers allow solutions to all polynomial equations, even those that have no solutions in real numbers. More precisely, the fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that every non-constant polynomial equation with real or complex coefficients has a solution which is a complex number. For example, the equation (x+1)^2 = -9 has no real solution, because the square of a real number cannot be negative, but has the two nonreal complex solutions -1+3i and -1-3i. Addition, subtraction and multiplication of complex numbers can be naturally defined by using the rule i^{2}=-1 along with the associative, commutative, and distributive laws. Every nonzero complex number has a multiplicative inverse. This makes the complex numbers a field with the real numbers as a subfield. Because of these properties, , and which form is written depends upon convention and style considerations. The complex numbers also form a real vector space of dimension two, with \{1,i\} as a standard basis. This standard basis makes the complex numbers a Cartesian plane, called the complex plane. This allows a geometric interpretation of the complex numbers and their operations, and conversely some geometric objects and operations can be expressed in terms of complex numbers. For example, the real numbers form the real line, which is pictured as the horizontal axis of the complex plane, while real multiples of i are the vertical axis. A complex number can also be defined by its geometric polar coordinates: the radius is called the absolute value of the complex number, while the angle from the positive real axis is called the argument of the complex number. The complex numbers of absolute value one form the unit circle. Adding a fixed complex number to all complex numbers defines a translation in the complex plane, and multiplying by a fixed complex number is a similarity centered at the origin (dilating by the absolute value, and rotating by the argument). The operation of complex conjugation is the reflection symmetry with respect to the real axis. The complex numbers form a rich structure that is simultaneously an algebraically closed field, a commutative algebra over the reals, and a Euclidean vector space of dimension two. ==Definition and basic operations== A complex number is an expression of the form , where and are real numbers, and is an abstract symbol, the so-called imaginary unit, whose meaning will be explained further below. For example, is a complex number. For a complex number , the real number is called its real part, and the real number (not the complex number ) is its imaginary part. The real part of a complex number is denoted , \mathcal{Re}(z), or \mathfrak{R}(z); the imaginary part is , \mathcal{Im}(z), or \mathfrak{I}(z): for example, \operatorname{Re}(2 + 3i) = 2 , \operatorname{Im}(2 + 3i) = 3 . A complex number can be identified with the ordered pair of real numbers (\Re (z),\Im (z)), which may be interpreted as coordinates of a point in a Euclidean plane with standard coordinates, which is then called the complex plane or Argand diagram. The horizontal axis is generally used to display the real part, with increasing values to the right, and the imaginary part marks the vertical axis, with increasing values upwards. A real number can be regarded as a complex number , whose imaginary part is 0. A purely imaginary number is a complex number , whose real part is zero. It is common to write , , and ; for example, . The set of all complex numbers is denoted by \Complex (blackboard bold) or (upright bold). In some disciplines such as electromagnetism and electrical engineering, is used instead of , as frequently represents electric current, It is also denoted by some authors by z^*. Geometrically, is the "reflection" of about the real axis. Conjugating twice gives the original complex number: \overline{\overline{z}}=z. A complex number is real if and only if it equals its own conjugate. The unary operation of taking the complex conjugate of a complex number cannot be expressed by applying only the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For any complex number , the product z \cdot \overline z = (x+iy)(x-iy) = x^2 + y^2 is a non-negative real number. This allows to define the absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of z to be the square root \|z\|=\sqrt{x^2+y^2}. By Pythagoras' theorem, \|z\| is the distance from the origin to the point representing the complex number z in the complex plane. In particular, the circle of radius one around the origin consists precisely of the numbers z such that \|z\| = 1 . If z = x = x + 0i is a real number, then \|z\|= \|x\| : its absolute value as a complex number and as a real number are equal. Using the conjugate, the reciprocal of a nonzero complex number z = x + yi can be computed to be \frac{1}{z} = \frac{\bar{z}}{z\bar{z}} = \frac{\bar{z}} The process of extending the field \mathbb R of reals to \mathbb C is an instance of the Cayley–Dickson construction. Applying this construction iteratively to \C then yields the quaternions, the octonions, the sedenions, and the trigintaduonions. This construction turns out to diminish the structural properties of the involved number systems. Unlike the reals, \Complex is not an ordered field, that is to say, it is not possible to define a relation that is compatible with the addition and multiplication. In fact, in any ordered field, the square of any element is necessarily positive, so precludes the existence of an ordering on \Complex. Passing from \C to the quaternions \mathbb H loses commutativity, while the octonions (additionally to not being commutative) fail to be associative. The reals, complex numbers, quaternions and octonions are all normed division algebras over \mathbb R. By Hurwitz's theorem they are the only ones; the sedenions, the next step in the Cayley–Dickson construction, fail to have this structure. The Cayley–Dickson construction is closely related to the regular representation of \mathbb C, thought of as an \mathbb R-algebra (an \mathbb{R}-vector space with a multiplication), with respect to the basis . This means the following: the \mathbb R-linear map \begin{align} \mathbb{C} &\rightarrow \mathbb{C} \\ z &\mapsto wz \end{align} for some fixed complex number can be represented by a matrix (once a basis has been chosen). With respect to the basis , this matrix is \begin{pmatrix} \operatorname{Re}(w) & -\operatorname{Im}(w) \\ \operatorname{Im}(w) & \operatorname{Re}(w) \end{pmatrix}, that is, the one mentioned in the section on matrix representation of complex numbers above. While this is a linear representation of \mathbb C in the 2 × 2 real matrices, it is not the only one. Any matrix J = \begin{pmatrix}p & q \\ r & -p \end{pmatrix}, \quad p^2 + qr + 1 = 0 has the property that its square is the negative of the identity matrix: . Then \{ z = a I + b J : a,b \in \mathbb{R} \} is also isomorphic to the field \mathbb C, and gives an alternative complex structure on \mathbb R^2. This is generalized by the notion of a linear complex structure. Hypercomplex numbers also generalize \mathbb R, \mathbb C, \mathbb H, and \mathbb{O}. For example, this notion contains the split-complex numbers, which are elements of the ring \mathbb R[x]/(x^2-1) (as opposed to \mathbb R[x]/(x^2+1) for complex numbers). In this ring, the equation has four solutions. The field \mathbb R is the completion of \mathbb Q, the field of rational numbers, with respect to the usual absolute value metric. Other choices of metrics on \mathbb Q lead to the fields \mathbb Q_p of -adic numbers (for any prime number ), which are thereby analogous to \mathbb{R}. There are no other nontrivial ways of completing \mathbb Q than \mathbb R and \mathbb Q_p, by Ostrowski's theorem. The algebraic closures \overline {\mathbb{Q}_p} of \mathbb Q_p still carry a norm, but (unlike \mathbb C) are not complete with respect to it. The completion \mathbb{C}_p of \overline {\mathbb{Q}_p} turns out to be algebraically closed. By analogy, the field is called -adic complex numbers. The fields \mathbb R, \mathbb Q_p, and their finite field extensions, including \mathbb C, are called local fields.	[ "distributive law", "Copenhagen Academy", "rational root test", "American Institute of Electrical Engineers", "capacitor", "spinor", "Henri Poincaré", "axiom of choice", "topological space", "essential singularity", "commutative property", "Caspar Wessel", "Linear differential equation", "convergent series", "exponentiation", "Laplace transform", "Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers", "ellipse", "automorphism", "sedenion", "open subset", "Network analysis (electrical circuits)", "amplitude", "spacetime", "linear differential equation", "p-adic number", "complex conjugation", "cartography", "quaternions", "exponential function", "voltage", "Karl Weierstrass", "improper integral", "Giusto Bellavitis", "analytic continuation", "characteristic (algebra)", "Augustin-Louis Cauchy", "eigenvalue", "digital signal processing", "Gaussian integer", "William Rowan Hamilton", "Cartesian plane", "Geometric algebra", "elementary function", "ordered pair", "compass and straightedge constructions", "Electrical impedance", "octonion", "shape", "Riemann zeta function", "principal value", "Complex-base system", "Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia", "matrix exponential", "affine transformation", "Mathematical analysis", "Pythagoras' theorem", "(ε, δ)-definition of limit", "polynomial", "argument (complex analysis)", "Fundamental theorem of algebra", "absolute value", "G.H. Hardy", "metric (mathematics)", "field (mathematics)", "blackboard bold", "involution (mathematics)", "tensor", "number field", "Polar coordinate system", "complex function", "cosine", "inversive geometry", "negative number", "inductor", "electromagnetism", "polynomial ring", "special relativity", "C. V. Mourey", "matrix (mathematics)", "Eigendecomposition of a matrix", "radius of convergence", "Princeton University Press", "Norway", "locally compact", "Unit complex number", "Wick rotation", "Steiner inellipse", "irreducible polynomial", "Felix Klein", "convergent sequence", "pole (complex analysis)", "Congruence (geometry)", "Eisenstein integer", "complex analysis", "frequency", "imaginary number", "Cauchy-Riemann equations", "associative law", "trigonometric functions", "trigintaduonion", "Geometry of numbers", "arg (mathematics)", "Abraham de Moivre", "if and only if", "interval (mathematics)", "multiplicative inverse", "nonminimum phase", "polynomial equation", "wavelet", "Hilbert space", "Euler's identity", "Quartic equation", "Hurwitz's theorem (normed division algebras)", "unary operation", "Euler's formula", "Schrödinger equation", "root of unity", "Cubic equation", "Circular motion", "rotation matrix", "Line (geometry)", "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "linear representation", "Journal of Online Mathematics and Its Applications", "John Warren (mathematician)", "Richard Dedekind", "Mandelbrot set", "unit circle", "electrical engineering", "Digital data", "Kernel (algebra)", "real vector space", "Symmetric matrix", "Marden's theorem", "commutative algebra (structure)", "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi", "Jean-Robert Argand", "surjective", "Puiseux series", "number theory", "Two-dimensional space", "dimension (vector space)", "Niels Henrik Abel", "E (mathematical constant)", "Fourier transform", "nonagon", "linear complex structure", "prime number theorem", "infinite series", "parallelogram", "quantum mechanics", "base (topology)", "addition", "commutative law", "digital image processing", "Scipione del Ferro", "neighborhood (topology)", "ideal (ring theory)", "John Wiley & Sons", "fundamental theorem of algebra", "translation (geometry)", "determinant", "algebraically closed field", "field theory (mathematics)", "standard basis", "bijective", "Elements of Algebra", "McGraw-Hill", "Cauchy–Riemann equations", "signal analysis", "John Wallis", "Dual-complex number", "American Mathematical Monthly", "fluid dynamics", "sine", "BIBO stability", "Liouville's theorem (complex analysis)", "Denmark", "pyramid", "difference equations", "Set (mathematics)", "signal processing", "Galois theory", "winding number", "marginal stability", "Focus (geometry)", "total order", "subring", "Root of a function", "reflection symmetry", "triangle inequality", "Dover Publications", "video", "Rotation matrix", "Wilhelm Wirtinger", "isomorphic", "control theory", "topology", "Leonhard Euler", "Lightness (color)", "Holomorphic function", "Oxford University Press", "nth root", "complex logarithm", "complex plane", "amplitude modulation", "Algebra (ring theory)", "root locus", "real line", "Complex geometry", "Euclidean vector space", "Otto Hölder", "Rafael Bombelli", "Gerolamo Cardano", "Nichols plot", "algebraic number", "analytic signal", "Sound", "cubic equation", "isomorphism", "transpose", "quantum field theory", "distributive property", "coefficient", "ring isomorphism", "Vibration", "subtraction", "Nyquist plot", "rational number", "Complex coordinate space", "Orthogonal matrix", "rotation (mathematics)", "tangent (function)", "Exponentiation", "Data compression", "complex conjugate", "number system", "Argand diagram", "frustum", "complete metric space", "multivalued function", "Iteration", "Fourier analysis", "mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics", "Hermitian matrix", "arctan", "continuity (topology)", "topological ring", "algebraically closed", "transcendence degree", "graph of a function of two variables", "methods of contour integration", "sine wave", "collinearity", "analytic function", "Hypercomplex number", "casus irreducibilis", "Hellenistic mathematics", "prime field", "inverse function", "Argument (complex analysis)", "Julia set", "radius", "general relativity", "conjugate transpose", "abstract algebra", "zeros and poles", "algebraic closure", "phase (waves)", "potential flow in two dimensions", "normed division algebra", "pi", "Meromorphic function", "angle notation", "Hermann Schwarz", "angular frequency", "Jacques Frédéric Français", "regular representation", "Machin-like formula", "Unitary matrix", "hyperbolic functions", "identity theorem", "matrix mechanics", "phasor", "Shape", "natural logarithm", "real analysis", "radian", "unstable", "AD", "frequency domain", "Aequationes Mathematicae", "maximum power transfer theorem", "Hero of Alexandria", "ordered field", "continuous function", "metric space", "Analytic continuation", "resistor", "split-complex number", "imaginary unit", "René Descartes", "Argumentum a fortiori", "de Moivre's formula", "limit (mathematics)", "Spinor", "trigonometric identities", "triangle", "differential equation", "square matrix", "Bernhard Riemann", "algebraic extension", "mathematician", "linear polynomial", "Jean le Rond d'Alembert", "time domain", "quaternion", "real number", "similarity (geometry)", "algebraic solution", "Ars Magna (Cardano book)", "local field", "diverge (stability theory)", "prime number", "Addison-Wesley", "rationalisation (mathematics)", "Phasor (sine waves)", "commutative ring", "square root", "cardinality of the continuum", "connected space", "Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares", "negative numbers", "Ostrowski's theorem", "algebraic number theory", "power series", "applied mathematics" ]
5,828	Cryptozoology	Cryptozoology is a pseudoscience and subculture that searches for and studies unknown, legendary, or extinct animals whose present existence is disputed or unsubstantiated, particularly those popular in folklore, such as Bigfoot, the Loch Ness Monster, Yeti, the chupacabra, the Jersey Devil, or the Mokele-mbembe. Cryptozoologists refer to these entities as cryptids, a term coined by the subculture. Because it does not follow the scientific method, cryptozoology is considered a pseudoscience by mainstream science: it is neither a branch of zoology nor of folklore studies. It was originally founded in the 1950s by zoologists Bernard Heuvelmans and Ivan T. Sanderson. Scholars have noted that the subculture rejected mainstream approaches from an early date, and that adherents often express hostility to mainstream science. Scholars studying cryptozoologists and their influence (including cryptozoology's association with Young Earth creationism) noted parallels in cryptozoology and other pseudosciences such as ghost hunting and ufology, and highlighted uncritical media propagation of cryptozoologist claims. ==Terminology, history, and approach== As a field, cryptozoology originates from the works of Bernard Heuvelmans, a Belgian zoologist, and Ivan T. Sanderson, a Scottish zoologist. Notably, Heuvelmans published On the Track of Unknown Animals (French: ) in 1955, a landmark work among cryptozoologists that was followed by numerous other similar works. In addition, Sanderson published a series of books that contributed to the developing hallmarks of cryptozoology, including Abominable Snowmen: Legend Come to Life (1961). Heuvelmans himself traced cryptozoology to the work of Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans, who theorized that a large unidentified species of seal was responsible for sea serpent reports. Cryptozoology is 'the study of hidden animals' (from Ancient Greek: κρυπτός, kryptós "hidden, secret"; Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion "animal", and λόγος, logos, i.e. "knowledge, study"). The term dates from 1959 or before— Heuvelmans attributes the coinage of the term cryptozoology to Sanderson. Following cryptozoology, the term cryptid was coined in 1983 by cryptozoologist J. E. Wall in the summer issue of the International Society of Cryptozoology newsletter. According to Wall "[It has been] suggested that new terms be coined to replace sensational and often misleading terms like 'monster'. My suggestion is 'cryptid', meaning a living thing having the quality of being hidden or unknown ... describing those creatures which are (or may be) subjects of cryptozoological investigation." The Oxford English Dictionary defines the noun cryptid as "an animal whose existence or survival to the present day is disputed or unsubstantiated; any animal of interest to a cryptozoologist". While used by most cryptozoologists, the term cryptid is not used by academic zoologists. In a textbook aimed at undergraduates, academics Caleb W. Lack and Jacques Rousseau note that the subculture's focus on what it deems to be "cryptids" is a pseudoscientific extension of older belief in monsters and other similar entities from the folkloric record, yet with a "new, more scientific-sounding name: cryptids". While biologists regularly identify new species, cryptozoologists often focus on creatures from the folkloric record. Most famously, these include the Loch Ness Monster, Champ (folklore), Bigfoot, the chupacabra, as well as other "imposing beasts that could be labeled as monsters". In their search for these entities, cryptozoologists may employ devices such as motion-sensitive cameras, night-vision equipment, and audio-recording equipment. While there have been attempts to codify cryptozoological approaches, unlike biologists, zoologists, botanists, and other academic disciplines, however, "there are no accepted, uniform, or successful methods for pursuing cryptids". In a 2025 interview with science writer Sharon Hill "Cryptids have become cutified" ... The reason why cryptids are seeing a resurgence are because of the Internet, for example, the Flatwoods monster is seen in over 33 video games, but the real reason according to Hill is because for awhile cryptids were thought to be real animals that some people had assigned magical powers to, and with some investigation the hope was that the magic could be stripped away and they would discover a real, perhaps unknown animal. “One of the reasons why I think that fell apart completely was because the International Society of Cryptozoology fell apart completely, so there were no longer any gatekeepers as of the early 1990’s to say ‘a cryptid is these animals that we are studying because we think it’s got a zoological basis’, those people were gone … they were quite old, they died and there was nobody there to take over that gatekeeping aspect although some people tried. … Then you saw an explosion of amateurs in the 2000’s … they became researchers that connected via the Internet. Now they start making media they can publish themselves … it started to hit a younger and younger generation … who love these creatures … now everything can be a cryptid.” Historically, notable cryptozoologists have often identified instances featuring "irrefutable evidence" (such as Sanderson and Krantz), only for the evidence to be revealed as the product of a hoax. This may occur during a closer examination by experts or upon confession of the hoaxer. === Expeditions === Cryptozoologists have often led unsuccessful expeditions to find evidence of cryptids. Bigfoot researcher René Dahinden led searches into caves to find evidence of sasquatch, as early sasquatch legends claimed they lived in rocky areas. Despite the failure of these searches, he spent years trying to find proof of bigfoot. Lensgrave Adam Christoffer Knuth led an expedition into Lake Tele in the Congo to find the Mokele-mbembe in 2018. While the expedition was a failure, they discovered a new species of green algae. ===Young Earth creationism=== A subset of cryptozoology promotes the pseudoscience of Young Earth creationism, rejecting conventional science in favor of a literal Biblical interpretation and promoting concepts such as "living dinosaurs". Science writer Sharon Hill observes that the Young Earth creationist segment of cryptozoology is "well-funded and able to conduct expeditions with a goal of finding a living dinosaur that they think would invalidate evolution". Anthropologist Jeb J. Card says that "[[Creationism\|[c]reationists]] have embraced cryptozoology and some cryptozoological expeditions are funded by and conducted by creationists hoping to disprove evolution." In a 2013 interview, paleontologist Donald Prothero notes an uptick in creationist cryptozoologists. He observes that "[p]eople who actively search for Loch Ness monsters or Mokele Mbembe do it entirely as creationist ministers. They think that if they found a dinosaur in the Congo it would overturn all of evolution. It wouldn't. It would just be a late-occurring dinosaur, but that's their mistaken notion of evolution." Citing a 2013 exhibit at the Petersburg, Kentucky-based Creation Museum, which claimed that dragons were once biological creatures who walked the earth alongside humanity and is broadly dedicated to Young Earth creationism, religious studies academic Justin Mullis notes that "[c]ryptozoology has a long and curious history with Young Earth Creationism, with this new exhibit being just one of the most recent examples". Academic Paul Thomas analyzes the influence and connections between cryptozoology in his 2020 study of the Creation Museum and the creationist theme park Ark Encounter. Thomas comments that, "while the Creation Museum and the Ark Encounter are flirting with pseudoarchaeology, coquettishly whispering pseudoarchaeological rhetoric, they are each fully in bed with cryptozoology" and observes that "[y]oung-earth creationists and cryptozoologists make natural bed fellows. As with pseudoarchaeology, both young-earth creationists and cryptozoologists bristle at the rejection of mainstream secular science and lament a seeming conspiracy to prevent serious consideration of their claims." ===Lack of critical media coverage=== Media outlets have often uncritically disseminated information from cryptozoologist sources, including newspapers that repeat false claims made by cryptozoologists or television shows that feature cryptozoologists as monster hunters (such as the popular and purportedly nonfiction American television show MonsterQuest, which aired from 2007 to 2010). Media coverage of purported "cryptids" often fails to provide more likely explanations, further propagating claims made by cryptozoologists. ==Reception and pseudoscience== There is a broad consensus among academics that cryptozoology is a pseudoscience. The subculture is regularly criticized for reliance on anecdotal information and because in the course of investigating animals that most scientists believe are unlikely to have existed, cryptozoologists do not follow the scientific method. No academic course of study nor university degree program grants the status of cryptozoologist and the subculture is primarily the domain of individuals without training in the natural sciences. Anthropologist Jeb J. Card summarizes cryptozoology in a survey of pseudoscience and pseudoarchaeology: Card notes that "cryptozoologists often show their disdain and even hatred for professional scientists, including those who enthusiastically participated in cryptozoology", which he traces back to Heuvelmans's early "rage against critics of cryptozoology". He finds parallels with cryptozoology and other pseudosciences, such as ghost hunting and ufology, and compares the approach of cryptozoologists to colonial big-game hunters, and to aspects of European imperialism. According to Card, "[m]ost cryptids are framed as the subject of indigenous legends typically collected in the heyday of comparative folklore, though such legends may be heavily modified or worse. Cryptozoology's complicated mix of sympathy, interest, and appropriation of indigenous culture (or non-indigenous construction of it) is also found in New Age circles and dubious "Indian burial grounds" and other legends [...] invoked in hauntings such as the "Amityville" hoax [...]". In a 2011 foreword for The American Biology Teacher, then National Association of Biology Teachers president Dan Ward uses cryptozoology as an example of "technological pseudoscience" that may confuse students about the scientific method. Ward says that "Cryptozoology [...] is not valid science or even science at all. It is monster hunting." Historian of science Brian Regal includes an entry for cryptozoology in his Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia (2009). Regal says that "as an intellectual endeavor, cryptozoology has been studied as much as cryptozoologists have sought hidden animals". In a 1992 issue of Folklore, folklorist Véronique Campion-Vincent says: Campion-Vincent says that "four currents can be distinguished in the study of mysterious animal appearances": "Forteans" ("compiler[s] of anomalies" such as via publications like the Fortean Times), "occultists" (which she describes as related to "Forteans"), "folklorists", and "cryptozoologists". Regarding cryptozoologists, Campion-Vincent says that "this movement seems to deserve the appellation of parascience, like parapsychology: the same corpus is reviewed; many scientists participate, but for those who have an official status of university professor or researcher, the participation is a private hobby". In his analysis of cryptozoology, folklorist Peter Dendle says that "cryptozoology devotees consciously position themselves in defiance of mainstream science" and that: In a paper published in 2013, Dendle refers to cryptozoologists as "contemporary monster hunters" that "keep alive a sense of wonder in a world that has been very thoroughly charted, mapped, and tracked, and that is largely available for close scrutiny on Google Earth and satellite imaging" and that "on the whole the devotion of substantial resources for this pursuit betrays a lack of awareness of the basis for scholarly consensus (largely ignoring, for instance, evidence of evolutionary biology and the fossil record)." According to historian Mike Dash, few scientists doubt there are thousands of unknown animals, particularly invertebrates, awaiting discovery; however, cryptozoologists are largely uninterested in researching and cataloging newly discovered species of ants or beetles, instead focusing their efforts towards "more elusive" creatures that have often defied decades of work aimed at confirming their existence.}} Paleontologist Donald Prothero (2007) cites cryptozoology as an example of pseudoscience and categorizes it, along with Holocaust denial and UFO abductions claims, as aspects of American culture that are "clearly baloney". In Scientifical Americans: The Culture of Amateur Paranormal Researchers (2017), Hill surveys the field and discusses aspects of the subculture, noting internal attempts at creating more scientific approaches and the involvement of Young Earth creationists and a prevalence of hoaxes. She concludes that many cryptozoologists are "passionate and sincere in their belief that mystery animals exist. As such, they give deference to every report of a sighting, often without critical questioning. As with the ghost seekers, cryptozoologists are convinced that they will be the ones to solve the mystery and make history. With the lure of mystery and money undermining diligent and ethical research, the field of cryptozoology has serious credibility problems." == Organizations == There have been several organizations, of varying types, dedicated or related to cryptozoology. These include: International Fortean Organization – a network of professional Fortean researchers and writers based in the United States International Society of Cryptozoology – an American organisation that existed from 1982 to 1998 Kosmopoisk – a Russian organisation whose interests include cryptozoology and Ufology The Centre for Fortean Zoology- an English organization centered around hunting for unknown animals == Museums and exhibitions == The zoological and cryptozoological collection and archive of Bernard Heuvelmans is held at the Musée Cantonal de Zoologie in Lausanne and consists of around "1,000 books, 25,000 files, 25,000 photographs, correspondence, and artifacts". In 2006, the Bates College Museum of Art held the "Cryptozoology: Out of Time Place Scale" exhibition, which compared cryptozoological creatures with recently extinct animals like the thylacine and extant taxa like the coelacanth, once thought long extinct (living fossils). The following year, the American Museum of Natural History put on a mixed exhibition of imaginary and extinct animals, including the elephant bird Aepyornis maximus and the great ape Gigantopithecus blacki, under the name "Mythic Creatures: Dragons, Unicorns and Mermaids". The museum houses more than 3000 cryptozoology related artifacts.	[ "Gigantopithecus blacki", "American Philosophical Society", "American Museum of Natural History", "Folk belief", "New Age", "Donald Prothero", "The Amityville Horror", "McFarland & Company", "pseudoarchaeology", "creationism", "Ivan T. Sanderson", "List of cryptids", "Science journalism", "Lexington Books", "thylacine", "Lausanne", "University of Alabama Press", "List of cryptozoologists", "comparative folklore", "Sharon A. Hill", "beetle", "Scientific American", "H. James Birx", "Indian burial grounds", "SAGE Publications", "Columbia University Press", "History of science", "Richard Greenwell", "paleontology", "Belgium", "legend", "Biblical hermeneutics", "ant", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "ufology", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "On the Track of Unknown Animals", "Jersey Devil", "Ark Encounter", "Oxford University Press", "ghost hunting", "Ancient Greek", "Ufology", "list of cryptids", "Peter Dendle", "Count", "Musée Cantonal de Zoologie", "Ashgate Publishing", "Bigfoot", "Michael Shermer", "Young Earth creationism", "The Folklore Society", "Routledge", "Petersburg, Boone County, Kentucky", "folklore studies", "Jacques Rousseau (secular activist)", "Springer Nature", "paranormal", "ABC-CLIO", "parapsychology", "chupacabra", "University Press of America", "elephant bird", "Loch Ness Monster", "International Society of Cryptozoology", "Loren Coleman", "National Association of Biology Teachers", "René Dahinden", "Mokele-mbembe", "MonsterQuest", "Fearsome critters", "animal", "Bernard Heuvelmans", "George Gaylord Simpson", "Anthropology", "Brian Regal", "Bates College Museum of Art", "Creation Museum", "haunting", "Ethnozoology", "living fossils", "Robert Bartholomew", "Yeti", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Maine", "Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans", "State University of New York Press", "Karl Shuker", "Champ (folklore)", "Overlook Press", "Lake Tele", "Flatwoods monster", "International Fortean Organization", "Linda Watts", "Mike Dash", "folkloristics", "Fortean Times", "Ancient Greek language", "scientific method", "Dan Ward (educator)", "Joseph Uscinski", "zoology", "Facts on File", "Taylor & Francis", "Portland, Maine", "Grover Krantz", "coelacanth", "Young Earth creationists", "subculture", "pseudoscience", "National Geographic", "Holocaust denial", "Lexico", "Roy Mackal", "Kosmopoisk", "Aepyornis maximus", "Benjamin Cummings", "Daniel Loxton", "Ghost hunting", "dragon", "dinosaur", "Scientific skepticism", "folklore" ]
5,829	Craig Charles	Craig Joseph Charles (born 11 July 1964) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles as Dave Lister in the science fiction sitcom Red Dwarf and Lloyd Mullaney in the soap opera Coronation Street (2005–2015). He presented the gladiator-style game show Robot Wars from 1998 to 2004, and narrated the comedy endurance show Takeshi's Castle. As a DJ, he appears on BBC Radio 6 Music. Charles first appeared on television as a performance poet, which led to minor presenting roles. After finding fame in Red Dwarf, he regularly featured on national television with celebrity appearances on many popular shows while he continued to host a wide variety of programmes. From 2017 to 2022, Charles hosted The Gadget Show for Channel 5. His acting credits include playing inmate Eugene Buffy in the ITV drama The Governor, and leading roles in the British films Fated and Clubbing to Death. Charles has hosted The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show on BBC radio since 2002, and performs DJ sets at numerous clubs and festivals, nationally and internationally. In September 2015, he left Coronation Street after ten years of acting, to film new episodes of Red Dwarf and to continue his BBC Radio 6 Music and BBC Radio 2 broadcasting. == Early life == Craig Joseph Charles was born in Liverpool on 11 July 1964, the son of a Guyanese father and Irish mother. He grew up on the Cantril Farm housing estate He won a national competition run by The Guardian newspaper for a poem he wrote when he was 12 years old. == Early career == Charles began his career as a contemporary and urban performance poet on the British cabaret circuit. His performances were considered original, with Charles described as having a natural ironic wit which appealed to talent scouts. In 1981, Charles climbed on stage at a Teardrop Explodes concert and recited a humorous, but derogatory, poem about the band's singer, Julian Cope. Charles was invited to open subsequent gigs for the group, and went on to perform as a support act in pubs and clubs for the following three years, and at events such as the Larks in the Park music festival at Sefton Park (1982). He performed poetry reading poems by Vladimir Mayakovsky, W. H. Auden and E. E. Cummings, at Liverpool's Everyman Theatre (1983), with such poets as Roger McGough and Adrian Henri. In 1980, he played keyboards, bass and provided voice in the rock band Watt 4. He performed his political rap lyrics as a 'Wordsmith'. In 1983, Charles was invited to record a session on the John Peel BBC Radio show, performing his poems backed by a band. This was his first professional engagement. He recorded a further Peel Session in 1984. Charles realised he was using poetry as a vehicle for his sense of humour, and progressed into stand-up comedy. He was part of the Red Wedge comedy tour in 1986, which aimed to raise awareness of the social problems of the time, in support of the Labour Party. He also performed his first one-man show in 1986, which premiered in Edinburgh, and then toured internationally. Charles was a guest on programmes including Janice Long's Radio 1 show, and he was a regular panellist on Ned Sherrin's chat show Loose Ends (1987–88) on BBC Radio 4. == Television career == === Performance poetry === Charles first appeared on television as the resident poet on the arts programme Riverside on BBC2 and on the day-time BBC1 chat show Pebble Mill at One. Charles was the resident poet on the Channel 4 programme Black on Black (1985) and its entertainment-based successor Club Mix (1986), and he appeared, weekly, as a John Cooper Clarke-style 'punk poet' on the BBC2 pop music programme Oxford Road Show (ORS). Charles performed his political poems as stand-up comedy on the late-night show Saturday Live (1985–87) and on the prime-time BBC1 chat show Wogan (1986–87), where he performed a topical poem in a weekly feature. He also appeared as a guest on shows including Open Air (1988). Charles included significant acting in his performance style, enabling him to put the emotion across. In September 2015, Charles performed his "epic" poem Scary Fairy and the Tales of the Dark Wood live with the BBC Philharmonic orchestra, in a concert to be broadcast on BBC Radio 2's Friday Night Is Music Night at Halloween. === Red Dwarf === Charles' first television acting role was the Liverpudlian slob Dave Lister in science fiction comedy series Red Dwarf starting in 1988. He was introduced to the show by Saturday Live and Red Dwarf producer Paul Jackson, who wanted his opinion on whether the black character Cat was a racist stereotype. Charles, who like all of the eventual main cast had no acting experience, was eventually offered an audition after begging Jackson. The role has involved Charles playing a variety of alternative characters, including a gangster, a cowboy and angelic and evil versions of Lister, and in him carrying out a wide range of stunts, and acting involving special effects. All series, except 7 and 9, were recorded in front of a studio audience. Along with Danny John-Jules (Cat), Charles is one of only two cast members to appear in every episode of Red Dwarf to date. Charles reads the audiobook editions of both the Red Dwarf novel Last Human and his book The Log: A Dwarfer's Guide to Everything, and he regularly attends sci-fi, comedy and memorabilia conventions in connection with the Red Dwarf franchise. During Back to Earth, Lister visits the set of Coronation Street, where he meets the actor Craig Charles. === Robot Wars === Charles presented Robot Wars on BBC2 (1998–2003) and Channel 5 (2003–04), from series 2 until series 7, which included two Extreme series and numerous 'specials'. Charles was the main host and presided over the arena in which teams of amateur engineers battled their home-made radio-controlled robots against each other, and against the house robots. Charles introduced the show, enthusiastically announced the results of the battles and spoke to the contestants after the main events. He ended each episode with a short Robot Wars-themed poem. Charles' son, Jack, appeared on the show on several occasions, and was a contestant on "Team Nemesis" during series 4. Charles also hosted the Robot Wars Live UK tour, in 2001 and shows performed at the Wembley Arena. Robot Wars returned to the BBC in 2016. Charles stated his interest in hosting it again, but the job went to Dara Ó Briain and Angela Scanlon. === Takeshi's Castle === Charles provided the English voice-over commentary for the Challenge (2002–04) rebroadcast of the popular game show Takeshi's Castle, originally by Tokyo Broadcasting System in Japan. In each episode, between 100 and 142 contestants attempted to pass a series of wacky and near-impossible physical challenges to reach the Show Down at the castle against Japanese actor Takeshi Kitano for a chance to win large cash prizes. Charles co-wrote the programme and commentated throughout all 122 episodes of the four series, and also some special and "best of" episodes. He provided comedy insights into the contestants' abilities, which were designed to appeal to adult audiences, as well as younger viewers – and also coined the term "Keshi Heads" to describe fans of the show. A 2013 reboot narrated by Dick and Dom was not as well received. === Coronation Street === In 2005, Charles joined the main cast of Coronation Street, playing a philandering taxicab driver, Lloyd Mullaney. Charles introduced aspects of the character himself, making Lloyd a Northern Soul DJ and record collector, and funk music enthusiast. Charles has chosen funk and soul songs playing as backing tracks during scenes, and posters for The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club and Red Dwarf have appeared in the background. Charles portrayed Lloyd as tough, but kind-hearted and romantic, and the character was popular with viewers. Charles added a comedy element to the role, but was also involved in traumatic and emotional scenes with intricate storylines. In 2010, his character was involved in the show's dramatic 50th anniversary tram crash storyline, which was broadcast live. Charles presented documentaries for the show, including 50 Years of Corrie Stunts (2010), which is included on the Tram Crash DVD. In November 2011, Charles took time off from Coronation Street to film a new series of Red Dwarf, returning in April 2012. In February 2014 an online mini-series, Steve & Lloyd's Streetcar Stories, ran alongside the television show's storyline. In May 2015, Craig announced he would be leaving Coronation Street for Red Dwarf, BBC Radio 2 and BBC Radio 6 Music. Lloyd left in a red Cadillac during the live episode on 23 September, although his final pre-recorded farewell scenes with Steve were shown during the following episode. === Other acting roles === Charles has acted in episodes of popular dramas such as The Bill (1995), EastEnders (2002) and Holby City (2003) Detective Chief Inspector Mercer in seven episodes of the BBC soap opera Doctors (2003); and soccer agent, Joel Brooks, in the Sky TV football soap Dream Team (2004). Charles presented the virtual reality game show Cyberzone (1993) on BBC2; However, on 20 November, Charles left the series soon after learning that his brother Dean had died after suffering a heart attack. == Radio == As well as his early appearances on shows such as Radio 4's Loose Ends (1987–88) and the Beatleland (2012) documentary on The Beatles. Charles has also chosen music as a guest of other broadcasters such as Ken Bruce on Radio 2 and Liz Kershaw on 6 Music. Charles covered for Graham Norton on Radio 2's Saturday mid-morning show during Norton's ten-week 2015 summer break. From 16 April 2016 until 18 June 2022, Charles presented the House Party on Saturday nights on BBC Radio 2, with the show airing between 10 pm and midnight. For eight weeks from April–June 2020, he also presented Craig Charles At Teatime between 4 pm and 7 pm on weekdays on Radio 6 Music. The show was sometimes billed as Craig Charles Weekend Workout on Fridays. Since 18 October 2021, Charles has hosted the weekday afternoon show on BBC Radio 6 Music (1 pm – 4 pm). The shows include the "Trunk of Punk" and the "Jar of Ska". In 2023 the weekday show won the Gold Aria award for Best Music Entertainment Show. == Music == Charles has been involved in the music industry through much of his career. His bands have included Watt 4 (1980), in which he played keyboards and sang; Craig Charles and the Beat Burglars (1989); The Sons of Gordon Gekko (1989), where he wrote lyrics and also composed tunes; and The Eye (2000–02), with whom he recorded the rock album Giving You the Eye, Live at the Edinburgh Festival. Charles plays guitar and piano. In 1987, Charles provided the poem track used for the opening credits of the BBC series The Marksman (in which he also acted), which is included on the album "The Marksman: Music from the BBC TV Series". Charles wrote lyrics for Suzanne Rhatigan's album To Hell with Love (1992). In 1993, Charles was signed to the Acid Jazz record label. In 2009, Charles formed the Fantasy Funk Band from the leading British musicians in the genre, and has presented the band at festivals, including Glastonbury and the BBC's Proms in the Park. As a continuation of his 6 Music show, Charles regularly takes the Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club to varied venues across the UK and abroad, and to the major UK music festivals. He performs live DJ sets, occasionally comperes and curates events, including his own Craig Charles Fantasy Weekender, and has broadcast the radio show live from festival locations. with Freestyle Records. The second volume was released in the same format in 2013, and the third in 2014. He followed these with a Craig Charles Funk and Soul Classics album of three CDs in 2015. and 2001, regularly touring his one-man adult-rated shows nationally and releasing the videos Craig Charles: Live on Earth! (1995), Live Official Bootleg (1996) and Sickbag (2000). International performances included the Great Norwegian Comedy Festival and the Melbourne International Comedy Festival. In 2000, he performed the show Craig Charles and His Band at the Edinburgh Festival. Charles has a regular slot at Butlins Minehead House Of Fun Weekend every third November for three nights, of DJing, Comedy, Twanging and singing. == Film roles == Charles played Eddie in the 1987 political drama Business as Usual. In 2006, Charles starred in two British feature films: the fantasy film Fated and the gangster film Clubbing to Death. Charles voiced Zipper the Cat in the animation Prince Cinders (1993) and Asterix in Asterix Conquers America (1994). Roles in short films include playing Keith Dennis in the comedy The Colour of Funny (1999) and Mark in the drama Ten Minutes (2004). Charles has been involved in journalism and has had a column in Time Out magazine. In 1994, he launched a single issue of Comedy magazine with articles dedicated to the comedy circuit. In 2005 and 2006, Charles was a monthly columnist for the Liverpool Echo newspaper. His television writing credits include The Easter Stories (1994), Funky Bunker (1997) and Takeshi's Castle (2002). He is also involved in music journalism, as he wrote liner notes for the funk and soul music producer Mr. Confuse for his albums Feel The Fire (2008), Do You Realize (2012) and Only A Man (2018) regarding his work as a music presenter for The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show on BBC Radio 6 Music. He has three children: a son named Jack from his first marriage to actress Cathy Tyson, and two daughters named Anna-Jo and Nellie from his second marriage to Jackie Fleming. In July 1994, Charles and another man were charged with rape and four counts of indecent assault, following allegations by an associate and ex-girlfriend of Charles. Charles was remanded in custody for three-and-a-half months before being granted bail, during which time he was assaulted by a man wielding a makeshift knife. In March 1995, Charles and his co-accused were acquitted of all charges at trial. He stated: "The fact that my name and address along with my picture can appear on the front of the papers before the so-called 'victim' has even signed a statement proves that anonymity for rape defendants is a must and that the law must be changed." In June 2006, newspaper allegations of crack cocaine use resulted in Charles being suspended from both Coronation Street and BBC Radio 6 Music. In August, Charles was arrested and released on bail pending further enquiries, and in September he accepted a caution for possession of a Class A drug. Charles returned to hosting his 6 Music show from November 2006 and filming Coronation Street from January 2007. In a 2015 interview, Charles spoke of his need to remain "vigilant" in abstaining from drugs. == Credits == ===Filmography=== === Radio ===	[ "Dave Lister", "Challenge (TV channel)", "Just a Minute", "BBC News Online", "Edinburgh Festival Fringe", "Adrian Henri", "Telly Addicts", "BBC Radio 6 Music", "Sue Cleaver", "Liverpool Echo", "Pulling Power", "Saturday Live (British TV programme)", "pantomime", "Danny John-Jules", "Red Dwarf", "Dream Team (TV series)", "Loose Ends (radio)", "Liverpool", "Sushi TV", "Britain's Best Sitcom", "EastEnders", "Timeslides", "Angela Scanlon", "The Saturday Show (BBC TV series)", "Have I Got News for You", "Channel 4", "Takeshi Kitano", "Sky (UK and Ireland)", "Ripley's Believe It or Not!", "Takeshi's Castle", "Hattie Hayridge", "The Bill", "David Frost", "Altrincham", "Northern Soul", "William Shatner", "They Think It's All Over (TV series)", "The Independent", "Mr. Confuse", "The Big Breakfast", "soul (music)", "Indecent assault", "The Word (TV series)", "Breakfast with Frost", "W. H. Auden", "Acid Jazz Records", "Phill Jupitus", "That's Showbusiness", "Red Dwarf: The Promised Land", "Red Dwarf: Back to Earth", "Can't Cook, Won't Cook", "The Chase (British game show)", "The Governor (British TV series)", "Lorraine (TV programme)", "The Gadget Show", "The Games (British TV series)", "BBC Radio 1", "Keith Lemon", "Ned Sherrin", "BBC2", "Paul Jackson (producer)", "Dara Ó Briain", "John Cooper Clarke", "Edinburgh Festival", "Robot Wars (TV series)", "Business as Usual (film)", "Lexx", "Remand (detention)", "Police caution", "Last Human", "Wembley Arena", "Jailbreak (TV series)", "The 10 Percenters", "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (British game show)", "cabaret", "Space Cadets (game show)", "Pebble Mill at One", "Lynda La Plante", "Pointless", "Robert Llewellyn", "The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show", "Rape in English law", "National Geographic Channel", "Evidently... John Cooper Clarke", "Simon Gregson", "soul music", "Macbeth", "John Peel", "BBC Radio 4", "Celebrity Poker Club", "The Alan Titchmarsh Show", "Surprise, Surprise (TV series)", "Proms in the Park", "performance poet", "Babette Cole", "Kiss 100", "Sarah Cruddas", "A Word in Your Ear", "Vladimir Mayakovsky", "Sefton Park", "Penguin Books", "Tokyo Broadcasting System", "Time Out (magazine)", "Ghostwatch", "Lloyd Mullaney", "Asterix Conquers America", "The Weakest Link", "crack cocaine", "Wogan", "Cantril Farm", "Julian Clary", "The National Lottery Live", "Jeremy Clarkson", "Childwall", "Red Wedge", "Dick and Dom", "Everyman Theatre, Liverpool", "John Godber", "Comic Relief", "Parallel 9", "Edinburgh", "BBC Philharmonic", "Fully Booked", "Melbourne International Comedy Festival", "BBC Radio 2", "liner notes", "West Derby Comprehensive School", "Olympic Games", "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series)", "Jon Bentley (TV presenter)", "BBC Breakfast", "Twitter", "Doctors (2000 TV series)", "Graham Norton", "Children in Need", "A-levels", "funk", "UK Festival Awards", "Carpool (TV series)", "Narcotics Anonymous", "The Guardian", "Ortis Deley", "Captain Butler", "Roger McGough", "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British series 14)", "Asterix", "Princess Anne", "BBC1", "Big Break", "Teechers", "Judas Iscariot", "mockumentary", "Oxford Road Show", "Steven Berkoff", "Friday Night Is Music Night", "Hodder Headline", "Sony Music", "Moneybags (game show)", "Georgie Barrat", "Radcliffe & Maconie", "This Morning (TV programme)", "Greater Manchester", "Guyana", "Carpool (web series)", "the Beatles", "Pebble Mill", "Cat (Red Dwarf)", "Channel 5 (British TV channel)", "Suzanne Rhatigan", "University Challenge", "The National Lottery Draws", "Through the Keyhole", "Andrew Collins (broadcaster)", "virtual reality", "Misuse of Drugs Act 1971", "Saturday Live (UK TV series)", "Labour Party (UK)", "voice-over", "Sky History", "The Beatles", "Teardrop Explodes", "Janice Long", "Ken Bruce", "Glastonbury Festival", "The One Show", "Coronation Street", "Cathy Tyson", "Night Network", "The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Show", "Julian Cope", "The Scotsman", "Holby City", "The O2", "E. E. Cummings", "Shakespeare", "You Bet!", "Hull New Theatre", "Loose Women", "Liz Kershaw" ]
5,830	County Mayo	County Mayo (; ) is a county in Ireland. In the West of Ireland, in the province of Connacht, it is named after the village of Mayo, now generally known as Mayo Abbey. Mayo County Council is the local authority. The population was 137,231 at the 2022 census. It is the second-largest of Connacht's five counties in both size and population. Mayo has of coastline, or approximately 21% of the total coastline of the State. It is one of three counties which claims to have the longest coastline in Ireland, alongside Cork and Donegal. There is a distinct geological difference between the west and the east of the county. The west consists largely of poor subsoils and is covered with large areas of extensive Atlantic blanket bog, whereas the east is largely a limestone landscape. Agricultural land is therefore more productive in the east than in the west. Clew Bay lies on the west coast of the county. The highest point in Mayo (and Connacht) is Mweelrea, at The River Moy in the northeast of the county is renowned for its salmon fishing Ireland's largest island, Achill Island, lies off Mayo's west coast Mayo has Ireland's highest cliffs at Croaghaun, Achill Island, while the Benwee Head cliffs in Kilcommon Erris drop almost perpendicularly into the Atlantic Ocean. The northwest areas of County Mayo have some of the best renewable energy resources in Europe, if not the world, in terms of wind resources, ocean wave, tidal and hydroelectric resources There are nine historic baronies, four in the northern area and five in the south of the county: North Mayo Erris (north-west, containing Belmullet, Gweesalia, Bangor Erris, Kilcommon, Ballycroy etc.) Burrishoole (west, containing Achill, Mulranny and Newport, County Mayo) Gallen (east, containing Bonniconlon, Foxford) Tyrawley (north-east, containing Ballina, Ballycastle, Killala, Moygownagh) South Mayo Clanmorris, (south-east, containing Claremorris and Balla) Costello (east-south-east, containing Kilkelly Ballyhaunis etc.) Murrisk (south-west, containing Westport, Louisburgh, Croagh Patrick etc.) Kilmaine (south, containing Ballinrobe, Cong etc.) Carra (south, containing Castlebar, Partry etc.) ===Largest towns by population=== According to the 2022 census: Castlebar 13,054 Ballina 10,556 Westport 6,872 Claremorris 3,857 Ballinrobe 3,148 Ballyhaunis 2,773 Swinford 1,459 Foxford 1,452 Kiltimagh 1,232 Crossmolina 1,134 ===Flora and fauna=== A survey of the terrestrial and freshwater algae of Clare Island was made between 1990 and 2005 and published in 2007. A record of Gunnera tinctoria is also noted. Consultants working for the Corrib gas project have carried out extensive surveys of wildlife flora and fauna in Kilcommon Parish, Erris between 2002 and 2009. This information is published in the Corrib Gas Proposal Environmental impact statements 2009 and 2010. ==History== ===Prehistory=== There is evidence of human occupation of what is now County Mayo going far back into prehistory. At Belderrig on the north Mayo coast, there is evidence for Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) communities around 4500 BC. while throughout the county there is a wealth of archaeological remains from the Neolithic (New Stone Age) period (ca. 4,000 BC to 2,500 BC), particularly in terms of megalithic tombs and ritual stone circles. The first people who came to Ireland – mainly to coastal areas as the interior was heavily forested – arrived during the Middle Stone Age, as far back as eleven thousand years ago. The Neolithic period followed the Mesolithic around 6,000 years ago. People began to farm the land, domesticate animals for food and milk, and settle in one place for longer periods. These people had skills such as making pottery, building houses from wood, weaving, and knapping (stone tool working). The first farmers cleared forestry to graze livestock and grow crops. In North Mayo, where the ground cover was fragile, thin soils washed away and blanket bog covered the land farmed by the Neolithic people. Extensive pre-bog field systems have been discovered under the blanket bog, particularly along the North Mayo coastline in Erris and north Tyrawley at sites such as the Céide Fields, centred on the northeast coast. The Neolithic people developed rituals associated with burying their dead; this is why they built huge, elaborate, galleried stone tombs for their dead leaders, known nowadays as megalithic tombs. There are over 160 recorded megaliths in County Mayo, such as Faulagh. ===Megalithic tombs=== There are four distinct types of Irish megalithic tombs—court tombs, portal tombs, passage tombs and wedge tombs—examples of all of which can be found in County Mayo. Areas particularly rich in megalithic tombs include Achill, Kilcommon, Ballyhaunis, Moygownagh, Killala and the Behy/Glenurla area around the Céide Fields. ===Bronze Age (ca. 2,500 BC to 500 BC)=== Megalithic tomb building continued into the Bronze Age when metal began to be used for tools alongside the stone tools. The Bronze Age lasted approximately from 4,500 years ago to 2,500 years ago (2,500 BC to 500 BC). Archaeological remains from this period include stone alignments, stone circles and fulachta fiadh (early cooking sites). They continued to bury their chieftains in megalithic tombs which changed design during this period, more being of the wedge tomb type and cist burials. ===Iron Age (ca. 500 BC to AD 325)=== Around 2,500 years ago the Iron Age took over from the Bronze Age as more and more metalworking took place. This is thought to have coincided with the arrival of Celtic speaking peoples and the introduction of the ancestor of the Irish language. Towards the end of this period, the Roman Empire was at its height in Britain but it is not thought that the Roman Empire extended into Ireland. Remains from this period, which lasted until the Early Christian period began about AD 325 (with the arrival of Saint Patrick into Ireland, as a slave) include crannógs (Lake dwellings), promontory forts, ringforts and souterrains of which there are numerous examples across the county. The Iron Age was a time of tribal warfare and kingships, each fighting neighbouring kings, vying for control of territories and taking slaves. Territories were marked by tall stone markers, Ogham stones, using the first written down words using the Ogham alphabet. The Iron Age is the time period in which the mythological tales of the Ulster Cycle and sagas took place, as well as that of the Táin Bó Flidhais, whose narrative is set in mainly in Erris. ===Early Christian period (ca. AD 325 to AD 800)=== Christianity came to Ireland around the start of the 5th century. It brought many changes including the introduction of the Latin alphabet. The tribal 'tuatha' and new Christian religious settlements existed side by side. Sometimes it suited the chieftains to become part of the early Churches, other times they remained as separate entities. St. Patrick (4th century) may have spent time in County Mayo and it is believed that he spent forty days and forty nights on Croagh Patrick praying for the people of Ireland. From the middle of the 6th-century hundreds of small monastic settlements were established around the county. Some examples of well-known early monastic sites in Mayo include Mayo Abbey, Aughagower, Ballintubber, Errew Abbey, Cong Abbey, Killala, Turlough on the outskirts of Castlebar, and island settlements off the Mullet Peninsula like the Inishkea Islands, Inishglora and Duvillaun. In 795 the first of the Viking raids took place. The Vikings came from Scandinavia to raid the monasteries as they were places of wealth with precious metal working taking place in them. Some of the larger ecclesiastical settlements erected round towers to prevent their precious items from being plundered and also to show their status and strength against these pagan raiders from the north. There are round towers at Aughagower, Balla, Killala, Turlough and Meelick. The Vikings established settlements that later developed into towns (Dublin, Cork, Wexford, Waterford etc.) but none were in County Mayo. Between the reigns of Kings of Connacht Cathal mac Conchobar mac Taidg (973–1010) and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair (1106–1156), various tribal territories were incorporated into the kingdom of Connacht and ruled by the Siol Muirdaig dynasty, based initially at Rathcroghan in County Roscommon, and from 1050 at Tuam. The families of O'Malley and O'Dowd of Mayo served as admirals of the fleet of Connacht, while families such as O'Lachtnan, Mac Fhirbhisigh, and O'Cleary were ecclesiastical and bardic clans. ===Anglo-Normans (12th to 16th centuries)=== In AD 1169 when one of the warring kings in the east of Ireland, Dermot MacMurrough, appealed to the King of England for help in his fight with a neighbouring king, the response resulted in the Anglo-Norman colonisation of Ireland. County Mayo came under Norman control in AD 1235. Norman control meant the eclipse of many Gaelic lords and chieftains, chiefly the O'Connors of Connacht. During the 15th and 16th centuries, despite regular conflicts between them as England chopped and changed between religious beliefs, the Irish usually regarded the King of England as their King. When Elizabeth I came to the throne in the mid-16th century, the English people, as was customary at that time, followed the religious practices of the reigning monarch and became Protestant. Many Irish people such as Grace O'Malley, the famous pirate queen, had close relationships with the English monarchy, and the English kings and queens were welcome visitors to Irish shores. The Irish however, generally held onto their Catholic religious practices and beliefs. The early plantations of settlers in Ireland began during the reign of Queen Mary in the mid-16th century and continued throughout the long reign of Queen Elizabeth I until 1603. By then the term County Mayo had come into use. In the summer of 1588, the galleons of the Spanish Armada were wrecked by storms along the west coast of Ireland. Some of the hapless Spaniards came ashore in Mayo, only to be robbed and imprisoned, and in many cases slaughtered. Almost all the religious foundations set up by the Anglo-Normans were suppressed in the wake of the Reformation in the 16th century. Protestant settlers from Scotland, England, and elsewhere in Ireland, settled in the County in the early 17th century. Many would be killed or forced to flee because of the 1641 Rebellion, during which a number of massacres were committed by the Catholic Gaelic Irish, most notably at Shrule in 1642. A third of the overall population was reported to have perished due to warfare, famine and plague between 1641 and 1653, with several areas remaining disturbed and frequented by Reparees into the 1670s. ===17th and 18th centuries=== Pirate Queen Grace O'Malley is probably the best-known person from County Mayo between the mid-16th century and the turn of the 17th century. In the 1640s, when Oliver Cromwell overthrew the English monarchy and set up a parliamentarian government, Ireland suffered severely. With a stern regime in absolute control needing to pay its armies and allies, the need to pay them with grants of land in Ireland led to the 'to hell or to Connaught' policies. Displaced native Irish families from other (eastern and southern mostly) parts of the country were either forced to leave the country or were awarded grants of land 'west of the Shannon' and put off their own lands in the east. The land in the west was divided and sub-divided between more and more people as huge estates were granted on the best land in the east to those who best pleased the English. Mayo does not seem to have been affected much during the Williamite War in Ireland, though many natives were outlawed and exiled. For the vast majority of people in County Mayo the 18th century was a period of unrelieved misery. Because of the penal laws, Catholics had no hope of social advancement while they remained in their native land. Some, like William Brown (1777–1857), left Foxford with his family at the age of nine and thirty years later was an admiral in the fledgeling Argentine Navy. Today he is a national hero in that country. The general unrest in Ireland was felt just as keenly across Mayo, and as the 19th century approached and news reached Ireland about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution, the downtrodden Irish, constantly suppressed by Government policies and decisions from Dublin and London, began to rally themselves for their own stand against British rule in their country. 1798 saw Mayo become a central part of the United Irishmen Rebellion when General Humbert from France landed in Killala with over 1,000 soldiers playing to support the main uprising. They marched across the county towards the administrative centre of Castlebar, leading to the Battle of Castlebar. Taking the garrison by surprise Humbert's army was victorious. He established a ' Republic of Connacht' with John Moore of the Moore family from Moore Hall near Partry as its head. Humbert's army marched on towards Sligo, Leitrim and Longford where they were suddenly faced with a massive British army and were forced to surrender in less than half an hour. The French soldiers were treated honourably, but for the Irish the surrender meant slaughter. Many died on the scaffold in towns like Castlebar and Claremorris, where the high sheriff for County Mayo, the Honourable Denis Browne, M.P., brother of Lord Altamont, wreaked a terrible vengeance – thus earning for himself the nickname which has survived in folk memory to the present day, 'Donnchadh an Rópa' (Denis of the Rope). In the 18th century and early 19th century, sectarian tensions arose as evangelical Protestant missionaries sought to 'redeem the Irish poor from the errors of Popery'. One of the best known was the Rev. Edward Nangle's mission at Dugort in Achill. These too were the years of the campaign for Catholic Emancipation and, later, for the abolition of the tithes, which a predominately Catholic population was forced to pay for the upkeep of the clergy of the Established (Protestant) Church. ===19th and 20th centuries=== During the early years of the 19th century, famine was a common occurrence, particularly where population pressure was a problem. The population of Ireland grew to over eight million people prior to the Irish Famine (or Great Famine) of 1845–47. The Irish people depended on the potato crop for their sustenance. Disaster struck in August 1845, when a killer fungus (later diagnosed as Phytophthora infestans) started to destroy the potato crop. When widespread famine struck, about a million people died and a further million left the country. People died in the fields of starvation and disease. The catastrophe was particularly bad in County Mayo, where nearly ninety per cent of the population depended on the potato as their staple food. By 1848, Mayo was a county of total misery and despair, with any attempts at alleviating measures in complete disarray. There are numerous reminders of the Great Famine to be seen on the Mayo landscape: workhouse sites, famine graves, sites of soup kitchens, deserted homes and villages and even traces of undug 'lazy-beds' in fields on the sides of hills. Many roads and lanes were built as famine relief measures. There were nine workhouses in the county: Ballina, Ballinrobe, Belmullet, Castlebar, Claremorris, Killala, Newport, Swinford and Westport. A small poverty-stricken place called Knock, County Mayo, made headlines when it was announced that an apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Joseph and St. John had taken place there on 21 August 1879, witnessed by fifteen local people. A national movement was initiated in County Mayo during 1879 by Michael Davitt, James Daly, and others, which brought about a major social change in Ireland. Michael Davitt, a labourer whose family had moved to England joined forces with Charles Stewart Parnell to win back the land for the people from the landlords and stop evictions for non-payment of rents. The organisation became known as the Irish National Land League, and its struggle to win rights for poor farmers in Ireland was known as the Land War. It was in this era of agrarian unrest that a new verb was introduced to the English language by Mayo - "to boycott". Charles Boycott was an English landlord deeply unpopular with his tenants. When Charles Steward Parnell made a speech in Ennis, County Clare, urging nonviolent resistance against landlords, his tactics were enthusiastically taken in Mayo against Boycott. The entire Catholic community around Lough Mask in South Mayo where Boycott had his estate became a campaign of total social ostracisation against Boycott, a tactic that would one day come to bear his name. The campaign against Boycott became a in the British press after he wrote a letter to The Times. The British elite rallied to his cause and Fifty Orangemen from County Cavan and County Monaghan travelled to his estate to harvest the crops, while a regiment of the 19th Royal Hussars and more than 1,000 men of the Royal Irish Constabulary were deployed to protect the harvesters. However, the cost of doing this was completely uneconomic: It cost the British government somewhere in the region of £10,000 to simply harvest £500 worth of crops. Boycott sold off the estate and the British government's resolve to try to break boycotts in this completely dissolved, resulting in victory for the tenants. The "Land Question" was gradually resolved by a scheme of state-aided land purchase schemes. The tenants became the owners of their lands under the newly set-up Land Commission. A Mayo nun, Mother Agnes Morrogh-Bernard, set up the Foxford Woollen Mill in 1892. She made Foxford synonymous throughout the world with high-quality tweeds, rugs and blankets. Mayo, as all parts of what became the Irish Free State, was affected by the events of the Irish revolutionary period, including the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Irish Civil War. Major John MacBride of Westport was amongst those who took part in the 1916 Easter Rising and was subsequently executed by the British for his participation. His death served as a rallying call for Republicans in Mayo and led to Mayo men such as P. J. Ruttledge, Ernie O'Malley, Michael Kilroy and Thomas Derrig to rise up during the War of Independence. In the ensuing Civil War, many of these leading figures chose the Anti-treaty side and fought in bitter battles such as those in Ballina, which changed hands between pro and anti-treaty forces a number of times. In the aftermath of the Civil War, there was a consolidation of many of those with anti-treaty feelings into the new political party Fianna Fáil. PJ Ruttledge and Thomas Derrig would become founding members of the party and served in Éamon de Valera's first-ever Fianna Fáil government as ministers. Mayo politicians would continue to contribute to the national political scene over the decades. In 1990 Mary Robinson, from County Mayo, became the first-ever female President of Ireland, and is widely credited with revitalising the position with importance and focus it had never possessed before. During her tenure she unveiled Ireland's National Famine Memorial which is situated in the village of Murrisk, County Mayo. In 2011 Enda Kenny became the first politician from a Mayo constituency and the second Mayo native to serve as Taoiseach, the head of government of Ireland. Kenny went on to become the longest-serving Fine Gael Taoiseach in Irish history. ===Clans and families=== In the early historic period, what is now County Mayo consisted of a number of large kingdoms, minor lordships and tribes of obscure origins. They included: Calraige – pre-historic tribe found in the parishes of Attymass, Kilgarvan, Crossmolina and the River Moy Ciarraige – settlers from Munster found in south-east Mayo around Kiltimagh and west County Roscommon Conmaicne – a people located in the barony of Kilmaine, alleged descendants of Fergus mac Róich Fir Domnann – branch of the Laigin, originally from Britain, located in Erris Gamanraige – pre-historic kings of Connacht, famous for battle with Medb & Ailill of Cruachan in Táin Bó Flidhais. Based in Erris, Carrowmore Lake, Killala Bay, Lough Conn Gailenga – kingdom extending east from Castlebar to adjoining parts of Mayo Uí Fiachrach Muidhe – a sept of the Connachta, based around Ballina, some of whom were kings of Connacht Partraige – a pre-Gaelic people of Lough Mask and Lough Carra, namesakes of Partry Umaill – kingdom surrounding Clew Bay, east towards Castlebar, its rulers adopted the surname O'Malley ==Politics== ===Local government and political subdivisions=== Mayo County Council is the authority responsible for local government. As a county council, it is governed by the Local Government Act 2001. The county is divided into four municipal districts of Ballina, Castlebar, Claremorris and Westport–Belmullet, each with a population of roughly 32,000 to 34,000 people. The council is responsible for housing and community, roads and transportation, urban planning and development, amenity and culture, and environment. County Mayo is divided into six local electoral areas (LEAs). Councillors are elected for a five-year term. The county town is at Áras an Contae in Castlebar, the main population centre located in the centre of the county. ===National politics=== Since 2016, Mayo has been represented on a national political level by four TDs who represent the constituency of Mayo in Dáil Éireann. Previous to 2016 the constituency had five TDs but this was reduced based on the county's current population in line with proportional representation. The electoral divisions of Cong, Dalgan, Houndswood, Kilmaine, Neale, Shrule, in the former Rural District of Ballinrobe, are in Galway West. ====Voting patterns and political history==== Historically, Mayo has tended to vote Fianna Fáil, as Fianna Fáil managed to position themselves in the 20th century as the party best fit to represent farmers with small holdings, who were plentiful in Mayo. With so many of Mayo's electorate being small farmers, the county became a base for the emergence of Clann na Talmhan, an agrarian party in the 1940s and 1950s. Clann an Talmhan's second leader, Joseph Blowick came from South Mayo and that is where his seat was. The party was not able to last in the long run though as it was unable to hold together its voting bloc of both small farmers in the west of Ireland and large farmers in the east. Towards the start of the 21st century, the balance of power in Mayo began to shift towards Fine Gael, thanks in part to the emergence of Enda Kenny and Michael Ring. Kenny, who became Taoiseach in 2011, led Fine Gael to a historic victory in the 2011 Irish general election which included securing four out of five available seats for his party in Mayo. In 2020, Rose Conway-Walsh came within 200 votes of topping the poll and became the first Sinn Féin TD for Mayo since 1927, riding a nationwide surge for Sinn Féin that year. Despite being historically the third-largest party in Ireland, Labour has struggled to ever make inroads into Mayo. The party has only ever had one TD for Mayo, former party leader Thomas J. O'Connell, who represented South Mayo between 1927 and 1932. While Labour has not proven itself electorally successful in Mayo, Mayo has provided important members to the Labour Party. Mary Robinson from Ballina became the first-ever female President of Ireland as a Labour candidate while Pat Rabbitte, originally from Claremorris, served as leader of the Labour Party from 2002 to 2007. Serving alongside Rabbitte was Emmet Stagg, one of the longest-standing Labour TDs of the modern era, himself from Hollymount not far from Claremorris. ==Demographics== Irish history has been defined by waves of emigration due to push and pull factors. Mayo was one of the counties most depopulated by emigration in the ninetieth and twentieth century. Initially triggered by starvation during the Great Famine, the population fell from 388,887 to 274,830 between 1841 and 1851. Then in search of work in the newly industrialising United Kingdom and the United States, the population plummeted from 388,887 in 1841 to 199,166 in 1901. It reached a low of 109,525 in 1971. Emigration slowed dramatically as the Irish economy began to expand in the 1990s and early 2000s, and the population of Mayo increased from 110,713 in 1991 to 130,638 in 2011. ===Religion=== In the 2006 National Census, the religious demographic breakdown for County Mayo was 114,215 Roman Catholics, 2,476 Church of Ireland, 733 Muslims, 409 other Christians, 280 Presbyterians, 250 Orthodox Christians, 204 Methodists, 853 other stated religions, 3,267 no religion and 1,152 no stated religion. ===Irish language=== 9% of the population of County Mayo live in the Gaeltacht. The Gaeltacht Irish-speaking region in County Mayo is the third-largest in Ireland with 10,886 inhabitants. These Irish-speaking areas of Mayo contain 5,956 Irish speakers. Tourmakeady is the largest village in this area. All schools in the area use Irish as the language of instruction. Mayo has four gaelscoileanna in its four major towns, providing primary education to students through Irish. ==Transport== ===Rail=== Westport railway station is the terminus station on the Dublin to Westport Rail service. Railway stations are also located at Ballyhaunis, Claremorris, Castlebar, Manulla, Ballina and Foxford. All railway stations are located on the same railway line, with the exception of Ballina and Foxford which requires passengers to change at Manulla Junction. There are currently four services each way every day on the line. There are also proposals to reopen the currently disused Western Railway Corridor connecting Limerick with Sligo. ===Road=== There are a number of national primary roads in the county including the N5 road connecting Westport with Dublin, the N17 road connecting the county with Galway and Sligo and the N26 road connecting Ballina with Dublin via the N5. There are a number of national secondary roads in the county also including the N58 road, N59 road, N60 road, N83 road & N84 road. As of 2021, a new road running from northwest of Westport to east of Castlebar is under construction. The road is a dual carriageway with junctions at the N59, N84 and N60 and will open in late 2022. ===Air=== Ireland West Airport is an international airport located in the county. The name is derived from the nearby village of Knock. Recent years have seen the airport's passenger numbers grow to over 650,000 yearly with a number of UK and European destinations. August 2014 saw the airport have its busiest month on record with 102,774 passengers using the airport. ==Places of interest== Ashford Castle Ballintubber Abbey Blacksod Lighthouse Broadhaven Bay Burrishoole Abbey Céide Fields Clare Island Cong Abbey Croagh Patrick Eagle Island lighthouse Erris Granuaile's Castle, Clare Island Great Western Greenway Joyce Country Killala Bay Knock Shrine List of designated Scenic Roads in County Mayo Lough Mask Mayo Peace Park Moore Hall Moygownagh Mullet Peninsula Murrisk Abbey Murrisk Millennium Peace Park National Museum of Ireland – Country Life National Famine Memorial Nephin Partry Mountains Rockfleet Castle Sruwaddacon Bay Tourmakeady Uggool Beach Westport House Wild Nephin National Park ==Media== Newspapers in County Mayo include The Mayo News, the Connaught Telegraph, the Connacht Tribune, Western People, and Mayo Advertiser, which is Mayo's only free newspaper. Mayo Now is a monthly entertainment and culture magazine for the towns of Ballina, Foxford, Killala, Crossmolina and surrounding areas – this is out on the first Friday of each month. Mayo has its own online TV channel Mayo TV which was launched in 2011. It covers news and events from around the county and regularly broadcasts live to a worldwide audience. Local radio stations include Erris FM, Community Radio Castlebar, Westport Community Radio, BCR FM (Ballina Community Radio) and M.W.R. (Mid West Radio). The documentary Pipe Down, which won best feature documentary at the 2009 Waterford Film Festival, was made in Mayo. ==Energy== ===Energy controversy=== There is local resistance to Shell's decision to process raw gas from the Corrib gas field at an onshore terminal. In 2005, five local men were jailed for contempt of court after refusing to follow an Irish court order. Subsequent protests against the project led to the Shell to Sea and related campaigns. ===Energy audit=== The Mayo Energy Audit 2009–2020 is an investigation into the implications of peak oil and subsequent fossil fuel depletion for a rural county in west of Ireland. The study draws together many different strands to examine current energy supply and demand within the area of study, and assesses these demands in the face of the challenges posed by the declining production of fossil fuels and expected disruptions to supply chains, and by long-term economic recession. ==Sport== The Mayo GAA senior team last won the Sam Maguire Cup in 1951, when the team was captained by Seán Flanagan. The team's third title followed victories in 1936 and the previous year, 1950. Since 1951, the team have made numerous All-Ireland Final appearances (in 1989, twice in 1996, 1997, 2004, 2006, 2012, 2013, twice again in 2016 against Dublin, 2017, 2020, with their latest appearance being against Tyrone in the 2021 final), though the team have failed on all occasions to achieve victory over their opponents. The team's unofficial supporters club are Mayo Club '51, named after the last team who won the Sam Maguire. The county colours of Mayo GAA are traditionally green and red. The county's most popular association football teams are Westport United and Castlebar Celtic. Although Gaelic football and association football are the most popular sport in the county, other sports are popular in the county as well such as rugby, basketball, hurling, swimming, tennis, badminton, athletics, handball and racquetball. ==Notable people== Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo (1822–1872) – Viceroy of India (1869–1872) Patrick Browne (1720–1790) – physician and botanist Michael Davitt (1846–1906) – Irish republican, agrarian campaigner, labour leader, Home Rule politician and Member of Parliament (MP) who founded the Irish National Land League. Grace O'Malley (circa 1530 – circa 1603) – Lord of the O'Malley dynasty in the 16th century Admiral William Brown (1777–1857) – Founder of the Argentine Navy Charles Haughey (1925–2006) – Taoiseach of Ireland (1979–1982; 1987–1992) Enda Kenny (born 1951) – Politician, leader of Fine Gael (2002–2017), and Taoiseach of Ireland (2011–2017) John MacBride (1868–1916) – Republican and military leader, executed by the British for his participation in the 1916 Easter Rising William O'Dwyer (1890–1964) – 100th mayor of New York City (1946–1950) Michael Ring (born 1953) – Politician and Mayo TD, Minister for Rural and Community Development (2017–2020) Mary Robinson (born 1944) – First female President of Ireland (1990–1997), and United Nations High Commissioner for Human rights. Millie Robinson (1924–1994) – Cyclist: first winner of women's Tour de France (1955) and holder of women's world hour record (1958) Sally Rooney (born 1991) – Author (Conversations with Friends, Normal People), and screenwriter John Ruane (1936–2006) – American jockey, born County Mayo Martin Sheridan, Olympic Games gold medalist representing the United States Louis Walsh (born 1952) – Entertainment manager and judge on The X Factor (UK), and Ireland's Got Talent	[ "Westport House", "Taoiseach", "Catholic Emancipation", "N17 road (Ireland)", "energy supply", "Tuam", "Castlebar railway station", "Aughagower", "Western Railway Corridor", "County Cavan", "Vehicle registration plates of the Republic of Ireland", "Galway West (Dáil constituency)", "hearth", "Ballycroy, County Mayo", "Western People", "List of loughs of County Mayo", "The X Factor", "court cairn", "Corrib gas field", "Ulster Cycle", "County Sligo", "Staunton (surname)", "Uggool Beach", "Gaels", "Mary Robinson", "Belmullet", "Ashford Castle", "Joyce (name)", "Williamite War in Ireland", "Millie Robinson", "Local government in the Republic of Ireland", "Belderrig (archaeological site)", "Augustinians", "Gibbons (surname)", "electoral division (Ireland)", "Normal People", "salmon", "National Museum of Ireland – Country Life", "boycott", "more Irish than the Irish themselves", "Kilgarvan", "Mary (mother of Jesus)", "Carra, County Mayo", "Ogham inscription", "Lough Mask", "Kiltimagh", "Irish Rebellion of 1798", "River Moy", "University of Kentucky", "Mayo, County Mayo", "Ballina, County Mayo", "Foxford railway station", "nonviolent resistance", "Claremorris railway station", "Clare Island", "Charles Stewart Parnell", "Latin alphabet", "American War of Independence", "peak oil", "Ernie O'Malley", "Mayo GAA", "Limerick", "Midlands–North-West (European Parliament constituency)", "John Moore (Irish politician)", "Barony (Ireland)", "Kilcommon", "Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair", "United Nations", "Connaught Telegraph", "Conmhaícne", "Dáil Éireann", "Enda Kenny", "John Ruane", "Agnes Bernard", "Tyrawley", "Kings of Umhaill", "blanket bog", "Croagh Patrick", "Republic of Ireland", "Local Government Act 2001", "stone circle", "Scotland", "Labour Party (Ireland)", "Faulagh", "List of Irish counties by area", "national secondary road", "Royal Dutch Shell", "High Sheriff of Mayo", "Cathal mac Conchobar mac Taidg", "Irish Republic (1798)", "Mac William Iochtar", "Mac William Íochtar", "Moore Hall, County Mayo", "Patrick Browne (physician)", "Clew Bay", "William Brown (admiral)", "Richard Mór de Burgh", "Granuaile's Castle", "Sally Rooney", "Royal Irish Constabulary", "N5 road (Ireland)", "Eircode", "Great Western Greenway", "Gaelic football", "Mweelrea", "culture", "Umaill", "Irish megalithic tombs", "Murrisk Millennium Peace Park", "New York City", "Iron Age", "Charles Boycott", "French Revolution", "Kilmaine", "Uí Maine", "County Galway", "Ballina railway station", "Charles Haughey", "Balla, County Mayo", "Blacksod Lighthouse", "Thomas J. 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"Rathcroghan", "Price (surname)", "fauna", "Foxford", "fishing", "County Roscommon", "Second Battle of Athenry", "Uí Fiachrach", "Mayo County Council", "Swinford", "2011 Irish general election", "Errew Abbey", "Croaghaun", "The Times", "Louis Walsh", "Benwee Head", "Ballintubber", "Elizabeth I of England", "List of rivers of County Mayo", "County Monaghan", "Partry", "Erris", "Ordnance Survey Ireland", "President of Ireland", "Whiteboys", "Seán Flanagan", "Barrett (surname)", "Great Famine (Ireland)", "Grace O'Malley", "stone row", "Burrishoole Friary", "Martin Sheridan", "N60 road (Ireland)", "Mulranny", "Partry Mountains", "Calraige", "association football", "Ogham", "Éamon de Valera", "Inishglora", "School of Mayo", "County Donegal", "Argentina", "Governor-General of India", "flora", "agrarianism", "Burrishoole", "Irish Home Rule movement", "Westport railway station, Mayo", "List of All-Ireland Senior Football Championship finals", "Reformation", "Early Christianity", "Strade", 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"Michael Kilroy", "The Irish Times", "Eagle Island lighthouse", "Crossmolina", "List of Irish county nicknames", "Irish revolutionary period", "Michael Davitt", "Joyce Country", "Morris (surname)", "Manulla Junction railway station", "Wild Nephin National Park", "local electoral area", "Pat Rabbitte", "Franciscans", "House of Burke", "Claremorris", "Battle of Castlebar", "N59 road (Ireland)", "Táin Bó Flidhais", "Michael Ring", "European Parliament constituencies in the Republic of Ireland", "Irish Rebellion of 1641", "Northern and Western Region", "O'Donnell dynasty", "Ireland's Got Talent", "Dublin", "promontory fort", "Carmelites", "county town", "Castlebar", "List of mountains and hills of County Mayo", "Westport, County Mayo", "List of Mayo people", "Spanish Armada", "O'Dowd", "Gailenga", "Carrowmore Lake", "Corrib gas project", "Penal Laws against Irish Catholics", "Galway", "Broadhaven Bay", "19th Royal Hussars", "Counties of Ireland", "Fulacht fiadh", "Irish Free State", "List of Irish counties by coastline", "Tyrconnell", "Provinces of Ireland", "Scandinavia", "2004 All Ireland Senior Football Final", "Cong, County Mayo", "Ailill mac Máta", "Celtic languages", "admiral", "Killala", "Nephin", "Knock, County Mayo", "cause célèbre", "Gallen (barony)", "Irish War of Independence", "proportional representation", "Ballinrobe", "Dermot MacMurrough", "N84 road (Ireland)", "Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)", "Laigin", "Munster", "William O'Dwyer", "to hell or to Connaught", "Central Statistics Office (Ireland)", "Western European Time", "Saint Patrick", "List of roads of County Mayo" ]
5,833	County Fermanagh	County Fermanagh ( ; ) is one of the thirty-two counties of Ireland, one of the nine counties of Ulster and one of six counties of Northern Ireland. The county covers an area of and had a population of 63,585 as of 2021. Enniskillen is the county town and largest in both size and population. Fermanagh is one of four counties of Northern Ireland to have a majority of its population from a Catholic background, according to the 2011 census. It is the only county in Northern Ireland that does not border Lough Neagh. The county has three prominent upland areas: the expansive West Fermanagh Scarplands to the southwest of Lough Erne, which rise to about 350m, the Sliabh Beagh hills, situated to the east on the Monaghan border, and the Cuilcagh mountain range, located along Fermanagh's southern border, which contains Cuilcagh, the county's highest point, at 665m. The county borders: County Tyrone to the north-east, County Monaghan to the south-east, County Cavan to the south-west, County Leitrim to the west, and County Donegal to the north-west. Fermanagh is by far the least populous of Northern Ireland's six counties, with just over one-third the population of Tyrone, the next least populous county. It is approximately from Belfast and from Dublin. The county town, Enniskillen, is the largest settlement in Fermanagh, situated in the middle of the county. The county enjoys a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb') with cool winters, mild humid summers, and a lack of temperature extremes, according to the Köppen climate classification. The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty manages three sites of historic and natural beauty in the county: Crom Estate, Florence Court, and Castle Coole. ===Geology=== The oldest sediments in the county are found north of Lough Erne. These so-called red beds were formed approximately 550 million years ago. Extensive sandstone can be found in the eastern part of the county, laid down during the Devonian, 400 million years ago. Much of the rest of the county's sediments are shale and limestone dating from the Carboniferous, 354 to 298 million years ago. These softer sediments have produced extensive cave systems such as the Shannon Cave, the Marble Arch Caves and the Caves of the Tullybrack and Belmore hills. The carboniferous shale exists in several counties of northwest Ireland, an area known colloquially as the Lough Allen basin. The basin is estimated to contain 9.4 trillion cubic metres of natural gas, equivalent to 1.5 billion barrels of oil. The county is situated over a sequence of prominent faults, primarily the Killadeas – Seskinore Fault, the Tempo – Sixmilecross Fault, the Belcoo Fault and the Clogher Valley Fault which cross-cuts Lough Erne. ==History== The Menapii are the only known Celtic tribe specifically named on Ptolemy's 150 AD map of Ireland, where they located their first colony—Menapia—on the Leinster coast . They later settled around Lough Erne, becoming known as the Fir Manach, and giving their name to Fermanagh and Monaghan. Mongán mac Fiachnai, a 7th-century King of Ulster, is the protagonist of several legends linking him with Manannán mac Lir. They spread across Ireland, evolving into historic Irish (also Scottish and Manx) clans. The Annals of Ulster which cover medieval Ireland between AD 431 to AD 1540 were written at Belle Isle on Lough Erne near Lisbellaw. In the early 9th century, the Erne was considered to be the boundary of Connacht and Ulster, specifically the over-kingdom of Airgíalla. The Fir Manach proper, Tirkennedy and Magherastephana, along with Clankelly were part of the western Airgíalla group-kingdom of Uí Creamthainn with its seat at Clogher, whereas Lurg was associated with the northern Airgíalla branch of Uí Fiachrach centred at Ardstraw. Fermanagh was a stronghold of the Maguire clan and Donn Carrach Maguire (died 1302) was the first of the chiefs of the Maguire dynasty. However, on the confiscation of lands relating to Hugh Maguire, Fermanagh was divided in a similar manner to the other five escheated counties among Scottish and English undertakers and native Irish. The baronies of Knockninny and Magheraboy were allotted to Scottish undertakers, those of Clankelly, Magherastephana and Lurg to English undertakers and those of Clanawley, Coole, and Tyrkennedy, to servitors and natives. The chief families to benefit under the new settlement were the families of Cole, Blennerhasset, Butler, Hume, and Dunbar. Fermanagh was made into a county by a statute of Elizabeth I, but it was not until the time of the Plantation of Ulster that it was finally brought under civil government. The closure of all the lines of Great Northern Railway (Ireland) within County Fermanagh in 1957 left the county as the first non-island county in the UK without a railway service. ==Administration== The county was administered by Fermanagh County Council from 1899 until the abolition of county councils in Northern Ireland in 1973. With the creation of Northern Ireland's district councils, Fermanagh District Council became the only one of the 26 that contained all of the county from which it derived its name. After the re-organisation of local government in 2015, Fermanagh was still the only county wholly within one council area, namely Fermanagh and Omagh District Council, albeit that it constituted only a part of that entity. For the purposes of elections to the UK Parliament, the territory of Fermanagh is part of the Fermanagh and South Tyrone Parliamentary Constituency. This constituency elected Provisional IRA hunger-striker Bobby Sands as a member of parliament in the April 1981 Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election, shortly before his death. ==Demographics== {{bar box \|title = Religious Background in Fermanagh (2021) 0.93% were from an ethnic minority population and the remaining 99.07% were white (including Irish Traveller) 59.16% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic religion and 37.78% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion 37.20% indicated that they had a British national identity, 36.08% had an Irish national identity and 29.53% had a Northern Irish national identity ===2021 Census=== On Census Day (2021), the usually resident population of Fermanagh Local Government District, the borders of the district were very similar to those of the traditional County Fermanagh, was 63,585. Of these: 58.8% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic religion and 35.5% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion. === Community background and religion === ==Industry and tourism== Agriculture and tourism are two of the most important industries in Fermanagh. The main types of farming in the area are beef, dairy, sheep, pigs and some poultry. Most of the agricultural land is used as grassland for grazing and silage or hay rather than for other crops. The waterways are extensively used by cabin cruisers, other small pleasure craft and anglers. The main town of Fermanagh is Enniskillen (, 'Ceithleann's island'). The island town hosts a range of attractions including the Castle Coole Estate and Enniskillen Castle, which is home to the museum of The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards. Fermanagh is also home to The Boatyard Distillery, a distillery producing gin. Attractions outside Enniskillen include: Belleek Pottery Castle Archdale Crom Estate Cuilcagh Boardwalk Trail Devenish Island Florence Court Marble Arch Caves Tempo Manor ==Settlements== The classification of settlements by NISRA defines six categories following the 2011 census (ignoring Belfast and Derry City which have their own separate categories), namely; Large towns, Medium towns, Small towns, Intermediate settlements, Villages and Small villages or hamlets. The majority of the settlements in County Fermanagh lie within the final category, five within the village category and one each in the intermediate settlements and medium towns categories. No settlements in the county are classified as Large towns or Small towns. === Large towns === (population of 18,000 or more and under 75,000 at 2011 Census) none ===Medium towns=== (population of 10,000 or more and under 18,000 at 2011 Census) St Mary's High School, Belleek -Brollagh Closed 2021 St. Eugene’s College, Roslea - Closed 2017 St. Eugene’s Primary School, Knocks - Closed 2013 Lisnaskea High School - Closed 2013 Corranny Primary School - Closed 2012 Cornagague Primary School- Closed 2012 Duke of Westminster High School, Ballinamallard - Closed 2004 Kesh Duke of Westminster - Closed 2004 Ashwoods Primary School - Closed 1968 St Mary's Primary School, Bannagh - Closed 1960/70s ==Sport== Fermanagh GAA has never won a Senior Provincial or an All-Ireland title in any Gaelic games, it is only one of two counties to win neither title. There are 22 GAA clubs in the county, this is the second least of all 32 counties (Longford now has the least, with 21 GAA clubs). Only Ballinamallard United F.C. take part in the Northern Ireland football league system. All other Fermanagh clubs play in the Fermanagh & Western FA league systems. Fermanagh Mallards F.C. played in the Women's Premier League until 2013. Enniskillen RFC was founded in 1925 and is still going. There is also a rugby league team, the Fermanagh Redskins Famous football players from Fermanagh include – Sandy Fulton Jim Cleary Roy Carroll Harry Chatton Barry Owens Kyle Lafferty ==Notable people== Famous people born, raised in or living in Fermanagh include: John Armstrong (1717–1795), born in Fermanagh, Major General in the Continental Army and delegate in the Continental Congress Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), author and playwright from Foxrock in Dublin, educated at Portora Royal School Darren Breslin, traditional musician The 1st Viscount Brookeborough, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, 1943–1963 Denis Parsons Burkitt (1911–1993), doctor, discoverer of Burkitt's lymphoma Roy Carroll (born 1977), association footballer Edward Cooney (1867–1960), evangelist and early leader of the Cooneyite and Go-Preachers Brian D'Arcy (born 1945), C.P., Passionist priest and media personality Brendan Dolan (born 1973), professional darts player for the PDC Adrian Dunbar (born 1958), actor Arlene Foster, Baroness Foster of Aghadrumsee (born 1970), politician Neil Hannon (born 1970), musician Robert Kerr (1882–1963), athlete and Olympic gold medalist Kyle Lafferty (born 1987), Northern Ireland International association footballer Charles Lawson (born 1959), actor (plays Jim McDonald in Coronation Street) Francis Little (1822–1890), born in Fermanagh, Wisconsin State Senator Terence MacManus (c. 1823–1861), leader in Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 Michael Magner (1840–97), recipient of the Victoria Cross Peter McGinnity, Gaelic footballer, Fermanagh's first winner of an All-Star Award Martin McGrath, Gaelic footballer, All-Star winner Ciarán McMenamin (born 1975), actor Gilla Mochua Ó Caiside (12th century), poet Aurora Mulligan, director Barry Owens, Gaelic footballer, two-time All-Star winner Sean Quinn (born 1947), entrepreneur Michael Sleavon (1826–1902), recipient of the Victoria Cross Joan Trimble (1915–2000), pianist and composer Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), author and playwright, educated at Portora Royal School Gordon Wilson (1927–1995), peace campaigner and Irish senator ==Surnames== The most common surnames in County Fermanagh at the time of the United Kingdom Census of 1901 were: Maguire McManus Johnston Armstrong Gallagher Elliott Murphy Reilly Cassidy Wilson ==Railways== The railway lines in County Fermanagh connected Enniskillen railway station with Derry from 1854, Dundalk from 1861, Bundoran from 1868 and Sligo from 1882. The railway companies that served the county, prior to the establishment by the merger of Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway, Enniskillen and Bundoran Railway the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway which was later named the Irish North Western Railway, thus forming the Great Northern Railway (Ireland). By 1883 the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) absorbed all the lines except the Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties Railway, which remained independent throughout its existence. In October 1957 the Government of Northern Ireland closed the GNR line, which made it impossible for the SL&NCR continue and forced it also to close. The nearest railway station to Enniskillen is Sligo station which is served by trains to Dublin Connolly and is operated by Iarnród Éireann. The Dublin-Sligo railway line has a two-hourly service run by Iarnród Éireann. The connecting bus from Sligo via Manorhamilton to Enniskillen is route 66 operated by Bus Éireann.	[ "Cassidy (surname)", "Aurora Mulligan", "Central America", "Carboniferous", "Shannon Cave", "Marble Arch Caves", "Ptolemy", "Bus Éireann", "Northern Ireland", "Gordon Wilson (peace campaigner)", "Peadar Livingstone", "Great Northern Railway (Ireland)", "Category:People from County Fermanagh", "Category:Castles in County Fermanagh", "Bundoran", "Polish language", "Köppen climate classification", "Bulgarian language", "Castle Coole", "Islam", "County Cavan", "Coole (barony)", "Cuilcagh Boardwalk Trail", "Latvian language", "List of townlands in County Fermanagh", "Tirkennedy", "Caves of the Tullybrack and Belmore hills", "Aghadrumsee", "Ballinamallard United F.C.", "County Monaghan", "Johnston (surname)", "Ballinamallard", "David & Charles", "United Kingdom Census 2011", "Enniskillen", "Killadeas – Seskinore Fault", "Enniskillen Castle", "Dundalk", "Barrel (unit)", "temperate", "Annals of Ulster", "Black people", "Lough Neagh", "Kyle Lafferty", "Middle East", "Maguire of Fermanagh", "County Leitrim", "Arlene Foster", "Counties of Northern Ireland", "Foxrock", "Michael Sleavon", "Fermanagh District Council", "Professional Darts Corporation", "Basil Brooke, 1st Viscount Brookeborough", "Extreme points of the United Kingdom", "Ulster", "Airgíalla", "Clogher", "Africa", "Coa, Northern Ireland", "The Impartial Reporter", "Adrian Dunbar", "shale", "White people", "Belcoo Fault", "Gilla Mochua Ó Caiside", "Fermanagh & Western FA", "Brookeborough", "Belleek Pottery Ltd", "Mongán mac Fiachnai", "Fermanagh Mallards F.C.", "County Donegal", "limestone", "Knockninny", "Brian D'Arcy", "Caribbean", "Oceania", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "Asian people", "Samuel Beckett", "Ciarán McMenamin", "Dublin Connolly", "Maguiresbridge", "Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers", "Lord Lieutenant of Fermanagh", "Hugh Maguire (Lord of Fermanagh)", "Hinduism", "The Fermanagh Herald", "Manorhamilton", "April 1981 Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election", "Florence Court", "Black British people", "Harry Chatton", "Armstrong (surname)", "BT postcode area", "Magherastephana", "Belcoo", "Terence MacManus", "Wattlebridge", "oceanic climate", "Devenish Island", "Neil Hannon", "United Kingdom Census 1901", "5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards", "List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom", "Belfast", "Northern Ireland football league system", "Michael Magner", "List of monastic houses in Ireland", "Knockmore", "Monaghan", "Greenwich Mean Time", "Kinawley", "European Union", "Garrison, County Fermanagh", "Victoria Cross", "Dublin-Sligo railway line", "Lough Allen", "Arney", "Robert Kerr (athlete)", "Devonian", "Clabby", "Maguire (surname)", "Teemore", "United Kingdom", "Denis Parsons Burkitt", "Leinster", "Francis Little (American politician)", "England", "Connacht", "Newtownbutler", "Fermanagh County Council", "Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848", "Clanawley", "British Asians", "Wilson (name)", "County town", "Killadeas", "Sligo", "Portora Royal School", "Ballycassidy", "Dublin", "Presbyterian Church in Ireland", "List of Irish counties by population", "county town", "Clogher Valley Fault", "Derrygonnelly", "County Tyrone", "High Sheriff of Fermanagh", "Catholic", "Lurg", "Letterbreen", "Cooneyite", "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty", "Donagh", "Irish language", "Fermanagh", "Derrylin", "Burkitt's lymphoma", "Protestant", "Carrybridge", "Killesher", "Clogher Record", "Sean Quinn", "Monea", "Sandy Fulton", "Women's Premier League (Northern Ireland)", "Barry Owens", "Asia", "Sovereign state", "Antarctica", "John Armstrong, Sr.", "hunger strike", "Catholic Church in Ireland", "Church of Ireland", "Ederney", "Wales", "Ulster Scots dialects", "Magheraveely", "Lithuanian language", "Martin McGrath (Gaelic footballer)", "McManus", "Derry", "Fermanagh and South Tyrone (UK Parliament constituency)", "Enniskillen and Bundoran Railway", "Peter McGinnity", "Prime Minister of Northern Ireland", "Rosslea", "Counties of Ireland", "Ardstraw", "Lisnarick, County Fermanagh", "Castle Archdale", "Jim Cleary (Northern Irish footballer)", "Rugby league in Ireland", "Gallagher (surname)", "Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties Railway", "Methodist Church in Ireland", "Iarnród Éireann", "Provinces of Ireland", "Lough Erne", "English language", "Bellanaleck", "Lisbellaw", "Fermanagh and Omagh District Council", "Pettigo", "Murphy", "Irish Travellers", "Joan Trimble", "Irvinestown", "Romani people", "River Erne", "Boho, County Fermanagh", "Tamlaght, County Fermanagh", "Lisnaskea", "Enniskillen railway station", "Irish North Western Railway", "natural gas", "Tempo – Sixmilecross Fault", "Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)", "Tempo, County Fermanagh", "red beds", "Crom Estate", "Republic of Ireland", "South America", "Lack, County Fermanagh", "Roy Carroll", "Sliabh Beagh", "Wisconsin Senate", "Government of Northern Ireland", "Brendan Dolan", "Sligo Mac Diarmada Station", "Scotland", "Florencecourt", "Bobby Sands", "Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway", "Belleek, County Fermanagh", "sandstone", "Plantation of Ulster", "Manannán mac Lir", "Springfield, County Fermanagh", "Magheraboy", "Continental Congress", "Charles Lawson", "List of parishes of County Fermanagh", "Oscar Wilde", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "List of Irish counties by area", "gin", "Two by Twos", "List of places in County Fermanagh", "Edward Cooney", "Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway", "Cuilcagh", "Ulster Scots dialect", "Kesh, County Fermanagh", "British Summer Time", "North America", "Ireland", "Roman Catholic Church", "Clankelly" ]
5,835	Christian (disambiguation)	Christian most often refers to: Christians, people who follow or adhere to Christianity pertaining to Christianity Christian (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name Christian (surname), including a list of people with the surname Christian or The Christian may also refer to: ==Arts and entertainment== ===Film=== Christian (1939 film), a Czech comedy film Christian (1989 film), a Danish drama film The Christian (1911 film), an Australian silent film The Christian (1914 film), an American silent film directed by Frederick A. Thomson The Christian (1915 film), a British silent film directed by George Loane Tucker The Christian (1923 film), an American silent film drama directed by Maurice Tourneur ===Television=== Christian (TV series), an Italian television series ===Music=== "Christian" (song), a 1982 song by China Crisis Christian the Christian, a 2004 album by Lackthereof The Christians (band), a UK band from Liverpool, formed 1985 "Christian", a 2023 song by Zior Park ===Other uses in arts and entertainment=== The Christian, an 1897 novel and play by Hall Caine, adapted for Broadway The Christian (magazine), the title of several magazines Christian, the protagonist in John Bunyan's novel The Pilgrim's Progress ==People== Christian of Clogher (d. 1138), saint and Irish bishop Christian of Oliva, a 13th-century Cistercian monk Christian (bishop of Aarhus), fl. c. 1060 to c. 1102 Christian (footballer, born 1995) (Christian Savio Machado) Christian (footballer, born 2000) (Christian Roberto Alves Cardoso) Christian (singer) (Gaetano Cristiano Rossi, born 1949) Christian, ring name of professional wrestler Christian Cage (William Jason Reso, born November 30, 1973) Prince Christian (disambiguation) Christian I (disambiguation) Christian II (disambiguation) Christian III (disambiguation) ==Other uses== Christian the lion (born 1969) Christian, West Virginia, a place in the U.S.	[ "The Christian (1923 film)", "Christian (singer)", "Cyclone Christian", "Christian II (disambiguation)", "Christian (surname)", "Christian, West Virginia", "Christians", "G. L. Christian and Associates v. United States", "The Christian (1915 film)", "Christianity", "Prince Christian (disambiguation)", "Christian (bishop of Aarhus)", "Christian (1939 film)", "The Pilgrim's Progress", "Christian (given name)", "The Christian (1914 film)", "Christian I (disambiguation)", "Christian Cage", "Christian (song)", "Christian of Clogher", "Christian (1989 film)", "Christian III (disambiguation)", "The Christians (band)", "Christian the Christian", "Christian (TV series)", "Christian (footballer, born 1995)", "Christian of Oliva", "Zior Park", "Christian (footballer, born 2000)", "The Christian (1911 film)", "The Christian (magazine)", "The Christians (disambiguation)", "Hall Caine", "Christian the lion" ]
5,836	Geography of Colombia	The Republic of Colombia is situated largely in the north-west of South America, with some territories falling within the boundaries of Central America. It is bordered to the north-west by Panama; to the east by Brazil and Venezuela; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; and it shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Colombia has a land size of and it is the 25th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America (after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru). Colombia's population is not evenly distributed, and most of the people live in the mountainous western portion of the country as well as along the northern coastline; the highest number live in or near the capital city of Bogotá. The southern and eastern portions of the country are sparsely inhabited, consisting of tropical rainforest, and inland tropical plains that contain large estates or large livestock farms, oil and gas production facilities, small farming communities, and indigenous tribes with their territories. Colombia has the 35th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of . ==Main == Colombia usually classifies its geography into five natural regions, from the Andes mountain range, a region shared with Ecuador, Venezuela; the Pacific Ocean coastal region, shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean Sea coastal region, shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains), shared with Venezuela; to the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. Colombia is one of only two South American countries that have coastline on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the other being Chile. The World Factbook does not differentiate between the Amazon region of Colombia (predominantly jungle) and the Orinoquia region of Colombia (predominantly plains). It suggests dividing the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains. The chief western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about (4,670 m). The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above . The valley of the slow-flowing and muddy Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. In the east, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called llanos cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area. This cross section of the republic does not include two of Colombia's regions: the Caribbean coastal lowlands and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, both in the northern part of the country. The lowlands in the west are mostly swampy; the reed-filled marshes of the area are called ciénagas by the people of Colombia. The Guajira Peninsula in the east is semiarid and is occupied primarily by indigenous peoples. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a spectacular triangular snowcapped block of rock that towers over the eastern part of this lowland. Here can be found the highest peak of the country, named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m). This was his alternative to the canal that was eventually built further west on the isthmus of what became Panama after it gained independence in the early 20th century. Although the US sent an expedition to explore Kennish's proposal, the concept was not developed at the time. Colombia refused a later US offer to build a canal. After independence, in 1903 Panama made a treaty with the US to support construction of the Panama Canal. Colombia occupies most of the Andes mountain range northern extremity, sharing a bit with Venezuela; the range splits into three branches between the Colombia-Ecuador border. In the 1980s, only three percent of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Later in the 20th century, it was threatened by mining-related deforestation, as gold mining proceeded by both major companies and artisan miners. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. To the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá. Its river settlements have access to the major Atlantic ports and consequently are commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudó, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest. The Atrato Swamp, in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama, is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width. For years it has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan-American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted, is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project in Chocó Department has been proposed. A second inter-oceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and tributary streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this region, although it could have devastating consequences on the fragile, tropical forest environment. ===Orinoquía region=== The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers or three-fifths of the country's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only two percent of the country's population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the Piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where extensive cattle raising is practiced. The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Serranía de la Macarena, an outlier of the Andes has unique vegetation and wildlife believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes. ===Amazon region=== Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, a river that crosses into Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Those south of the Río Guaviare flows into the Amazon Basin. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south. ==Climate== The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is , and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1 °C (1.8 °F). More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from at night to during the day. Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from to about constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado). About 86% of the country's total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between , and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation. Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world. The highest average annual precipitation in the world is estimated to be in Lloro, Colombia, with . In eastern Colombia, it decreases from in portions of the Andean Piedmont to eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October. The temperate zone covers about 8% of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín () and Cali () are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between , depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons. The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6% of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about one fourth of the country's total population. The mean temperature ranges between , and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone. Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts. Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined "ethnocultural" groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group has distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Colombia's proximity to the equator influences its climates. The lowland areas are continuously hot. Altitude affects temperature greatly. Temperatures decrease about for every increase in altitude above sea level. Rainfall varies by location in Colombia, tending to increase as one travels southward. This is especially true in the eastern lowlands. For example, rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds per year. Colombia's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes. ==Vegetation== Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude. The "tierra caliente" (hot land), below , is the zone of tropical crops such as bananas. The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of , is the zone of coffee and maize. Wheat and potatoes dominate in the "tierra fría" (cold land), at altitudes from . In the "zona forestada" (forested zone), which is located between , many of the trees have been cut for firewood. Treeless pastures dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of . Above , where temperatures are below freezing, is the "tierra helada", a zone of permanent snow and ice. Vegetation also responds to rainfall patterns. A scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeast. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rainforest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched. ==Relief== The Andean range is located in Colombia from the southwest (Ecuador border) toward the northeast (Venezuela border) and is divided in the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Andes, Central Andes and West Andes) that form two long valleys, Magdalena and Cauca follow by the rivers of the same name. The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by savanna and rainforest, crossed by rivers belonging to the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The northern part, called the Llanos, is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. It is usually called Amazonía. At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains. The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 553km² of tidal flats in Colombia, making it the 46th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area. Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chiefly at the north (Chocó). The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation). Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the Montes de María and the Serranía de San Lucas. In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chiefly the Serranía del Darién and the Serranía del Baudó. In the eastern Region, there is the Serranía de la Macarena and there are formations belonging to the Guyana Shield. ==Protected areas== ==Natural resources== The natural resources of Colombia are varied and extensive with most of its territory and oceans still unexplored. Colombia has one of the largest open pit coal mines in the world in the region of Cerrejon in the Guajira Peninsula. It also has oil rigs and natural gas extraction in the eastern plains. Colombia is the main producer of emeralds and an important participant in gold, silver, iron, salt, platinum, petroleum, nickel, copper, hydropower and uranium extraction. ==Environmental issues== The main environmental issues affecting Colombia are deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions and other main cities. The collateral damaged produced by attacks against oil pipeline infrastructure by rebel guerrillas in the Colombian armed conflict has produced long term damage to the environment. The armed groups also deforest large areas to cultivate illegal crops and open unauthorized highways in protected areas. ==Extreme points== Highest points: Snowfields and glaciers in Colombia are limited to the highest peaks and ranges in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental and above the elevation on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The total area of snowfields and glaciers was estimated to be about 104 square kilometers in the early 1970s. Historical, geographical, and pictorial records point toward a consistent and progressive depletion of ice-and-snow masses in the Colombian Andes since the end of the "Little Ice Age" in the late 1800s. Many glaciers have disappeared during the 20th century, and others are expected to disappear in the coming decades. ==Facts== Land size: total: Land boundaries: total: 6,672 km Coastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km) Exclusive Economic Zone: total: Climate: tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands Terrain: flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,975 m note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower Land use: arable land: 1.43% permanent crops: 1.68% other: 96.89% (2012) Irrigated land: 10,870 km2 (2011) Total renewable water resources: 2,132 km3 (2011) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 12.65 km3 (55%/4%/41%) per capita: 308 m3/yr (2010) Natural hazards: highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea ==Hydrology== Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively. ===Lakes=== Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta La Cocha Lagoon Lake Tota	[ "Honduras", "Pan-American Highway", "Chibcha", "Central America", "continental territories", "natural regions", "oil rig", "Serranía del Darién", "natural gas extraction", "emerald", "border", "Department of Chocó", "Río Guaviare", "llanos", "Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol", "Bogotá", "Cartagena, Colombia", "island", "Archipiélago de San Bernardo", "Serranía del Baudó", "Bucaramanga", "Colombian Massif", "Valleys and Plateaus of Colombia", "Brazil", "Exclusive Economic Zone", "Desertification", "Río Orinoco", "Baudó", "cotton", "Gorgona, Colombia", "Cerrejon", "Cordillera Central, Colombia", "Serranía de San Lucas", "Nicaragua", "San Juan River (Colombia)", "Magdalena River Valley", "Argentina", "Andes", "savanna", "Putumayo River", "Turbo, Colombia", "Meta Department", "Caguán River", "Guajira–Barranquilla xeric scrub", "Amazon Rainforest", "Cúcuta", "Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta", "Nevado del Ruiz", "Panama Canal", "La Cocha Lagoon", "Río Atrato", "Orinoco", "Valle del Cauca", "Atrato River", "Pacific Ocean", "Tropical Timber 83", "San Andrés y Providencia Department", "Lake Tota", "Climate change", "Cordillera Central (Colombia)", "San Andres Island", "Hydroelectricity", "Pico Cristobal Colon", "Law of the Sea", "Neiva, Huila", "The World Factbook", "Magdalena River", "Malpelo Island", "Cauca River Valley", "Isla Barú", "National Climatic Data Center", "Panama", "Isla Fuerte", "Santander Department", "List of countries and outlying territories by total area", "Jamaica", "Arauca River", "Amazon River", "Pacific Coast", "banana", "Santa Marta", "geopolitical", "British Royal Navy", "Islas del Rosario", "Buenaventura, Valle del Cauca", "Chiquinquirá", "Barranquilla", "plain", "Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)", "Nevado del Huila", "Vichada River", "Vaupés River", "Guaviare River", "Dominican Republic", "rainforest", "Costa Rica", "Catatumbo", "Haiti", "Apaporis", "Rio Negro (Amazon)", "Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta", "Caribbean South America", "Serranía de la Macarena", "Environmental issues in Colombia", "Isla Tortuguilla", "Cundinamarca Department", "South America", "William Kennish", "Sinú River", "Meta River", "Llanos", "Gulf of Urabá", "5th parallel north", "Darién Gap", "Colombia", "Santiago de Cali", "Caribbean Sea", "Boyacá Department", "Peru", "Guajira Peninsula", "Amazon Basin", "Ecuador", "Tropical Timber 94", "Caquetá River", "Guyana Shield", "Patía River", "Cordillera Occidental (Colombia)", "Cauca River", "Isla Tierra Bomba", "Nechí River", "Venezuela", "Morrosquillo Gulf", "Montes de María", "WP:SDNONE", "Inírida River", "Baudó Mountains" ]
5,838	Politics of Colombia	The politics of Colombia take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Colombia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is carried out by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives of Colombia. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. ==Constitutional reforms== Colombia's present constitution, enacted on July 5, 1991, strengthened the administration of justice with the provision for introduction of an adversarial system, which ultimately entirely replaced the existing Napoleonic Code. Other significant reforms under the new constitution include civil divorce, dual nationality, a vice president's election, and departmental governors' election. Additionally, the constitution expanded citizens' fundamental rights, including the right of "tutela," which allows individuals to request immediate court action if they feel their constitutional rights are being violated and if no other legal recourse is available. The national government has separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. ==Executive branch== The president is elected for a single four-year term. Between 2005 and 2015, the president could be re-elected for a second term. The 1991 constitution reestablished the position of vice president, who is elected on the same ticket as the president. By law, the vice president will succeed in the event of the president's resignation, illness, or death. Since 2015, the president is barred from running for reelection, even for a nonconsecutive term. ==International organization participation== === Global === United Nations World Bank Other === Regional ===	[ "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement", "International Finance Corporation", "UNCTAD", "International Organization for Migration", "WHO", "WIPO", "republic", "International Development Association", "LAIA", "Bogotá", "Permanent Court of Arbitration", "Union of South American Nations", "Senate of Colombia", "President of Colombia", "OPCW", "Napoleonic Code", "WToO", "World Trade Organization", "Latin American Economic System", "Central American Bank for Economic Integration", "Council of State (Colombia)", "Executive power", "UNESCO", "Caribbean Development Bank", "Superior Council of Judicature", "Organization of American States", "Mercosur", "International Chamber of Commerce", "UPU", "International Labour Organization", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "Inter-American Development Bank", "G3 Free Trade Agreement", "International Maritime Organization", "presidential system", "Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia", "Legislative power", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "OPANAL", "IOC", "IFAD", "United Nations Industrial Development Organization", "ITU", "IHO", "Andean Community of Nations", "Judiciary", "Chamber of Representatives of Colombia", "International Bank for Reconstruction and Development", "World Federation of Trade Unions", "executive power", "World Bank", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "International Organization for Standardization", "United Nations", "Group of 77", "International Trade Union Confederation", "International Criminal Court", "Congress of Colombia", "Group of 24", "Constitutional Court of Colombia", "International Monetary Fund", "adversarial system", "Interpol (organization)", "legal recourse", "head of government", "MIGA", "ICAO", "Rio Group", "multi-party system", "representative democracy", "Colombia", "UNHCR", "Non-Aligned Movement", "IFRCS", "WMO", "Vice President of Colombia", "House of Representatives of Colombia", "WP:SDNONE", "head of state", "World Customs Organization" ]
5,839	Economy of Colombia	\| current account = −$10.36 billion (2017 est.) BBB+ (Domestic) BBB (Foreign) A-(T&C Assessment)}} \| cianame = colombia \| reserves = $47.13 billion (31 December 2017 est.) and the third-largest economy in South America. Throughout most of the 20th century, Colombia was Latin America's 4th and 3rd largest economy when measured by nominal GDP, real GDP, GDP (PPP), and real GDP at chained PPPs. Between 2012 and 2014, it became the third largest in Latin America by nominal GDP. As of 2024, the GDP (PPP) per capita has increased to over US$19,000, and real gross domestic product at chained PPPs increased from US$250 billion in 1990 to over US$1 trillion in 2024. Petroleum is Colombia's main export, representing over 45% of Colombia's exports. Manufacturing represents nearly 12% of Colombia's exports and grows at a rate of over 10% a year. Colombia has the fastest growing information technology industry in the world, and has the longest fibre optic network in Latin America. Colombia also has one of the largest shipbuilding industries in the world outside Asia. Modern industries like shipbuilding, electronics, automobile, tourism, construction, and mining grew dramatically during the 2000s and 2010s. However, most of Colombia's exports are still commodity-based. Colombia is Latin America's 2nd-largest producer of domestically made electronics and appliances, following Mexico. Since the early 2010s, the Colombian government has shown interest in exporting modern Colombian pop culture to the world (which includes video games, music, films, television shows, fashion, cosmetics, and food) as a way of diversifying the economy and entirely changing the image of Colombia. This has inspired a national campaign similar to the Korean Wave. Colombia is only behind Mexico in cultural exports and is already a regional leader in cosmetic and beauty exports. Wealth is poorly distributed and Colombia is among the most unequal societies in the world, with a Gini index of approximately 0.̟6. For example, according to the World Bank, in 2010, the richest 20% of the population owned 60.2% of the wealth and the poorest 20% only 3%, and 15.8% of Colombians lived on less than $2 a day. In 2021, more than 54% of Colombian families are food insecure and more than 560,000 children under the age of five are chronically undernourished. The informal economy is estimated at 47% in 2020. There is no welfare state in Colombia, which has almost no unemployment or pension insurance system. As a result, only one million elderly people have pensions (and five million are without) and social assistance is very low. Many people in their 70s and 80s are forced to continue working or beg. The country is said to be the most unequal in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). ==History== === 16th–19th centuries === European explorers reached what is now Colombian territory as early as 1510 in Santa María Antigua del Darién (in present-day Chocó department). For the next couple of decades Colombia, and South America in general, remained largely unexplored. From 1533 to 1600, Europeans began expeditions into the interior of current Colombia. The in of these expeditions was mainly to conquer new lands and exploit village resources. Legends of El Dorado that reached Spaniard explorers continued to fuel exploration and raiding of Indian villages. In the 17th century, Spanish conquerors explored Colombia and made the first settlements, and this was the beginning of Colombia's modern economic history. Major conquistadors from this period were Pedro de Heredia, Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, Sebastián de Belalcazar, and Nikolaus Federmann. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the colonial settlements in Colombia served purposes of extraction of precious metals and other natural resources, and later slavery trade. This economic arrangement left the Colony with little room for building solid institutionality for economic development. The main non-extractive institutions emerging in this centuries were the fortified port of Cartagena and the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Cartagena developed military defenses mainly out of necessity from frequently having to deal with pirate attacks. A primitive form of colonial administration was organized in Santa fé de Bogotá with the Viceroyalty of New Granada, especially under the tenure of José Solís Folch de Cardona (1753–1761), who conducted a census and built roads, bridges and aqueducts. Following the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902), Colombia experienced a coffee boom that catapulted the country into the modern period, bringing the attendant benefits of transportation, particularly railroads, communications infrastructure, and the first major attempts at manufacturing. === 20th century === Colombia's consistently sound economic policies and aggressive promotion of free trade agreements in recent years have bolstered its ability to weather external shocks. Real GDP has grown more than 4% per year for the past three years, continuing almost a decade of strong economic performance. Still, this policy makes food cheaper for the average Colombian than it would be if agricultural trade were more restricted. Until 1997, Colombia had enjoyed a fairly stable economy. The first five years of liberalization were characterized by high economic growth rates of between 4% and 5%. The Ernesto Samper administration (1994–98) emphasized social welfare policies which targeted Colombia's lower income population. These reforms led to higher government spending which increased the fiscal deficit and public sector debt, the financing of which required higher interest rates. An over-valued peso inherited from the previous administration was maintained. The economy slowed, and by 1998 GDP growth was only 0.6%. In 1999, the country fell into its first recession since the Great Depression. The economy shrank by 4.5% with unemployment at over 20%. While unemployment remained at 20% in 2000, GDP growth recovered to 3.1%. Unemployment in 2020 has improved compared to two decades ago to 12.20%. The administration of President Andrés Pastrana Arango, when it took office on 7 August 1998, faced an economy in crisis, with the difficult internal security situation and global economic turbulence additionally inhibiting confidence. As evidence of a serious recession became clear in 1999, the government took a number of steps. It engaged in a series of controlled devaluations of the peso, followed by a decision to let it float. Colombia also entered into an agreement with the International Monetary Fund which provided a $2.7 billion guarantee (extended funds facility), while committing the government to budget discipline and structural reforms. === 21st century === By early 2000 there had been the beginning of an economic recovery, with the export sector leading the way, as it enjoyed the benefit of the more competitive exchange rate, as well as strong prices for petroleum, Colombia's leading export product. Prices of coffee, the other principal export product, have been more variable. Economic growth reached 3.1% during 2000 and inflation 9.0%. Inflation by 2021 has stabilized at 3.30%. Colombia's international reserves remained stable at around $8.35 billion in the year 2000 growing to $58.57 billion by 2021, and Colombia has successfully remained in international capital markets. Colombia's total foreign debt at the end of 1999 was $34.5 billion with $14.7 billion in private sector and $19.8 billion in public sector debt. Major international credit rating organizations had dropped Colombian sovereign debt below investment grade, primarily as a result of large fiscal deficits, which current policies are seeking to close. As of 2021 Colombia has recovered its investment grade rating. Former president Álvaro Uribe (elected 7 August 2002) introduced several neoliberal economic reforms, including measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of GDP in 2004. The government's economic policy and controversial democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in Latin America, at over 4%. This growth rate was maintained over the next decade, averaging 4.8% from 2004 to 2014. According to figures from Dane, monetary poverty went from 37.2% in 2010 to 26.9% in 2017, which indicates a higher income for the most vulnerable households. During the Santos government, there was an inflationary period that was also a response to the strong external shock of the fall in oil prices. It was a period of contained instability, although inflation increased, no company declared bankruptcy and there was no instability in the financial system. The Santos period managed an increase in GDP of 4% in 2010, which peaked in 2011 to 6.6%. Thereafter it remained at 4% in 2012, 4.9% in 2013 and 4.4% in 2014. In 2011, Colombia recovered its BBB− investment grade, which was raised in 2013 to BBB. As a result of sustained growth, during the eight years of the Santos government, 3.5 million jobs were created, while 5.4 million people were lifted out of poverty. The focus of Santos' second term was to reach a peace agreement with the FARC whose economic effects, according to assumptions, could imply a GDP growth of up to two additional percentage points. Santos' best legacy is precisely the one related to security since this will have an effect in the medium and long term in terms of investment decisions, job creation, and the beginning of a great revolution in the country's infrastructure: war prevented development in the most affected areas for centuries. Colombia's President Iván Duque withdrew a controversial tax reform bill following four weeks of huge protests across the country starting 28 April 2021. In 2021, Colombia registered an increase in Gross Domestic Product of more than 10%, as a result of a rebound effect that derived from the 6.8% collapse a year earlier, caused by the economic closures decreed to stop the coronavirus pandemic. The pandemic exacerbated poverty. In 2021, official figures showed that 39% of Colombians – out of a population of 51.6 million inhabitants – were in a condition of monetary poverty. Although it shows a slight improvement compared to 2020 (42.5%), it meant a setback of at least a decade. The greatest increase in the value of the debt also occurred in the Duque government, according to figures from the Bank of the Republic. Between 2020 and 2021 the balance increased by 17 billion dollars, and from 2019 to 2020 it increased by 16 billion. That figure, which corresponds to a deficit of 7.1 percent of GDP, was the debt that the Central National Government or GNC (the State without its companies or regional entities) had in 2021, according to the fiscal closing bulletin. In the Duque government, specifically between May and June 2020, 66.7 percent of the country's gold reserves were sold, which went from 710.5 to 237.4 million dollars. The decision was made by the Bank of the Republic. The sale received criticism because although it was done at a time of rising prices – after five years in which this did not happen – it was before gold reached a record price. The COVID-19 recession had a profound impact on Colombia's economy, with significant disruptions to GDP components, unemployment, and inflation. Household consumption, which is a key driver of the economy, saw the sharpest decline, dropping by 20% in the second quarter of 2020 due to lockdowns, income uncertainty, and limited mobility. Despite a partial recovery in Q3 2020, high unemployment (peaking at 19.9%) and ongoing uncertainties slowed the recovery of consumer spending. Investment also decreased during the pandemic, with businesses reducing capital expenditures amid uncertainty (-31.6%). ==Overview== In the early 21st century, the Colombian economy grew in part because of austere government budgets, focused efforts to reduce public debt levels, an export-oriented growth strategy, an improved security situation in the country, and high commodity prices. Growth slowed to 1.4 percent in 2017, and then increased to 3.3 percent in 2019. President Uribe, who was in office from 2002 to 2010, examined opportunities including reforming the pension system, reducing high unemployment, achieving congressional passage of a fiscal transfers reform, and exploring for new oil or producing ethanol. Colombia's Gini coefficient, a measure of inequality, was one of the highest in South America. International and domestic financial analysts warned of the growing central government deficit, which hovered at 5% of GDP. Nonetheless, confidence in the economy grew. The tax system is one of the causes of Colombia's deep social inequalities. The income tax (IRPP) is not very progressive (almost all taxpayers pay it at a rate of between 19% and 28%, and the rate rises only slightly thereafter) and is levied mainly on salaries, with other categories of income being largely underreported. Redistribution through the Colombian tax system is thus the lowest in Latin America, even though it is on average very limited. ===Development of main indicators=== The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025). Inflation below 5% is in green. ===Graphics=== {{bar box \|title= Composition of the Colombian GDP by demand side. Second quarter of 2015. The legal working hours are 48 hours per week. However, the informal economy accounts for almost half of the workers, who are therefore not covered by labor laws. == Agriculture == Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world of coffee, avocado and palm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world of sugarcane, banana, pineapple and cocoa. Colombia produced, in 2018, 36.2 million tons of sugarcane (7th largest producer in the world), 5.8 million tons of palm oil (5th largest producer in the world), 3.7 million tons of banana (11th largest producer in the world) and 720 thousand tons of coffee (4th largest producer in the world, behind Brazil, Vietnam and Indonesia). Although its neighbor Brazil is the largest producer of coffee in the world (3.5 million tons produced in the same year), the advertising carried out by the country for decades suggests that Colombian coffee is of higher quality, which generates greater added value to the country's product. In the same year, Colombia produced 3.3 million tons of rice, 3.1 million tons of potato, 2.2 million tons of cassava, 1.3 million tons of maize, 900 thousand tons of pineapple, 670 thousand tons of onion, 527 thousand tons of tomato, 419 thousand tons of yam, 338 thousand tons of mango, 326 thousand tons of avocado, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products such as orange, tangerine, lemon, papaya, beans, carrot, coconut, watermelon etc. As of October 2024, Colombia is the tenth largest producer of cacao in the global market. Its top importers include the United States, Chile, Ecuador, and Venezuela. The share of agriculture in GDP has fallen consistently since 1945, as industry and services have expanded. However, Colombia's agricultural share of GDP decreased during the 1990s by less than in many of the world's countries at a similar level of development, even though the share of coffee in GDP diminished in a dramatic way. Agriculture has nevertheless remained an important source of employment, providing a fifth of Colombia's jobs in 2006. Agriculture in Columbia is particularly vulnerable to climate-induced events like La Niña, leading to droughts and heavy rains. Soil aridity, erosion, and desertification are already pressing issues in Colombian agriculture, expected to worsen with climate change. Despite representing only 0.4 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, 71.3 percent of Colombia's domestic emissions stem from agriculture and land use. Colombia's revised National Determined Contributions (NDCs) aim to reduce emissions by 51% by 2030, with a focus on agriculture. Strategies include reducing greenhouse gas emissions in cocoa, rice, coffee, forestry, and cattle production. The country also aims to provide agroclimatic information to 1 million producers by 2030. In Colombia, the exploitation and breeding of cattle is carried out on small farms and large farms. Black-eared white, casanareño, coastal with horns, romosinuano, chino santandereano and hartón del Valle, are the Colombian breeds with the highest production. In 2013, livestock occupied 80% of productive land in Colombia. The livestock sector is one of the most outstanding in areas such as Caribbean Region, where seven departments have livestock as their primary vocation. Also in Antioquia, where there is the largest cattle inventory in the country, the department had that year 11% of the head of cattle in Colombia, and according to the livestock inventory, in 2012 Antioqueños counted around 2,268,000 head of cattle. Also in 2013, the bovine herd in Colombia reached 20.1 million head of cattle, of which 2.5 million (12.5%) were milking cows. In addition, the country's total milk production was 13.1 million liters. On the other hand, the increase in imports of pork meat, the high prices of inputs and the slowdown in the national economy, produced a crisis in the raising of pork in Colombia in 2015. ==Industry== The World Bank lists the main producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. According to the 2019 list, Colombia has the 46th most valuable industry in the world (US$35.4 billion), behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela and Argentina, but ahead of Peru and Chile. ===Manufacturing=== ====Domestic appliances==== Although Colombia has been producing domestic appliances since the 1930s, it wasn't until the late 1990s that Colombian corporations began exporting to neighboring countries. One of Colombia's largest producers of domestic appliances, HACEB has been producing refrigeration since 1940. Some domestic corporations include: Challenger, Kalley, HACEB, Imusa, and Landers. In 2011, Groupe SEB acquired Imusa as a form to expand to the Latin American market. Colombia also manufactures for foreign companies as well, such as Whirlpool and GE. LG has also been interested in building a plant in Colombia. Colombia is also Latin America's 3rd largest producer of appliances behind Mexico and Brazil and is growing rapidly. ====Electronics==== Colombia is a major producer of electronics in Latin America, and is South America's 2nd largest high-tech market. Colombia is also the 2nd largest producer and exporter of electronics made by domestic companies in Latin America. Since the early 2000s, major Colombian corporations began exporting aggressively to foreign markets. Some of these companies include: Challenger, PcSmart, Compumax, Colcircuirtos, and Kalley. Colombia is the first country in Latin America to manufacture a domestically made 4K television. In 2014, the Colombian Government launched a national campaign to promote IT and Electronic sectors, as well as investing in Colombia's own companies. ====Construction==== Construction recentlyhas played a vital role in the economy, and is growing rapidly at almost 20% annually. As a result, Colombia is seeing a historic building boom. The Colombian government is investing heavily in transport infrastructure through a plan called "Fourth Generation Network". The target of the Colombian government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30% and transport costs by 20%. A toll road concession program will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá's airport. Long-term plans include building a national high-speed train network, to vastly improve competitiveness. ===Utilities=== ==Mining and energy== Colombia is well-endowed with minerals and energy resources. It has the largest coal reserves in Latin America, and is second to Brazil in hydroelectric potential. Estimates of petroleum reserves in 1995 were . It also possesses significant amounts of nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and emeralds. The country was the 12th largest producer of coal in the world in 2018. In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, with 791 thousand barrels / day. In mining, Colombia is the world's largest producer of emerald. The discovery of of high-quality oil at the Cusiana and Cupiagua fields, about east of Bogotá, has enabled Colombia to become a net oil exporter since 1986. The Transandino pipeline transports oil from Orito in the Department of Putumayo to the Pacific port of Tumaco in the Department of Nariño. Total crude oil production averages ; about is exported. The Pastrana government has significantly liberalized its petroleum investment policies, leading to an increase in exploration activity. Refining capacity cannot satisfy domestic demand, so some refined products, especially gasoline, must be imported. Plans for the construction of a new refinery are under development. While Colombia has vast hydroelectric potential, a prolonged drought in 1992 forced severe electricity rationing throughout the country until mid-1993. The consequences of the drought on electricity-generating capacity caused the government to commission the construction or upgrading of ten thermoelectric power plants. Half will be coal-fired, and half will be fired by natural gas. The government also has begun awarding bids for the construction of a natural gas pipeline system that will extend from the country's extensive gas fields to its major population centers. Plans call for this project to make natural gas available to millions of Colombian households by the middle of the next decade. As of 2004, Colombia has become a net energy exporter, exporting electricity to Ecuador and developing connections to Peru, Venezuela and Panama to export to those markets as well. The Trans-Caribbean pipeline connecting western Venezuela to Panama through Colombia is also under construction, thanks to cooperation between presidents Álvaro Uribe of Colombia, Martín Torrijos of Panama and Hugo Chávez of Venezuela. Coal is exported to Turkey. Oil and coal account for 47% of goods exports in 2021. ===Human rights abuses in mining zones=== The oil pipelines are a frequent target of extortion and bombing campaigns by the National Liberation Army (ELN) and, more recently, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). The bombings, which have occurred on average once every 5 days, have caused substantial environmental damage, often in fragile rainforests and jungles, as well as causing significant loss of life. In April 1999 in Cartagena de Indias, Clinton's Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson spoke before investors from the United States, Canada and other countries. He expressed his government's willingness to use military aid to support the investment that they and their allies were going to make in Colombia, especially in strategically important sectors like mining and energy. In 2001 there were 170 attacks on the Caño Limón–Coveñas pipeline. The pipeline was out of operation for over 200 days of that year; the government estimates that these bombings reduced Colombia's GDP by 0.5%. The government of the United States increased military aid, in 2003, to Colombia to assist in the effort to defend the pipeline. to patrol the Cano Limon-Covenas pipeline. Many of these operations used helicopters, equipment and weapons provided by the U.S. military and anti-narcotics aid programs. Mining and natural exploitation has had environmental consequences. The region of Guajira is undergoing an accelerated desertification with the disappearances of forests, land, and water sources, due to the increase in coal production. Social consequences or lack of development in resource rich areas is common. 11 million Colombians survive on less than one dollar a day. Over 65% of these live in mining zones. There are 3.5 million children out of school, and the most critical situation is in the mining zone of Choco, Bolivar, and Sucre. Economic consequences of privatization and liberal institutions have meant changes in taxation to attract foreign investment. Colombia will lose another $800 million over the next 90 years that Glencore International operates in El Cerrejon Zona Media, if the company continues to produce coal at a rate of 5 million tons/year, because of the reduction of the royalty tax from 10 to 15% to .04%. If the company, as is plausible, doubles or triples its production, the losses will be proportionally greater. The operational losses from the three large mining projects (El Cerrejon, La Loma, operated by Drummond, and Montelíbano, which produces ferronickel) for Colombia to more than 12 billion. Coal production has grown rapidly, from 22.7 million tons in 1994 to 50.0 million tons in 2003. Over 90% of this amount was exported, making Colombia the world's sixth largest coal exporter, behind Australia, China, Indonesia, South Africa and Russia. From the mid-1980s the center of coal production was the Cerrejón mines in the Guajira department. However, the growth in output at La Loma in neighboring Cesar Department made this area the leader in Colombian coal production since 2004. Production in other departments, including Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander, forms about 13% of the total. The coal industry is largely controlled by international mining companies, including a consortium of BHP, Anglo American and Glencore at Cerrejón, and Conundrum Company at La Loma, which is undergoing a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Alabama for union assassinations and alleged paramilitary links. ==Foreign investment== Various attempts to open up the economy during the 1993-2023 period have been described by Portafolio as being "half-hearted". In 1990, to attract foreign investors and promote trade, an experiment from the International Monetary Fund known as "La Apertura" was adopted by the government, this policy was to modernize different sectors of the economy to increase the overall efficiency of production so as to bring down prices to internationally competitive levels. Although the analyses of the results are not clear, the fact is that the agricultural sector was severely impacted by this policy. In 1991 and 1992, the government passed laws to stimulate foreign investment in nearly all sectors of the economy. The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, disposal of hazardous wastes, and real estate—the last of these restrictions is intended to hinder money laundering. Colombia established a special entity—Converter—to assist foreigners in making investments in the country. Foreign investment flows for 1999 were $4.4 billion, down from $4.8 billion in 1998. Major foreign investment projects underway include the $6 billion development of the Cusiana and Cupiagua oil fields, development of coal fields in the north of the country, and the recently concluded licensing for establishment of cellular telephone service. The United States accounted for 26.5% of the total $19.4 billion stock of non-petroleum foreign direct investment in Colombia at the end of 1998. On 21 October 1995, under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), President Clinton signed an Executive Order barring U.S. entities from any commercial or financial transactions with four Colombian drug kingpins and with individuals and companies associated with the traffic in narcotics, as designated by the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General. The list of designated individuals and companies is amended periodically and is maintained by the Office of Foreign Asset Control at the Department of the Treasury, tel. (202) 622-0077 (ask for Document #1900). The document also is available at the Department of Treasury website. Colombia is the United States' fifth-largest export market in Latin America—behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina—and the 26th-largest market for U.S. products worldwide. The United States is Colombia's principal trading partner, with two-way trade from November 1999 through November 2000 exceeding $9.5 billion--$3.5 billion U.S. exports and $6.0 billion U.S. imports. Colombia benefits from duty-free entry—for a 10-year period, through 2001—for certain of its exports to the United States under the Andean Trade Preferences Act. Colombia improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994, but the U.S. remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing, patent regulations, and copyright protection. Colombia is also the largest export partner of the Dutch constituent country of Aruba (39.4%). The direct contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP in 2013 was COP11,974.3mn (1.7% of GDP). This is forecast to rise by 7.4% to COP12,863.4mn in 2014. This primarily reflects the economic activity generated by industries such as hotels, travel agents, airlines and other passenger transportation services (excluding commuter services). But it also includes, for example, the activities of the restaurant and leisure industries directly supported by tourists. The direct contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP is expected to grow by 4.1% pa to COP19,208.4mn (1.8% of GDP) by 2024. The number of tourists in Colombia grows by over 12% every year. Colombia is projected to have over 15 million tourists by 2023. ====Eco-tourism==== Eco-tourism is very promising in Colombia. Colombia has vast coastlines, mountainous areas, and tropical jungles. There are volcanoes and waterfalls as well. This makes Colombia a biodiverse country with many attractions for foreign visitors. The Colombian coffee growing axis (Spanish: Eje Cafetero), also known as the Coffee Triangle (Spanish: Triángulo del Café), is a part of the Colombian Paisa region in the rural area of Colombia, which is famous for growing and production of a majority of Colombian coffee, considered by some as the best coffee in the world. There are three departments in the area: Caldas, Quindío and Risaralda. These departments are among the smallest departments in Colombia with a total combined area of , about 1.2% of the Colombian territory. The combined population is 2,291,195 (2005 census). ===Transportation and telecommunications=== Colombia's geography, with three cordilleras of the Andes running up the country from south to north, and jungle in the Amazon and Darién regions, represents a major obstacle to the development of national road networks with international connections. Thus, the basic nature of the country's transportation infrastructure is not surprising. In the spirit of the 1991 constitution, in 1993 the Ministry of Public Works and Transportation was reorganized and renamed the Ministry of Transportation. In 2000 the new ministry strengthened its role as the planner and regulator within the sector. ====Air transportation==== Colombia was a pioneer in promoting airlines in an effort to overcome its geographic barriers to transportation. The Colombian Company of Air Navigation, formed in 1919, was the second commercial airline in the world. It was not until the 1940s that Colombia's air transportation began growing significantly in the number of companies, passengers carried, and kilometers covered. In the early 2000s, an average of 72 percent of the passengers transported by air go to national destinations, while 28 percent travel internationally. One notable feature is that after the reforms of the beginning of the 1990s, the number of international passengers tripled by 2003. In 1993 the construction, administration, operation, and maintenance of the main airports transferred to departmental authorities and the private sector, including companies specializing in air transportation. Within this process, in 2006 the International Airport Operator (Opain), a Swiss-Colombian consortium, won the concession to manage and develop Bogotá's El Dorado International Airport. El Dorado is the largest airport in Latin America in terms of cargo traffic (33rd worldwide), with 622,145 metric tons in 2013, second in terms of traffic movements (45th worldwide) and third in terms of passengers (50th among the busiest airports in the world). In addition to El Dorado, Colombia's international airports are Palo Negro in Bucaramanga, Simón Bolívar in Santa Marta, Cortissoz in Barranquilla, Rafael Núñez in Cartagena, José María Córdova in Rionegro near Medellín, Alfonso Bonilla Aragón in Cali, Alfredo Vásquez Cobo in Leticia, Matecaña in Pereira, Gustavo Rojas Pinilla in San Andrés, and Camilo Daza in Cúcuta. In 2006 Colombia was generally reported to have a total of 984 airports, of which 103 had paved runways and 883 were unpaved. The Ministry of Transportation listed 581 airports in 2007, but it may have used a different methodology for counting them. Colombia has a Gini coefficient of 51.7. ===Retail=== Hypermarkets and big-box stores are losing market participation in Colombian retail. == Debt == Between 1976 and 2006, Colombia's debt doubled every 10 years: in 1976 it was about $3.6 billion, in 1986 it was $7.2 billion, in 1996 it was over $16 billion and in 2006 it was over $36 billion. Since 2006, the growth of the debt has accelerated: it reached $72 billion in 2011 and reached $124 billion in 2017, which means that in less than 10 years Colombia's foreign debt has tripled. About a quarter of Colombia's annual budget, or $20 billion, goes to pay off the public debt. == Corruption == Corruption in public management in Colombia is widespread and structural in nature. This situation generates losses for the country estimated at 15 billion dollars. Colombia has not escaped the scandals involving millions of dollars in bribes from the Brazilian construction company Odebrecht, as well as the Cartagena refinery, a case of embezzlement of public funds that came to light in 2016 and involved members of the governments of Álvaro Uribe (2002–2010) and Juan Manuel Santos (2010–2018).	[ "Andrés Pastrana Arango", "Sebastián de Belalcázar", "Great Depression", "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)", "Standard & Poor's", "The Observatory of Economic Complexity", "50,000 Colombian peso note", "César Gaviria Trujillo", "AirScan", "List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI", "emerald", "flowers", "oil industry", "Pedro de Heredia", "income tax", "papaya", "Iván Duque", "List of Colombian departments by GDP", "Bogotá", "petroleum", "footwear", "Colombia and the World Bank", "maize", "textile", "pineapple", "welfare state", "Álvaro Uribe", "gross domestic product", "Andean Community", "Brazil", "hydroelectric", "WWB Colombia", "Cocoa bean", "Mexico", "World Trade Organization", "tax system", "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)", "Bank of the Republic (Colombia)", "carrot", "nickel", "cotton", "Nikolaus Federmann", "Antioquia Department", "Cerrejon", "government debt", "Emirates News Agency", "ferronickel", "Purchasing power parity", "tangerine", "pork", "food processing", "chemicals", "Aruba", "cassava", "watermelon", "Economic history of Colombia", "José Solís Folch de Cardona", "Anglo American plc", "United States", "palm oil", "List of companies of Colombia", "cement", "COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia", "Cessna Skymaster", "coke (fuel)", "cattle", "Latin America", "sugarcane", "mineral", "information technology industry", "List of countries by Human Development Index", "Occidental Petroleum", "Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada", "beans", "Magdalena river", "beef", "flower", "wheat", "HACEB", "Glencore International", "coal", "El Paso, Cesar", "List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "Trans-Caribbean pipeline", "Glencore", "United Nations Development Programme", "Minister of Finance", "mango", "lemon", "Ethanol fuel", "potato", "Department of Putumayo", "clothing", "Ernesto Samper", "onion", "Caño Limón–Coveñas pipeline", "Yam (vegetable)", "Cesar Department", "informal economy", "Korean Wave", "Transandino pipeline", "Panama", "coconut", "El Cerrejon", "Colombia trade agreements", "Andrés Pastrana", "National Liberation Army (Colombia)", "China", "Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Secondary sector of the economy", "Indonesia", "World Bank", "Tertiary sector of the economy", "Developing country", "List of countries by GDP (nominal)", "banana", "beverage", "silver", "credit rating", "platinum", "Martín Torrijos", "Coal in Turkey", "soybeans", "Norte de Santander", "Guajira Department", "Caribbean Region (Colombia)", "Oil", "National Administrative Department of Statistics (Colombia)", "Montelíbano", "Russia", "Ease of doing business index", "International Monetary Fund", "gold", "Thousand Days' War", "Hugo Chávez", "rainforest", "democratic security", "Department of Nariño", "Hydrocarbon exploration", "South Africa", "coffee", "List of countries by GDP (PPP)", "Taxation in Colombia", "natural gas", "Primary sector of the economy", "Australia", "electronics industry", "chicken meat", "Orito", "Colombian peso", "Cundinamarca Department", "South America", "Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia", "Cerrejón", "Tourism in Colombia", "La Niña", "debt", "pop culture", "tomato", "Economy of South America", "Colombia", "Conundrum Company", "Boyacá Department", "List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita", "Peru", "El Tiempo (Colombia)", "Ecuador", "List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth", "Juan Manuel Santos", "Tumaco", "poverty in Colombia", "Orange (fruit)", "Gini index", "2021 Colombian protests", "fruits", "avocado", "Venezuela", "El Dorado International Airport", "20,000 Colombian peso note", "ferroalloy", "economic liberalism", "middle class", "shipbuilding", "Odebrecht", "BHP", "Pacific Alliance", "home appliance", "Gini coefficient", "thermoelectric", "gasoline", "rice" ]
5,840	Communications in Colombia	Since being liberalized in 1991, the Colombian telecommunications sector has added new services, expanded coverage, improved efficiency, and lowered costs. The sector has had the second largest (after energy) investment in infrastructure (54 percent) since 1997. However, the economic downturn between 1999 and 2002 adversely affected telecommunications. During this period, Colombia's telecommunications industry lost US$2 billion despite a profit of US$1 billion in local service. In June 2003, the government liquidated the state-owned and heavily indebted National Telecommunications Company (Empresa Nacional de Telecomunicaciones—Telecom) and replaced it with Colombia Telecomunicaciones (Colombia Telecom). The measure enabled the industry to expand rapidly, and in 2004 it constituted 2.8 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Telefónica of Spain acquired 50 percent plus one share of the company in 2006. As a result of increasing competition, Colombia has a relatively modern telecommunications infrastructure that primarily serves larger towns and cities. Colombia's telecommunication system includes access to 8 different international Submarine cable systems, Intelsat, 11 domestic satellite Earth stations, and a nationwide microwave radio relay system. In mid-2004 mobile telephones overtook fixed lines in service for the first time. By 2005 Colombia had the highest mobile phone density (90 percent) in Latin America, as compared with the region's average density of 70 percent. The number of mobile telephone subscribers totaled an estimated 31 million in 2007, as compared to 21.8 million in 2005 and 6.8 million in 2001. ==Radio and television== In late 2004, Radio Televisión Nacional de Colombia (RTVC) replaced the liquidated Inravisión (Instituto Nacional de Radio y Televisión) as the government-run radio and television broadcasting service, which oversees three national television stations and five radio companies (which operate about a dozen principal networks). Colombia has about 60 television stations, including seven low-power stations. In 2000 the population had about 11.9 million television receivers in use. Of the approximately 515 radio stations, 454 are AM; 34, FM; and 27, shortwave. ==Undersea Cables== As of 2016, Colombia has access to the following international Submarine cable systems: SAC/LAN, Maya-1, AMX-1, Pan Am, SAm-1, ARCOS-1, CFX-1, and PCCS. These cables land at 4 locations in the Caribbean: Barranquilla, Cartagena, Riohacha, and Tolu. One cable lands on the Pacific Ocean coast at Buenaventura, Valle del Cauca. ==Internet== Colombia is still far behind Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina in terms of online usage. It had an estimated total of 900,000 Internet subscribers by the end of 2005, a figure that equated to 4,739,000 Internet users, or 11.5 percent of the 2005 population (10.9 per 100 inhabitants). By late 2009 39% of households had internet access Colombia had 581,877 Internet hosts in 2006. Although as many as 70 percent of Colombians accessed the Internet over their ordinary telephone lines, dial-up access is losing ground to broadband. In 2005 Colombia had 345,000 broadband subscriber lines, or one per 100 inhabitants. In 2006 the number of personal computers per 1,000 people increased to an estimated 87 per 1,000 inhabitants, a rate still below that in other large Latin American economies. The internet country code is .co.	[ "ARCOS-1", "Federal Research Division", "Argentina", "Broadband Internet access", "AMX-1", "Intelsat", "FM broadcasting", "Medellín", "MAYA-1", "public domain", "Internet host", "Bogotá", "Cali", "microwave radio relay", "Cartagena, Colombia", "Tolu", "Economy of Colombia", "Radio Televisión Nacional de Colombia", "Latin America", "Earth station", "Library of Congress", "Internet", ".co", "AM broadcasting", "PAN AM (cable system)", "gross domestic product", "Brazil", "SAm-1", "WP:SDNONE", "shortwave", "Mexico", "Buenaventura, Valle del Cauca", "Barranquilla", "mobile telephone", "Submarine communications cable", "Telefónica", "Riohacha", "liquidation", "Inravisión", "personal computer" ]
5,841	Transport in Colombia	Transport in Colombia is regulated by the Ministry of Transport. Road travel is the main means of transport; 69 percent of cargo is transported by road, as compared with 27 percent by railroad, 3 percent by internal waterways, and 1 percent by air. ==History== ===Indigenous peoples influence=== The indigenous peoples in Colombia used and some continue to use the waterways as the way of transportation using rafts and canoes. ===Spanish influence=== With the arrival of the Europeans the Spaniards brought the horses, mules and donkey (which developed into the Paso Fino) used by them in ranching duties later in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Horses contributed greatly to the transport of the Spanish conquerors and colonizers. They also introduced the wheel, and brought wooden carts and carriages to facilitate their transport. The Spaniards also developed the first roads, rudimentary and most of these in the Caribbean region. Due to the rough terrain of Colombia communications between regions was difficult and affected the effectiveness of the central government creating isolation in some regions. Maritime navigation developed locally after Spain lifted its restrictions on ports within the Spanish Empire inducing mercantilism. Spanish also transported African slaves and forcedly migrated many indigenous tribes throughout Colombia. ===Post-independence=== With the independence and the influences of the European Industrial Revolution the main way of transport in Colombia became the navigation mainly through the Magdalena River which connected Honda in inland Colombia, with Barranquilla by the Caribbean Sea to the trade with the United States and Europe. This also brought a large wave of immigrants from European and Middle Eastern countries. The industrialization process and transportation in Colombia were affected by the internal civil wars that surged after the independence from Spain and that continued throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. ===Standardization=== During the late 19th century European and American companies introduced railways to carry to the ports the local production of raw materials intended for exports and also imports from Europe. Steam ships began carrying Colombians, immigrants and goods from Europe and the United States over the Magdalena River. The Ministry of Transport was created in 1905 during the presidency of Rafael Reyes under the name of Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Transporte or Ministry of Public Works and Transport with the main function of taking care of national assets issues, including mines, oil (fuel), patents and trade marks, railways, roads, bridges, national buildings and land without landowners. In the early 20th century roads and highways maintenance and construction regulations were established. Rivers were cleaned, dragged and channeled and the navigational industry was organized. The Public works districts were created, as well as the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Colombia (National Railways of Colombia). Among other major projects developed were the aqueduct of Bogotá, La Regadera Dam and the Vitelma Water Treatment Plant. The Ministry also created the National Institute of Transit (from the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Tránsito), (INTRA) under the Transport and tariffs Directorate and was in charge of designing the first National roads plan with the support of many foreign multinational construction companies. Aviation was born in Barranquilla with the creation of SCADTA in 1919 a joint venture between Colombians and Germans that delivered mail to the main cities of Colombia which later merged with SACO to form Avianca. ==Infrastructure== ===Railways=== Colombia has of rail lines, of which are gauge and of which are gauge. However, only of lines are still in use. Rail transport in Colombia remains underdeveloped. The national railroad system, once the country's main mode of transport for freight, has been neglected in favor of road development and now accounts for only about a quarter of freight transport. Passenger-rail use was suspended in 1992 resumed at the end of the 1990s, and as of 2017 it is considered abandoned (at least for long distances). Fewer than 165,000 passenger journeys were made in 1999, as compared with more than 5 million in 1972, and the figure was only 160,130 in 2005. The two still-functioning passenger trains are: one between Puerto Berrío and García Cadena, and another one between Bogotá and Zipaquirá. There are plans to construct a deep-water port at Bahía Solano. A future light rail line in Barranquilla is planned. ===Pipelines=== Colombia has 4,350 kilometers of gas pipelines, 6,134 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 3,140 kilometers of refined-products pipelines. The country has five major oil pipelines, four of which connect with the Caribbean export terminal at Puerto Coveñas. Until at least September 2005, the United States funded efforts to help protect a major pipeline, the 769-kilometer-long Caño Limón–Puerto Coveñas pipeline, which carries about 20 percent of Colombia's oil production to Puerto Coveñas from the guerrilla-infested Arauca region in the eastern Andean foothills and Amazonian jungle. The number of attacks against pipelines began declining substantially in 2002. In 2004 there were only 17 attacks against the Caño Limón–Puerto Coveñas pipeline, down from 170 in 2001. However, a bombing in February 2005 shut the pipeline for several weeks, and attacks against the electrical gird system that provides energy to the Caño Limón oilfield have continued. New oil pipeline projects with Brazil and Venezuela are underway. In addition, the already strong cross-border trade links between Colombia and Venezuela were solidified in July 2004 with an agreement to build a US$320 million natural gas pipeline between the two countries, to be completed in 2008.	[ "Spanish Empire", "Communes of Medellín", "horse", "Federal Research Division", "Geography of Colombia", "Spanish people", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics", "raft", "Bello, Colombia", "Colombian Coffee-Growers Axis", "Magdalena River", "Barranquilla's Transmetro", "Turbo, Colombia", "Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina", "Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad", "SACO (Colombia)", "Envigado", "Medellín", "SCADTA", "public domain", "La Línea (tunnel)", "Pico y placa", "Bogotá", "Caribbean Sea", "Cali", "National Roads Institute", "Cartagena, Colombia", "Metrocable (Medellín)", "Paso Fino", "Metro de Medellín", "Masivo Integrado de Occidente", "Transcaribe", "Departments of Colombia", "Steam ships", "Library of Congress", "Tumaco", "Itagüí", "Bus rapid transit", "ranching", "Santa Marta", "Panamerican Highway", "Magdalena Department", "Rafael Reyes", "Megabús", "Railway stations in Colombia", "Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Colombia", "Colombian National Police", "WP:SDNONE", "bus rapid transit", "Metrolinea", "Atlántico Department", "Barranquilla", "Avianca", "Buenaventura, Valle del Cauca", "TransMilenio", "Barranquilla light rail", "Ministry of Transport (Colombia)", "Highway Police (Colombia)", "Industrial Revolution", "National Institute of Transit", "indigenous peoples in Colombia", "Caribbean Region of Colombia", "Leticia, Amazonas" ]
5,843	Military Forces of Colombia	{{Infobox national military \| country = Colombia \| name = Military Forces of Colombia \| native_name = Fuerzas Militares de Colombia \| image = Escudo Fuerzas Militares de Colombia.svg \| image_size = 150px \| caption = The tri-service badge \| founded = 7 August 1819() \| branches = \| commander-in-chief = \| commander-in-chief_title = \| minister = \| minister_title = \| commander = Major General Helder Fernan Giraldo \| commander_title = \| headquarters = Ministry of National Defense, Bogota D.C. \| age = 18 \| conscription = 18 months (Army and Aerospace Force) 24 months (Navy) 12 Months (National Police) \| active = 429 000 \| ranked = \| reserve = 998 000 \| percent_GDP = 2.9% (2023) ==Services== The Colombian Constitution includes two overlapping definitions of what could be defined as 'armed forces' in English: The Public Force (): Includes the Military Forces proper and the National Police (Title VII, chapter VII, Art. 216) The Military Forces (): Includes only the 3 major military service branches: Army, Navy and Aerospace Force (Title VII, chapter VII, Art. 217) This is a subtle yet important distinction, both in terms of emphasizing the civil nature of the National Police, but also adapting the national police to function as a paramilitary force which can perform military duties as a result of the Colombian Conflict. This has led to some of the most important police units adopting military training and conducting special operations alongside the Colombian Army, Aerospace Force, and Navy. Therefore, the functions of the Colombian Police in practical terms are similar to those of a gendarmerie, like the Spanish Civil Guard and the Carabineros de Chile, which maintain military ranks for all police personnel. ==Personnel== The Colombian armed forces consist of: Military Forces: Colombian Army Colombian Navy – and attached services Marines and Colombian Coast Guard Colombian Aerospace Force And, National Police of Colombia Public Force strength as of April 2014. ===Dependencies=== Military Medical Corps ('') – Medical and Nurse Corps Indumil () – Military Industry Depot Military Sports Federation () Military Printing () Military Museum () – History of the Armed Forces of Colombia Superior War College (Escuela Superior de Guerra (Colombia) ESDEGUE) ==Funding== In 2000, Colombia assigned 3.9% of its GDP to defense. By 2008 this figure had risen to 4.8%, ranking it 14th in the world. The armed forces number about 250,000 uniformed personnel: 145,000 military and 105,000 police. These figures do not include assistance personnel such as cooks, medics, mechanics, and so on. This makes the Colombian military one of the largest and most well-equipped in Latin America. Many Colombian military personnel have received military training assistance directly in Colombia and also in the United States. The United States has provided equipment and financing to the Colombian military and police through the military assistance program, foreign military sales, and the international narcotics control program, all currently united under the auspices of Plan Colombia. ==World factbook statistics== Military manpower – military service age and obligation: 18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation – 24 months (2004) Military manpower – availability: males age 18–49: 10,212,456 females age 18–49: 10,561,562 (2005 estimate) Military manpower – fit for military service: males age 18–49: 6,986,228 females age 18–49: 8,794,465 (2005 estimate) Military manpower – reaching military age annually: males age 18–49: 389,735 females age 18–49: 383,146 (2005 estimate) ==Rank Insignia== File:Colombian Air Force Sikorsky UH-60L Arpía III (S-70A-41) Ramírez-1.jpg\|Colombian Aerospace Force Sikorsky UH-60L Arpía III (S-70A-41) just after having launched several flares. File:Infantes de marina colombia.JPG\|Colombian Marines File:Arc fragata caldas.jpg\|Colombian Navy Frigate ARC Caldas File:Special Forces Colombia.jpg\|Colombian Special Forces soldiers File:ARC Almirante Padilla.jpg\|A vessel of the Colombian Navy	[ "Spanish Empire", "fr:Armée nationale colombienne", "Civil Guard (Spain)", "Agrupación de Fuerzas Especiales Antiterroristas Urbanas", "Colombian Aerospace Force", "Carabineros de Chile", "Colombian Coast Guard", "Escuela Superior de Guerra (Colombia)", "Colombian Navy", "National Army of Colombia", "Operation Atalanta", "Colombia during World War II", "General Commander of the Military Forces (Colombia)", "Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada", "Stockholm International Peace Research Institute", "counter-insurgency", "List of wars involving Colombia", "Horn of Africa", "Plan Colombia", "Gustavo Petro", "Gran Colombia", "Canadian Armed Forces", "Colombia", "Operation Ocean Shield", "Ministry of National Defense (Colombia)", "National Police of Colombia", "Congress of Angostura", "Indumil", "Western Hemisphere", "Colombian Naval Infantry", "Joint Task Force OMEGA", "War on drugs", "COTECMAR", "Colombian Conflict", "London", "Colombian military decorations", "Bogota D.C.", "President of Colombia", "Iván Velásquez Gómez", "conscription", "United States Armed Forces", "Major general", "armed forces", "Colombian Constitution of 1991", "Colombian Army", "Colombian National Police", "Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk", "Frigate", "gendarmerie", "Brazilian Armed Forces", "US$", "Routledge", "de facto", "Americas", "Korean War", "Military ranks of the Colombian Armed Forces" ]
5,844	History of Colombia	The history of Colombia includes its settlement by indigenous peoples and the establishment of agrarian societies, notably the Muisca Confederation, Quimbaya Civilization, and Tairona Chiefdoms. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of annexation and colonization, ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá. Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the resulting "Gran Colombia" Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858) and then the United States of Colombia (1863) before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. A period of constant political violence ensued, and Panama seceded in 1903. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict which escalated in the 1990s but decreased from 2005 onward. The legacy of Colombia's history has resulted in a rich cultural heritage, and Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have contributed to the development of strong regional identities. == Pre-Colombian == From approximately 12,000 years BP onwards, hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at El Abra and Tequendama), and they traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River valley. Due to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and the Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza archaeological site and El Totumo archaeological site in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18.000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga archaeological site and other sites, traces from the Archaic period in South America (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto archaeological site, dates to 5000–4000 BCE. Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 10.500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. Serranía de la Lindosa, a mountainous region of Guaviare Department, is known for an extensive prehistoric rock art site which stretches for nearly eight miles. Some authors have argued that the site depicts now extinct animals such as horses, gomphotheres and ground sloths and that it was painted around 12,600 years ago, but other authors have argued that the drawings depict modern (including domestic) animals and were created in the last 500 years after European contact. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, Tairona, Calima, Zenú, Tierradentro, San Agustín, Tolima and Urabá became skilled in farming, mining and metalcraft; and some developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed the Muisca Confederation. The Muisca had one of the most developed political systems (Muisca Confederation) in South America, surpassed only by the Incas. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated Andes mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges. The Incas expanded their empire on the southwest part of the country. During the 1200s, Malayo-Polynesians and Native Americans in Colombia made contact, thereby spreading Native American genetics from Precolonial Colombia to some Pacific Ocean islands. Muisca raft Legend of El Dorado Offerings of gold.jpg\|The zipa used to cover his body in gold and. from his Muisca raft. he offered treasures to the Guatavita goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the El Dorado legend. Museo del Oro Zenú Bogota mod.jpg\|A lowland Zenú cast-gold bird ornament that served as a staff head. dated 490 CE. This culture used alloys with a high gold content. The crest of the bird consists of the typical Zenú semi-filigree. Regular filigree is braided wire. but the Zenú cast theirs. Taironapendants metropolitan 2006.jpg\|Tairona figure pendants in gold Cacique Quimbaya de oro (M. América, Madrid) 01.jpg\|Golden statuette of a Quimbaya cacique Parque Arqueológico de San Agustín - tomb of a deity with supporting warriors.jpg\|San Agustín Archaeological Park (UNESCO World Heritage Site) contains the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in Latin America, and is considered the world's largest necropolis. Lost City Ruins.jpg\|Ciudad Perdida is a major settlement believed to have been founded around 800 CE. It consists of a series of 169 terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several small circular plazas. The entrance can only be accessed by a climb up some 1,200 stone steps through dense jungle. Villa de Leyva el infiernito.jpg\|El Infiernito, a pre-Columbian archaeoastronomical site located on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the outskirts of Villa de Leyva == Colonial Period == === Pre-Columbian history === Europeans first visited the territory that became Colombia in 1499 when the first expedition of Alonso de Ojeda arrived at the Cabo de la Vela. The Spanish made several attempts to settle along the north coast of today's Colombia in the early 16th century, but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, dates from 1525. The Spanish commander Pedro de Heredia founded Cartagena on June 1, 1533, in the former location of the indigenous Caribbean Calamarí village. Cartagena grew rapidly, fueled first by the gold in the tombs of the Sinú culture, and later by trade. The thirst for gold and land lured Spanish explorers to visit Chibchan-speaking areas; resulting in the Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations - the conquest by the Spanish monarchy of the Chibcha language-speaking nations, mainly the Muisca and Tairona who inhabited present-day Colombia, beginning the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The Spanish advance inland from the Caribbean coast began independently from three different directions, under Jimenéz de Quesáda, Sebastián de Benalcázar (known in Colombia as Belalcázar) and Nikolaus Federmann. Although all three were drawn by the Indian treasures, none intended to reach Muisca territory. where they finally met. In August 1538, Quesáda founded Santa Fe de Bogotá on the site of Muisca village of Bacatá. In 1549, the institution of the Spanish Royal Audiencia in Bogotá gave that city the status of capital of New Granada, which comprised in large part what is now the territory of Colombia. As early as the 1500s, however, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included Colombia, and the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included the Philippines, the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas. Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up in Córdoba, Colombia, the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain. They settled and traded with each other while disobeying the forced Spanish monopoly in more expensive silks and porcelain made in homeland Spain. In 1717, the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. Felipe Salonga a rebel Filipino who mixed Christianity with Islam and was from the formerly Muslim kingdom Manila and who was implicated in the Tondo Conspiracy, was presumably exiled to the location of what is now the Viceroyalty of New Granada (Named after a formerly Islamic kingdom in Spain) in the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada he fomented opposition against Spain among the oppressed Native Americas. The viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City. == Gran Colombia: independence re-claimed == From then on, the long independence struggle was led mainly by Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander in neighboring Venezuela. Bolívar returned to New Granada only in 1819 after establishing himself as leader of the pro-independence forces in the Venezuelan llanos. From there he led an army over the Andes and captured New Granada after a quick campaign that ended at the Battle of Boyacá on August 7, 1819. (For more information. see Military career of Simón Bolívar.) That year, the Congress of Angostura established the Republic of Gran Colombia, which included all territories under the jurisdiction of the former Viceroyalty of New Granada. Bolívar was elected the first president of Gran Colombia and Santander, vice president. As the Federation of Gran Colombia was dissolved in 1830, the Department of Cundinamarca (as established in Angostura) became a new country, the Republic of New Granada. Colombia was the first nation in the Andean area to believe that racial inferiority was the cause of many of its initial problems. Creoles in the country believed that non-white citizens, mainly Indians and Africans, were lazy and holding the nation back. This led to an attempt to make a homogenous society that reflected the so-called good qualities of white people. These ideals led to a long-lasting racial and geographical segregation. However, Colombia demonstrated a notable commitment to civil rights during the nineteenth century. The Colombian Constitution of 1863 made liberal promises for a broad range of civil rights, reflecting principles similar to those found in the United States Constitution, such as freedom of association, press, speech, religion, and due process. Colombia also abolished the death penalty during this time. Lastly, Colombian society embraced inclusivity, emphasizing that rights should be granted "universally without notice of sex nor differences of color nor unjust preferences of fortune, nor distinctions of age". == The Republic: Liberal and Conservative conflict == In 1863 the name of the republic was changed officially to "United States of Colombia," and in 1886 the country adopted its present name: "Republic of Colombia". Two political parties grew out of conflicts between the followers of Bolívar and Santander and their political visions—the Conservatives and the Liberals – and have since dominated Colombian politics. Bolívar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the Roman Catholic Church, and a limited franchise. Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state rather than church control over education and other civil matters, and a broadened suffrage. During the mid-19th century, Colombia embraced a vision of "American republican modernity," which emphasized democratic republicanism, universal male suffrage, and civil rights as markers of progress, positioning the country as a leader in the Atlantic World. This period saw Colombia enact significant political reforms, such as the 1853 Constitution, which eliminated property and literacy requirements for voting, making it one of the most democratic nations of its time. However, by the 1880s, Colombia shifted toward Western industrial modernity, prioritizing economic development and state centralization over the earlier focus on political rights, leading to the adoption of the 1886 Constitution and the end of its republican experiment. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free elections. The military has seized power three times in Colombia's history: in 1830, after the dissolution of Great Colombia; again in 1854 (by General José María Melo); and from 1953 to 1957 (under General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla). Civilian rule was restored within one year in the first two instances. Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history has also been characterized by widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties. The Thousand Days' War (1899–1902) cost an estimated 100.000 lives, and up to 300.000 people died during "La Violencia" of the late 1940s and 1950s, a bipartisan confrontation which erupted after the assassination of Liberal popular candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán. United States activity to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to a military uprising in the Isthmus Department in 1903, which resulted in the separation and independence of Panama. A military coup in 1953 toppled the right-wing government of Conservative Laureano Gómez and brought General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla to power. Initially, Rojas enjoyed considerable popular support, due largely to his success in reducing "La Violencia." When he did not restore democratic rule and occasionally engaged in open repression, however, he was overthrown by the military in 1957 with the backing of both political parties, and a provisional government was installed. == The National Front regime (1958–1974) == In July 1957, former Conservative President Laureano Gómez (1950–1953) and former Liberal President Alberto Lleras (1945–1946. 1958–1962) issued the "Declaration of Sitges," in which they proposed a "National Front," whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia," and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In particular, the Liberal president Alberto Lleras Camargo (1958–1962) created the Colombian Institute for Agrarian Reform (INCORA), and Carlos Lleras Restrepo (1966–1970) further developed land entitlement. In 1968 and 1969 alone, the INCORA issued more than 60.000 land titles to farmers and workers. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued. The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, and many protesters were victimized during this period. Especially after what was later confirmed as the fraudulent election of Conservative candidate Misael Pastrana in 1970, which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate and former president (dictator) Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. The M-19 guerrilla movement, "Movimiento 19 de Abril" (19 April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event. The FARC was formed in 1964 by Manuel Marulanda Vélez and other Marxist–Leninist supporters after a military attack on the community of Marquetalia. Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by 1974, the 1886 Colombian constitution — in effect until 1991—required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government, which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation. The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties. == Post-National Front == From 1974 until 1982, different presidential administrations chose to focus on ending the persistent insurgencies that sought to undermine Colombia's traditional political system. Both groups claimed to represent the poor and weak against the rich and powerful classes of the country, demanding the completion of true land and political reform from an openly Communist perspective. By 1974, another challenge to the state's authority and legitimacy had come from 19th of April Movement (M-19), a mostly urban guerrilla group founded in response to an alleged electoral fraud during the final National Front election of Misael Pastrana Borrero (1970–1974) and the defeat of former dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. Initially, the M-19 attracted a degree of attention and sympathy from mainstream Colombians that the FARC and National Liberation Army (ELN) had found largely elusive earlier due to extravagant and daring operations, such as stealing a sword that had belonged to Colombia's Independence hero Simon Bolívar. At the same time, its larger profile soon made it the focus of the state's counterinsurgency efforts. The ELN guerrilla had been seriously crippled by military operations in the region of Anorí by 1974, but it managed to reconstitute itself and escape destruction, in part due to the administration of Alfonso López Michelsen (1974–1978) allowing it to escape encirclement, hoping to initiate a peace process with the group. By 1982, the perceived passivity of the FARC, together with the relative success of the government's efforts against the M-19 and ELN, enabled the administration of the Liberal Party's Julio César Turbay (1978–1982) to lift a state-of-siege decree that had been in effect, on and off, for most of the previous 30 years. Under the latest such decree, president Turbay had implemented security policies that, though of some military value against the M-19 in particular, were considered highly questionable both inside and outside Colombian circles due to numerous accusations of military human rights abuses against suspects and captured guerrillas. Citizen exhaustion due to the conflict's newfound intensity led to the election of president Belisario Betancur (1982–1986), a Conservative who won 47% of the popular vote, directed peace feelers at all the insurgents, and negotiated a 1984 cease-fire with the FARC and M-19 after a 1982 release of many guerrillas imprisoned during the previous effort to overpower them. The ELN rejected entering any negotiation and continued to recover itself through the use of extortions and threats, in particular against foreign oil companies of European and U.S. origin. As these events were developing, the growing illegal drug trade and its consequences were also increasingly becoming a matter of widespread importance to all participants in the Colombian conflict. Guerrillas and newly wealthy drug lords had mutually uneven relations, and thus numerous incidents occurred between them. Eventually, the kidnapping of drug cartel family members by guerrillas led to the creation of the 1981 Muerte a Secuestradores (MAS) death squad ("Death to Kidnappers"). Pressure from the U.S. government and critical sectors of Colombian society was met with further violence, as the Medellín Cartel and its hitmen bribed or murdered numerous public officials, politicians and others who stood in its way by supporting the implementation of extradition of Colombian nationals to the U.S. Victims of cartel violence included Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara, whose assassination in 1984 made the Betancur administration begin to directly oppose the drug lords. The first negotiated cease-fire with the M-19 ended when the guerrillas resumed fighting in 1985, claiming that the cease-fire had not been fully respected by official security forces, saying that several of its members had suffered threats and assaults, and also questioning the government's real willingness to implement any accords. The Betancur administration, in turn, questioned the M-19's actions and its commitment to the peace process, as it continued to advance high-profile negotiations with the FARC, which led to the creation of the Patriotic Union (Colombia) (UP), a legal and non-clandestine political organization. On November 6, 1985, the M-19 stormed the Colombian Palace of Justice and held the Supreme Court magistrates hostage, intending to put president Betancur on trial. In the ensuing crossfire that followed the military's reaction, scores of people lost their lives, as did most of the guerrillas, including several high-ranking operatives. Both sides blamed each other for the outcome. Meanwhile, individual FARC members initially joined the UP leadership in representation of the guerrilla command, though most of the guerrilla's chiefs and militiamen did not demobilize nor disarm, as that was not a requirement of the process at that point in time. Tension soon significantly increased as both sides began to accuse each other of not respecting the cease-fire. Political violence against FARC and UP members (including presidential candidate Jaime Pardo) was blamed on drug lords and also on members of the security forces (to a much lesser degree on the argued inaction of Betancur administration). Members of the government and security authorities increasingly accused the FARC of continuing to recruit guerrillas. as well as kidnapping, extorting and politically intimidating voters even as the UP was already participating in politics. The Virgilio Barco (1986–1990) administration, in addition to continuing to handle the difficulties of the complex negotiations with the guerrillas, also inherited a particularly chaotic confrontation against the drug lords, who were engaged in a campaign of terrorism and murder in response to government moves in favor of their extradition overseas. The UP also suffered an increasing number of losses during this term (including the assassination of presidential candidate Bernardo Jaramillo), which stemmed both from private proto-paramilitary organizations, increasingly powerful drug lords and a number of would-be paramilitary-sympathizers within the armed forces. == Post-1990 == Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, narcotics traffickers and the violence and corruption that they all perpetuated, both through force and negotiation. Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before César Gaviria was elected in 1990. Since the death of Medellín cartel leader Pablo Escobar in a police shootout in December 1993, indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the "cartels" have broken up into multiple smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations. Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest government policies, including extradition. The M-19 and several smaller guerrilla groups were successfully incorporated into a peace process as the 1980s ended and the 1990s began, which culminated in the elections for a Constituent Assembly of Colombia that would write a new constitution, which took effect in 1991. The new Constitution brought about a considerable number of institutional and legal reforms based on principles that the delegates considered as more modern, humanist, democratic and politically open than those in the 1886 constitution. Practical results were mixed and mingled emerged (such as the debate surrounding the constitutional prohibition of extradition, which later was reversed), but together with the reincorporation of some of the guerrilla groups to the legal political framework, the new Constitution inaugurated an era that was both a continuation and a gradual, but significant, departure from what had come before. Contacts with the FARC, which had irregularly continued despite the generalized de facto interruptions of the ceasefire and the official 1987 break from negotiations, were temporarily cut off in 1990 under the presidency of César Gaviria (1990–1994). The Colombian Army's assault on the FARC's Casa Verde sanctuary at La Uribe, Meta, followed by a FARC offensive that sought to undermine the deliberations of the Constitutional Assembly, began to highlight a significant break in the uneven negotiations carried over from the previous decade. President Ernesto Samper assumed office in August 1994. However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation's domestic reform agenda. The military also suffered several setbacks in its fight against the guerrillas when several of its rural bases began to be overrun and a record number of soldiers and officers were taken prisoner by the FARC (which since 1982 was attempting to implement a more "conventional" style of warfare. seeking to eventually defeat the military in the field). On August 7, 1998, Andrés Pastrana was sworn in as the President of Colombia. A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turnout and little political unrest. The new president's program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia's longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs. While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia. During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%. Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerrilla attacks by the FARC and ELN. and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production, corruption and the spread of even more violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) has made it difficult to solve the country's problems. Although the FARC and ELN accepted participation in the peace process, they did not make explicit commitments to end the conflict. The FARC suspended talks in November 2000, to protest what it called "paramilitary terrorism" but returned to the negotiating table in February 2001 following 2 days of meetings between President Pastrana and FARC leader Manuel Marulanda. The Colombian Government and ELN in early 2001 continued discussions aimed at opening a formal peace process. == From 2004 and on == By 2004, the security situation of Colombia had shown improvement, and the economy, while still fragile, had also shown some positive signs. On the other hand, relatively little had been accomplished in structurally solving most of the country's other grave problems, in part due to legislative and political conflicts between the administration and the Colombian Congress (including those over the controversial 2006 project to give President Álvaro Uribe the right to be re-elected), and a relative lack of freely allocated funds and credits. In October 2006, Uribe was re-elected by a landslide. Some critical observers consider in retrospect that Uribe's policies, while admittedly reducing crime and guerrilla activity, were too slanted in favor of a military solution to Colombia's internal war, neglecting grave social and human rights concerns to a certain extent. They hoped that Uribe's government would make serious efforts towards improving the human rights situation inside the country, protecting civilians and reducing any abuses committed by the armed forces. Uribe's supporters in turn believed that increased military action was a necessary prelude to any serious negotiation attempt with the guerrillas and that the increased security situation would help the government, in the long term, to focus more actively on reducing most wide-scale abuses and human rights violations on the part of both the armed groups and any rogue security forces that might have links to the paramilitaries. In short, these supporters maintained that the security situation needed to be stabilized in favor of the government before any other social concerns could take precedence. In February 2010, the constitutional court blocked President Alvaro Uribe from seeking re-election again. Uribe left the presidency in 2010. In 2010, Juan Manuel Santos was elected president; he was supported by ex-president Uribe, and he owed his election mainly through having won over former Uribe supporters. But two years after winning the presidential election, Santos (to widespread surprise) began peace talks with FARC. which took place in Havana. Re-elected in 2014, Santos revived an important infrastructure program, which had been planned during the Uribe administration. Focused mainly on the provision of national highways, the program was led by former vice-president Germán Vargas Lleras. In 2015, Colombia's Congress limited presidency to single term, preventing the president from seeking re-election. Talks between the government and the guerrillas resulted in the announcement of a peace agreement. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia under President Santos showed some progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction of Peace was created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice. During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict. In May 2018, Ivan Duque, the candidate of the conservative Centro Democrático (Democratic Centre), won the presidential election. On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the new president of Colombia. Colombia's relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to the ideological differences between both governments. Colombia has offered humanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela. Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful. Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations. In February 2019, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro cut diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country. Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaido as the country's legitimate president. In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro's proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations. The 19 June 2022 election run-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla Gustavo Petro, taking 50.47% of the vote compared to 47.27% of right-wing Rodolfo Hernández. The single-term limit for the country's presidency prevented president Iván Duque from seeking re-election. Petro became the country's first leftist president-elect. On 7 August 2022, he was sworn in.	[ "Cundinamarca Department (1820)", "Andrés Pastrana Arango", "Tairona", "Manuel Marulanda Vélez", "Geography of Colombia", "Paleoindian", "Colombian Institute for Agrarian Reform", "Indigenous peoples in Colombia", "Tequendama", "César Gaviria Trujillo", "cacique", "United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia", "Simón Bolívar", "pre-Columbian", "Amazon basin", "Jorge Eliécer Gaitán", "Carlos Lleras Restrepo", "Panama–Colombia separation", "Ground sloth", "Medellín", "2016 Nobel Peace Prize", "Crisis in Venezuela (2012–present)", "Colombian Conservative Party", "Humanitarian aid", "Tierradentro", "San Agustín Archaeological Park", "Juan Guaidó", "Julio César Turbay Ayala", "llanos", "Iván Duque", "Gran Colombia", "Bogotá", "Guaviare Department", "Cartagena, Colombia", "Alonso de Ojeda", "BBC News", "Sebastián de Benalcázar", "Laureano Gómez", "Medellín Cartel", "Álvaro Uribe", "justice", "zipa", "Túpac Amaru", "illegal drug trade", "Inca civilization", "Alfonso López Michelsen", "Palace of Justice siege", "Gomphothere", "Isthmus Department", "Quemuenchatocha", "indigenous peoples in Colombia", "Nikolaus Federmann", "Insurgency", "Calima culture", "Cordillera Central, Colombia", "extradition", "Human Rights Watch", "Sustainable Development Goals", "Spain", "Before Present", "Sagipa", "plaza", "Andes", "Caribbean", "Colombian congress", "Meta Department", "Muisca raft", "Colombian peace process", "Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast", "international humanitarian law", "Pablo Escobar", "Confederation", "terrace (agriculture)", "19th of April Movement", "Jaime Pardo Leal", "Economic history of Colombia", "United States", "Panama Canal", "El Infiernito", "Granadine Confederation", "El Dorado", "Viceroyalty of Peru", "Colombian Liberal Party", "Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations", "Simon Bolívar", "Belisario Betancur", "Chibcha language", "Amerindian", "2022 Colombian presidential election", "Bernardo Jaramillo Ossa", "José María Melo", "Patriotic Union (Colombia)", "Lima, Peru", "Muisca economy", "2010 Colombia–Venezuela diplomatic crisis", "Placer mining", "Constituent Assembly of Colombia", "Rodrigo Lara Bonilla", "Special Jurisdiction of Peace", "Virgilio Barco Vargas", "2010 Colombian presidential election", "Viceroyalty of New Granada", "cacicazgo", "Asymmetric warfare", "Zenú", "La Violencia", "paramilitary", "de facto", "megalith", "Republic of New Granada", "FARC", "Cordillera Occidental, Colombia", "History of the Americas", "Magdalena River", "Inca Empire", "Córdoba Department", "Marquetalia, Caldas", "Alberto Lleras Camargo", "Colombian emeralds", "Jimenéz de Quesáda", "hunter-gatherer", "Pope Francis", "Panama", "Villa de Leyva", "necropolis", "National Liberation Army (Colombia)", "El Abra", "List of Muisca and pre-Muisca sites", "Aquiminzaque", "Gustavo Petro", "Caracol Radio", "Nemocón", "Fernando Londoño", "Departments of Colombia", "Audiencia Real", "2006 Colombian presidential election", "2014 Colombian presidential election", "Tunja", "New Kingdom of Granada", "president of Colombia", "Santa Marta", "History of Latin America", "2018 Colombian presidential election", "Austronesian expansion", "Nicolás Maduro", "United Nations", "Ciudad Perdida", "Cabo de la Vela", "terrorism", "Tondo Conspiracy", "human rights abuse", "Mesoamerica", "Thousand Days' War", "Viceroyalty of New Spain", "conquest (military)", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "Colombian peace agreement referendum, 2016", "Muisca Confederation", "Military career of Simón Bolívar", "Serranía de la Lindosa", "Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta", "Colombia during World War II", "Battle of Boyacá", "Communist", "Ernesto Samper Pizano", "Cundinamarca Department", "South America", "Francisco de Paula Santander", "sacred lake", "Muisca people", "Colombian armed conflict (1964–present)", "Tibitó", "Colombia", "Aridoamerica", "Boyacá Department", "Misael Pastrana Borrero", "La Uribe", "Rodolfo Hernández Suárez", "Ecuador", "separation of Panama from Colombia", "Politics of Colombia", "Panche people", "Juan Manuel Santos", "Congress of Angostura", "Isthmo-Colombian", "List of presidents of Colombia", "History of South America", "United States of Colombia", "Gustavo Rojas Pinilla", "Cauca River", "filigree", "Democratic Center (Colombia)", "Altiplano Cundiboyacense", "Venezuela", "Spanish monarchy", "WP:SDNONE", "rock art", "New Spain", "Mexico City", "Quimbaya civilization", "Roman Catholic Church", "Low intensity conflict", "UNESCO World Heritage Site" ]
5,845	Foreign relations of Colombia	Colombia seeks diplomatic and commercial relations with all countries, regardless of their ideologies or political or economic systems. For this reason, the Colombian economy is quite open, relying on international trade and following guidelines given by international law. Since 2008, Colombia's Ministry of Trade and Commerce has either reached or strengthened Bilateral Trade Agreements with South Korea, Japan and China building stronger commerce interchange and development in the Pacific Rim. Regional relations have also vastly improved under the Santos Administration (2010–2018). Issues however remain regarding spillover of the FARC leftist-terrorist group, being chased out of hiding in rural areas of Colombia and finding safe havens in non-monitored areas of bordering states. The FARC numbers have significantly diminished in the last decade, to an estimated 5,000–7,000. And while joint military collaboration has steadily increased with the bordering countries of Brazil, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela, there have been tensions between Colombia and Ecuador regarding the issue. In 2002, the Ecuadorian government closed its main border crossing with Colombia, restricting its hours of operation. Ecuador continues to voice its concerns over an influx of émigrés stemming from guerilla activity at its borders. Evidence has since emerged however, suggesting that a significant number of the FARC's foot soldiers in and around the Colombia–Ecuador border consist of Ecuadorian émigrés who joined the leftist terrorist group out of need. Returning Ecuadorian émigrés have faced re-entry restrictions. In 2012, relations with Nicaragua and Venezuela were tested over territorial island disputes. Bilateral committees are negotiating the dispute with Venezuela over waters in the Gulf of Venezuela. ==Background== In 1969, Colombia formed what is now the Andean Community along with Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru (Venezuela joined in 1973, and Chile left in 1976). In the 1980s, Colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations, joining the Contadora Group, the Group of Eight (now the Rio Group), and the Non-Aligned Movement, which it chaired from 1994 until September 1998. In addition, it has signed free trade agreements with Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela. Colombia has traditionally played an active role in the United Nations and the Organization of American States and in their subsidiary agencies. Former President César Gaviria became Secretary General of the OAS in September 1994 and was reelected in 1999. Colombia was a participant in the December 1994 and April 1998 Summits of the Americas and followed up on initiatives developed at the summit by hosting two post-summit, ministerial-level meetings on trade and science and technology. Colombia regularly participates in international fora, including CICAD, the Organization of American States' body on money laundering, chemical controls, and drug abuse prevention. Although the Colombian Government ratified the 1988 UN Convention on Narcotics in 1994—the last of the Andean governments to do so—it took important reservations, notably to the anti-money-laundering measures, asset forfeiture and confiscation provisions, maritime interdiction, and extradition clauses. Colombia subsequently withdrew some of its reservations, most notably a reservation on extradition. ==International relations== ===Disputes – international=== Maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the Gulf of Venezuela; territorial disputes with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andrés y Providencia and Quita Sueño Bank. The United States disputes sovereignty with Colombia over the Serranilla Bank and the Bajo Nuevo Bank. Quita Sueño Bank is claimed by the United States to be a submerged reef, and thus does not recognize the sovereignty of any nation over the bank. ===Membership of international organizations=== The major organizations in which Colombia is a member include: the Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, Andean Pact, Caribbean Development Bank Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, G3 Free Trade Agreement, Group of 11, Group of 24, Group of 77, Inter-American Development Bank, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Chamber of Commerce, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, International Maritime Satellite Organization, International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Migration, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, International Trade Union Confederation, Latin American Economic System, Latin American Integration Association, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of American States (OAS), Permanent Court of Arbitration, Rio Group, United Nations (UN), UN Conference on Trade and Development, UNESCO, UN Industrial Development Organization, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees, Universal Postal Union, World Confederation of Labour, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, and World Trade Organization. An OAS observer has monitored the government's peace process with the paramilitaries, lending the negotiations much-needed international credibility. In terms of foreign policy process, presidents have broad constitutional authorities, in consultation with their foreign ministers. However, since the 2000s, the influence of other domestic actors in Colombian foreign policy-making has increased. Long, Bitar, and Jiménez-Peña examine the role of the Colombian Constitutional Court, congressional politics, social movements, and electoral challengers. They find that Colombian institutions permit increasing challenges to presidential authority, and that in important cases Colombian presidents have been forced to drop their preferred foreign policies. == Diplomatic relations == List of countries which Colombia maintains diplomatic relations with: ==Bilateral relations== ===Americas=== {\| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin:auto;" \|- ! style="width:15%;"\| Country ! style="width:12%;"\| Formal relations began !Notes \|- valign="top" \|\|\|8 March 1823 \|\| See Argentina–Colombia relations Argentina has an embassy in Bogotá. Colombia has an embassy in Buenos Aires. Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States, Latin American Economic System, Latin American Integration Association, Rio Group and Union of South American Nations. List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Colombia (Argentine Foreign Ministry \|- valign="top" \|\|\|19 March 1912\|\|See Bolivia–Colombia relations Bolivia has an embassy in Bogotá. Colombia has an embassy in La Paz. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|24 April 1907\|\|See Brazil–Colombia relations Brazil has an embassy in Bogotá and a vice-consulate in Leticia. Colombia has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Manaus, São Paulo and in Tabatinga. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|6 October 1952\|\|See Canada–Colombia relations Canada has an embassy in Bogotá. Colombia has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|21 October 1822\|\|See Chile–Colombia relations Both nations are members of the Pacific Alliance. Chile has an embassy in Bogotá. Colombia has an embassy in Santiago. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|10 February 1832\|\|See Colombia–Ecuador relations Present-day Colombia and Ecuador trace back established official diplomatic relations to December, 1831 with the signing of the Treaty of Pasto, in which both countries recognized each other as sovereign states. The Ecuadorean diplomatic mission in New Granada (Colombia) did not open until 1837. It wasn't until 1939 that Ecuador raised the diplomatic mission's status to an official embassy. Colombia did the same the following year, in 1940. Colombia has an embassy in Quito. Ecuador has an embassy in Bogotá. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|18 December 1970\|\|See Colombia–Guyana relations Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 18 December 1970. Both countries are full members of Organization of American States, Association of Caribbean States and Union of South American Nations. Colombia is accredited to Guyana from its embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. Guyana is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|3 October 1823 \|\|See Colombia–Mexico relations Colombia has an embassy in Mexico City and consulates in Cancún and Guadalajara. Mexico has an embassy in Bogotá. Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and the Pacific Alliance. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|8 March 1825\|\|See Colombia–Nicaragua relations The relationship between the two Latin American countries has evolved amid conflicts over the San Andrés y Providencia Islands located in the Caribbean close to the Nicaraguan shoreline and the maritime boundaries covering that included the islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina and the banks of Roncador, Serrana, Serranilla and Quitasueño as well as the arbitrarily designed 82nd meridian west which Colombia claims as a border but which the International Court has sided with Nicaragua in disavowing. Colombia has an embassy in Managua. Nicaragua has an embassy in Bogotá. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|9 July 1924\|\|See Colombia–Panama relations Colombia has an embassy in Panama City and consulates in Colón, Jaqué and in Puerto Obaldía. Panama has an embassy in Bogotá and a consulate-general in Barranquilla. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|27 July 1870\|\|See Colombia–Paraguay relations Colombia has an embassy in Asunción. Paraguay has an embassy in Bogotá. Both countries are full members of Union of South American Nations, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, Rio Group, Group of 77, Latin American Economic System and Latin American Integration Association. Paraguayan Ministry of Foreign Relations about relations with Colombia \|- valign="top" \|\|\|6 July 1822\|\|See Colombia–Peru relations Both nations are members of the Pacific Alliance. Colombia has an embassy in Lima and a consulate-general in Iquitos. Peru has an embassy in Bogotá and a consulate-general in Leticia. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|19 June 1822 \|\|See Colombia–United States relations The country traditionally has had good relations with the United States. Relations were strained during the presidency of Ernesto Samper (1994–98) due to accusations of receiving illegal campaign funding from the Cali Cartel. Relations between the two countries greatly improved during the Pastrana administration (1998–2002). In January 2000, the Clinton administration pledged more than US$1 billion of mainly military assistance to Colombia to assist the antidrug component of President Pastrana's strategy known as Plan Colombia. Relations with the United States became a foreign policy priority for the Uribe administration, and Colombia became an important ally in the "War on Terrorism". In March 2002, in response to a request from U.S. President George W. Bush, the U.S. Congress lifted restrictions on U.S. assistance to Colombia to allow it to be used for counterinsurgency in addition to antidrug operations. U.S. support for Colombia's antidrug-trafficking efforts included slightly more than US$2.5 billion between 2000 and 2004, as compared with only about US$300 million in 1998. Some critics of current US policies in Colombia, such as Law Professor John Barry, claim that US influences have catalyzed internal conflicts. Colombia rejects threats and blackmail of the United States of America after the threat of Donald Trump to decertify the country as a partner in counter-narcotics efforts.}}	[ "Colombia–Netherlands relations", "International Finance Corporation", "Kuala Lumpur", "Montreal", "Security issues in Colombia", "Hong Kong", "List of diplomatic missions in Colombia", "International Organization for Migration", "Washington, D.C.", "Simón Bolívar", "Istanbul", "Oranjestad, Aruba", "Brazil–Colombia relations", "Colombia–Spain relations", "Warsaw", "Madrid", "Ozone Layer Protection", "Gulf of Venezuela", "Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs", "International Civil Aviation Organization", "International Development Association", "Orlando, Florida", "Crisis in Venezuela (2012–present)", "Colombia–Sweden relations", "Serranilla Bank", "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court", "politics", "Cali Cartel", "San Francisco", "Juan Guaidó", "Tlatelolco Treaty", "human rights in Colombia", "Plan Colombia", "Iván Duque", "Gran Colombia", "Puerto Obaldía", "George W. 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"Guangzhou", "Caribbean Development Bank", "Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina", "Organization of Ibero-American States", "Tel Aviv", "Aruba", "Sydney", "International Olympic Committee", "Organization of American States", "Pablo Escobar", "The Hague", "Caracas", "Contadora Group", "International Chamber of Commerce", "International Maritime Satellite Organization", "Maritime boundary", "Newark, New Jersey", "Brasília", "Lima", "Valencia", "Colombia–France relations", "OECD", "Tropical Timber 83", "Iquitos", "Amsterdam", "Seville", "Hazardous Wastes", "estimates", "International Labour Organization", "Colombia–Italy relations", "Chile", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "Inter-American Development Bank", "Quito", "Association of Caribbean States", "Vietnam", "European Union", "G3 Free Trade Agreement", "César Gaviria", "Aero L-159 Alca", "Colombia–Uruguay relations", "combat aircraft", "International Maritime Organization", "World Confederation of Labour", "Ankara", "Colombia–New Zealand relations", "authorized", "World Meteorological Organization", "International Telecommunication Union", "Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom", "Las Palmas", "Bolivia", "Caricom", "Mirek Topolánek", "Foreign relations of the United Kingdom", "Antarctic-Environmental Protocol", "Miami", "Boston", "Stockholm", "San Andrés (island)", "San Andrés y Providencia", "South Korea", "Milan", "Federal Research Division", "Houston", "Asunción", "Colombia–United States relations", "cycad", "Quita Sueño Bank", "Dublin", "Colombia–Guyana relations", "Colombia–Panama relations", "U.S. Congress", "Biodiversity", "Pakistan", "New Delhi", "List of diplomatic missions of Colombia", "Panama", "Colombia–Turkey relations", "Rome", "Andrés Pastrana", "China", "Colombia–Russia relations", "Gustavo Petro", "UN Industrial Development Organization", "World Health Organization", "International Bank for Reconstruction and Development", "World Federation of Trade Unions", "Colombia-Philippines relations", "Government of Colombia", "Brussels", "Pacific coast", "War on Terrorism", "UN Conference on Trade and Development", "Library of Congress", "International Fund for Agricultural Development", "Chicago", "Ottawa", "Mark Rutte", "Auckland", "International Organization for Standardization", "Santa Marta", "Frankfurt", "Colombia–Peru relations", "Berlin", "Nicolás Maduro", "Santiago", "United Nations", "Group of Eight", "Group of 77", "International Trade Union Confederation", "Marine Life Conservation", "Bolivia–Colombia relations", "International Criminal Court", "82nd meridian west", "World Tourism Organization", "Baku", "Seoul", "Barranquilla", "Group of 24", "Argentina–Colombia relations", "Embassy of Colombia, London", "Bajo Nuevo Bank", "Colombia–Ecuador relations", "U.S. Department of Homeland Security", "Korean War", "Jaqué", "Colombia–Mexico relations", "Buenos Aires", "Czechoslovakia", "International Monetary Fund", "Colombia–South Korea relations", "China–Colombia relations", "Colombia–Paraguay relations", "UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees", "International recognition of Kosovo", "WTO", "Willemstad", "illegal immigration to the United States", "International Criminal Police Organization", "Providencia Island", "Calgary", "Guadalajara", "Lisbon", "Ernesto Samper Pizano", "Rio Group", "2023 Israel-Hamas war", "gov.uk", "Andean Pact", "Endangered Species", "Curaçao", "Colombia–Hungary relations", "Chile–Colombia relations", "Canada–Colombia relations", "UN Trade and Development", "Colombia", "Roncador Bank", "Peru", "Ecuador", "Non-Aligned Movement", "Tropical Timber 94", "Cancún", "cannabis cultivation", "Reuters", "Colombia–Ecuador border", "Ship Pollution", "Barcelona", "Jesuit", "Palma, Majorca", "Colombia–Germany relations", "Bilbao", "Venezuela", "Colombia–Venezuela relations", "Paris", "Colombia Reports", "WP:SDNONE", "money laundering", "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations", "Universal Postal Union", "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons", "Japan", "Mexico City", "international law", "Pacific Alliance", "CIVETS", "Tokyo", "1988 UN Convention on Narcotics", "Manila", "International Telecommunications Satellite Organization", "Managua", "Colombia–Poland relations", "Atlanta", "Pacific Economic Cooperation Council", "Vienna", "Leticia, Amazonas" ]
5,846	Geography of the Czech Republic	The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the north. It consists mostly of low hills and plateaus surrounded along the borders by low mountains. Two areas of lowlands follow the Elbe river and the Morava river. About a third of the area of the Czech Republic is covered by forests. The Czech Republic also possesses Moldauhafen, a 30,000 m2 enclave in the middle of Hamburg docks in Germany, which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported down river could be transferred to seagoing ships. This territory reverts to Germany in 2028. ==Physical geography== ===Climate=== The Czech Republic's climate is temperate, transitional between an oceanic climate and a continental climate. The summers are rather cool and dry, with average temperatures in most areas around 20 °C, the winters are fairly mild and wet with temperatures averaging around 0 °C in most areas. The relative humidity varies between 60% and 80%. ==== Examples ==== ===Geology=== Most of the area of the Czech Republic belongs to the geographically stable Bohemian Massif. Only an area of the Western Carpathians in the east of the country is younger, lifted during the Tertiary. Igneous rocks make up the base of the Bohemian Massif. Sedimentary rocks are mostly found in the north-eastern part of Bohemia with significant areas of sandstone. Among the metamorphic rocks, the most commonly found is Gneiss. ===Mountains=== The most notable mountain ranges in the Czech Republic are all found along the borders of the country. In Bohemia it is the Bohemian Forest and Ore Mountains, both bordering Germany. Then the long region of Sudetes with several mountains ranges, including Giant Mountains with Sněžka – the highest peak of the Czech Republic. The last major mountain range is the Moravian-Silesian Beskids in the east. ===Rivers=== There are four major rivers in the Czech Republic. The Elbe (locally "Labe") flows from the Giant Mountains in the north east of Bohemia to the west and then through northern Germany all the way to the North Sea. The Morava River drains most of Moravia and flows to the south into the Danube and ultimately to the Black Sea. The Oder starts in the Moravian Silesia and flows north through Poland into the Baltic Sea. The fourth major river is the Vltava, which is the longest river of the Czech Republic and drains the southern part of Bohemia before flowing into the Elbe at Mělník. ===Bodies of water=== Natural occurring bodies of water are rather scarce; most of the significant bodies of water are man-made ponds and reservoirs. The largest pond is the Rožmberk Pond, which is one of the system of fish ponds built in the 16th century around Třeboň. The largest reservoir by area covered is the Lipno Reservoir (4,870 ha), built in the 1950s and the largest reservoir by volume is Orlík Reservoir (716 million m3), built around the same time. The largest and deepest natural lake is Černé jezero (18.4 ha). ==Human geography== ===Population geography=== The population of the Czech Republic is estimated to be around 10.6 million. The highest population density is in the larger metropolitan area of Ostrava and of course in the area around the capital of Prague. The lowest population density is in the Czech-German and Czech-Austrian borderlands, mostly as a lasting result of the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after the World War II. ===Political geography=== The Czech Republic is divided into thirteen regions and one capital city with regional status. The older administrative units of seventy-six districts are still recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration. Historically, the Czech Republic can be split into three regions: Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the east and Czech Silesia in the north east. ===Industry and agriculture=== Areas affected the most by heavy industry are the Sokolov Basin and the Most Basin in the north-west of the Czech Republic. The extensive deposits of brown coal in those areas are mostly used for electricity production. It is estimated, that almost 40% of all electric power produced in the Czech Republic comes from burning brown coal mined in these areas. Plant agriculture is focused around the lowlands surrounding the Elbe and the Morava. Around 34% of the country is covered by forests and approximately 37% of land is arable. The estimated area of irrigated land is 385 km2, and freshwater withdrawal per capita is around 164 m3 every year.	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5,848	Politics of the Czech Republic	The Czech Republic is a unitary parliamentary republic, in which the president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Government of the Czech Republic, which reports to the Chamber of Deputies. The legislature is exercised by the Parliament. The Czech Parliament is bicameral: the upper house of the Parliament is the Senate, and the lower house is the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists of 81 members who are elected for six years. The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members who are elected for four years. The judiciary system is topped by the trio of the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court. The highest legal document is the Constitution of the Czech Republic, complemented by constitutional laws and the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms. The current constitution went in effect on 1 January 1993, after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The Czech Republic has a multi-party system. Between 1993 and 2013, the two largest political parties were the centre-left Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and centre-right Civic Democratic Party (ODS). This changed in early 2014, with the rise of a new major political party ANO 2011, which has since led two cabinets. According to the V-Dem Democracy indices the Czech Republic was 2023 the 16th most electoral democratic country in the world. ==Executive branch== The president is the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. The majority of executive power is given to the Cabinet, which consists of the prime minister, deputy prime ministers and ministers (usually heads of the ministries). \|President \|Petr Pavel \|Independent \|9 March 2023 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Petr Fiala \|Civic Democratic Party \|28 November 2021 \|} === President === The president of the Czech Republic is elected by a direct vote for five years. They can only serve for two terms. The president is a formal head of state with limited executive powers specified in the articles 54 to 66 of the Constitution: ==== Ministers ==== Ministers are any member of the Cabinet who are not the prime minister. They are usually the head of a ministry, but this is not required. A ministry – sometimes called government department – is a governmental organisation that manages a specific sector of public administration. The number of ministries varies depending on the particular Cabinet and is managed by the Competence Law. As of 2021, the Czech Republic had 13 ministers and 14 ministries. ==Legislative branch== The Parliament (Parlament in Czech) consists of two houses. The lower house is the Chamber of Deputies, and the upper house is the Senate. \|President of the Chamber of Deputies \|Markéta Pekarová Adamová \|TOP 09 \|10 November 2021 \|- \|President of the Senate \|Miloš Vystrčil \|Civic Democratic Party \|19 February 2020 \|} ===Chamber of Deputies=== The Chamber of Deputies ( in Czech) has 200 members, elected for four-year terms by proportional representation with a 5% election threshold. The Chamber of Deputies elections happen every four years, unless the reigning Cabinet prematurely loses the Chamber of Deputies' support. Candidates for every political party participating in the elections are split among 14 electoral districts, which are identical to the country's administrative regions. A citizen must be at least 21 years old to be eligible for candidacy. The Chamber of Deputies was formerly known as the Czech National Council. It has the same powers and responsibilities as the now-defunct Federal Assembly of the Czechoslovakia. ===Senate=== The Senate (Senát in Czech) has 81 members, each elected for a six-year term. Senate elections happen every two years and only a third of the seats is contested each time. All of the 81 Senate electoral districts are designed to contain roughly the same number of voters. The Senate elections use a two-round system, when the two most successful candidates from the first round face each other again in the second round usually a week later. Only citizens who have reached the age of 40 are eligible for candidacy. The senate's function is to be a stabilizing force and its influence is significantly lower than that of the Chamber of Deputies. ==Judicial branch== The Czech court system recognizes four categories of courts and the Constitutional Court, which stands outside of the court system. ===Constitutional Court=== The Constitutional Court's main purpose is to protect people's constitutional rights and freedoms. The decisions of the court are final, cannot be overturned and are considered a source of law. The court is composed of 15 justices who are named for a renewable period of 10 years by the president and approved by the Senate. Its functionality is similar to that of the Supreme Court of the United States. ===Supreme courts=== There are two supreme courts in the court system of the Czech Republic – the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court. Both reside in Brno. ====Supreme Court==== The Supreme Court of the Czech Republic is the court of highest appeal for almost all legal cases heard in the Czech Republic. The justices of the Supreme Court analyze and evaluate legally effective decisions of lower courts. They unify the Czech judicature. ====Supreme Administrative Court==== The Supreme Administrative Court of the Czech Republic protects people from unlawful decisions and procedures of the state authorities. It examines objections to elections and has the authority to ban or suspend the activity of political parties. It resolves competence disputes between governmental organizations and also serves as disciplinary court for other members of the judiciary. ===High courts=== There are two high courts in the Czech Republic – one in Prague and one in Olomouc . They serve as courts of appeal to Regional Courts in cases, where the Regional Court acted as a court of first instance. Presidents of the high courts are appointed by the president for seven years. The vice-presidents are appointed by the minister of justice and also serve a seven-year term. A justice is required by the law to have at least eight years of experience before becoming a member of a High Court. ===Regional courts=== Regional courts serve mainly as the courts of appeal to district courts and also as the only instance of administrative courts besides the Supreme Administrative Court. However, they can also act as courts of first instance in cases of more severe criminal charges, disputes between corporations or disputes over intellectual property. There are eight regional courts in the Czech Republic: in Brno, Ostrava, Hradec Králové, Ústí nad Labem, Plzeň, České Budějovice and two in Prague. ===District courts=== District courts serve as the courts of first instance in almost all civil or criminal proceedings. There is a total of 86 district courts in the Czech Republic. Notaries and executors are appointed by the minister of justice to their jurisdictions. ==Regional government== The Czech Republic is divided in 14 administrative regions, including one for the capital of Prague. The older system of 73 administrative districts (okresy in Czech) and 4 municipalities was abandoned in 1999 in an administrative reform. Each of the regions has a regional council with a varied number of regional councilors and a president of the regional cabinet (hejtman in Czech) as its formal head. The capital of Prague is the only exception to this, as the City Council acts both as regional and municipal governing body and is led by a mayor. Regional councilors are elected for four-year terms similarly to deputies in the Chamber of Deputies. All adults eligible to vote are also eligible to be a candidate to a regional council. ==Composition of the Senate== For the current composition of the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic, see List of MPs elected in the 2017 Czech legislative election. == Recent political developments == From 1991, the Czech Republic, originally as part of Czechoslovakia and since 1993 in its own right, has been a member of the Visegrád Group and from 1995, the OECD. The Czech Republic joined NATO on 12 March 1999 and the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 21 December 2007 the Czech Republic joined the Schengen Area. Until 2017, either the Czech Social Democratic Party or the Civic Democratic Party led the governments of the Czech Republic. In October 2017, populist movement ANO 2011, led by the country's second-richest man, Andrej Babiš, won the elections with three times more votes than its closest rival, the centre-right Civic Democrats. In December 2017, Czech President Miloš Zeman appointed Andrej Babiš as the new prime minister. On 28 November 2021, Czech President Miloš Zeman appointed opposition leader Petr Fiala as the country's new prime minister. The centre-right coalition Spolu (meaning Together) won tightly contested legislative elections in October 2021 against Prime Minister Andrej Babiš and his right-wing populist ANO party. Babiš had sought re-election after four years in power. In January 2023, Former NATO general Petr Pavel won the election runoff over Andrej Babiš to succeed Miloš Zeman as the fourth president of the Czech Republic.	[ "Districts of the Czech Republic", "České Budějovice", "ANO 2011", "Competence Law", "Ministry of Finance (Czech Republic)", "republic", "Schengen Area", "Cabinet of the Czech Republic", "Supreme Court of the United States", "President of the Senate of the Czech Republic", "Prague", "Andrej Babiš", "Prime Minister of the Czech Republic", "Spolu (Czech Republic)", "Federal Assembly (Czechoslovakia)", "Cabinet of Petr Fiala", "Government of the Czech Republic", "president of the Czech Republic", "TOP 09", "Czech Social Democratic Party", "Regional courts (Czech Republic)", "Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic", "President of the Czech Republic", "Civic Democratic Party (Czech Republic)", "NATO", "Wallenstein Palace", "Supreme Audit Office (Czech Republic)", "Chamber of Deputies", "Petr Pavel", "bicameralism", "European Union", "Olomouc", "Czech Republic", "Brno", "Hradec Králové", "2021 Czech legislative election", "2017 Czech legislative election", "Petr Fiala", "Deutsche Welle", "High Courts (Czech Republic)", "Parliament of the Czech Republic", "Board of the Czech National Bank", "two-round system", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "bicameral", "2023 Czech presidential election", "Ministry (government department)", "Bicameral", "Direct popular vote", "Straka Academy", "Law of the Czech Republic", "Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic", "Czech National Council", "Ministry of Justice (Czech Republic)", "Plzeň", "Right-wing populism", "President of the Chamber of Deputies (Czech Republic)", "Supreme Court of the Czech Republic", "V-Dem Democracy indices", "Czech government departments", "Ústí nad Labem", "Supreme Administrative Court of the Czech Republic", "Parliamentary system", "Dissolution of Czechoslovakia", "Regions of the Czech Republic", "List of MPs elected in the 2017 Czech legislative election", "Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms", "electoral districts", "head of government", "Markéta Pekarová Adamová", "multi-party system", "dissolution of Czechoslovakia", "proportional representation", "Miloš Zeman", "Miloš Vystrčil", "Prague City Council", "Coat of Arms of the Czech Republic", "Unitary state", "Senate of the Czech Republic", "Constitution of the Czech Republic", "Thun Palace", "Judiciary of the Czech Republic", "WP:SDNONE", "Visegrád Group", "head of state", "Ostrava", "parliamentary republic", "election threshold" ]
5,849	Economy of the Czech Republic	{{Infobox economy \| country = Czech Republic \| image = BB Centrum, Prague, Czech Republic.jpg \| image_size = 310px \| caption = Business district in Prague \| currency = Czech koruna (CZK) \| year = Calendar year \| organs = EU, WTO (via EU membership) and OECD \| group = {{plainlist\| Advanced economy High-income economy Diversified European (EU) economy \| gdp = \| FDI = {{plainlist\| $185.6 billion (31 December 2017 est.) 35th Abroad: $54.39 billion (31 December 2017 est.) \| debt = The economy of the Czech Republic is a developed export-oriented social market economy based in services, manufacturing, and innovation that maintains a high-income welfare state and the European social model. The Czech Republic participates in the European Single Market as a member of the European Union, and is therefore a part of the economy of the European Union. It uses its own currency, the Czech koruna, instead of the euro. It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The Czech Republic ranks 16th in inequality-adjusted human development and 24th in World Bank Human Capital Index, ahead of countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom or France. In 2019 it was described by The Guardian as "one of Europe's most flourishing economies", but in 2023 as "sick man of Europe" by Die Welt. steel production, transportation equipment (automotive, rail and aerospace industry), chemicals, advanced materials and pharmaceuticals. The major services are research and development, ICT and software development, nanotechnology and life sciences. 30th in the Global Innovation Index (ranked behind UAE), 32nd in the Global Competitiveness Report, The largest trading partner for both export and import is Germany, followed by other members of the EU. The Czech Republic has a highly diverse economy that ranks 7th in the 2019 Economic Complexity Index. ==History== ===From industrialisation to communism (1800-1989)=== The Czech lands were among the first industrialized countries in continental Europe during the German Confederation era. The Czech industrial tradition dates back to the 19th century, when the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were the economic and industrial heartland of the Austrian Empire and later the Austrian side of Austria-Hungary. The Czech lands produced a majority (about 70%) of all industrial goods in the Empire, some of which were almost monopolistic. After the First World War, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire collapsed and independent Czechoslovakia was created. Czechoslovakia had way too big industrial production for a small internal market and it missed the big market of the former Empire. The Czechoslovak crown was introduced in April 1919 at a 1:1 ratio to the Austro-Hungarian currency, it became one of the most stable currencies in Europe. It is a widespread myth among Czechs that the First Republic belonged to the 10 most developed economies of the world. In fact it had the 14th highest GDP per capita in the world. The Czech part (without Slovakia and Transcarpathia) had a similar GDP in the 1920s to Germany and Belgium, which was higher than that of the crisis-struck Austrian First Republic. The consequences of the 1938 Munich Agreement and subsequent Nazi Germany occupation were disastrous for the economy. After the occupation and forced subordination of the economy to Nazi German economic interests, the crown was officially pegged to the mark at a ratio of 1:10, even though the unofficial exchange rate was 1 to 6-7 and Germans immediately started buying Czech goods in large quantities. After the World War II and the Communist Coup d'etat were all the economies of the socialist countries tightly linked to that of the Soviet Union, in accordance with Stalin's development policy of planned interdependence. Czechoslovakia was the most prosperous country in the Eastern Bloc, however it was during the decades overtaken not only by Austria or Finland but also Southern European economies like that of Italy, Spain or Greece. ===1989–1995=== The "Velvet Revolution" in 1989, offered a chance for profound and sustained political and economic reform. With the disintegration of the communist economic alliance in 1991, Czech manufacturers lost their traditional markets among former communist countries in the east. Signs of economic resurgence began to appear in the wake of the shock therapy that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) labelled the "big bang" of January 1991. Since then, consistent liberalization and astute economic management has led to the removal of 95% of all price controls, low unemployment, a positive balance of payments position, a stable exchange rate, a shift of exports from former communist economic bloc markets to Western Europe, and relatively low foreign debt. Inflation has been higher than in some other countries – mostly in the 10% range – and the government has run consistent modest budget deficits. Two government priorities have been strict fiscal policies and creating a good climate for incoming investment in the republic. Following a series of currency devaluations, the crown has remained stable in relation to the US dollar. The Czech crown became fully convertible for most business purposes in late 1995. In order to stimulate the economy and attract foreign partners, the government has revamped the legal and administrative structure governing investment. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, the country, till that point highly dependent on exports to the USSR, had to make a radical shift in economic outlook: away from the East, and towards the West. This necessitated the restructuring of existing banking and telecommunications facilities, as well as adjusting commercial laws and practices to fit Western standards. Further minimizing reliance on a single major partner, successive Czech governments have welcomed U.S. investment (amongst others) as a counterbalance to the strong economic influence of Western European partners, especially of their powerful neighbour, Germany. Although foreign direct investment (FDI) runs in uneven cycles, with a 12.9% share of total FDI between 1990 and March 1998, the U.S. was the third-largest foreign investor in the Czech economy, behind Germany and the Netherlands. The country boasts a flourishing consumer production sector and has privatized most state-owned heavy industries through the voucher privatization system. Under the system, every citizen was given the opportunity to buy, for a moderate price, a book of vouchers that represents potential shares in any state-owned company. The voucher holders could then invest their vouchers, increasing the capital base of the chosen company, and creating a nation of citizen share-holders. This is in contrast to Russian privatization, which consisted of sales of communal assets to private companies rather than share-transfer to citizens. The effect of this policy has been dramatic. Under communism, state ownership of businesses was estimated to be 97%. Privatization through restitution of real estate to the former owners was largely completed in 1992. By 1998, more than 80% of enterprises were in private hands. Now completed, the program has made Czechs, who own shares of each of the Czech companies, one of the highest per-capita share owners in the world. On the other hand, by the public is the voucher privatisation seen mostly as unfair and source of corruption. ===1995–2000=== The country's economic transformation was far from complete. Political and financial crises in 1997 shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states. Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May. The formerly pegged currency was forced into a floating system as investors sold their Korunas faster than the government could buy them. This followed a worldwide trend to divest from developing countries that year. Investors also worried the republic's economic transformation was far from complete. Another complicating factor was the current account deficit, which reached nearly 8% of GDP. In response to the crisis, two austerity packages were introduced later in the spring (called vernacularly "The Packages"), which cut government spending by 2.5% of GDP. Growth dropped to 0.3% in 1997, −2.3% in 1998, and −0.5% in 1999. The government established a restructuring agency in 1999 and launched a revitalization program – to spur the sale of firms to foreign companies. Key priorities included accelerating legislative convergence with EU norms, restructuring enterprises, and privatising banks and utilities. The economy, fueled by increased export growth and investment, was expected to recover by 2000. ===2000–2005=== Growth in 2000–05 was supported by exports to the EU, primarily to Germany, and a strong recovery of foreign and domestic investment. Domestic demand is playing an ever more important role in underpinning growth as interest rates drop and the availability of credit cards and mortgages increases. Current account deficits of around 5% of GDP are beginning to decline as demand for Czech products in the European Union increases. Inflation is under control. Recent accession to the EU gives further impetus and direction to structural reform. In early 2004 the government passed increases in the Value Added Tax (VAT) and tightened eligibility for social benefits with the intention to bring the public finance gap down to 4% of GDP by 2006, but more difficult pension and healthcare reforms will have to wait until after the next elections. Privatization of the state-owned telecommunications firm Český Telecom took place in 2005. Intensified restructuring among large enterprises, improvements in the financial sector, and effective use of available EU funds should strengthen output growth. ===2005–2010=== Growth continued in the first years of the EU membership. The credit portion of the 2008 financial crisis did not affect the Czech Republic much, mostly due to its stable banking sector which has learned its lessons during a smaller crisis in the late 1990s and became much more cautious. As a fraction of the GDP, the Czech public debt is among the smallest ones in Central and Eastern Europe. Moreover, unlike many other post-communist countries, an overwhelming majority of the household debt – over 99% – is denominated in the local Czech currency. That's why the country wasn't affected by the shrunken money supply in the U.S. dollars. However, as a large exporter, the economy was sensitive to the decrease of the demand in Germany and other trading partners. In the middle of 2009, the annual drop of the GDP for 2009 was estimated around 3% or 4.3%, a relatively modest decrease. The impact of the economic crisis may have been limited by the existence of the national currency that temporarily weakened in H1 of 2009, simplifying the life of the exporters. The Czech Republic has a well-educated population and a densely developed infrastructure. ===2010–2019=== Due to the Great Recession, Czech Republic was in stagnation or decreasing of GDP. Some commenters and economists criticising fiscally conservative policy of Petr Nečas' right-wing government, especially criticising ex-minister of finance, Miroslav Kalousek. Miroslav Kalousek in a 2008 interview, as minister of finance in the center-right government of Mirek Topolánek, said "Czech Republic will not suffer by financial crisis". In September 2008, Miroslav Kalousek formed state budget with projection of 5% GDP increase in 2009. In 2009 and 2010, Czech Republic suffered strong economical crisis and GDP decreased by 4,5%. From 2009 to 2012, Czech Republic suffered highest state budget deficits in history of independent Czech Republic. From 2008 to 2012, the public debt of Czech Republic increased by 18,9%. Most decrease of industrial output was in construction industry (-25% in 2009, -15,5% in 2013). From 4Q 2009 to 1Q 2013, GDP decreased by 7,8%. In 2012, Czech government increased VAT. Basic VAT was increased from 20% in 2012 to 21% in 2013 and reduced VAT increased from 14% to 15% in 2013. Small enterprises sales decreased by 21% from 2012 to 2013 as result of increasing VAT. Patria.cz predicting sales stagnation and mild increase in 2013. Another problem is foreign trade. The Czech Republic is considered an export economy (the Czech Republic has strong machinery and automobile industries), however in 2013, foreign trade rapidly decreased which led to many other problems and increase of state budget deficit. In 2013, Czech National Bank, central bank, implemented controversial monetary step. To increase export and employment, CNB wilfully deflated Czech Crown (CZK), which inflation increased from 0.2% in November 2013, to 1.3% in 1Q 2014. In 2014, GDP in the Czech Republic increased by 2% and is predicted to increase by 2.7% in 2015. In 2015, Czech Republic's economy grew by 4,2% and it's the fastest growing economy in the European Union. On 29 May 2015, it was announced that growth of the Czech economy has increased from calculated 3,9% to 4,2%. In August 2015, Czech GDP growth was 4.4%, making the Czech economy the highest growing in Europe. On 9 November 2015, unemployment in the Czech Republic was at 5.9%, the lowest number since February 2009. On the other hand, the economy suffers from dividends being paid to the foreign owners of Czech companies (in 2016 worth CZK 289 billion). It is seen as a hurdle to catching up with the Western European economies and as a reason for salaries being only a third of neighbouring Germany or Austria. In 2019 it was described by The Guardian as "one of Europe's most flourishing economies" although it is labelled as high-income country by the World Bank since 2006. ==Adoption of Euro and EU funds== Since its accession to the European Union in 2004, the Czech Republic has adopted the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union and it is bound by the Treaty of Accession 2003 to adopt the Euro currency in the future. Although the Czech Republic is economically well positioned to adopt the euro, following the European debt crisis there has been considerable opposition among the public adoption of the euro currency. There is no target date by the government for joining the ERM II or adopting the euro. The cabinet that was formed following the 2017 legislative election did not plan to proceed with euro adoption within its term, and this policy was continued by the succeeding cabinet formed after the 2021 election. However, by the start of 2024, President Petr Pavel called on the government to take concrete steps in adopting the euro. The Czech Republic also receives €24.2bn between 2014 and 2020 from the European Structural and Investment Funds, however, this sum does not outweigh the amount of capital outflow of profits of foreign owned firms from the Czech Republic into other EU members, at which the funds are aimed to compensate for. ==Public policy== Social policy in the Czech Republic addresses issues such as healthcare, education, social welfare, housing and pensions. The government provides social assistance and benefits to vulnerable groups, including the elderly, disabled, and unemployed. These social safety nets help protect individuals and families against income loss and social risks. The Czech Republic has elements of the European social model in its welfare system and social policies. However, there are some aspect, where the Czech Republic differs from the model. The Czech Republic provides universal access to healthcare, and healthcare services are predominantly financed through compulsory health insurance contributions. The country has a well-developed healthcare system that aims to provide essential medical care to all citizens. The Czech Republic has labor market regulations in place to protect workers' rights, ensure fair wages, and promote job security. However, labor market flexibility has increased in recent years, and the country has undertaken labor market reforms to enhance competitiveness. As of 2016, the Czech Republic has the second lowest poverty rate of OECD members only behind Denmark. ==Prague Stock Exchange== The Czech economy also includes its capital market. In the case of the Czech Republic, it is the Prague Stock Exchange (PSE). (PSE). The Prague Stock Exchange is governed by the Capital Market Business Act and the stock exchange rules it sets itself. All of its activities are controlled by the Czech National Bank. The Vienna Stock Exchange is the majority shareholder of the Prague Stock Exchange. The Prague Stock Exchange has four main markets: Prime Market - a market for trading the largest and most prestigious issues of shares of Czech and foreign companies (the market capitalization of the company should exceed EUR 1 million) Standard Market - a market designed for trading large and prestigious issues of shares of Czech and foreign companies (Market Capitalization of the company should exceed EUR 1 million) Free Market - a market admits to trading both investment instruments for which the issuer has requested admission to trading and investment instruments traded on other world exchanges which are admitted to trading without the issuer's consent START Market - a market for smaller innovative companies (Small and Medium Enterprises) that wish to raise new capital or whose owners wish to partially or wholly exit their existing business to capitalise their existing operations The largest issue traded on the Prague Stock Exchange is the energy company ČEZ. The main activity of ČEZ is the sale of electricity, mainly generated from its own sources, and the related provision of support services to the electricity system. Other large issues on the Prague Stock Exchange's Prime Market include banking houses - Komerční banka, MONETA Money Bank and the dual listing of the Austrian company Erste Group Bank, under which the local bank Česká spořitelna falls; as well as Colt CZ Group focusing mainly on the production of firearms (traded on the Prague Stock Exchange from 2020). From the Standard market, the largest issue is Philip Morris ČR, the largest manufacturer and seller of tobacco products in the Czech Republic. On the START market, we find, for example, e-commerce companies Bezvavlasy and Pilulka Lékárny, leather manufacturer and processor KARO Leather or urban furniture manufacturer mmcité. ==Energy== In Czech Republic energy production is diverse, with a mix of nuclear, coal, natural gas, and renewable sources. Nuclear power plays a significant role, while efforts to increase renewable usage are underway. The country aims to balance energy security, environmental concerns and sustainability in its energy policies. National objectives are to cut gas emissions by 40 percent by 2030 (compared with 1990) and to construct one nuclear reactor at the current Dukovany NPP site by late 2030s. The Czech energy sector is largely built around two large nuclear plants and several smaller conventional coal power plants. Nuclear and coal power plants provide primarily baseload power at a high level of utilization, while gas fired units, reservoir hydro and pumped storage provide flexible generation. Recent rises in costs of carbon credits have made coal power plants almost financially inviable. ==Statistical indicators== ===Development of main indicators=== The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Inflation under 2% is in green. ===Background=== From the CIA World Factbook 2017 GDP (pp.): $353.9 billion (2016) GDP (nom.): $195.3 billion (2016) GDP Growth: 2.6% (2016) GDP per capita (pp.): $33,500 (2016) GDP per capita (nom.): $18,487 (2016) GDP by sector: Agriculture: 2.5% Industry: 37.5% Services: 60% (2016) Inflation: 0.7% (2016) Labour Force: 5.427 million (2017) Unemployment: 2,3% (September 2018) Industrial production growth rate: 3.5% (2016) Household income or consumption by percentage share: (2015) lowest 10%: 4.1% highest 10%: 21.7% Public Debt: 34.2% GDP (2018) ===Trade and finance=== Exports: $136.1 billion Export goods: machinery and transport equipment, raw materials, fuel, chemicals (2018) Imports: $122.8 billion Import goods: machinery and transport equipment, raw materials and fuels, chemicals (2018) Current Account balance: $2.216 billion (2018) Export partners: Germany 32.4%, Slovakia 8.4%, Poland 5.8%, UK 5.2%, France 5.2%, Italy 4.3%, Austria 4.2% (2016) Import partners: Germany 30.6%, Poland 9.6%, China 7.5%, Slovakia 6.3%, Netherlands 5.3%, Italy 4.1% (2016) Reserves: $85.73 billion (31 December 2016) Foreign Direct Investment: $139.6 billion (31 December 2016) Czech Investment Abroad: $43.09 billion (31 December 2016) External debt: $138 billion (31 December 2016) Value of Publicly Traded Shares: $44.5 billion (31 December 2016) Exchange rates: koruny (Kč) per US$1 – 21.82 Kč (September 2018), 18.75 (December 2010), 18.277 (2007), 23.957 (2005), 25.7 (2004), 28.2 (2003), 32.7 (2002), 38.0 (2001), 38.6 (2001), 34.6 (1999), 32.3 (1998), 31.7 (1997), 27.1 (1996), 26.5 (1995) koruny (Kč) per EUR€1 – 27.33 (May 2015), 25.06 (December 2010) landline telephone – 25% (2009) according to the Czech Statistical Office: 55,2% (2005); 31,1% (2008); 27,6% (2009); 24,2% (2010); 23,4% (2011); 21,8% (2012) mobile telephone – 94% (2009) according to the Czech Statistical Office: 75,8% (2005); 90,6% (2009); 93,9% (2011); 96,0% (2012); 96,0% (2013) Broadband penetration rate 42,0% (2005); 59,2% (2009); 64,1% (2010); 67,1% (2011); 69,5% (2012); 70,2% (2013) internet – 80.9% (2019) according to the Czech Statistical Office: 32,1% (2005); 55,9% (2009); 61,8% (2010); 65,5% (2011); 69,5% (2012); 70,4% (2013) ===Companies=== In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Czech Republic is Services with 295,538 companies followed by Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate and Wholesale Trade with 189,308 and 95,142 companies respectively. ==International rankings== === Society and quality of life=== 32nd in Human Development Index (2022) 18th in inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (2022) 6th in Henley Passport Index (2024) 24th in Human Capital Index (2018) 16th in Quality of Nationality Index (Henley & Partners, 2018) 27th in Legatum Prosperity Index (2019) 22nd in Social Progress Index (2019) === Macroeconomics === 41st in Ease of doing business index (2019) 7th in Economic Complexity Index (2018) 26th in Global Competitiveness Report (2022) 25th in Global Enabling Trade Report (2016) 24th in Global Innovation Index (2019) 21st in Index of Economic Freedom (2018)	[ "2008 financial crisis", "devaluation", "CzechInvest", "Transport in the Czech Republic", "austerity", "Standard & Poor's", "France", "Eastern bloc", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Ministry of Finance (Czech Republic)", "List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI", "fiscal policy", "convertibility", "Czech koruna", "Denmark", "First Austrian Republic", "World Bank Human Capital Index", "Ministry of labor and social affairs", "Miroslav Kalousek", "high tech", "cereal", "Prague", "Economy of communist Czechoslovakia", "Czech lands", "Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Czech Airlines", "software development", "welfare state", "EU", "1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état", "chemistry", "Cabinet of Petr Fiala", "World Trade Organization", "Nazi Germany", "Soviet Union", "foreign direct investment", "Treaty of Accession 2003", "Global Competitiveness Report", "Prague Stock Exchange", "Czech National Bank", "List of countries by external debt", "Germany", "Transparency International", "Tourism in the Czech Republic", "Purchasing power parity", "Global Enabling Trade Report", "privatization", "The Atlas of Economic Complexity", "VAT", "European Single Market", "Canada", "hops", "United States", "Eurostat", "Petr Pavel", "CIA World Factbook", "European debt crisis", "OECD", "voucher privatization", "Chile", "European Union", "List of countries by Human Development Index", "GDP per capita", "Czech Republic", "Slovakia", "capital outflow", "Policy statement", "Austrian Empire", "United Kingdom", "Calendar year", "List of countries by GDP per capita (nominal)", "Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union", "EAPN CR & EU, 2020", "Quality of Nationality Index", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "Real versus nominal value (economics)", "CzechStartups.org", "Český Telecom", "vegetable oil", "budget deficit", "2021 Czech parliamentary election", "United Nations Development Programme", "Middle income trap", "euro", "List of Czech regions by GDP", "The World Factbook", "Aerospace engineering", "Index of Economic Freedom", "Velvet Revolution", "European social model", "First Czechoslovak Republic", "2017 Czech parliamentary election", "ease of doing business index", "nanotechnology", "German Confederation", "Secondary sector of the economy", "information and communications technology", "Human Capital Index", "Socialist state", "Legatum Prosperity Index", "World Bank", "Tertiary sector of the economy", "Henley & Partners", "The Guardian", "List of countries by GDP (nominal)", "List of life sciences", "exchange rate", "household debt", "Austria-Hungary", "economy of the European Union", "electronics", "Stalinism", "Developed country", "World Bank high-income economy", "World War II", "Transcarpathia", "Euro health consumer index", "pharmaceutical", "The World Bank", "purchasing power parity", "Die Welt", "Czechoslovak koruna", "steelmaking", "The Economist", "Materials science", "Czech Statistical Office", "balance of payments", "Bloomberg News", "Czechoslovakia", "Ease of doing business index", "International Monetary Fund", "IMF advanced economy list", "List of countries by GDP per capita (PPP)", "social market economy", "List of countries by GDP (PPP)", "Information and communications technology", "Member state of the European Union", "International rankings of the Czech Republic", "Great Recession", "GDP growth", "Primary sector of the economy", "Foreign ownership", "ČT24", "Global Innovation Index", "Digital object identifier", "Avast", "UAE", "List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves", "shock therapy (economics)", "corruption", "Regional policy of the European Union", "US dollar", "unemployment", "German occupation of Czechoslovakia", "Social Progress Index", "ERM II", "Henley Passport Index", "CZK", "Financial Times", "Trading nation", "Radio Prague", "List of countries by received FDI", "Lands of the Bohemian Crown", "Corruption Perceptions Index", "First Cabinet of Andrej Babiš", "List of countries by current account balance", "research and development", "Economic Complexity Index", "foreign debt", "Eastern Bloc", "Munich Agreement" ]
5,850	Telecommunications in the Czech Republic	There are telecommunications in the Czech Republic. ==Office== There is a Czech Telecommunication Office (Czech: Český Telekomunikační Úřad) called CTU. ==Companies== Telecom companies have included České Radiokomunikace, O2 Czech Republic (formerly Telefonica O2 Czech Republic), Vodafone Czech Republic (formerly Oskar Mobil a.s.), CETIN, CS Link, Eurotel, Skylink and Telekom Austria Czech Republic. ==Telephones== The number of main line telephones in use was 3,741,492 in 1998, 3.869 million in 2000, 3.626 million in 2003, 2.888 million in 2006, and 1,294,806 in 2021. The number of mobile cellular phones was 965,476 in 1998, and 3,405,834 televisions in December 2000. There were 150 television broadcast stations and 1,434 repeaters in 2000. 4.4 million in 2007 There were 35 Internet Service Providers in 1999, and more than three hundred in 2000. The internet country code is .cz.	[ "Oskar Mobil a.s.", "CS Link", "Skylink (TV platform)", ".cz", "České Radiokomunikace", "Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line", "country code", "CETIN", "O2 Czech Republic", "telecommunications", "Czech language", "Vodafone Czech Republic", "CIA World Factbook", "Telekom Austria Czech Republic", "microwave radio relay", "Czech Republic", "WP:SDNONE", "Eurotel", "Czech Telecommunication Office", "fibre-optic cable" ]
5,851	Transport in the Czech Republic	Transport in the Czech Republic relies on several main modes, including transport by road, rail, water and air. ==Railways== The Czech Republic has a total railway length of which makes it a country with the second highest rail density in the world. The vast majority () is standard gauge. Electrified railways generally have voltages of 3 kV DC or 25 kV AC. of track is narrow gauge. The most prominent Czech railway company is the state-owned České dráhy (ČD) (English: Czech Railways). Prague has an underground rapid transit system, the Prague Metro. In addition, the cities of Brno, Liberec, Most, Olomouc, Ostrava, Plzeň, and Prague have tram systems. In April 2025, Czechia introduced Europe's first driverless passenger train on the 24-kilometer Kopidlno to Dolní Bousov line in the Mladá Boleslav District. Developed by AŽD Praha, the train features a modified 811 series engine named Edita, equipped with sensors and computing systems to autonomously monitor surroundings and adjust speed. Despite its autonomous capabilities, a driver remains on board during this testing phase due to legal requirements and to handle unforeseen situations. Fully autonomous operation without onboard staff is anticipated by 2031, pending technological advancements and legislative changes. ==Roads== The Czech Republic has, in total, of roads. It has Despite this however, the fatality rate per head of population is moderately high, comparable to the United States. ==Waterways== The Vltava is the country's longest river, at 430 km. 358 km of the Elbe (Labe), which totals 1154 km, is also present in the country. An artificial waterway, nowadays used for recreation, is the Baťa Canal. ==Ports and harbours== Děčín, Mělník, Prague, Ústí nad Labem, Moldauhafen in Hamburg (no longer operational, will be handed over to Germany in 2028) ==Airports== In 2006, the Czech Republic had a total 121 airports. 46 of these airports had paved runways while 75 had unpaved runways. The largest and busiest airport in the Czech Republic is Václav Havel Airport Prague, opened in 1937. Other international airports include Brno-Tuřany Airport, Karlovy Vary Airport, Ostrava Leoš Janáček Airport, Pardubice Airport, Kunovice Airport and Public domestic and private international airport is for example Hradec Králové Airport. Airports with paved runways Total: 46 (2007) Over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 10 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 2 Under 914 m: 19 Airports with unpaved runways Total: 75 (2007) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 25 Under 914 m: 49 ==Heliports== 2 (2006)	[ "České dráhy", "Narrow gauge railways in the Czech Republic", "European driving licence", "List of airports in the Czech Republic", "Road signs in the Czech Republic", "Pardubice Airport", "Elbe", "Hradec Králové Airport", "cs:Česko", "Praha hlavní nádraží", "Kopidlno", "Moldauhafen", "Karlovy Vary Airport", "Mladá Boleslav District", "Mělník", "United States", "Václav Havel Airport Prague", "Plzeň", "Liberec", "Brno-Tuřany Airport", "Kunovice Airport", "Prague", "Transportation", "International Road Assessment Programme", "rapid transit", "Dolní Bousov", "Olomouc", "Most (city)", "Baťa Canal", "Děčín", "Hamburg", "Czech Republic", "Brno", "Slovakia", "WP:SDNONE", "Prague Metro", "AŽD Praha", "Ústí nad Labem", "Ostrava", "Vltava", "Ostrava Leoš Janáček Airport" ]
5,853	Army of the Czech Republic	{{Infobox national military \| name = Army of the Czech Republic \| native_name = \| image = \| alt = \| caption = Coat of Arms \| image2 = \| alt2 = \| caption2 = Roundel \| motto = \| founded = 30 June 1918 () \| current_form = 1 January 1993 () \| disbanded = \| branches = Special forces (Czech:Special forces) \| headquarters = Prague, Czech Republic \| flying_hours = \| website = \| commander-in-chief = Army General Petr Pavel \| commander-in-chief_title = President \| chief minister = Petr Fiala \| chief minister_title = Prime Minister \| minister = Jana Černochová \| minister_title = Minister of Defence \| commander = Lieutenant General Karel Řehka \| commander_title = \| age = 18 \| conscription = Abolished in 2004 \| manpower_data = \| manpower_age = \| available = \| available_f = \| fit = \| fit_f = \| reaching = \| reaching_f = \| active = 30,334 professional4,900 active reserve \| \| \| \| \| \| alongside the Military Office of the President of the Republic and the Castle Guard. The army consists of the General Staff, the Land Forces, the Air Force and support units. Czech Army's modern history precedes the 1918 Czechoslovak declaration of independence with formal establishment of the Czechoslovak Legion fighting on the side of the Entente powers during the WW1. Following the Munich Agreement, the country was occupied by Nazi Germany and the Army was reconstituted in exile, fighting on the side of Allies of World War II in the European as well as Mediterranean and Middle East theatre. After the 1948 Communist Coup, the Czechoslovak People's Army with over 200,000 active personnel and some 4,500 tanks formed one of the pillars of the Warsaw Pact military alliance. Following the Velvet Revolution and dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999. The conscription was abolished in 2004, leading to transformation into a modern professional army inspired mostly by the British Armed Forces and USMC example. Today, the Czech Army has around 30.000 professional personnel and 4.900 members of active reserves. Additionally, any citizen can voluntarily join a five-week basic training without becoming a soldier or join advanced shooting training with their privately owned firearms and become a member of militia-style Designated Reserves. A law adopted in June 2023 stipulates that the military expenditures shall not be lower than 2% of country's GDP, starting from 2024. In March 2025, Petr Fiala Government adopted a decision to raise the military expenditures annually by 0,2% of GDP, in order to reach at least 3% of GDP in 2030. ==History== === Czech lands === The military history of the Czech people dates back to the Middle Ages and the creation of the Duchy of Bohemia and the Kingdom of Bohemia. During the Hussite Wars, Jan Žižka became a military leader of such skill and eminence that the Hussite legacy became an important and lasting part of the Czech military traditions. The contemporary Czech Army derives its legacy from the proto-Protestant Hussite Army, with many of today's units bearing names in honour of Hussite Army personalities or formations. When the World War I broke out, the Czech Crown lands were part of the Austria-Hungary and the colonised Czech population had to serve in its army. From 1914, on the background of attempts to attain independence, various units composed of Czech nationals (with up to 10% of Slovak nationals), mainly POWs, were established, fighting as part of the French, Italian and Russian forces against the Entente powers. Beginning in 1916, these Czechoslovak Legions gained increasingly independent status. Following the 1918 Czechoslovak declaration of independence, the newly established Czechoslovak Army derived its legacy primarily from these legions rather than from the Austrian Habsburg Imperial Army. Official military names since 1918: 1918–1950 - Czechoslovak Armed Forces (this official name was given to the Czechoslovak Army on March 19, 1920, on the basis of the Armed Forces Act) 1950–1954 - Czechoslovak Army 1954–1989 - Czechoslovak People's Army 1990–1992 - Czechoslovak Army since 1993 - Army of the Czech Republic (ACR) === Czechoslovakia === The Czechoslovak Armed Forces were originally formed on 30 June 1918 when 6,000 members of the Czechoslovak Legion in France, which had been established in 1914, took oath and received a battle banner in Darney, France, thus preceding the official declaration of Czechoslovak independence by four months. There were also 50 000 legion soldiers in Russia at that time. The military achievements of the Czechoslovak legions on the French, Italian and especially Russian front became one of the main arguments that the Czechoslovak pro-independence leaders, especially for T. G. Masaryk in America, could use to gain the support for the country's independence by the Allies of World War I. In 1938, servicemen of the Czechoslovak Army and the State Defense Guard fought in an undeclared border war against the German-backed Sudetendeutsches Freikorps as well as Polish and Hungarian paramilitary forces. As a result of the Munich Agreement, areas heavily populated by ethnic German speaking people were incorporated into the Third Reich and military-aged men living there were subject to being drafted into the Wehrmacht. In 1939, after the Slovak State proclaimed its independence and the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied and annexed by Hungary, the German occupation of the Czech Lands followed and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was proclaimed after the negotiations with Emil Hácha. The Protectorate's government possessed its own armed force, the Government Army (6,500 men), tasked with public security and rearguard duties. On the other side of the conflict, a number of Czechoslovak units and formations served with the Polish Army (Czechoslovak Legion), the French Army, the Royal Air Force, the British Army (the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade), and the Red Army (I Corps). Four Czech and Slovak-manned RAF squadrons were transferred to Czechoslovak control in late 1945. From 1954 until 1989, the Army was known as the Czechoslovak People's Army (ČSLA). Although the ČSLA, as formed in 1945, included both Soviet- and British-equipped/trained expatriate troops, the "Western" soldiers had been purged from the ČSLA after 1948 when the communists took power. The ČSLA offered no resistance to the invasion mounted by the Soviets in 1968 in reaction to the "Prague Spring", and was extensively reorganized by the Soviets following the re-imposition of communist rule in Prague. Of the approximately 201,000 personnel on active duty in the ČSLA in 1987, about 145,000, or about 72 percent, served in the ground forces (commonly referred to as the army). About 100,000 of these were conscripts. There were two military districts, Western and Eastern. A 1989 listing of forces shows two Czechoslovak armies in the west, the 1st Army at Příbram with one tank division and three motor rifle divisions, the 4th Army at Písek with two tank divisions and two motor rifle divisions. In the Eastern Military District, there were two tank divisions, the 13th and 14th, with a supervisory headquarters at Trenčín in the Slovak part of the country. During the Cold War, the ČSLA was equipped primarily with Soviet arms, although certain arms like the OT-64 SKOT armored personnel carrier, the L-29 Delfín and L-39 Albatros aircraft, the P-27 Pancéřovka antitank rocket launcher, the vz. 58 assault rifle or the Uk vz. 59 machine gun were of Czechoslovak design. After the fall of communism during the Velvet Revolution in 1989, the Czechoslovak People's Army was renamed back to the Czechoslovak Army and was completely transformed as well. ===After 1992 (dissolution of Czechoslovakia)=== The Army of the Czech Republic was formed after the Czechoslovak Armed Forces split after the 31 December 1992 peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Czech forces stood at 90,000 in 1993. They were reduced to around 65,000 in 11 combat brigades and the Air Force in 1997, to 63,601 in 1999, and to 35,000 in 2005. At the same time, the forces were modernized and reoriented towards a defensive posture. In 2004, the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The Army maintains an active reserve. The Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. In March 1999, the Czech Republic joined NATO. Since 1990, the ACR and the Czech Armed Forces have contributed to numerous peacekeeping and humanitarian operations, including IFOR, SFOR, and EUFOR Althea in Bosnia, Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Afghanistan, Kosovo, Albania, Turkey, Pakistan and with the Coalition forces in Iraq. Current deployments (2019): Lithuania: NATO Operation (NATO Enhanced Forward Presence) - 230 soldiers Latvia: NATO Operation (NATO Enhanced Forward Presence) - 60 soldiers Afghanistan: NATO Operation (Resolute Support Mission) - 390 soldiers Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania: NATO Operation (Baltic Air Policing) - 95 soldiers, 5x Jas 39 Gripen Kosovo: NATO Operation (KFOR) - 9 soldiers Mali: EU military training mission (EUTM Mali) - 120 soldiers Mali: UN peacekeeping mission (MINUSMA) - 5 soldiers Somalia: EU Operation Atalanta (NAVFOR) - 3 soldiers Sinai: International peacekeeping force (MFO) - 18 soldiers Iraq: Military intervention against the Islamic State (OIR) - 31 soldiers (air advisory team), 12 soldiers (chemical unit) Mediterranean Sea: EU military operation (EU Navfor Med) - 5 soldiers Bosnia and Herzegovina: Military deployment to oversee the military implementation of the Dayton Agreement (European Union Force Althea) - 2 soldiers Golan Heights: UN peacekeeping mission (UNDOF) - 3 soldiers DR Congo: UN peacekeeping mission (MONUC) - 2 military observers Mali: UN peacekeeping mission (MINUSMA) - 2 military observers Kosovo: UN peacekeeping mission (UNMIK) - 2 military observers Central African Republic: UN peacekeeping mission (MINUSCA) - 3 military observers ==Structure== Many of the duties of the President of the Czech Republic can be said to be ceremonial to one degree or another, especially since the President has relatively few powers independent of the will of the Prime Minister. One of those is the status as commander in chief of the military; no part of these duties can take place but through the assent of the Prime Minister. In matters of war, he is in every sense merely a figurehead, since the Constitution gives all substantive constitutional authority over the use of the armed forces to the Parliament. In fact, the only specific thing the constitution allows the President to do with respect to the military is to appoint its generalsbut even this must be done with the signature of the Prime Minister. Structure of the Czech Armed Forces consists of two main parts and other commands: General Staff of Czech Armed Forces (Praha) Czech Land Forces (Olomouc) Czech Air Force (Praha) Special Forces Command (Praha) Cyber Forces Command (Brno) Territorial Command (Tábor) Training Command - Military Academy (Vyškov) ===Active reserves=== Active Reserve (in Czech Aktivní záloha) is a part of the otherwise professional Army of the Czech Republic. This service was created to allow the participation of citizens with a positive attitude to the military. A volunteer needs either to have completed the compulsory military service (which ended in 2004) or to attend 6 week training. Then the reservists have to serve up to three weeks a year and can be called up to serve two weeks during a non-military crisis. They are not intended to serve abroad, but individuals may volunteer to do so. The Reserve presents itself on events like BAHNA, a military show. Each of the active duty brigades or regiments have their own active reserve subordinate units that train with the same equipment as the professional soldiers and is part of the organisational structure usually as a 4th company in a battalion. The Territorial Command is responsible for the active reserves and have direct control of the 14 infantry companies that belong to regional military commands in each of the 13 regions and capital city Prague. ==Equipment== The Army of the Czech Republic, to a large extent, currently uses equipment dating back to the times of the Warsaw Pact. During the Cold War, Czechoslovakia was a major supplier of tanks, armoured personnel carriers, military trucks and trainer aircraft – the bulk of military exports went to its Comecon partners. Replacement of aging or obsolete equipment, or making it at least compliant with NATO standards, is urgently required. Modernization plans include acquisition of new multi-role helicopters, transport aircraft, infantry fighting vehicles, air defence radars and missiles. If possible, the Czech Ministry of Defence selects products that are manufactured or co-produced in the Czech Republic. This includes firearms of the Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod, namely the CZ 75 pistol, CZ Scorpion Evo 3 submachine gun, and CZ 805 BREN and BREN 2 assault rifles. Moreover, the Czech Army is equipped with about 3,000 T810 and T815 vehicles of various modifications produced by the Czech Tatra Trucks company. Tatra Defence Vehicle factory ensures licensed production of Pandur II and Titus armoured vehicles. Aircraft such as the Aero L-39 Albatros, Aero L-159 Alca and Let L-410 Turbolet have been produced domestically as well. At the beginning of 2019, the Czech Ministry of Defence announced its modernization program, consisting of acquiring 210 new modern IFVs as a replacement for the aging BVP-2. MoD approached four manufacturers: BAE Systems (CV90), GDELS (ASCOD), Rheinmetall (Lynx) and PSM (Puma). The cost of the program is expected to exceed 50 billion CZK. In May 2022 the Czech Ministry of Defence announced it will get 15 Leopards 2A4 from Germany as an exchange for Czech tanks that will be given to Ukraine to help defend against Russian invasion and will purchase up to 50 modern 2A7+ variants later. File:Areál čs. opevnění v Darkovičkách - akce.jpg\|Czech modernizedT-72M4CZ File:KBV-PZLOK.JPG\|Czech Pandur II 8x8 wheeled IFV File:Tatra T-810 Czech Army 01.jpg\|Tatra T810 (Tactic, 6x6) medium truck File:Gripen CZ 9242 LKCV.jpg\|Czech Air Force JAS 39 Gripen File:L-39NG flying low.jpg\|Czech Air Force Aero L-39 Skyfox light combat aircraft File:L-159 ALCA Czech Air Force.jpg\|Czech Air Force Aero L-159 light combat aircraft ==Uniforms== Different types of Czech Army uniforms: Image:Czech ISAF (6).jpg\|Commando soldier from ÚSO VP SOG in desert camouflage uniform in Afghanistan Image:Czech KFOR (1).jpg\|Standard VZ.95 pattern camouflage uniform Image:Aktivni_zalohy_ACR.jpg\|Members of the Active Reserve during exercise Image:Posadkova hudba Olomouc.jpg\|Czech military band in Olomouc Image:Posadkova hudba Olomouc 2.jpg\|Czech military band in Olomouc Image:Czechguards.jpg\|Soldier of Prague Castle guard holding ceremonial Vz. 52 rifle ==Commanding officers== Chief of the General Staff: Lieutenant General Karel Řehka First Deputy Chief of the General Staff: Major General Ivo Střecha Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the AČR-Chief of Staff: Lieutenant General Miroslav Hlaváč Deputy Chief of the General Staff - Inspector of the AČR: Major General Milan Schulc == Current and historic military ranks ==	[ "France", "Tatra 810", "OT-64 SKOT", "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe", "Sinai peninsula", "Allies of World War I", "Gun law in the Czech Republic", "BAHNA", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Czech koruna", "Aero Vodochody", "Prague Castle Guard", "Proto-Protestantism", "Poland", "Puma (IFV)", "Kosovo", "Golan Heights", "Aero L-159 ALCA", "Red Army", "Armed Forces of the Czech Republic", "Bulgaria", "United Nations Disengagement Observer Force", "Prague", "Cold War", "Chief of the General Staff (Czech Republic)", "Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)", "militia", "Multinational Force and Observers", "United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo", "Jan Žižka", "Hussites", "Prime Minister of the Czech Republic", "NATO Security Assistance and Training for Ukraine", "Czech military ranks", "601st Special Forces Group", "1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état", "European theatre of World War II", "GDP", "Aero L-39 Albatros", "SFOR", "4th Rapid Deployment Brigade (Czech Republic)", "Military Office of the President of the Czech Republic", "Cabinet of Petr Fiala", "Nazi Germany", "Prague Castle", "Afghanistan", "Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia", "CZ Scorpion Evo 3", "European Union Naval Force Somalia – Operation ATALANTA", "Kingdom of Hungary (1920–46)", "Romania", "Carpathian Ruthenia", "French Army", "Warsaw Pact", "43rd Airborne Regiment", "Polish Army", "Emil Hácha", "EUTM Mali", "State Defense Guard (Czechoslovakia)", "BAE Systems", "British Armed Forces", "T. G. Masaryk", "CZ 805 BREN", "Sellier & Bellot", "Entente powers", "President of the Czech Republic", "Estonia", "NATO", "Vz. 52 rifle", "Czech Air Force", "Operation Desert Shield (Gulf War)", "military camouflage", "Czechoslovak declaration of independence", "cz:Speciální síly Armády České republiky", "Ukraine", "Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod", "Icelandic Air Policing", "Kingdom of Bohemia", "Let L-410 Turbolet", "World War I", "Vyškov", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Meopta", "Czech Army", "Petr Pavel", "Enlargement of NATO", "Hungary", "Mediterranean Sea", "General Dynamics", "vz. 58", "1st Army (Czechoslovakia)", "Czechoslovak Group", "WW1", "Turkey", "Olomouc", "Czech Republic", "Brno", "7th Mechanized Brigade", "Aero L-159 Alca", "Slovakia", "Zeveta Bojkovice", "STV Group", "4th Army (Czechoslovakia)", "Uk vz. 59", "Kosovo Force", "Hussite Wars", "Czechoslovak Legion (1939)", "Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948", "P-27 (weapon)", "EUFOR Althea", "Dayton Agreement", "Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II", "Latvia", "Petr Fiala", "Tomáš Masaryk", "US$", "Islamic State", "European Union Naval Force Mediterranean", "commander in chief", "Jana Černochová", "Government Army", "British Army", "Baltic Air Policing", "United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic", "Parliament of the Czech Republic", "Combat Vehicle 90 (CV90)", "Rheinmetall", "commandos", "Designated Reserves (Czech Republic)", "Czech Land Forces", "Desert Storm", "ASCOD", "Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic", "Eastern Military District (Czechoslovakia)", "CZ 75", "1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade", "NATO Enhanced Forward Presence", "Osprey Publishing", "Czechoslovak Legion", "Nexter Titus", "Catholic", "military", "Czechoslovak People's Army", "United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali", "Albania", "Resolute Support Mission", "Pakistan", "Operation Inherent Resolve", "soldier", "Lithuania", "Velvet Revolution", "Czech language", "Aero L-39 Skyfox", "IFOR", "JAS 39 Gripen", "Explosia a.s.", "Second Polish Republic", "History of Czechoslovakia (1918–38)", "Prague Spring", "Allies of World War II", "Duchy of Bohemia", "Lynx (Rheinmetall armoured fighting vehicle)", "Austria-Hungary", "Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)", "Písek", "Western Military District (Czechoslovakia)", "United Nations", "Operation Althea", "Tábor", "Karel Řehka", "Serviceman", "figurehead", "Czechoslovak Legion in Italy", "Příbram", "Sudetendeutsches Freikorps", "Sudeten Germans", "Iraq", "Czechoslovakia", "Czechs", "Czechoslovak Legion in France", "European Union Military Assistance Mission in support of Ukraine", "Czech Crown lands", "I Corps (Czechoslovakia)", "United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo", "BMP-2", "List of countries by military expenditure", "rearguard", "Minister of Defence of the Czech Republic", "Central African Republic", "Somalia", "army", "14th Tank Division (Czechoslovakia)", "L-29", "Czechoslovakian naval forces", "dissolution of Czechoslovakia", "Staff (military)", "T-72M4CZ", "tank", "Trenčín", "Tatra (company)", "Operation Irini", "Slovak State", "13th Tank Division (Czechoslovakia)", "Wehrmacht", "Mali", "Jas 39 Gripen", "German occupation of Czechoslovakia", "Darney", "Czech crown", "Constitution of the Czech Republic", "Comecon", "Pandur II", "military band", "Military recruit training", "Royal Air Force", "Deployable Joint Command and Control", "Tatra 815", "Mauritania", "Czechoslovak Army", "Munich Agreement", "USMC", "Middle Ages", "SVOS Přelouč", "NATO Training Mission – Iraq" ]
5,855	Foreign relations of the Czech Republic	The Czech Republic is a Central European country, a member of the European Union, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the United Nations (and all of its main specialized agencies and boards). It entertains diplomatic relations with 191 countries of the world, around half of which maintain a resident embassy in the Czech capital city, Prague. During the years 1948–1989, the foreign policy of Czechoslovakia had followed that of the Soviet Union. Since the revolution and the subsequent mutually-agreed peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the Czechs have made reintegration with Western institutions their chief foreign policy objective. This goal was rapidly met with great success, as the nation joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, and held the Presidency of the European Union during the first half of 2009. ==International disputes== ===Liechtenstein=== Throughout the past decades, Liechtenstein continuously claimed restitution for , or an area roughly ten times the size of Liechtenstein, of land currently located in the Czech Republic. The land was partially confiscated from the Liechtenstein family in 1918 with the rest of the property being confiscated in 1945 after the expulsion of Germans and confiscation of German property. The Czech Republic insisted that it could not acknowledge or be responsible for claims going back to before February 1948, when the Communists had seized power. As a result, Liechtenstein did not diplomatically recognize the existence of the Czech Republic as a new state (and, for that matter, also that of the Slovak Republic) until 2009. In July 2009, the Prince of Liechtenstein announced he was resigning to the previous unsuccessful claims to property located in the Czech Republic, and on 13 July 2009, after politically recognizing one another, the Czech Republic and Liechtenstein formally established diplomatic relations. ==Placement of US National Missile Defense base== In February 2007, the US started formal negotiations with Czech Republic and Poland concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground-based Midcourse Defense System. Government of the Czech Republic agrees (while 67% Czechs disagree and only about 22% support it) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland. The objective is reportedly to protect another parts of US National Missile Defense from long-range missile strikes from Iran and North Korea, but Czech PM Mirek Topolánek said the main reason is to avoid Russian influence and strengthen ties to US. The main government supporter Alexandr Vondra, Deputy Prime Minister for European affairs, used to be an ambassador to the USA. More problematic is that between 2004 and 2006 he was an executive director of a lobbying company Dutko Worldwide Prague. Dutko's and its strategic partner AMI Communications (PR company) customers are Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Nortrop Grumman, which are largest contractors for NMD development. AMI Communications also received (without a formal selection procedure) a government contract to persuade Czechs to support US radar base. == Diplomatic relations == List of countries which Czechia maintains diplomatic relations with: ==Bilateral relations== ===Multilateral=== ===Africa=== ===Asia=== ===Europe=== == Multilateral relations == Foreign relations of the European Union Foreign relations of NATO	[ "Colombia–Czech Republic relations", "Visa policy of the Schengen Area", "Athens", "Kuala Lumpur", "Middle Ages", "List of ambassadors of Peru to the Czech Republic", "Czech Republic–Mongolia relations", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Uzbekistan)", "Hong Kong", "Washington, D.C.", "Karolinum Press", "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe", "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Bern", "Istanbul", "Accession of Turkey to the European Union", "Skopje", "Czech Republic–Indonesia relations", "Warsaw", "Madrid", "Member State of the European Union", "Visa requirements for Czech citizens", "Medellín", "Brazil–Czech Republic relations", "propaganda", "Czech Republic–Libya relations", "Jerusalem", "Foreign relations of the European Union", "Visa (document)", "Interwar era", "Hanoi", "Bogotá", "Presidency of the Council of the European Union", "Prague", "Toronto", "Cartagena, Colombia", "Czech Republic–Moldova relations", "Kolkata", "Venice", "Czech Republic–North Macedonia relations", "Budapest", "Moscow", "Lille", "Harukazu Nagaoka", "Cyprus–Czech Republic relations", "New York City", "Shanghai", "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation", "Sofia", "Italian diaspora", "São Paulo", "Astana", "Bratislava", "Soviet Union", "Czech Republic–Uruguay relations", "World Trade Organization", "Ground-based Midcourse Defense", "Recognition of the Armenian Genocide", "Beijing", "Ferdinand Blumentritt", "Warsaw Pact", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Czech Republic)", "Baghdad", "Los Angeles", "Naples", "Accession of Ukraine to the European Union", "Embassy of the United Kingdom, Prague", "Czech Republic–Spain relations", "Schengen Agreement", "Czech Republic–Slovakia relations", "Czech Republic–Israel relations", "Czech diaspora", "NATO", "Civic Democratic Party (Czech Republic)", "Greenpeace", "Czech Republic–Denmark relations", "Cairo", "Reykjavík", "Kyiv", "Tel Aviv", "Saint Petersburg", "Palermo", "Portugal", "Czech Republic–Greece relations", "Katowice", "The Hague", "Karlovy Vary", "Højbjerg", "Pristina", "Brasília", "Lima", "Oxford University Press", "Czech Republic–India relations", "Bucharest", "Security Information Service", "Amsterdam", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Malaysia", "Czech Republic–Sweden relations", "Valletta", "Francophonie", "Lyon", "Pyongyang", "Council of Europe", "European Union", "Nicosia", "Ghana", "Armenian genocide", "Donetsk", "Croatia–Czech Republic relations", "Czech Republic", "Zagreb", "Czech Republic–Vietnam relations", "Slovakia", "Velvet revolution", "Copenhagen", "Czech Republic–France relations", "José Rizal", "Portuguese people", "Declaration of Independence (Israel)", "Praia", "Working Holiday Program", "Ankara", "Haifa", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "Mirek Topolánek", "Foreign relations of the United Kingdom", "Stockholm", "Yekaterinburg", "China–Czech Republic relations", "Islamabad", "South Korea", "Czech Republic–Taiwan relations", "Nancy, France", "Accession of Serbia to the European Union", "Milan", "European Court of Human Rights", "Czech Republic–Japan relations", "History of the Jews in the Czech Republic", "Helsinki", "Czech Republic–Ukraine relations", "Mumbai", "Czech Republic–Kazakhstan relations", "Foreign relations of Turkey", "Monterrey", "Dublin", "Almaty", "People's Republic of Albania", "Ramat Gan", "Embassy of the Czech Republic, London", "Riga", "Dutch diaspora", "Luxembourgers", "Canada–Czech Republic relations", "embassy", "Belgrade", "Belarus–Czech Republic relations", "Czech Republic–Kosovo relations", "Chișinău", "Czech Republic–Malaysia relations", "Vilnius", "Serhy Yekelchyk", "The Mongol Messenger", "Brussels", "Karachi", "Luxembourg City", "Czech Republic–Kenya relations", "Albania–Czech Republic relations", "Accession of Moldova to the European Union", "Czech Republic–Mexico relations", "Tbilisi", "Chicago", "Ottawa", "Nantes", "Austria-Hungary", "Pakistan-Czech Republic relations", "Accession of Georgia to the European Union", "United Nations", "Seoul", "International Criminal Court", "Baku", "Czech Republic–Russia relations", "Yugoslavia", "Barranquilla", "Yerevan", "Czech Republic in the European Union", "Udine", "Zakarpattia Oblast", "International reaction to the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence", "Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations", "Czech Republic–South Korea relations", "Chengdu", "Facebook", "Czech Republic–Iran relations", "List of diplomatic missions in the Czech Republic", "Arms shipments from Czechoslovakia to Israel 1947–1949", "Czechoslovakia", "Czechs", "Minsk", "Tallinn", "Dissolution of Czechoslovakia", "Tijuana", "sanctions against North Korea", "Addis Ababa", "Bulgaria–Czech Republic relations", "Tehran", "Jaroměř", "Embassy of Russia in Prague", "Member state of the European Union", "Czech Republic–United States relations", "Ivo Žďárek", "Calgary", "Guadalajara", "Lisbon", "2014 Vrbětice ammunition warehouses explosions", "Woodrow Wilson", "Accra", "gov.uk", "Kobe", "Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia", "Foreign relations of NATO", "Nairobi", "UN Trade and Development", "Czech people", "Poland–Czech Republic relations", "Czech Republic–Iceland relations", "Czech Republic–Iraq relations", "Florence", "Tirana", "Multinational force in Iraq", "Czech Republic–Italy relations", "Czech Republic–Philippines relations", "Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office", "Austria–Czech Republic relations", "Tripoli, Libya", "Ljubljana", "Mexico City", "Ostrava", "Lviv", "Czech Republic–Germany relations", "Rome", "Chennai", "Lahore", "Alexandr Vondra", "Vienna", "Eilat" ]
5,857	Climbing	Climbing is the activity of using one's hands, feet, or other parts of the body to ascend a steep topographical object that can range from the world's tallest mountains (e.g. the eight thousanders) to small boulders. Climbing is done for locomotion, sporting recreation, for competition, and is also done in trades that rely on ascension, such as construction and military operations. Climbing is done indoors and outdoors, on natural surfaces (e.g. rock climbing and ice climbing), and on artificial surfaces (e.g. climbing walls and climbing gyms). The sport of climbing evolved by climbers making first ascents of new types of climbing routes, using new climbing techniques, at ever-increasing grades of difficulty, with ever-improving pieces of climbing equipment. Guides and guidebooks were an important element in developing the popularity of the sport in the natural environment. Early pioneers included Walter Bonatti, Riccardo Cassin, Hermann Buhl, and Gaston Rébuffat, who were followed by and Reinhold Messner and Doug Scott, and later by Mick Fowler and Marko Prezelj, and Ueli Steck. Since the 1980s, the development of the safer format of bolted sport climbing, the wider availability of artificial climbing walls and climbing gyms, and the development of competition climbing, increased the popularity of rock climbing as a sport, and led to the emergence of professional rock climbers, such as Wolfgang Güllich, Alexander Huber, Chris Sharma, Adam Ondra, Lynn Hill, Catherine Destivelle, and Janja Garnbret. Climbing became an Olympic sport for the first time in the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo (see Sport climbing at the 2020 Summer Olympics) in that format that included competition lead climbing, competition bouldering, and competition speed climbing disciplines; competition ice climbing is not yet an Olympic sport. ==Rock-based== Rock climbing can trace its origins to the late 19th-century, and has since developed into several main sub-disciplines. Single-pitch and multi-pitch (and big wall) climbing, can be performed in varying styles (including aid, sport, traditional, free solo, and top-roping), while the standalone discipline of bouldering (or boulder climbing) is by definition performed in a free solo format. Single pitch climbing means ascending climbs that are a single rope-length (up to 50-metres) while multi-pitch climbing (and big wall climbing) means ascending routes that are many rope-lengths (even up to 1,000-metres). These two rock climbing sub-disciplines can be conducted in one of several ways: Sport climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (which is known as free climbing), but does rely on permanent fixed bolts (or pitons), for use as protection while climbing (but not as aid); was started in the 1980s in France and now makes up the world's hardest climbs (e.g. Silence). Traditional climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (and is thus free climbing) but unlike sport climbing, the climbers place removable protection such as SCLDs and nuts while ascending that are removed by the second climber; has many famous routes (e.g. Indian Face, Cobra Crack). Free soloing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids (and is thus also free climbing) and where the climber uses no protection (neither sport nor traditional); thus any fall while free soloing could be fatal; deep-water soloing is a form of free soloing where a fall will result in landing into safe water. The 2017 free solo of Freerider became the Oscar-winning film, Free Solo. Top rope climbing is a form of rock climbing that uses no artificial aids but as the sole form of protection, uses a pre-fixed rope secured to the top of the route (i.e. is used on single-pitches), and thus should the climber fall, they simply hang off the rope with no risk of any injury; it is not regarded as free climbing but is a popular and safe way to introduce people to free climbing (and common on climbing walls). Bouldering: means ascending boulders or small outcrops with no artificial aids (free climbing) and due to the lower height, with no protection (making bouldering a form of free soloing); very tall boulders where a fall could be serious (i.e. up to 10-metres) are known as highball bouldering. Many milestones in bouldering (e.g. Midnight Lightning, Dreamtime and Burden of Dreams) were created by practitioners of bouldering and free climbing. ==Mountain-based== Alpine climbing: Ascending large routes that require rock, ice, and mixed climbing skills but with minimal equipment and no outside support. Ice climbing: Ascending frozen water ice or hard alpine snow using equipment such as ice axes and crampons; usually in mountain settings. Mixed climbing: Ascending routes using ice climbing equipment where there is both rock and ice (called dry-tooling if there is no ice). Competition lead climbing is a form of competitive lead climbing performed on an artificial bolted sport climbing route. Competition bouldering is a form of competitive bouldering performed on a selection of artificial bouldering routes. Competition speed climbing is a form of competitive speed climbing performed on a standardized artificial wall with a top rope. Competition ice climbing is a regulated sport of 'competitive ice climbing' that originated in the early 2000s, and which is done on outdoor or indoor climbing on artificial ice climbing walls that consist of ice and dry surfaces. The UIAA is the governing body for competition ice climbing worldwide and their events include a lead ice climbing discipline and a speed ice climbing discipline. Competition ice climbing is not as yet an Olympic Sport. ==Other recreational-based== Buildering: Ascending the exterior skeletons of buildings, typically without protective equipment (e.g. as free solo climbing by Alain Robert). Canyoneering: Climbing along canyons for sport or recreation. Crane climbing: An illicit act of climbing up mechanical cranes, which is a form of buildering. Grass climbing: An older form of climbing when climbing steep but grassy mountainsides, often requiring ropes, was undertaken. Mallakhamba: A traditional Indian sport that combines climbing a pole or rope with the performance of aerial yoga and gymnastics. Parkour: A sport based around smooth movement, including climbing, around urban landscapes. Pole climbing: Climbing poles and masts without equipment. Rope climbing: Climbing a short, thick rope for speed; not to be confused with roped climbing, as used in rock or ice climbing. Stair climbing: ascending elevation via stairs. Tree climbing: Recreationally ascending trees using ropes and other protective equipment. ==Commercial-based== Rope access: Industrial climbing, usually abseiling, as an alternative to scaffolding for short works on exposed structures. A tower climber is a professional who climbs broadcasting or telecommunication towers or masts for maintenance or repair. == International organizations and governing bodies == The International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) serves as the official governing body for competition climbing worldwide. It is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF) and oversees and regulates competitive climbing events in the disciplines of lead climbing, bouldering, and speed climbing. The International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation (UIAA) is a long-standing body for mountaineering and climbing equipment, and which also oversees competition ice climbing, where it sets standards and guidelines for ice climbing events and promotes the sport's development. ==In film== Climbing has been the subject of both narrative and documentary films. Notable climbing films include Touching the Void (2003), Everest (2015), Meru (2015), The Dawn Wall (2015), Free Solo (2018), 14 Peaks: Nothing Is Impossible (2021), and The Alpinist (2021). The Reel Rock Film Tour is a traveling film festival that exclusively screens climbing and adventure films, and includes the Reel Rock climbing film series. == Gallery == File:Robi-Bosh-Alain-Robert.jpg\|Free solo climbing in the Verdon Gorge File:Midnight Lightning yosemite.jpg\|Bouldering on Midnight Lightning in Yosemite File:Crack climbing in Indian Creek, Utah.jpg\|Traditional climbing on a crack in Indian Creek File:Ainhize Belar eskalatzen.jpg \|Sport climbing on a bolted route in Spain File:Craig DeMartino on Zodiac on El Capitan.jpg \|Big wall climbing on Zodiac on El Capitan File:Climbing World Championships 2018 Lead Final Schubert 08.jpg\|Competition climbing at the 2018 World Finals File:Herbert Hellmuth Summit on mt. Manaslu.jpg\|Mountaineering on the summit ridge of the eight-thousander, Manaslu File:Hinterstoisserquergang.JPG\|Alpine climbing on the north face of the Eiger File:Xaver Bongard in der Breitwangflue.jpg \|Ice climbing on Crack Baby in Switzerland File:Piratescove.jpg\|Mixed climbing in Glenwood, Colorado File:Buildering On Doran Bridge.jpg \|Buildering on the Doran Memorial Bridge	[ "Nut (climbing)", "tower climber", "El Capitan", "14 Peaks: Nothing Is Impossible", "Lynn Hill", "Big wall climbing", "big wall climbing", "Stair climbing", "Crane (machine)", "Aid climbing", "scaffolding", "Great north faces of the Alps", "crampon", "Pole climbing", "The Dawn Wall", "history of rock climbing", "Mountaineering", "expedition style", "Eiger", "sport climbing", "Grass climbing", "Janja Garnbret", "Pitch (climbing)", "Competition ice climbing", "ice axe", "lead climbing", "Rope access", "Competition climbing", "International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation", "Via ferrata", "Rope climbing", "piton", "rock climbing", "competition lead climbing", "competition ice climbing", "The Nose (El Capitan)", "Traditional climbing", "Solo climbing", "aider", "top rope", "Midnight Lightning (climb)", "BBC", "Olympic sports", "Outside (magazine)", "Competition lead climbing", "Scrambling", "Verdon Gorge", "Walter Bonatti", "Wolfgang Güllich", "Sport climbing", "International Olympic Committee", "Reinhold Messner", "Adam Ondra", "Bouldering", "first ascent", "Ueli Steck", "The Mountaineers (club)", "Indian Creek (climbing area)", "bouldering", "British Mountaineering Council", "climbing gym", "Indian Face", "multi-pitch climbing", "2018 IFSC Climbing World Championships", "eight-thousander", "hillwalking", "GAISF", "Sport climbing at the 2020 Summer Olympics", "protection (climbing)", "Separate Reality (climb)", "Silence (climb)", "Freerider (climb)", "Climbing (magazine)", "Mixed climbing", "roped solo climbing", "Alexander Huber", "climbing wall", "Mick Fowler", "The Alpinist", "Meru (film)", "Association of Canadian Mountain Guides", "International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation", "Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills", "Ice climbing", "IOC", "UIAA", "Doran Memorial Bridge", "Tree climbing", "Doug Scott", "free climbing", "Buildering", "climbing route", "fixed rope", "ice climbing", "Free solo", "Catherine Destivelle", "Rock climbing", "deep-water soloing", "Touching the Void (film)", "Alpine climbing", "Cambridge Dictionary", "canyons", "List of grade milestones in rock climbing", "Chris Sharma", "dry-tooling", "climbing guidebook", "crack climbing", "Gaston Rébuffat", "Free solo climbing", "bolt (climbing)", "Top rope climbing", "Salathé Wall", "Mallakhamba", "Crane climbing", "Globe Pequot Press", "yoga as exercise", "List of climbers and mountaineers", "climbing equipment", "eight thousander", "abseiling", "competition climbing", "Mountaineers Books", "Spring-loaded camming device", "Marko Prezelj", "International Federation of Sport Climbing", "Alain Robert", "Global Association of International Sports Federations", "IWGA", "indoor climbing", "Midnight Lightning (bouldering)", "competition bouldering", "Burden of Dreams (climb)", "alpine climbing", "Canyoneering", "Mountain guide", "Hermann Buhl", "Competition speed climbing", "speed climbing", "Glenwood Canyon", "competition speed climbing", "Yosemite", "Dreamtime (climb)", "Grade (climbing)", "Parkour", "National Geographic", "Competition bouldering", "Everest (2015 film)", "Manaslu", "telecommunication tower", "Riccardo Cassin", "climbing technique", "Cobra Crack", "Reel Rock Film Tour", "Glossary of climbing terms", "Free Solo" ]
5,859	Continuity Irish Republican Army	The Continuity Irish Republican Army (Continuity IRA or CIRA), styling itself as the Irish Republican Army (), is an Irish republican paramilitary group that aims to bring about a united Ireland. It claims to be a direct continuation of the original Irish Republican Army and the national army of the Irish Republic that was proclaimed in 1916. It emerged from a split in the Provisional IRA in 1986 but did not become active until the Provisional IRA ceasefire of 1994. It is an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland and is designated a terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom, New Zealand and the United States. It has links with the political party Republican Sinn Féin (RSF). Since 1994, the CIRA has waged a campaign in Northern Ireland against the British Army and the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI), formerly the Royal Ulster Constabulary. This is part of a wider campaign against the British security forces by dissident republican paramilitaries. It has targeted the security forces in gun attacks and bombings, as well as with grenades, mortars and rockets. The CIRA has also carried out bombings with the goal of causing economic harm and/or disruption, as well as many punishment attacks on alleged criminals. To date, it has been responsible for the death of one PSNI officer. The CIRA was smaller and less active than the now-defunct Real IRA, and there have been a number of splits within the organisation since the mid-2000s. ==Origins== The Continuity IRA has its origins in a split in the Provisional IRA. In September 1986, the Provisional IRA held a General Army Convention (GAC), the organisation's supreme decision-making body. It was the first GAC in 16 years. The meeting, which like all such meetings was secret, was convened to discuss among other resolutions, the articles of the Provisional IRA constitution which dealt with abstentionism, specifically its opposition to the taking of seats in Dáil Éireann (the parliament of the Republic of Ireland). The Provisional IRA convention delegates opposed to the change in the constitution claimed that the convention was gerrymandered "by the creation of new IRA organisational structures for the convention, including the combinations of Sligo-Roscommon-Longford and Wicklow-Wexford-Waterford." The only IRA body that supported this viewpoint was the outgoing IRA Executive. Those members of the outgoing Executive who opposed the change comprised a quorum. They met, dismissed those in favour of the change, and set up a new Executive. They contacted Tom Maguire, who was a commander in the old IRA and had supported the Provisionals against the Official IRA (see Irish republican legitimatism), and asked him for support. Maguire had also been contacted by supporters of Gerry Adams, then president of Sinn Féin, and a supporter of the change in the Provisional IRA constitution. Maguire rejected Adams' supporters, supported the IRA Executive members opposed to the change, and named the new organisers the Continuity Army Council. ==Campaign== Initially, the Continuity IRA did not reveal its existence, either in the form of press statements or paramilitary activity. Although the Garda Síochána had suspicions that the organisation existed, they were unsure of its name, labelling it the "Irish National Republican Army". On 21 January 1994, on the 75th anniversary of the First Dáil Éireann, a group of men in paramilitary dress offered a "final salute" to Tom Maguire by firing over his grave. A public statement headed "Irish Republican Publicity Bureau" signed "B Ó Ruairc, Rúnaí [Secretary]" identifying the firing party as "Volunteers of Óglaigh na hÉireann-the Irish Republican Army", and two accompanying photos were published in Saoirse Irish Freedom. Garda Special Branch detectives raided the headquarters of Republican Sinn Féin at Arran Quay, Dublin, two days after the graveside volley, seizing files and questioning staff. In February 1994 it was reported that in previous months Gardaí had found arms dumps along the Cooley Peninsula in County Louth that did not belong to the Provisional IRA, and forensics tests determined had been used for firing practice recently. It was only after the Provisional IRA declared a ceasefire in 1994 that the Continuity IRA became active, announcing its intention to continue the campaign against British rule. The CIRA continues to oppose the Good Friday Agreement and, unlike the Provisional IRA (and the Real IRA in 1998), the CIRA has not announced a ceasefire or agreed to participate in weapons decommissioning—nor is there any evidence that it will. In the 18th Independent Monitoring Commission's report, the RIRA, the CIRA and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) were deemed a potential future threat. The CIRA was labelled "active, dangerous and committed and... capable of a greater level of violent and other crime". Like the RIRA and RIRA splinter group Óglaigh na hÉireann, it too sought funds for expansion. It is also known to have worked with the INLA. The CIRA has been involved in a number of bombing and shooting incidents. Targets of the CIRA have included the British military, the Northern Ireland police (both the Royal Ulster Constabulary and its successor the Police Service of Northern Ireland). Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 the CIRA, along with other paramilitaries opposing the ceasefire, have been involved with a countless number of punishment shootings and beatings. By 2005 the CIRA was believed to be an established presence on the island of Great Britain with the capability of launching attacks. A bomb defused in Dublin in December 2005 was believed to have been the work of the CIRA. In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC) blamed the CIRA for planting four bombs in Northern Ireland during the final quarter of 2005, as well as several hoax bomb warnings. The IMC also blamed the CIRA for the killings of two former CIRA members in Belfast, who had stolen CIRA weapons and established a rival organisation. The CIRA continued to be active in both planning and undertaking attacks on the PSNI. The IMC said they tried to lure police into ambushes, while they have also taken to stoning and using petrol bombs. In addition, other assaults, robbery, tiger kidnapping, extortion, fuel laundering and smuggling were undertaken by the group. The CIRA also actively took part in recruiting and training members, including disgruntled former Provisional IRA members. As a result of this continued activity the IMC said the group remained "a very serious threat". On 10 March 2009 the CIRA claimed responsibility for the fatal shooting of a PSNI officer in Craigavon, County Armagh—the first police fatality in Northern Ireland since 1998. The officer was fatally shot by a sniper as he and a colleague investigated "suspicious activity" at a house nearby when a window was smashed by youths causing the occupant to phone the police. The PSNI officers responded to the emergency call, giving a CIRA sniper the chance to shoot and kill officer Stephen Carroll. Carroll was killed two days after the Real IRA's 2009 Massereene Barracks shooting at Massereene Barracks in Antrim. In a press interview with Republican Sinn Féin some days later, regarded by some to be the political wing of the Continuity IRA, Richard Walsh described the attacks as "acts of war". In 2013, the Continuity IRA's 'South Down Brigade' threatened a Traveller family in Newry and published a statement in the local newspaper. There were negotiations with community representatives and the CIRA announced the threat was lifted. It was believed the threat was issued after a Traveller feud which resulted in a pipe bomb attack in Bessbrook, near Newry. The Continuity IRA is believed to be strongest in the County Fermanagh – North County Armagh area (Craigavon, Armagh and Lurgan). It is believed to be behind a number of attacks such as pipe bombings, rocket attacks, gun attacks, and the PSNI claimed it orchestrated riots a number of times to lure police officers into areas such as Kilwilkie in Lurgan and Drumbeg in Craigavon in order to attack them. It also claimed the group orchestrated a riot during a security alert in Lurgan. The alert turned out to be a hoax. On Easter 2016, the Continuity IRA marched in paramilitary uniforms through North Lurgan, Co Armagh, without any hindrance from the PSNI who monitored the parade from a police helicopter. In July and August 2019 the CIRA carried out attempted bomb attacks on the PSNI in Craigavon, County Armagh and Wattlebridge, County Fermanagh. On 5 February 2020, a bomb planted by the CIRA was found by the PSNI in a lorry in Lurgan. The CIRA believed the lorry was going to be put on a North Channel ferry to Scotland in January 2020. ==Claim to legitimacy== Similar to the claim put forward by the Provisional IRA after its split from the Official IRA in 1969, the Continuity IRA claims to be the legitimate continuation of the original Irish Republican Army or Óglaigh na hÉireann. This argument is based on the view that the surviving anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil delegated their "authority" to the IRA Army Council in 1938. As further justification for this claim, Tom Maguire, one of those anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil, issued a statement in favour of the Continuity IRA, just as he had done in 1969 in favour of the Provisionals. J. Bowyer Bell, in his The Irish Troubles, describes Maguire's opinion in 1986: "abstentionism was a basic tenet of republicanism, a moral issue of principle. Abstentionism gave the movement legitimacy, the right to wage war, to speak for a Republic all but established in the hearts of the people". Maguire's stature was such that a delegation from Gerry Adams sought his support in 1986, but was rejected. ==Relationship to other organisations== These changes within the IRA were accompanied by changes on the political side and at the 1986 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (party conference), which followed the IRA Convention, the party's policy of abstentionism, which forbade Sinn Féin elected representatives from taking seats in the Oireachtas, the parliament of the Republic, was dropped. On 2 November, the 628 delegates present cast their votes, the result being 429 to 161. The traditionalists, having lost at both conventions, walked out of the Mansion House, met that evening at the West County Hotel, and reformed as Republican Sinn Féin (RSF). According to a report in the Cork Examiner, the Continuity IRA's first chief of staff was Dáithí Ó Conaill, who also served as the first chairman of RSF from 1986 to 1987. The Continuity IRA and RSF perceive themselves as forming a "true" Republican Movement. ==Structure and status== The leadership of the Continuity IRA is believed to be based in the provinces of Munster and Ulster. It was alleged that its chief of staff was a Limerick man and that a number of other key members were from that county, until their expulsion. Dáithí Ó Conaill was the first chief of staff until 1991. In 2005, Irish Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform Michael McDowell told Dáil Éireann that the organisation had a maximum of 150 members. The CIRA is an illegal organisation under UK (section 11(1) of the Terrorism Act 2000) and ROI law due to the use of 'IRA' in the group's name, in a situation analogous to that of the Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA). Membership of the organisation is punishable by a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment under UK law. On 31 May 2001 Dermot Gannon became the first person to be convicted of membership of the CIRA solely on the word of a Garda Síochána chief superintendent. On 13 July 2004, the US government designated the CIRA as a 'Foreign Terrorist Organization'. This made it illegal for Americans to provide material support to the CIRA, requires US financial institutions to block the group's assets and denies alleged CIRA members visas into the US. ==External aid and arsenal== The US government suspects the Continuity IRA of having received funds and arms from supporters in the United States. Security sources in Ireland have expressed the suspicion that, in co-operation with the RIRA, the Continuity IRA may have acquired arms and materiel from the Balkans. They also suspect that the Continuity IRA arsenal contains some weapons that were taken from Provisional IRA arms dumps, including a few dozen rifles, machine guns, and pistols; a small amount of the explosive Semtex; and a few dozen detonators. ==Internal tension and splits== In 2005, several members of the CIRA, who were serving prison sentences in Portlaoise Prison for paramilitary activity, left the organisation. Some transferred to the INLA landing of the prison, but the majority of those who left are now independent and on E4 landing. The remaining CIRA prisoners have moved to D Wing. Supporters of the Continuity IRA leadership claim that this resulted from an internal disagreement, which although brought to a conclusion, was followed by some people leaving the organisation anyway. Supporters of the disaffected members established the Concerned Group for Republican Prisoners. Most of those who had left went back to the CIRA, or dissociated themselves from the CGRP, which is now defunct. In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission claimed in a report on paramilitary activity that two groups, styling themselves as "Óglaigh na hÉireann" and "Saoirse na hÉireann", had been formed after a split in the Continuity IRA either in early 2006 or late 2005. The Óglaigh na hÉireann group was responsible for a number of pipe bomb attacks on the PSNI, bomb hoaxes, and robberies, the IMC also claimed the organisation was responsible for the killing of Andrew Burns on 12 February 2008 and was seeking to recruit former members of the RIRA. The Saoirse na hÉireann (SNH) group was composed of "disaffected and largely young republicans" and was responsible for a number of bomb hoaxes, two of which took place in September 2006. It was thought to have operated largely in republican areas of Belfast . The groups had apparently ceased operations by early 2009. In 2007, the Continuity IRA was responsible for shooting dead two of its members who had left and attempted to create their own organisation. Upon leaving the CIRA, they had allegedly taken a number of guns with them. The Continuity IRA is believed by Gardaí to have been involved in a number of gangland killings in Dublin and Limerick. In July 2010, members of a "militant Northern-based faction within the CIRA" claimed to have overthrown the leadership of the organisation. They also claimed that an Army Convention representing "95 per cent of volunteers" had unanimously elected a new 12-member Army Executive, which in turn appointed a new seven-member Army Council. The moves came as a result of dissatisfaction with the southern-based leadership and the apparent winding-down of military operations. A senior source from RSF said: "We would see them [the purported new leadership] as just another splinter group that has broken away." This organisation is referred to as the Real CIRA. In June 2011 CIRA member Liam Kenny was murdered, allegedly by drug dealers, at his home in Clondalkin, West Dublin. On 28 November 2011 an innocent man was mistakenly shot dead in retaliation for the murder of Liam Kenny. Limerick Real IRA volunteer Rose Lynch pleaded guilty to this murder at the Special Criminal Court and was sentenced to life imprisonment. In July 2012 the CIRA announced it had a new leadership after expelling members who had been working against the organisation. In April 2014 a former leading member of the Belfast Continuity IRA who had been expelled from the organisation, Tommy Crossan, was shot dead. ==In popular culture== The CIRA are depicted in RTÉ's TV series crime drama Love/Hate.	[ "United States Department of State", "Northern Ireland", "County Armagh", "Republican Movement (Ireland)", "The Times", "Federation of American Scientists", "Massereene Barracks", "J. Bowyer Bell", "Good Friday Agreement", "Anglo-Irish Treaty", "Rocket-propelled grenade", "Michael McDowell (politician)", "Semtex", "Irish Republic", "Dissident republican", "Irish republican legitimism", "Cumann na mBan", "Real IRA/ONH", "Brexit Day bomb plot", "The Independent", "stoning", "ceasefire", "Real IRA", "Ulster", "CAIN", "Physical force Irish republicanism", "List of designated terrorist organizations", "Royal Ulster Constabulary", "Dissident Irish republican campaign", "Special Detective Unit", "tiger kidnapping", "British Armed Forces", "Irish Republican Liberation Army", "Fianna Éireann", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "Volunteer (Irish republican)", "2009 Massereene Barracks shooting", "Concerned Group for Republican Prisoners", "RTÉ News and Current Affairs", "Cooley Peninsula", "New Zealand", "United States", "Oxford University Press", "Irish republicanism", "Garda Síochána", "New Irish Republican Army", "Second Dáil", "Dáithí Ó Conaill", "united Ireland", "smuggling", "Ashgate Publishing", "The Troubles", "United Kingdom", "Government of the United Kingdom", "British Army", "Official IRA", "Terrorism Act 2000", "Gerry Adams", "Murder of Andrew Burns", "Police Service of Northern Ireland", "gerrymander", "IRA Army Council", "County Fermanagh", "Éire Nua", "Saoirse Irish Freedom", "bomb threat", "extortion", "Proclamation of the Irish Republic", "Limerick", "materiel", "The Guardian", "Love/Hate (TV series)", "Irish Army", "Special Criminal Court", "Clondalkin", "Timeline of Continuity Irish Republican Army actions", "Dáil Éireann", "Republican Sinn Féin", "Irish Republican Army (1917–22)", "Balkans", "Irish Travellers", "Irish National Liberation Army", "fuel laundering", "Real Irish Republican Army", "RTÉ", "quorum", "Irish nationalism", "Irish republican legitimatism", "Oireachtas", "Republic of Ireland", "Portlaoise Prison", "abstentionism", "Tom Maguire", "Craigavon (planned town)", "Independent Monitoring Commission", "Óglaigh na hÉireann", "dissident republican", "Munster", "Barrack buster", "The Stationery Office", "Minister for Justice (Ireland)", "petrol bomb", "List of IRA Chiefs of Staff", "Murder of Stephen Carroll", "Foreign Terrorist Organization", "Sinn Féin" ]
5,862	Congo	Congo or The Congo may refer to: Congo River, in central Africa Congo Basin, the sedimentary basin of the river Democratic Republic of the Congo, the larger country to the southeast, sometimes referred to as "Congo-Kinshasa" Republic of the Congo, the smaller country to the northwest, sometimes referred to as "Congo-Brazzaville" == Places == === Africa === Congo Canyon, a submarine canyon Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1914) Kingdom of Kakongo (15th century–1885) Congo Free State (1885–1908) Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville) or Congo-Léopoldville (1960–1971) People's Republic of the Congo (1969–1992) M'banza Congo, capital of Zaire Province in Angola Kongo, Ghana, town in Ghana Kongo, Liberia, small town in Liberia ====Former colonies==== Belgian Congo (modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) French Congo (modern-day Republic of the Congo) Portuguese Congo (modern-day Kabinda, Angola) === United States === Congo, Alabama Congo, Missouri Congo, Pennsylvania Congo, West Virginia Congo Cay, United States Virgin Islands === Elsewhere === Congo, New South Wales, Australia Congo, Paraíba, Brazil Congo River (disambiguation), a list of rivers with the name Congo Town, a village in Andros Island, Bahamas Congo Volcano or Congo Mountain, in Costa Rica == Languages and ethnic groups == Niger–Congo languages Kongo languages Kongo language, a Bantu language Kongo people, a Bantu ethnic group == Arts and entertainment== === Music === The Congos, a reggae vocal group from Jamaica Congo (album), 1979 "Congo" (song), by Genesis, 1997 Kongos (band), a South African American band ===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media=== Congo (novel), a 1980 novel by Michael Crichton Congo (film), a 1995 film based on the novel Congo (chess variant), using a 7×7 gameboard Congo (pinball), a 1995 pinball machine Congo (TV series), a 2001 nature documentary Congo – A Political Tragedy, a 2018 documentary film Congo: The Epic History of a People, a 2010 book by David van Reybrouck Kongo (film), a 1932 American film ==People== Edwin Congo (born 1976), Colombian footballer Louis Congo (fl. 1725), emancipated slave appointed public executioner of French Louisiana Richard Congo (born 1961), American basketball player Cheick Kongo (born 1975), French mixed martial arts fighter and kickboxer John Kongos (born 1945), South African singer and songwriter Kongo Kong, wrestling ring name of Steven Wilson (born 1979) == Other uses == Congo (chimpanzee), a chimpanzee who learned how to draw and paint Congo (loa), a voodoo spirit Congo Airways, the flag carrier of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Congo Airlines, a former airline , a Royal Navy ship Conference of NGOs (CoNGO), a membership association of non-governmental organizations Kongo University, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Congo Brands, the manufacturer of Prime (drink)	[ "The Congos", "Kingdom of Kongo", "Congo, Pennsylvania", "King Kong (disambiguation)", "Kongo Kong", "Congo, West Virginia", "Congo (pinball)", "Louis Congo", "Congoid", "Congo Basin", "Republic of the Congo", "Congo (film)", "People's Republic of the Congo", "Richard Congo", "Portuguese Congo", "Congo Town", "French Congo", "Kongo languages", "Congo – A Political Tragedy", "Congo, Paraíba", "Kongo (film)", "Congo (chess variant)", "Kongo University", "Kongo, Liberia", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Niger–Congo languages", "Kongos (band)", "Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)", "Prime (drink)", "Kongō (disambiguation)", "Congo River (disambiguation)", "Congo Cay", "Kongolo (disambiguation)", "Congo Canyon", "Congo (loa)", "Congo (novel)", "Congo, New South Wales", "Kongo language", "Kongo people", "Edwin Congo", "Congo Airlines", "Congo River", "Congo (album)", "John Kongos", "Congo: The Epic History of a People", "Kongo, Ghana", "Congo, Missouri", "Kakongo", "Congo Airways", "Kingdom of Kakongo", "Kongo (disambiguation)", "Conference of NGOs", "Cheick Kongo", "Congolese (disambiguation)", "Belgian Congo", "Congo (song)", "Congo (TV series)", "Congo Free State", "M'banza Congo", "Conga (disambiguation)", "Congo Volcano", "Congo (chimpanzee)", "Congo, Alabama" ]
5,863	Copenhagen interpretation	The Copenhagen interpretation is a collection of views about the meaning of quantum mechanics, stemming from the work of Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and others. While "Copenhagen" refers to the Danish city, the use as an "interpretation" was apparently coined by Heisenberg during the 1950s to refer to ideas developed in the 1925–1927 period, glossing over his disagreements with Bohr. Consequently, there is no definitive historical statement of what the interpretation entails. Features common across versions of the Copenhagen interpretation include the idea that quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic, with probabilities calculated using the Born rule, and the principle of complementarity, which states that objects have certain pairs of complementary properties that cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously. Moreover, the act of "observing" or "measuring" an object is irreversible, and no truth can be attributed to an object except according to the results of its measurement (that is, the Copenhagen interpretation rejects counterfactual definiteness). Copenhagen-type interpretations hold that quantum descriptions are objective, in that they are independent of physicists' personal beliefs and other arbitrary mental factors. Over the years, there have been many objections to aspects of Copenhagen-type interpretations, including the discontinuous and stochastic nature of the "observation" or "measurement" process, the difficulty of defining what might count as a measuring device, and the seeming reliance upon classical physics in describing such devices. Still, including all the variations, the interpretation remains one of the most commonly taught. ==Background== Starting in 1900, investigations into atomic and subatomic phenomena forced a revision to the basic concepts of classical physics. However, it was not until a quarter-century had elapsed that the revision reached the status of a coherent theory. During the intervening period, now known as the time of the "old quantum theory", physicists worked with approximations and heuristic corrections to classical physics. Notable results from this period include Max Planck's calculation of the blackbody radiation spectrum, Albert Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, Einstein and Peter Debye's work on the specific heat of solids, Niels Bohr and Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen's proof that classical physics cannot account for diamagnetism, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom and Arnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include relativistic effects. From 1922 through 1925, this method of heuristic corrections encountered increasing difficulties; for example, the Bohr–Sommerfeld model could not be extended from hydrogen to the next simplest case, the helium atom. The transition from the old quantum theory to full-fledged quantum physics began in 1925, when Werner Heisenberg presented a treatment of electron behavior based on discussing only "observable" quantities, meaning to Heisenberg the frequencies of light that atoms absorbed and emitted. Max Born then realized that in Heisenberg's theory, the classical variables of position and momentum would instead be represented by matrices, mathematical objects that can be multiplied together like numbers with the crucial difference that the order of multiplication matters. Erwin Schrödinger presented an equation that treated the electron as a wave, and Born discovered that the way to successfully interpret the wave function that appeared in the Schrödinger equation was as a tool for calculating probabilities. Quantum mechanics cannot easily be reconciled with everyday language and observation, and has often seemed counter-intuitive to physicists, including its inventors. The ideas grouped together as the Copenhagen interpretation suggest a way to think about how the mathematics of quantum theory relates to physical reality. ==Origin and use of the term== The 'Copenhagen' part of the term refers to the city of Copenhagen in Denmark. During the mid-1920s, Heisenberg had been an assistant to Bohr at his institute in Copenhagen. Together they helped originate quantum mechanical theory. At the 1927 Solvay Conference, a dual talk by Max Born and Heisenberg declared "we consider quantum mechanics to be a closed theory, whose fundamental physical and mathematical assumptions are no longer susceptible of any modification." In 1929, Heisenberg gave a series of invited lectures at the University of Chicago explaining the new field of quantum mechanics. The lectures then served as the basis for his textbook, The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, published in 1930. In the book's preface, Heisenberg wrote: On the whole, the book contains nothing that is not to be found in previous publications, particularly in the investigations of Bohr. The purpose of the book seems to me to be fulfilled if it contributes somewhat to the diffusion of that 'Kopenhagener Geist der Quantentheorie' [Copenhagen spirit of quantum theory] if I may so express myself, which has directed the entire development of modern atomic physics. The term 'Copenhagen interpretation' suggests something more than just a spirit, such as some definite set of rules for interpreting the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, presumably dating back to the 1920s. However, no such text exists, and the writings of Bohr and Heisenberg contradict each other on several important issues. while criticizing alternative "interpretations" (e.g., David Bohm's) that had been developed. Lectures with the titles 'The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Theory' and 'Criticisms and Counterproposals to the Copenhagen Interpretation', that Heisenberg delivered in 1955, are reprinted in the collection Physics and Philosophy. Before the book was released for sale, Heisenberg privately expressed regret for having used the term, due to its suggestion of the existence of other interpretations, that he considered to be "nonsense". In a 1960 review of Heisenberg's book, Bohr's close collaborator Léon Rosenfeld called the term an "ambiguous expression" and suggested it be discarded. However, this did not come to pass, and the term entered widespread use. ==Principles== There is no uniquely definitive statement of the Copenhagen interpretation. The term encompasses the views developed by a number of scientists and philosophers during the second quarter of the 20th century. This lack of a single, authoritative source that establishes the Copenhagen interpretation is one difficulty with discussing it; another complication is that the philosophical background familiar to Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, and contemporaries is much less so to physicists and even philosophers of physics in more recent times. and Bohr distanced himself from what he considered Heisenberg's more subjective interpretation. Different commentators and researchers have associated various ideas with the term.}} N. David Mermin coined the phrase "Shut up and calculate!" to summarize Copenhagen-type views, a saying often misattributed to Richard Feynman and which Mermin later found insufficiently nuanced. Mermin described the Copenhagen interpretation as coming in different "versions", "varieties", or "flavors". Some basic principles generally accepted as part of the interpretation include the following: Heisenberg wrote, "Every description of phenomena, of experiments and their results, rests upon language as the only means of communication. The words of this language represent the concepts of ordinary life, which in the scientific language of physics may be refined to the concepts of classical physics. These concepts are the only tools for an unambiguous communication about events, about the setting up of experiments and about their results." }} Per the above point, the device used to observe a system must be described in classical language, while the system under observation is treated in quantum terms. This is a particularly subtle issue for which Bohr and Heisenberg came to differing conclusions. According to Heisenberg, the boundary between classical and quantum can be shifted in either direction at the observer's discretion. That is, the observer has the freedom to move what would become known as the "Heisenberg cut" without changing any physically meaningful predictions. while Bohr offered an interpretation that is independent of a subjective observer or measurement or collapse, which relies on an "irreversible" or effectively irreversible process, which could take place within the quantum system. Another issue of importance where Bohr and Heisenberg disagreed is wave–particle duality. Bohr maintained that the distinction between a wave view and a particle view was defined by a distinction between experimental setups, whereas Heisenberg held that it was defined by the possibility of viewing the mathematical formulas as referring to waves or particles. Bohr thought that a particular experimental setup would display either a wave picture or a particle picture, but not both. Heisenberg thought that every mathematical formulation was capable of both wave and particle interpretations. ==Nature of the wave function== A wave function is a mathematical entity that provides a probability distribution for the outcomes of each possible measurement on a system. Knowledge of the wave function together with the rules for the system's evolution in time exhausts all that can be predicted about the system's behavior. Generally, Copenhagen-type interpretations deny that the wave function provides a directly apprehensible image of an ordinary material body or a discernible component of some such, or anything more than a theoretical concept. === Probabilities via the Born rule === The Born rule is essential to the Copenhagen interpretation. Formulated by Max Born in 1926, it gives the probability that a measurement of a quantum system will yield a given result. In its simplest form, it states that the probability density of finding a particle at a given point, when measured, is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the particle's wave function at that point. === Collapse === The concept of wave function collapse postulates that the wave function of a system can change suddenly and discontinuously upon measurement. Prior to a measurement, a wave function involves the various probabilities for the different potential outcomes of that measurement. But when the apparatus registers one of those outcomes, no traces of the others linger. Since Bohr did not view the wavefunction as something physical, he never talks about "collapse". Nevertheless, many physicists and philosophers associate collapse with the Copenhagen interpretation. ===Role of the observer=== Because they assert that the existence of an observed value depends upon the intercession of the observer, Copenhagen-type interpretations are sometimes called "subjective". All of the original Copenhagen protagonists considered the process of observation as mechanical and independent of the individuality of the observer. Wolfgang Pauli, for example, insisted that measurement results could be obtained and recorded by "objective registering apparatus". but was insufficient to provide a technical explanation for the apparent wave function collapse. === Completion by hidden variables? === In metaphysical terms, the Copenhagen interpretation views quantum mechanics as providing knowledge of phenomena, but not as pointing to 'really existing objects', which it regards as residues of ordinary intuition. This makes it an epistemic theory. This may be contrasted with Einstein's view, that physics should look for 'really existing objects', making itself an ontic theory. The metaphysical question is sometimes asked: "Could quantum mechanics be extended by adding so-called "hidden variables" to the mathematical formalism, to convert it from an epistemic to an ontic theory?" The Copenhagen interpretation answers this with a strong 'No'. It is sometimes alleged, for example by J.S. Bell, that Einstein opposed the Copenhagen interpretation because he believed that the answer to that question of "hidden variables" was "yes". By contrast, Max Jammer writes "Einstein never proposed a hidden variable theory." Einstein explored the possibility of a hidden variable theory, and wrote a paper describing his exploration, but withdrew it from publication because he felt it was faulty. ==Acceptance among physicists== During the 1930s and 1940s, views about quantum mechanics attributed to Bohr and emphasizing complementarity became commonplace among physicists. Textbooks of the time generally maintained the principle that the numerical value of a physical quantity is not meaningful or does not exist until it is measured. Prominent physicists associated with Copenhagen-type interpretations have included Lev Landau, Wolfgang Pauli, Asher Peres, Throughout much of the 20th century, the Copenhagen tradition had overwhelming acceptance among physicists. the Copenhagen interpretation remained the most widely accepted label that physicists applied to their own views. A similar result was found in a poll conducted in 2011. ==Consequences== The nature of the Copenhagen interpretation is exposed by considering a number of experiments and paradoxes. === Schrödinger's cat === This thought experiment highlights the implications that accepting uncertainty at the microscopic level has on macroscopic objects. A cat is put in a sealed box, with its life or death made dependent on the state of a subatomic particle. How can the cat be both alive and dead? In Copenhagen-type views, the wave function reflects our knowledge of the system. The wave function (\|\text{dead}\rangle + \|\text{alive}\rangle)/\sqrt 2 means that, once the cat is observed, there is a 50% chance it will be dead, and 50% chance it will be alive. (Some versions of the Copenhagen interpretation reject the idea that a wave function can be assigned to a physical system that meets the everyday definition of "cat"; in this view, the correct quantum-mechanical description of the cat-and-particle system must include a superselection rule.) Wigner puts his friend in with the cat. The external observer believes the system is in state (\|\text{dead}\rangle + \|\text{alive}\rangle)/\sqrt 2. However, his friend is convinced that the cat is alive, i.e. for him, the cat is in the state \|\text{alive}\rangle. How can Wigner and his friend see different wave functions? In a Heisenbergian view, the answer depends on the positioning of Heisenberg cut, which can be placed arbitrarily (at least according to Heisenberg, though not to Bohr Different Copenhagen-type interpretations take different positions as to whether observers can be placed on the quantum side of the cut. According to Bohr's complementarity principle, light is neither a wave nor a stream of particles. A particular experiment can demonstrate particle behavior (passing through a definite slit) or wave behavior (interference), but not both at the same time. The same experiment has been performed for light, electrons, atoms, and molecules. The extremely small de Broglie wavelength of objects with larger mass makes experiments increasingly difficult, but in general quantum mechanics considers all matter as possessing both particle and wave behaviors. === Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox === This thought experiment involves a pair of particles prepared in what later authors would refer to as an entangled state. In a 1935 paper, Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted. If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) criterion of reality", positing that, "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity". From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of position and of momentum prior to either being measured. Bohr's response to the EPR paper was published in the Physical Review later that same year. ==Criticism== ===Incompleteness and indeterminism=== Einstein was an early and persistent supporter of objective reality. Bohr and Heisenberg advanced the position that no physical property could be understood without an act of measurement, while Einstein refused to accept this. Abraham Pais recalled a walk with Einstein when the two discussed quantum mechanics: "Einstein suddenly stopped, turned to me and asked whether I really believed that the moon exists only when I look at it." While Einstein did not doubt that quantum mechanics was a correct physical theory in that it gave correct predictions, he maintained that it could not be a complete theory. The most famous product of his efforts to argue the incompleteness of quantum theory is the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen thought experiment, which was intended to show that physical properties like position and momentum have values even if not measured. The argument of EPR was not generally persuasive to other physicists. Bohr, in response, reputedly said that "it cannot be for us to tell God, how he is to run the world". ===The Heisenberg cut=== Much criticism of Copenhagen-type interpretations has focused on the need for a classical domain where observers or measuring devices can reside, and the imprecision of how the boundary between quantum and classical might be defined. This boundary came to be termed the Heisenberg cut (while John Bell derisively called it the "shifty split" And if there is somehow a split, where should it be placed? Steven Weinberg writes that the traditional presentation gives "no way to locate the boundary between the realms in which [...] quantum mechanics does or does not apply." The problem of thinking in terms of classical measurements of a quantum system becomes particularly acute in the field of quantum cosmology, where the quantum system is the universe. How does an observer stand outside the universe in order to measure it, and who was there to observe the universe in its earliest stages? Advocates of Copenhagen-type interpretations have disputed the seriousness of these objections. Rudolf Peierls noted that "the observer does not have to be contemporaneous with the event"; for example, we study the early universe through the cosmic microwave background, and we can apply quantum mechanics to that just as well as to any electromagnetic field. {{Blockquote\|text=You may object that there is only one universe, but likewise there is only one SQUID in my laboratory. More recently, interpretations inspired by quantum information theory like QBism and relational quantum mechanics have appeared. Experts on quantum foundational issues continue to favor the Copenhagen interpretation over other alternatives. Under realism and determinism, if the wave function is regarded as ontologically real, and collapse is entirely rejected, a many-worlds interpretation results. If wave function collapse is regarded as ontologically real as well, an objective collapse theory is obtained. Bohmian mechanics shows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. The transactional interpretation is also explicitly nonlocal. Some physicists espoused views in the "Copenhagen spirit" and then went on to advocate other interpretations. For example, David Bohm and Alfred Landé both wrote textbooks that put forth ideas in the Bohr–Heisenberg tradition, and later promoted nonlocal hidden variables and an ensemble interpretation respectively. he then supervised the PhD thesis of Hugh Everett that proposed the many-worlds interpretation. After supporting Everett's work for several years, he began to distance himself from the many-worlds interpretation in the 1970s. Late in life, he wrote that while the Copenhagen interpretation might fairly be called "the fog from the north", it "remains the best interpretation of the quantum that we have". Other physicists, while influenced by the Copenhagen tradition, have expressed frustration at how it took the mathematical formalism of quantum theory as given, rather than trying to understand how it might arise from something more fundamental. (E. T. Jaynes described the mathematical formalism of quantum physics as "a peculiar mixture describing in part realities of Nature, in part incomplete human information about Nature—all scrambled up together by Heisenberg and Bohr into an omelette that nobody has seen how to unscramble".) This dissatisfaction has motivated new interpretative variants as well as technical work in quantum foundations.	[ "quantum foundations", "Foundations of Physics", "Hans Primas", "classical physics", "Anton Zeilinger", "British Journal for the Philosophy of Science", "Quantum entanglement", "E. T. Jaynes", "Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society", "Denmark", "SQUID", "Richard Feynman", "Nathan Rosen", "American Journal of Physics", "many-worlds interpretation", "Niels Bohr", "hydrogen atom", "Solvay Conference", "interference (wave propagation)", "complementarity principle", "John Archibald Wheeler", "University of Chicago", "theory of relativity", "Kluwer", "Asher Peres", "Roland Omnès", "Quantum decoherence", "information theory", "Physical Review", "Bohmian mechanics", "Max Jammer", "Introduction to eigenstates", "stochastic", "Born rule", "wave function", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Observer (quantum physics)", "Albert Einstein", "helium atom", "Alfred Landé", "cosmic microwave background", "Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem", "Léon Rosenfeld", "quantum information theory", "Indeterminism", "Nature (journal)", "Werner Heisenberg", "Boris Podolsky", "epistemic", "Social Studies of Science", "New York Times", "correspondence principle", "Steven Weinberg", "Erwin Schrödinger", "Max Planck", "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists", "old quantum theory", "wave–particle duality", "photoelectric effect", "Bohr model", "Lev Landau", "Schrödinger equation", "The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory", "Rudolf Haag", "Copenhagen", "quantum cosmology", "Wolfgang Pauli", "Niels Bohr Institute", "Complementarity (physics)", "Perspectives on Science", "transactional interpretation", "Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences", "photon", "Philosophical interpretation of classical physics", "Reports on Progress in Physics", "Arnold Sommerfeld", "superselection rule", "Reviews of Modern Physics", "matter wave", "Philosophy of Science (journal)", "Mach–Zehnder interferometer", "observable", "specific heat", "diamagnetism", "Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics", "Journal of Mind and Behavior", "ensemble interpretation", "Philosophical realism", "David Bohm", "Heisenberg cut", "objective collapse theory", "The Monist", "Bohr–Einstein debates", "Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics", "stream of particles", "blackbody radiation", "Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen", "Measurement in quantum mechanics", "Physics Today", "Ray Streater", "Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen", "Fifth Solvay Conference", "Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A", "Popper's experiment", "Physics World", "probability", "determinism", "counterfactual definiteness", "Science (journal)", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "laser", "Physical Review Letters", "Physical ontology", "Consciousness causes collapse", "Physical Review A", "Peter Debye", "quantum mechanics", "thought experiment", "John Stewart Bell", "EPR paradox", "QBism", "Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker", "Solvay Congress", "Contemporary Physics", "special relativity", "N. David Mermin", "European Journal of Physics", "matrix (mathematics)", "consistent histories", "measurement in quantum mechanics", "The European Physical Journal H", "superconductor", "Physics Reports", "Paul Ehrenfest", "ontic", "Max Born", "Alice and Bob", "Abraham Pais", "relational quantum mechanics", "Physical Review D", "wave function collapse", "Rudolf Peierls" ]
5,864	Customs union	A customs union is generally defined as a type of trade bloc which is composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff. Customs unions are established through trade pacts where the participant countries set up common external trade policy (in some cases they use different import quotas). Common competition policy is also helpful to avoid competition deficiency. Reasons for establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. It is the third stage of economic integration. Every economic union, customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union includes a customs union. == WTO definition == The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, part of the World Trade Organization framework defines a customs union in the following way: It was brought into action by the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. Pre-modern conditions ( 30+ currencies, trade barriers etc.) were viewed as an obstacle to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. In 1834, 18 states joined to form the German Customs Union with Prussia as the leader. Thereafter, this alliance was further expanded to all German-speaking regions and became the All-German Customs Union. The contents of the alliance convention included: abolishing internal tariffs, unifying external tariffs, raising import tax rates, and allocating tariff income to all states in the alliance in proportion. In addition, there is a customs union between France and Monaco, which was established in 1865. A customs union was established by Switzerland and Liechtenstein in 1924, by Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in 1948, by the countries of the European Economic Community in 1958, and by the Economic Community of Central African States in 1964. At that time, the European Free Trade Association was separate from the European Economic Community Customs Union. Free trade within the former was limited to industrial products, and no uniform tariffs were imposed on countries outside the Union. == Main feature == The main feature of a customs union is that the member countries not only eliminate trade barriers and implement free trade, but also establish a common external tariff. In other words, in addition to agreeing to eliminate each other's trade barriers, members of a customs union also adopt common external tariffs and trade policies. GATT stipulates that if the customs union is not established immediately, but is gradually completed over a period of time, it should be completed within a reasonable period, which generally does not exceed 10 years. Reduction of tariffs until the tariffs within the union are eliminated. In order to achieve this goal, the union often stipulates that the member countries must transition from their current tariff rates between member countries to the unified tariff rates stipulated by the union in stages within a certain period of time, until finally aobolishing tariffs. Formulation of a unified foreign trade policy and foreign tariff rates. Members must alter their original foreign tariff rates within the prescribed time, and eventually establish a common external tariff; and gradually unify their foreign trade policies, such as foreign discrimination policies and import quantities. Formulation of unified protective measures, such as import quotas, health and epidemic prevention standards, etc. == Meaning == A customs union reduces the national sovereignty of the member countries by taking over their power to set tariffs. == Economic effects == Economic effects of customs unions can generally be grouped into static effects and dynamic effects. === Static effects === There are trade creation effects and trade diversion effects. The trade creation effect refers to the benefit generated by the transfer of domestic production to other countries in the union with lower costs. The trade diversion effect refers to the loss incurred when a product is imported from a non-member country with lower production costs to a member country with a higher cost. This is the price of joining the customs union. When the trade creation effect is greater than the transfer effect, the combined effect on the member countries is a net gain, which boosts the economies of the member countries; otherwise, it is a net loss and a decline in economic terms. The trade creation effect is usually regarded as a positive effect. This is because the domestic production cost of country A is higher than the production cost of country A 's imports from country B. The Customs Union made Country A give up the domestic production of some commodities and change it to Country B to produce these commodities. From a worldwide perspective, this kind of production conversion improves the efficiency of resource allocation. === Dynamic effects === The customs union does not only bring static effects to member states, but also brings some dynamic effects. Sometimes, these dynamic effects are more important than the static effects, which has an important impact on the economic growth of member countries. The establishment of a customs union helps to attract foreign direct investment, both by increasing the size of the market and putting producers in non-member states at a disadvantage. The establishment of a customs union implies the exclusion of products from non-members. == Lists of customs unions == === Current === Additionally, the autonomous and dependent territories such as some of the EU member state special territories are sometimes treated as separate customs territories from their mainland states or have varying arrangements of formal or de facto customs union, common market and currency union (or combinations thereof) with the mainland and in regards to third countries through the trade pacts signed by the mainland state. The European Union is a customs union and therefore sets a common external tariff. === Proposed === 2010 Southern African Development Community (SADC) 2011 Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) 2015 Arab Customs Union (ACU) 2023 African Economic Community (AEC) === Defunct === The Zollverein in the German states (1834–1919) – Remained in effect after German unification and not dissolved until superseded by the Weimar Constitution of 1919. – Customs union between Austria (later Austria–Hungary) from 1852 to 1918. Was replaced by the Liechtenstein–Switzerland customs union in 1924. Czechia and Slovakia from the dissolution of Czechoslovakia on 1 January 1993 until superseded by both countries' accession to the European Union on 1 May 2004.	[ "economies of scale", "resource allocation", "Single market", "trade bloc", "Realm of New Zealand", "Central European Free Trade Agreement", "Carey Olsen", "African Economic Community", "currency union", "Israel", "Andean Community", "World Trade Organization", "European Economic Community Customs Union", "Australian External Territories", "foreign direct investment", "common external trade policy", "List of autonomous areas by country", "customs territory", "Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa", "production costs", "Eurasian Customs Union", "Weimar Constitution", "common market", "Economic Community of Central African States", "Mercosur", "German unification", "Eurasian Economic Community", "Gulf Daily News", "European Union–Turkey Customs Union", "Central American Common Market", "European Union", "Craiova Group", "Czech Republic", "Liechtenstein–Switzerland relations", "Trade diversion", "Slovakia", "Protocol on Economic Relations", "German Empire", "trade pact", "common external tariff", "Import quota", "free trade", "import quota", "Southern Common Market", "Overseas Countries and Territories", "Zollverein", "Euro", "Gulf Cooperation Council", "Palestinian Authority", "Steuerverein", "European Union Customs Union", "Special member state territories and the European Union", "Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa", "Saar (League of Nations)", "European Customs Information Portal (ECIP)", "economic integration", "Austria-Hungary", "economic union", "Southern African Customs Union", "Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa", "Southern African Development Community", "competition policy", "Trade creation", "free trade area", "trade barrier", "Czechoslovakia", "Territories of the United States", "economic efficiency", "customs and monetary union", "General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade", "Caribbean Community", "West African Economic and Monetary Union", "Currency union", "United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union", "European Economic Community", "European Free Trade Association", "competition", "Open Balkan", "dependent territory", "Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein", "East African Community", "List of international trade topics", "Oslo Accords", "Arab Customs Union" ]
5,865	Council of Europe	{{Infobox Geopolitical organization \| conventional_long_name = Council of Europe \| common_name = CoE \| native_name = \| image_flag = Flag of Europe.svg \| flag_type_article = Flag of Europe \| image_coat = Council of Europe logo (2013 revised version).svg \| symbol_type = Logo \| image_map = CoE_members_2024.png \| admin_center = Palace of Europe, Strasbourg, France \| admin_center_type = Headquarters \| official_languages = English, French \| org_type = Regional intergovernmental organisation \| membership = {{unbulleted list \|46 member states Founded in 1949, it is Europe's oldest intergovernmental organisation, representing 46 member states The organisation is distinct from the European Union (EU), although people sometimes confuse the two organisations – partly because the EU has adopted the original European flag, designed for the Council of Europe in 1955, as well as the European anthem. No country has ever joined the EU without first belonging to the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe is an official United Nations observer. Unlike the EU, the Council of Europe cannot make binding laws; however, the council has produced a number of international treaties, including the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights, ECHR) of 1953. Provisions from the convention are incorporated in domestic law in many participating countries. The best-known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which rules on alleged violations of the ECHR. The council's two statutory bodies are the Committee of Ministers, which comprises the foreign ministers of each member state, and the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), which is composed of members of the national parliaments of each member state. The Commissioner for Human Rights is an institution within the Council of Europe, mandated to promote awareness of and respect for human rights within the member states. The secretary general presides over the secretariat of the organisation. Other major CoE bodies include the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare (EDQM) and the European Audiovisual Observatory. The headquarters of the Council of Europe, as well as its Court of Human Rights, are situated in Strasbourg, France. The Council uses English and French as its two official languages. The Committee of Ministers, the PACE, and the Congress of the Council of Europe also use German and Italian for some of their work. == History == === Founding === In a speech in 1929, French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand floated the idea of an organisation which would gather European nations together in a "federal union" to resolve common problems. The United Kingdom's wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill first publicly suggested the creation of a "Council of Europe" in a BBC radio broadcast on 21 March 1943, while the Second World War was still raging. In his own words, he tried to "peer through the mists of the future to the end of the war", and think about how to rebuild and maintain peace on a shattered continent. Given that Europe had been at the origin of two world wars, the creation of such a body would be, he suggested, "a stupendous business". He returned to the idea during a well-known speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, throwing the full weight of his considerable post-war prestige behind it. Additionally, there were also many other statesmen and politicians across the continent, many of them members of the European Movement, who were quietly working towards the creation of the council. Some regarded it as a guarantee that the horrors of war – or the human rights violations of the Nazi regime – could never again be visited on the continent, others came to see it as a "club of democracies", built around a set of common values that could stand as a bulwark against totalitarian states belonging to the Eastern Bloc. Others again saw it as a nascent "United States of Europe", the resonant phrase that Churchill had reached for at Zurich in 1946. The future structure of the Council of Europe was discussed at the Congress of Europe, which brought together several hundred leading politicians, government representatives and members of civil society in The Hague, Netherlands, in 1948. Responding to the conclusions of the Congress of Europe, the Consultative Council of the Treaty of Brussels convened a Committee for the Study of European Unity, which met eight times from November 1948 to January 1949 to draw up the blueprint of a new broad-based European organisation. There were two competing schools of thought: some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, while others preferred a political forum with parliamentarians. Both approaches were finally combined through the creation of a Committee of Ministers (in which governments were represented) and a Consultative Assembly (in which parliaments were represented), the two main bodies mentioned in the Statute of the Council of Europe. This dual intergovernmental and inter-parliamentary structure was later copied for the European Communities, NATO and OSCE. The Council of Europe was signed into existence on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London, the organisation's founding Statute which set out the three basic values that should guide its work: democracy, human rights and the rule of law. It was signed in London on that day by ten states: Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, though Turkey and Greece joined three months later. On 10 August 1949, 100 members of the council's Consultative Assembly, parliamentarians drawn from the twelve member nations, met in Strasbourg for its first plenary session, held over 18 sittings and lasting nearly a month. They debated how to reconcile and reconstruct a continent still reeling from war, yet already facing a new East–West divide, launched the radical concept of a trans-national court to protect the basic human rights of every citizen, and took the first steps in a process that would eventually lead to the creation of an offshoot organisation, the European Union. In August 1949, Paul-Henri Spaak resigned as Belgium's foreign minister in order to be elected as the first president of the assembly. Behind the scenes, he too had been quietly working towards the creation of the council, and played a key role in steering its early work. However, in December 1951, after nearly three years in the role, Spaak resigned in disappointment after the Assembly rejected proposals for a "European political authority". Convinced that the Council of Europe was never going to be in a position to achieve his long-term goal of a unified Europe, he soon tried again in a new and more promising format, based this time on economic integration, becoming one of the founders of the European Union. === Early years === There was huge enthusiasm for the Council of Europe in its early years, as its pioneers set about drafting what was to become the European Convention on Human Rights, a charter of individual rights which – it was hoped – no member government could ever again violate. They drew, in part, on the tenets of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed only a few months earlier in Paris. But crucially, where the Universal Declaration was essentially aspirational, the European Convention from the beginning featured an enforcement mechanism – an international Court – which was to adjudicate on alleged violations of its articles and to hold governments to account, a dramatic leap forward for international justice. Today, this is the European Court of Human Rights, whose rulings are binding on 46 European nations, the most far-reaching system of international justice anywhere in the world. One of the council's first acts was to welcome West Germany into its fold on 2 May 1951, setting a pattern of post-war reconciliation that was to become a hallmark of the council, and beginning a long process of "enlargement" which was to see the organisation grow from its original ten founding member states to the 46 nations that make up the Council of Europe today. Iceland had already joined in 1950, followed in 1956 by Austria, Cyprus in 1961, Switzerland in 1963 and Malta in 1965. === Historic speeches at the Council of Europe === In 2018, an archive of all speeches made to the PACE by heads of state or government since the Council of Europe's creation in 1949 appeared online, the fruit of a two-year project entitled "Voices of Europe". At the time of its launch, the archive comprised 263 speeches delivered over a 70-year period by some 216 presidents, prime ministers, monarchs and religious leaders from 45 countries – though it continues to expand, as new speeches are added every few months. Some very early speeches by individuals considered to be "founding figures" of the European institutions, even if they were not heads of state or government at the time, are also included (such as Sir Winston Churchill or Robert Schuman). Addresses by eight monarchs appear in the list (such as King Juan Carlos I of Spain, King Albert II of Belgium and Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg) as well as the speeches given by religious figures (such as Pope John Paul II, and Pope Francis) and several leaders from countries in the Middle East and North Africa (such as Shimon Peres, Yasser Arafat, Hosni Mubarak, Léopold Sédar Senghor or King Hussein of Jordan). The full text of the speeches is given in both English and French, regardless of the original language used. The archive is searchable by country, by name, and chronologically. == Aims and achievement == Article 1(a) of the Statute states that "The aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress." Membership is open to all European states who seek harmony, cooperation, good governance and human rights, accepting the principle of the rule of law and are able and willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms. Whereas the member states of the European Union transfer part of their national legislative and executive powers to the European Commission and the European Parliament, Council of Europe member states maintain their sovereignty but commit themselves through conventions/treaties (international law) and co-operate on the basis of common values and common political decisions. Those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe. Both organisations function as concentric circles around the common foundations for European cooperation and harmony, with the Council of Europe being the geographically wider circle. The European Union could be seen as the smaller circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level. "The Council of Europe and the European Union: different roles, shared values." Council of Europe conventions/treaties are also open for signature to non-member states, thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe. The Council of Europe's most famous achievement is the European Convention on Human Rights, which was adopted in 1950 following a report by the PACE, and followed on from the United Nations 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights' (UDHR). The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. The Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court. It is to this court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights and freedoms. The various activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website. The Council of Europe works in the following areas: Protection of the rule of law and fostering legal co-operation through some 200 conventions and other treaties, the Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, and the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine. CODEXTER, designed to co-ordinate counter-terrorism measures The European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ) Protection of human rights, notably through: the European Convention on Human Rights the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance the Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings the Convention for the protection of individuals with regard to automatic processing of personal data the Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse social rights under the European Social Charter European Charter of Local Self-Government guaranteeing the political, administrative and financial independence of local authorities. linguistic rights under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages minority rights under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities Media freedom under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Transfrontier Television Protection of democracy through parliamentary scrutiny and election monitoring by its Parliamentary Assembly as well as assistance in democratic reforms, in particular by the Venice Commission. Promotion of cultural cooperation and diversity under the Council of Europe's Cultural Convention of 1954 and several conventions on the protection of cultural heritage as well as through its Centre for Modern Languages in Graz, Austria, and its North-South Centre in Lisbon, Portugal. Promotion of the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights and several conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas (see also Bologna Process and Lisbon Recognition Convention). Promotion of fair sport through the Anti-Doping Convention Promotion of European youth exchanges and cooperation through European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest, Hungary. Promotion of the quality of medicines throughout Europe by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Pharmacopoeia. Support for intercultural integration through the Intercultural Cities (ICC) program. This program offers information and advice for local authorities on the integration of minorities and the prevention of discrimination. == Institutions == The institutions of the Council of Europe are: The Secretary General, who is elected for a term of five years by the PACE and heads the Secretariat of the Council of Europe. Thorbjørn Jagland, the former Prime Minister of Norway, was elected Secretary General of the Council of Europe on 29 September 2009. In June 2014, he became the first Secretary General to be re-elected, commencing his second term in office on 1 October 2014. The Committee of Ministers, comprising the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of all 46 member states who are represented by their Permanent Representatives and Ambassadors accredited to the Council of Europe. Committee of Ministers' presidencies are held in alphabetical order for six months following the English alphabet: Turkey 11/2010-05/2011, Ukraine 05/2011-11/2011, the United Kingdom 11/2011-05/2012, Albania 05/2012-11/2012, Andorra 11/2012-05/2013, Armenia 05/2013-11/2013, Austria 11/2013-05/2014, and so on. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), which comprises national parliamentarians from all member states. Adopting resolutions and recommendations to governments, the Assembly holds a dialogue with its governmental counterpart, the Committee of Ministers, and is often regarded as the "motor" of the organisation. The national parliamentary delegations to the Assembly must reflect the political spectrum of their national parliament, i.e. comprise government and opposition parties. The Assembly appoints members as rapporteurs with the mandate to prepare parliamentary reports on specific subjects. The British MP Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe was rapporteur for the drafting of the European Convention on Human Rights. Dick Marty's reports on secret CIA detentions and rendition flights in Europe became quite famous in 2006 and 2007. Other Assembly reports were instrumental in, for example, the abolition of the death penalty in Europe, highlighting the political and human rights situation in Chechnya, identifying who was responsible for disappeared persons in Belarus, chronicling threats to freedom of expression in the media and many other subjects. The Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, which was created in 1994 and comprises political representatives from local and regional authorities in all member states. The most influential instruments of the Council of Europe in this field are the European Charter of Local Self-Government of 1985 and the European Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation between Territorial Communities or Authorities of 1980. The European Court of Human Rights, created under the European Convention on Human Rights of 1950, is composed of a judge from each member state elected for a single, non-renewable term of nine years by the PACE and is headed by the elected president of the court. The current president of the court is Guido Raimondi from Italy. Under the recent Protocol No. 14 to the European Convention on Human Rights, the Court's case processing was reformed and streamlined. Ratification of Protocol No. 14 was delayed by Russia for a number of years, but won support to be passed in January 2010. The Commissioner for Human Rights is elected by the PACE for a non-renewable term of six years since the creation of this position in 1999. Since April 2024, this position has been held by Michael O'Flaherty from Ireland. The Conference of INGOs. NGOs can participate in the INGOs Conference of the Council of Europe. Since the [Resolution (2003)8] adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 19 November 2003, they are given a "participatory status". The Joint Council on Youth of the Council of Europe. The European Steering Committee (CDEJ) on Youth and the Advisory Council on Youth (CCJ) of the Council of Europe form together the Joint Council on Youth (CMJ). The CDEJ brings together representatives of ministries or bodies responsible for youth matters from the 50 States Parties to the European Cultural Convention. The CDEJ fosters cooperation between governments in the youth sector and provides a framework for comparing national youth policies, exchanging best practices and drafting standard-setting texts. The Advisory Council on Youth comprises 30 representatives of non-governmental youth organisations and networks. It provides opinions and input from youth NGOs on all youth sector activities and ensures that young people are involved in the council's other activities. Information Offices of the Council of Europe in many member states. ===Partial Agreements=== The CoE system also includes a number of semi-autonomous structures known as "Partial Agreements", some of which are also open to non-member states: The Council of Europe Development Bank in Paris The European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines with its European Pharmacopoeia The European Audiovisual Observatory The European Support Fund Eurimages for the co-production and distribution of films. The Enlarged Partial Agreement on Cultural Routes, which awards the certification "Cultural Route of the Council of Europe" to transnational networks promoting European heritage and intercultural dialogue (Luxembourg) The Pompidou Group – Cooperation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Drugs. The European Commission for Democracy through Law, better known as the Venice Commission The Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO) The European and Mediterranean Major Hazards Agreement (EUR-OPA) which is a platform for cooperation between European and Southern Mediterranean countries in the field of major natural and technological disasters. The Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport, which is open to accession by states and sports associations. The North-South Centre of the Council of Europe in Lisbon (Portugal) The Centre for Modern Languages is in Graz (Austria) The Register of Damage for Ukraine, a register for Ukrainians to seek compensation for damages from the Russian invasion of Ukraine. === Summits === Occasionally the Council of Europe organizes summits of the heads of state and government of its member states. Four summits have been held to date with the fourth concluding on 17 May 2023. === Headquarters and buildings === The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg, France. First meetings were held in Strasbourg's University Palace in 1949, but the Council of Europe soon moved into its own buildings. The Council of Europe's eight main buildings are situated in the Quartier européen, an area in the northeast of Strasbourg spread over the three districts of Le Wacken, La Robertsau and Quartier de l'Orangerie, where are also located the four buildings of the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, the Arte headquarters and the seat of the International Institute of Human Rights. Building in the area started in 1949 with the predecessor of the , the House of Europe (demolished in 1977), and came to a provisional end in 2007 with the opening of the New General Office Building, later named "Agora", in 2008. The (Palace of Europe) and the Art Nouveau Villa Schutzenberger (seat of the European Audiovisual Observatory) are in the Orangerie district, and the European Court of Human Rights, the EDQM and the Agora Building are in the Robertsau district. The Agora building has been voted "best international business centre real estate project of 2007" on 13 March 2008, at the MIPIM 2008. The European Youth Centre is located in the Wacken district. Besides its headquarters in Strasbourg, the Council of Europe is also present in other cities and countries. The Council of Europe Development Bank has its seat in Paris, the North-South Centre of the Council of Europe is established in Lisbon, Portugal, and the Centre for Modern Languages is in Graz, Austria. There are European Youth Centres in Budapest, Hungary, and in Strasbourg. The European Wergeland Centre, a new Resource Centre on education for intercultural dialogue, human rights and democratic citizenship, operated in cooperation with the Norwegian Government, opened in Oslo, Norway, in February 2009. The Council of Europe has external offices all over the European continent and beyond. There are four 'Programme Offices', namely in Ankara, Podgorica, Skopje, and Venice. There are also 'Council of Europe Offices' in Baku, Belgrade, Chisinau, Kyiv, Paris, Pristina, Sarajevo, Tbilisi, Tirana, and Yerevan. Bucharest has a Council of Europe Office on Cybercrime. There are also Council of Europe Offices in non-European capital cities like Rabat and Tunis. Additionally, there are 4 "Council of Europe Liaison Offices", this includes: Council of Europe Liaison Office in Brussels: The office is in charge of liaison with the European Union Council of Europe Office in Geneva: Permanent Delegation of the Council of Europe to the United Nations Office and other international organisations in Geneva Council of Europe Office in Vienna: The office is in charge of liaison with the OSCE, United Nations Office, and other international organisations in Vienna Council of Europe Office in Warsaw: The office is in charge of liaison with other international organisations and institutions in Warsaw, in particular, the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR) Since "Europe" is not defined in international law, the definition of "Europe" has been a question that has recurred during the CoE's history. Turkey was admitted in 1950, although it is a transcontinental state that lies mostly in Asia, with a smaller portion in Europe. Greece and Turkey joined three months later. Iceland, West Germany and Saar Protectorate joined the Council of Europe as associate members in 1950. West Germany became a full member in 1951, and the Saar withdrew its application after it joined West Germany following the 1955 Saar Statute referendum. Joining later were Austria (1956), Cyprus (1961), Switzerland (1963), Malta (1965), and Portugal (1976). Next to join were Liechtenstein (1978), San Marino (1988) and Finland (1989). Although most Council members are predominantly Christian in heritage, there are four Muslim-majority member states: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey, Albania, and Azerbaijan. Currently, Canada, the Holy See, Japan, Mexico, and the United States are observer states, while Israel is an observer to the PACE. The Assembly of Kosovo was invited to take part in the work of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and its committees as an observer in 2016. Two representatives of local government in Kosovo participate in the work of the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities as observers. === Withdrawal, suspension, and expulsion === The Statute of the Council of Europe provides for the voluntary suspension, involuntary suspension, and exclusion of members. Article 8 of the Statute provides that any member who has "seriously violated" Article 3 may be suspended from its rights of representation, and that the Committee of Ministers may request that such a member withdraws from the Council under Article 7. (The Statute does not define the "serious violation" phrase. ==== Suspension and exclusion of Russia ==== Russia became a member of the Council of Europe in 1996. In 2014, after Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine and supported separatists in eastern Ukraine, the Council stripped Russia of its voting rights in the PACE. In response, Russia began to boycott the Assembly in 2016, and beginning from 2017 ceased paying its annual membership dues of 32.6 million euros (US$37.1 million) to the Council placing the institution under financial strain. Russia stated that its suspension by the council was unfair, and demanded the restoration of its voting rights. Russia had threatened to withdraw from the Council unless its voting rights were restored in time for the election of a new secretary general. In June 2019, an approximately two-thirds majority of the Council voted (on a 118–62 vote, with 10 abstentions) to restore Russia's voting rights in the council. Opponents of lifting the suspension included Ukraine and other post-Soviet countries, such as the Baltic states, who argued that readmission amounted to normalizing Russia's malign activity. which argued that a Russian withdrawal from the council would be harmful because it would deprive Russian citizens of their ability to initiate cases in the European Court of Human Rights. On 15 March 2022, hours before the vote to expel the country, Russia initiated a voluntary withdrawal procedure from the council. The Russian delegation planned to deliver its formal withdrawal on 31 December 2022, and announced its intent to denounce the ECHR. However, on the same day, the council's Committee of Ministers decided Russia's membership in the council would be terminated immediately, and determined that Russia had been excluded from the Council instead under its exclusion mechanism rather than the withdrawal mechanism. After being excluded from the Council of Europe, Russia's former president and prime minister Dmitry Medvedev endorsed restoring the death penalty in Russia. == Co-operation == ===Conventions: European Treaty Series=== The Council of Europe works mainly through international treaties, usually called conventions in its system. By drafting conventions or international treaties, common legal standards are set for its member states. The conventions are collected in the European Treaty Series. === Non-member states === Several conventions have also been opened for signature to non-member states. Important examples are the Convention on Cybercrime (signed for example, by Canada, Japan, South Africa and the United States), the Lisbon Recognition Convention on the recognition of study periods and degrees (signed for example, by Australia, Belarus, Canada, the Holy See, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, New Zealand and the United States), the Anti-doping Convention (signed, for example, by Australia, Belarus, Canada and Tunisia) and the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (signed for example, by Burkina Faso, Morocco, Tunisia and Senegal as well as the European Community). Non-member states also participate in several partial agreements, such as the Venice Commission, the Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO), the European Pharmacopoeia Commission and the North-South Centre. Invitations to sign and ratify relevant conventions of the Council of Europe on a case-by-case basis are sent to three groups of non-member entities: Non-European states: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mauritius, Morocco, New Zealand, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Senegal, South Africa, South Korea, Syria, Tajikistan, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Uruguay, Venezuela and the observers Canada, Israel, Japan, Mexico, United States. European states: Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Russia and the observer Holy See. The European Community and later the European Union after its legal personality was established by the ratification of the EU's Lisbon Treaty. === European Union === The Council of Europe is not to be confused with the Council of the European Union (the "Council of Ministers") or the European Council, which belong to the European Union, an entirely separate body from the Council of Europe, although they have shared the same European flag and anthem since the 1980s since they both work for European integration. Cooperation between the European Union and the Council of Europe was reinforced in the mid-2000s, notably on culture and education as well as on the international enforcement of justice and Human Rights. The European Union is expected to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights (the convention). There are also concerns about consistency in case law – the European Court of Justice (the EU's court in Luxembourg) is treating the convention as part of the legal system of all EU member states in order to prevent conflict between its judgements and those of the European Court of Human Rights (the court in Strasbourg interpreting the convention). Protocol No. 14 of the convention is designed to allow the EU to accede to it and the EU Treaty of Lisbon contains a protocol binding the EU to join. The EU would thus be subject to its human rights law and external monitoring as its member states currently are. === Schools of Political Studies === The Council of Europe Schools of Political Studies were established to train future generations of political, economic, social and cultural leaders in countries in transition. With the participation of national and international experts, they run annual series of seminars and conferences on topics such as European integration, democracy, human rights, the rule of law and globalisation. The first School of Political Studies was created in Moscow in 1992. By 2020, 20 other schools had been set up along the same lines, forming an association; a network covering the whole of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, as well as some countries in the Southern Mediterranean region. The schools are part of the Education Department, which is part of the Directorate of Democratic Participation within the Directorate General of Democracy ("DGII") of the Council of Europe. === United Nations === Cooperation between the CoE and the UN started with the agreement signed by the Secretariats of these institutions on 15 December 1951. On 17 October 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved a resolution on granting observer status to the Council of Europe which was proposed by several member states of the CoE. Currently, the Council of Europe holds observer status with the United Nations and is regularly represented in the UN General Assembly. It has organised the regional UN conferences against racism and on women. It co-operates with the United Nations at many levels, in particular in the areas of human rights, minorities, migration and counter-terrorism. In November 2016, the UN General Assembly adopted by consensus Resolution (A/Res/71/17) on Cooperation between the United Nations and the Council of Europe whereby it acknowledged the contribution of the Council of Europe to the protection and strengthening of human rights and fundamental freedoms, democracy and the rule of law, welcomed the ongoing co-operation in a variety of fields. === Non-governmental organisations === Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) can participate in the INGOs Conference of the Council of Europe and become observers to inter-governmental committees of experts. The Council of Europe drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations in 1986, which sets the legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs. The rules for consultative status for INGOs appended to the resolution (93)38 "On relation between the Council of Europe and non-governmental organisations", adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 18 October 1993 at the 500th meeting of the Ministers' Deputies. On 19 November 2003, the Committee of Ministers changed the consultative status into a participatory status, "considering that it is indispensable that the rules governing the relations between the Council of Europe and NGOs evolve to reflect the active participation of international non-governmental organisations (INGOs) in the Organisation's policy and work programme". === Others === On 30 May 2018, the Council of Europe signed a memorandum of understanding with the European football confederation UEFA. The Council of Europe also signed an agreement with FIFA in which the two agreed to strengthen future cooperation in areas of common interests. The deal which included cooperation between member states in the sport of football and safety and security at football matches was finalized in October 2018. == Characteristics == === Privileges and immunities === The General Agreement on Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe grants the organisation certain privileges and immunities. The working conditions of staff are governed by the council's staff regulations, which are public. Salaries and emoluments paid by the Council of Europe to its officials are tax-exempt on the basis of Article 18 of the General Agreement on Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe. The wide private and public use of the European Flag is encouraged to symbolise a European dimension. To avoid confusion with the European Union which subsequently adopted the same flag in the 1980s, as well as other European institutions, the Council of Europe often uses a modified version with a lower-case "e" surrounding the stars which are referred to as the "Council of Europe Logo". == Criticism and controversies == Both Human Rights Watch and the European Stability Initiative have called on the Council of Europe to undertake concrete actions to show that it is willing and able to return to its "original mission to protect and ensure human rights", despite launching political and economic activities that could generate redundancies with other international organizations (including the European Union and OCSE). In October 2022, a new and different Pan-European meeting of 44 states was held, as the "inaugural summit of the European Political Community", a new forum largely organized by French President Emmanuel Macron. The Council of Europe, sidelined, reportedly was "perplexed" with this development, with a spokesperson stating "In the field of human rights, democracy and the rule of law, such a pan-European community already exists: it is the Council of Europe." A feature of the new forum is that Russia and Belarus are deliberately excluded, The Human Rights Watch criticised the Council of Europe in 2014 for allowing Azerbaijan to assume the six-month rotating chairmanship of the council's Committee of Ministers, writing that the Azeri government's repression of human rights defenders, dissidents, and journalists "shows sheer contempt for its commitments to the Council of Europe". An internal inquiry was set up in 2017 amid allegations of bribery by Azerbaijan government officials and criticism of "caviar diplomacy" at the Council. A 219-page report was issued in 2018 after a ten-month investigation. In 2021, Volontè was convicted of accepting bribes from Azerbaijani officials to water down critiques of the nation's human rights record, and he was sentenced by a court in Milan to four years in prison.	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against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse", "election monitoring", "Budapest", "University of Zurich", "Hussein of Jordan", "Local government", "Partial Agreement", "Group of States Against Corruption", "Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Spanish transition to democracy", "Council of Europe Archives", "official language", "Associated Press", "caviar diplomacy", "Italian language", "Israel", "Council of the Baltic Sea States", "Palace of Europe", "Netherlands", "Statute of the Council of Europe", "Council of Europe Development Bank", "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation", "Léopold Sédar Senghor", "Africa", "Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project", "Mexico", "Member states of the Venice Commission", "Moneyval", "Russian separatist forces in Donbas", "Greece", "Saar Protectorate", "Paul-Henri Spaak", "Convention for the protection of individuals with regard to automatic processing of personal data", "Eurimages", "North-South Centre", "Americas", "Romania", "Human Rights Watch", "Assembly of Kosovo", "Spain", "UN General Assembly", "Belgium", "collapse of the Soviet Union", "Lisbon Treaty", "European Commission against Racism and Intolerance", "Estonia", "Human rights in Azerbaijan", "Congress of Local and Regional Authorities", "NATO", "Oceania", "Shimon Peres", "International organisations in Europe", "Reykjavík", "Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism", "Ukraine", "Canada", "Portugal", "Law in Europe", "Serbia", "List of Council of Europe treaties", "The Hague", "Juan Carlos I of Spain", "European Commission", "United States", "European Community", "CAHDI", "Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats", "Council of Europe Committee of Ministers", "Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)", "Hungary", "European Cultural Convention", "Advisory Council on Youth", "1955 Saar Statute referendum", "Slovenia", "Albert II of Belgium", "transcontinental state", "OSCE", "Secretary General of the Council of Europe", "UEFA", "European Union", "Regional organization", "Turkey", "European Youth Centres", "Czech Republic", "The Moscow Times", "European integration", "Slovakia", "United Kingdom", "Luca Volontè", "Graz", "Latvia", "democracy", "European Convention on Transfrontier Television", "North Macedonia", "Winston Churchill", "Monaco", "European Court of Justice", "Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg", "United Nations General Assembly", "Council of the European Union", "European Court of Human Rights", "Flag of Europe", "Ode to Joy", "Liechtenstein", "Milan", "Andorra", "Dick Marty", "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", "Azerbaijan", "euro", "French Guiana", "Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe", "Croatia", "World Anti-Doping Agency", "European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines", "Common European Framework of Reference for Languages", "Albania", "Lithuania", "Pope Francis", "Venice Commission", "Greek junta", "North–South Centre", "Mayotte", "Réunion", "Italy", "Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe", "foreign minister", "Montenegro", "Denunciation (international law)", "Xavier Bettel", "Non-governmental organisations", "Alain Berset", "Malta", "Conference of Specialised Ministers", "San Marino", "fall of the Berlin Wall", "International Institute of Human Rights", "European Parliament", "United Nations", "Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings", "Theodoros Roussopoulos", "Film Award of the Council of Europe", "Switzerland", "legal personality", "Ministers Deputies", "Belarus", "European Communities", "English language", "European Charter of Local Self-Government", "Council of Europe Office (Armenia)", "Iceland", "Bjørn Berge (politician)", "French Polynesia", "European Committee for the Prevention of Torture", "United Nations General Assembly observers", "Minister for Foreign Affairs (Germany)", "Francisco Franco", "International nongovernmental organizations", "German language", "The Economist", "Pompidou Group", "Russia", "Emmanuel Macron", "List of linguistic rights in European constitutions", "European Political Community", "West Germany", "seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg", "CODEXTER", "Michael O'Flaherty", "Treaty of Lisbon", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Aristide Briand", "Treaty of London (1949)", "European Convention on Human Rights", "European Social Charter", "Member state of the European Union", "OCSE", "Pedro Agramunt", "Convention on Cybercrime", "Capital punishment in Russia", "Cultural Route of the Council of Europe", "Oslo", "Georgia (country)", "Lisbon", "Freedom of the press", "Revolutions of 1989", "Armenia", "Republic of Ireland", "Dmitry Medvedev", "Open Europe", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "Marc Cools", "Arte", "Congress of Europe", "Yasser Arafat", "Finland", "UN", "University of Strasbourg", "international organisation", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Bologna Process", "Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence", "Association football", "Commissioner for Human Rights", "Chechnya", "CIA", "European Council", "Austria", "Sweden", "European Movement International", "Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine", "Register of Damage for Ukraine", "Cyprus", "Strasbourg", "Lisbon Recognition Convention", "Paris", "EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement", "Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities", "Anthem of Europe", "Robert Schuman", "Thorbjørn Jagland", "The European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ)", "The Europe Prize", "Japan", "Ceuta", "Luxembourg", "international law", "consultative status", "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe", "Eastern Bloc", "Vienna", "European Audiovisual Observatory" ]
5,866	Council of the European Union	The Council of the European Union, often referred to in the treaties and other official documents simply as the Council, and informally known as the Council of Ministers, is the third of the seven Institutions of the European Union (EU) as listed in the Treaty on European Union. It is one of two legislative bodies and together with the European Parliament serves to amend and approve, or veto, the proposals of the European Commission, which holds the right of initiative. The Council of the European Union and the European Council are the only EU institutions that are explicitly intergovernmental, that is, forums whose attendees express and represent the position of their Member State's executive, be they ambassadors, ministers or heads of state/government. The Council meets in 10 different configurations of national ministers (one per state). The precise membership of these configurations varies according to the topic under consideration; for example, when discussing agricultural policy the Council is formed by the national ministers whose portfolio includes this policy area (with the related European Commissioners contributing but not voting). == Composition == The Presidency of the Council rotates every six months among the governments of EU member states, with the relevant ministers of the respective country holding the Presidency at any given time ensuring the smooth running of the meetings and setting the daily agenda. Its decisions are made by qualified majority voting in most areas, unanimity in others, or just simple majority for procedural issues. Usually where it operates unanimously, it only needs to consult the Parliament. However, in most areas the ordinary legislative procedure applies meaning both Council and Parliament share legislative and budgetary powers equally, meaning both have to agree for a proposal to pass. In a few limited areas the Council may initiate new EU law itself. The General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union, also known as Council Secretariat, assists the Council of the European Union, the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, the European Council and the President of the European Council. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General of the Council of the European Union. The Secretariat is divided into eleven directorates-general, each administered by a director-general. == History == The Council first appeared in the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) as the "Special Council of Ministers", set up to counterbalance the High Authority (the supranational executive, now the Commission). The original Council had limited powers: issues relating only to coal and steel were in the Authority's domain, and the Council's consent was only required on decisions outside coal and steel. As a whole, the Council only scrutinised the High Authority (the executive). In 1957, the Treaties of Rome established two new communities, and with them two new Councils: the Council of the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) and the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). However, due to objections over the supranational power of the Authority, their Councils had more powers; the new executive bodies were known as "Commissions". In 1965, the Council was hit by the "empty chair crisis". Due to disagreements between French President Charles de Gaulle and the Commission's agriculture proposals, among other things, France boycotted all meetings of the Council. This halted the Council's work until the impasse was resolved the following year by the Luxembourg compromise. Although initiated by a gamble of the President of the Commission, Walter Hallstein, who later on lost the Presidency, the crisis exposed flaws in the Council's workings. Under the Merger Treaty of 1967, the ECSC's Special Council of Ministers and the Council of the EAEC (together with their other independent institutions) were merged into the Council of the European Communities, which would act as a single Council for all three institutions. In 1993, the Council adopted the name 'Council of the European Union', following the establishment of the European Union by the Maastricht Treaty. That treaty strengthened the Council, with the addition of more intergovernmental elements in the three pillars system. However, at the same time the Parliament and Commission had been strengthened inside the Community pillar, curtailing the ability of the Council to act independently. == Powers and functions == The primary purpose of the Council is to act as one of two vetoing bodies of the EU's legislative branch, the other being the European Parliament. Together they serve to amend, approve or disapprove the proposals of the European Commission, which has the sole power to propose laws. It is considered by some to be equivalent to an upper house of the EU legislature, although it is not described as such in the treaties. The Council represents the executive governments of the EU's member states The Council also has an important role in the formation of the European Commission. The Council sitting in the General Affairs Council configuration, in agreement with the President-elect of the Commissission, adopts a list of candidates for the Commission proposed by the member states. === Legislative procedure === The EU's legislative authority is divided between the Council, the Parliament and the Commission. As the relationships and powers of these institutions have developed, various legislative procedures have been created for adopting laws. but now the vast majority of laws are subject to the ordinary legislative procedure, which works on the principle that consent from both the Council and Parliament are required before a law may be adopted. Under this procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council. Following its first reading the Parliament may propose amendments. If the Council accepts these amendments then the legislation is approved. If it does not then it adopts a "common position" and submits that new version to the Parliament. At its second reading, if the Parliament approves the text or does not act, the text is adopted, otherwise the Parliament may propose further amendments to the Council's proposal. It may be rejected out right by an absolute majority of MEPs. If the Council still does not approve the Parliament's position, then the text is taken to a "Conciliation Committee" composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs. If a Committee manages to adopt a joint text, it then has to be approved in a third reading by both the Council and Parliament or the proposal is abandoned. The few other areas that operate the special legislative procedures are justice & home affairs, budget and taxation and certain aspects of other policy areas: such as the fiscal aspects of environmental policy. In these areas, the Council or Parliament decide law alone. The procedure used also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used. The strongest act is a regulation, an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety. Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve, but they do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them. A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person or group and is directly applicable. Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding declarations. The Council votes in one of three ways; unanimity, simple majority, or qualified majority. In most cases, the Council votes on issues by qualified majority voting, meaning that there must be a minimum of 55% of member states agreeing (at least 15) who together represent at least 65% of the EU population. A 'blocking minority' can only be formed by at least 4 member states, even if the objecting states constitute more than 35% of the population. ===Resolutions=== Council resolutions have no legal effect. Usually the Council's intention is to set out future work foreseen in a specific policy area or to invite action by the Commission. If a resolution covers a policy area which is not entirely within an area of EU competency, the resolution will be issued as a "resolution of the Council and the representatives of the governments of the member states". Examples are the Council Resolution of 26 September 1989 on the development of subcontracting in the Community and the Council Resolution of 26 November 2001 on consumer credit and indebtedness. === Foreign affairs === The legal instruments used by the Council for the Common Foreign and Security Policy are different from the legislative acts. Under the CFSP they consist of "common positions", "joint actions", and "common strategies". Common positions relate to defining a European foreign policy towards a particular third-country such as the promotion of human rights and democracy in Myanmar, a region such as the stabilisation efforts in the African Great Lakes, or a certain issue such as support for the International Criminal Court. A common position, once agreed, is binding on all EU states who must follow and defend the policy, which is regularly revised. A joint action refers to a co-ordinated action of the states to deploy resources to achieve an objective, for example for mine clearing or to combat the spread of small arms. Common strategies defined an objective and commits the EUs resources to that task for four years. The Council must practice unanimity when voting on foreign affairs issues because Common Foreign and Security Policy is a "sensitive" issue (according to EUR-Lex). An exception to this rule exists via Article 31 of the Treaty on European Union, which stipulates circumstances in which qualified majority voting is permissible for the Council in discussing Common Foreign and Security Policy. Article 31 lays out provisions regarding a passerelle clause as well as the possibilities for Member State abstentions. Additionally, Article 31 stipulates derogation for "a decision defining a Union action or position". In this recent example, the Council came to a unified conclusion after discussions with the Hungarian leader; is subject to a form of the ordinary legislative procedure with a single reading giving Parliament power over the entire budget (prior to 2009, its influence was limited to certain areas) on an equal footing with the Council. If there is a disagreement between them, it is taken to a conciliation committee as it is for legislative proposals. But if the joint conciliation text is not approved, the Parliament may adopt the budget definitively. In addition to the budget, the Council coordinates the economic policy of members. === Presidency === The Presidency of the Council is not a single post, but is held by a member state's government. Every six months the presidency rotates among the states, in an order predefined by the Council's members, allowing each state to preside over the body. From 2007, every three member states co-operate for their combined eighteen months on a common agenda, although only one formally holds the presidency for the normal six-month period. For example, the President for the second half of 2007, Portugal, was the second in a trio of states alongside Germany and Slovenia with whom Portugal had been co-operating. The Council meets in various configurations (as outlined below) so its membership changes depending upon the issue. The person chairing the Council will always be the member from the state holding the Presidency. A delegate from the following Presidency also assists the presiding member and may take over work if requested. The exception however is the foreign affairs council, which has been chaired by the High Representative since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty. === Configurations === Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity (this means that technically any Council configuration can adopt decisions that fall within the remit of any other Council configuration) but it is in practice divided into several different council configurations (or '(con)formations'). Article 16(6) of the Treaty on European Union provides: Each council configuration deals with a different functional area, for example agriculture and fisheries. In this formation, the council is composed of ministers from each state government who are responsible for this area: the agriculture and fisheries ministers. The chair of this council is held by the member from the state holding the presidency (see section above). Similarly, the Economic and Financial Affairs Council is composed of national finance ministers, and they are still one per state and the chair is held by the member coming from the presiding country. The Councils meet irregularly throughout the year except for the three major configurations (top three below) which meet once a month. , there are ten formations: General Affairs (GAC): General affairs co-ordinates the work of the Council, prepares for European Council meetings and deals with issues crossing various council formations. Foreign Affairs (FAC): Chaired by the High Representative, rather than the Presidency, it manages the CFSP, CSDP, trade and development co-operation. It sometimes meets in a defence configuration. Economic and Financial Affairs (Ecofin): Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states. It includes budgetary and eurozone matters via an informal group composed only of eurozone member ministers. Agriculture and Fisheries (Agrifish): Composed of the agriculture and fisheries ministers of the member states. It considers matters concerning the Common Agricultural Policy, the Common Fisheries Policy, forestry, organic farming, food and feed safety, seeds, pesticides, and fisheries. Justice and Home Affairs (JHA): This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States. Includes civil protection. Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs (EPSCO): Composed of employment, social protection, consumer protection, health and equal opportunities ministers. Competitiveness (COMPET): Created in June 2002 through the merging of three previous configurations (Internal Market, Industry and Research). Depending on the items on the agenda, this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as European affairs, industry, tourism and scientific research. With the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, the EU acquired competence in space matters, and space policy has been attributed to the Competitiveness Council. Transport, Telecommunications and Energy (TTE): Created in June 2002, through the merging of three policies under one configuration, and with a composition varying according to the specific items on its agenda. This formation meets approximately once every two months. Environment (ENVI): Composed of environment ministers, who meet about four times a year. Education, Youth, Culture and Sport (EYCS): Composed of education, culture, youth, communications and sport ministers, who meet around three or four times a year. Includes audiovisual issues. Complementing these, the Political and Security Committee (PSC) brings together ambassadors to monitor international situations and define policies within the CSDP, particularly in crises. since 2019, Charles Michel. The body's purpose is to define the general "impetus" of the Union. The European Council deals with the major issues such as the appointment of the President of the European Commission who takes part in the body's meetings. Ecofin's Eurozone component, the Euro group, is also a formal group with its own President. and the TSCG. Following the entry into force of a framework agreement between the EU and ESA there is a Space Council configuration—a joint and concomitant meeting of the EU Council and of the ESA Council at ministerial level dealing with the implementation of the ESP adopted by both organisations. === Administration === The General Secretariat of the Council provides the continuous infrastructure of the Council, carrying out preparation for meetings, draft reports, translation, records, documents, agendas and assisting the presidency. The Secretary General of the Council is head of the Secretariat. The Secretariat is divided into eleven directorates-general, each administered by a director-general. The Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) is a body composed of representatives from the states (ambassadors, civil servants etc.) who meet each week to prepare the work and tasks of the Council. It monitors and co-ordinates work and deals with the Parliament on co-decision legislation. It is divided into two groups of the representatives (Coreper II) and their deputies (Coreper I). Agriculture is dealt with separately by the Special Committee on Agriculture (SCA). The numerous working parties submit their reports to the Council through Coreper or SCA. Between 1952 and 1967, the ECSC Council held its Luxembourg City meetings in the Cercle Municipal on Place d'Armes. Its secretariat moved on numerous occasions but between 1955 and 1967 it was housed in the Verlorenkost district of the city. In 1957, with the creation of two new Communities with their own Councils, discretion on location was given to the current Presidency. In practice this was to be in the Château of Val-Duchesse until the autumn of 1958, at which point it moved to 2 Rue Ravensteinstraat in Brussels. The 1965 agreement (finalised by the Edinburgh agreement and annexed to the treaties) on the location of the newly merged institutions, the Council was to be in Brussels but would meet in Luxembourg City during April, June, and October. The ECSC secretariat moved from Luxembourg City to the merged body Council secretariat in the Ravenstein building of Brussels. In 1971 the Council and its secretariat moved into the Charlemagne building, next to the Commission's Berlaymont, but the Council rapidly ran out of space and administrative branch of the Secretariat moved to a building at 76 Rue Joseph II/Jozef II-straat and during the 1980s the language divisions moved out into the Nerviens, Frère Orban, and Guimard buildings.	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5,867	Continental Europe	Continental Europe or mainland Europe is the contiguous mainland of Europe, excluding its surrounding islands. It can also be referred to ambiguously as the European continent, – which can conversely mean the whole of Europe – and, by some, simply as the Continent. When Eurasia is regarded as a single continent, Europe is treated both as a continent and subcontinent. ==Usage== The continental territory of the historical Carolingian Empire was one of the many old cultural concepts used for mainland Europe. This was consciously invoked in the 1950s as one of the basis for the prospective European integration (see also multi-speed Europe) The most common definition of mainland Europe excludes these continental islands: the Greek islands, Cyprus, Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Great Britain and Ireland and surrounding islands, Novaya Zemlya and the Nordic archipelago, as well as nearby oceanic islands, including the Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Svalbard. The Scandinavian Peninsula is sometimes also excluded even though it is a part of "mainland Europe", as the de facto connections to the rest of the continent were historically across the Baltic Sea or North Sea (rather than via the lengthy land route that involves travelling to the north of the peninsula where it meets Finland, and then south through northeast Europe). It has also been claimed that this was a regular weather forecast in Britain in the 1930s. In addition, the word Europe itself is also regularly used to mean Europe excluding the islands of Great Britain, Iceland, and Ireland (although the term is often used to refer to the European Union). The term mainland Europe is also sometimes used. Usage of these terms may reflect political or cultural allegiances, for example it has been observed that there is a correlation between whether a British citizen considers themselves "British" or "European" and whether they live in an area which primarily supported Brexit. Derivatively, the adjective continental refers to the social practices or fashion of continental Europe. Examples include breakfast, topless sunbathing and, historically, long-range driving (before Britain had motorways) often known as Grand Touring. Differences include electrical plugs, time zones for the most part, the use of left-hand traffic, and for the United Kingdom, currency and the continued use of certain imperial units alongside the metric units which have long since displaced customary units in continental Europe. Britain is physically connected to continental Europe through the undersea Channel Tunnel (the longest undersea tunnel in the world), which accommodates both the Eurotunnel Shuttle (passenger and vehicle use – vehicle required) and Eurostar (passenger use only) services. These services were established to transport passengers and vehicles through the tunnel on a 24/7 basis between England and continental Europe, while still maintaining passport and immigration control measures on both sides of the tunnel. This route is popular with refugees and migrants seeking to enter the UK. ===Scandinavia=== Especially in Germanic studies, continental refers to the European continent excluding the Scandinavian Peninsula, Britain, Ireland, and Iceland. The reason for this is that although the Scandinavian peninsula is attached to continental Europe, and accessible via a land route along the 66th parallel north, it is usually reached by sea. ("the Continent") is a vernacular Swedish expression that refers to an area excluding Sweden, Norway, and Finland but including Denmark (even the Danish Archipelago which is technically not a part of continental Europe) and the rest of continental Europe. In Norway, similarly, one speaks about as a separate entity. In Denmark, Jutland is referred to as the mainland and thereby a part of continental Europe. The Scandinavian Peninsula is now connected to the Danish mainland (the Jutland Peninsula) by several bridges and tunnels. ==Mediterranean and Atlantic islands== The Continent may sometimes refer to the continental part of France (excluding Corsica and overseas France), the continental part of Greece (excluding the Aegean Islands, Crete, and the Ionian Islands), the continental part of Italy (excluding Sardinia, Sicily, etc.), the continental part of Portugal (excluding the Azores and Madeira), and the continental part of Spain (excluding the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, the plazas de soberanía, etc.). The term is used from the perspective of the island residents of each country to describe the continental portion of their country or the continent (or mainland) as a whole. The part of continental France located in Europe is also known as l'Hexagone, "the Hexagon", referring to its approximate shape on a map. Continental Italy is also known as lo Stivale, "the Boot", referring to its approximate shape on a map. Continental Spain is referred to as peninsular Spain.	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5,869	Category theory	Category theory is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations. It was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the middle of the 20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology. Category theory is used in almost all areas of mathematics. In particular, many constructions of new mathematical objects from previous ones that appear similarly in several contexts are conveniently expressed and unified in terms of categories. Examples include quotient spaces, direct products, completion, and duality. Many areas of computer science also rely on category theory, such as functional programming and semantics. A category is formed by two sorts of objects: the objects of the category, and the morphisms, which relate two objects called the source and the target of the morphism. Metaphorically, a morphism is an arrow that maps its source to its target. Morphisms can be composed if the target of the first morphism equals the source of the second one. Morphism composition has similar properties as function composition (associativity and existence of an identity morphism for each object). Morphisms are often some sort of functions, but this is not always the case. For example, a monoid may be viewed as a category with a single object, whose morphisms are the elements of the monoid. The second fundamental concept of category theory is the concept of a functor, which plays the role of a morphism between two categories \mathcal{C}_1 and \mathcal{C}_2: it maps objects of \mathcal{C}_1 to objects of \mathcal{C}_2 and morphisms of \mathcal{C}_1 to morphisms of \mathcal{C}_2 in such a way that sources are mapped to sources, and targets are mapped to targets (or, in the case of a contravariant functor, sources are mapped to targets and vice-versa). A third fundamental concept is a natural transformation that may be viewed as a morphism of functors. == Categories, objects, and morphisms == === Categories === A category \mathcal{C} consists of the following three mathematical entities: A class \text{ob}(\mathcal{C}), whose elements are called objects; A class \text{hom}(\mathcal{C}), whose elements are called morphisms or maps or arrows. Each morphism f has a source object a and target object b.The expression f:a \rightarrow b would be verbally stated as "f is a morphism from to ".The expression \text{hom}(a, b) – alternatively expressed as \text{hom}_\mathcal{C}(a, b), \text{mor}(a, b), or \mathcal{C}(a, b) – denotes the hom-class of all morphisms from a to b. A binary operation \circ, called composition of morphisms, such that for any three objects ', ', and , we have\circ : \text{hom}(b, c) \times \text{hom}(a, b) \mapsto \text{hom}(a, c)The composition of f : a \rightarrow b and g: b \rightarrow c is written as g \circ f or gf, governed by two axioms: Associativity: If f: a \rightarrow b, g: b \rightarrow c, and h: c \rightarrow d then h \circ (g \circ f) = (h \circ g) \circ f Identity: For every object , there exists a morphism 1_x : x \rightarrow x (also denoted as \text{id}_x) called the identity morphism for , such that for every morphism f: a \rightarrow b, we have1_b \circ f = f = f \circ 1_aFrom the axioms, it can be proved that there is exactly one identity morphism for every object. ====Examples==== The category Set As the class of objects \text{ob} (\text{Set}), we choose the class of all sets. As the class of morphisms \text{hom} (\text{Set}), we choose the class of all functions. Therefore, for two objects and , i.e. sets, we have \text{hom} (A,B) to be the class of all functions such that . The composition of morphisms is simply the usual function composition, i.e. for two morphisms and , we have , (g \circ f)(x) = g(f(x)), which is obviously associative. Furthermore, for every object we have the identity morphism \text{id}_A to be the identity map \text{id}_A : A \rightarrow A, \text{id}_A (x) = x on === Morphisms === Relations among morphisms (such as ) are often depicted using commutative diagrams, with "points" (corners) representing objects and "arrows" representing morphisms. Morphisms can have any of the following properties. A morphism is: a monomorphism (or monic) if implies for all morphisms . an epimorphism (or epic) if implies for all morphisms . a bimorphism if f is both epic and monic. an isomorphism if there exists a morphism such that . an endomorphism if . end(a) denotes the class of endomorphisms of a. an automorphism if f is both an endomorphism and an isomorphism. aut(a) denotes the class of automorphisms of a. a retraction if a right inverse of f exists, i.e. if there exists a morphism with . a section if a left inverse of f exists, i.e. if there exists a morphism with . Every retraction is an epimorphism, and every section is a monomorphism. Furthermore, the following three statements are equivalent: f is a monomorphism and a retraction; f is an epimorphism and a section; f is an isomorphism. == Functors == Functors are structure-preserving maps between categories. They can be thought of as morphisms in the category of all (small) categories. A (covariant) functor F from a category C to a category D, written , consists of: for each object x in C, an object F(x) in D; and for each morphism in C, a morphism in D, such that the following two properties hold: For every object x in C, ; For all morphisms and , . A contravariant functor is like a covariant functor, except that it "turns morphisms around" ("reverses all the arrows"). More specifically, every morphism in C must be assigned to a morphism in D. In other words, a contravariant functor acts as a covariant functor from the opposite category Cop to D. == Natural transformations == A natural transformation is a relation between two functors. Functors often describe "natural constructions" and natural transformations then describe "natural homomorphisms" between two such constructions. Sometimes two quite different constructions yield "the same" result; this is expressed by a natural isomorphism between the two functors. If F and G are (covariant) functors between the categories C and D, then a natural transformation η from F to G associates to every object X in C a morphism in D such that for every morphism in C, we have ; this means that the following diagram is commutative: The two functors F and G are called naturally isomorphic if there exists a natural transformation from F to G such that ηX is an isomorphism for every object X in C. == Other concepts == === Universal constructions, limits, and colimits === Using the language of category theory, many areas of mathematical study can be categorized. Categories include sets, groups and topologies. Each category is distinguished by properties that all its objects have in common, such as the empty set or the product of two topologies, yet in the definition of a category, objects are considered atomic, i.e., we do not know whether an object A is a set, a topology, or any other abstract concept. Hence, the challenge is to define special objects without referring to the internal structure of those objects. To define the empty set without referring to elements, or the product topology without referring to open sets, one can characterize these objects in terms of their relations to other objects, as given by the morphisms of the respective categories. Thus, the task is to find universal properties that uniquely determine the objects of interest. Numerous important constructions can be described in a purely categorical way if the category limit can be developed and dualized to yield the notion of a colimit. === Equivalent categories === It is a natural question to ask: under which conditions can two categories be considered essentially the same, in the sense that theorems about one category can readily be transformed into theorems about the other category? The major tool one employs to describe such a situation is called equivalence of categories, which is given by appropriate functors between two categories. Categorical equivalence has found numerous applications in mathematics. === Further concepts and results === The definitions of categories and functors provide only the very basics of categorical algebra; additional important topics are listed below. Although there are strong interrelations between all of these topics, the given order can be considered as a guideline for further reading. The functor category DC has as objects the functors from C to D and as morphisms the natural transformations of such functors. The Yoneda lemma is one of the most famous basic results of category theory; it describes representable functors in functor categories. Duality: Every statement, theorem, or definition in category theory has a dual which is essentially obtained by "reversing all the arrows". If one statement is true in a category C then its dual is true in the dual category Cop. This duality, which is transparent at the level of category theory, is often obscured in applications and can lead to surprising relationships. Adjoint functors: A functor can be left (or right) adjoint to another functor that maps in the opposite direction. Such a pair of adjoint functors typically arises from a construction defined by a universal property; this can be seen as a more abstract and powerful view on universal properties. === Higher-dimensional categories === Many of the above concepts, especially equivalence of categories, adjoint functor pairs, and functor categories, can be situated into the context of higher-dimensional categories. Briefly, if we consider a morphism between two objects as a "process taking us from one object to another", then higher-dimensional categories allow us to profitably generalize this by considering "higher-dimensional processes". For example, a (strict) 2-category is a category together with "morphisms between morphisms", i.e., processes which allow us to transform one morphism into another. We can then "compose" these "bimorphisms" both horizontally and vertically, and we require a 2-dimensional "exchange law" to hold, relating the two composition laws. In this context, the standard example is Cat, the 2-category of all (small) categories, and in this example, bimorphisms of morphisms are simply natural transformations of morphisms in the usual sense. Another basic example is to consider a 2-category with a single object; these are essentially monoidal categories. Bicategories are a weaker notion of 2-dimensional categories in which the composition of morphisms is not strictly associative, but only associative "up to" an isomorphism. This process can be extended for all natural numbers n, and these are called n-categories. There is even a notion of ω-category corresponding to the ordinal number ω. Higher-dimensional categories are part of the broader mathematical field of higher-dimensional algebra, a concept introduced by Ronald Brown. For a conversational introduction to these ideas, see John Baez, 'A Tale of n-categories' (1996). == Historical notes == Whilst specific examples of functors and natural transformations had been given by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in a 1942 paper on group theory, these concepts were introduced in a more general sense, together with the additional notion of categories, in a 1945 paper by the same authors Their work was an important part of the transition from intuitive and geometric homology to homological algebra, Eilenberg and Mac Lane later writing that their goal was to understand natural transformations, which first required the definition of functors, then categories. Stanislaw Ulam, and some writing on his behalf, have claimed that related ideas were current in the late 1930s in Poland. Eilenberg was Polish, and studied mathematics in Poland in the 1930s. Category theory is also, in some sense, a continuation of the work of Emmy Noether (one of Mac Lane's teachers) in formalizing abstract processes; Noether realized that understanding a type of mathematical structure requires understanding the processes that preserve that structure (homomorphisms). Eilenberg and Mac Lane introduced categories for understanding and formalizing the processes (functors) that relate topological structures to algebraic structures (topological invariants) that characterize them. Category theory was originally introduced for the need of homological algebra, and widely extended for the need of modern algebraic geometry (scheme theory). Category theory may be viewed as an extension of universal algebra, as the latter studies algebraic structures, and the former applies to any kind of mathematical structure and studies also the relationships between structures of different nature. For this reason, it is used throughout mathematics. Applications to mathematical logic and semantics (categorical abstract machine) came later. Certain categories called topoi (singular topos) can even serve as an alternative to axiomatic set theory as a foundation of mathematics. A topos can also be considered as a specific type of category with two additional topos axioms. These foundational applications of category theory have been worked out in fair detail as a basis for, and justification of, constructive mathematics. Topos theory is a form of abstract sheaf theory, with geometric origins, and leads to ideas such as pointless topology. Categorical logic is now a well-defined field based on type theory for intuitionistic logics, with applications in functional programming and domain theory, where a cartesian closed category is taken as a non-syntactic description of a lambda calculus. At the very least, category theoretic language clarifies what exactly these related areas have in common (in some abstract sense). Category theory has been applied in other fields as well, see applied category theory. For example, John Baez has shown a link between Feynman diagrams in physics and monoidal categories. Another application of category theory, more specifically topos theory, has been made in mathematical music theory, see for example the book The Topos of Music, Geometric Logic of Concepts, Theory, and Performance by Guerino Mazzola. More recent efforts to introduce undergraduates to categories as a foundation for mathematics include those of William Lawvere and Rosebrugh (2003) and Lawvere and Stephen Schanuel (1997) and Mirroslav Yotov (2012).	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5,870	Comic	Redirect Comics	[ "Comics" ]
5,872	Bradycardia	Bradycardia, also called bradyarrhythmia, is a resting heart rate under 60 beats per minute (BPM). While bradycardia can result from various pathological processes, it is commonly a physiological response to cardiovascular conditioning or due to asymptomatic type 1 atrioventricular block. In large population studies of adults without underlying heart disease, resting heart rates of 45–50 BPM appear to be the lower limits of normal, dependent on age and sex. Bradycardia is most likely to be discovered in the elderly, as age and underlying cardiac disease progression contribute to its development. Bradycardia may be associated with symptoms of fatigue, dyspnea, dizziness, confusion, and syncope due to reduced blood flow to the brain. The types of symptoms often depend on the etiology of the slow heart rate, classified by the anatomical location of a dysfunction within the cardiac conduction system. Chronotropic incompetence (CI) refers to an inadequate rise in heart rate during periods of increased demand, often due to exercise, and is an important sign of SND and an indication for pacemaker implantation. == Normal cardiac conduction == The heart is a specialized muscle containing repeating units of cardiomyocytes, or heart muscle cells. Like most cells, cardiomyocytes maintain a highly regulated negative voltage at rest and are capable of propagating action potentials, much like neurons. While at rest, the negative cellular voltage of a cardiomyocyte can be raised above a certain threshold (so-called depolarization) by an incoming action potential, causing the myocyte to contract. When these contractions occur in a coordinated fashion, the atria and ventricles of the heart will pump, delivering blood to the rest of the body. The SA node contains pacemaker cells that demonstrate "automaticity" and can generate impulses that travel through the heart and create a steady heartbeat. allowing for appropriate filling of the ventricles before contraction. The SA and AV nodes are both closely regulated by the autonomic nervous system's fibres, allowing for adjustment of cardiac output by the central nervous system in times of increased metabolic demand. Following slowed conduction through the atrioventricular node, the action potential produced initially at the SA node now flows through the His-Purkinje system. The bundle of His originates in the AV node and rapidly splits into a left and right branch, each destined for a different ventricle. Finally, these bundle branches terminate in the small Purkinje fibers that innervate myocardial tissue. The His-Purkinje system conducts action potentials much faster than can be propagated between myocardial cells, allowing the entire ventricular myocardium to contract in less time, improving pump function. The heart muscle of athletes has a higher stroke volume, requiring fewer contractions to circulate the same volume of blood. Asymptomatic sinus bradycardia decreases in prevalence with age. ==== Sinus arrhythmia ==== Sinus arrhythmias are heart rhythm abnormalities characterized by variations in the cardiac cycle length over 120 milliseconds (longest cycle - shortest cycle). The condition can also be caused by dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system that regulates the node and is commonly exacerbated by medications. 2nd degree AV block is characterized by intermittently lost conduction of impulses between the SA node and the ventricles. 2nd degree block is classified into two types. Mobitz type 1 block, otherwise known by the eponym Wenckebach, classically demonstrates grouped patterns of heartbeats on ECG. Throughout the group, the PR interval gradually lengthens until a dropped conduction occurs, resulting in no QRS complex seen on surface ECG following the last P wave. After a delay, the grouping repeats, with the PR interval shortening again to baseline. Type 1 2nd degree AV block due to disease in the AV node (as opposed to in the His-purkinje system) rarely needs intervention with pacemaker implantation. ==== Junctional rhythms ==== An AV-junctional rhythm, or atrioventricular nodal bradycardia, is usually caused by the absence of the electrical impulse from the sinus node. This usually appears on an electrocardiogram with a normal QRS complex accompanied by an inverted P wave either before, during, or after the QRS complex. This is a protective mechanism for the heart to compensate for an SA node that is no longer handling the pacemaking activity and is one of a series of backup sites that can take over pacemaker function when the SA node fails to do so. This would present with a longer PR interval. An AV-junctional escape complex is a normal response that may result from excessive vagal tone on the SA node. Pathological causes include sinus bradycardia, sinus arrest, sinus exit block, or AV block. AV block may be ruled out with an ECG indicating "a 1:1 relationship between P waves and QRS complexes." ==Causes== Bradycardia arrhythmia may have many causes, both cardiac and non-cardiac. Non-cardiac causes are usually secondary and can involve recreational drug use or abuse, metabolic or endocrine issues, especially hypothyroidism, an electrolyte imbalance, neurological factors, autonomic reflexes, situational factors, such as prolonged bed rest, and autoimmunity. At rest, although tachycardia is more commonly seen in fatty acid oxidation disorders, acute bradycardia can occur more rarely. Cardiac causes include acute or chronic ischemic heart disease, vascular heart disease, valvular heart disease, or degenerative primary electrical disease. Ultimately, the causes act by three mechanisms: depressed automaticity of the heart, conduction block, or escape pacemakers and rhythms. In general, two types of problems result in bradycardias: disorders of the SA node and disorders of the AV node. With SA node dysfunction (sometimes called sick sinus syndrome), there may be disordered automaticity or impaired conduction of the impulse from the SA node into the surrounding atrial tissue (an "exit block"). Second-degree sinoatrial blocks can be detected only by use of a 12-lead ECG. It is difficult and sometimes impossible to assign a mechanism to any particular bradycardia, but the underlying mechanism is not clinically relevant to treatment, which is the same in both cases of sick sinus syndrome: a permanent pacemaker. Beta blockers may slow the heart rate to a dangerous level if prescribed with calcium channel blockers. Chronic cocaine use has been associated with bradycardia. Desensitization of β-adrenergic receptors has been suggested as a possible cause of this. COVID-19 has been found to be a cause of bradycardia. ==Diagnosis== A diagnosis of bradycardia in adults is based on a heart rate of less than 60 BPM, Treatment of chronic symptomatic bradycardia first necessitates correlation of symptoms. Other positive chronotropes have also been used to treat bradycardia, including the vasodilator and antihypertensive agent hydralazine, the alpha-1 blocker prazosin, anticholinergics, and sympathomimetic agents like beta-1 agonists. ===Acute or unstable=== If a person is unstable, the initial recommended treatment is intravenous atropine. ==Epidemiology== In clinical practice, elderly people over age 65 and young athletes of both sexes may have sinus bradycardia. ==Society and culture== ===Records=== Daniel Green holds the world record for the slowest heartbeat in a healthy human, with a heart rate measured in 2014 of 26 BPM. Martin Brady holds the Guinness world record for the slowest heart rate, with a certified rate over a minute duration of 27 BPM. During his career, professional cyclist Miguel Indurain had a resting heart rate of 28 BPM.	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5,873	Canada Day	Canada Day, formerly known as Dominion Day, is the national day of Canada. A federal statutory holiday, it celebrates the anniversary of Canadian Confederation which occurred on July 1, 1867, with the passing of the British North America Act, 1867, when the three separate colonies of the United Canadas, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into a single dominion within the British Empire called Canada. Originally called Dominion Day, the holiday was renamed in 1982, the same year that the Canadian constitution was patriated by the Canada Act, 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada Day celebrations take place throughout the country, as well as in various locations around the world attended by Canadians living abroad. ==Commemoration== Canada Day is often informally referred to as "Canada's birthday", particularly in the popular press. However, the term "birthday" can be seen as an oversimplification, as Canada Day is the anniversary of only one important national milestone on the way to the country's full sovereignty, namely the joining on July 1, 1867, of the colonies of Canada (divided into Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into a wider British federation of four provinces. Canada became a "kingdom in its own right" within the British Empire, commonly known as the Dominion of Canada. Although a British dominion, Canada gained an increased level of political control and governance over its own affairs, the British parliament and cabinet maintaining political control over certain areas, such as foreign affairs, national defence, and constitutional changes. Canada gradually gained increasing sovereignty over the years—notably with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931—until finally becoming completely sovereign with the passing of the Constitution Act, 1982, which served to fully patriate the Canadian constitution. Under the federal Holidays Act, Canada Day is observed on July 1, unless that date falls on a Sunday, in which case July 2 is the statutory holiday. Celebratory events will generally still take place on July 1, even though it is not the legal holiday. If it falls on a weekend, businesses normally closed that day will usually dedicate the following Monday as a day off. ==History== The enactment of the British North America Act, 1867 (today called the Constitution Act, 1867), which confederated Canada, was celebrated on July 1, 1867, with the ringing of the bells at the Cathedral Church of St James in Toronto and "bonfires, fireworks, and illuminations, excursions, military displays, and musical and other entertainments", as described in contemporary accounts. On June 20 of the following year, Governor General the Viscount Monck issued a royal proclamation asking for Canadians to celebrate the anniversary of Confederation, However, the holiday was not established statutorily until May 15, 1879, when it was designated as Dominion Day, alluding to the reference in the British North America Act to the country as a dominion. The holiday was initially not dominant in the national calendar; any celebrations were mounted by local communities and the governor general hosted a party at Rideau Hall. In 1946, Philéas Côté, a Quebec member of the House of Commons, introduced a private member's bill to rename Dominion Day as Canada Day. The bill was passed quickly by the lower chamber but was stalled by the Senate, which returned it to the commons with the recommendation that the holiday be renamed The National Holiday of Canada, an amendment that effectively killed the bill. The Canadian government began in 1958 to orchestrate Dominion Day celebrations. That year, then-Prime Minister John Diefenbaker requested that Secretary of State Ellen Fairclough organize appropriate events, with a budget of $14,000. Parliament was traditionally in session on July 1, but Fairclough persuaded Diefenbaker and the rest of the federal cabinet to attend. Some Canadians were, by the early 1980s, informally referring to the holiday as Canada Day, a practice that caused some controversy: Columnist Andrew Cohen called Canada Day a term of "crushing banality" and criticized it as "a renunciation of the past [and] a misreading of history, laden with political correctness and historical ignorance". The holiday was officially renamed as a result of a private member's bill that was passed through the House of Commons on July 9, 1982, two years after its first reading. The group passed the bill in five minutes, without debate, inspiring "grumblings about the underhandedness of the process". With the granting of royal assent, the holiday's name was officially changed to Canada Day on October 27, 1982, and first celebrated under that name July 1, 1983. As the anniversary of Confederation, Dominion Day, and later Canada Day, was the date set for a number of important events, such as the first national radio network hookup by the Canadian National Railway (1927); the inauguration of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's cross-country television broadcast, with Governor General Vincent Massey's Dominion Day speech from Parliament Hill (1958); The COVID-19 pandemic led to the cancellation in 2020 of all in-person Canada Day festivities nationwide, due to social distancing and restrictions on public gatherings. Some were converted to virtual events. The same cancellations occurred the following year; though, some also for political reasons. In-person festivities in Ottawa returned in 2022, being re-located from Parliament Hill to LeBreton Flats due to construction associated with the Parliament Hill Rehabilitation project.—and the enactment of the Chinese Immigration Act in 1923, leading Chinese-Canadians to refer to July 1 as Humiliation Day () and boycott Dominion Day celebrations with shop closures, flying the Canadian flag on half-mast, or hanging wreaths in front of home and shop entrances until the act was repealed in 1947. Canada Day also coincides with Quebec's Moving Day, when many fixed-lease apartment rental terms expire. The bill changing the province's moving day from May 1 to July 1 was introduced by a federalist member of the Quebec National Assembly, Jérôme Choquette, in 1973, in order not to affect children still in school in the month of May. ==Activities== Most communities across the country host organized celebrations for Canada Day, typically outdoor public events, such as parades, carnivals, festivals, barbecues, air and maritime shows, fireworks, and free musical concerts, as well as citizenship ceremonies. There is no standard mode of celebration for Canada Day; Jennifer Welsh, a professor of International Relations at the University of Oxford, said about this: "Canada Day, like the country, is endlessly decentralized. There doesn't seem to be a central recipe for how to celebrate it—chalk it up to the nature of the federation." In the national capital of Ottawa, concerts and cultural displays are held on the front lawn of Parliament Hill, as organized by Canadian Heritage, which include the main "noon show" and an evening programme. The event traditionally begins with the singing of "God Save the King" and "O Canada" in English and French followed by a flyover by the Snowbirds. Typically the governor general and prime minister officiate, though the monarch or another member of the royal family may also attend or take the governor general's place.{{refn\|Queen Elizabeth II was present for the official Canada Day ceremonies in Ottawa during Canada's centennial in 1967; as well as 1973, and 2010, when more than 100,000 people attended the ceremonies on Parliament Hill. Prince William and his wife took part in the events in Ottawa for Canada Day, 2011, In provincial capitals, official celebrations are often held at the provincial legislative building, usually in the presence of the lieutenant-governor and/or premier of the province. ===International celebrations=== Canadian expatriates will often organize Canada Day activities in their local area on or near the date of the holiday. Examples include Canada D'eh, an annual celebration that takes place on June 30 at Lan Kwai Fong, in Hong Kong; Canadian Forces' events on bases in Afghanistan; at Trafalgar Square outside Canada House in London, England; in Mexico, at the Royal Canadian Legion in Chapala, and at the Canadian Club in Ajijic. In China, Canada Day celebrations are held at the Bund Beach by the Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai and at Canadian International School in Beijing, sponsored by the Canada China Business Council. ==Criticism and protest== Celebrating Canada Day can create tension in Quebec, where it competes with the province's Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day on June 24. The federal government sponsors Canada Day events in Montreal, while the Saint-Jean-Baptiste celebration relies on grassroots support and struggles with funding from the federal government and private sponsors. Some Indigenous people in Canada view Canada Day negatively, linking it to the injustices they have faced from the Canadian government. This criticism intensified during Canada’s 150th anniversary in 2017, as many felt that the celebrations ignored Indigenous contributions and current challenges. Similar concerns arose after the discovery of unmarked graves of Indigenous children at a residential school in British Columbia in June 2021. Canada Day events were canceled or altered in many areas, and the Indigenous group Idle No More planned peaceful protests in major cities. Some politicians backed the cancellations, while others worried that these actions undermined the concept of Canada and hindered reconciliation efforts.	[ "Chinese-Canadian", "Canadian Heritage", "Statute of Westminster 1931", "National Flag of Canada Day", "first day on the Somme", "Montreal", "Secretary of State for Canada", "oversimplification", "Lan Kwai Fong", "Memorial Day (Newfoundland and Labrador)", "Minister of Citizenship and Immigration (Canada)", "Prime Minister of Canada", "Canadian Centennial", "Nova Scotia", "half-mast", "Cabinet of Canada", "Canada House", "Canadian Confederation", "Senate of Canada", "virtual event", "Liberal Party of Canada", "Toronto", "dominion", "Oath of Citizenship (Canada)", "Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples", "Constitution Act, 1867", "Monarchy of Canada", "Reading (legislature)", "Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai", "LeBreton Flats", "O Canada", "Vincent Massey", "British North America Act, 1867", "Canadian patriotic music", "New Brunswick", "golden jubilee", "Afghanistan", "Constitution of Canada", "Canada Act, 1982", "Canadian Indian residential school gravesites", "Canadian flag", "Lieutenant Governor (Canada)", "British North America Acts", "Moving Day (Quebec)", "Trooping the Colour", "Gatineau", "Constitution Act, 1982", "Prince William, Duke of Cambridge", "expatriate", "Premier (Canada)", "Dominion Day", "Flag of Canada", "George McIlraith", "Canada", "Ajijic", "national anthem", "Dominion of Newfoundland", "Montreal Gazette", "Charles Stanley Monck, 4th Viscount Monck", "Snowbirds (aerobatic team)", "Chapala, Mexico", "Indigenous peoples in Canada", "Cabinet of the United Kingdom", "The Globe and Mail", "Saint Lawrence Seaway", "England", "House of Commons of Canada", "150th anniversary of Canada", "Province of Canada", "patriation", "Ontario", "Jérôme Choquette", "royal assent", "state order", "First Nations in Canada", "Quebec", "proclamation", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Robertson Davies", "Rideau Hall", "Order of Canada", "Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs", "Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby", "Lester B. Pearson", "University of Oxford", "God Save the King", "Commemorative banknotes of the Canadian dollar", "Ottawa", "Union Jack", "London", "Elizabeth II", "Idle No More", "Andrew Cohen (journalist)", "social distancing", "Sing Tao Daily (Canada)", "Parliament Hill", "private member's bill", "Public holidays in Canada", "John Diefenbaker", "Ellen Fairclough", "National symbols of Canada", "19th Canadian Ministry", "Canadian Indian residential school system", "quorum", "Cathedral Church of St. James (Toronto)", "United Province of Canada", "Canada China Business Council", "National Assembly of Quebec", "Catherine, Princess of Wales", "Calgary", "Bank of Canada", "Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge", "Canadian diaspora", "national day", "Canadian Forces", "British Empire", "wreath", "Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day", "Ming Pao", "Governor General of Canada", "Newfoundland Regiment", "Charles III", "Culture of Canada", "Ernest Manning", "Canadians", "COVID-19 pandemic in Canada", "Trafalgar Square", "Royal Canadian Legion", "Name of Canada", "Philéas Côté", "Parliament Hill Rehabilitation", "Canadian National Railway", "Canadian Broadcasting Corporation", "Patriation", "Jennifer Welsh", "Chinese Immigration Act, 1923", "constitutional amendment" ]
5,874	Claudine (book series)	The Claudine series consists of four early novels by French authors Colette and Henry Gauthier-Villars, published 1900–1904. Written in diary form, they describe the growth to maturity of a young girl, Claudine. Aged fifteen at the beginning of the first book, Claudine à l'école, the series describes her education and experiences as she grows up. All the books are written in first-person with the first three having Claudine herself as the narrator. The last in the series, Claudine s'en va, introduces a new narrator, Annie. The novels were written in the late 19th century in collaboration with Colette's first husband, the writer Henry Gauthier-Villars, better known by his pen name "Willy". There has been much speculation over the degree of involvement of both Colette and Willy in the writing of the Claudine novels, particularly as Willy was known for often using ghostwriters. Consequently, although the novels were originally attributed to Willy only and published under his name alone, they were later published under both names. After the death of Willy, Colette went to court to challenge her former husband's involvement in any of the writing, and subsequently had his name removed from the books. This decision however was overturned after her death, as Willy's son from a prior relationship, Jacques Gauthier-Villars, successfully sued to have his father's name restored. The Claudine novels are thought to be roughly autobiographical. ==List of books== Claudine à l'école (1900) – Claudine at School Claudine à Paris (1901) – Claudine in Paris Claudine en ménage (1902) – Claudine Married Claudine s'en va (1903) – Claudine and Annie	[ "Jacques Gauthier-Villars", "first person narrative", "autobiography", "ghostwriter", "Claudine à l'école", "pen name", "Henry Gauthier-Villars", "Colette" ]
5,876	Coronary artery disease	{{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Coronary artery disease \| image = Blausen 0257 CoronaryArtery Plaque.png \| caption = Illustration depicting atherosclerosis in a coronary artery \| field = Cardiology, cardiac surgery \| synonyms = Arteriosclerotic heart disease, atherosclerotic heart disease, atherosclerotic vascular disease, coronary heart disease \| symptoms = Chest pain, shortness of breath is a type of heart disease involving the reduction of blood flow to the cardiac muscle due to a build-up of atheromatous plaque in the arteries of the heart. It is the most common of the cardiovascular diseases. CAD can cause stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial ischemia, and myocardial infarction. A common symptom is angina, which is chest pain or discomfort that may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw. In many cases, the first sign is a heart attack. Risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes mellitus, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, depression, and excessive alcohol consumption. A number of tests may help with diagnosis including: electrocardiogram, cardiac stress testing, coronary computed tomographic angiography, biomarkers (high-sensitivity cardiac troponins) and coronary angiogram, among others. Ways to reduce CAD risk include eating a healthy diet, regularly exercising, maintaining a healthy weight, and not smoking. There is limited evidence for screening people who are at low risk and do not have symptoms. Treatment involves the same measures as prevention. Additional medications such as antiplatelets (including aspirin), beta blockers, or nitroglycerin may be recommended. In those with stable CAD it is unclear if PCI or CABG in addition to the other treatments improves life expectancy or decreases heart attack risk. In 2015, CAD affected 110 million people and resulted in 8.9 million deaths. It makes up 15.6% of all deaths, making it the most common cause of death globally. The number of cases of CAD for a given age also decreased between 1990 and 2010. In the United States in 2010, about 20% of those over 65 had CAD, while it was present in 7% of those 45 to 64, and 1.3% of those 18 to 45; ==Signs and symptoms== The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort that occurs regularly with activity, after eating, or at other predictable times; this phenomenon is termed stable angina and is associated with narrowing of the arteries of the heart. Angina also includes chest tightness, heaviness, pressure, numbness, fullness, or squeezing. Angina that changes in intensity, character, or frequency is termed unstable. Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction. In adults who go to the emergency department with an unclear cause of pain, about 30% have pain due to coronary artery disease. Angina, shortness of breath, sweating, nausea or vomiting, and lightheadedness are signs of a heart attack or myocardial infarction, and immediate emergency medical services are crucial. For some, this causes severe symptoms, while others experience no symptoms at all. Other symptoms more commonly reported by females than males are extreme fatigue, sleep disturbances, indigestion, and anxiety. However, some females experience irregular heartbeat, dizziness, sweating, and nausea. Females are less likely to recognize symptoms and seek treatment. Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis which is the "chronic inflammation of the arteries which causes them to harden and accumulate cholesterol plaques (atheromatous plaques) on the artery walls". CAD has several well-determined risk factors contributing to atherosclerosis. These risk factors for CAD include "smoking, diabetes, high blood pressure (hypertension), abnormal (high) amounts of cholesterol and other fat in the blood (dyslipidemia), type 2 diabetes and being overweight or obese (having excess body fat)" due to lack of exercise and a poor diet. Some other risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, depression, family history, psychological stress and excessive alcohol. Apart from these classical risk factors, several unconventional risk factors have also been studied including high serum fibrinogen, high c-reactive protein (CRP), chronic inflammatory conditions, hypovitaminosis D, high lipoprotein A levels, serum homocysteine etc. Smoking and obesity are associated with about 36% and 20% of cases, respectively. Lack of exercise has been linked to 7–12% of cases. Exposure to the herbicide Agent Orange may increase risk. Rheumatologic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, and psoriatic arthritis are independent risk factors as well. Job stress appears to play a minor role accounting for about 3% of cases. In one study, females who were free of stress from work life saw an increase in the diameter of their blood vessels, leading to decreased progression of atherosclerosis. In contrast, females who had high levels of work-related stress experienced a decrease in the diameter of their blood vessels and significantly increased disease progression. In particular, fine particle pollution (PM2.5), which comes mostly from the burning of fossil fuels, is a key risk factor for CAD. ===Blood fats=== The consumption of different types of fats including trans fat (trans unsaturated), and saturated fat, in a diet "influences the level of cholesterol that is present in the bloodstream". Unsaturated fats originate from plant sources (such as oils). There are two types of unsaturated fats, cis and trans isomers. Cis unsaturated fats are bent in molecular structure and trans are linear. Saturated fats originate from animal sources (such as animal fats) and are also molecularly linear in structure. The linear configurations of unsaturated trans and saturated fats allow them to easily accumulate and stack at the arterial walls when consumed in high amounts (and other positive measures towards physical health are not met). Fats and cholesterol are insoluble in blood and thus are amalgamated with proteins to form lipoproteins for transport. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) transport cholesterol from the liver to the rest of the body and raise blood cholesterol levels. The consumption of "saturated fats increases LDL levels within the body, thus raising blood cholesterol levels". Genome-wide association studies have identified over 160 genetic susceptibility loci for coronary artery disease. ===Transcriptome=== Several RNA Transcripts associated with CAD - FoxP1, ICOSLG, IKZF4/Eos, SMYD3, TRIM28, and TCF3/E2A are likely markers of regulatory T cells (Tregs), consistent with known reductions in Tregs in CAD. The RNA changes are mostly related to ciliary and endocytic transcripts, which in the circulating immune system would be related to the immune synapse. One of the most differentially expressed genes, fibromodulin (FMOD), which is increased 2.8-fold in CAD, is found mainly in connective tissue and is a modulator of the TGF-beta signaling pathway. However, not all RNA changes may be related to the immune synapse. For example, Nebulette, the most down-regulated transcript (2.4-fold), is found in cardiac muscle; it is a 'cytolinker' that connects actin and desmin to facilitate cytoskeletal function and vesicular movement. The endocytic pathway is further modulated by changes in tubulin, a key microtubule protein, and fidgetin, a tubulin-severing enzyme that is a marker for cardiovascular risk identified by genome-wide association study. Protein recycling would be modulated by changes in the proteasomal regulator SIAH3, and the ubiquitin ligase MARCHF10. On the ciliary aspect of the immune synapse, several of the modulated transcripts are related to ciliary length and function. Stereocilin is a partner to mesothelin, a related super-helical protein, whose transcript is also modulated in CAD. DCDC2, a double-cortin protein, modulates ciliary length. In the signaling pathways of the immune synapse, numerous transcripts are directly related to T-cell function and the control of differentiation. Butyrophilin is a co-regulator for T cell activation. Fibromodulin modulates the TGF-beta signaling pathway, a primary determinant of Tre differentiation. Further impact on the TGF-beta pathway is reflected in concurrent changes in the BMP receptor 1B RNA (BMPR1B), because the bone morphogenic proteins are members of the TGF-beta superfamily, and likewise impact Treg differentiation. Several of the transcripts (TMEM98, NRCAM, SFRP5, SHISA2) are elements of the Wnt signaling pathway, which is a major determinant of Treg differentiation. ===Other=== Endometriosis in females under the age of 40. Depression and hostility appear to be risks. The number of categories of adverse childhood experiences (psychological, physical, or sexual abuse; violence against mother; or living with household members who used substances, mentally ill, suicidal, or incarcerated) showed a graded correlation with the presence of adult diseases including coronary artery (ischemic heart) disease. Hemostatic factors: High levels of fibrinogen and coagulation factor VII are associated with an increased risk of CAD. Low hemoglobin. In the Asian population, the b fibrinogen gene G-455A polymorphism was associated with the risk of CAD. Patient-specific vessel ageing or remodelling determines endothelial cell behaviour and thus disease growth and progression. Such 'hemodynamic markers' are patient-specific risk surrogates. HIV is a known risk factor for developing atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease. ==Pathophysiology== Limitation of blood flow to the heart causes ischemia (cell starvation secondary to a lack of oxygen) of the heart's muscle cells. The heart's muscle cells may die from lack of oxygen and this is called a myocardial infarction (commonly referred to as a heart attack). It leads to damage, death, and eventual scarring of the heart muscle without regrowth of heart muscle cells. Chronic high-grade narrowing of the coronary arteries can induce transient ischemia which leads to the induction of a ventricular arrhythmia, which may terminate into a dangerous heart rhythm known as ventricular fibrillation, which often leads to death. Typically, coronary artery disease occurs when part of the smooth, elastic lining inside a coronary artery (the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle) develops atherosclerosis. With atherosclerosis, the artery's lining becomes hardened, stiffened, and accumulates deposits of calcium, fatty lipids, and abnormal inflammatory cells – to form a plaque. Calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite) deposits in the muscular layer of the blood vessels appear to play a significant role in stiffening the arteries and inducing the early phase of coronary arteriosclerosis. This can be seen in a so-called metastatic mechanism of calciphylaxis as it occurs in chronic kidney disease and hemodialysis. Although these people have kidney dysfunction, almost fifty percent of them die due to coronary artery disease. Plaques can be thought of as large "pimples" that protrude into the channel of an artery, causing partial obstruction to blood flow. People with coronary artery disease might have just one or two plaques or might have dozens distributed throughout their coronary arteries. A more severe form is chronic total occlusion (CTO) when a coronary artery is completely obstructed for more than 3 months. Microvascular angina is a type of angina pectoris in which chest pain and chest discomfort occur without signs of blockages in the larger coronary arteries of their hearts when an angiogram (coronary angiogram) is being performed. The exact cause of microvascular angina is unknown. Explanations include microvascular dysfunction or epicardial atherosclerosis. For reasons that are not well understood, females are more likely than males to have it; however, hormones and other risk factors unique to females may play a role. ==Diagnosis== The diagnosis of CAD depends largely on the nature of the symptoms and imaging. The first investigation when CAD is suspected is an electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG), both for stable angina and acute coronary syndrome. An X-ray of the chest, blood tests and resting echocardiography may be performed. For stable symptomatic patients, several non-invasive tests can diagnose CAD depending on pre-assessment of the risk profile. Noninvasive imaging options include; Computed tomography angiography (CTA) (anatomical imaging, best test in patients with low-risk profile to "rule out" the disease), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/nuclear stress test/myocardial scintigraphy and stress echocardiography (the three latter can be summarized as functional noninvasive methods and are typically better to "rule in"). Exercise ECG or stress test is inferior to non-invasive imaging methods due to the risk of false negative and false positive test results. The use of non-invasive imaging is not recommended on individuals who are exhibiting no symptoms and are otherwise at low risk for developing coronary disease. Invasive testing with coronary angiography (ICA) can be used when non-invasive testing is inconclusive or show a high event risk. Intravascular ultrasound Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) ===Stable angina=== Stable angina is the most common manifestation of ischemic heart disease, and is associated with reduced quality of life and increased mortality. It is caused by epicardial coronary stenosis which results in reduced blood flow and oxygen supply to the myocardium. Stable angina is short-term chest pain during physical exertion caused by an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and metabolic oxygen demand. Various forms of cardiac stress tests may be used to induce both symptoms and detect changes by way of electrocardiography (using an ECG), echocardiography (using ultrasound of the heart) or scintigraphy (using uptake of radionuclide by the heart muscle). If part of the heart seems to receive an insufficient blood supply, coronary angiography may be used to identify stenosis of the coronary arteries and suitability for angioplasty or bypass surgery. In minor to moderate cases, nitroglycerine may be used to alleviate acute symptoms of stable angina or may be used immediately before exertion to prevent the onset of angina. Sublingual nitroglycerine is most commonly used to provide rapid relief for acute angina attacks and as a complement to anti-anginal treatments in patients with refractory and recurrent angina. When nitroglycerine enters the bloodstream, it forms free radical nitric oxide, or NO, which activates guanylate cyclase and in turn stimulates the release of cyclic GMP. This molecular signaling stimulates smooth muscle relaxation, resulting in vasodilation and consequently improved blood flow to heart regions affected by atherosclerotic plaque. Stable coronary artery disease (SCAD) is also often called stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD). A 2015 monograph explains that "Regardless of the nomenclature, stable angina is the chief manifestation of SIHD or SCAD." ===Acute coronary syndrome=== Diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome generally takes place in the emergency department, where ECGs may be performed sequentially to identify "evolving changes" (indicating ongoing damage to the heart muscle). Diagnosis is clear-cut if ECGs show elevation of the "ST segment", which in the context of severe typical chest pain is strongly indicative of an acute myocardial infarction (MI); this is termed a STEMI (ST-elevation MI) and is treated as an emergency with either urgent coronary angiography and percutaneous coronary intervention (angioplasty with or without stent insertion) or with thrombolysis ("clot buster" medication), whichever is available. In the absence of ST-segment elevation, heart damage is detected by cardiac markers (blood tests that identify heart muscle damage). If there is evidence of damage (infarction), the chest pain is attributed to a "non-ST elevation MI" (NSTEMI). If there is no evidence of damage, the term "unstable angina" is used. This process usually necessitates hospital admission and close observation on a coronary care unit for possible complications (such as cardiac arrhythmias – irregularities in the heart rate). Depending on the risk assessment, stress testing or angiography may be used to identify and treat coronary artery disease in patients who have had an NSTEMI or unstable angina. ===Risk assessment=== There are various risk assessment systems for determining the risk of coronary artery disease, with various emphasis on the different variables above. A notable example is Framingham Score, used in the Framingham Heart Study. It is mainly based on age, gender, diabetes, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, tobacco smoking, and systolic blood pressure. When predicting risk in younger adults (18–39 years old), the Framingham Risk Score remains below 10–12% for all deciles of baseline-predicted risk. Polygenic score is another way of risk assessment. In one study the relative risk of incident coronary events was 91% higher among participants at high genetic risk than among those at low genetic risk. ==Prevention== Up to 90% of cardiovascular disease may be preventable if established risk factors are avoided. Prevention involves adequate physical exercise, decreasing obesity, treating high blood pressure, eating a healthy diet, decreasing cholesterol levels, and stopping smoking. Medications and exercise are roughly equally effective. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of coronary artery disease by about 25%. Life's Essential 8 are the key measures for improving and maintaining cardiovascular health, as defined by the American Heart Association. AHA added sleep as a factor influencing heart health in 2022. Most guidelines recommend combining these preventive strategies. A 2015 Cochrane Review found some evidence that counseling and education to bring about behavioral change might help in high-risk groups. However, there was insufficient evidence to show an effect on mortality or actual cardiovascular events. In diabetes mellitus, there is little evidence that very tight blood sugar control improves cardiac risk although improved sugar control appears to decrease other problems such as kidney failure and blindness. A 2024 study published in The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology found that the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is more effective than hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) for detecting dysglycemia in patients with coronary artery disease. The study highlighted that 2-hour post-load glucose levels of at least 9 mmol/L were strong predictors of cardiovascular outcomes, while HbA1c levels of at least 5.9% were also significant but not independently associated when combined with OGTT results. ===Diet=== A diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Vegetarians have a lower risk of heart disease, possibly due to their greater consumption of fruits and vegetables. Evidence also suggests that the Mediterranean diet and a high fiber diet lower the risk. The consumption of trans fat (commonly found in hydrogenated products such as margarine) has been shown to cause a precursor to atherosclerosis and increase the risk of coronary artery disease. Evidence does not support a beneficial role for omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in preventing cardiovascular disease (including myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death). ===Secondary prevention=== Secondary prevention is preventing further sequelae of already established disease. Effective lifestyle changes include: Weight control Smoking cessation Avoiding the consumption of trans fats (in partially hydrogenated oils) Decreasing psychosocial stress Aerobic exercise can help decrease blood pressure and the amount of blood cholesterol (LDL) over time. It also increases HDL cholesterol. Although exercise is beneficial, it is unclear whether doctors should spend time counseling patients to exercise. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force found "insufficient evidence" to recommend that doctors counsel patients on exercise but "it did not review the evidence for the effectiveness of physical activity to reduce chronic disease, morbidity, and mortality", only the effectiveness of counseling itself. The American Heart Association, based on a non-systematic review, recommends that doctors counsel patients on exercise. Psychological symptoms are common in people with CHD. Many psychological treatments may be offered following cardiac events. There is no evidence that they change mortality, the risk of revascularization procedures, or the rate of non-fatal myocardial infarction. Antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease Early studies suggested that antibiotics might help patients with coronary disease to reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes. However, a 2021 Cochrane meta-analysis found that antibiotics given for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease are harmful to people with increased mortality and occurrence of stroke. Consequently, since research is showing that cardiovascular diseases, like CHD, can play a role as a precursor for dementia, like Alzheimer's disease, individuals with CHD should have a neuropsychological assessment. ==Treatment== There are a number of treatment options for coronary artery disease: Lifestyle changes Medical treatment – commonly prescribed drugs (e.g., cholesterol lowering medications, beta-blockers, nitroglycerin, calcium channel blockers, etc.); Coronary interventions as angioplasty and coronary stent; Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) ===Medications=== Statins, which reduce cholesterol, reduce the risk of coronary artery disease Nitroglycerin Calcium channel blockers and/or beta-blockers Antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin It is recommended that blood pressure typically be reduced to less than 140/90 mmHg. ====Aspirin==== In those with no previous history of heart disease, aspirin decreases the risk of a myocardial infarction but does not change the overall risk of death. Aspirin therapy to prevent heart disease is thus recommended only in adults who are at increased risk for cardiovascular events, which may include postmenopausal females, males above 40, and younger people with risk factors for coronary heart disease, including high blood pressure, a family history of heart disease, or diabetes. The benefits outweigh the harms most favorably in people at high risk for a cardiovascular event, where high risk is defined as at least a 3% chance over five years, but others with lower risk may still find the potential benefits worth the associated risks. ====Anti-platelet therapy==== Clopidogrel plus aspirin (dual anti-platelet therapy) reduces cardiovascular events more than aspirin alone in those with a STEMI. In others at high risk but not having an acute event, the evidence is weak. Specifically, its use does not change the risk of death in this group. In those who have had a stent, more than 12 months of clopidogrel plus aspirin does not affect the risk of death. ===Surgery=== Revascularization for acute coronary syndrome has a mortality benefit. Percutaneous revascularization for stable ischaemic heart disease does not appear to have benefits over medical therapy alone. In those with disease in more than one artery, coronary artery bypass grafts appear better than percutaneous coronary interventions. Newer "anaortic" or no-touch off-pump coronary artery revascularization techniques have shown reduced postoperative stroke rates comparable to percutaneous coronary intervention. Hybrid coronary revascularization has also been shown to be a safe and feasible procedure that may offer some advantages over conventional CABG though it is more expensive. ==Epidemiology== As of 2010, CAD was the leading cause of death globally resulting in over 7 million deaths. It may affect individuals at any age but becomes dramatically more common at progressively older ages, with approximately a tripling with each decade of life. Males are affected more often than females. It is estimated that 60% of the world's cardiovascular disease burden will occur in the South Asian subcontinent despite only accounting for 20% of the world's population. This may be secondary to a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Organizations such as the Indian Heart Association are working with the World Heart Federation to raise awareness about this issue. Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of death for both males and females and accounts for approximately 600,000 deaths in the United States every year. According to present trends in the United States, half of healthy 40-year-old males will develop CAD in the future, and one in three healthy 40-year-old females. It is the most common reason for death of males and females over 20 years of age in the United States. After analysing data from 2 111 882 patients, the recent meta-analysis revealed that the incidence of coronary artery diseases in breast cancer survivors was 4.29 (95% CI 3.09–5.94) per 1000 person-years. ==Society and culture== ===Names=== Other terms sometimes used for this condition are "hardening of the arteries" and "narrowing of the arteries". In Latin it is known as morbus ischaemicus cordis (MIC). ===Support groups=== The Infarct Combat Project (ICP) is an international nonprofit organization founded in 1998 which tries to decrease ischemic heart diseases through education and research. ===Industry influence on research=== In 2016 research into the archives of the Sugar Association, the trade association for the sugar industry in the US, had sponsored an influential literature review published in 1965 in the New England Journal of Medicine that downplayed early findings about the role of a diet heavy in sugar in the development of CAD and emphasized the role of fat; that review influenced decades of research funding and guidance on healthy eating. ==Research== Research efforts are focused on new angiogenic treatment modalities and various (adult) stem-cell therapies. A region on chromosome 17 was confined to families with multiple cases of myocardial infarction. Other genome-wide studies have identified a firm risk variant on chromosome 9 (9p21.3). However, these and other loci are found in intergenic segments and need further research in understanding how the phenotype is affected. A more controversial link is that between Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection and atherosclerosis. While this intracellular organism has been demonstrated in atherosclerotic plaques, evidence is inconclusive regarding whether it can be considered a causative factor. Treatment with antibiotics in patients with proven atherosclerosis has not demonstrated a decreased risk of heart attacks or other coronary vascular diseases. Myeloperoxidase has been proposed as a biomarker. Plant-based nutrition has been suggested as a way to reverse coronary artery disease, but strong evidence is still lacking for claims of potential benefits. Several immunosuppressive drugs targeting the chronic inflammation in coronary artery disease have been tested.	[ "Clopidogrel", "literature review", "MARCHF10", "coronary arteries", "TCF3/E2A", "hemodialysis", "Exercise", "STEMI", "Electrocardiogram", "beta-blocker", "Endometriosis", "World Heart Federation", "TGF-beta", "Household air pollution", "percutaneous coronary intervention", "RNA", "Family history (medicine)", "ventricular fibrillation", "angiogenesis", "fibromodulin", "SIAH3", "cardiac surgery", "nitroglycerin", "coronary stent", "Choosing Wisely", "Coronary artery bypass grafting", "coronary artery bypass surgery", "SFRP5", "IKZF4/Eos", "Ischemia", "omega-3 fatty acid", "infarction", "myocardial infarction", "Shortness of breath", "heart attack", "American Heart Association", "chronic kidney disease", "cardiovascular disease", "heart failure", "margarine", "Aortic stenosis", "heart", "mesothelin", "cardiac arrest", "blood test", "Smoking cessation", "stem-cell therapy", "high fiber diet", "coronary artery bypass graft", "Chromosome 17 (human)", "coronary angiography", "coronary computed tomographic angiography", "Fibromodulin", "ischemia", "hormone", "blindness", "cardiac muscle", "ABIM Foundation", "SHISA2", "South Asia", "most common causes of death", "microvascular angina", "ICOSLG", "acute coronary syndrome", "Pericardium", "heritability", "Atheromatous plaque", "statin", "Coronary ischemia", "Sugar Association", "electrocardiogram", "Polygenic score", "blood sugar", "cardiac marker", "heartburn", "NRCAM", "herbicide", "Heart failure", "Coronary catheterization", "high blood cholesterol", "genome-wide association study", "Heart arrhythmia", "Psychological stress", "fat", "medical ultrasonography", "superhelix", "Antiplatelet drug", "atherosclerosis", "Aspirin", "alcohol (drug)", "Fossil fuel", "STRC", "lumen (anatomy)", "healthy eating", "Cell (biology)", "shortness of breath", "cardiac arrhythmia", "aspirin", "Chlamydophila pneumoniae", "Cardiology", "TRIM28", "Medical use of nitroglycerin", "Unstable angina", "psoriatic arthritis", "myocardium", "Microvascular angina", "Positron emission tomography - computed tomography", "kidney failure", "commonly prescribed drugs", "biomarker", "stenosis", "Agent Orange", "New England Journal of Medicine", "stress (psychological)", "tubulin", "Cardiac stress test", "cholesterol", "scintigraphy", "high blood pressure", "developed country", "TMEM98", "oxygen", "angiogram", "echocardiography", "Troponin", "Air pollution", "troponin T", "Computed tomography angiography", "coronary care unit", "HIV/AIDS", "Weight control", "psychological stress", "Exercise medicine", "Mediterranean diet", "Butyrophilin", "stress echocardiography", "nonprofit organization", "hypercholesterolaemia", "Magnetic resonance imaging", "emergency department", "Particulate pollution", "Aerobic exercise", "World Health Organization", "cardiac stress test", "Statin", "Genome-wide association studies", "Chest pain", "diabetes", "cardiogenic shock", "Mayo Clinic", "FoxP1", "stable angina", "Healthy diet", "Myocardial infarction", "Transcriptome", "thrombolysis", "Atherosclerosis", "obesity", "Coronary artery bypass surgery", "U.S. Preventive Services Task Force", "phenotype", "microvascular dysfunction", "hypertension", "radionuclide", "beta blocker", "rheumatoid arthritis", "calcium channel blocker", "angioplasty", "diabetes mellitus", "adverse childhood experiences", "atheromatous plaque", "Coronary arteries", "artery", "saturated fat", "antiplatelet drug", "immune synapse", "Stable angina", "Framingham Score", "fidgetin", "coronary artery", "Vegetarianism", "stent", "locus (genetics)", "trans fat", "Mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia", "life expectancy", "major depressive disorder", "Nebulette", "Indian Heart Association", "ischemic heart disease", "Framingham Heart Study", "angina", "smoking cessation", "chest pain", "chromosome 9", "unstable angina", "Masson's trichrome", "ethanol", "regulatory T cells", "Antihyperlipidemic", "exercise", "Myocardial perfusion imaging", "medical guideline", "Percutaneous coronary intervention", "calciphylaxis", "coronary angiogram", "sugar industry", "healthy diet", "Myeloperoxidase", "postmenopausal", "systemic lupus erythematosus", "Intravascular ultrasound", "tobacco smoking", "DCDC2", "Hydrogenation", "sudden cardiac death", "ventricular arrhythmia", "arteriosclerosis", "Guangming Zhong", "Chest X-ray", "angina pectoris", "SMYD3", "trade association", "psoriasis" ]
5,879	Caesium	Caesium (IUPAC spelling; also spelled cesium in American English) is a chemical element; it has symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-golden alkali metal with a melting point of , which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at or near room temperature. Caesium has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. It is pyrophoric and reacts with water even at . It is the least electronegative stable element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale. It has only one stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite. Caesium-137, a fission product, is extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors. It has the largest atomic radius of all elements whose radii have been measured or calculated, at about 260 picometres. The German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy. The first small-scale applications for caesium were as a "getter" in vacuum tubes and in photoelectric cells. Caesium is widely used in highly accurate atomic clocks. In 1967, the International System of Units began using a specific hyperfine transition of neutral caesium-133 atoms to define the basic unit of time, the second. Since the 1990s, the largest application of the element has been as caesium formate for drilling fluids, but it has a range of applications in the production of electricity, in electronics, and in chemistry. The radioactive isotope caesium-137 has a half-life of about 30 years and is used in medical applications, industrial gauges, and hydrology. Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic, but the pure metal's tendency to react explosively with water means that caesium is considered a hazardous material, and the radioisotopes present a significant health and environmental hazard. == Spelling == Caesium is the spelling recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The American Chemical Society (ACS) has used the spelling cesium since 1921, following Webster's New International Dictionary. The element was named after the Latin word caesius, meaning "bluish grey". In medieval and early modern writings caesius was spelled with the ligature æ as cæsius; hence, an alternative but now old-fashioned orthography is cæsium. More spelling explanation at ae/oe vs e. ==Characteristics== ===Physical properties=== Of all elements that are solid at room temperature, caesium is the softest: it has a hardness of 0.2 Mohs. It is a very ductile, pale metal, which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen. When in the presence of mineral oil (where it is best kept during transport), it loses its metallic lustre and takes on a duller, grey appearance. It has a melting point of , making it one of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature. The others are rubidium (), francium (estimated at ), mercury (), and gallium (); bromine is also liquid at room temperature (melting at ), but it is a halogen and not a metal. Mercury is the only stable elemental metal with a known melting point lower than caesium. In addition, the metal has a rather low boiling point, , the lowest of all stable metals other than mercury. Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals, gold, and mercury (amalgams). At temperatures below , it does not alloy with cobalt, iron, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, tantalum, or tungsten. It forms well-defined intermetallic compounds with antimony, gallium, indium, and thorium, which are photosensitive. A few amalgams have been studied: is black with a purple metallic lustre, while CsHg is golden-coloured, also with a metallic lustre. The golden colour of caesium comes from the decreasing frequency of light required to excite electrons of the alkali metals as the group is descended. For lithium through rubidium this frequency is in the ultraviolet, but for caesium it enters the blue–violet end of the spectrum; in other words, the plasmonic frequency of the alkali metals becomes lower from lithium to caesium. Thus caesium transmits and partially absorbs violet light preferentially while other colours (having lower frequency) are reflected; hence it appears yellowish. Its compounds burn with a blue colour. === Allotropes === Caesium exists in the form of different allotropes, one of them a dimer called dicaesium. ===Chemical properties=== Caesium metal is highly reactive and pyrophoric. It ignites spontaneously in air, and reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures, more so than the other alkali metals. Caesium can be stored in vacuum-sealed borosilicate glass ampoules. In quantities of more than about , caesium is shipped in hermetically sealed, stainless steel containers. Some slight differences arise from the fact that it has a higher atomic mass and is more electropositive than other (nonradioactive) alkali metals. Caesium is the most electropositive chemical element. This prediction needs to be validated by further experiments. Salts of Cs+ are usually colourless unless the anion itself is coloured. Many of the simple salts are hygroscopic, but less so than the corresponding salts of lighter alkali metals. The phosphate, acetate, carbonate, halides, oxide, nitrate, and sulfate salts are water-soluble. Its double salts are often less soluble, and the low solubility of caesium aluminium sulfate is exploited in refining Cs from ores. The double salts with antimony (such as ), bismuth, cadmium, copper, iron, and lead are also poorly soluble. CsOH has been previously regarded by chemists as the "strongest base", reflecting the relatively weak attraction between the large Cs+ ion and OH−; ====Complexes==== Like all metal cations, Cs+ forms complexes with Lewis bases in solution. Because of its large size, Cs+ usually adopts coordination numbers greater than 6, the number typical for the smaller alkali metal cations. This difference is apparent in the 8-coordination of CsCl. This high coordination number and softness (tendency to form covalent bonds) are properties exploited in separating Cs+ from other cations in the remediation of nuclear wastes, where 137Cs+ must be separated from large amounts of nonradioactive K+. ====Halides==== Caesium fluoride (CsF) is a hygroscopic white solid that is widely used in organofluorine chemistry as a source of fluoride anions. Caesium fluoride has the halite structure, which means that the Cs+ and F− pack in a cubic closest packed array as do Na+ and Cl− in sodium chloride. ====Oxides==== More so than the other alkali metals, caesium forms numerous binary compounds with oxygen. When caesium burns in air, the superoxide is the main product. The "normal" caesium oxide () forms yellow-orange hexagonal crystals, and is the only oxide of the anti-cadmium chloride\| type. It vaporizes at , and decomposes to caesium metal and the peroxide caesium peroxide\| at temperatures above . In addition to the superoxide and the ozonide caesium ozonide\|, several brightly coloured suboxides have also been studied. These include , , , (dark-green), CsO, , as well as . The latter may be heated in a vacuum to generate . and by the R-process in supernova explosions. The only stable caesium isotope is 133Cs, with 78 neutrons. Although it has a large nuclear spin (+), nuclear magnetic resonance studies can use this isotope. The radioactive 135Cs has a very long half-life of about 2.3 million years, the longest of all radioactive isotopes of caesium. 137Cs and 134Cs have half-lives of 30 and two years, respectively. 137Cs decomposes to a short-lived 137mBa by beta decay, and then to nonradioactive barium, while 134Cs transforms into 134Ba directly. The isotopes with mass numbers of 129, 131, 132 and 136, have half-lives between a day and two weeks, while most of the other isotopes have half-lives from a few seconds to fractions of a second. At least 21 metastable nuclear isomers exist. Other than 134mCs (with a half-life of just under 3 hours), all are very unstable and decay with half-lives of a few minutes or less. The isotope 135Cs is one of the long-lived fission products of uranium produced in nuclear reactors. However, this fission product yield is reduced in most reactors because the predecessor, 135Xe, is a potent neutron poison and frequently transmutes to stable 136Xe before it can decay to 135Cs. The beta decay from 137Cs to 137mBa results in gamma radiation as the 137mBa relaxes to ground state 137Ba, with the emitted photons having an energy of 0.6617 MeV. 137Cs and 90Sr are the principal medium-lived products of nuclear fission, and the prime sources of radioactivity from spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling, lasting several hundred years. Those two isotopes are the largest source of residual radioactivity in the area of the Chernobyl disaster. Because of the low capture rate, disposing of 137Cs through neutron capture is not feasible and the only current solution is to allow it to decay over time. Almost all caesium produced from nuclear fission comes from the beta decay of originally more neutron-rich fission products, passing through various isotopes of iodine and xenon. Because iodine and xenon are volatile and can diffuse through nuclear fuel or air, radioactive caesium is often created far from the original site of fission. With nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s through the 1980s, 137Cs was released into the atmosphere and returned to the surface of the earth as a component of radioactive fallout. It is a ready marker of the movement of soil and sediment from those times. It is the 45th most abundant element and 36th among the metals. Caesium is 30 times less abundant than rubidium, with which it is closely associated, chemically. During magma crystallization, caesium is concentrated in the liquid phase and crystallizes last. Therefore, the largest deposits of caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process. Because caesium does not substitute for potassium as readily as rubidium does, the alkali evaporite minerals sylvite (KCl) and carnallite () may contain only 0.002% caesium. Consequently, caesium is found in few minerals. Percentage amounts of caesium may be found in beryl () and avogadrite (), up to 15 wt% Cs2O in the closely related mineral pezzottaite (), up to 8.4 wt% Cs2O in the rare mineral londonite (), and less in the more widespread rhodizite. The world's most significant and richest known source of caesium is the Tanco Mine at Bernic Lake in Manitoba, Canada, estimated to contain 350,000 metric tons of pollucite ore, representing more than two-thirds of the world's reserve base. Commercial pollucite contains more than 19% caesium. The Bikita pegmatite deposit in Zimbabwe is mined for its petalite, but it also contains a significant amount of pollucite. Another notable source of pollucite is in the Karibib Desert, Namibia. In the acid digestion, the silicate pollucite rock is dissolved with strong acids, such as hydrochloric (HCl), sulfuric (), hydrobromic (HBr), or hydrofluoric (HF) acids. With hydrochloric acid, a mixture of soluble chlorides is produced, and the insoluble chloride double salts of caesium are precipitated as caesium antimony chloride (), caesium iodine chloride (), or caesium hexachlorocerate (). After separation, the pure precipitated double salt is decomposed, and pure CsCl is precipitated by evaporating the water. The sulfuric acid method yields the insoluble double salt directly as caesium alum (). The aluminium sulfate component is converted to insoluble aluminium oxide by roasting the alum with carbon, and the resulting product is leached with water to yield a solution. The primary smaller-scale commercial compounds of caesium are caesium chloride and nitrate. + 2 → 2 + 2 + The price of 99.8% pure caesium (metal basis) in 2009 was about , but the compounds are significantly cheaper. Caesium was the first element to be discovered with a spectroscope, which had been invented by Bunsen and Kirchhoff only a year previously. From the caesium chloride, the two scientists estimated the atomic weight of the new element at 123.35 (compared to the currently accepted one of 132.9). The electrolysis of the aqueous solution of chloride with a mercury cathode produced a caesium amalgam which readily decomposed under the aqueous conditions. Historically, the most important use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical fields. Very few applications existed for caesium until the 1920s, when it came into use in radio vacuum tubes, where it had two functions; as a getter, it removed excess oxygen after manufacture, and as a coating on the heated cathode, it increased the electrical conductivity. Caesium was not recognized as a high-performance industrial metal until the 1950s. Applications for nonradioactive caesium included photoelectric cells, photomultiplier tubes, optical components of infrared spectrophotometers, catalysts for several organic reactions, crystals for scintillation counters, and in magnetohydrodynamic power generators. The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures of 1967 defined a second as: "the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave light absorbed or emitted by the hyperfine transition of caesium-133 atoms in their ground state undisturbed by external fields". ==Applications== ===Petroleum exploration=== The largest present-day use of nonradioactive caesium is in caesium formate drilling fluids for the extractive oil industry. coupled with the relatively benign nature of most caesium compounds, reduces the requirement for toxic high-density suspended solids in the drilling fluid—a significant technological, engineering and environmental advantage. Unlike the components of many other heavy liquids, caesium formate is relatively environment-friendly. Alkali formates are safe to handle and do not damage the producing formation or downhole metals as corrosive alternative, high-density brines (such as zinc bromide solutions) sometimes do; they also require less cleanup and reduce disposal costs. Caesium clocks have improved over the past half-century and are regarded as "the most accurate realization of a unit that mankind has yet achieved." Caesium clocks regulate the timing of cell phone networks and the Internet. ====Definition of the second==== The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. The BIPM restated its definition at its 26th conference in 2018: "[The second] is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency , the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1." ===Electric power and electronics=== Caesium vapour thermionic generators are low-power devices that convert heat energy to electrical energy. In the two-electrode vacuum tube converter, caesium neutralizes the space charge near the cathode and enhances the current flow. Caesium is also important for its photoemissive properties, converting light to electron flow. It is used in photoelectric cells because caesium-based cathodes, such as the intermetallic compound , have a low threshold voltage for emission of electrons. The range of photoemissive devices using caesium include optical character recognition devices, photomultiplier tubes, and video camera tubes. Nevertheless, germanium, rubidium, selenium, silicon, tellurium, and several other elements can be substituted for caesium in photosensitive materials. The element is used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry. Like other alkali metals, caesium has a great affinity for oxygen and is used as a "getter" in vacuum tubes. Other uses of the metal include high-energy lasers, vapour glow lamps, and vapour rectifiers. This technology is used primarily in the isolation of viral particles, subcellular organelles and fractions, and nucleic acids from biological samples. ===Chemical and medical use=== Relatively few chemical applications use caesium. Doping with caesium compounds enhances the effectiveness of several metal-ion catalysts for chemical synthesis, such as acrylic acid, anthraquinone, ethylene oxide, methanol, phthalic anhydride, styrene, methyl methacrylate monomers, and various olefins. It is also used in the catalytic conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide in the production of sulfuric acid. and as an anhydrous source of fluoride ion. Caesium salts sometimes replace potassium or sodium salts in organic synthesis, such as cyclization, esterification, and polymerization. Caesium has also been used in thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): When exposed to radiation, it acquires crystal defects that, when heated, revert with emission of light proportionate to the received dose. Thus, measuring the light pulse with a photomultiplier tube can allow the accumulated radiation dose to be quantified. ===Nuclear and isotope applications=== Caesium-137 is a radioisotope commonly used as a gamma-emitter in industrial applications. Its advantages include a half-life of roughly 30 years, its availability from the nuclear fuel cycle, and having 137Ba as a stable end product. The high water solubility is a disadvantage which makes it incompatible with large pool irradiators for food and medical supplies. It has been used in agriculture, cancer treatment, and the sterilization of food, sewage sludge, and surgical equipment. Radioactive isotopes of caesium in radiation devices were used in the medical field to treat certain types of cancer, but emergence of better alternatives and the use of water-soluble caesium chloride in the sources, which could create wide-ranging contamination, gradually put some of these caesium sources out of use. Caesium-137 has been employed in a variety of industrial measurement gauges, including moisture, density, levelling, and thickness gauges. It has also been used in well logging devices for measuring the electron density of the rock formations, which is analogous to the bulk density of the formations. Caesium-137 has been used in hydrologic studies analogous to those with tritium. As a daughter product of fission bomb testing from the 1950s through the mid-1980s, caesium-137 was released into the atmosphere, where it was absorbed readily into solution. Known year-to-year variation within that period allows correlation with soil and sediment layers. Caesium-134, and to a lesser extent caesium-135, have also been used in hydrology to measure the caesium output by the nuclear power industry. While they are less prevalent than either caesium-133 or caesium-137, these bellwether isotopes are produced solely from anthropogenic sources. ===Other uses=== Caesium and mercury were used as a propellant in early ion engines designed for spacecraft propulsion on very long interplanetary or extraplanetary missions. The fuel was ionized by contact with a charged tungsten electrode. But corrosion by caesium on spacecraft components has pushed development in the direction of inert gas propellants, such as xenon, which are easier to handle in ground-based tests and do less potential damage to the spacecraft. Nevertheless, field-emission electric propulsion thrusters that accelerate liquid metal ions such as caesium have been built. Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and pyrotechnic colorant to burn silicon in infrared flares, such as the LUU-19 flare, because it emits much of its light in the near infrared spectrum. Caesium compounds may have been used as fuel additives to reduce the radar signature of exhaust plumes in the Lockheed A-12 CIA reconnaissance aircraft. Caesium and rubidium have been added as a carbonate to glass because they reduce electrical conductivity and improve stability and durability of fibre optics and night vision devices. Caesium fluoride or caesium aluminium fluoride are used in fluxes formulated for brazing aluminium alloys that contain magnesium. Caesium metal has also been considered as the working fluid in high-temperature Rankine cycle turboelectric generators. Caesium salts have been evaluated as antishock reagents following the administration of arsenical drugs. Because of their effect on heart rhythms, however, they are less likely to be used than potassium or rubidium salts. They have also been used to treat epilepsy. ==Health and safety hazards== Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic, and nonradioactive caesium is not a significant environmental hazard. Because biochemical processes can confuse and substitute caesium with potassium, excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrhythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. The median lethal dose (LD50) for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. The principal use of nonradioactive caesium is as caesium formate in petroleum drilling fluids because it is much less toxic than alternatives, though it is more costly. The isotopes 134 and 137 are present in the biosphere in small amounts from human activities, differing by location. Radiocaesium does not accumulate in the body as readily as other fission products (such as radioiodine and radiostrontium). About 10% of absorbed radiocaesium washes out of the body relatively quickly in sweat and urine. The remaining 90% has a biological half-life between 50 and 150 days. Radiocaesium follows potassium and tends to accumulate in plant tissues, including fruits and vegetables. Plants vary widely in the absorption of caesium, sometimes displaying great resistance to it. It is also well-documented that mushrooms from contaminated forests accumulate radiocaesium (caesium-137) in the fungal sporocarps. Accumulation of caesium-137 in lakes has been a great concern after the Chernobyl disaster. Experiments with dogs showed that a single dose of 3.8 millicuries (140 MBq, 4.1 μg of caesium-137) per kilogram is lethal within three weeks; smaller amounts may cause infertility and cancer. The International Atomic Energy Agency and other sources have warned that radioactive materials, such as caesium-137, could be used in radiological dispersion devices, or "dirty bombs".	[ "isotopes of iodine", "phosphate", "dosimetry", "night vision", "leaching (metallurgy)", "ultracold atom", "sodium hydride", "picometre", "sodium", "cadmium", "photomultiplier tube", "HSAB theory", "nuclear weapons testing", "atomic emission spectroscopy", "caesium formate", "Nigidius Figulus", "hygroscopic", "nickel", "infrared spectroscopy", "silicon", "curie (unit)", "carbon dioxide", "biosphere", "gallium", "n-butyllithium", "Erongo Region", "methanol", "epilepsy", "caesium chloride", "photoelectric effect", "radar cross-section", "picometer", "rhodizite", "chalcogen", "sylvite", "thermionic converter", "sporocarp (fungi)", "sulfur dioxide", "calcium carbonate", "ammonium carbonate", "suboxide", "Bernic Lake", "lithium", "Symbol (chemistry)", "selenium", "borosilicate glass", "dichromate", "oxygen", "sodium chloride", "fluoride", "Tanco mine", "Deep Space 1", "neutron poison", "autoignition temperature", "tellurium", "rubidium chloride", "radioactive decay", "spectroscopy", 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"Zimbabwe", "nuclear magnetic resonance", "SI base unit", "sulfate", "caesium-135", "ozonide", "stable nuclide", "formate", "atomic mass", "Goiânia accident", "organic chemistry", "electron", "molar concentration", "nucleon", "beryl", "superoxide", "Caesium nitrate", "mercury (element)", "neutron capture", "caesium cyanide", "Hz", "melting point", "ionic radius", "MHD generator", "caesium oxide", "copper", "potassium chloride", "atmosphere of Earth", "getter", "National Physical Laboratory, UK", "gold", "American and British English spelling differences", "toxicity", "oxide", "pyrotechnic colorant", "fractional crystallization (chemistry)", "fission product", "Pauling scale", "anion", "ethanol", "Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory", "CIA", "hypokalemia", "solar cell", "azide", "carbonate", "cathode", "sulfuric acid", "flerovium", "nitrate", "spacecraft propulsion", "metal", "Hyperfine structure", "Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz", "peroxide", "isotopes of caesium", "American Chemical Society", "chloroplatinic acid", "Bad Dürkheim", "caesium standard", "ethylene oxide", "atomic clock", "magnetometer", "organic synthesis", "hydrobromic acid", "optical fiber", "acetate", "etching", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "secondary ion mass spectrometry", "gamma ray", "polar aprotic solvents", "polymerization", "oxidizing agent", "nanosecond", "Cabot Corporation", "R-process", "alloy", "londonite", "caesium-133", "Nature (journal)", "indium", "fractional crystallization (geology)", "dirty bomb", "tantalum", "pascal (unit)", "dissolution (chemistry)", "spent nuclear fuel", "thorium", "microwave", "Arrhenius base", "electromagnetic radiation", "completion (oil and gas wells)", "isotope", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "beta decay", "Manitoba", "pezzottaite", "video camera tube", "primitive cell", "cubic crystal system", "exhaust gas", "nuclear isomer", "pegmatite", "Bikita District", "Louis Essen", "caesium ozonide", "Chernobyl disaster", "plasma oscillation", "CANDU Owners Group", "Copernicium", "uranium", "caesium-137", "lead", "oil drilling", "tonne", "wikt:caesius", "radioisotopes", "ionic bond", "barium", "emission spectrum", "optical character recognition", "Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology", "incompatible element", "median lethal dose", "radionuclide", "well logging", "platinum", "methyl methacrylate", "Oxford English Dictionary", "aluminium", "Becquerel", "scintillation counter", "caesium hydroxide", "hydrology", "Latin", "xenon-135", "sulfur trioxide", "field-emission electric propulsion", "xenon-136", "rectifier", "laser", "atomic radius", "vacuum tube", "aluminium oxide", "lepidolite", "nucleic acid", "sulfur", "medium-lived fission product", "water", "hexagonal crystal system", "coordination number", "nuclear fallout", "heart arrhythmia", "long-lived fission product", "hazardous material", "Aulus Gellius", "tungsten", "bismuth", "photomultiplier" ]
5,881	Century	A century is a period of 100 years or 10 decades. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. The word century comes from the Latin centum, meaning one hundred. Century is sometimes abbreviated as c. A centennial or centenary is a hundredth anniversary, or a celebration of this, typically the remembrance of an event which took place a hundred years earlier. == Start and end of centuries == Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years, there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries. One is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perception. According to the strict construction, the 1st century AD, which began with AD 1, ended with AD 100, and the 2nd century with AD 200; in this model, the n-th century starts with a year that follows a year with a multiple of 100 (except the first century as it began after the year 1 BC) and ends with the next coming year with a multiple of 100 (100n), i.e. the 20th century comprises the years 1901 to 2000, and the 21st century comprises the years 2001 to 2100 in strict usage. In common perception and practice, centuries are structured by grouping years based on sharing the 'hundreds' digit(s). In this model, the n-th century starts with the year that ends in "00" and ends with the year ending in "99"; for example, in popular culture, the years 1900 to 1999 constitute the 20th century, and the years 2000 to 2099 constitute the 21st century. (This is similar to the grouping of "0-to-9 decades" which share the 'tens' digit.) To facilitate calendrical calculations by computer, the astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero, with the astronomical year 0 corresponding to the year 1 BC, the astronomical year -1 corresponding to 2 BC, and so on. == Alternative naming systems == Informally, years may be referred to in groups based on the hundreds part of the year. In this system, the years 1900–1999 are referred to as the nineteen hundreds (1900s). Aside from English usage, this system is used in Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Finnish and Hungarian. The Swedish (or ), Danish (or ), Norwegian (or ), Finnish (or ) and Hungarian (or ) refer unambiguously to the years 1900–1999. In Swedish, however, a century is in more rare cases referred to as ("the n-th century") rather than , i.e. the 17th century is (in rare cases) referred to as rather than 1600-talet and mainly also referring to the years 1601–1700 rather than 1600–1699; according to Svenska Akademiens ordbok, may refer to either the years 1501–1600 or 1500–1599. == Similar dating units in other calendar systems == While the century has been commonly used in the West, other cultures and calendars have utilized differently sized groups of years in a similar manner. The Hindu calendar, in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60, while the Aztec calendar considers groups of 52.	[ "1st century", "19th century", "Latin", "AD", "AD 200", "AD 201", "Norwegian language", "Finnish language", "Ancient history", "Anno Domini", "Middle Ages", "200", "Millennium", "Danish language", "Ruth Freitag", "astronomical year numbering", "decade", "Swedish language", "years", "year", "AD 100", "Common Era", "List of decades, centuries, and millennia", "Hungarian language", "AD 1901", "AD 2025", "names of numbers in English", "Saeculum", "AD 2000", "U.S. Government Printing Office", "Hindu calendar", "1st century BC", "Year", "AD 199", "AD 1", "AD 2001", "Before Christ", "AD 1999", "ISO 8601", "AD 1899", "21st century", "AD 99", "AD 101", "popular culture", "Modern era", "AD 1902", "Svenska Akademiens ordbok", "Aztec calendar", "year zero", "1 BC", "3rd century", "AD 2", "AD 102", "centennial", "AD 1900", "Icelandic language", "AD 202", "AD 2002", "Lustrum", "Decade", "2 BC", "Age of Discovery", "2nd century", "20th century" ]
5,882	Cardiff	==Demography== After a period of decline in the 1970s and 1980s, Cardiff's population is growing again. It reached 362,400 in the 2021 census, compared to a 2011 census figure of 346,100. Between mid-2007 and mid-2008, Cardiff was the fastest-growing local authority in Wales, with growth of 1.2%. According to 2001 census data, Cardiff was the 21st largest urban area in the United Kingdom. The Cardiff Larger Urban Zone (a Eurostat definition including the Vale of Glamorgan and a number of local authorities in the Valleys) has 841,600 people, the 10th largest LUZ in the UK. The Cardiff and South Wales Valleys metropolitan area has a population of nearly 1.1 million. Official census estimates of the city's total population have been disputed. The city council published two articles arguing that the 2001 census seriously under-reported the population of Cardiff, and in particular the ethnic minority population of some inner city areas. The Welsh Government's official mid-year estimate of the population of the Cardiff local authority area in 2019 was 366,903. At the 2011, census the official population of the Cardiff Built Up Area (BUA) was put at 447,287. The BUA is not contiguous with the local authority boundary and aggregates data at a lower level; for Cardiff this includes the urban part of Cardiff, Penarth/Dinas Powys, Caerphilly and Pontypridd. Cardiff has an ethnically diverse population due to past trading connections, post-war immigration and large numbers of foreign students who attend university in the city. The ethnic make-up of Cardiff's population at the 2011 census was: 84.7% White, 1.6% mixed White and Black African/Caribbean, 0.7% mixed White and Asian, 0.6% mixed other, 8.1% Asian, 2.4% Black, 1.4% Arab and 0.6% other ethnic groups. This means almost 53,000 people from a non-white ethnic group reside in the city. This diversity, especially that of the city's long-established African and Arab communities, has been recorded in cultural exhibitions and events, along with books published on this subject. ===Health=== There are seven NHS hospitals in the city, the largest being the University Hospital of Wales, which is the third largest hospital in the UK and deals with most accidents and emergencies. The University Dental Hospital, which provides emergency treatment, is also located on this site. Llandough Hospital is located in the south of the city. St. David's Hospital, the city's newest hospital, built behind the former building, is located in Canton and provides services for the elderly and children. Cardiff Royal Infirmary is on Newport Road, near the city centre. The majority of this hospital was closed in 1999, but the west wing remained open for clinic services, genitourinary medicine and rehabilitation treatment. Rookwood Hospital and the Velindre Cancer Centre are also located within Cardiff. They are administered by the Cardiff and Vale University Health Board, with the exception of Velindre, which is run by a separate trust. Spire Healthcare, a private hospital, is in Pontprennau. ===Language=== Cardiff has a chequered linguistic history with Welsh, English, Latin, Norse and Norman French preponderant at different times. Welsh was the majority language in Cardiff from the 13th century until the city's explosive growth in the Victorian era. As late as 1850, five of the 12 Anglican churches within the current city boundaries conducted their services exclusively in Welsh, while only two worshipped exclusively in English. The Welsh language became grouped around a small cluster of chapels and churches, the most notable of which is Tabernacl in the city centre, one of four UK churches chosen to hold official services to commemorate the new millennium. The city's first Welsh-language school (Ysgol Gymraeg Bryntaf) was established in the 1950s. Welsh has since regained ground. Aided by Welsh-medium education and migration from other parts of Wales, there are now many more Welsh speakers: their numbers doubled between the 1991 and 2011 censuses, from 18,071 (6.6%) to 36,735 (11.1%) residents aged three years and above. The LSOA (Lower Layer Super Output Area) with the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in the city centre is found in Canton, at 25.5%. The LSOA with the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in the whole of Cardiff is Whitchurch, at 26%. The ONS estimated that in December 2020, 89,900 (24.8%) of Cardiff's population could speak Welsh. In addition to English and Welsh, the diversity of Cardiff's population (including foreign students) means that many other languages are spoken. One study has found that Cardiff has speakers of at least 94 languages, with Somali, Urdu, Bengali and Arabic being the most commonly spoken foreign ones. The modern Cardiff accent is distinct from that of nearby South Wales Valleys. It is marked primarily by: Substitution of by here [hiːə] pronounced as in the broader form The vowel of start may be realised as or even , so that Cardiff is pronounced . ====Language schools==== Due to its diversity and large student population, more people now come to the city to learn English. Foreign students from Arab states and other European countries are a common sight on the streets of Cardiff. ===Religion=== Since 1922, Cardiff has included Llandaff within its boundary, along with the Anglican Llandaff Cathedral, the parish church of Llandaff and the seat of the Bishop of Llandaff, head of the Church in Wales and the Diocese of Llandaff. There is a Roman Catholic cathedral in the city. Since 1916, Cardiff has been the seat of a Catholic archbishop, but there appears to have been a fall in the estimated Catholic population, with numbers in 2006 around 25,000 fewer than in 1980. Likewise, the Jewish population appears to have fallen – there are two synagogues in Cardiff, one in Cyncoed and one in Moira Terrace, as opposed to seven at the turn of the 20th century. There are several nonconformist chapels, an early 20th century Greek Orthodox church and 11 mosques. In the 2001 census, 66.9% of Cardiff's population described itself as Christian, a percentage point below the Welsh and UK averages. The oldest of the non-Christian communities in Wales is Judaism. Jews were not permitted to live in England and Wales between the 1290 Edict of Expulsion and the 17th century. A Welsh Jewish community was re-established in the 18th century. There was once a fairly substantial Jewish population in South Wales, most of which has disappeared. The Orthodox Jewish community congregations are consolidated in the Cardiff United Synagogue in Cyncoed, which was dedicated by Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks in 2003. The Cardiff Reform Synagogue is in Adamsdown. Cardiff's Muslim population is much above the Welsh average and the longest established in the UK, being started by Yemeni and Somali sailors settling in the 19th century. Cardiff now has over 11,000 Muslims with various national affiliations – nearly 52 per cent of the Muslim population in Wales. The proportion of Cardiff residents declaring themselves Hindu, Sikh and Jewish were all considerably higher than the Welsh averages, but lower than the UK figures. The city has had a Hindu community since Indian immigrants settled in the 1950s and 1960s. The first Hindu temple in the city was opened in Grangetown on 6 April 1979 on the site of an abandoned synagogue. The 25th anniversary of the founding was celebrated in September 2007 with a parade of over 3,000 people through the city centre, including Hindus from across the United Kingdom and members of Cardiff's other religious communities. There are over 2,000 Hindus in Cardiff, worshipping at three temples. ==Economy== As the capital city of Wales, Cardiff is the main engine of growth in the Welsh economy. Though the population of Cardiff is about 10% of the Welsh population, the economy of Cardiff makes up nearly 20% of Welsh GDP and 40% of the city's workforce are daily in-commuters from the surrounding South Wales area. Industry has played a major part in Cardiff's development for many centuries. The main catalyst for its transformation from a small town into a big city was the demand for coal required in making iron and later steel, brought to sea by packhorse from Merthyr Tydfil. This was first achieved by building a canal from Merthyr ( above sea level) to the Taff Estuary at Cardiff. Eventually the Taff Vale Railway replaced the canal barges and massive marshalling yards sprang up as new docks were developed in Cardiff – all prompted by the soaring worldwide demand for coal from the South Wales valleys. At its peak, Cardiff's port area, known as Tiger Bay, became the busiest port in the world and – for some time – the world's most important coal port. In the years leading up to the First World War, more than 10 million tonnes of coal was exported annually from Cardiff Docks. In 1907, Cardiff's Coal Exchange was the first host to a business deal for a million pounds Sterling. The high demand for Welsh coal and specifically Welsh artificial fuel, named Patent Fuel, is shown by the numerous factories producing this fuel, with the same recipe, in the region of Cardiff. Most well known factories were the Star Patent fuel Co., the Crown Patent fuel, the Cardiff Patent fuel etc. After a period of decline, due to low demand on coal, Cardiff's port has started to grow again – over 3 million tonnes of cargo passed through the docks in 2007. Cardiff today is the main finance and business services centre in Wales, with strong representation of finance and business services in the local economy. This sector, combined with the public administration, education and health sectors, have accounted for about 75% of Cardiff's economic growth since 1991. The city was recently placed seventh overall in the top 50 European cities in the fDI 2008 Cities of the Future list published by the fDi magazine, and ranked seventh in terms of attracting foreign investment. Notable companies such as Legal & General, Admiral Insurance, HBOS, Zurich, ING Direct, The AA, Principality Building Society, 118118, British Gas, Brains, SWALEC Energy and BT, all operate large national or regional headquarters and contact centres in the city, some of them based in Cardiff's office towers such as Capital Tower and Brunel House. Other major employers include NHS Wales and the Senedd. On 1 March 2004, Cardiff was granted Fairtrade City status. Cardiff is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the United Kingdom, receiving 18.3 million visitors in 2010 and generating £852 million for the city's economy. One result is that one in five employees in Cardiff is based in the distribution, hotels and restaurants sector, highlighting the growing retail and tourism industries in the city. Cardiff is home to the Welsh media and a large media sector with BBC Cymru Wales, S4C and ITV Wales all having studios in the city. Just to the north-west of the city, in Rhondda Cynon Taff, the first completely new film studios in the UK for 30 years are being built, to be named Valleywood. The studios are set to be the biggest in the UK. In 2011 the BBC completed the Roath Lock studios in Cardiff Bay to film dramas such as Casualty, Doctor Who, and Pobol y Cwm. Cardiff has several regeneration projects, such as St David's 2 Centre and surrounding areas of the city centre, and the £1.4 billion International Sports Village in Cardiff Bay, which played a part in the London 2012 Olympics. It features the only Olympic-standard swimming pool in Wales, the Cardiff International Pool, which opened on 12 January 2008. According to the Welsh Rugby Union, the Principality Stadium contributed £1 billion to the Welsh economy in the ten years after it opened in 1999, with around 85% of that staying in the Cardiff area. ===Shopping=== Most of Cardiff's shopping portfolio is in the city centre around Queen Street, St Mary Street and High Street, with large suburban retail parks in Cardiff Bay, Culverhouse Cross, Leckwith, Newport Road and Pontprennau, together with markets in the city centre and Splott. A £675 million regeneration programme for Cardiff's St. David's Centre was completed in 2009, providing a total of of shopping space, making it one of the largest shopping centres in the United Kingdom. The centre was named the international shopping centre of the year in 2010 by Retail Leisure International (RLI). The Castle Quarter is a commercial area in the north of the city centre, which includes some of Cardiff's Victorian and Edwardian arcades: Castle Arcade, Morgan Arcade and Royal Arcade, and principal shopping streets: St Mary Street, High Street, The Hayes, and Queen Street. Morgan Arcade is home to Spillers Records, the world's oldest record shop. Cardiff has a number of markets, including the vast Victorian indoor Cardiff Central Market and the newly established Riverside Community Market, which specialises in locally produced organic produce. ==Transport== ===Rail=== Cardiff Central railway station is the largest railway station in Wales, with eight platforms coping with over 12.5 million passengers a year. It provides direct services to Bridgend and Newport, long-distance, cross-Wales services to Wrexham and Holyhead, and services to Bristol, Birmingham, Manchester and London. Cardiff Central Station is situated within the southern border of what was known Temperance Town, a former residential area within central Cardiff. Cardiff Queen Street railway station is the second busiest in Wales and the hub for the Valley Lines services that connect the South Wales Valleys and the Cardiff suburbs with the city centre. It is located at the eastern end of the city centre and provides services to Cardiff Bay. Cardiff has a suburban rail system known as the Valleys & Cardiff Local Routes, operated by Transport for Wales. There are eight lines that serve 20 stations in the city, 26 in the wider urban area (including Taffs Well, Penarth and Dinas Powys) and more than 60 in the South Wales valleys and the Vale of Glamorgan. ===Metro=== The South Wales Metro is an integrated public transport system under development in south-east Wales, centered on Cardiff. The project is to include the electrification of some of the existing railway lines and the creation of multiple light rail and light rapid transit lines. Four lines are under construction with a further three planned. The first lines will link Penarth and Cardiff Bay to , , and , with plans to also serve Pontyclun, St Mellons and Porth Teigr. Alongside this, current commuter services will be improved with a near-tripling in capacity on some routes to and . ===Air=== Domestic and international air links to Cardiff and South & West Wales are provided from Cardiff Airport (CWL), the only international airport in Wales. The airport lies in the village of Rhoose, west of the city. There are regular bus services linking the airport with Cardiff city centre, and a train service from Rhoose Cardiff International Airport railway station to Cardiff Central. ===Road and bus=== The M4 motorway connects Cardiff with Swansea to the west and Newport and London to the east, with four junctions on the M4, including one with the A48(M). The A470 provides an important link from the city to the Heads of the Valleys road. When completed, the A4232 – also known as the Peripheral Distributor Road – will form part of the Cardiff ring-road system, along with the M4 motorway between junctions 30 and 33. Cardiff has a comprehensive bus network, whose providers include the municipal bus company Cardiff Bus (routes within the city and to Newport, Barry and Penarth), Adventure Travel (cross-city and to Cardiff Airport), Stagecoach South Wales (to the South Wales Valleys) and First Cymru (to Cowbridge and Bridgend). National Express and Megabus provides direct services to major cities such as Bristol, London, Newcastle upon Tyne and Manchester. Most bus services in the city use Cardiff Bus Interchange located next to Central Station, which opened in 2024 replacing an older structure on the same site, whilst intercity and coach services use the coach terminal located near Sophia Gardens in the north of the city centre. ===Cycle=== The Taff Trail is a walking and cycle path running for between Cardiff Bay and Brecon in the Brecon Beacons National Park. It runs through Bute Park, Sophia Gardens and many other green areas within Cardiff. It is possible to cycle the entire distance of the Trail almost completely off-road, as it largely follows the River Taff and many of the disused railways of the Glamorganshire valleys. Nextbike previously operated a public bike-hire scheme in the city between March 2018 and January 2024, with the scheme allegedly being scrapped due to theft. Cardiff Council are seeking a replacement operator. ===Water=== The Aquabus water taxi runs every hour between the city centre (Taff Mead Embankment) and Cardiff Bay (Mermaid Quay), and between Cardiff Bay and Penarth Cardiff Bay Barrage. Throughout the year, Cardiff Waterbus sail between the Pierhead on The Waterfront and the Penarth end of the Cardiff Bay Barrage with short sightseeing cruises. Between March and October boats depart from Cardiff Bay for Flat Holm Island. The PS Waverley and MV Balmoral sail from Britannia Quay (in Roath Basin) to various destinations in the Bristol Channel. File:Cardiff Central station (26526139271).jpg\|Cardiff Central railway station File:Gorsaf Heol y Frenhines, Caerdydd.JPG\|Cardiff Queen Street railway station File:Depo Ffynnon Taf - TfW 398011 llaes 398010.JPG\|South Wales Metro tram-trains File:Cardiff Airport (Oct 2010).jpg\|Cardiff Airport File:Bus Interchange Open (1).jpg\|Cardiff Bus Interchange File:Cardiff Bus (Bws Caerdydd) YN17ONL.jpg\|Cardiff Bus is the main bus operator in the Cardiff area File:Cycle lane in Excalibur Drive, Cardiff.jpg\|Typical cycle lane in Cardiff File:Aquabushydro1.jpg\|Aquabus ==Telecommunications== 029 is the current telephone dialling code for Cardiff, as well as for the neighbouring towns of Penarth, Dinas Powys and Caerphilly. The dialling code is optional when dialling within the area: one can dial between any two phones within the 029 code using only the eight-digit local number. Prior to the Big Number Change on 22 April 2000 the area had shorter, six-digit local numbers with an area code of 01222. is a member of the Russell Group of leading research led universities, having most of its campus in Cathays and the city centre. Cardiff Metropolitan University (formerly UWIC) has campuses in the Llandaff, Cyncoed and city centre areas, and is part of the confederal University of Wales. The Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama is a conservatoire established in 1949 and is based in the grounds of Cardiff Castle. The University of South Wales's Cardiff campus, Atrium, is home to the Cardiff School of Creative & Cultural Industries and is located in the city centre. The total number of higher education students in the city is around 43,900. The city also has two further education colleges: Cardiff and Vale College and St David's College. The former is the result of a merger, completed in August 2011, between Coleg Glan Hafren and Barry College. Further education is also offered at most high schools in the city. Cardiff has three state nursery schools (one bilingual), 98 state primary schools (two bilingual, fifteen Welsh medium), and 19 state secondary schools (three Welsh medium). There are also several independent schools in the city, including St John's College, Llandaff Cathedral School, Cardiff Sixth Form College, Kings Monkton School and Howell's School, a single-sex girls' school (until sixth form). In 2013 Cardiff Sixth Form College came top of the independent senior schools in the UK, which were based on the percentage of A* and A at Advanced Level. Also in the top 100 were St John's College and Howell's School. Notable schools include Whitchurch High School (the largest secondary school in Wales), Fitzalan High School (one of the most multi-cultural state schools in the UK), and Ysgol Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf (the largest Welsh medium secondary school in Wales). As well as academic institutions, Cardiff is also home to other educational and learning organisations such as Techniquest, a hands-on science discovery centre that now has franchises throughout Wales, and is part of the Wales Gene Park in collaboration with Cardiff University, NHS Wales and the Welsh Development Agency (WDA). Cardiff is also home to a regional office of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO). ==Landmarks and attractions== Cardiff has many landmark buildings such as the Principality Stadium, Pierhead Building, the Welsh National Museum and the Senedd building, the home of the Welsh Parliament. Cardiff is also known for Cardiff Castle, St David's Hall, St John the Baptist Church, Llandaff Cathedral and the Wales Millennium Centre. Cardiff Castle is a major tourist attraction in the city and is situated in the heart of the city centre. The National History Museum at St Fagans in Cardiff is a large open-air museum housing dozens of buildings from throughout Welsh history that have been moved to the site in Cardiff. The Civic Centre in Cathays Park comprises a collection of Edwardian buildings such as the City Hall, National Museum and Gallery of Wales, Cardiff Crown Court, and buildings forming part of Cardiff University, together with more modern civic buildings. These buildings are laid out around the Queen Alexandra Gardens, a formal park which contains the Welsh National War Memorial and a number of other, smaller memorials. In addition to Cardiff Castle, Castell Coch is a castle in Tongwynlais, in the north of the city. The current castle is an elaborately decorated Victorian folly designed by William Burges for the Marquess and built in the 1870s, as an occasional retreat. However, the Victorian castle stands on the footings of a much older medieval castle possibly built by Ifor Bach, a regional baron with links to Cardiff Castle also. The exterior has become a popular location for film and television productions. It rarely fulfilled its intended role as a retreat for the Butes, who seldom stayed there. For the Marquess, the pleasure had been in its creation, a pleasure lost following Burges's death in 1881. Cardiff claims the largest concentration of castles of any city in the world. As well as Cardiff Castle and Castell Coch, there are the remains of two motte-and-bailey castles in Morganstown and Rhiwbina, known as Morganstown Castle Mound and Twmpath Castle or Twmpath Motte (also known as ) respectively. Twmpath being a Welsh word for a small mound), which along with a castle at Whitchurch (known as Treoda and destroyed by housing in the 1960s) formed an arc of fortifications which divided the Norman lordship from the Welsh lordship of Senghenydd. Further up the Cefn Cibwr ridge on the boundary with Caerphilly there is also another ruined castle, known as Morgraig Castle (). Archaeological evidence suggests this castle was never finished, and it is debated whether the fortification was of Norman or Welsh origin. The concentration of castles indicates the moveable nature of the border between the Norman lordship of Glamorgan, centred at Cardiff, and its Welsh neighbours to the north. There is also the ruined Llandaff Bishop's Palace, also known as Llandaff Castle, which was the home of the medieval bishops, which was destroyed about 1403–1404 by the Welsh leader Owain Glyndŵr. Now only the ruined gatehouse remains. Cathedral Road was developed by the 3rd Marquis of Bute and is lined by fine villas, some backing on to Sophia Gardens. Cardiff has walks of special interest for tourists and ramblers alike, such as the Centenary Walk, which runs for within Cardiff city centre. This route passes through many of Cardiff's landmarks and historic buildings. The Animal Wall, designed by William Burges in 1866, marks the south edge of Bute Park on Castle Street. It bears 15 carved animal statues. ==Culture and recreation== Cardiff has many cultural sites varying from the historical Cardiff Castle and out of town Castell Coch to the more modern Wales Millennium Centre and Cardiff Bay. Cardiff was a finalist in the European Capital of Culture 2008. In recent years Cardiff has grown in stature as a tourist destination, with recent accolades including Cardiff being voted the eighth favourite UK city by readers of the Guardian. The city was also listed as one of the top 10 destinations in the UK on the official British tourist boards website Visit Britain, and US travel guide Frommers have listed Cardiff as one of 13 top destinations worldwide for 2008. Annual events in Cardiff that have become regular appearances in Cardiff's calendar include Sparks in the Park, The Great British Cheese Festival, Pride Cymru (formerly Cardiff Mardi Gras), Cardiff Winter Wonderland, Cardiff Festival and Made in Roath. ===Music and performing arts=== A large number of concerts are held in the city, the larger ones at St David's Hall, Cardiff International Arena and occasionally the Principality Stadium. A number of festivals are also held in Cardiff, the largest being the Cardiff Big Weekend Festival, held annually in the city centre in the summer and playing host to free musical performances (from artists such as Ash, Jimmy Cliff, Cerys Matthews, the Fun Loving Criminals, Soul II Soul and the Magic Numbers), fairground rides and cultural events such as a Children's Festival that takes place in the grounds of Cardiff Castle. The annual festival claims to be the UK's largest free outdoor festival, attracting over 250,000 visitors in 2007. Cardiff hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1883, 1899, 1938, 1960, 1978, 2008 and 2018. Cardiff is unique in Wales in having two permanent stone circles used by the Gorsedd of Bards during Eisteddfodau. The original circle stands in Gorsedd Gardens in front of the National Museum while its 1978 replacement is situated in Bute Park. Since 1983, Cardiff has hosted the BBC Cardiff Singer of the World competition, a world-renowned event on the opera calendar which is held every two years. The city also hosts smaller events. The Wales Millennium Centre hosts performances of opera, ballet, dance, comedy, musicals and is home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales. St David's Hall (which hosts the Singer of the World competition) has regular performances of classical music and ballet as well as music of other genres. The largest of Cardiff's theatres is the New Theatre, situated in the city centre just off Queen Street. Other such venues include the Sherman Theatre, Chapter Arts Centre and the Gate Arts Centre. The Cardiff music scene is established and wide-ranging: home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales and the Welsh National Opera; has produced several leading acts; has acted as a springboard for Welsh bands to become famous. Acts hailing from Cardiff include Charlotte Church, Shirley Bassey, Iwan Rheon, the Oppressed, Kids In Glass Houses, Los Campesinos, the Hot Puppies, the School, We're No Heroes, Budgie and Shakin' Stevens. Also, artists such as Stereophonics, the Automatic, Manic Street Preachers, Lostprophets, Underworld, Super Furry Animals, Catatonia and Bullet for My Valentine have links with the city and are associated with the Cardiff music scene. In 2010, Cardiff was named the UK's second "most musical" city by PRS for Music. ===Visual arts=== Cardiff has held a photomarathon in the city each year since 2004, in which photographers compete to take the best 12 pictures of 12 previously unknown topics in 12 hours. An exhibition of winners and other entries is held in June/July each year. ===Sporting venues=== Cardiff's former municipal baths opened in 1862, as Turkish Baths, and were taken over by the City Council in 1873, before closing over a century later. Sporting venues include the Principality Stadium – the national stadium and home of the Wales national rugby union team – Sophia Gardens for Glamorgan County Cricket Club, Cardiff City Stadium for Cardiff City F.C. and the Wales football team, Cardiff International Sports Stadium, home of Cardiff Amateur Athletic Club, Cardiff Arms Park for Cardiff Blues and Cardiff RFC rugby union teams, and Ice Arena Wales for Cardiff Devils ice hockey team. It hosted the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games and was dubbed European City of Sport for its role in international sporting events in 2009 and again in 2014. The Principality Stadium hosted 11 football matches during the 2012 Summer Olympics, including the opening event and the men's bronze medal match. ===Recreation=== Cardiff has strong nightlife. Most clubs and bars are situated in the city centre, especially St Mary Street. More recently Cardiff Bay has built up a strong night scene, with many modern bars and restaurants. The Brewery Quarter on St Mary Street is a recently developed venue for bars and restaurant with a central courtyard. Charles Street is also a popular part of the city. Cardiff is known for its extensive parks and other green spaces covering around 10% of the city's total area. Cardiff's main park, Bute Park (which was formerly the castle grounds) extends northwards from the top of one of Cardiff's main shopping street (Queen Street); when combined with the adjacent Llandaff Fields and Pontcanna Fields to the north-west it produces a massive open space skirting the River Taff. Other popular parks include Roath Park in the north, donated to the city by the 3rd Marquess of Bute in 1887, which includes a popular boating lake; Victoria Park, Cardiff's first official park; and Thompson's Park, formerly home to an aviary removed in the 1970s. Wild open spaces include Howardian Local Nature Reserve, of the lower Rhymney valley in Penylan noted for its orchids, and Forest Farm Country Park, over along the River Taff in Whitchurch. ==Media== Cardiff is the Welsh base for the main national broadcasters (BBC Cymru Wales, ITV Wales and S4C). A locally based television station, Made in Cardiff, is also based in the city centre. Major filming studios in Cardiff include the BBC's Roath Lock Studios and Pinewood Studios Wales. Several contemporary television programmes and films are filmed in and/or set in Cardiff such as Casualty, Doctor Who, The Sarah Jane Adventures, Torchwood, Merlin, Class, The Valleys, Upstairs Downstairs, A Discovery of Witches, His Dark Materials, Being Human, The Story of Tracy Beaker, Wizards vs Aliens, Sex Education and Sherlock. The main local newspaper is the South Wales Echo; the national paper is the Western Mail. Both are based in Park Street in the city centre. Capital Times, Echo Extra and the South Wales edition of Metro are also based and distributed in the city. There are several magazines, including Primary Times and a monthly papur bro, and a Welsh-language community newsletter called Y Dinesydd (The Citizen). Radio stations serving the city and based in Cardiff include Capital South Wales, Heart South Wales, BBC Radio Wales, BBC Radio Cymru, Nation Radio Wales, Radio Cardiff, Smooth Wales and Xpress Radio. The Principality Stadium was one of the first six British landmarks to be fully mapped on Google Street View as a 360-degree virtual tour. ==Sport== Cardiff hosts many high-profile sporting events at local, national and international level and in recognition of the city's commitment to sport for all was awarded the title of European Capital of Sport 2014. Organised sports have been held in the city since the early 19th century. national home sporting fixtures are nearly always played in the city. All Wales' multi-sports agencies and many of the country's sports governing bodies have their headquarters in Cardiff and the city's many top quality venues have attracted world-famous sports events, sometimes unrelated to Cardiff or to Wales. In 2008/09, 61% of Cardiff residents regularly participated in sport and active recreation, the highest percentage in ll 22 local authorities in Wales. Rugby union fans around the world have long been familiar with the old National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, and its successor the Principality Stadium, which hosted the FA Cup for six years (from 2001 to 2006) it took to rebuild Wembley Stadium. In 2009, Cardiff hosted the first Ashes cricket test between England and Australia to be held in Wales. Cardiff hosted eight football matches of the London 2012 Olympics. Cardiff City F.C. (founded 1899 as Riverside AFC) played their home games at Ninian Park from 1910 until the end of the 2008–09 season. The club's new home is the Cardiff City Stadium, which they initially rented to the Cardiff Blues, the city's professional rugby union team, the Blues returning to the Arms Park in 2012. Cardiff City have played in the English Football League since the 1920–21 season, climbing to Division 1 after one season. Cardiff City are the only non-English team to have won the FA Cup, beating Arsenal in the 1927 final at Wembley Stadium. In the 2013/14 and 2018/19 seasons Cardiff City played in the English Premier League. Cardiff Metropolitan University F.C. of the Athletic Union of Cardiff Metropolitan University, based in Cyncoed, play in the Cymru Premier, having been promoted from Welsh League Division One in 2016. They were winners of the Welsh League Cup for the 2018–19 season. Cardiff has numerous smaller clubs including Bridgend Street A.F.C., Caerau (Ely) A.F.C., Cardiff Corinthians F.C., Cardiff Grange Harlequins A.F.C., and Ely Rangers A.F.C., which all play in the Welsh football league system. In addition to men's football teams Cardiff City Ladies of the FA Women's Premier League Southern Division are based in the city. Teams in the Welsh Premier Women's Football League are Cardiff Met. Ladies, Cyncoed Ladies and Cardiff City. During the 1990s, London-based football club Wimbledon FC expressed interest in relocating to Cardiff, having been without a home of their own since exiting Plough Lane stadium in 1991 and sharing with Crystal Palace FC at Selhurst Park. The relocation of the club to Cardiff did not happen; in 2003, the club moved to Milton Keynes and a year later rebranded as Milton Keynes Dons. Cardiff Arms Park (), in central Cardiff, is among the world's most famous venues—being the scene of three Welsh Grand Slams in the 1970s (1971, 1976 and 1978) and six Five Nations titles in nine years—and was the venue for Wales' games in the 1991 Rugby World Cup. The Arms Park has a sporting history dating back to at least the 1850s, when Cardiff Cricket Club (formed 1819) relocated to the site. In addition to Wales' Six Nations Championship and other international games, the Principality Stadium held four matches in the 2007 Rugby World Cup and six FA Cup finals (from the 2001–02 to 2005–06 seasons) while Wembley Stadium was being rebuilt. The Hundred franchise team Welsh Fire is also based at the stadium. Cardiff has a long association with boxing, from 'Peerless' Jim Driscoll — born in Cardiff in 1880 — to more recent, high-profile fights staged in the city. These include the WBC Lennox Lewis vs. Frank Bruno heavyweight championship fight at the Arms Park in 1993, and many of Joe Calzaghe's fights, between 2003 and 2007. Cardiff's professional ice hockey team, the Cardiff Devils, plays in the 3,000-seat Ice Arena Wales in the Cardiff International Sports Village. It plays in the 12-team professional Elite Ice Hockey League. Founded in 1986, it was one of the most successful British teams in the 1990s. Cardiff's only American-flag football team is the Hurricanes. It won the British Championship in 2014 after falling short by 2 points in a quarter-final to eventual winners, the London Rebels, the previous year. It is based at Roath Recreational Ground. The 1958 Commonwealth Games were hosted by Cardiff. These involved 1,130 athletes from 35 national teams competing in 94 events. One of the venues for those Games—The Wales Empire Swimming Pool—was demolished in 1998 to make way for the Principality Stadium. The GBP32m Cardiff International Pool in Cardiff Bay, opened to the public on 12 January 2008 — part of the GBP1bn International Sports Village (ISV) — is the only Olympic-standard swimming pool in Wales. When complete, the ISV complex will provide Olympic standard facilities for sports including boxing and fencing, gymnastics, judo, white water events (including canoeing and kayaking) and wrestling as well as a snow dome with real snow for skiing and snowboarding, an arena for public ice skating and ice hockey and a hotel. Some of the sports facilities at the ISV were to be used as training venues for the London 2012 Olympics. The Principality Stadium hosts motor-sport events such as the World Rally Championship, as part of Wales Rally GB. The first indoor special stages of the World Rally Championship were held at the Principality Stadium in September 2005 and have been an annual event since. The British Speedway Grand Prix, one of the World Championship events, is held at the Principality Stadium. The Cardiff International Sports Stadium, opened 19 January 2009, replacing the Cardiff Athletics Stadium, demolished to make way for the Cardiff City Stadium. It has a 4,953 capacity as a multi sport/special event venue, offering certificated international track and field athletics facilities, including an international standard external throws area. The stadium houses the Headquarters of Welsh Athletics, the sport's governing body for Wales. The city's indoor track and field athletics sports venue is the National Indoor Athletics Centre, an international athletics and multi sports centre at the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff Campus, Cyncoed. The Cardiff Half Marathon takes place each October and is one of the largest road races in the United Kingdom, attracting over 20,000 participants and many overseas visitors annually. The event is organised by the not-for-profit social enterprise Run 4 Wales, and has grown considerably since its establishment in 2003. It has hosted the World (2016) Commonwealth (2018) British (2014/2015) and Welsh (Annually) Half Marathon Championships and has held a World Athletics Elite Road Race Label since 2017. The race is also a part of the SuperHalfs, a series of leading international half marathon races which also includes Lisbon, Prague, Berlin, Valencia and Copenhagen. ==Notable people== Many notable people have hailed from Cardiff, ranging from historical figures such as the 12th-century Welsh leader Ifor Bach to more recent figures such as Roald Dahl, Ken Follett, Griff Rhys Jones, Catrin Dafydd, and the former Blue Peter presenter Gethin Jones. Notable actors include Ioan Gruffudd (Fantastic 4), Iwan Rheon (Game of Thrones) and Matthew Rhys (The Americans). Also notable is Siân Grigg, BAFTA winner and Oscar nominated Hollywood make-up artist. The city has been the birthplace of sports stars such as Tanni Grey-Thompson and Colin Jackson, as well as many Premier League, Football League and international footballers, such as Craig Bellamy, Gareth Bale, Ryan Giggs, Joe Ledley, and former managers of the Wales national football team Terry Yorath and John Toshack. International rugby league players from Cardiff include Frank Whitcombe, Billy Boston, David Willicombe and Colin Dixon. International rugby union players include Sam Warburton, Jamie Roberts, Jamie Robinson, Nicky Robinson, Rhys Patchell, and baseball internationals include George Whitcombe and Ted Peterson. Saint Teilo ( – 9 February ) is the patron saint of Cardiff. He was a British Christian monk, bishop, and founder of monasteries and churches. Reputed to be a cousin, friend, and disciple of Saint David, he was Bishop of Llandaff and founder of the first church at Llandaff Cathedral, where his tomb is. His Saint's Day is 9 February. Cardiff is also well known for its musicians. Ivor Novello inspired the Ivor Novello Awards. Idloes Owen, founder of the Welsh National Opera, lived in Llandaff. Dame Shirley Bassey was born and raised in Cardiff. Charlotte Church is famous as a crossover classical/pop singer. Shakin' Stevens was one of the top-selling male artists in the UK during the 1980s. Tigertailz, a popular glam metal act in the 1980s, also hailed from Cardiff. A number of Cardiff-based bands, such as Catatonia and Super Furry Animals, were popular in the 1990s. ==Twinning== Luhansk, Ukraine Stuttgart, Germany ==Namesakes== In the United States both Cardiff-by-the-Sea in Encinitas, California and Cardiff, Alabama were named after Cardiff in Wales. In New Zealand Cardiff, Taranaki was also named after Cardiff in Wales. ==Diplomatic presence== A total of 28 countries have a diplomatic presence in Cardiff. Many of these, such as Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Denmark, Canada, Thailand and the Czech Republic, are represented by honorary consulates. The United States Embassy to the UK operates a satellite office. ==Freedom of the City== The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Cardiff; they are listed with the date that they received the honour. ===Individuals=== ===Military units=== The Welch Regiment: 10 June 1944 The Welsh Guards: 27 April 1957 The Royal Regiment of Wales: 11 June 1969 The Royal Welch Fusiliers: 7 November 1973 The 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards: 29 July 1985 HMS Cardiff, RN: 3 February 1988 The Merchant Navy Association (Wales): 3 September 2001 203 (Welsh) Field Hospital (Volunteers) RAMC: 21 April 2014 HMS Dragon, RN: 18 May 2014	[ "Milton Keynes", "Newport railway station", "Henry IV of England", "Whitchurch High School", "Eurocities", "Castle Arcade", "Alfred Thomas, 1st Baron Pontypridd", "Cardiff Bay Development Corporation", "Colin Dixon", "Above mean sea level", "Cardiff East (UK Parliament constituency)", "Llandaff North", "Rugby union", "BT Group", "New Theatre (Cardiff)", "Pontypridd", "St. David's Centre", "anglicised", "First World War", "Llanishen", "Wales national rugby union team", "consul (representative)", "Magnus Maximus", "Coedkernew", "Walking", "Philip Dunleavy", "Hinduism in Wales", "Nicky Robinson (rugby union)", "castles", "Marcher lord", "Llanedeyrn", "Butetown", "Goscombe John", "Urban renewal", "Tasker Watkins", "Joe Calzaghe", "Field Marshal", "Vaughan Gething", "the Magic Numbers", "Sucre", "City of Cardiff Council", "Cardiff Centenary Walk", "sub-Roman Britain", "Portsmouth F.C.", "British Council", "City Hall, Cardiff", "Ash (band)", "2021 United Kingdom census", "Cardiff Metropolitan University", "Cyncoed Ladies F.C.", "SA Brain & Company Ltd", "Welsh League Cup", "St Fagans", "Cardiff urban area", "The Football League", "Sport Wales", "New Zealand", "Jenny Rathbone", "Cardiff North (UK Parliament constituency)", "2021 Senedd election", "Rhoose Cardiff International Airport railway station", "Welsh National War Memorial", "Underworld (band)", "Bishop of Llandaff", "cycle path", "David Lloyd George", "folly", "Cardiff big weekend", "Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom", "boxing", "List of UK shopping centres", "Xpress Radio", "1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games", "Merthyr", "Dowlais Ironworks", "Greenwich Mean Time", "Federation of Disability Sport Wales", "Preserved counties of Wales", "staple port", "Old St Mellons", "Victoria Park, Cardiff", "Welsh Sports Association", "Bhupinder Singh of Patiala", "sand", "Devonian", "Welsh-medium education", "List of Welsh principal areas", "David Davies (industrialist)", "Mynachdy", "Barry Railway Company", "St John's College, Cardiff", "Cardiff South and Penarth (UK Parliament constituency)", "203 (Welsh) Field Hospital", "Temperance Town, Cardiff", "118 118 (UK)", "Royal Welch Fusiliers", "We're No Heroes", "blue lias", "Nelson Mandela", "Monmouthshire (historic)", "Tŷ William Morgan - William Morgan House", "borough", "Heritage Coast", "maritime climate", "D. 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5,884	Charles Dickens	Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English novelist, journalist, short story writer and social critic. He created some of literature's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime and, by the 20th century, critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are widely read today. Born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school at age 12 to work in a boot-blacking factory when his father John was incarcerated in a debtors' prison. After three years, he returned to school before beginning his literary career as a journalist. Dickens edited a weekly journal for 20 years; wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and nonfiction articles; lectured and performed readings extensively; was a tireless letter writer; and campaigned vigorously for children's rights, education and other social reforms. Dickens's literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, a publishing phenomenon—thanks largely to the introduction of the character Sam Weller in the fourth episode—that sparked Pickwick merchandise and spin-offs. Within a few years, Dickens had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most of them published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction, which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication. Cliffhanger endings in his serial publications kept readers in suspense. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience's reaction, and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback. His plots were carefully constructed and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the illiterate poor would individually pay a halfpenny to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up and inspiring a new class of readers. His 1843 novella A Christmas Carol remains especially popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every creative medium. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London. His 1853 novel Bleak House, a satire on the judicial system, helped support a reformist movement that culminated in the 1870s legal reform in England. A Tale of Two Cities (set in London and Paris) is regarded as his best-known work of historical fiction. The most famous celebrity of his era, he undertook, in response to public demand, a series of public reading tours in the later part of his career. ==Early life== Charles Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 at 1 Mile End Terrace (now 393 Commercial Road), Landport in Portsea Island (Portsmouth), Hampshire, the second of eight children of Elizabeth Dickens (née Barrow; 1789–1863) and John Dickens (1785–1851). His father was a clerk in the Royal Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger in the Royal Navy and head of an established firm, to act as godfather to Charles. Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickens's novel Dombey and Son (1848). When Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he thought himself a "very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy". Charles spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, including the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe and Gil Blas. He read and re-read The Arabian Nights and the Collected Farces of Elizabeth Inchbald. Aged seven, he first saw Joseph Grimaldi—the father of modern clowning—perform at the Star Theatre in Rochester, Kent. He later imitated Grimaldi's clowning on several occasions, and would also edit the Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi. He retained poignant memories of childhood, helped by an excellent memory of people and events, which he used in his writing. His father's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education, first at a dame school and then at a school run by William Giles, a dissenter, in Chatham. This period came to an end in June 1822, when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at Somerset House and the family (except for Charles, who stayed behind to finish his final term at school) moved to Camden Town in London. The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts and, living beyond his means, John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the Marshalsea debtors' prison in Southwark, London in 1824. His wife and youngest children joined him there, as was the practice at the time. Charles, then 12 years old, boarded with Elizabeth Roylance, a family friend, at 112 College Place, Camden Town. Mrs Roylance was "a reduced impoverished old lady, long known to our family", whom Dickens later immortalised, "with a few alterations and embellishments", as "Mrs Pipchin" in Dombey and Son. Later, he lived in a back-attic in the house of an agent for the Insolvent Court, Archibald Russell, "a fat, good-natured, kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife" and lame son, in Lant Street in Southwark. They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in The Old Curiosity Shop. On Sundays—with his sister Frances, free from her studies at the Royal Academy of Music—he spent the day at the Marshalsea. Dickens later used the prison as a setting in Little Dorrit. To pay for his board and to help his family, Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten-hour days at Warren's Blacking Warehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the present Charing Cross railway station, where he earned six shillings a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking. The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays, becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio-economic and labour conditions, the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor. He later wrote that he wondered "how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age".}} When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart, busy district of Covent Garden, the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street. Small audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens's biographer Simon Callow's estimation, the public display was "a new refinement added to his misery". A few months after his imprisonment, John Dickens's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, died and bequeathed him £450. On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens was released from prison. Under the Insolvent Debtors Act, Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left the Marshalsea, for the home of Mrs Roylance. Charles's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, did not immediately support his removal from the boot-blacking warehouse. This influenced Dickens's view that a father should rule the family and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home: "I never afterwards forgot, I never shall forget, I never can forget, that my mother was warm for my being sent back." His mother's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women. Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and most autobiographical, novel, David Copperfield: "I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven!" Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, attorneys, of Holborn Court, Gray's Inn, as a junior clerk from May 1827 to November 1828. He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him: clients, lawyers and clerks. Captivated with London's theatre scene, he went to theatres obsessively: he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every day. His favourite actor was Charles Mathews and Dickens learnt his "monopolylogues" (farces in which Mathews played every character) by heart. Then, having learned Gurney's system of shorthand in his spare time, he left to become a freelance reporter. A distant relative, Thomas Charlton, was a freelance reporter at Doctors' Commons and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years. In 1830, Dickens met his first love, Maria Beadnell, thought to have been the model for the character Dora in David Copperfield. Maria's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris. == Career == ===Journalism and writing=== In 1832, at the age of 20, Dickens was energetic and increasingly self-confident. He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment, lacked a clear, specific sense of what he wanted to become, and yet knew he wanted fame. Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of the Garrick Club—he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden, where the manager George Bartley and the actor Charles Kemble were to see him. Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews, but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold. Before another opportunity arose, he had set out on his career as a writer. In 1833, Dickens submitted his first story, "A Dinner at Poplar Walk", to the London periodical Monthly Magazine. His uncle William Barrow offered him a job on The Mirror of Parliament and he worked in the House of Commons for the first time early in 1832. He rented rooms at Furnival's Inn and worked as a political journalist, reporting on Parliamentary debates, and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle. His journalism, in the form of sketches in periodicals, formed his first collection of pieces, published in 1836: Sketches by Boz—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years. Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname 'Moses', which he had given to his youngest brother Augustus Dickens, after a character in Oliver Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield. When pronounced by anyone with a head cold, "Moses" became "Boses"—later shortened to Boz. Dickens's own name was considered "queer" by a contemporary critic, who wrote in 1849: "Mr Dickens, as if in revenge for his own queer name, does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations." Dickens contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career. Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially. He began a friendship with William Harrison Ainsworth, the author of the highwayman novel Rookwood (1834), whose bachelor salon in Harrow Road had become the meeting place for a set that included Daniel Maclise, Benjamin Disraeli, Edward Bulwer-Lytton and George Cruikshank. All these became his friends and collaborators, with the exception of Disraeli, and he met his first publisher, John Macrone, at the house. The success of Sketches by Boz led to a proposal from publishers Chapman and Hall for Dickens to supply text to match Robert Seymour's engraved illustrations in a monthly letterpress. Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment and Dickens, who wanted to write a connected series of sketches, hired "Phiz" to provide the engravings (which were reduced from four to two per instalment) for the story. The resulting story became The Pickwick Papers and, although the first few episodes were not successful, the introduction of the Cockney character Sam Weller in the fourth episode (the first to be illustrated by Phiz) marked a sharp climb in its popularity. The final instalment sold 40,000 copies. The unprecedented success led to numerous spin-offs and merchandise including Pickwick cigars, playing cards, china figurines, Sam Weller puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books. In November 1836, Dickens accepted the position of editor of Bentley's Miscellany, a position he held for three years, until he fell out with the owner. In 1836, as he finished the last instalments of The Pickwick Papers, he began writing the beginning instalments of Oliver Twist—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work on Bentley's and also writing four plays, the production of which he oversaw. Oliver Twist, published in 1838, became one of Dickens's better known stories and was the first Victorian novel with a child protagonist. On 2 April 1836, after a one-year engagement, and between episodes two and three of The Pickwick Papers, Dickens married Catherine Thomson Hogarth (1815–1879), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of the Evening Chronicle. They were married in St Luke's Church, Chelsea, London. After a brief honeymoon in Chalk in Kent, the couple returned to lodgings at Furnival's Inn. The first of their ten children, Charles, was born in January 1837 and a few months later the family set up home in Bloomsbury at 48 Doughty Street, London (on which Charles had a three-year lease at £80 a year) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839. Dickens's younger brother Frederick and Catherine's 17-year-old sister Mary Hogarth moved in with them. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837. Unusually for Dickens, as a consequence of his shock, he stopped working, and he and Catherine stayed at a little farm on Hampstead Heath for a fortnight. Dickens idealised Mary; the character he fashioned after her, Rose Maylie, he found he could not now kill, as he had planned, in his fiction, and, according to Ackroyd, he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of Little Nell and Florence Dombey. His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of The Pickwick Papers and had to cancel the Oliver Twist instalment that month as well. His success as a novelist continued. The young Queen Victoria read both Oliver Twist and The Pickwick Papers, staying up until midnight to discuss them. Nicholas Nickleby (1838–39), The Old Curiosity Shop (1840–41) and, finally, his first historical novel, Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty, as part of the Master Humphrey's Clock series (1840–41), were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books. Dickens biographer Peter Ackroyd has called Barnaby Rudge "one of Dickens's most neglected, but most rewarding, novels". The poet Edgar Allan Poe read Barnaby Rudge, and the talking raven that featured in the novel inspired in part Poe's 1845 poem "The Raven". In the midst of all his activity during this period, there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off, while Richard Bentley signed over all his rights in Oliver Twist. Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerged; in Broadstairs he flirted with Eleanor Picken, the young fiancée of his solicitor's best friend and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea. He declared they were both to drown there in the "sad sea waves". She finally got free, and afterwards kept her distance. In June 1841, he precipitously set out on a two-month tour of Scotland and then, in September 1841, telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America. His weekly periodical Master Humphrey's Clock ended, though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine, an appreciation that had begun with his childhood reading of Samuel Johnson's The Idler and the 18th-century magazines Tatler and The Spectator. Dickens was perturbed by the return to power of the Tories, whom he described as "people whom, politically, I despise and abhor." He had been tempted to stand for the Liberals in Reading, but decided against it due to financial straits. ===First visit to the United States=== On 22 January 1842, Dickens and his wife arrived in Boston, Massachusetts, aboard the RMS Britannia during their first trip to the United States and Canada. At this time Georgina Hogarth, another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household, now living at Devonshire Terrace, Marylebone to care for the young family they had left behind. She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser and friend until Dickens's death in 1870. He described his impressions in a travelogue, American Notes for General Circulation. In Notes, Dickens includes a powerful condemnation of slavery which he had attacked as early as The Pickwick Papers, correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters. In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America, some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens's views on racial inequality. For instance, he has been criticised for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor Eyre's harsh crackdown during the 1860s Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it. From Richmond, Virginia, Dickens returned to Washington, D.C., and started a trek westward, with brief pauses in Cincinnati and Louisville, to St. Louis, Missouri. While there, he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east. A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie, a trip 30 miles into Illinois. During his American visit, Dickens spent a month in New York City, giving lectures, raising the question of international copyright laws and the pirating of his work in America. He persuaded a group of 25 writers, headed by Washington Irving, to sign a petition for him to take to Congress, but the press were generally hostile to this, saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated. The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self-perception according to critic Kate Flint, who writes that he "found himself a cultural commodity, and its circulation had passed out his control", causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels. She writes that he assumed a role of "influential commentator", publicly and in his fiction, evident in his next few books. === Return to England === thumb\|upright\|Dickens's portrait by [[Margaret Gillies, 1843. Painted during the period when he was writing A Christmas Carol, it was in the Royal Academy of Arts' 1844 summer exhibition. After viewing it there, Elizabeth Barrett Browning said that it showed Dickens with "the dust and mud of humanity about him, notwithstanding those eagle eyes". The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there. This, along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane Ragged School, caused Dickens to resolve to "strike a sledge hammer blow" for the poor. As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest, Dickens became engrossed in the book. He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he "wept and laughed, and wept again" as he "walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed". Between 1843 and 1844, Martin Chuzzlewit, the last of his picaresque novels, was serialised. It includes the character of Sarah Gamp, a nurse who is dissolute, sloppy and generally drunk, and also features one of the first literary private detective characters, Mr Nadgett. After living briefly in Italy (1844), Dickens travelled to Switzerland (1846), where he began work on Dombey and Son (1846–48). At about this time, he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother, Augustus, worked (John Chapman & Co). It had been carried out by Thomas Powell, a clerk, who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work. Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day. After further fraudulent activities, Powell fled to New York and published a book called The Living Authors of England with a chapter on Charles Dickens, who was not amused by what Powell had written. One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey (Dombey and Son) on Thomas Chapman, one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately sent a letter to Lewis Gaylord Clark, editor of the New York literary magazine The Knickerbocker, saying that Powell was a forger and thief. Clark published the letter in the New-York Tribune and several other papers picked up on the story. Powell began proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested. Dickens, realising that he had acted in haste, contacted John Chapman & Co to seek written confirmation of Powell's guilt. Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell's embezzlement, but once the directors realised this information might have to be produced in court, they refused to make further disclosures. Owing to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations, Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court. ====Philanthropy==== Angela Burdett Coutts, heir to the Coutts banking fortune, approached Dickens in May 1846 about setting up a home for the redemption of fallen women of the working class. Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores. After initially resisting, Dickens eventually founded the home, named Urania Cottage, in the Lime Grove area of Shepherd's Bush, which he managed for ten years, setting the house rules, reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents. Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage, from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859. ====Religious views==== As a young man, Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organised religion. In 1836, in a pamphlet titled Sunday Under Three Heads, he defended the people's right to pleasure, opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays. "Look into your churches—diminished congregations and scanty attendance. People have grown sullen and obstinate, and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this, once in every seven. They display their feeling by staying away [from church]. Turn into the streets [on a Sunday] and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around." Dickens honoured the figure of Jesus Christ. He is regarded as a professing Christian. His son, Henry Fielding Dickens, described him as someone who "possessed deep religious convictions". In the early 1840s, he had shown an interest in Unitarian Christianity and Robert Browning remarked that "Mr Dickens is an enlightened Unitarian." Professor Gary Colledge has written that he "never strayed from his attachment to popular lay Anglicanism". Dickens authored a work called The Life of Our Lord (1846), a book about the life of Christ, written with the purpose of sharing his faith with his children and family. In a scene from David Copperfield, Dickens echoed Geoffrey Chaucer's use of Luke 23:34 from Troilus and Criseyde (Dickens held a copy in his library), with G. K. Chesterton writing, "among the great canonical English authors, Chaucer and Dickens have the most in common." Dickens disapproved of Roman Catholicism and 19th-century evangelicalism, seeing both as extremes of Christianity and likely to limit personal expression, and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like spiritualism, all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity, as shown in the book he wrote for his family in 1846. While Dickens advocated equal rights for Catholics in England, he strongly disliked how individual civil liberties were often threatened in countries where Catholicism predominated and referred to the Catholic Church as "that curse upon the world." ==Middle years== In December 1845, Dickens took up the editorship of the London-based Daily News, a liberal paper through which Dickens hoped to advocate, in his own words, "the Principles of Progress and Improvement, of Education and Civil and Religious Liberty and Equal Legislation." Among the other contributors Dickens chose to write for the paper were the radical economist Thomas Hodgskin and the social reformer Douglas William Jerrold, who frequently attacked the Corn Laws. Dickens lasted only ten weeks on the job before resigning due to a combination of exhaustion and frustration with one of the paper's co-owners. During his visit to Paris, Dickens met the French literati Alexandre Dumas, Victor Hugo, Eugène Scribe, Théophile Gautier, François-René de Chateaubriand and Eugène Sue. It was Dickens's personal favourite among his novels, as he wrote in the preface to the 1867 edition. His collection of letters, of which more than 14,000 are known, covered a wide range of subject-matter. Letters during this period included a correspondence with Mary Tyler, dated 6 November 1849, on the comedic merits of Punch and Judy, a puppet show dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch, and his review of the Great Exhibition, the first in a series of world's fairs, which he attended at Hyde Park, London in 1851. In November 1851, Dickens moved into Tavistock House where he wrote Bleak House (1852–53), Hard Times (1854) and Little Dorrit (1855–57). A work of Gothic fiction depicting London as a murky city swathed in fog, Bleak House is credited with introducing urban fog to the novel, which would become a frequent characteristic of urban Gothic literature and film. Reflecting the public enthusiasm for dinosaurs that first developed in Victorian England, the opening of Bleak House contains an early mention of dinosaurs in literature: "it would not be wonderful to meet a Megalosaurus, forty feet long or so, waddling like an elephantine lizard up Holborn Hill". While at Tavistock Dickens indulged in amateur theatricals, and he worked closely with the novelist and playwright Wilkie Collins. In 1856, his income from writing allowed him to buy Gads Hill Place in Higham, Kent. As a child, Dickens had walked past the house and dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events of Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1 and this literary connection pleased him. During this time Dickens was also the publisher, editor and a major contributor to the journals Household Words (1850–1859) and All the Year Round (1858–1870), with both titles deriving from a Shakespearean quotation. The journals contained a mix of fiction and non-fiction, and dealt with aspects in the culture. For example, the latter included Dickens' assessment of Madame Tussauds, a wax museum established in Baker Street in 1835, which he called "something more than an exhibition, it is an institution." In 1854, at the behest of Sir John Franklin's widow Lady Jane, Dickens viciously attacked Arctic explorer John Rae in Household Words for his report to the Admiralty, based on interviews with local Inuit, that the members of Franklin's lost expedition had resorted to cannibalism. These attacks would later be expanded on his 1856 play The Frozen Deep, which satirises Rae and the Inuit. Twentieth-century archaeology work in King William Island later confirmed that the members of the Franklin expedition resorted to cannibalism. In 1855, when Dickens's good friend and Liberal MP Austen Henry Layard formed an Administrative Reform Association to demand significant reforms of Parliament, Dickens joined and volunteered his resources in support of Layard's cause. With the exception of Lord John Russell, who was the only leading politician in whom Dickens had any faith and to whom he later dedicated A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens believed that the political aristocracy and their incompetence were the death of England. When he and Layard were accused of fomenting class conflict, Dickens replied that the classes were already in opposition and the fault was with the aristocratic class. Dickens used his pulpit in Household Words to champion the Reform Association. Dickens also published dozens of writings in Household Words supporting vaccination, including multiple laudations for vaccine pioneer Edward Jenner. Following the Indian Mutiny of 1857, Dickens joined in the widespread criticism of the East India Company for its role in the event, but reserved his fury for Indians, wishing that he was the commander-in-chief in India so that he would be able to "do my utmost to exterminate the Race upon whom the stain of the late cruelties rested." In 1857, Dickens hired professional actresses for The Frozen Deep, which he and his protégé Wilkie Collins had written. Dickens fell in love with one of the actresses, Ellen Ternan, and this passion was to last the rest of his life. In 1858, when Dickens was 45 and Ternan 18, divorce would have been scandalous for someone of his fame. After publicly accusing Catherine of not loving their children and suffering from "a mental disorder"—statements that disgusted his contemporaries, including Elizabeth Barrett Browning—Dickens attempted to have Catherine institutionalised. When his scheme failed, they separated. Catherine left, never to see her husband again, taking with her one child. Her sister Georgina, who stayed at Gads Hill, raised the other children. During this period, whilst pondering a project to give public readings for his own profit, Dickens was approached through a charitable appeal by Great Ormond Street Hospital to help it survive its first major financial crisis. His "Drooping Buds" essay in Household Words earlier on 3 April 1852 was considered by the hospital's founders to have been the catalyst for the hospital's success. Dickens, whose philanthropy was well-known, was asked by his friend, the hospital's founder Charles West, to preside over the appeal, and he threw himself into the task, heart and soul. Dickens's public readings secured sufficient funds for an endowment to put the hospital on a sound financial footing; one reading on 9 February 1858 alone raised £3,000. After separating from Catherine, Dickens undertook a series of popular and remunerative reading tours which, together with his journalism, were to absorb most of his creative energies for the next decade, in which he was to write only two novels. His first reading tour, lasting from April 1858 to February 1859, consisted of 129 appearances in 49 towns throughout England, Scotland and Ireland. Dickens's continued fascination with the theatrical world was written into the theatre scenes in Nicholas Nickleby, and he found an outlet in public readings. In 1866, he undertook a series of public readings in England and Scotland, with more the following year in England and Ireland. Other works soon followed, including A Tale of Two Cities (1859) and Great Expectations (1861), which were resounding successes. Set in London and Paris, A Tale of Two Cities is his best-known work of historical fiction and includes the famous opening sentence "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times." It is regularly touted as one of the best-selling novels of all time. Themes in Great Expectations include wealth and poverty, love and rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil. In early September 1860, in a field behind Gads Hill, Dickens made a bonfire of most of his correspondence; he spared only letters on business matters. Since Ellen Ternan also destroyed all of his letters to her, the extent of the affair between the two remains speculative. In the 1930s, Thomas Wright recounted that Ternan had unburdened herself to a Canon Benham and gave currency to rumours they had been lovers. Dickens's daughter, Kate Perugini, stated that the two had a son who died in infancy to biographer Gladys Storey in an interview before the former's death in 1929. Storey published her account in Dickens and Daughter, though no contemporary evidence was given. On his death, Dickens settled an annuity on Ternan which made her financially independent. Claire Tomalin's book The Invisible Woman argues that Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life. The book was turned into a play, Little Nell, by Simon Gray, and a 2013 film. During the same period, Dickens furthered his interest in the paranormal, becoming one of the early members of The Ghost Club in London. In Christmas Eve of 1862, a theatrical production of his novella, The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain, saw the first public demonstration of "Pepper's ghost"—a method of projecting the illusion of a ghost into a theatre (named after its developer John Henry Pepper)—which caused a sensation among those in attendance at the Regent Street theatre. In June 1862, he was offered £10,000 for a reading tour of Australia. He was enthusiastic, and even planned a travel book, The Uncommercial Traveller Upside Down, but ultimately decided against the tour. Two of his sons, Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens and Edward Bulwer Lytton Dickens, migrated to Australia, Edward becoming a member of the Parliament of New South Wales as Member for Wilcannia between 1889 and 1894. ==Later life== On 9 June 1865, while returning from Paris with Ellen Ternan, Dickens was involved in the Staplehurst rail crash in Kent. The train's first seven carriages plunged off a cast iron bridge that was under repair and ten passengers were killed. The only first-class carriage to remain on the track—which was left hanging precariously off the bridge—was the one in which Dickens was travelling. For three hours before rescuers arrived, Dickens tended and comforted the wounded and the dying with a flask of brandy and a hat refreshed with water. Dickens later used the experience of the crash as material for his short ghost story, "The Signal-Man", in which the central character has a premonition of his own death in a rail crash. He also based the story on several previous rail accidents, such as the Clayton Tunnel rail crash in Sussex of 1861. Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at the inquest to avoid disclosing that he had been travelling with Ternan and her mother, which would have caused a scandal. After the crash, Dickens was nervous when travelling by train and would use alternative means when available. In 1868 he wrote, "I have sudden vague rushes of terror, even when riding in a hansom cab, which are perfectly unreasonable but quite insurmountable." Dickens's son, Henry, recalled, "I have seen him sometimes in a railway carriage when there was a slight jolt. When this happened he was almost in a state of panic and gripped the seat with both hands." On 9 November 1867, over two years after the war, Dickens set sail from Liverpool for his second American reading tour. Landing in Boston, he devoted the rest of the month to a round of dinners with such notables as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his American publisher, James T. Fields. In early December, the readings began. He performed 76 readings, netting £19,000, from December 1867 to April 1868. Dickens shuttled between Boston and New York, where he gave 22 readings at Steinway Hall. Although he had started to suffer from what he called the "true American catarrh", he kept to a schedule that would have challenged a much younger man, even managing to squeeze in some sleighing in Central Park. During his travels, he saw a change in the people and the circumstances of America. His final appearance was at a banquet the American Press held in his honour at Delmonico's on 18 April, when he promised never to denounce America again. By the end of the tour Dickens could hardly manage solid food, subsisting on champagne and eggs beaten in sherry. On 23 April he boarded the Cunard liner to return to Britain, barely escaping a federal tax lien against the proceeds of his lecture tour. ===Farewell readings=== In 1868–69, Dickens gave a series of "farewell readings" in England, Scotland and Ireland, beginning on 6 October. He managed, of a contracted 100 readings, to give 75 in the provinces, with a further 12 in London. He collapsed on 22 April 1869, at Preston, Lancashire; on doctor's advice, the tour was cancelled. After further provincial readings were cancelled, he began work on his final novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood. Described as a "dark and gothic" tale, his unfinished novel focuses on Drood's uncle, John Jasper, a drug-addicted choirmaster. It was fashionable in the 1860s to 'do the slums' and, in company, Dickens visited opium dens in Shadwell in the East End of London, where he witnessed an elderly addict called "Laskar Sal", who formed the model for "Opium Sal" in Edwin Drood. After Dickens regained enough strength, he arranged, with medical approval, for a final series of readings to partly make up to his sponsors what they had lost due to his illness. There were 12 performances, on 11 January to 15 March 1870; the last at 8:00pm at St. James's Hall, London. Though in grave health by then, he read A Christmas Carol and The Trial from Pickwick. On 2 May, he made his last public appearance at a Royal Academy banquet in the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, paying a special tribute on the death of his friend, illustrator Daniel Maclise. ===Death=== On 8 June 1870, Dickens had another stroke at his home after a full day's work on Edwin Drood. He never regained consciousness. The next day, he died at Gads Hill Place. Biographer Claire Tomalin has suggested Dickens was actually in Peckham when he had had the stroke and his mistress Ellen Ternan and her maids had him taken back to Gads Hill so that the public would not know the truth about their relationship. Contrary to his wish to be buried at Rochester Cathedral "in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner", he was laid to rest in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. A printed epitaph circulated at the time of the funeral reads: A letter from Dickens to the Clerk of the Privy Council in March indicates he had been offered and accepted a baronetcy, which was not gazetted before his death. His last words were "On the ground" in response to his sister-in-law Georgina's request that he lie down. On Sunday, 19 June 1870, five days after Dickens was buried in the Abbey, Dean Arthur Penrhyn Stanley delivered a memorial elegy, lauding "the genial and loving humorist whom we now mourn", for showing by his own example "that even in dealing with the darkest scenes and the most degraded characters, genius could still be clean, and mirth could be innocent". Pointing to the fresh flowers that adorned the novelist's grave, Stanley assured those present that "the spot would thenceforth be a sacred one with both the New World and the Old, as that of the representative of literature, not of this island only, but of all who speak our English tongue." In his will, drafted more than a year before his death, Dickens left the care of his £80,000 estate (£ in ) to his long-time colleague John Forster and his "best and truest friend" Georgina Hogarth who, along with Dickens's two sons, also received a tax-free sum of £8,000 (equivalent to £ in ). He confirmed his wife Catherine's annual allowance of £600 (£ in ). He bequeathed £19 19s (£ in ) to each servant in his employment at the time of his death. ==Literary style== Dickens's approach to the novel is influenced by various things, including the picaresque novel tradition, melodrama and the novel of sensibility. According to Ackroyd, other than these, perhaps the most important literary influence on him was derived from the fables of The Arabian Nights. Satire and irony are central to the picaresque novel. Comedy is also an aspect of the British picaresque novel tradition of Laurence Sterne, Henry Fielding and Tobias Smollett. Fielding's Tom Jones was a major influence on the 19th-century novelist including Dickens, who read it in his youth and named a son Henry Fielding Dickens after him. Influenced by Gothic fiction—a literary genre that began with The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole—Dickens incorporated Gothic imagery, settings and plot devices in his works. Victorian gothic moved from castles and abbeys into contemporary urban environments: in particular London, such as Dickens's Oliver Twist and Bleak House. The jilted bride Miss Havisham from Great Expectations is one of Dickens's best-known gothic creations; living in a ruined mansion, her bridal gown effectively doubles as her funeral shroud. No other writer had such a profound influence on Dickens as William Shakespeare. On Dickens's veneration of Shakespeare, Alfred Harbage wrote in A Kind of Power: The Shakespeare-Dickens Analogy (1975) that "No one is better qualified to recognise literary genius than a literary genius". In 1838, Dickens travelled to Stratford-upon-Avon and visited the house in which Shakespeare was born, leaving his autograph in the visitors' book. Dickens would draw on this experience in his next work, Nicholas Nickleby (1838–39), expressing the strength of feeling experienced by visitors to Shakespeare's birthplace: the character Mrs Wititterly states, "I don't know how it is, but after you've seen the place and written your name in the little book, somehow or other you seem to be inspired; it kindles up quite a fire within one." Dickens's writing style is marked by a profuse linguistic creativity. Satire, flourishing in his gift for caricature, is his forte. An early reviewer compared him to the artist and social critic Hogarth for his keen practical sense of the ludicrous side of life, though his acclaimed mastery of varieties of class idiom may in fact mirror the conventions of contemporary popular theatre. Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an "allegorical impetus" to the novels' meanings. His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy and realism. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery—he calls one character the "Noble Refrigerator"—are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats or dinner-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy. On his ability to elicit a response from his works, English screenwriter Sarah Phelps writes, "He knew how to work an audience and how to get them laughing their heads off one minute or on the edge of their seats and holding their breath the next. The other thing about Dickens is that he loved telling stories and he loved his characters, even those horrible, mean-spirited ones." The author worked closely with his illustrators, supplying them with a summary of the work at the outset and thus ensuring that his characters and settings were exactly how he envisioned them. He briefed the illustrator on plans for each month's instalment so that work could begin before he wrote them. Marcus Stone, illustrator of Our Mutual Friend, recalled that the author was always "ready to describe down to the minutest details the personal characteristics, and ... life-history of the creations of his fancy". Dickens employs Cockney English in many of his works, denoting working-class Londoners. Cockney grammar appears in terms such as ain't, and consonants in words are frequently omitted, as in 'ere (here) and wot (what). An example of this usage is in Oliver Twist. The Artful Dodger uses cockney slang which is juxtaposed with Oliver's 'proper' English, when the Dodger repeats Oliver saying "seven" with "sivin". ===Characters=== Dickens's biographer Claire Tomalin regards him as the greatest creator of character in English fiction after Shakespeare. Dickensian characters are amongst the most memorable in English literature, especially so because of their typically whimsical names. The likes of Ebenezer Scrooge, Tiny Tim, Jacob Marley and Bob Cratchit (A Christmas Carol); Oliver Twist, The Artful Dodger, Fagin and Bill Sikes (Oliver Twist); Pip, Miss Havisham, Estella and Abel Magwitch (Great Expectations); Sydney Carton, Charles Darnay and Madame Defarge (A Tale of Two Cities); David Copperfield, Uriah Heep and Mr Micawber (David Copperfield); Daniel Quilp and Nell Trent (The Old Curiosity Shop), Samuel Pickwick and Sam Weller (The Pickwick Papers); and Wackford Squeers (Nicholas Nickleby) are so well known as to be part and parcel of popular culture, and in some cases have passed into ordinary language: a scrooge, for example, is a miser or someone who dislikes Christmas festivity. His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. "Gamp" became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character Mrs Gamp, and "Pickwickian", "Pecksniffian" and "Gradgrind" all entered dictionaries due to Dickens's original portraits of such characters who were, respectively, quixotic, hypocritical and vapidly factual. The character that made Dickens famous, Sam Weller became known for his Wellerisms—one-liners that turn proverbs on their heads. just as Mr Micawber is constructed from aspects of his father's 'rhetorical exuberance'; Harold Skimpole in Bleak House is based on James Henry Leigh Hunt; his wife's dwarfish chiropodist recognised herself in Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield. Perhaps Dickens's impressions on his meeting with Hans Christian Andersen informed the delineation of Uriah Heep (a term synonymous with sycophant). Virginia Woolf maintained that "we remodel our psychological geography when we read Dickens" as he produces "characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks". T. S. Eliot wrote that Dickens "excelled in character; in the creation of characters of greater intensity than human beings". One "character" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself. Dickens described London as a magic lantern, inspiring the places and people in many of his novels. Walking the streets (particularly around London) formed an integral part of his writing life, stoking his creativity. Dickens was known to regularly walk at least a dozen miles (19 km) per day, and once wrote, "If I couldn't walk fast and far, I should just explode and perish." ===Autobiographical elements=== Authors frequently draw their portraits of characters from people they have known in real life. David Copperfield is regarded by many as a veiled autobiography of Dickens. The scenes of interminable court cases and legal arguments in Bleak House reflect Dickens's experiences as a law clerk and court reporter, and in particular his direct experience of the law's procedural delay during 1844 when he sued publishers in Chancery for breach of copyright. Dickens's father was sent to prison for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed depiction of life in the Marshalsea prison in Little Dorrit resulting from Dickens's own experiences of the institution. Lucy Stroughill, a childhood sweetheart, may have affected several of Dickens's portraits of girls such as Little Em'ly in David Copperfield and Lucie Manette in A Tale of Two Cities. Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor. Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death, when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated. Though Skimpole brutally sends up Leigh Hunt, some critics have detected in his portrait features of Dickens's own character, which he sought to exorcise by self-parody. ===Episodic writing=== A pioneer of the serial publication of narrative fiction, Dickens wrote most of his major novels in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as Master Humphrey's Clock and Household Words, later reprinted in book form. His instalment format inspired a narrative that he would explore and develop throughout his career, and the regular cliffhangers made each new episode widely anticipated. Dickens was able to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. He wrote, "The thing has to be planned for presentation in these fragments, and yet for afterwards fusing together as an uninterrupted whole." Another important impact of Dickens's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers and friends. His friend Forster had a significant hand in reviewing his drafts, an influence that went beyond matters of punctuation; he toned down melodramatic and sensationalist exaggerations, cut long passages (such as the episode of Quilp's drowning in The Old Curiosity Shop), and made suggestions about plot and character. It was he who suggested that Charley Bates should be redeemed in Oliver Twist. Dickens had not thought of killing Little Nell and it was Forster who advised him to entertain this possibility as necessary to his conception of the heroine. When in 1863 Jewish English reader Eliza Davis wrote to rebuke him for having "encouraged a vile prejudice against the despised Hebrew" with the character of Fagin in Oliver Twist, Dickens halted the second printing of the novel and made some changes to the original 1837 text. He also created a group of sympathetic Jewish characters in his next novel, Our Mutual Friend, published 1864–1865. At the helm in popularising cliffhangers and serial publications in Victorian literature, Dickens's influence can also be seen in television soap operas and film series, with The Guardian stating that "the DNA of Dickens's busy, episodic storytelling, delivered in instalments and rife with cliffhangers and diversions, is traceable in everything." His serialisation of his novels also drew comments from other writers. In Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson's novel The Wrecker, Captain Nares, investigating an abandoned ship, remarked: "See! They were writing up the log," said Nares, pointing to the ink-bottle. "Caught napping, as usual. I wonder if there ever was a captain yet that lost a ship with his log-book up to date? He generally has about a month to fill up on a clean break, like Charles Dickens and his serial novels." ===Social commentary=== Dickens's novels were, among other things, works of social commentary. Simon Callow states, "From the moment he started to write, he spoke for the people, and the people loved him for it." He was a fierce critic of the poverty and social stratification of Victorian society. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that "Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen". Dickens's second novel, Oliver Twist (1839), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it challenged middle class polemics about criminals, making impossible any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed. Today, Dickensian is a term applied to insanitary social conditions or grim institutions akin to those denounced by Dickens in his work, with Oxford professor Peter Conrad writing, "Dickens, like Banksy, writes blackly prophetic graffiti on the wall." At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged within society. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues—such as sanitation and the workhouse—but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and oppression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result. His most strident indictment of this condition is in Hard Times (1854), Dickens's only novel-length treatment of the industrial working class. In this work, he uses vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed "Hands" by the factory owners; that is, not really "people" but rather only appendages of the machines they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes in The Pickwick Papers are claimed to have been influential in having the Fleet Prison shut down. Karl Marx asserted that Dickens "issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together". George Bernard Shaw even remarked that Great Expectations was more seditious than Marx's Das Kapital. It has been argued that his technique of flooding his narratives with an 'unruly superfluity of material' that, in the gradual dénouement, yields up an unsuspected order, influenced the organisation of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. ===Literary techniques=== Dickens is often described as using idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with his caricatures and the ugly social truths he reveals. The story of Nell Trent in The Old Curiosity Shop (1841) was received as extremely moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental by Oscar Wilde. "One must have a heart of stone to read the death of little Nell", he said in a famous remark, "without dissolving into tears ... of laughter." G. K. Chesterton stated, "It is not the death of little Nell, but the life of little Nell, that I object to", arguing that the maudlin effect of his description of her life owed much to the gregarious nature of Dickens's grief, his "despotic" use of people's feelings to move them to tears in works like this. The question as to whether Dickens belongs to the tradition of the sentimental novel is debatable. Valerie Purton, in her book Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition, sees him continuing aspects of this tradition, and argues that his "sentimental scenes and characters [are] as crucial to the overall power of the novels as his darker or comic figures and scenes", and that "Dombey and Son is [ ... ] Dickens's greatest triumph in the sentimentalist tradition". The Encyclopædia Britannica online comments that, despite "patches of emotional excess", such as the reported death of Tiny Tim in A Christmas Carol (1843), "Dickens cannot really be termed a sentimental novelist". In Oliver Twist, Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a boy so inherently and unrealistically good that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young pickpockets. While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson in Bleak House and Amy Dorrit in Little Dorrit), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens's goal of poignant social commentary. Dickens's fiction, reflecting what he believed to be true of his own life, makes frequent use of coincidence, either for comic effect or to emphasise the idea of providence. For example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper-class family that rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group. Such coincidences are a staple of 18th-century picaresque novels, such as Henry Fielding's Tom Jones, which Dickens enjoyed reading as a youth. ==Reputation== Dickens was the most popular novelist of his time, and remains one of the best-known and most-read of English authors. His works have never gone out of print, and have been adapted continually for the screen since the invention of cinema, with at least 200 motion pictures and TV adaptations based on Dickens's works documented. Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime—early productions included The Haunted Man which was performed in the West End's Adelphi Theatre in 1848—and, as early as 1901, the British silent film Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost was made by Walter R. Booth. Contemporaries such as publisher Edward Lloyd cashed in on Dickens's popularity with cheap imitations of his novels, resulting in his own popular 'penny dreadfuls'. Dickens created some of the world's best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest British novelist of the Victorian era. The Spectator called Bleak House "a heavy book to read through at once ... dull and wearisome as a serial"; Richard Simpson, in The Rambler, characterised Hard Times as "this dreary framework"; Fraser's Magazine thought Little Dorrit "decidedly the worst of his novels". All the same, despite these "increasing reservations amongst reviewers and the chattering classes, 'the public never deserted its favourite. Dickens's popular reputation remained unchanged, sales continued to rise, and Household Words and later All the Year Round were highly successful. Juliet John backed the claim for Dickens "to be called the first self-made global media star of the age of mass culture". Comparing his reception at public readings to those of a contemporary pop star—the BBC compared his reception in the US to The Beatles—The Guardian states, "People sometimes fainted at his shows. His performances even saw the rise of that modern phenomenon, the 'speculator' or ticket tout (scalpers)—the ones in New York City escaped detection by borrowing respectable-looking hats from the waiters in nearby restaurants." Among fellow writers, there was a range of opinions on Dickens. Poet laureate, William Wordsworth (1770–1850), thought him a "very talkative, vulgar young person", adding he had not read a line of his work, while novelist George Meredith (1828–1909), found Dickens "intellectually lacking". In 1888, Leslie Stephen commented in the Dictionary of National Biography that "if literary fame could be safely measured by popularity with the half-educated, Dickens must claim the highest position among English novelists". Anthony Trollope's Autobiography famously declared Thackeray, not Dickens, to be the greatest novelist of the age. However, both Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky were admirers. Dostoyevsky commented: "We understand Dickens in Russia, I am convinced, almost as well as the English, perhaps even with all the nuances. It may well be that we love him no less than his compatriots do. And yet how original is Dickens, and how very English!" Tolstoy referred to David Copperfield as his favourite book, and he later adopted the novel as "a model for his own autobiographical reflections". French writer Jules Verne called Dickens his favourite writer, writing his novels "stand alone, dwarfing all others by their amazing power and felicity of expression". Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh was inspired by Dickens's novels in several of his paintings, such as Vincent's Chair, and in an 1889 letter to his sister stated that reading Dickens, especially A Christmas Carol, was one of the things that was keeping him from committing suicide. Oscar Wilde generally disparaged his depiction of character, while admiring his gift for caricature. Henry James denied him a premier position, calling him "the greatest of superficial novelists": Dickens failed to endow his characters with psychological depth, and the novels, "loose baggy monsters", betrayed a "cavalier organisation". Joseph Conrad described his own childhood in bleak Dickensian terms, noting he had "an intense and unreasoning affection" for Bleak House dating back to his boyhood. The novel influenced his own gloomy portrait of London in The Secret Agent (1907). Around 1940–41, the attitude of the literary critics began to warm towards Dickens—led by George Orwell in Inside the Whale and Other Essays (March 1940), Edmund Wilson in The Wound and the Bow (1941) and Humphry House in Dickens and His World. However, even in 1948, F. R. Leavis, in The Great Tradition, asserted that "the adult mind doesn't as a rule find in Dickens a challenge to an unusual and sustained seriousness"; Dickens was indeed a great genius, "but the genius was that of a great entertainer", though he later changed his opinion with Dickens the Novelist (1970, with Q. D. (Queenie) Leavis): "Our purpose", they wrote, "is to enforce as unanswerably as possible the conviction that Dickens was one of the greatest of creative writers". In 1944, Soviet film director and film theorist Sergei Eisenstein wrote an essay on Dickens's influence on cinema, such as cross-cutting—where two stories run alongside each other, as seen in novels such as Oliver Twist. In the 1950s, "a substantial reassessment and re-editing of the works began, and critics found his finest artistry and greatest depth to be in the later novels: Bleak House, Little Dorrit and Great Expectations—and (less unanimously) in Hard Times and Our Mutual Friend". Dickens was among the favourite authors of Roald Dahl; the best-selling children's author would include three of Dickens's novels among those read by the title character in his 1988 novel Matilda. In 2005, Paul McCartney, an avid reader of Dickens, named Nicholas Nickleby his favourite novel. On Dickens he states, "I like the world that he takes me to. I like his words; I like the language", adding, "A lot of my stuff—it's kind of Dickensian." Screenwriter Jonathan Nolan's screenplay for The Dark Knight Rises (2012) was inspired by A Tale of Two Cities, with Nolan calling the depiction of Paris in the novel "one of the most harrowing portraits of a relatable, recognisable civilisation that completely folded to pieces". On 7 February 2012, the 200th anniversary of Dickens's birth, Philip Womack wrote in The Telegraph: "Today there is no escaping Charles Dickens. Not that there has ever been much chance of that before. He has a deep, peculiar hold upon us". ==Legacy== Museums and festivals celebrating Dickens's life and works exist in many places with which Dickens was associated. These include the Charles Dickens Museum in London, the historic home where he wrote Oliver Twist, The Pickwick Papers and Nicholas Nickleby; and the Charles Dickens' Birthplace Museum in Portsmouth, the house in which he was born. The original manuscripts of many of his novels, as well as printers' proofs, first editions and illustrations from the collection of Dickens's friend John Forster are held at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Dickens's will stipulated that no memorial be erected in his honour; nonetheless, a life-size bronze statue of Dickens entitled Dickens and Little Nell, cast in 1890 by Francis Edwin Elwell, stands in Clark Park in the Spruce Hill neighbourhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Another life-size statue of Dickens is located at Centennial Park in Sydney, Australia. In 1960 a bas-relief sculpture of Dickens, notably featuring characters from his books, was commissioned from sculptor Estcourt J Clack to adorn the office building built on the site of his former home at 1 Devonshire Terrace, London. In 2014, a life-size statue was unveiled near his birthplace in Portsmouth on the 202nd anniversary of his birth; this was supported by his great-great-grandsons, Ian and Gerald Dickens. A Christmas Carol is most probably his best-known story, with frequent new adaptations. It is also the most-filmed of Dickens's stories, with many versions dating from the early years of cinema. According to the historian Ronald Hutton, the current state of the observance of Christmas is largely the result of a mid-Victorian revival of the holiday spearheaded by A Christmas Carol. Dickens catalysed the emerging Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, in contrast to the dwindling community-based and church-centred observations, as new middle-class expectations arose. Its archetypal figures (Scrooge, Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) entered into Western cultural consciousness. "Merry Christmas", a prominent phrase from the tale, was popularised following the appearance of the story. The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, and his exclamation "Bah! Humbug!'", a dismissal of the festive spirit, likewise gained currency as an idiom. The Victorian era novelist William Makepeace Thackeray called the book "a national benefit, and to every man and woman who reads it a personal kindness". The Charles Dickens School is a high school in Broadstairs, Kent. A theme park, Dickens World, was open in Chatham from 2007 to 2016. To celebrate the 200th anniversary of his birth in 2012, the Museum of London held the UK's first major exhibition on the author in 40 years. In 2002, Dickens was number 41 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. American literary critic Harold Bloom placed Dickens among the greatest Western writers of all time. In the 2003 UK survey The Big Read carried out by the BBC, five of Dickens's books were named in the Top 100. Actors who have portrayed Dickens on screen include Anthony Hopkins, Derek Jacobi, Simon Callow, Dan Stevens and Ralph Fiennes, the latter playing the author in The Invisible Woman (2013) which depicts Dickens's alleged secret love affair with Ellen Ternan which lasted for thirteen years until his death in 1870. Dickens and his publications have appeared on a number of postage stamps in countries including: the United Kingdom (1970, 1993, 2011 and 2012 issued by the Royal Mail—their 2012 collection marked the bicentenary of Dickens's birth), the Soviet Union (1962), Antigua, Barbuda, Botswana, Cameroon, Dubai, Fujairah, St Lucia and Turks and Caicos Islands (1970), St Vincent (1987), Nevis (2007), Alderney, Gibraltar, Jersey and Pitcairn Islands (2012), Austria (2013) and Mozambique (2014). In 1976, a crater on the planet Mercury was named in his honour. In November 2018 it was reported that a previously lost portrait of a 31-year-old Dickens, by Margaret Gillies, had been found in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. Gillies was an early supporter of women's suffrage and had painted the portrait in late 1843 when Dickens, aged 31, wrote A Christmas Carol. It was exhibited, to acclaim, at the Royal Academy of Arts in 1844. The Charles Dickens Museum is reported to have paid £180,000 for the portrait. ==Works== Dickens published 15 major novels, several novellas, a large number of short stories (including a number of Christmas-themed stories), a handful of plays, and several non-fiction books. === Novels and novellas === Dickens's novels and novellas were initially published in weekly and monthly magazines, the novels in serial format, then reprinted in standard book formats. The Pickwick Papers (The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club; monthly serial, April 1836 to November 1837). Novel. Oliver Twist (The Adventures of Oliver Twist; monthly serial in Bentley's Miscellany, February 1837 to April 1839). Novel. Nicholas Nickleby (The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby; monthly serial, April 1838 to October 1839). Novel. The Old Curiosity Shop (weekly serial in Master Humphrey's Clock, April 1840 to November 1841). Novel. Barnaby Rudge (Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of Eighty; weekly serial in Master Humphrey's Clock, February to November 1841). Novel. Martin Chuzzlewit (The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit; monthly serial, January 1843 to July 1844). Novel. A Christmas Carol (A Christmas Carol in Prose: Being a Ghost-story of Christmas; 1843). Novella. The Chimes (The Chimes: A Goblin Story of Some Bells That Rang an Old Year Out and a New Year In; 1844). Novella. The Cricket on the Hearth (The Cricket on the Hearth: A Fairy Tale of Home; 1845). Novella. Dombey and Son (Dealings with the Firm of Dombey and Son: Wholesale, Retail and for Exportation; monthly serial, October 1846 to April 1848). Novel. The Battle of Life (The Battle of Life: A Love Story; 1846). Novella. The Haunted Man (The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain: A Fancy for Christmas-time; 1848). Novella. David Copperfield (The Personal History, Adventures, Experience and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger of Blunderstone Rookery [Which He Never Meant to Publish on Any Account]; monthly serial, May 1849 to November 1850). Novel. Bleak House (monthly serial, March 1852 to September 1853). Novel. Hard Times (Hard Times: For These Times; weekly serial in Household Words, 1 April 1854, to 12 August 1854). Novel. Little Dorrit (monthly serial, December 1855 to June 1857). Novel. A Tale of Two Cities (weekly serial in All the Year Round, 30 April 1859, to 26 November 1859). Novel. Great Expectations (weekly serial in All the Year Round, 1 December 1860 to 3 August 1861). Novel. Our Mutual Friend (monthly serial, May 1864 to November 1865). Novel. The Mystery of Edwin Drood (monthly serial, April 1870 to September 1870). Novel. Left unfinished due to Dickens's death.	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K. Chesterton", "NASA", "New York Harbor", "Daniel Maclise", "The Beatles", "clown", "vaccination", "John Rae (explorer)", "Oscar Wilde", "Gerald Charles Dickens (actor)", "Chelsea, London", "Jane Franklin", "Ebenezer Scrooge", "Eugène Scribe", "The Atlantic", "All the Year Round", "The Arabian Nights", "Horace Walpole", "Penny reading", "Covent Garden", "Charles Darwin", "Dickens World", "Théophile Gautier", "Indian Rebellion of 1857", "Little Nell (Dickens)", "Fanny Dickens", "The Spectator", "Stratford-upon-Avon", "Travel literature", "Life annuity", "Jacob Marley", "The Times", "Nicola Bradbury", "Richmond, Virginia", "John Henry Pepper", "University of Chicago Press", "Harvard University Press", "Leigh Hunt", "Centennial Park, New South Wales", "Bob Cratchit", "Somerset House", "Vision of Contemporary England in Dombey and Son", "Hampshire", "Lascar", "Chatham, Kent", "Roald Dahl", "Shoe polish", "Evening Chronicle", "Fitzrovia", "Great Ormond Street Hospital", "Giuseppe Garibaldi", "Virginia Woolf", "Leslie Stephen", "Corn Laws", "George Cruikshank", "Wellerism", "social commentary", "Internet Archive", "Industrial Revolution", "Frank Reynolds (artist)", "Spruce Hill, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania", "Frederick Dickens", "Simon Gray", "BBC", "Edgar Allan Poe", "Portsmouth", "Matilda Wormwood", "The Castle of Otranto", "Anthony Hopkins", "Chalk, Kent", "Samuel Johnson", "Matilda (novel)", "Gads Hill Place", "Lunatic asylum", "The Old Curiosity Shop", "Oxford University Press", "F. R. Leavis", "Elizabeth Inchbald", "Privy Council", "picaresque novel", "Rookwood (novel)", "John Sutherland (author)", "Ashgate Publishing", "Ragged School", "Mentorship", "T. S. Eliot", "private detective", "Anglicanism", "Walter R. Booth", "The Examiner (1808–86)", "The Battle of Life", "Henry Fielding", "Q. D. 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5,898	Carabiner	A carabiner or karabiner (), often shortened to biner or to crab, colloquially known as a (climbing) clip, is a specialized type of shackle, a metal loop with a spring-loaded gate used to quickly and reversibly connect components, most notably in safety-critical systems. The word comes from the German , short for , meaning "carbine hook," as the device was used by carabiniers to attach their carbines to their belts. ==Use== Carabiners are widely used in rope-intensive activities such as climbing, fall arrest systems, arboriculture, caving, sailing, hot-air ballooning, rope rescue, construction, industrial rope work, window cleaning, whitewater rescue, and acrobatics. They are predominantly made from both steel and aluminium. Those used in sports tend to be of a lighter weight than those used in commercial applications and rope rescue. Often referred to as carabiner-style or as mini-carabiners, carabiner keyrings and other light-use clips of similar style and design have also become popular. Most are stamped with a "not for climbing" or similar warning due to a common lack of load-testing and safety standards in manufacturing. While any metal link with a spring-loaded gate is technically a carabiner, the strict usage among the climbing community specifically refers only to devices manufactured and tested for load-bearing in safety-critical systems like rock and mountain climbing, typically rated to 20 kN or more. Carabiners on hot-air balloons are used to connect the envelope to the basket and are rated at 2.5, 3, or 4 tonnes. Load-bearing screw-gate carabiners are used to connect the diver's umbilical to the surface supplied diver's harness. They are usually rated for a safe working load of 5 kN or more (equivalent to a weight in excess of approximately 500 kg). ==Types== ===Shape=== Carabiners come in four characteristic shapes: Oval: Symmetric. Most basic and utilitarian. Smooth regular curves are gentle on equipment and allow easy repositioning of loads. Their greatest disadvantage is that a load is shared equally on both the strong solid spine and the weaker gated axis. Often preferred type for racking biners due to their symmetric shape. D: Asymmetric shape transfers the majority of the load on to the spine, the carabiner's strongest axis. Offset-D: Variant of a D with a greater asymmetry, allowing for a wider gate opening. Pear/HMS: Wider and rounder shape at the top than offset-D's, and typically larger. Used for belaying with a munter hitch, and with some types of belay device. The largest HMS carabiners can also be used for rappelling with a munter hitch (the size is needed to accommodate the hitch with two strands of rope). These are usually the heaviest carabiners. ===Locking mechanisms=== Carabiners fall into three broad locking categories: non-locking, manual locking, and auto locking. ====Non-locking==== Non-locking carabiners (or snap-links) have a sprung swinging gate that accepts a rope, webbing sling, or other hardware. Rock climbers frequently connect two non-locking carabiners with a short length of webbing to create a quickdraw (an extender). Two gate types are common: Solid gate: The more traditional carabiner design, incorporating a solid metal gate with separate pin and spring mechanisms. Most modern carabiners feature a 'key-lock nose shape and gate opening, which is less prone to snagging than traditional notch and pin design. Most locking carabiners are based on the solid gate design. Wire gate: A single piece of bent spring-steel wire forms the gate. Wire gate carabiners are significantly lighter than solid gates, with roughly the same strength. Wire gates are less prone to icing up than solid gates, an advantage in Alpine mountaineering and ice climbing. The reduced gate mass makes their wire bales less prone to "gate flutter", a dangerous condition created when the carabiner suddenly impacts rock or other hard surfaces during a fall, and the gate opens momentarily due to momentum (and both lowers the breaking strength of the carabiner when open, and potentially allows the rope to escape). Simple wiregate designs feature a notch that can snag objects (similar to original solid gate designs), but newer designs feature a shroud or guide wires around the "hooked" part of the carabiner nose to prevent snagging. Both solid and wire gate carabiners can be either "straight gate" or "bent gate". Bent-gate carabiners are easier to clip a rope into using only one hand, and so are often used for the rope-end carabiner of quickdraws and alpine draws used for lead climbing. ====Locking==== Locking carabiners have the same general shape as non-locking carabiners, but have an additional mechanism securing the gate to prevent unintentional opening during use. These mechanisms may be either threaded sleeves ("screw-lock"), spring-loaded sleeves ("twist-lock"), magnetic levers ("Magnetron"), other spring loaded unlocking levers or opposing double spring loaded gates ("twin-gate"). =====Manual===== Screw-lock (or screw gate): Have a threaded sleeve over the gate which must be engaged and disengaged manually. They have fewer moving parts than spring-loaded mechanisms, are less prone to malfunctioning due to contamination or component fatigue, and are easier to employ one-handed. They, however, require more total effort and are more time-consuming than pull-lock, twist-lock or lever-lock. =====Auto-locking===== Twist-lock, push-lock, twist-and-push-lock: Have a security sleeve over the gate which must be manually rotated and/or pulled to disengage, but which springs automatically to locked position upon release. They offer the advantage of re-engaging without additional user input, but being spring-loaded are prone to both spring fatigue and their more complex mechanisms becoming balky from dirt, ice, or other contamination. They are also difficult to open one-handed and with gloves on, and sometimes jam, getting stuck after being tightened under load, and being very hard to undo once the load is removed. Multiple-levers: Having at least two spring loaded levers that are each operated with one hand. Magnetic: Have two small levers with embedded magnets on either side of the locking gate which must be pushed towards each other or pinched simultaneously to unlock. Upon release the levers pull shut and into the locked position against a small steel insert in the carabiner nose. With the gate open the magnets in the two levers repel each other so they do not lock or stick together, which might prevent the gate from closing properly. Advantages are very easy one-handed operation, re-engaging without additional user input and few mechanical parts that can fail. Double-Gate: Have two opposed overlapping gates at the opening which prevent a rope or anchor from inadvertently passing through the gate in either direction. Gates may only be opened by pushing outwards from in between towards either direction. The carabiner can therefore be opened by splitting the gates with a fingertip, allowing easy one hand operation. The likelihood of a rope under tension to split the gates is therefore practically none. The lack of a rotating lock prevents a rolling knot, such as the Munter hitch, from unlocking the gate and passing through, giving a measure of inherent safety in use and reducing mechanical complexity. ==Certification== ===Europe=== Recreation: Carabiners sold for use in climbing in Europe must conform to standard EN 12275:1998 "Mountaineering equipment – Connectors – Safety requirements and test methods", which governs testing protocols, rated strengths, and markings. A breaking strength of at least 20 kN (20,000 newtons = approximately 2040 kilograms of force which is significantly more than the weight of a small car) with the gate closed and 7 kN with the gate open is the standard for most climbing applications, although requirements vary depending on the activity. Carabiners are marked on the side with single letters showing their intended area of use, for example, K (via ferrata), B (base), and H (for belaying with an Italian or Munter hitch). Industry: Carabiners used for access in commercial and industrial environments within Europe must comply with EN 362:2004 "Personal protective equipment against falls from a height. Connectors." The minimum gate closed breaking strength of a carabiner conforming with EN 362:2004 is nominally the same as that of EN 12275:1998 at around 20 kN. Carabiners complying with both EN 12275:1998 and EN 362:2004 are available. ===United States=== Climbing and mountaineering: Minimum breaking strength (MBS) requirements and calculations for climbing and mountaineering carabiners in the USA are set out in ASTM Standard F1774. This standard calls for a MBS of 20 kN on the long axis, and 7 kN on the short axis (cross load). Rescue: Carabiners used for rescue are addressed in ASTM F1956. This document addresses two classifications of carabiners, light use and heavy-duty. Light use carabiners are the most widely used, and are commonly found in applications including technical rope rescue, mountain rescue, cave rescue, cliff rescue, military, SWAT, and even by some non-NFPA fire departments. ASTM requirements for light use carabiners are 27 kN MBS on the long axis, 7 kN on the short axis. Requirements for the lesser-used heavy duty rescue carabiners are 40 kN MBS long axis, 10.68 kN short axis. Fire rescue: Minimum breaking strength requirements and calculations for rescue carabiners used by NFPA compliant agencies are set out in National Fire Protection Association standard 1983-2012 edition Fire Service Life Safety Rope and Equipment. The standard defines two classes of rescue carabiners. Technical use rescue carabiners are required to have minimum breaking strengths of 27 kN gate closed, 7 kN gate open and 7 kN minor axis. General use rescue carabiners are required to have minimum breaking strengths of 40 kN gate closed, 11 kN gate open and 11 kN minor axis. Testing procedures for rescue carabiners are set out in ASTM International standard F 1956 Standard Specification of Rescue Carabiners. Fall protection: Carabiners used for fall protection in US industry are classified as "connectors" and are required to meet Occupational Safety and Health Administration standard 1910.66 App C Personal Fall Arrest System which specifies "drop forged, pressed or formed steel, or made of equivalent materials" and a minimum breaking strength of . American National Standards Institute/American Society of Safety Engineers standard ANSI Z359.1-2007 Safety Requirement for Personal Fall Arrest Systems, Subsystems and Components, section 3.2.1.4 (for snap hooks and carabiners) is a voluntary consensus standard. This standard requires that all connectors/ carabiners support a minimum breaking strength (MBS) of and feature an auto-locking gate mechanism which supports a minimum breaking strength (MBS) of . ==History== The first known hooks that had a sprung, hinged gate where the spring kept it closed (characteristics expected of a carabiner) were depicted by Nuremberg patrician in about 1505 in the Codex Löffelholz, in the Holy Roman Empire. These then became the clip used to hold a cavalry carbine or arquebus, with the earliest known mention of them being in 1616 by in the Holy Roman Empire. They were widely used in many European countries during the 17th century, for the British cavalry design. They were used for many other purposes during the 19th century, German and Austrian mountaineers started using them during the late 19th century, with a mention of their use from 1879, and their continued use for climbing by climbers in Saxon Switzerland. The majority used gourd shaped carabiners which were created for mining or other utility purposes. Bedayn crafted a smooth steel oval with a spring-operated lever opening (or "gate") and a rod-and-hook gate closure that imbeds in the carabiner body to prevent twisting, a design still in use today. Bedayn innovated the use of lighter aluminum when steel became scarce during the war. Early carabiners from Bedayn's commercial production efforts during the late 1940's - 1960's have "Bedayn California" or "Bedayn Calif." engraved on the gate or on one end of the oval. These were the first commercially produced carabiners designed specifically for climbing. Later innovations included offset D-shaped carabiners and locking mechanisms. Rock climbers such as Yvon Chouinard were credited for ongoing evolutionary adaptions of the basic design - such as the "D shape" carabiner and locking features, which facilitated better safety and stability during climbs. Aluminium carabiners were first sold to the military in 1941, which were the first commercial carabiners designed specifically for climbing. Slightly offset D-shaped carabiners were sold in the late 1940s, which became the standard offset D-shape (which is now the most common) in the 1950s. Chouinard Equipment introduced the 22 kN aluminium carabiner in 1968, though this strength had already been far surpassed by steel carabiners. Wiregate carabiners were first patented in 1969, and were sold for maritime use. They were first sold for climbing in 1996. The popular keylock, which avoids snagging, was developed around 1984–1987.	[ "rappelling", "Maillon", "Surface supplied diving", "cavalry", "American Society of Safety Engineers", "quickdraw", "shackle", "threaded sleeve", "Munter hitch", "ASTM International", "luggage", "hot-air balloon", "whitewater rescue", "belay device", "kilonewton", "Kilonewton", "arborist", "acrobatics", "Pierre Allain", "American National Standards Institute", "rope rescue", "carabinier", "belaying", "National Fire Protection Association", "carbine", "arboriculture", "sailing", "Yvon Chouinard", "American Alpine Club", "caving", "via ferrata", "strap", "lead climbing", "munter hitch", "Patrician (post-Roman Europe)", "Rock-climbing equipment", "construction", "Umbilical cable", "window cleaning", "Screw gate carabiner", "Glossary of climbing terms", "Personal protective equipment", "breaking strength", "fall arrest system", "industrial rope access", "Occupational Safety and Health Administration", "Nuremberg", "handbag", "hot air ballooning", "Lobster clasp", "German language", "arquebus", "climbing" ]
5,899	Continuity (fiction)	In fiction, continuity is the consistency of the characteristics of people, plot, objects, and places seen by the audience over some period of time. It is relevant to many genres and forms of storytelling, especially if it is long-running. Continuity is particularly a concern in the process of film and television production due to the difficulty in rectifying errors after filming ends. Continuity can also apply to other art forms, such as novels, comics, and video games, though usually on a smaller scale; it also applies to fiction used by persons, corporations, and governments in the public eye. Most film and TV productions have a script supervisor on hand whose job is to pay attention to and attempt to maintain continuity across the chaotic and typically non-linear production schedule. It is an inconspicuous job because if done well, none may ever notice. The script supervisor gathers numerous paperwork, photographs, and other documentation which note a large quantity of detail for maintaining the continuity of the production; some of the gathered documents can be sometimes assembled into the story bible. The gathered information and photographs usually regard factors both within the scene and the technical details of the production, including meticulous records of camera positioning and equipment settings. Film-based Polaroid cameras were once standard but have since been replaced by digital cameras; all of this is, ideally, all related shots can match, due to filming being split up over months in different sets and locations. In comic books, continuity has also come to mean a set of contiguous events, sometimes said to be "set in the same universe." ==Continuity errors== Many continuity errors are subtle, such as minor changes between shots (like the level of drink in a glass or the length of a cigarette); these minor errors often remain due to relative indifference to the final cut. While minor errors are often unnoticed by the average viewer, other errors may be more noticeable, such as sudden drastic changes in the appearance of a character. Productions will aim to prevent such errors in continuity because they can affect the audience's suspension of disbelief. In cinema, special attention must be paid to continuity because scenes are rarely shot in the order in which they appear in the final film. The shooting schedule is often dictated by location permit issues and other logistics. For example, a character may return to Times Square in New York City several times throughout a movie, but as it is extraordinarily expensive to close off Times Square, those scenes will likely be filmed all at once to reduce permit costs. Weather, the ambiance of natural light, cast and crew availability, or any number of other circumstances can also influence a shooting schedule. === Measures against continuity errors in the film === Film production companies use various techniques to prevent continuity errors. The first would be to film all the shots for a particular scene together and all shots of consecutive scenes together (if the scenes take place together, with no break between them in the film's timeline). This allows actors to remain in costume, in character, and in the same location (and with the same weather, if shooting on location). The second major technique is for costume designers, production designers, prop masters, and make-up artists to take instant photographs of actors and sets at the beginning and end of each day's shooting (once made possible by Polaroid cameras, now done with digital cameras and cell phones as well). This allows the various workers to check each day's clothing, set, props, and make-up against a previous day's. The third is to avoid shooting on location entirely but instead film everything on a studio set. This allows weather and lighting to be controlled (as the shooting is indoors), and for all clothing and sets to be stored in one place to be hauled out the next day from a secure location. The advent of advanced CGI has helped alleviate the challenge of preventing continuity errors from reaching the final cut, as it is easier to "airbrush" the errant drink glass or cigarette than it once was, albeit still not necessarily trivial. ===Editing errors=== Editing errors can occur when a character in a scene references a scene or incident that has not occurred yet, or of which they should not yet be aware. An example of an editing error can be seen in the film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), where a scene of people climbing a slope at the start is seen from below and then replayed from above. ===Visual errors=== Visual errors are instant discontinuities occurring in visual media such as film and television. Items of clothing change colors, shadows get longer or shorter, items within a scene change place or disappear, etc. One of the earliest examples of a visual error appears in Charlie Chaplin's 1914 movie The Property Man. Here, in a supposedly smooth step from one room to another, the Tramp loses his hat in one room, but it is instantly back on his head as he enters the next room. Rather "loose" plots and a lack of continuity editing made most early films rife with such errors. ===Plot errors=== A plot error, or a plot hole as it is commonly known, reflects a failure in the consistency of the created fictional world. A character might state he was an only child, yet later mention a sibling. In the TV show Cheers, Frasier Crane's wife Lilith mentions Frasier's parents are both dead, and, in another episode, Frasier himself claims his father to have been a scientist. When the character was spun off into Frasier, his father, a retired policeman named Martin, became a central character. Eventually, in an episode featuring Cheers star Ted Danson, the inconsistency was given the retroactive explanation that Frasier was embarrassed about his father's lowbrow attitudes and thus claimed his death. This is a frequent occurrence in sitcoms, where networks may agree to continue a show, but only if a certain character is emphasized, leading other minor characters to be written out of the show with no further mention of the character's existence, while the emphasized character (usually a breakout character, as in the case of Frasier Crane) develops a more complete back story that ignores previous, more simplified backstories. ===Homeric nod=== A Homeric nod (sometimes heard as 'Even Homer nods') is a term for a continuity error that has its origins in Homeric epic. The proverbial phrase for it was coined by the Roman poet Horace in his Ars Poetica: "et idem indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus" ("and yet I also become annoyed whenever the great Homer nods off"). There are numerous continuity errors in Homer that can be described as "nods", as for example: In Iliad, Menelaos kills a minor character, Pylaimenes, in combat. Pylaimenes is later still alive to witness the death of his son. In Iliad 9.165-93 three characters, Phoinix, Odysseus, and Aias set out on an embassy to Achilleus; however, at line 182 the poet uses a verb in the dual form to indicate that there are only two people going; at lines 185ff. verbs in the plural form are used, indicating more than two; but another dual verb appears at line 192 ("the two of them came forward"). In modern Homeric scholarship, many of Homer's "nods" are explicable as the consequences of the poem being retold and improvised by generations of oral poets. In the second case cited above, it is likely that two different versions are being conflated: one version with an embassy of three people, another with just two people. Alexander Pope was inclined to give Homeric nods the benefit of the doubt, saying in his Essay on Criticism that "Those oft are Stratagems which Errors seem, Nor is it Homer Nods, but We that Dream." ===Aging discrepancies=== The practice of accelerating the age of a television character (usually a child or teenager) in conflict with the timeline of a series and/or the real-world progression of time is popularly known as Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome, or SORAS. Children unseen on screen for a time might reappear portrayed by an actor several years older than the original. Usually coinciding with a recast, this rapid aging is typically done to open up the character to a wider range of storylines, and to attract younger viewers. ==Dealing with errors== When continuity mistakes have been made, explanations are often proposed by either writers or fans to smooth over discrepancies. Fans sometimes make up explanations for such errors that may or may not be integrated into canon; this has come to be colloquially known as fanwanking (a term originally coined by the author Craig Hinton to describe excessive use of continuity). Often when fans do not agree with one of the events in a story (such as the death of a favorite character), they will choose to ignore the event in question so that their enjoyment of the franchise is not diminished. When the holder of the intellectual property discards all existing continuity and starts from scratch, it is known as rebooting. Fans call a less extreme literary technique that erases one episode the reset button. See also fanon. A conflict with previously established facts is sometimes deliberate; this is a retcon, as it is a retroactive change in continuity. Retcons sometimes clarify ambiguities or correct perceived errors. This is not to be confused with the continuance of a reality (continuality). == Ageless characters == Some fiction ignores continuity to allow characters to slow or stop the aging process, despite real-world markers like major social or technological changes. In comics this is sometimes referred to as a "floating timeline", where the fiction takes place in a "continuous present". Roz Kaveney suggests that comic books use this technique to satisfy "the commercial need to keep certain characters going forever". This is also due to the fact that the authors have no need to accommodate the aging of their characters, which is also typical of most animated television shows. Kevin Wanner compares the use of a sliding timescale in comics to the way ageless figures in myths are depicted interacting with the contemporary world of the storyteller. When certain stories in comics, especially origin stories, are rewritten, they often retain key events but are updated to a contemporary time, such as with the comic book character Tony Stark, who invents his Iron Man armor in a different war depending on when the story is told.	[ "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World", "Walt Lloyd", "fictional universe", "Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome", "Scott Lang (Marvel Cinematic Universe)", "Malcolm David Kelley", "canon (fiction)", "Ars Poetica (Horace)", "script supervisor", "Prussia", "Times Square", "The Avengers (2012 film)", "Frasier Crane", "Menelaos", "The Property Man", "Homeric scholarship", "Duck Soup (1933 film)", "plural", "Charlie Chaplin", "The Show Where Sam Shows Up", "Craig Hinton", "Retroactive continuity", "Homer", "epic poetry", "Roz Kaveney", "Achilleus", "Horace", "Reboot (fiction)", "video games", "proverbial phrase", "breakout character", "Telamonian Aias", "suspension of disbelief", "Marx Brothers", "continuity editing", "retroactive continuity", "The Guardian", "Ted Danson", "Groucho Marx", "Iron Man", "the Tramp", "Phoenix (son of Amyntor)", "Odysseus", "Polaroid Corporation", "cutaway (filmmaking)", "Los Angeles Times", "Lost (2004 TV series)", "digital camera", "National Public Radio", "Alexander Pope", "Rogers: The Musical", "Futurama", "1914 in film", "Focal Press", "Polaroid camera", "computer-generated imagery", "Ancient Rome", "Cheers", "Dual (grammatical number)", "Merlin (TV series)", "Napoleon", "Frasier", "Hawkeye (miniseries)", "Mad Norwegian Press", "Essay on Criticism", "Bible (screenwriting)", "reset button technique", "Syfy", "Iliad", "shot (filmmaking)", "Canon (fiction)" ]
5,902	Capital punishment	Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. but executions are carried out by many methods, including hanging, shooting, lethal injection, stoning, electrocution, and gassing. Crimes that are punishable by death are known as capital crimes, capital offences, or capital felonies, and vary depending on the jurisdiction, but commonly include serious crimes against a person, such as murder, assassination, mass murder, child murder, aggravated rape, terrorism, aircraft hijacking, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide, along with crimes against the state such as attempting to overthrow government, treason, espionage, sedition, and piracy. Also, in some cases, acts of recidivism, aggravated robbery, and kidnapping, in addition to drug trafficking, drug dealing, and drug possession, are capital crimes or enhancements. However, states have also imposed punitive executions, for an expansive range of conduct, for political or religious beliefs and practices, for a status beyond one's control, or without employing any significant due process procedures. As of 2021, 56 countries retain capital punishment, 111 countries have completely abolished it de jure for all crimes, 7 have abolished it for ordinary crimes (while maintaining it for special circumstances such as war crimes), and 24 are abolitionist in practice. Although the majority of countries have abolished capital punishment, over half of the world's population live in countries where the death penalty is retained, including India, China, the U.S., Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, Vietnam, Egypt, Nigeria, Ethiopia and DR Congo. As of 2023, only 2 out of 38 OECD member countries (the United States and Japan) allow capital punishment. Capital punishment is controversial, with many people, organisations, and religious groups holding differing views on whether it is ethically permissible. Amnesty International declares that the death penalty breaches human rights, specifically "the right to life and the right to live free from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment." In the European Union (EU), Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment. The Council of Europe, which has 46 member states, has worked to end the death penalty and no execution has taken place in its current member states since 1997. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, throughout the years from 2007 to 2020, eight non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, with support for eventual abolition. ==History== Execution of criminals and dissidents has been used by nearly all societies since the beginning of civilisations on Earth. Until the nineteenth century, without developed prison systems, there was frequently no workable alternative to ensure deterrence and incapacitation of criminals. In pre-modern times the executions themselves often involved torture with painful methods, such as the breaking wheel, keelhauling, sawing, hanging, drawing and quartering, burning at the stake, crucifixion, flaying, slow slicing, boiling alive, impalement, mazzatello, blowing from a gun, schwedentrunk, and scaphism. Other methods which appear only in legend include the blood eagle and brazen bull. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history. Most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishments for wrongdoing generally included blood money compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment and execution. In tribal societies, compensation and shunning were often considered enough as a form of justice. The response to crimes committed by neighbouring tribes, clans or communities included a formal apology, compensation, blood feuds, and tribal warfare. A blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails, or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour. "Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished." In most countries that practice capital punishment, it is now reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as rape, fornication, adultery, incest, sodomy, and bestiality carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as Hudud, Zina, and Qisas crimes, such as apostasy (formal renunciation of the state religion), blasphemy, moharebeh, hirabah, Fasad, Mofsed-e-filarz and witchcraft. In many countries that use the death penalty, drug trafficking and often drug possession is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption and financial crimes are punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world, courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. ===Ancient history=== Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system. Compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material (for example, cattle, slaves, land) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or blood money or in some case an offer of a person for execution. The person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the social system was based on tribes and clans, not individuals. Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Norsemen things. Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (for example, trial by combat or blood money). One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the duel. In certain parts of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged. These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties. Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nations. Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slaves emerged. Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalized the relation between the different "social classes" rather than "tribes". The earliest and most famous example is Code of Hammurabi which set the different punishment and compensation, according to the different class or group of victims and perpetrators. The Torah/Old Testament lays down the death penalty for murder, kidnapping, practicing magic, violation of the Sabbath, blasphemy, and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence suggests that actual executions were exceedingly rare, if they occurred at all. A Peshotanu was a condemned person in Ancient Persia. A further example comes from Ancient Greece, where the Athenian legal system replacing customary oral law was first written down by Draco in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes, though Solon later repealed Draco's code and published new laws, retaining capital punishment only for intentional homicide, and only with victim's family permission. The word draconian derives from Draco's laws. The Romans also used the death penalty for a wide range of offences. ===Ancient Greece=== Protagoras (whose thought is reported by Plato) criticised the principle of revenge, because once the damage is done it cannot be cancelled by any action. So, if the death penalty is to be imposed by society, it is only to protect the latter against the criminal or for a dissuasive purpose. "The only right that Protagoras knows is therefore human right, which, established and sanctioned by a sovereign collectivity, identifies itself with positive or the law in force of the city. In fact, it finds its guarantee in the death penalty which threatens all those who do not respect it." Plato saw the death penalty as a means of purification, because crimes are a "defilement". Thus, in the Laws, he considered necessary the execution of the animal or the destruction of the object which caused the death of a man by accident. For the murderers, he considered that the act of homicide is not natural and is not fully consented by the criminal. Homicide is thus a disease of the soul, which must be reeducated as much as possible, and, as a last resort, sentence to death if no rehabilitation is possible. According to Aristotle, for whom free will is proper to man, a person is responsible for their actions. If there was a crime, a judge must define the penalty allowing the crime to be annulled by compensating it. This is how pecuniary compensation appeared for criminals the least recalcitrant and whose rehabilitation is deemed possible. However, for others, he argued, the death penalty is necessary. This philosophy aims on the one hand to protect society and on the other hand to compensate to cancel the consequences of the crime committed. It inspired Western criminal law until the 17th century, a time when the first reflections on the abolition of the death penalty appeared. ===Ancient Rome=== The Twelve Tables, the body of laws handed down from archaic Rome, prescribe the death penalty for a variety of crimes including libel, arson and theft. During the Late Republic, there was consensus among the public and legislators to reduce the incidence of capital punishment. This opinion led to voluntary exile being prescribed in place of the death penalty, whereby a convict could either choose to leave in exile or face execution. A historic debate, followed by a vote, took place in the Roman Senate to decide the fate of Catiline's allies when he attempted to seize power in December, 63 BC. Cicero, then Roman consul, argued in support of the killing of conspirators without judgment by decision of the Senate (Senatus consultum ultimum) and was supported by the majority of senators; among the minority voices opposed to the execution, the most notable was Julius Caesar. The custom was different for foreigners who did not hold rights as Roman citizens, and especially for slaves, who were transferrable property. Crucifixion was a form of punishment first employed by the Romans against slaves who rebelled, and throughout the Republican era was reserved for slaves, bandits, and traitors. Intended to be a punishment, a humiliation, and a deterrent, the condemned could take up to a few days to die. Corpses of the crucified were typically left on the crosses to decompose and to be eaten by animals. ===China=== There was a time in the Tang dynasty (618–907) when the death penalty was abolished. This was in the year 747, enacted by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756). When abolishing the death penalty, Xuanzong ordered his officials to refer to the nearest regulation by analogy when sentencing those found guilty of crimes for which the prescribed punishment was execution. Thus, depending on the severity of the crime a punishment of severe scourging with the thick rod or of exile to the remote Lingnan region might take the place of capital punishment. However, the death penalty was restored only 12 years later in 759 in response to the An Lushan Rebellion. At this time in the Tang dynasty only the emperor had the authority to sentence criminals to execution. Under Xuanzong capital punishment was relatively infrequent, with only 24 executions in the year 730 and 58 executions in the year 736. A further form of execution called Ling Chi (slow slicing), or death by/of a thousand cuts, was used from the close of the Tang dynasty (around 900) to its abolition in 907. When a minister of the fifth grade or above received a death sentence the emperor might grant him a special dispensation allowing him to commit suicide in lieu of execution. Even when this privilege was not granted, the law required that the condemned minister be provided with food and ale by his keepers and transported to the execution ground in a cart rather than having to walk there. Nearly all executions under the Tang dynasty took place in public as a warning to the population. The heads of the executed were displayed on poles or spears. When local authorities decapitated a convicted criminal, the head was boxed and sent to the capital as proof of identity and that the execution had taken place. In early modern Europe, a mass panic regarding witchcraft swept across Europe and later the European colonies in North America. During this period, there were widespread claims that malevolent Satanic witches were operating as an organised threat to Christendom. As a result, tens of thousands of women were prosecuted for witchcraft and executed through the witch trials of the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries). The death penalty also targeted sexual offences such as sodomy. In the early history of Islam (7th–11th centuries), there is a number of "purported (but mutually inconsistent) reports" (athar) regarding the punishments of sodomy ordered by some of the early caliphs. Abu Bakr, the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, apparently recommended toppling a wall on the culprit, or else burning him alive, Other medieval Muslim leaders, such as the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad (most notably al-Mu'tadid), were often cruel in their punishments. In early modern England, the Buggery Act 1533 stipulated hanging as punishment for "buggery". James Pratt and John Smith were the last two Englishmen to be executed for sodomy in 1835. In 1636 the laws of Puritan governed Plymouth Colony included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery. The Massachusetts Bay Colony followed in 1641. Throughout the 19th century, U.S. states repealed death sentences from their sodomy laws, with South Carolina being the last to do so in 1873. Historians recognise that during the Early Middle Ages, the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries suffered religious discrimination, religious persecution, religious violence, and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers. As People of the Book, Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to dhimmi status (along with Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians), which was inferior to the status of Muslims. Christians and other religious minorities thus faced religious discrimination and religious persecution in that they were banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelise or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs. ===Enlightenment philosophy=== While during the Middle Ages the expiatory aspect of the death penalty was taken into account, this is no longer the case under the Lumières. These define the place of man within society no longer according to a divine rule, but as a contract established at birth between the citizen and the society, it is the social contract. From that moment on, capital punishment should be seen as useful to society through its dissuasive effect, but also as a means of protection of the latter vis-à-vis criminals. ===Modern era=== In the last several centuries, with the emergence of modern nation states, justice came to be increasingly associated with the concept of natural and legal rights. The period saw an increase in standing police forces and permanent penitential institutions. Rational choice theory, a utilitarian approach to criminology which justifies punishment as a form of deterrence as opposed to retribution, can be traced back to Cesare Beccaria, whose influential treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764) was the first detailed analysis of capital punishment to demand the abolition of the death penalty. In England, Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the founder of modern utilitarianism, called for the abolition of the death penalty. Beccaria, and later Charles Dickens and Karl Marx noted the incidence of increased violent criminality at the times and places of executions. Official recognition of this phenomenon led to executions being carried out inside prisons, away from public view. In England in the 18th century, when there was no police force, Parliament drastically increased the number of capital offences to more than 200. These were mainly property offences, for example cutting down a cherry tree in an orchard. In 1820, there were 160, including crimes such as shoplifting, petty theft or stealing cattle. The severity of the so-called Bloody Code was often tempered by juries who refused to convict, or judges, in the case of petty theft, who arbitrarily set the value stolen at below the statutory level for a capital crime. ===20th century=== In Nazi Germany, there were three types of capital punishment; hanging, decapitation, and death by shooting. Also, modern military organisations employed capital punishment as a means of maintaining military discipline. In the past, cowardice, absence without leave, desertion, insubordination, shirking under enemy fire and disobeying orders were often crimes punishable by death (see decimation and running the gauntlet). One method of execution, since firearms came into common use, has also been firing squad, although some countries use execution with a single shot to the head or neck. Various authoritarian states employed the death penalty as a potent means of political oppression. Anti-Soviet author Robert Conquest claimed that more than one million Soviet citizens were executed during the Great Purge of 1936 to 1938, almost all by a bullet to the back of the head. Mao Zedong publicly stated that "800,000" people had been executed in China during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). Partly as a response to such excesses, civil rights organisations started to place increasing emphasis on the concept of human rights and an abolition of the death penalty. ===Contemporary era=== By continent, all European countries but one have abolished capital punishment; many Oceanian countries have abolished it; most countries in the Americas have abolished its use, while a few actively retain it; less than half of countries in Africa retain it; and the majority of countries in Asia retain it, for example, China, Japan and India. Abolition was often adopted due to political change, as when countries shifted from authoritarianism to democracy, or when it became an entry condition for the EU. The United States is a notable exception: some states have had bans on capital punishment for decades, the earliest being Michigan, where it was abolished in 1846, while other states still actively use it today. The death penalty in the United States remains a contentious issue which is hotly debated. In retentionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived when a miscarriage of justice has occurred though this tends to cause legislative efforts to improve the judicial process rather than to abolish the death penalty. In abolitionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived by particularly brutal murders, though few countries have brought it back after abolishing it. However, a spike in serious, violent crimes, such as murders or terrorist attacks, has prompted some countries to effectively end the moratorium on the death penalty. One notable example is Pakistan which in December 2014 lifted a six-year moratorium on executions after the Peshawar school massacre during which 132 students and 9 members of staff of the Army Public School and Degree College Peshawar were killed by Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan terrorists, a group distinct from the Afghan Taliban, who condemned the attack. Since then, Pakistan has executed over 400 convicts. In 2017, two major countries, Turkey and the Philippines, saw their executives making moves to reinstate the death penalty. In the same year, passage of the law in the Philippines failed to obtain the Senate's approval. On 29 December 2021, after a 20-year moratorium, the Kazakhstan government enacted the 'On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Abolition of the Death Penalty' signed by President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev as part of series of Omnibus reformations of the Kazak legal system 'Listening State' initiative. ==History of abolition== In 724 AD in Japan, the death penalty was banned during the reign of Emperor Shōmu but the abolition only lasted a few years. In 818, Emperor Saga abolished the death penalty under the influence of Shinto and it lasted until 1156. In China, the death penalty was banned by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang in 747, replacing it with exile or scourging. However, the ban only lasted 12 years. In England, a public statement of opposition was included in The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards, written in 1395. In the post-classical Republic of Poljica, life was ensured as a basic right in its Poljica Statute of 1440. Sir Thomas More's Utopia, published in 1516, debated the benefits of the death penalty in dialogue form, coming to no firm conclusion. More was himself executed for treason in 1535. More recent opposition to the death penalty stemmed from the book of the Italian Cesare Beccaria Dei Delitti e Delle Pene ("On Crimes and Punishments"), published in 1764. In this book, Beccaria aimed to demonstrate not only the injustice, but even the futility from the point of view of social welfare, of torture and the death penalty. Influenced by the book, Grand Duke Leopold II of Habsburg, the future emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, abolished the death penalty in the then-independent Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the first abolition in modern times. On 30 November 1786, after having de facto blocked executions (the last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. In 2000, Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on 30 November to commemorate the event. The event is commemorated on this day by 300 cities around the world celebrating Cities for Life Day. Leopolds brother Joseph, the then emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, abolished in his immediate lands in 1787 capital punishment, which though only lasted until 1795, after both had died and Leopolds son Francis abolished it in his immediate lands. In Tuscany it was reintroduced in 1790 after Leopolds departure becoming emperor. Only after 1831 capital punishment was again at times stopped, though it took until 2007 to abolish capital punishment in Italy completely. The Kingdom of Tahiti (when the island was independent) was the first legislative assembly in the world to abolish the death penalty in 1824. Tahiti commuted the death penalty to banishment. In the United States, Michigan was the first state to ban the death penalty, on 18 May 1846. The short-lived revolutionary Roman Republic banned capital punishment in 1849. Venezuela followed suit and abolished the death penalty in 1863 and San Marino did so in 1865. The last execution in San Marino had taken place in 1468. In Portugal, after legislative proposals in 1852 and 1863, the death penalty was abolished in 1867. The last execution in Brazil was 1876; from then on all the condemnations were commuted by the Emperor Pedro II until its abolition for civil offences and military offences in peacetime in 1891. The penalty for crimes committed in peacetime was then reinstated and abolished again twice (1938–1953 and 1969–1978), but on those occasions it was restricted to acts of terrorism or subversion considered "internal warfare" and all sentences were commuted and not carried out. Many countries have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice. Since World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing capital punishment. Capital punishment has been completely abolished by 108 countries, a further seven have done so for all offences except under special circumstances and 26 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years and are believed to have a policy or established practice against carrying out executions. In the United States between 1972 and 1976 the death penalty was declared unconstitutional based on the Furman v. Georgia case, but the 1976 Gregg v. Georgia case once again permitted the death penalty under certain circumstances. Further limitations were placed on the death penalty in Atkins v. Virginia (2002; death penalty unconstitutional for people with an intellectual disability) and Roper v. Simmons (2005; death penalty unconstitutional if defendant was under age 18 at the time the crime was committed). In the United States, 23 of the 50 states and Washington, D.C. ban capital punishment. In the United Kingdom, it was abolished for murder (leaving only treason, piracy with violence, arson in royal dockyards and a number of wartime military offences as capital crimes) for a five-year experiment in 1965 and permanently in 1969, the last execution having taken place in 1964. It was abolished for all offences in 1998. Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights, first entering into force in 2003, prohibits the death penalty in all circumstances for those states that are party to it, including the United Kingdom from 2004. Abolition occurred in Canada in 1976 (except for some military offences, with complete abolition in 1998); in France in 1981; and in Australia in 1973 (although the state of Western Australia retained the penalty until 1984). In South Australia, under the premiership of then-Premier Dunstan, the Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) was modified so that the death sentence was changed to life imprisonment in 1976. In 1977, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed in a formal resolution that throughout the world, it is desirable to "progressively restrict the number of offences for which the death penalty might be imposed, with a view to the desirability of abolishing this punishment". ==Contemporary use== ===By country=== Most nations, including almost all developed countries, have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice; notable exceptions are the United States, Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore. Additionally, capital punishment is also carried out in China, India, and most Islamic states. Since World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing the death penalty. 54 countries retain the death penalty in active use, 112 countries have abolished capital punishment altogether, 7 have done so for all offences except under special circumstances, and 22 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years and are believed to have a policy or established practice against carrying out executions. According to Amnesty International, 20 countries are known to have performed executions in 2022. There are countries which do not publish information on the use of capital punishment, most significantly China and North Korea. According to Amnesty International, around 1,000 prisoners were executed in 2017. Amnesty reported in 2004 and 2009 that Singapore and Iraq respectively had the world's highest per capita execution rate. According to Al Jazeera and UN Special Rapporteur Ahmed Shaheed, Iran has had the world's highest per capita execution rate. A 2012 EU report from the Directorate-General for External Relations' policy department pointed to Gaza as having the highest per capita execution rate in the MENA region. {\| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" \|- !rowspan=2\| Country !!colspan=2\|Total executed (2022) \|- !CapitalPunishmentsUK !!AmnestyInternational Indonesia carried out no executions between November 2008 and March 2013. Singapore, Japan and the United States are the only developed countries that are classified by Amnesty International as 'retentionist' (South Korea is classified as 'abolitionist in practice'). Nearly all retentionist countries are situated in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean. During the 1980s, the democratisation of Latin America swelled the ranks of abolitionist countries. This was soon followed by the overthrow of the socialist states in Europe. Many of these countries aspired to enter the EU, which strictly requires member states not to practice the death penalty, as does the Council of Europe (see Capital punishment in Europe). Public support for the death penalty in the EU varies. The last execution in a member state of the present-day Council of Europe took place in 1997 in Ukraine. In contrast, the rapid industrialisation in Asia has seen an increase in the number of developed countries which are also retentionist. In these countries, the death penalty retains strong public support, and the matter receives little attention from the government or the media; in China there is a small but significant and growing movement to abolish the death penalty altogether. This trend has been followed by some African and Middle Eastern countries where support for the death penalty remains high. Some countries have resumed practising the death penalty after having previously suspended the practice for long periods. The United States suspended executions in 1972 but resumed them in 1976; there was no execution in India between 1995 and 2004; and Sri Lanka declared an end to its moratorium on the death penalty on 20 November 2004, although it has not yet performed any further executions. The Philippines re-introduced the death penalty in 1993 after abolishing it in 1987, but again abolished it in 2006. The United States and Japan are the only developed countries to have recently carried out executions. The U.S. federal government, the U.S. military, and 27 states have a valid death penalty statute, and over 1,400 executions have been carried in the United States since it reinstated the death penalty in 1976. Japan has 106 inmates with finalized death sentences , after Chisako Kakehi, who was the 78-year-old death row inmate convicted of murdering her husband and common-law spouses to inherit their assets, has died while in custody. The most recent country to abolish the death penalty was Kazakhstan on 2 January 2021 after a moratorium dating back 2 decades. According to an Amnesty International report released in April 2020, Egypt ranked regionally third and globally fifth among the countries that carried out most executions in 2019. The country increasingly ignored international human rights concerns and criticism. In March 2021, Egypt executed 11 prisoners in a jail, who were convicted in cases of "murder, theft, and shooting". According to Amnesty International's 2021 report, at least 483 people were executed in 2020 despite the COVID-19 pandemic. The figure excluded the countries that classify death penalty data as state secret. The top five executioners for 2020 were China, Iran, Egypt, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. ===Modern-day public opinion=== The public opinion on the death penalty varies considerably by country and by the crime in question. Countries where a majority of people are against execution include Norway, where only 25% support it. Most French, Finns, and Italians also oppose the death penalty. In 2020, 55% of Americans supported the death penalty for an individual convicted of murder, down from 60% in 2016, 64% in 2010, 65% in 2006, and 68% in 2001. In 2020, 43% of Italians expressed support for the death penalty. In Taiwan, polls and research have consistently shown strong support for the death penalty at 80%. This includes a survey conducted by the National Development Council of Taiwan in 2016, showing that 88% of Taiwanese people disagree with abolishing the death penalty. Its continuation of the practice drew criticism from local rights groups. The support and sentencing of capital punishment has been growing in India in the 2010s due to anger over several recent brutal cases of rape, even though actual executions are comparatively rare. A poll in South Africa, where capital punishment is abolished, found that 76% of millennial South Africans support re-introduction of the death penalty due to increasing incidents of rape and murder. A 2017 poll found younger Mexicans are more likely to support capital punishment than older ones. 57% of Brazilians support the death penalty. The age group that shows the greatest support for execution of those condemned is the 25 to 34-year-old category, in which 61% say they support it. A 2023 poll by Research Co. found that 54% of Canadians support reinstating the death penalty for murder in their country. In April 2021 a poll found that 54% of Britons said they would support reinstating the death penalty for those convicted of terrorism in the UK, while 23% of respondents said they would be opposed. In 2020, an Ipsos/Sopra Steria survey showed that 55% of the French people support re-introduction of the death penalty; this was an increase from 44% in 2019. ===Juvenile offenders=== The death penalty for juvenile offenders (criminals aged under 18 years at the time of their crime although the legal or accepted definition of juvenile offender may vary from one jurisdiction to another) has become increasingly rare. Considering the age of majority is not 18 in some countries or has not been clearly defined in law, since 1990 ten countries have executed offenders who were considered juveniles at the time of their crimes: China, Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of Congo, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United States, and Yemen. China, Pakistan, the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen have since raised the minimum age to 18. Amnesty International has recorded 61 verified executions since then, in several countries, of both juveniles and adults who had been convicted of committing their offences as juveniles. China does not allow for the execution of those under 18, but child executions have reportedly taken place. One of the youngest children ever to be executed was the infant son of Perotine Massey on or around 18 July 1556. His mother was one of the Guernsey Martyrs who was executed for heresy, and his father had previously fled the island. At less than one day old, he was ordered to be burned by Bailiff Hellier Gosselin, with the advice of priests nearby who said the boy should burn due to having inherited moral stain from his mother, who had given birth during her execution. Since 1642 in Colonial America and in the United States, an estimated 365 juvenile offenders were executed by various colonial authorities and (after the American Revolution) the federal government. The U.S. Supreme Court abolished capital punishment for offenders under the age of 16 in Thompson v. Oklahoma (1988), and for all juveniles in Roper v. Simmons (2005). In Prussia, children under the age of 14 were exempted from the death penalty in 1794. Capital punishment was cancelled by the Electorate of Bavaria in 1751 for children under the age of 11 and by the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1813 for children and youth under 16 years. In Prussia, the exemption was extended to youth under the age of 16 in 1851. For the first time, all juveniles were excluded for the death penalty by the North German Confederation in 1871, which was continued by the German Empire in 1872. In Nazi Germany, capital punishment was reinstated for juveniles between 16 and 17 years in 1939. This was broadened to children and youth from age 12 to 17 in 1943. The death penalty for juveniles was abolished by West Germany, also generally, in 1949 and by East Germany in 1952. In the Hereditary Lands, Austrian Silesia, Bohemia and Moravia within the Habsburg monarchy, capital punishment for children under the age of 11 was no longer foreseen by 1770. The death penalty was, also for juveniles, nearly abolished in 1787 except for emergency or military law, which is unclear in regard of those. It was reintroduced for juveniles above 14 years by 1803, and was raised by general criminal law to 20 years in 1852 and this exemption and the alike one of military law in 1855, which may have been up to 14 years in wartime, were also introduced into all of the Austrian Empire. In the Helvetic Republic, the death penalty for children and youth under the age of 16 was abolished in 1799 yet the country was already dissolved in 1803 whereas the law could remain in force if it was not replaced on cantonal level. In the canton of Bern, all juveniles were exempted from the death penalty at least in 1866. In Fribourg, capital punishment was generally, including for juveniles, abolished by 1849. In Ticino, it was abolished for youth and young adults under the age of 20 in 1816. In Zurich, the exclusion from the death penalty was extended for juveniles and young adults up to 19 years of age by 1835. In 1942, the death penalty was almost deleted in criminal law, as well for juveniles, but since 1928 persisted in military law during wartime for youth above 14 years. If no earlier change was made in the given subject, by 1979 juveniles could no longer be subject to the death penalty in military law during wartime. Between 2005 and May 2008, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen were reported to have executed child offenders, the largest number occurring in Iran. During Hassan Rouhani's tenure as president of Iran from 2013 until 2021, at least 3,602 death sentences have been carried out. This includes the executions of 34 juvenile offenders. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which forbids capital punishment for juveniles under article 37(a), has been signed by all countries and subsequently ratified by all signatories with the exception of the United States (despite the US Supreme Court decisions abolishing the practice). The UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights maintains that the death penalty for juveniles has become contrary to a jus cogens of customary international law. A majority of countries are also party to the U.N. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (whose Article 6.5 also states that "Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age..."). Iran, despite its ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, was the world's largest executioner of juvenile offenders, for which it has been the subject of broad international condemnation; the country's record is the focus of the Stop Child Executions Campaign. But on 10 February 2012, Iran's parliament changed controversial laws relating to the execution of juveniles. In the new legislation the age of 18 (solar year) would be applied to accused of both genders and juvenile offenders must be sentenced pursuant to a separate law specifically dealing with juveniles. Based on the Islamic law which now seems to have been revised, girls at the age of 9 and boys at 15 of lunar year (11 days shorter than a solar year) are deemed fully responsible for their crimes. The past executions of Mahmoud Asgari, Ayaz Marhoni and Makwan Moloudzadeh became the focus of Iran's child capital punishment policy and the judicial system that hands down such sentences. In 2023 Iran executed a minor who had knifed a man that fought him for following a girl in the street. Saudi Arabia also executes criminals who were minors at the time of the offence. In 2013, Saudi Arabia was the center of an international controversy after it executed Rizana Nafeek, a Sri Lankan domestic worker, who was believed to have been 17 years old at the time of the crime. Saudi Arabia banned execution for minors, except for terrorism cases, in April 2020. Japan has not executed juvenile criminals after August 1997, when they executed Norio Nagayama, a spree killer who had been convicted of shooting four people dead in the late 1960s. Nagayama's case created the eponymously named Nagayama standards, which take into account factors such as the number of victims, brutality and social impact of the crimes. The standards have been used in determining whether to apply the death sentence in murder cases. Teruhiko Seki, convicted of murdering four family members including a 4-year-old daughter and raping a 15-year-old daughter of a family in 1992, became the second inmate to be hanged for a crime committed as a minor in the first such execution in 20 years after Nagayama on 19 December 2017. Takayuki Otsuki, who was convicted of raping and strangling a 23-year-old woman and subsequently strangling her 11-month-old daughter to death on 14 April 1999, when he was 18, is another inmate sentenced to death, and his request for retrial has been rejected by the Supreme Court of Japan. There is evidence that child executions are taking place in the parts of Somalia controlled by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). In October 2008, a girl, Aisha Ibrahim Dhuhulow was buried up to her neck at a football stadium, then stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people. Somalia's established Transitional Federal Government announced in November 2009 (reiterated in 2013) that it plans to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child. This move was lauded by UNICEF as a welcome attempt to secure children's rights in the country. ===Methods=== The following methods of execution have been used by various countries: Hanging (Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Nigeria, Sudan, Pakistan, Palestinian National Authority, Israel, Yemen, Egypt, India, Oman, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Liberia) Shooting (the People's Republic of China, Republic of China, Vietnam (until 2011), Belarus, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Somalia, Somaliland, North Korea, Indonesia, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, Yemen, and in the US states of Oklahoma, Utah, and South Carolina. Lethal injection (United States, Guatemala, Thailand, the People's Republic of China, Vietnam (after 2011)) Beheading (Saudi Arabia) Stoning (Nigeria, Sudan) Electrocution and gas inhalation (some U.S. states, but only if the prisoner requests it or if lethal injection is unavailable) Inert gas asphyxiation (some U.S. states: Alabama, Louisiana) ===Public execution=== A public execution is a form of capital punishment which "members of the general public may voluntarily attend". This definition excludes the presence of a small number of witnesses randomly selected to assure executive accountability. While today the great majority of the world considers public executions to be distasteful and most countries have outlawed the practice, throughout much of history executions were performed publicly as a means for the state to demonstrate "its power before those who fell under its jurisdiction be they criminals, enemies, or political opponents". Additionally, it afforded the public a chance to witness "what was considered a great spectacle". Social historians note that beginning in the 20th century in the U.S. and western Europe, death in general became increasingly shielded from public view, occurring more and more behind the closed doors of the hospital. Executions were likewise moved behind the walls of the penitentiary. There have been reports of public executions carried out by state and non-state actors in Hamas-controlled Gaza, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Yemen. Executions which can be classified as public were also carried out in the U.S. states of Florida and Utah . Death sentences for such crimes were handed down and carried out during the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 and the Tokyo Trials in 1948, but starting in the 1990s, ad hoc tribunals such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) forbade the death penalty and can only impose life imprisonment as a maximum penalty. This tradition is carried on by the current International Criminal Court. ===Murder=== Intentional homicide is punishable by death in most countries retaining capital punishment, but generally provided it involves an aggravating factor required by statute or judicial precedents. Some countries, including Singapore and Malaysia, made the death penalty mandatory for murder, though Singapore later changed its laws since 2013 to reserve the mandatory death sentence for intentional murder while providing an alternative sentence of life imprisonment with/without caning for murder with no intention to cause death, which allowed some convicted murderers on death row in Singapore (including Kho Jabing) to apply for the reduction of their death sentences after the courts in Singapore confirmed that they committed murder without the intention to kill, and are thus eligible for re-sentencing under the new death penalty laws in Singapore. In October 2018 the Malaysian Government imposed a moratorium on all executions until the passage of a new law that would abolish the death penalty. In April 2023, legislation abolishing the mandatory death penalty was passed in Malaysia. The death penalty would be retained, but courts have the discretion to replace it with other punishments, including whipping and imprisonment of 30–40 years. ===Drug trafficking=== In 2018, at least 35 countries retained the death penalty for drug trafficking, drug dealing, drug possession and related offences. People had been regularly sentenced to death and executed for drug-related offences in China, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore and Vietnam. Other countries may retain the death penalty for symbolic purposes. The death penalty was mandated for drug trafficking in Singapore and Malaysia. Since 2013, Singapore ruled that those who were certified to have diminished responsibility (e.g. major depressive disorder) or acting as drug couriers and had assisted the authorities in tackling drug-related activities, would be sentenced to life imprisonment instead of death, with the offender liable to at least 15 strokes of the cane if he was not sentenced to death and was simultaneously sentenced to caning as well. In April 2023, legislation abolishing the mandatory death penalty was passed in Malaysia. Rape (China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Brunei, etc.) Economic crimes (China, Iran) Human trafficking (China) Corruption (China, Iran) Kidnapping (China, Singapore, Bangladesh, the US states of Georgia and Idaho, etc.) Separatism (China) Unlawful sexual behaviour (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Qatar, Brunei, Nigeria, etc.) Religious Hudud offences such as apostasy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan etc.) Blasphemy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, certain states in Nigeria) Moharebeh (Iran) Drinking alcohol (Iran) Witchcraft and sorcery (Saudi Arabia) Arson (Algeria, Tunisia, Mali, Mauritania, etc.) Hirabah; brigandage; armed or aggravated robbery (Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kenya, Zambia, Ethiopia, the US state of Georgia etc.) Homosexuality (Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Brunei, Uganda, Nigeria (Northern states), Mauritania, etc.) (Unclear for United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Iran, Libya, Somalia, etc.) ==Controversy and debate== Death penalty opponents regard the death penalty as inhumane and criticize it for its irreversibility. They argue also that capital punishment lacks deterrent effect, or has a brutalization effect, discriminates against minorities and the poor, and that it encourages a "culture of violence". There are many organizations worldwide, such as Amnesty International, and country-specific, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), whose main purpose includes abolition of the death penalty. Advocates of the death penalty argue that it deters crime, is a good tool for police and prosecutors in plea bargaining, makes sure that convicted criminals do not offend again, and that it ensures justice for crimes such as homicide, where other penalties will not inflict the desired retribution demanded by the crime itself. Capital punishment for non-lethal crimes is usually considerably more controversial, and abolished in many of the countries that retain it. ===Retribution=== Supporters of the death penalty argued that death penalty is morally justified when applied in murder especially with aggravating elements such as for murder of police officers, child murder, torture murder, multiple homicide and mass killing such as terrorism, massacre and genocide. This argument is strongly defended by New York Law School's Professor Robert Blecker, who says that the punishment must be painful in proportion to the crime. Eighteenth-century philosopher Immanuel Kant defended a more extreme position, according to which every murderer deserves to die on the grounds that loss of life is incomparable to any penalty that allows them to remain alive, including life imprisonment. Some abolitionists argue that retribution is simply revenge and cannot be condoned. Others while accepting retribution as an element of criminal justice nonetheless argue that life without parole is a sufficient substitute. It is also argued that the punishing of a killing with another death is a relatively unusual punishment for a violent act, because in general violent crimes are not punished by subjecting the perpetrator to a similar act (e.g. rapists are, typically, not punished by corporal punishment, although it may be inflicted in Singapore, for example). ===Human rights=== Abolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and capital punishment violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture. Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it "cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment". Amnesty International considers it to be "the ultimate irreversible denial of Human Rights". Albert Camus wrote in a 1956 book called Reflections on the Guillotine, Resistance, Rebellion & Death: In the classic doctrine of natural rights as expounded by for instance Locke and Blackstone, on the other hand, it is an important idea that the right to life can be forfeited, as most other rights can be given due process is observed, such as the right to property and the right to freedom, including provisionally, in anticipation of an actual verdict. As John Stuart Mill explained in a speech given in Parliament against an amendment to abolish capital punishment for murder in 1868: In one of the most recent cases relating to the death penalty in Singapore, activists like Jolovan Wham, Kirsten Han and Kokila Annamalai and even the international groups like the United Nations and European Union argued for Malaysian drug trafficker Nagaenthran K. Dharmalingam, who has been on death row at Singapore's Changi Prison since 2010, should not be executed due to an alleged intellectual disability, as they argued that Nagaenthran has low IQ of 69 and a psychiatrist has assessed him to be mentally impaired to an extent that he should not be held liable to his crime and execution. They also cited international law where a country should be prohibiting the execution of mentally and intellectually impaired people in order to push for Singapore to commute Nagaenthran's death penalty to life imprisonment based on protection of human rights. However, the Singapore government and both Singapore's High Court and Court of Appeal maintained their firm stance that despite his certified low IQ, it is confirmed that Nagaenthran is not mentally or intellectually disabled based on the joint opinion of three government psychiatrists as he is able to fully understand the magnitude of his actions and has no problem in his daily functioning of life. Despite the international outcry, Nagaenthran was executed on 27 April 2022. ===Non-painful execution=== Trends in most of the world have long been to move to private and less painful executions. France adopted the guillotine for this reason in the final years of the 18th century, while Britain banned hanging, drawing, and quartering in the early 19th century. Hanging by turning the victim off a ladder or by kicking a stool or a bucket, which causes death by strangulation, was replaced by long drop "hanging" where the subject is dropped a longer distance to dislocate the neck and sever the spinal cord. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Persia (1896–1907) introduced throat-cutting and blowing from a gun (close-range cannon fire) as quick and relatively painless alternatives to more torturous methods of executions used at that time. In the United States, electrocution and gas inhalation were introduced as more humane alternatives to hanging, but have been almost entirely superseded by lethal injection. A small number of countries, for example Iran and Saudi Arabia, still employ slow hanging methods, decapitation, and stoning. A study of executions carried out in the United States between 1977 and 2001 indicated that at least 34 of the 749 executions, or 4.5%, involved "unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner". The rate of these "botched executions" remained steady over the period of the study. A separate study published in The Lancet in 2005 found that in 43% of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics was insufficient to guarantee unconsciousness. However, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (Baze v. Rees) and again in 2015 (Glossip v. Gross) that lethal injection does not constitute cruel and unusual punishment. In Bucklew v. Precythe, the majority verdict – written by Judge Neil Gorsuch – further affirmed this principle, stating that while the ban on cruel and unusual punishment affirmatively bans penalties that deliberately inflict pain and degradation, it does in no sense limit the possible infliction of pain in the execution of a capital verdict. ===Wrongful execution=== It is frequently argued that capital punishment leads to miscarriage of justice through the wrongful execution of innocent persons. Many people have been proclaimed innocent victims of the death penalty. Some have claimed that as many as 39 executions have been carried out in the face of compelling evidence of innocence or serious doubt about guilt in the US from 1992 through 2004. Newly available DNA evidence prevented the pending execution of more than 15 death row inmates during the same period in the US, but DNA evidence is only available in a fraction of capital cases. , 159 prisoners on death row have been exonerated by DNA or other evidence, which is seen as an indication that innocent prisoners have almost certainly been executed. The National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty claims that between 1976 and 2015, 1,414 prisoners in the United States have been executed while 156 sentenced to death have had their death sentences vacated. It is impossible to assess how many have been wrongly executed, since courts do not generally investigate the innocence of a dead defendant, and defense attorneys tend to concentrate their efforts on clients whose lives can still be saved; however, there is strong evidence of innocence in many cases. Improper procedure may also result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore "the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift the burden of proof from the prosecution to the accused. This conflicts with the universally guaranteed right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty". Singapore's Misuse of Drugs Act presumes one is guilty of possession of drugs if, as examples, one is found to be present or escaping from a location "proved or presumed to be used for the purpose of smoking or administering a controlled drug", if one is in possession of a key to a premises where drugs are present, if one is in the company of another person found to be in possession of illegal drugs, or if one tests positive after being given a mandatory urine drug screening. Urine drug screenings can be given at the discretion of police, without requiring a search warrant. The onus is on the accused in all of the above situations to prove that they were not in possession of or consumed illegal drugs. ===Volunteers=== Some prisoners have volunteered or attempted to expedite capital punishment, often by waiving all appeals. Prisoners have made requests or committed further crimes in prison as well. In the United States, execution volunteers constitute approximately 11% of prisoners on death row. Volunteers often bypass legal procedures which are designed to designate the death penalty for the "worst of the worst" offenders. Opponents of execution volunteering cited the prevalence of mental illness among volunteers comparing it to suicide. Execution volunteers have received considerably less attention and effort at legal reform than those who were exonerated after execution. ===Racial, ethnic, and social class bias=== Opponents of the death penalty argue that this punishment is being used more often against perpetrators from racial and ethnic minorities and from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, than against those criminals who come from a privileged background; and that the background of the victim also influences the outcome. Researchers have shown that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty when told that it is mostly applied to black Americans, and that more stereotypically black-looking or dark-skinned defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death if the case involves a white victim. However, a study published in 2018 failed to replicate the findings of earlier studies that had concluded that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty if informed that it is largely applied to black Americans; according to the authors, their findings "may result from changes since 2001 in the effects of racial stimuli on white attitudes about the death penalty or their willingness to express those attitudes in a survey context." In Alabama in 2019, a death row inmate named Domineque Ray was denied his imam in the room during his execution, instead only offered a Christian chaplain. After filing a complaint, a federal court of appeals ruled 5–4 against Ray's request. The majority cited the "last-minute" nature of the request, and the dissent stated that the treatment went against the core principle of denominational neutrality. On 30 March 2022, despite the appeals by the United Nations and rights activists, 68-year-old Malay Singaporean Abdul Kahar Othman was hanged at Singapore's Changi Prison for illegally trafficking diamorphine, which marked the first execution in Singapore since 2019 as a result of an informal moratorium caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Earlier, there were appeals made to advocate for Abdul Kahar's death penalty be commuted to life imprisonment on humanitarian grounds, as Abdul Kahar came from a poor family and has struggled with drug addiction. He was also revealed to have been spending most of his life going in and out of prison, including a ten-year sentence of preventive detention from 1995 to 2005, and has not been given much time for rehabilitation, which made the activists and groups arguing that Abdul Kahar should be given a chance for rehabilitation instead of subjecting him to execution. Both the European Union (EU) and Amnesty International criticised Singapore for finalizing and carrying out Abdul Kahar's execution, and about 400 Singaporeans protested against the government's use of the death penalty merely days after Abdul Kahar's death sentence was authorised. ===International views=== The United Nations introduced a resolution during the General Assembly's 62nd sessions in 2007 calling for a universal ban. The approval of a draft resolution by the Assembly's third committee, which deals with human rights issues, voted 99 to 52, with 33 abstentions, in support of the resolution on 15 November 2007 and was put to a vote in the Assembly on 18 December. Again in 2008, a large majority of states from all regions adopted, on 20 November in the UN General Assembly (Third Committee), a second resolution calling for a moratorium on the use of the death penalty; 105 countries voted in support of the draft resolution, 48 voted against and 31 abstained. The moratorium resolution has been presented for a vote each year since 2007. On 15 December 2022, 125 countries voted in support of the moratorium, with 37 countries opposing, and 22 abstentions. The countries voting against the moratorium included the United States, People's Republic of China, North Korea, and Iran. A range of amendments proposed by a small minority of pro-death penalty countries were overwhelmingly defeated. It had in 2007 passed a non-binding resolution (by 104 to 54, with 29 abstentions) by asking its member states for "a moratorium on executions with a view to abolishing the death penalty". A number of regional conventions prohibit the death penalty, most notably, the Protocol 6 (abolition in time of peace) and Protocol 13 (abolition in all circumstances) to the European Convention on Human Rights. The same is also stated under Protocol 2 in the American Convention on Human Rights, which, however, has not been ratified by all countries in the Americas, most notably Canada and the United States. Most relevant operative international treaties do not require its prohibition for cases of serious crime, most notably, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. This instead has, in common with several other treaties, an optional protocol prohibiting capital punishment and promoting its wider abolition. Several international organizations have made abolition of the death penalty (during time of peace, or in all circumstances) a requirement of membership, most notably the EU and the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe are willing to accept a moratorium as an interim measure. Thus, while Russia was a member of the Council of Europe, and the death penalty remains codified in its law, it has not made use of it since becoming a member of the council – Russia has not executed anyone since 1996. With the exception of Russia (abolitionist in practice) and Belarus (retentionist), all European countries are classified as abolitionist. Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights calls for the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances (including for war crimes). The majority of European countries have signed and ratified it. Some European countries have not done this, but all of them except Belarus have now abolished the death penalty in all circumstances (, and Russia ). Armenia is the most recent country to ratify the protocol, on 19 October 2023. Protocol 6, which prohibits the death penalty during peacetime, has been ratified by all members of the Council of Europe. It had been signed but not ratified by Russia at the time of its expulsion in 2022. There are also other international abolitionist instruments, such as the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which has 90 parties; and the Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty (for the Americas; ratified by 13 states). In Turkey, over 500 people were sentenced to death after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état. About 50 of them were executed, the last one 25 October 1984. Then there was a de facto moratorium on the death penalty in Turkey. As a move towards EU membership, Turkey made some legal changes. The death penalty was removed from peacetime law by the National Assembly in August 2002, and in May 2004 Turkey amended its constitution to remove capital punishment in all circumstances. It ratified Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights in February 2006. As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice, all states, having ratified Protocol 6 to the European Convention on Human Rights, with the exceptions of Russia (which has entered a moratorium) and Belarus, which are not members of the Council of Europe. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has been lobbying for Council of Europe observer states who practice the death penalty, the U.S. and Japan, to abolish it or lose their observer status. In addition to banning capital punishment for EU member states, the EU has also banned detainee transfers in cases where the receiving party may seek the death penalty. Sub-Saharan African countries that have recently abolished the death penalty include Burundi, which abolished the death penalty for all crimes in 2009, and Gabon which did the same in 2010. On 5 July 2012, Benin became part of the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which prohibits the use of the death penalty. The newly created South Sudan is among the 111 UN member states that supported the resolution passed by the United Nations General Assembly that called for the removal of the death penalty, therefore affirming its opposition to the practice. South Sudan, however, has not yet abolished the death penalty and stated that it must first amend its Constitution, and until that happens it will continue to use the death penalty. Among non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch are noted for their opposition to capital punishment. A number of such NGOs, as well as trade unions, local councils, and bar associations, formed a World Coalition Against the Death Penalty in 2002. An open letter led by Danish Member of the European Parliament, Karen Melchior was sent to the European Commission ahead of the 26 January 2021 meeting of the Bahraini Minister of Foreign Affairs, Abdullatif bin Rashid Al Zayani with the members of the European Union for the signing of a Cooperation Agreement. A total of 16 MEPs undersigned the letter expressing their grave concern towards the extended abuse of human rights in Bahrain following the arbitrary arrest and detention of activists and critics of the government. The attendees of the meeting were requested to demand from their Bahraini counterparts to take into consideration the concerns raised by the MEPs, particularly for the release of Abdulhadi Al-Khawaja and Sheikh Mohammed Habib Al-Muqdad, the two European-Bahraini dual citizens on death row. ===Religious views=== The world's major faiths have differing views depending on the religion, denomination, sect and the individual adherent. The Catholic Church considers the death penalty as "inadmissible" in any circumstance and denounces it as an "attack" on the "inviolability and dignity of the person." Both the Baháʼí and Islamic faiths support capital punishment.	[ "scaphism", "International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia", "Execution by shooting", "tribal warfare", "Abbasid Caliphate", "Leiden", "fornication", "Washington, D.C.", "remand (detention)", "Grand Duchy of Tuscany", "European colonization of the Americas", "Singapore", "Contractualism", "Draco (lawgiver)", "sentence (law)", "Islamic Courts Union", "Cultural Revolution", "whipping", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Death in custody", "trial by combat", "Rational choice theory (criminology)", "schwedentrunk", "Hudud", "James Pratt and John Smith", "Aristotle", "Sub-Saharan Africa", "Judicial dissolution", "Nagaenthran K. Dharmalingam", "Philadelphia", "Jeremy Bentham", "Blood money (term)", "Gregg v. 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Rakoff", "Federal government of the United States", "psychological torture", "Conversion to Christianity", "Solon", "London", "World Coalition Against the Death Penalty", "Hamas", "United Nations", "piracy with violence", "Apostasy from Islam", "Guernsey Martyrs", "International Criminal Court", "Crucifixion", "Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union", "Associated Press", "Constitution of Turkey", "Iraq", "Gas chamber", "Qisas", "HeinOnline", "Capital punishment in Utah", "Early Middle Ages", "ransom", "High Court of Singapore", "Shabbat", "Robert Blecker Wants Me Dead", "Norio Nagayama", "Blood money (restitution)", "Armenia", "Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria", "Iran", "Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia", "Julius Caesar", "Capital punishment in Belarus", "John Stuart Mill", "crucifixion", "Independent.co.uk", "Thomas More", "The New York Times", "Abdullatif bin Rashid Al Zayani", "Ancient Rome", "Capital punishment in Brazil", "John Christie (murderer)", "Bloody Code", "duel", "Emperor Shōmu", "North Savonia", "List of botched executions", "Cheong Chun Yin", "Capital punishment in Oman", "Eastern Bloc", "Satanism", "Princeton University Press", "Stop Child Executions Campaign", "Hanging", "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", "Holy Roman Empire", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Kingdom of Bavaria", "jus cogens", "Capital punishment in Egypt", "Robert Conquest", "Benin", "Senatus consultum ultimum", "Forced conversion", "Stoning of Aisha Ibrahim Duhulow", "American Civil Liberties Union", "Capital punishment in South Africa", "Cities for Life Day", "Capital punishment in Alabama", "Capital punishment in the Philippines", "Court of Appeal of Singapore", "Ancient Greece", "Norsemen", "Qajar dynasty", "Pedro II of Brazil", "Death by sawing", "Moratorium (law)", "Killers of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBI", "Malaysian Government", "New York City", "Circus Maximus", "Afghan Taliban", "Tokyo Trials", "Jewish Publication Society", "Soviet Union", "Catiline", "Capital punishment in New Zealand", "Capital punishment in Singapore", "Kho Jabing", "Nazi crimes against the Polish nation", "State of Palestine", "Capital punishment in the Republic of China", "Austrian Silesia", "Ali ibn Abi Talib", "moharebeh", "Death by burning", "Que sais-je ?", "WP:NOTRS", "Homosexuality", "American Convention on Human Rights", "North German Confederation", "Capital punishment in Japan", "espionage", "Roman Senate", "Zina", "Execution chamber", "penal code", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "spree killer", "Athenian", "rape", "feud", "OECD", "New Straits Times", "Council of Europe", "People of the Book", "Twelve Tables", "Capital punishment in North Korea", "Capital punishment in Taiwan", "Capital punishment in Syria", "Christendom", "piracy", "Execution of Rizana Nafeek", "Capital punishment in South Korea", "bestiality", "Death Penalty Focus", "International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda", "hirabah", "Ahmed Shaheed", "Kievan Rus'", "Caliphate", "New York Law School", "canton of Bern", "sect", "Furman v. Georgia", "Roman citizenship", "Law of majestas", "Chisako Kakehi", "Al Jazeera Media Network", "adultery", "Early Muslim conquests", "Foreign Policy", "Convention on the Rights of the Child", "Greenwood World Publishing", "Takayuki Fukuda", "Kirsten Han", "Capital punishment in Europe", "Encyclopædia Iranica", "dhimmi", "Neil Gorsuch", "murder", "voluntary exile", "NBC News", "courts-martial", "Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Capital punishment in Islam", "religious violence", "Massachusetts Bay Colony", "Executioner", "An Lushan Rebellion", "de jure", "Capital punishment in the United Arab Emirates", "Yong Vui Kong", "U.S. Supreme Court", "East Germany", "human rights in Bahrain", "s:Sermons from the Latins/Sermon 39", "Capital punishment in Russia", "Capital punishment in the United States", "incest", "capital punishment in Italy", "Malay Singaporean", "Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", "blowing from a gun", "Capital punishment in the People's Republic of China", "Capital punishment in Pakistan", "Anti-Secession Law", "Nuremberg Trials", "Capital punishment in India", "Kingdom of Tahiti", "Slavery in ancient Rome", "Roper v. Simmons", "Emperor Saga", "DNA evidence", "Taiwan independence", "A History of the Crusades", "Capital punishment by country", "Venezuela", "Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni", "Jean-Marie Carbasse", "The Atlantic", "Plymouth Colony", "MENA", "The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints", "John Paul Stevens", "Evangelism", "Bohemia", "Proselytism", "Shiite", "Yemen", "Accession of Turkey to the European Union", "The Canterbury Tales", "beginning of civilizations", "The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards", "Roman consul", "Habsburg monarchy", "jizya", "Colonial history of the United States", "Kassym-Jomart Tokayev", "dissident", "torture murder", "Woodstock, Oxfordshire", "Thompson v. Oklahoma", "History of slavery in the Muslim world", "Somaliland", "hypnotic", "death row", "Mofsed-e-filarz", "cowardice", "Emperor Xuanzong of Tang", "habeas corpus", "Jolovan Wham", "Nazi Germany", "Baháʼí Faith", "Helvetic Republic", "Brill Publishers", "Toronto Star", "Finnish Civil War", "Medieval Europe", "genocide", "Capital punishment in Guatemala", "Human Rights Watch", "Taiwan", "financial crime", "Moravia", "Moses Maimonides", "Shinto", "s:A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries/Book 6", "sharia", "American Revolution", "Caribbean", "Kazakhstan", "National Development Council (Taiwan)", "natural and legal rights", "Abu Bakr", "Ibn Abbas", "Puritan", "Amnesty International", "Capital punishment in Nigeria", "Code of Hammurabi", "Oxford University Press", "deterrence (penology)", "Roman Empire", "Capital punishment in Sudan", "oral law", "Capital punishment in Indonesia", "Peshotanu (punishment)", "scourging", "miscarriage of justice", "gun control", "Lingchi", "Utopia (More book)", "Egypt", "intellectual disability", "Death Penalty Information Center", "Capital punishment in Thailand", "Capital punishment in Louisiana", "ABC News (Australia)", "recidivism", "aircraft hijacking", "kidnapping", "Islam and blasphemy", "Capital punishment in Sri Lanka", "Capital punishment in Malaysia", "utilitarian", "life imprisonment", "The Lancet", "lethal injection", "Religion and capital punishment", "revolutions of 1989", "Abdul Kahar Othman", "child murder", "Witchcraft", "Buggery Act 1533", "Bangladesh", "soul", "Canton of Zurich", "Roman Republic (19th century)", "blood eagle", "Changi Prison", "Fasad", "latrocinium", "homicide", "Cambridge University Press", "Republic of Poljica", "terrorism", "The Great Terror", "Capital punishment in Botswana", "NYU Press", "Tang dynasty", "House of Representatives (Japan)", "Decimation (Roman army)", "Presses universitaires de France", "Glossip v. Gross", "1980 Turkish coup d'état", "Lumières", "running the gauntlet", "West Germany", "Capital punishment in South Carolina", "assassination", "Capital punishment in Latvia", "social policy", "Charles Dickens", "al-Mu'tadid", "Japan Times", "Channel News Asia", "major depressive disorder", "drug test", "Grand National Assembly of Turkey", "shunning", "sedition", "Capital punishment in Iran", "Malaysia", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "Islamic Homosexualities", "religious discrimination", "Mao Zedong", "ratification", "Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar", "Baze v. Rees", "2014 Peshawar school massacre", "Gabon", "massacre", "peregrini", "Samaritans", "Capital punishment in Australia", "Democratic Republic of Congo", "United Nations Human Rights Council", "Protagoras", "Capital punishment in the Bible", "Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Pakistan", "List of prisoners with whole life orders", "Catholic Church", "Supreme Court of Japan", "Capital punishment in France", "Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Princeton, New Jersey", "Médecins Sans Frontières", "sovereign immunity", "Islam", "Sudan", "Rashidun Caliphate", "Capital punishment in Israel", "Atkins v. Virginia", "judicial corporal punishment", "Gaza Strip", "Burundi", "brigandage", "Poljica Statute", "right to life", "desertion", "Dunn v. Ray", "armed robbery", "life without parole", "Directorate-General for External Relations", "Capital punishment in Qatar", "stoning", "Immanuel Kant", "The New York Review of Books", "Plato", "Vintage Books", "Geoffrey Chaucer", "customary international law", "Atrocity crime", "Baghdad", "Gnostics", "Separatism", "Saudi Arabia", "Sri Lanka", "Washington College of Law", "Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies", "Last meal", "Ukraine", "Capital punishment in Canada", "keelhauling", "arson in royal dockyards", "Arms Offences Act", "Encyclopaedia of Islam", "due process", "European Union", "William Blackstone", "Singapore government", "criminology", "Turkey", "alcohol (drug)", "Capital punishment in China", "plea bargain", "Deutsche Welle", "Routledge", "Mandeans", "List of methods of capital punishment", "South Sudan", "Use of capital punishment by nation", "United Nations General Assembly", "Thing (assembly)", "Capital punishment in Yemen", "AD 747", "Alexander Lukashenko", "Jews", "Capital punishment in Oklahoma", "caning in Singapore", "Witch trials in the early modern period", "Capital punishment in Judaism", "mutiny", "Hirabah", "Shame culture", "brazen bull", "buggery", "mass murder", "boiling alive", "Hanged, drawn and quartered", "Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan", "Capital punishment in Zambia", "Vladimir the Great", "Laws (dialogue)", "European Parliament", "On Crimes and Punishments", "Coup d'état", "state religion", "Developed country", "World War II", "Misuse of Drugs Act (Singapore)", "UN moratorium on the death penalty", "Capital punishment in Somalia", "Albert Camus", "political repression", "Capital punishment in Iraq", "Cesare Beccaria", "Latin", "Feud", "Prussia", "American University", "Varkaus", "European Convention on Human Rights", "wikt:draconian", "brutalization", "war crime", "Magic (paranormal)", "Bucklew v. Precythe", "diamorphine", "Capital punishment in the Gaza Strip", "sodomy", "Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld", "White Guard (Finland)", "religious persecution", "Capital punishment in Afghanistan", "Martyrdom in Christianity", "Reuters", "insubordination", "Capital punishment in Turkey", "John Locke", "mass killing", "flaying", "breaking wheel", "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe", "William Muir" ]
5,903	Cultural movement	A cultural movement is a shared effort by loosely affiliated individuals to change the way others in society think by disseminating ideas through various art forms and making intentional choices in daily life. By definition, cultural movements are intertwined with other phenomena such as social movements and political movements, and can be difficult to distinguish from broader cultural change or transformation. Historically, different nations or regions of the world have gone through their own independent sequence of movements in culture; but as world communications have accelerated, this geographical distinction has become less distinct. When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade.: These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive. An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect – sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with "neo-"). There is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods as one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions. Even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective. This is because the movements did not spring out of the blue and into existence then come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range. Thus use of the term "period" is somewhat deceptive. "Period" also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time. Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms. So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad "movements" that have rough beginnings and endings. Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the "height" or accepted time span of the movement. This list covers Western, notably European and American cultural movements. They have, however, been paralleled by cultural movements in East Asia and elsewhere. In the late 20th and early 21st century in Thailand, for example, there has been a cultural shift away from Western social and political values and more toward Japanese and Chinese. As well, Thai culture has reinvigorated monarchical concepts to accommodate state shifts away from Western ideology regarding democracy and monarchies. ==Cultural movements== Graeco-Roman The Greek culture marked a departure from the other Mediterranean cultures that preceded and surrounded it. The Romans adopted Greek and other styles, and spread the result throughout Western Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Together, Greek and Roman thought in philosophy, religion, science, history, and all forms of thought can be viewed as a central underpinning of Western culture, and is therefore termed the Classical Age by some. Others might divide it into the Hellenistic period and the Roman period, or might choose other finer divisions. See: Classical architecture — Classical sculpture — Greek architecture — Hellenistic architecture — Ionic — Doric — Corinthian — Stoicism — Cynicism — Epicurean — Roman architecture — Early Christian — Neoplatonism Romanesque (11th century & 12th centuries) A style (esp. architectural) similar in form and materials to Roman styles. Romanesque seems to be the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent. See: Romanesque architecture — Ottonian Art Gothic (mid 12th century until mid 15th century) See: Gothic architecture — Gregorian chant — Neoplatonism Nominalism Rejects Platonic realism as a requirement for thinking and speaking in general terms. Humanism (16th century) Renaissance The use of light, shadow, and perspective to more accurately represent life. Because of how fundamentally these ideas were felt to alter so much of life, some have referred to it as the "Golden Age". In reality it was less an "Age" and more of a movement in popular philosophy, science, and thought that spread over Europe (and probably other parts of the world), over time, and affected different aspects of culture at different points in time. Very roughly, the following periods can be taken as indicative of place/time foci of the Renaissance: Italian Renaissance 1450–1550. Spanish Renaissance 1550–1587. English Renaissance 1588–1629. Protestant Reformation The Protestant Reformation, often referred to simply as the Reformation, was a schism from the Roman Catholic Church initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and other early Protestant Reformers in the 16th century Europe. Mannerism Anti-classicist movement that sought to emphasize the feeling of the artist himself. See: Mannerism/Art Baroque Emphasizes power and authority, characterized by intricate detail and without the "disturbing angst" of Mannerism. Essentially is exaggerated Classicism to promote and glorify the Church and State. Occupied with notions of infinity. See: Baroque art — Baroque music Rococo Neoclassical (17th–19th centuries) Severe, unemotional movement recalling Roman and Greek ("classical") style, reacting against the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style. It stimulated revival of classical thinking, and had especially profound effects on science and politics. It also had a direct influence on Academic Art in the 19th century. Beginning in the early 17th century with Cartesian thought (see René Descartes), this movement provided philosophical frameworks for the natural sciences, sought to determine the principles of knowledge by rejecting all things previously believed to be known about the world. In Renaissance Classicism attempts are made to recreate the classic art forms — tragedy, comedy, and farce. See also: Weimar Classicism Age of Enlightenment (1688–1789): Reason (rationalism) seen as the ideal. Romanticism (1770–1830) Began in Germany and spread to England and France as a reaction against Neoclassicism and against the Age of Enlightenment.. The notion of "folk genius", or an inborn and intuitive ability to do magnificent things, is a core principle of the Romantic movement. Nostalgia for the primitive past in preference to the scientifically minded present. Romantic heroes, exemplified by Napoleon, are popular. Fascination with the past leads to a resurrection of interest in the Gothic period. It did not really replace the Neoclassical movement so much as provide a counterbalance; many artists sought to join both styles in their works. See: Symbolism Realism (1830–1905) Ushered in by the Industrial Revolution and growing Nationalism in the world. Began in France. Attempts to portray the speech and mannerisms of everyday people in everyday life. Tends to focus on middle class social and domestic problems. Plays by Ibsen are an example. Naturalism evolved from Realism, following it briefly in art and more enduringly in theatre, film, and literature. Impressionism, based on 'scientific' knowledge and discoveries concerns observing nature and reality objectively. See: Post-Impressionism — Neo-impressionism — Pointillism — Pre-Raphaelite Art Nouveau (1880–1905) Decorative, symbolic art See: Transcendentalism Modernism (1880–1965) Also known as the Avant-garde movement. Originating in the 19th century with Symbolism, the Modernist movement composed itself of a wide range of 'isms' that ran in contrast to Realism and that sought out the underlying fundamentals of art and philosophy. The Jazz age and Hollywood emerge and have their hey-days. See: Fauvism — Cubism — Futurism — Suprematism — Dada — Constructivism — Surrealism — Expressionism — Existentialism — Op art — Art Deco — Bauhaus — Neo-Plasticism — Precisionism — Abstract expressionism — New Realism — Color field painting — Happening — Fluxus — Hard-edge painting — Pop art — Photorealism — Minimalism — Postminimalism — Lyrical abstraction — Situationism Postmodernism (since c.1965) A reaction to Modernism, in a way, Postmodernism largely discards the notion that artists should seek pure fundamentals, often questioning whether such fundamentals even exist – or suggestion that if they do exist, they may be irrelevant. It is exemplified by movements such as deconstructivism, conceptual art, etc. See: Postmodern philosophy — Postmodern music — Postmodern art Post-postmodernism (since c.1990)	[ "Golden Age", "Ionic order", "Western culture", "Mannerism/Art", "Photorealism", "Corinthian order", "Stoicism", "New Realism", "Postmodernism", "Lyrical abstraction", "France", "Realism (theatre)", "Postmodern music", "Impressionism", "History of philosophy", "Art Nouveau", "Fluxus", "Western Europe", "Postminimalism", "Classical sculpture", "deconstructivism", "ancient Greece", "culture", "ancient Rome", "Dada", "Jazz Age", "Nominalism", "Romantic hero", "Middle East", "Situationist International", "Minimalism", "Hellenistic architecture", "Art movement", "Happening", "Renaissance humanism", "Periodization", "Cultural imperialism", "Bauhaus", "Industrial Revolution", "Platonic realism", "Western world", "Classical Age", "Germany", "Gothic art", "Baroque music", "Color field painting", "Architecture of Ancient Greece", "Cultural transformation theory", "Spanish Renaissance", "Pointillism", "Cultural sensibility", "Martin Luther", "Ottonian Art", "rationalism", "Post-postmodernism", "Gregorian chant", "Roman architecture", "Romanesque art", "Napoleon", "Graeco-Roman", "René Descartes", "England", "Weimar Classicism", "Modernism", "Huldrych Zwingli", "Henrik Ibsen", "conceptual art", "Precisionism", "Rococo", "English Renaissance", "Italian Renaissance", "Neo-impressionism", "Surrealism", "Renaissance", "Constructivist epistemology", "Abstract expressionism", "China", "Early Christian", "Fauvism", "List of art movements", "schism", "Renaissance Classicism", "everyday life", "Naturalism (theatre)", "genre", "East Asia", "Naturalism (literature)", "Romanticism", "Age of Enlightenment", "Protestant Reformation", "Nationalism", "Protestant Reformers", "Academic art", "Doric order", "Cambridge University Press", "John Calvin", "Avant-garde", "Thailand", "Epicurean", "Classicism", "Post-Impressionism", "Classical architecture", "Existentialism", "Transcendentalism", "Political movement", "Social movement", "Futurism (art)", "Expressionism", "Cubism", "Pre-Raphaelite", "Postliterate society", "The arts", "Mannerism", "Neoplatonism", "Neo-Plasticism", "Hard-edge painting", "Baroque", "Neoclassicism", "North Africa", "Suprematism", "Pop art", "Critical theory", "Art Deco", "Postmodern philosophy", "Realism (arts)", "Gothic architecture", "Hellenistic", "middle class", "Japan", "Postmodern art", "Cynicism (philosophy)", "Romanesque architecture", "Roman Catholic Church", "Op art", "Symbolism (arts)" ]
5,905	Chalcogen	\|} The chalcogens (ore forming) ( ) are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table. This group is also known as the oxygen family. Group 16 consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the radioactive elements polonium (Po) and livermorium (Lv). Often, oxygen is treated separately from the other chalcogens, sometimes even excluded from the scope of the term "chalcogen" altogether, due to its very different chemical behavior from sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium. The word "chalcogen" is derived from a combination of the Greek word () principally meaning copper (the term was also used for bronze, brass, any metal in the poetic sense, ore and coin), and the Latinized Greek word , meaning born or produced. Sulfur has been known since antiquity, and oxygen was recognized as an element in the 18th century. Selenium, tellurium and polonium were discovered in the 19th century, and livermorium in 2000. All of the chalcogens have six valence electrons, leaving them two electrons short of a full outer shell. Their most common oxidation states are −2, +2, +4, and +6. They have relatively low atomic radii, especially the lighter ones. Sulfur is extracted from oil and natural gas. Selenium and tellurium are produced as byproducts of copper refining. Polonium is most available in naturally occurring actinide-containing materials. Livermorium has been synthesized in particle accelerators. The primary use of elemental oxygen is in steelmaking. Sulfur is mostly converted into sulfuric acid, which is heavily used in the chemical industry. \|} {\|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" \|- !Element !! Melting point(°C) and do not conduct heat well. tend to increase towards the chalcogens with higher atomic numbers. ===Isotopes=== Out of the six known chalcogens, one (oxygen) has an atomic number equal to a nuclear magic number, which means that their atomic nuclei tend to have increased stability against radioactive decay. It has an additional 28 isomers. With the exception of livermorium, all chalcogens have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope: oxygen has trace 15O, sulfur has trace 35S, selenium has 82Se, tellurium has 128Te and 130Te, and polonium has 210Po. Among the lighter chalcogens (oxygen and sulfur), the most neutron-poor isotopes undergo proton emission, the moderately neutron-poor isotopes undergo electron capture or β+ decay, the moderately neutron-rich isotopes undergo β− decay, and the most neutron rich isotopes undergo neutron emission. The middle chalcogens (selenium and tellurium) have similar decay tendencies as the lighter chalcogens, but no proton-emitting isotopes have been observed, and some of the most neutron-deficient isotopes of tellurium undergo alpha decay. Polonium isotopes tend to decay via alpha or beta decay. Isotopes with nonzero nuclear spins are more abundant in nature among the chalcogens selenium and tellurium than they are with sulfur.]] Oxygen's most common allotrope is diatomic oxygen, or O2, a reactive paramagnetic molecule that is ubiquitous to aerobic organisms and has a blue color in its liquid state. Another allotrope is O3, or ozone, which is three oxygen atoms bonded together in a bent formation. There is also an allotrope called tetraoxygen, or O4, and six allotropes of solid oxygen including "red oxygen", which has the formula O8. Sulfur has over 20 known allotropes, which is more than any other element except carbon. The most common allotropes are in the form of eight-atom rings, but other molecular allotropes that contain as few as two atoms or as many as 20 are known. Other notable sulfur allotropes include rhombic sulfur and monoclinic sulfur. Rhombic sulfur is the more stable of the two allotropes. Monoclinic sulfur takes the form of long needles and is formed when liquid sulfur is cooled to slightly below its melting point. The atoms in liquid sulfur are generally in the form of long chains, but above 190 °C, the chains begin to break down. If liquid sulfur above 190 °C is frozen very rapidly, the resulting sulfur is amorphous or "plastic" sulfur. Gaseous sulfur is a mixture of diatomic sulfur (S2) and 8-atom rings. Selenium has at least eight distinct allotropes. The gray allotrope, commonly referred to as the "metallic" allotrope, despite not being a metal, is stable and has a hexagonal crystal structure. The gray allotrope of selenium is soft, with a Mohs hardness of 2, and brittle. Four other allotropes of selenium are metastable. These include two monoclinic red allotropes and two amorphous allotropes, one of which is red and one of which is black. The red allotrope converts to the black allotrope in the presence of heat. The gray allotrope of selenium is made from spirals on selenium atoms, while one of the red allotropes is made of stacks of selenium rings (Se8). although its typical form is hexagonal. Polonium has two allotropes, which are known as α-polonium and β-polonium. α-polonium has a cubic crystal structure and converts to the rhombohedral β-polonium at 36 °C. ===Chemical=== Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals, and tellurium is a metalloid, meaning that its chemical properties are between those of a metal and those of a nonmetal. although it has some metallic properties. Also, some allotropes of selenium display characteristics of a metalloid, even though selenium is usually considered a nonmetal. Even though oxygen is a chalcogen, its chemical properties are different from those of other chalcogens. One reason for this is that the heavier chalcogens have vacant d-orbitals. Oxygen's electronegativity is also much higher than those of the other chalcogens. This makes oxygen's electric polarizability several times lower than those of the other chalcogens. For covalent bonding a chalcogen may accept two electrons according to the octet rule, leaving two lone pairs. When an atom forms two single bonds, they form an angle between 90° and 120°. In 1+ cations, such as hydroxonium\|, a chalcogen forms three molecular orbitals arranged in a trigonal pyramidal fashion and one lone pair. Double bonds are also common in chalcogen compounds, for example in chalcogenates (see below). The oxidation number of the most common chalcogen compounds with positive metals is −2. However the tendency for chalcogens to form compounds in the −2 state decreases towards the heavier chalcogens. Organic sulfur compounds such as thiols have a strong specific smell, and a few are utilized by some organisms. Oxygen ions often come in the forms of oxide ions (), peroxide ions (), and hydroxide ions (). Sulfur ions generally come in the form of sulfides (), bisulfides (), sulfites (), sulfates (), and thiosulfates (). Selenium ions usually come in the form of selenides (), selenites () and selenates (). Tellurium ions often come in the form of tellurates (). Except for polonium, the chalcogens are all fairly similar to each other chemically. They all form X2− ions when reacting with electropositive metals. Sulfide minerals and analogous compounds produce gases upon reaction with oxygen. ==Compounds== ===With halogens=== Chalcogens also form compounds with halogens known as chalcohalides, or chalcogen halides. The majority of simple chalcogen halides are well-known and widely used as chemical reagents. However, more complicated chalcogen halides, such as sulfenyl, sulfonyl, and sulfuryl halides, are less well known to science. Out of the compounds consisting purely of chalcogens and halogens, there are a total of 13 chalcogen fluorides, nine chalcogen chlorides, eight chalcogen bromides, and six chalcogen iodides that are known. The heavier chalcogen halides often have significant molecular interactions. Sulfur fluorides with low valences are fairly unstable and little is known about their properties. However, sulfur fluorides with high valences, such as sulfur hexafluoride, are stable and well-known. Sulfur tetrafluoride is also a well-known sulfur fluoride. Certain selenium fluorides, such as selenium difluoride, have been produced in small amounts. The crystal structures of both selenium tetrafluoride and tellurium tetrafluoride are known. Chalcogen chlorides and bromides have also been explored. In particular, selenium dichloride and sulfur dichloride can react to form organic selenium compounds. Dichalcogen dihalides, such as Se2Cl2 also are known to exist. There are also mixed chalcogen-halogen compounds. These include SeSX, with X being chlorine or bromine. Such compounds can form in mixtures of sulfur dichloride and selenium halides. These compounds have been fairly recently structurally characterized, as of 2008. In general, diselenium and disulfur chlorides and bromides are useful chemical reagents. Chalcogen halides with attached metal atoms are soluble in organic solutions. One example of such a compound is . Unlike selenium chlorides and bromides, selenium iodides have not been isolated, as of 2008, although it is likely that they occur in solution. Diselenium diiodide, however, does occur in equilibrium with selenium atoms and iodine molecules. Some tellurium halides with low valences, such as and , form polymers when in the solid state. These tellurium halides can be synthesized by the reduction of pure tellurium with superhydride and reacting the resulting product with tellurium tetrahalides. Ditellurium dihalides tend to get less stable as the halides become lower in atomic number and atomic mass. Tellurium also forms iodides with even fewer iodine atoms than diiodides. These include TeI and Te2I. These compounds have extended structures in the solid state. Halogens and chalcogens can also form halochalcogenate anions. and selenophenol is renowned for its "metaphysical stench". There are also thioketones, selenoketones, and telluroketones. Out of these, thioketones are the most well-studied with 80% of chalcogenoketones papers being about them. Selenoketones make up 16% of such papers and telluroketones make up 4% of them. Thioketones have well-studied non-linear electric and photophysical properties. Selenoketones are less stable than thioketones and telluroketones are less stable than selenoketones. Telluroketones have the highest level of polarity of chalcogenoketones. ===Other=== Chalcogens form single bonds and double bonds with other carbon group elements than carbon, such as silicon, germanium, and tin. Such compounds typically form from a reaction of carbon group halides and chalcogenol salts or chalcogenol bases. Cyclic compounds with chalcogens, carbon group elements, and boron atoms exist, and occur from the reaction of boron dichalcogenates and carbon group metal halides. Compounds in the form of M-E, where M is silicon, germanium, or tin, and E is sulfur, selenium or tellurium have been discovered. These form when carbon group hydrides react or when heavier versions of carbenes react. Sulfur and tellurium can bond with organic compounds containing both silicon and phosphorus. Also, oxygen can bond to hydrogen in a 1:1 ratio as in hydrogen peroxide, but this compound is unstable. ==History== ===Early discoveries=== Sulfur has been known since ancient times and is mentioned in the Bible fifteen times. It was known to the ancient Greeks and commonly mined by the ancient Romans. In the Middle Ages, it was a key part of alchemical experiments. In the 1700s and 1800s, scientists Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard proved sulfur to be a chemical element. ===Periodic table placing=== Three of the chalcogens (sulfur, selenium, and tellurium) were part of the discovery of periodicity, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner as having similar properties. His version included a "group b" consisting of oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and osmium. After 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing oxygen at the top of "group VI" above sulfur, selenium, and tellurium. Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and uranium were sometimes included in this group, but they would be later rearranged as part of group VIB; uranium would later be moved to the actinide series. Oxygen, along with sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and later polonium would be grouped in group VIA, until the group's name was changed to group 16 in 1988. ===Modern discoveries=== In the late 19th century, Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered that a sample of pitchblende was emitting four times as much radioactivity as could be explained by the presence of uranium alone. The Curies gathered several tons of pitchblende and refined it for several months until they had a pure sample of polonium. The discovery officially took place in 1898. Prior to the invention of particle accelerators, the only way to produce polonium was to extract it over several months from uranium ore. as the elements in the group formed amphid salts (salts of oxyacids, formerly regarded as composed of two oxides, an acid and a basic oxide). The term received some use in the early 1800s but is now obsolete. gender, kindle). It was first used in 1932 by Wilhelm Biltz's group at Leibniz University Hannover, where it was proposed by Werner Fischer. The word "chalcogen" gained popularity in Germany during the 1930s because the term was analogous to "halogen". Although the literal meanings of the modern Greek words imply that chalcogen means "copper-former", this is misleading because the chalcogens have nothing to do with copper in particular. "Ore-former" has been suggested as a better translation, as the vast majority of metal ores are chalcogenides and the word in ancient Greek was associated with metals and metal-bearing rock in general; copper, and its alloy bronze, was one of the first metals to be used by humans. Oxygen's name comes from the Greek words oxy genes, meaning "acid-forming". Sulfur's name comes from either the Latin word ' or the Sanskrit word '; both of those terms are ancient words for sulfur. Selenium is named after the Greek goddess of the moon, Selene, to match the previously discovered element tellurium, whose name comes from the Latin word , meaning earth. Polonium is named after Marie Curie's country of birth, Poland. ==Occurrence== The four lightest chalcogens (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium) are all primordial elements on Earth. Sulfur and oxygen occur as constituent copper ores and selenium and tellurium occur in small traces in such ores. Oxygen also occurs in many minerals, being found in all oxide minerals and hydroxide minerals, and in numerous other mineral groups. Stars of at least eight times the mass of the Sun also produce oxygen in their cores via nuclear fusion. Oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, making up 1% of the universe by weight. Selenium makes up 0.05 parts per million of the Earth's crust by weight. Selenium is not produced directly by nuclear fusion. Tellurium makes up 9 parts per billion of the universe by weight. Polonium only occurs in trace amounts on Earth, via radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. It is present in uranium ores in concentrations of 100 micrograms per metric ton. Very minute amounts of polonium exist in the soil and thus in most food, and thus in the human body. Because sulfide minerals are much denser than the silicate minerals formed by lithophile elements, ==Production== Approximately 100 million metric tons of oxygen are produced yearly. Oxygen is most commonly produced by fractional distillation, in which air is cooled to a liquid, then warmed, allowing all the components of air except for oxygen to turn to gases and escape. Fractionally distilling air several times can produce 99.5% pure oxygen. Another method with which oxygen is produced is to send a stream of dry, clean air through a bed of molecular sieves made of zeolite, which absorbs the nitrogen in the air, leaving 90 to 93% pure oxygen. Tellurium can also be refined by electrolytic reduction of sodium telluride. The world production of tellurium is between 150 and 200 metric tons per year. The United States is one of the largest producers of tellurium, producing around 50 metric tons per year. Peru, Japan, and Canada are also large producers of tellurium. Sulfur is used as a pesticide (specifically as an acaricide and fungicide) on "orchard, ornamental, vegetable, grain, and other crops." Around 40% of all selenium produced goes to glassmaking. 30% of all selenium produced goes to metallurgy, including manganese production. 15% of all selenium produced goes to agriculture. Electronics such as photovoltaic materials claim 10% of all selenium produced. Pigments account for 5% of all selenium produced. Historically, machines such as photocopiers and light meters used one-third of all selenium produced, but this application is in steady decline. Tellurium is not known to be needed for animal life, although a few fungi can incorporate it in compounds in place of selenium. Microorganisms also absorb tellurium and emit dimethyl telluride. Most tellurium in the blood stream is excreted slowly in urine, but some is converted to dimethyl telluride and released through the lungs. On average, humans ingest about 600 micrograms of tellurium daily. Plants can take up some tellurium from the soil. Onions and garlic have been found to contain as much as 300 parts per million of tellurium in dry weight. Sulfur is generally nontoxic and is even a vital nutrient for humans. However, in its elemental form it can cause redness in the eyes and skin, a burning sensation and a cough if inhaled, a burning sensation and diarrhoea and/or catharsis An excess of sulfur can be toxic for cows because microbes in the rumens of cows produce toxic hydrogen sulfide upon reaction with sulfur. Many sulfur compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are highly toxic. Hydrogen selenide (H2Se) is highly toxic. Polonium-210 is only dangerous if ingested or inhaled because its alpha particle emissions cannot penetrate human skin. Polonium-209 is also toxic, and can cause leukemia. ==Amphid salts== Amphid salts was a name given by Jons Jacob Berzelius in the 19th century for chemical salts derived from the 16th group of the periodic table which included oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium. The term received some use in the early 1800s but is now obsolete. The current term in use for the 16th group is chalcogens.	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"freezing", "oxidation number", "selenophenol", "octave", "alpha decay", "calaverite", "Mo", "Salt (chemistry)", "Period 2 element", "thermal conductivity", "hydroxonium", "thioketone", "semiconductor", "Carl Wilhelm Scheele", "hydride", "electrolytic reduction", "telluride (chemistry)", "dimethyl telluride", "lesion", "molecular orbital", "chemical industry", "Mohs hardness", "Pierre Curie", "Samara, Russia", "Greek fire", "polonium", "shampoo", "Halogen", "germanium", "radioisotope", "molybdenum", "aerobic organism", "Martin Klaproth", "cation", "Periodic table", "dermatitis", "primordial element", "radical (chemistry)", "polonium hydride", "selenium difluoride", "tellurate minerals", "weak acids", "bismuth sulfide", "St. Petersburg", "tellurium tetrafluoride", "thioether", "selenium tetrafluoride", "Werner Fischer (chemist)", "Uranium", "electron configuration", "sulfate", "pesticide", "Tellurium", "dipropyl sulfide", "Springer Science+Business Media", "life", "silicon oxide", "organic chemistry", "polonium-210", "atomic nuclei", "vulcanized rubber", "Period 4 element", "thiol", "group 6 element", "LBNL", "electron shell", "Sodium tellurite", "Period 7 element", "ribbon", "Magic number (physics)", "tellurium hydride", "Pigment", "Louis-Jacques Thénard", "lymphopenia", "curium", "oxide minerals", "amino acid", "ionic radius", "copper", "beryllium", "holmium", "ligand", "Tellurium suboxide", "selenous acid", "carbon group", "oxide", "noble gas", "calcium-48", "hydrogen sulfide", "Match", "proton emission", "CD-RW", "selenium sulfide", "anion", "spallation", "titanium oxide", "Solid-state chemistry", "ytterbium", "selenoether", "Herman Frasch", "Metalloprotein", "anemia", "telluroketones", "hydrogen peroxide", "Sulfur tetrafluoride", "Photodetector", "brass", "orthorhombic crystal system", "organoselenium chemistry", "hydrogen cyanide", "rocket fuel", "fractional distillation", "sylvanite", "particle accelerator", "dimethyl sulfide", "Electron shell", "sulfuric 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5,906	Carbon dioxide	Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it is odorless. As the source of carbon in the carbon cycle, atmospheric is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation, acting as a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater, lakes, ice caps, and seawater. It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421 parts per million (ppm), or about 0.042% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.028%. Burning fossil fuels is the main cause of these increased concentrations, which are the primary cause of climate change. Its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological features. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis, which produces oxygen as a waste product. In turn, oxygen is consumed and is released as waste by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize organic compounds to produce energy by respiration. is released from organic materials when they decay or combust, such as in forest fires. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate (), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric levels increase. Carbon dioxide is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed by land and ocean carbon sinks. These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and wildfires result in the being released back into the atmosphere. , or the carbon it holds, is eventually sequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like coal, petroleum and natural gas. Nearly all produced by humans goes into the atmosphere. Less than 1% of produced annually is put to commercial use, mostly in the fertilizer industry and in the oil and gas industry for enhanced oil recovery. Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses. == Chemical and physical properties == === Structure, bonding and molecular vibrations === The symmetry of a carbon dioxide molecule is linear and centrosymmetric at its equilibrium geometry. The length of the carbon–oxygen bond in carbon dioxide is 116.3 pm, noticeably shorter than the roughly 140 pm length of a typical single C–O bond, and shorter than most other C–O multiply bonded functional groups such as carbonyls. In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep a fixed structure. However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear. This counter-intuitive result is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motion volume element vanishes for linear geometries. This is the true first acid dissociation constant, defined as K_\mathrm{a1} = \frac{\ce{[HCO3- ][H+]}}{\ce{[H2CO3]}} where the denominator includes only covalently bound and does not include hydrated (aq). The much smaller and often-quoted value near 4.16 × 10−7 (or pKa1 = 6.38) is an apparent value calculated on the (incorrect) assumption that all dissolved is present as carbonic acid, so that K_\mathrm{a1}{\rm{(apparent)}}=\frac{\ce{[HCO3- ][H+]}}{\ce{[H2CO3] + [CO2_{(aq)}]}} Since most of the dissolved remains as molecules, Ka1(apparent) has a much larger denominator and a much smaller value than the true Ka1. The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution. At high pH, it dissociates significantly into the carbonate ion (): Ka2 = 4.69 × 10−11 mol/L; pKa2 = 10.329 In organisms, carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase. In addition to altering its acidity, the presence of carbon dioxide in water also affects its electrical properties. When carbon dioxide dissolves in desalinated water, the electrical conductivity increases significantly from below 1 μS/cm to nearly 30 μS/cm. When heated, the water begins to gradually lose the conductivity induced by the presence of \mathrm{CO_{2}} , especially noticeable as temperatures exceed 30 °C. The temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity of fully deionized water without saturation is comparably low in relation to these data. === Chemical reactions === is a potent electrophile having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable to benzaldehyde or strongly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible. The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide with amines to make carbamates is used in scrubbers and has been suggested as a possible starting point for carbon capture and storage by amine gas treating. Only very strong nucleophiles, like the carbanions provided by Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with to give carboxylates: where M = Li or MgBr and R = alkyl or aryl. In metal carbon dioxide complexes, serves as a ligand, which can facilitate the conversion of to other chemicals. The reduction of to CO is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction: The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about −0.53 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode. The nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase catalyses this process. Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants and cyanobacteria) use the energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple sugars from absorbed from the air and water: === Physical properties === Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the gas is odorless; however, at sufficiently high concentrations, it has a sharp, acidic odor. At standard temperature and pressure, the density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m3, about 1.53 times that of air. Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa This form of glass, called carbonia, is produced by supercooling heated at extreme pressures (40–48 GPa, or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil. This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in a glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide. Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released. At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide. Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide: Table of thermal and physical properties of carbon dioxide () at atmospheric pressure: Phototrophs use the products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales. A globally significant species of coccolithophore is Emiliania huxleyi whose calcite scales have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as limestone, where what was previously atmospheric carbon can remain fixed for geological timescales. Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated levels cause increased growth reflected in the harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated in FACE experiments. Increased atmospheric concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency. Studies using FACE have shown that enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants. This may have knock-on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein. The concentration of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and flavonoids can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of . Plants also emit during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis, are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of each year, a mature forest will produce as much from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants. Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable carbon sinks, helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of from the atmosphere. === Toxicity === Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about altitude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% (412 ppm), depending on the location. In humans, exposure to at concentrations greater than 5% causes the development of hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis. Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour. Concentrations of more than 10% may cause convulsions, coma, and death. levels of more than 30% act rapidly leading to loss of consciousness in seconds. The Swahili term for this phenomenon is . Adaptation to increased concentrations of occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance the effects of blood acidification (acidosis). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days. Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels. Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis, adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse the condition. ==== Below 1% ==== There are few studies of the health effects of long-term continuous exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1%. Occupational exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period. At this concentration, International Space Station crew experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emotional irritation, and sleep disruption. Studies in animals at 0.5% have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure. A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant negative effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1% (1000ppm) likely due to induced increases in cerebral blood flow. Similarly a study on the effects of the concentration of in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of declined to safe levels (0.2%). {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Typical concentration effects ! Concentration !! Note \|- \| 280 ppm \|\| Pre-industrial levels \|- \| 421 ppm \|\| Current (May 2022) levels \|- \| ~1121 ppm \|\| ASHRAE recommendation for indoor air \|- \| 5,000 ppm \|\| USA 8h exposure limit Higher concentrations are associated with occupant health, comfort and performance degradation. ASHRAE Standard 62.1–2007 ventilation rates may result in indoor concentrations up to 2,100 ppm above ambient outdoor conditions. Thus if the outdoor concentration is 400 ppm, indoor concentrations may reach 2,500 ppm with ventilation rates that meet this industry consensus standard. Concentrations in poorly ventilated spaces can be found even higher than this (range of 3,000 or 4,000 ppm). Miners, who are particularly vulnerable to gas exposure due to insufficient ventilation, referred to mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as "blackdamp", "choke damp" or "stythe". Before more effective technologies were developed, miners would frequently monitor for dangerous levels of blackdamp and other gases in mine shafts by bringing a caged canary with them as they worked. The canary is more sensitive to asphyxiant gases than humans, and as it became unconscious would stop singing and fall off its perch. The Davy lamp could also detect high levels of blackdamp (which sinks, and collects near the floor) by burning less brightly, while methane, another suffocating gas and explosion risk, would make the lamp burn more brightly. In February 2020, three people died from suffocation at a party in Moscow when dry ice (frozen ) was added to a swimming pool to cool it down. A similar accident occurred in 2018 when a woman died from fumes emanating from the large amount of dry ice she was transporting in her car. ==== Indoor air ==== Humans spend more and more time in a confined atmosphere (around 80-90% of the time in a building or vehicle). According to the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) and various actors in France, the rate in the indoor air of buildings (linked to human or animal occupancy and the presence of combustion installations), weighted by air renewal, is "usually between about 350 and 2,500 ppm". In homes, schools, nurseries and offices, there are no systematic relationships between the levels of and other pollutants, and indoor is statistically not a good predictor of pollutants linked to outdoor road (or air, etc.) traffic. is the parameter that changes the fastest (with hygrometry and oxygen levels when humans or animals are gathered in a closed or poorly ventilated room). In poor countries, many open hearths are sources of and CO emitted directly into the living environment. ==== Outdoor areas with elevated concentrations ==== Local concentrations of carbon dioxide can reach high values near strong sources, especially those that are isolated by surrounding terrain. At the Bossoleto hot spring near Rapolano Terme in Tuscany, Italy, situated in a bowl-shaped depression about in diameter, concentrations of rise to above 75% overnight, sufficient to kill insects and small animals. After sunrise the gas is dispersed by convection. High concentrations of produced by disturbance of deep lake water saturated with are thought to have caused 37 fatalities at Lake Monoun, Cameroon in 1984 and 1700 casualties at Lake Nyos, Cameroon in 1986. == Human physiology == === Content === {\| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;" \|+Reference ranges or averages for partial pressures of carbon dioxide (abbreviated p) \|- ! Blood compartment ! (kPa) ! (mm Hg) \|- \| Venous blood carbon dioxide \| \|- \| Alveolar pulmonarygas pressures \| \|- \| Arterial blood carbon dioxide \| containing of carbon. In humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through the venous system and is breathed out through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in the arteries. The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the volume. In humans, the blood carbon dioxide contents are shown in the adjacent table. === Transport in the blood === is carried in blood in three different ways. Exact percentages vary between arterial and venous blood. Majority (about 70% to 80%) is converted to bicarbonate ions by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells, by the reaction: 5–10% is dissolved in blood plasma Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis. Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness. == Concentrations and role in the environment == === Atmosphere === === Oceans === ==== Ocean acidification ==== Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form carbonic acid (), bicarbonate (), and carbonate (). There is about fifty times as much carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans as exists in the atmosphere. The oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, and have taken up about a third of emitted by human activity. ==== Hydrothermal vents ==== Carbon dioxide is also introduced into the oceans through hydrothermal vents. The Champagne hydrothermal vent, found at the Northwest Eifuku volcano in the Mariana Trench, produces almost pure liquid carbon dioxide, one of only two known sites in the world as of 2004, the other being in the Okinawa Trough. The finding of a submarine lake of liquid carbon dioxide in the Okinawa Trough was reported in 2006.	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sink", "oxygen", "yeast (wine)", "diamond anvil", "benzaldehyde", "Free-Air Concentration Enrichment", "List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions", "kilopascal", "supercooling", "List of least carbon efficient power stations", "groundwater", "amorphous carbonia", "covalent bond", "World Bank", "calcite", "wildfire", "bicarbonate", "welding", "Prandtl Number", "concentration", "Precambrian", "aerobic respiration", "Humphry Davy", "ASHRAE", "cold soak", "Joseph Black", "aryl", "carbonic maceration", "dry cleaners", "grape must", "lipophilic", "Cerium dioxide", "mmHg", "baking soda", "Scotland", "Praxair", "MPa", "Fire extinguisher", "alkalosis", "water-use efficiency", "Silicon dioxide", "Aerogel", "refrigerant", "Dolomite (mineral)", "landfill gas", "GPa", "American Veterinary Medical Association", "Precipitation (chemistry)", "ribulose bisphosphate", "allosteric regulation", "indoor air quality", "supercritical drying", "active laser medium", "plant", "hydrofluorocarbon", "Lead dioxide", "E number", "Ab initio quantum chemistry methods", "metabolism", "algae", "trace gas", "lake", "enzyme", "Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere", "Plant", "Lake Nyos", "Carbon monoxide", "food chain", "miners", "organolithium compound", "autoregulation", "Mount Nyiragongo", "limewater", "Suffocation", "Acid strength", "Baker's yeast", "Bromine", "hemoglobin", "Joseph Priestley", "hyperventilation", "Jan Baptist van Helmont", "deposition (physics)", "Grignard reagent", "Michael Faraday", "cyanobacteria", "seawater", "venous system", "ScienceDaily", "Fermentation (biochemistry)", "Specific heat", "Carbon ditelluride", "chemical formula", "bioethanol", "ocean acidification", "sodium salicylate", "hydrochloric acid", "carbonyls", "decomposition", "partial pressure of carbon dioxide", "parts per million", "Kolbe–Schmitt reaction", "Beaujolais", "ecosystem", "coffee", "Respiratory adaptation", "soda water", "natural gas", "coral", "Reference range", "Dynamic viscosity", "infrared", "steam reforming", "NASA", "Fermentation (wine)", "acid dissociation constant", "amorphous", "R134a", "fuel", "spider mite", "argon", "gasoline", "carbon", "spring (hydrosphere)", "dichlorodifluoromethane", "chlorofluorocarbon", "calcium hydroxide", "winemaking", "alkyl", "Oxocarbon", "Photoautotrophs", "supercritical carbon dioxide", "food additive", "Goma", "MIG welding", "carbamino", "carbonated water", "nitrogen", "Reef aquarium", "industrial gas", "dry ice", "C3 photosynthesis", "Hemoglobin", "sedimentary rock", "United States Army", "brewing", "electrofuel", "Carbon sequestration", "Henry's law", "Coulomb explosion", "aerobic organism", "climate change", "Leavening agent", "carbanion", "Carbonic acid", "Aluminium", "red blood cell", "α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound", "Iron", "arteries", "energy", "paintball", "coal", "cask ale", "carbon cycle", "Apollo Lunar Module", "respiratory acidosis", "creativecommons:by/4.0/", "electric dipole moment", "Bjerrum plot", "scanning electron microscopy", "Swahili language", "methane", "sugar", "decaffeination", "fish", "chemical compound", "fatty acid", "crude oil", "calcium oxide", "oxidation", "greenhouse gas", "amphoteric", "Global warming potential", "ice cap", "oxygen mask", "carbamate", "mm Hg", "amino acid", "Cellular respiration", "pig iron", "kerosene", "supercritical fluid", "pharmaceutical", "Molecular symmetry", "ligand", "baking powder", "oxide", "Arterial blood gas", "ammonia production", "blast furnace", "Carbonyl selenide", "mazuku", "Temperature", "carbon fixation", "advanced gas-cooled reactor", "chemical kinetics", "pressure", "ethanol", "Haldane Effect", "Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier", "Domestic Canary", "Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation, de l'environnement et du travail", "3-phosphoglycerate", "urea", "Density", "Carbon fixation", "pulmonary gas pressures", "Dry ice", "sunlight", "carbonate", "germanium dioxide", "coccolithophore", "Blackdamp", "flavonoid", "carbohydrate", "brittle", "sulfuric acid", "photosynthesis", "Tuscany", "Infrared spectroscopy", "Raman spectroscopy", "Lake Monoun", "Titanium dioxide", "diprotic acid", "Food and Drug Administration", "Conductivity (electrolytic)", "fossil fuel", "polysaccharide", "whiteflies", "potential energy surface", "petroleum", "Cameroon", "carbon monoxide dehydrogenase", "Extraction of petroleum", "Carbonyl sulfide", "acidosis", "Critical point (thermodynamics)", "Supercritical fluid", "Linear (chemistry)", "metal carbon dioxide complex", "deprotonation", "Fermi resonance", "International Space Station", "limestone", "Thermal diffusivity", "Emiliania huxleyi", "beer", "centrosymmetric", "Yeast", "Calcium oxide", "Tin dioxide", "Zirconium dioxide", "coke (fuel)", "functional group", "redox potential", "Kinematic viscosity", "coffee bean", "damp (mining)", "cellular respiration", "electrical fire", "Rapolano Terme", "standard temperature and pressure", "monosaccharide", "air hunger", "hypercapnia", "electrophile", "whisky", "direct air capture", "carbon-based fuel", "bond length", "Bohr effect", "vein", "soft drink", "sublimation (chemistry)", "amphibian", "amine gas treating", "Standard atmosphere (unit)", "Carbon capture and storage", "INS number", "Molecular vibration", "calcium reactor", "grape", "Hafnium dioxide", "Anaerobic organisms", "anaerobic respiration", "compensation point", "standard hydrogen electrode", "ash (analytical chemistry)", "carbon dioxide scrubber", "carbonic anhydrase", "Pop Rocks", "decaffeinate", "biosynthesis", "organic compound", "Direct air capture", "acid", "nucleic acid", "carbon–oxygen bond", "water", "charcoal", "nondispersive infrared sensor", "storage (wine)", "Germanium dioxide", "molecule", "glucose", "carbonation", "Photosynthesis", "carbon-dioxide laser", "metabolites", "1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane", "Davy lamp", "Carbon diselenide" ]
5,907	Cheers	Cheers is an American television sitcom, created by Glen Charles & Les Charles and James Burrows, that aired on NBC for 11 seasons from September 30, 1982, to May 20, 1993. The show was produced by Charles/Burrows/Charles Productions in association with Paramount Television. The show is set in the titular bar in Boston, where a group of locals meet to drink, relax, socialize, and escape from their day-to-day issues. At the center of the show is the bar's owner and head bartender, Sam Malone, who is a womanizing former relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox. The show's ensemble cast introduced in the pilot episode are waitresses Diane Chambers and Carla Tortelli, second bartender Coach Ernie Pantusso, and regular customers Norm Peterson and Cliff Clavin. Later main characters of the show also include Frasier Crane, Woody Boyd, Lilith Sternin, and Rebecca Howe. After premiering in 1982, it was nearly canceled during its first season when it ranked almost last in ratings for its premiere (74th out of 77 shows). However, Cheers eventually became a Nielsen ratings juggernaut in the United States, earning a top-10 rating during eight of its 11 seasons, including one season at number one (season 9). The show spent most of its run on NBC's Thursday night "Must See TV" lineup. Widely watched, its series finale in 1993 became the most-watched single TV episode of the 1990s, and the show's 275 episodes have been successfully syndicated worldwide. Nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series for all 11 of its seasons on the air, it earned 28 Primetime Emmy Awards from a record of 117 nominations. During its run, Cheers became one of the most popular series in history and received critical acclaim from its start to its end and is frequently cited as one of the greatest television shows of all time. In 1997, the episodes "Thanksgiving Orphans" and "Home Is the Sailor," aired originally in 1987, were respectively ranked No. 7 and No. 45 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. Its series finale was watched by an estimated 93 million viewers, almost 40% of the US population at the time. The series also produced three spin-offs: The Tortellis, Wings, and Frasier; and a Spanish remake. ==Characters== Before the Cheers pilot "Give Me a Ring Sometime" was completed and aired in 1982, the series consisted of four employees in the first script. In later years, Woody Boyd replaced Coach, after the character died off-screen in season three (1984–85), following actor Nicholas Colasanto's death. Frasier Crane started as a recurring character and became a permanent one. In season six (1987–88), new character Rebecca Howe was added, having been written into the show after the finale of the previous season (1986–87). Lilith Sternin started as a one-time character in an episode of season four, "Second Time Around" (1985). After her second season five appearance, she became a recurring character and was later featured as a permanent one during season 10 (1991–92). ===Original main characters=== Ted Danson as Sam Malone: A bartender and proprietor of Cheers, Sam is also a lothario. Before the series began, he was a baseball relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox nicknamed "Mayday Malone" until he became an alcoholic, harming his career. He has an on-again, off-again relationship with Diane Chambers, his class opposite, in the first five seasons (1982–1987). During their off-times, Sam has flings with many not-so-bright "sexy women" All of her children are ill behaved, except Ludlow, whose father is a prominent academic. She flirts with men, including ones who are not flattered by her ways, and believes in superstitions. Later, she marries Eddie LeBec, an ice hockey player, who later becomes a penguin mascot for ice shows. After he dies in an ice show accident by an ice resurfacer, Carla later discovers that Eddie had committed bigamy with another woman, whom he had gotten pregnant. Carla sleeps with Sam's enemy, John Allen Hill, to Sam's annoyance and anger. George Wendt as Norm Peterson: A bar regular and occasionally employed accountant. A recurrent joke on the show, especially in the earlier seasons, is that the character was such a popular and constant fixture at the bar that anytime he entered through the front door, everyone present would yell out his name ("NORM!") in greeting (when present in the scene Diane would be heard saying "Norman!" moments later) ; usually, this cry would be followed by one of the present bartenders asking Norm how he was, usually receiving a sardonic response and a request for a beer. ("It's a dog-eat-dog world, and I'm wearing Milkbone underwear.") He has infrequent accounting jobs and a troubled marriage with (but is still in love with and married to) Vera, an unseen character, though she is occasionally heard. Later in the series, he becomes a house painter and an interior decorator. Even later in the series, Norm secures his dream job, tasting beer at a brewery. The character was not originally intended to be a main cast role; After he was cast in a more permanent role, the character was renamed Norm. ===Subsequent main characters=== John Ratzenberger as Cliff Clavin: A know-it-all bar regular and mail carrier. He lives with his mother Esther Clavin (Frances Sternhagen) in first the family house and later his own apartment. In the bar, Cliff continuously spouts nonsensical and annoying trivia, making him an object of derision for the bar patrons (especially Carla). Ratzenberger auditioned for the role of a minor character George, but it went to Wendt, evolving the role into Norm Peterson. The producers decided they wanted a resident bar know-it-all, Kelsey Grammer as Frasier Crane: A psychiatrist and bar regular, a recurring character for seasons 3 and 4 who joins the main cast by season 5. Frasier started out as Diane Chambers' love interest in the third season (1984–85). In the fourth season (1985–86), after Diane jilts him at the altar in Europe, Frasier starts to frequent Cheers and becomes a regular. He later marries Lilith Sternin and has a son, Frederick. After the series ends, the character becomes the focus of the spin-off Frasier, in which he is divorced from Lilith and living in Seattle. Woody Harrelson as Woody Boyd: A not-so-bright At the start, Sam frequently attempts to seduce Rebecca without success. As her personality changes, ===Celebrity appearances=== Other celebrities guest-starred in single episodes as themselves throughout the series. Sports figures appeared on the show as themselves, with a connection to Boston or Sam's former team, the Red Sox, such as Luis Tiant, Wade Boggs, and Kevin McHale and Larry Bird (of the Boston Celtics). Some television stars also made guest appearances as themselves such as Alex Trebek, Arsenio Hall, Dick Cavett, Robert Urich, George McFarland and Johnny Carson. Various political figures even made appearances on Cheers such as then-Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral William J. Crowe, former Colorado Senator Gary Hart, then-Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, then-Senator John Kerry, then-Governor Michael Dukakis, Ethel Kennedy (widow of Robert F. Kennedy), and then-Mayor of Boston Raymond Flynn, the last five of whom all represented Cheers' home state and city. In maternal roles, Glynis Johns, in a guest appearance in 1983, played Diane's mother, Helen Chambers. Nancy Marchand played Frasier's mother, Hester Crane, in an episode that aired in 1985. In an episode that aired in 1992, Celeste Holm – who had previously played Ted Danson's mother in "Three Men and a Baby" – appeared as Kelly's jokester of a paternal grandmother. Melendy Britt appeared in the episode "Woody or Won't He" (1990) as Kelly's mother, Roxanne Gaines, a very attractive high-society lady and a sexy, flirtatious upper-class cougar who tries to seduce Woody. The musician Harry Connick Jr. appeared in an episode as Woody's cousin and plays a song from his Grammy-winning album We Are in Love (). John Cleese won a Primetime Emmy Award for his guest appearance as "Dr. Simon Finch-Royce" in the fifth-season episode "Simon Says". Emma Thompson guest-starred as Nanny G/Nannette Guzman, a famous singing nanny and Frasier's ex-wife. Christopher Lloyd guest-starred as a tortured artist who wanted to paint Diane. Marcia Cross portrayed Rebecca's sister Susan in the season 7 episode Sisterly Love. John Mahoney once appeared as an inept jingle writer, which included a brief conversation with Frasier Crane, whose father he later portrayed on the spin-off Frasier. Peri Gilpin, who later played Roz Doyle on Frasier, also appeared in one episode of Cheers, in its 11th season, as Holly Matheson, a reporter who interviews Woody. The Righteous Brothers, Bobby Hatfield and Bill Medley, also guest-starred in different episodes. In "The Guy Can't Help It", Rebecca meets a plumber, played by Tom Berenger, who came to fix one of the beer keg taps. They marry in the series finale, triggering her resignation from Cheers. Judith Barsi appears in the episode Relief Bartender. Notable guest appearances of actresses portraying Sam's sexual conquests or potential sexual conquests include Kate Mulgrew in the three-episode finale of season four, portraying Boston councilwoman Janet Eldridge; Donna McKechnie as Debra, Sam's ex-wife (with whom he is on good terms), who pretends to be an intellectual in front of Diane; Barbara Babcock as Lana Marshall, a talent agent who specializes in representing male athletes, whom she routinely sleeps with on-demand; Julia Duffy as Rebecca Prout, a depressed intellectual friend of Diane's; Alison La Placa as magazine reporter Paula Nelson; Carol Kane as Amanda, who Sam eventually learns was a fellow patient at the sanitarium with Diane; Barbara Feldon as Lauren Hudson, Sam's annual Valentine's Day fling (in an homage to Same Time, Next Year); Sandahl Bergman as Judy Marlowe, a longtime casual sex partner; Laurie Marlowe (Chelsea Noble), Judy's now-grown-up daughter, who always considered Sam a pseudo-father figure, & whom Sam falls for; Madolyn Smith-Osborne as Dr. Sheila Rydell, a colleague of Frasier and Lilith; Valerie Mahaffey as Valerie Hill, John Allen Hill's daughter whom Sam pursues if only to gain an upper hand in his business relationship with Hill; and Alexis Smith as Alice Anne Volkman, Rebecca's much older ex-professor. In season 9, episode 17, "I'm Getting My Act Together and Sticking It in Your Face", Sam, believing Rebecca wants a more serious relationship, pretends to be gay, his lover being a casual friend named Leon (Jeff McCarthy)—the plan ultimately leads to a kiss between Sam and Leon. ===Death of Nicholas Colasanto=== Near the end of production of the third season, the writers of Cheers had to deal with the death of one of the main actors. Nicholas Colasanto's heart condition had been diagnosed in the mid-1970s, but it had worsened. He had lost weight and was having trouble breathing during filming, and he was hospitalized shortly before filming finished for season three due to fluid in his lungs. He recovered but was not cleared to return to work. He was visiting the set in January 1985 to watch the filming of several episodes, and co-star Shelley Long commented, "I think we were all in denial. We were all glad he was there, but he lost a lot of weight." Co-star Rhea Perlman added that he "wanted to be there so badly. He didn't want to be sick. He couldn't breathe well. It was hard. He was laboring all the time." Colasanto ultimately died of a heart attack at his home on February 12, 1985. ==Episodes== ==Themes== Nearly all of Cheers takes place in the front room of the bar, but the characters often go into the rear pool room or the bar's office. Cheers does not show any action outside the bar until the first episode of the second season, which takes place in Diane's apartment. The show's main theme in its early seasons is the romance between intellectual waitress Diane Chambers and the bar's owner, Sam Malone, a former Major League Baseball pitcher for the Boston Red Sox and recovering alcoholic. After Shelley Long (Diane) left the show, the focus shifted to Sam's new relationship with Rebecca Howe, a neurotic corporate ladder climber. Many Cheers scripts centered or touched upon a variety of social issues, albeit humorously. As Toasting Cheers puts it, "The script was further strengthened by the writers' boldness in successfully tackling controversial issues such as alcoholism, homosexuality, and adultery." Social class was a subtext of the show. The "upper class"—represented by characters like Diane Chambers, Frasier Crane, and Lilith Sternin—rub shoulders with middle- and working-class characters Sam Malone, Carla Tortelli, Norm Peterson, and Cliff Clavin. An extreme example of this was the relationship between Woody Boyd and a millionaire's daughter, Kelly Gaines. Many viewers enjoyed Cheers in part because of this focus on character development in addition to plot development. Diane is a vocal feminist, and Sam is the epitome of everything she hates: promiscuity and chauvinism (see "Sam and Diane"). Homosexuality was dealt with from the first season, which was rare in the early 1980s on American television. In the first-season episode "The Boys in the Bar" (the title being a reference to the play and subsequent movie The Boys in the Band), a friend and former teammate of Sam's comes out in his autobiography. Some of the male regulars pressure Sam to take action to ensure that Cheers does not become a gay bar. The episode won a GLAAD Media Award, and the script's writers, Ken Levine and David Isaacs, were nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award. Addiction also plays a role on Cheers, almost exclusively through Sam. He is a recovering alcoholic who had bought a bar during his drinking days. Frasier has a notable bout of drinking in the fourth-season episode "The Triangle", while Woody develops a gambling problem in the seventh season episode "Call Me Irresponsible". Carla and other characters drink beer while pregnant, but nobody seems to mind. ==Cheers owners== Cheers had several owners before Sam, as the bar was opened in 1889. The "Est. 1895" on the bar's sign is a made-up date chosen by Carla for numerology purposes, revealed in season 8, episode 6, "The Stork Brings a Crane", which also revealed the bar's address as 112 Beacon Street and that it originated under the name Mom's. In the series' second episode, "Sam's Women", Coach tells a customer looking for Gus, the owner of Cheers, that Gus is dead. In a later episode, Gus O'Mally comes back from Arizona for one night and helps run the bar. The biggest storyline surrounding the ownership of Cheers begins in the fifth-season finale, "I Do, Adieu", when Sam and Diane part ways, due to Shelley Long's departure from the series. In addition, Sam leaves on a trip to circumnavigate the globe. Before he leaves, he sells Cheers to the Lillian Corporation. He returns in the sixth-season premiere, "Home is the Sailor", having sunk his boat, to find the bar under the new management of Rebecca Howe. He begs for his job back and is hired by Rebecca as a bartender. In the seventh-season premiere, "How to Recede in Business", Rebecca is fired and Sam is promoted to manager. Rebecca is allowed to keep a job at Lillian vaguely similar to what she had before, but only after Sam has Rebecca (in absentia) "agree" to a long list of demands that the corporation had for her. From there, Sam occasionally attempts to buy the bar back with schemes that usually involve the wealthy executive Robin Colcord. Sam acquires Cheers again in the eighth-season finale, when it is sold back to him for 85¢ by the Lillian Corporation after he alerts the company to Colcord's insider trading. Fired by the corporation because of her silence on the issue, Rebecca is hired by Sam as a hostess/office manager. For the rest of the episode, to celebrate Sam's reclaiming the bar, a huge banner reading "Under OLD Management!" hangs from the staircase. When it is learned that the Pool Room and bathrooms are actually owned by Melville's (which spawns a war of wits between Sam and Melville's owner John Allen Hill), Rebecca later purchases them from Hill, making Sam and Rebecca partners in the ownership of Cheers (and more or less co-runners of the establishment). Sam has two main battles. One is with Gary's Olde Towne Tavern, trying to beat them at some activity or another but always failing, except for one episode when Diane helps Cheers win the bowling trophy, and extending to the practical jokes they play on each other. The second is with Melville's owner John Allen Hill, who keeps annoying Sam with his pettiness and ego. Hill had an ongoing relationship with Carla. ==Production== ===Creation and concept=== Some believe that the show is a rehashing of Boston's ABC affiliate WCVB's locally produced 1979 sitcom Park Street Under featuring Steve Sweeney and American Repertory Theater founder Karen MacDonald. Three men developed and created the Cheers television series: Glen and Les Charles ("Glen and Les") and James Burrows, They aimed at "creating a show around a Spencer Tracy-Katharine Hepburn-type relationship" between their two main characters, Sam and Diane. An early concept revolved around a woman becoming the new owner of the bar and the animosity created between her and the regulars, an idea that was used later in Season 6 when the character of Rebecca Howe is introduced. Early discussions about the location of the show centered on Barstow, California, then Kansas City, Missouri. They eventually turned to the East Coast and finally Boston. The Bull & Finch Pub in Boston, which was the model for Cheers, was chosen from a phone book. When Glen Charles asked the bar's owner, Tom Kershaw, to shoot exterior and interior photos, he agreed, charging $1. Kershaw has since gone on to make millions of dollars, licensing the pub's image and selling a variety of Cheers memorabilia. The Bull & Finch became the 42nd-busiest outlet in the American food and beverage industry in 1997. ===Production team=== The crew of Cheers numbered in the hundreds. The three creators—James Burrows and Glen and Les Charles—kept offices on Paramount's lot for the duration of the Cheers run. The Charles Brothers remained in overall charge throughout the show's run, frequently writing major episodes, though starting with the third season they began delegating the day-to-day running of the writing staff to various showrunners. Ken Estin and Sam Simon were appointed as showrunners for the third season, and succeeded by David Angell, Peter Casey and David Lee the following year. Angell, Casey and Lee would remain as showrunners until the end of the seventh season when they left to develop their own sitcom, Wings, and were replaced by Bill and Cheri Steinkellner and Phoef Sutton for the eighth through tenth seasons. For the final season, Tom Anderson and Dan O'Shannon acted as the showrunners. James Burrows is regarded as being a factor in the show's longevity, directing 243 of the 270 episodes and supervising the show's production. Among the show's other directors were Andy Ackerman, Thomas Lofaro, Tim Berry, Tom Moore, Rick Beren, as well as cast members John Ratzenberger and George Wendt. Craig Safan provided the series' original music for its entire run except the theme song. His extensive compositions for the show led to his winning numerous ASCAP Top TV Series awards for his music. ===Casting=== The character of Sam Malone was originally intended to be a retired football player and was slated to be played by Fred Dryer, but Danson was chosen in part because he was younger and had more acting experience than Dryer. Dryer, however, went on to play sportscaster Dave Richards, an old friend of Sam, in three episodes. Bill Cosby was also considered early in the casting process for the role of Sam, after having been recommended by the network. Shelley Long was recommended by various sources to the producers for the role of Diane Chambers, but Long wished to be offered the part straight out and had to be coaxed into giving an audition. When she did read for the part, according to Glen Charles, "that was it, we knew that we wanted her." The chemistry was so apparent between Long and Danson that it secured them the roles. Alley joined the cast when Shelley Long left, and Woody Harrelson joined when Nicholas Colasanto died. Danson, Perlman and Wendt were the only actors to appear in every episode of the series; Ratzenberger appears in all but two (and his name wasn't part of the opening credit montage during the first season). ===Filming styles and locations=== Most Cheers episodes were, as a voiceover stated at the start of each, "filmed before a live studio audience" on Paramount Stage 25 in Hollywood, generally on Tuesday nights. Scripts for a new episode were issued the Wednesday before for a read-through, Friday was rehearsal day, and final scripts were issued on Monday. Burrows, who directed most episodes, insisted on using film stock rather than videotape. He was also noted for using motion in his directorial style, trying to constantly keep characters moving rather than standing still. Burrows and the Charles brothers emphasized to the cast to "never assume that you're not being watched" because the camera would be focused on the actors at all times, so they had to always be reacting and "always be funny". Due to a decision by Glen and Les Charles, the cold open was often not connected to the rest of the episode, with the lowest-ranked writers assigned to create the jokes for them. Some cold opens were taken from episodes that ran too long. The first year of the show took place entirely within the confines of the bar, the first location outside the bar being Diane's apartment in the second year. When the series became a hit, the characters started venturing further afield, first to other sets and eventually to an occasional exterior location. The exterior location shots of the bar are of the Bull & Finch Pub, located directly north of the Boston Public Garden. The pub has become a tourist attraction because of its association with the series, and draws nearly one million visitors annually. It was displayed for a short time at the defunct Hollywood Entertainment Museum, but later returned to storage, where it remained for many years. In 2014, CBS donated the set to the Museum of Television after a years-long campaign by James Burrows and his office on behalf of the museum's founder, James Comisar. At the time of the donation, Comisar initiated a planned $100,000 restoration of the set using former conservators from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, although a site for the 10,000 item collection of the museum had not been decided upon. On syndicated airings of Cheers, the theme song was shortened to make room for additional commercials. ==Reception== ===Critical reception=== Cheers was critically acclaimed in its first season, though it landed a disappointing 74th out of 96 shows in that year's ratings. This critical support, the early success at the Primetime Emmy Awards, and the support of the president of NBC's entertainment division Brandon Tartikoff, are thought to be the main reasons for the show's survival and eventual success. Tartikoff stated in 1983 that Cheers was a sophisticated adult comedy and that NBC executives "never for a second doubted" that the show would be renewed. Writing in 2016, drama critic Chris Jones called Cheers "a hinge sitcom – one foot in classic bits and shtick not far removed from Mel Brooks and another in ambitious, Seinfeld-like absurdism." In 2022, Rolling Stone ranked Cheers as the eighth-greatest TV show of all time. The cast went on various talk shows to try to further promote the series after its first season. By the second season Cheers was competitive with CBS's top-rated show Simon & Simon. NBC dedicated a whole night to the final episode of Cheers, following the one-hour season finale of Seinfeld (which was its lead-in). The show began with a "pregame" show hosted by Bob Costas, followed by the final 98-minute episode itself. NBC affiliates then aired tributes to Cheers during their local newscasts, and the night concluded with a special Tonight Show broadcast live from the Bull & Finch Pub. Although the episode fell short of its hyped ratings predictions to become the most-watched television episode, it was the most watched show that year, bringing in 93 million viewers The episode originally aired in the usual Cheers spot of Thursday night, and was then rebroadcast on Sunday. While the original broadcast did not outperform the MAS*H finale, the combined non-repeating audiences for the Thursday and Sunday showings did. Television had greatly changed between the two finales, leaving Cheers with a broader array of competition for ratings. NBC timeslots: Season 1 Episodes 1–12: Thursday at 9:00 pm Season 1 Episode 13 – Season 2 Episode 10: Thursday at 9:30 pm Season 2 Episode 11 – Season 11 Episode 28: Thursday at 9:00 pm ===Serialized storylines=== Although not the first sitcom to do it, Cheers employed the use of end-of-season cliffhangers and, starting with the third season, the show's storylines became more serialized. The show's success helped make such multi-episode story arcs popular on sitcoms, which Les Charles regrets. [W]e may have been partly responsible for what's going on now, where if you miss the first episode or two, you are lost. You have to wait until you can get the whole thing on DVD and catch up with it. If that blood is on our hands, I feel kind of badly about it. It can be very frustrating." Cheers began with a limited five-character ensemble consisting of Ted Danson, Shelley Long, Rhea Perlman, Nicholas Colasanto and George Wendt. Cheers was able to gradually phase in characters such as Cliff, Frasier, Lilith, Rebecca, and Woody. By the time season 10 began, the show had eight front characters in its roster. ===Awards and honors=== Over its eleven-season run, the Cheers cast and crew earned many awards. The show garnered a record 111 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, with a total of 28 wins. In addition, Cheers earned 31 Golden Globe nominations, with a total of six wins. Danson, Long, Alley, Perlman, Wendt, Ratzenberger, Harrelson, Grammer, Neuwirth, and Colasanto all received Emmy nominations for their roles. Cheers won the Golden Globe Award for "Best TV-Series – Comedy/Musical" in 1991 and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1983, 1984, 1989, and 1991. The series was presented with the "Legend Award" at the 2006 TV Land Awards, with many of the surviving cast members attending the event. The following are awards that have been earned by the Cheers cast and crew over its 11-season run: ==Distribution== ===Syndication=== Cheers grew in popularity as it aired on American television and entered off-network syndication in 1987, initially distributed by Paramount Domestic Television. When the show went off the air in 1993, Cheers was syndicated in 38 countries, with 179 American television markets and 83 million viewers. When the quality of some earlier footage of Cheers began to deteriorate, it underwent a careful restoration in 2001. The series aired on Nick at Nite from 2001 to 2004 and on TV Land from 2004 to 2008, with Nick at Nite airing week-long Cheers "Everybody Knows Your Name" marathons. The show was removed from the lineup in 2004. The series began airing on Hallmark Channel in the United States in October 2008, and WGN America in 2009. In January 2011, Reelz Channel began airing the series in hour-long blocks. MeTV began airing Cheers weeknights in 2010. USA Network has aired the series on Sunday early mornings and weekday mornings to allow it to show extended-length films of hours and maintain symmetric schedules. As of October 5, 2020, it airs every weeknight at 11pm & 11:30pm ET on Decades (now Catchy Comedy). In addition to that, it also has occasionally appeared on their weekend binges, with its most recent one on April 6, 2025. In 2011, Cheers was made available on the Netflix and Amazon Prime Video streaming services. Cheers began airing on Eleven (a digital channel of Network Ten) in Australia on January 11, 2011. NCRV in the Netherlands aired all 275 episodes in sequence, once per night, repeating the series a total of three times. In Italy, it has previously aired on Italia 1 & Canale 5 as Cin Cin from 1985 until 1995. Cheers was first screened in the UK on Channel 4, and was one of the then-fledgling network's first imports. As of 2012, Cheers has been repeated on UK satellite channel CBS Drama. It has also been shown on the UK free-to-air channel ITV4, with two episodes every weeknight. On March 16, 2015, the series began airing on UK subscription channel Gold on weekdays at 9:30 a.m. and 10:00 a.m. Cheers aired again daily in 2019 on Channel 4. ====High definition==== A high-definition transfer of Cheers began running on HDNet in the United States in August 2010. The program was originally shot on film (but transferred to and edited on videotape) and broadcast in a 4:3 aspect ratio. ===Home media=== Paramount Home Entertainment and (from 2006 onward) CBS Home Entertainment have released all 11 seasons of Cheers on DVD in Region 1, Region 2, and Region 4. In the US, some episodes from the final three seasons appear on the DVDs with music substitutions. For example, in the episode "Grease", "I Fought the Law" was replaced even though its removal affects the comedic value of the scenes in which it was originally heard. The finale episode (73 minutes long without commercials) is presented in its three-part syndicated cut. The series is also available in high-definition Blu-ray. On March 6, 2012, CBS released Fan Favorites: The Best of Cheers. Based on the 2012 Facebook poll, the selected episodes are: "Give Me a Ring Sometime" (season 1, episode 1) "Diane's Perfect Date" (season 1, episode 17) "Pick a Con, Any Con" (season 1, episode 19) "Abnormal Psychology" (season 5, episode 4) "Thanksgiving Orphans" (season 5, episode 9) "Dinner at Eight-ish" (season 5, episode 20) "Simon Says" (season 5, episode 21) "An Old-Fashioned Wedding", parts one and two (season 10, episodes 25) On May 5, 2015, CBS DVD released Cheers – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. ===Digital media distribution=== The complete 11 seasons of Cheers are available through the iTunes Store, Amazon Prime Video, Peacock and Hulu in high definition. In Canada, all seasons are available on streaming service Crave. The entire series was available in the UK on All 4. ==Licensing== The series lent itself naturally to the development of Cheers bar-related merchandise, culminating in the development of a chain of Cheers themed pubs. Paramount's licensing group, led by Tom McGrath, developed the Cheers pub concept initially in partnership with Host Marriott, which placed Cheers themed pubs in over 15 airports around the world. The original Cheers bar is in Boston, historically known as the Bull and Finch; a Cheers restaurant in the Faneuil Hall marketplace; and Sam's Place, a spin-off sports bar concept also located in Faneuil Hall. In 1997, Europe's first officially licensed Cheers bar opened in London's Regent's Street W1. Like Cheers Faneuil Hall, Cheers London is a replica of the set. The gala opening was attended by James Burrows and cast members George Wendt and John Ratzenberger. The Cheers bar in London closed on December 31, 2008. The actual bar set had been on display at the Hollywood Entertainment Museum until the museum's closing in early 2006. The theme song to the show was eventually licensed to a Canadian restaurant, Kelsey's Neighbourhood Bar & Grill. CBS currently holds the rights to the Cheers franchise as a result of the 2005 Viacom split which saw Paramount transfer its entire television studio to CBS (both CBS and Viacom would reunite in 2019). ==Spin-offs== Some of the actors and actresses from Cheers brought their characters onto other television shows, either in a guest appearance or on a new spin-off series. The most successful Cheers spin-off was Frasier, which featured Frasier Crane following his relocation back to Seattle, Washington. Sam, Diane, and Woody all individually appeared in Frasier episodes, with Lilith appearing as a guest on multiple episodes. In the season nine episode "Cheerful Goodbyes", Frasier returns to Boston and meets up with the Cheers gang, later attending Cliff's retirement party. Frasier was revived in 2023, moving back to Boston like Cheers. Although Frasier was more successful, The Tortellis was the first series to spin off from Cheers, premiering in 1987. The show featured Carla's ex-husband Nick Tortelli and his wife Loretta, but was canceled after 13 episodes and drew protests for its stereotypical depictions of Italian Americans. ==Crossovers== In addition to direct spin-offs, several Cheers characters had guest appearance crossovers with other shows, including Wings and St. Elsewhere (episode "Cheers"). Cheers has also been spoofed or referenced in other media, including The Simpsons (spoofing the title sequence and theme song in "Flaming Moe's"; actually visiting the place with vocal role reprises of the majority of the principal cast in "Fear of Flying"), Scrubs (episode "My Life in Four Cameras"), and the 2012 comedy film Ted. The eighth-anniversary special of Late Night with David Letterman, airing in 1990, begins with a scene at Cheers in which the bar's TV gets stuck on NBC and all the bar patrons decide to go home instead of staying to watch David Letterman. The scene was re-used to open Letterman's final episode in 1993. A similar scene aired in the Super Bowl XVII Pregame Show on NBC, in which the characters briefly discuss the upcoming game. In 2019, members of the Cheers cast, Rhea Perlman, George Wendt, John Ratzenberger and Kirstie Alley reprised their characters in an episode of The Goldbergs where they play customers of Geoff's short-lived food delivery business. In the 2010 show Adventure Time, the show Cheers is referenced a few times, usually by Ice King/Simon because it was his favorite show back when he was a human living in the 20th century. This is explored in greater detail in the 2023 spin-off series Fionna and Cake, which is partially set within the mind of Simon. All televisions in that world simply play an animated rendition of Cheers reruns on every channel, and the characters sometimes sing the theme song in difficult moments. The season finale of the show is simply entitled "Cheers". ==Cultural references== In Australia, Cheers is remembered for its role in the infamous cancellation of the 1992 Nine Network special Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos. Due to the then-owner of Nine Network Kerry Packer's objections to its content, Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos was pulled off the air during its first and only broadcast; viewers saw the network abruptly begin airing a rerun of Cheers midway through the special, either after a scheduled commercial break or a Nine Network bumper claiming a technical problem. Nine Network's affiliate in Perth did not air the special at all and filled its timeslot with two episodes of Cheers. When the program was re-aired in its entirety in 2008, it abruptly cut away to the opening of Cheers midway through in a reenactment of the incident before resuming the second half that was not broadcast. In the Cheers episode "Woody For Hire, Norman Meets the Apes", Woody shows and tells everyone how he was an extra on Boston-based drama Spenser: For Hire. In the season 4 episode of Seinfeld titled "The Pitch", Jerry and George are presenting their idea for a sitcom to NBC executives. George is unhappy with their offer and feels that he deserves the same salary as Ted Danson which he claims was $800,000 per episode, being that Cheers is also an NBC show. Danson's reported salary was actually $250,000 per episode. At this point Cheers was in its 10th season and Ted Danson had won an Emmy and a Golden Globe the year before. In another Seinfeld episode, The Trip, George runs into George Wendt (portraying himself) while backstage on the set of The Tonight Show and annoys him by suggesting that the series change its setting from a bar to a rec room or community center. In the seventh episode of the second season of How I Met Your Mother, a coffee shop barista mistakenly hears Barney's name as "Swarley" and writes it on his cup. This leads to a running gag in which everyone mercilessly refers to Barney as "Swarley" despite his protests, which culminates in everyone in McClaren's bar shouting "Swarley" when he enters and playing the Cheers theme song. The credits are then shown in the "Cheers" style. In the season seven episode, In Tailgate, Ted and Barney are outraged with the price to get into MacLaren's on New Year's Eve, so they offer for everyone to come upstairs. In the apartment, there is a puzzles sign that is designed to parody Cheers. Ted and Barney employ Kevin as their bartender, and they invent a theme song which also parodies the Cheers theme song. In the 2015 video game Fallout 4, which is set in Boston, there is a bar named Prost Bar near Boston Common that, when entered, is an almost exact replica of the bar featured on the series. It includes two dead bodies sitting at the end of the bar, with one of them wearing a mail carrier's uniform, a direct reference to regular barfly Cliff Clavin. In the season 2 finale of the NBC sitcom The Good Place, Ted Danson's character Michael appears as a bartender while wearing a blue plaid button-down, in a clear homage to Danson's character in Cheers. ==Remake== In September 2011, Plural Entertainment debuted a remake of the series on Spanish television, also titled Cheers. Set at an Irish pub, it starred Alberto San Juan as Nicolás "Nico" Arnedo, the equivalent of Sam Malone on the original series. It also used the original theme song, rerecorded in Spanish by Dani Martín, under the title "Donde la gente se divierte." In December 2012, The Irish Film and Television Network announced that casting was underway on an Irish-language version of Cheers produced by production company Sideline. The new show, tentatively titled Teach Seán, would air on Ireland's TG4 and features a main character who, like Sam Malone, is a bar owner, a retired athlete, and a recovering alcoholic. However, because of being set in Ireland, the barman is a "former hurling star" rather than an ex-baseball player. As of August 2019, the Irish remake has not occurred. ==Cheers: Live on Stage== On September 9, 2016, a stage adaptation called Cheers: Live on Stage opened at the Shubert Theatre in Boston. Comprising pieces of the original TV series, the play was adapted by Erik Forrest Jackson. It was produced by Troika/Stageworks. The director was Matt Lenz. It starred Grayson Powell as Sam Malone, Jillian Louis as Diane Chambers, Barry Pearl as Ernie "Coach" Pantusso, Sarah Sirotta as Carla Tortelli, Paul Vogt as Norm Peterson, and Buzz Roddy as Cliff Clavin. The production was scheduled to tour through 2017, but was cancelled in 2016.	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5,909	Counterpoint	In music theory, counterpoint is the relationship of two or more simultaneous musical lines (also called voices) that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour. The term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning "point against point", i.e. "note against note". John Rahn describes counterpoint as follows: Counterpoint has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, especially in the Baroque period. In Western pedagogy, counterpoint is taught through a system of species (see below). There are several different forms of counterpoint, including imitative counterpoint and free counterpoint. Imitative counterpoint involves the repetition of a main melodic idea across different vocal parts, with or without variation. Compositions written in free counterpoint often incorporate non-traditional harmonies and chords, chromaticism and dissonance. ==General principles== The term "counterpoint" has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the harmonies produced by that interaction. Work initiated by Guerino Mazzola (born 1947) has given counterpoint theory a mathematical foundation. In particular, Mazzola's model gives a structural (and not psychological) foundation of forbidden parallels of fifths and the dissonant fourth. Octavio Agustin has extended the model to microtonal contexts. Another theorist who has tried to incorporate mathematical principles in his study of counterpoint is Sergei Taneyev (1856-1915). Inspired by Spinoza, Taneyev developed a theory which covers and generalizes a wide range of advanced contrapuntal phenomena, including what is known to the english-speaking theorists as invertible counterpoint (although he describes them mainly using his own, custom-built terminology), by means of linking them to simple algebraic procedures. In counterpoint, the functional independence of voices is the prime concern. The violation of this principle leads to special effects, which are avoided in counterpoint. In organ registers, certain interval combinations and chords are activated by a single key so that playing a melody results in parallel voice leading. These voices, losing independence, are fused into one and the parallel chords are perceived as single tones with a new timbre. In counterpoint, parallel voices are prohibited because they violate the heterogeneity of musical texture when independent voices occasionally disappear turning into a new timbre quality and vice versa. ==Development== Some examples of related compositional techniques include: the round (familiar in folk traditions), the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention: the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint. ==Examples from the repertoire== There are many examples of song melodies that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour. For example, "Frère Jacques" and "Three Blind Mice" combine euphoniously when sung together. A number of popular songs that share the same chord progression can also be sung together as counterpoint. A well-known pair of examples is "My Way" combined with "Life on Mars". Johann Sebastian Bach is revered as one of the greatest masters of counterpoint. For example the harmony implied in the opening subject of the Fugue in G-sharp minor from Book II of the Well-Tempered Clavier is heard anew in a subtle way when a second voice is added. "The counterpoint in bars 5-8... sheds an unexpected light on the tonality of the Subject.": Bach's 3-part Invention in F minor combines three independent melodies: According to pianist András Schiff, Bach's counterpoint influenced the composing of both Mozart and Beethoven. In the development section of the opening movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E minor, Beethoven demonstrates this influence by adding "a wonderful counterpoint" to one of the main themes. A further example of fluid counterpoint in late Beethoven may be found in the first orchestral variation on the "Ode to Joy" theme in the last movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9, bars 116–123. The famous theme is heard on the violas and cellos, while "the basses add a bass-line whose sheer unpredictability gives the impression that it is being spontaneously improvised. Meantime a solo bassoon adds a counterpoint that has a similarly impromptu quality." In the Prelude to Richard Wagner's opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, three themes from the opera are combined simultaneously. According to Gordon Jacob, "This is universally and justly acclaimed as an extraordinary feat of virtuosity." However, Donald Tovey points out that here "the combination of themes ... unlike classical counterpoint, really do not of themselves combine into complete or euphonious harmony." One spectacular example of 5-voice counterpoint can be found in the finale to Mozart's Symphony No 41 ("Jupiter" Symphony). Here five tunes combine simultaneously in "a rich tapestry of dialogue": See also Invertible counterpoint. == Species counterpoint == Species counterpoint was developed as a pedagogical tool in which students progress through several "species" of increasing complexity, with a very simple part that remains constant known as the cantus firmus (Latin for "fixed melody"). Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a "strict" counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to write free counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533). The 16th-century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on the idea in his influential Le institutioni harmoniche, and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his Prattica di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, such as invertible counterpoint. In 1725 Johann Joseph Fux published Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps to Parnassus), in which he described five species: Note against note; Two notes against one; Four notes against one; Notes offset against each other (as suspensions); All the first four species together, as "florid" counterpoint. A succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fux's seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. Many of Fux's rules concerning the purely linear construction of melodies have their origin in solfeggio. Concerning the common practice era, alterations to the melodic rules were introduced to enable the function of certain harmonic forms. The combination of these melodies produced the basic harmonic structure, the figured bass. ===Considerations for all species=== The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part: The final note must be approached by step. If the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key (Dorian, Hypodorian, Aeolian, Hypoaeolian), but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C is necessary at the cadence. Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect unison, fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be immediately followed by motion downwards. If writing two skips in the same direction—something that must be only rarely done—the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and the third note may not be dissonant. The three notes should be from the same triad; if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction. If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with step-wise motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided (for example, an ascending melodic motion F–A–B) as is the interval of a seventh in three notes. There must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat. An outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction. And, in all species, the following rules govern the combination of the parts: The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance. Contrary motion should dominate. Perfect consonances must be approached by oblique or contrary motion. Imperfect consonances may be approached by any type of motion. The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between two adjacent parts unless by necessity. Build from the bass, upward. === First species === In first species counterpoint, each note in every added part (parts being also referred to as lines or voices) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus. Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously. Since all notes in First species counterpoint are whole notes, rhythmic independence is not available. In the present context, a "step" is a melodic interval of a half or whole step. A "skip" is an interval of a third or fourth. (See Steps and skips.) An interval of a fifth or larger is referred to as a "leap". A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows. Begin and end on either the unison, octave, or fifth, unless the added part is underneath, in which case begin and end only on unison or octave. Use no unisons except at the beginning or end. Avoid parallel fifths or octaves between any two parts; and avoid "hidden" parallel fifths or octaves: that is, movement by similar motion to a perfect fifth or octave, unless one part (sometimes restricted to the higher of the parts) moves by step. Avoid moving in parallel fourths. (In practice Palestrina and others frequently allowed themselves such progressions, especially if they do not involve the lowest of the parts.) Do not use an interval more than three times in a row. Attempt to use up to three parallel thirds or sixths in a row. Attempt to keep any two adjacent parts within a tenth of each other, unless an exceptionally pleasing line can be written by moving outside that range. Avoid having any two parts move in the same direction by skip. Attempt to have as much contrary motion as possible. Avoid dissonant intervals between any two parts: major or minor second, major or minor seventh, any augmented or diminished interval, and perfect fourth (in many contexts). In the adjacent example in two parts, the cantus firmus is the lower part. (The same cantus firmus is used for later examples also. Each is in the Dorian mode.) ===Second species=== In second species counterpoint, two notes in each of the added parts work against each longer note in the given part. Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species: It is permissible to begin on an upbeat, leaving a half-rest in the added voice. The accented beat must have only consonance (perfect or imperfect). The unaccented beat may have dissonance, but only as a passing tone, i.e. it must be approached and left by step in the same direction. Avoid the interval of the unison except at the beginning or end of the example, except that it may occur on the unaccented portion of the bar. Use caution with successive accented perfect fifths or octaves. They must not be used as part of a sequential pattern. The example shown is weak due to similar motion in the second measure in both voices. A good rule to follow: if one voice skips or jumps try to use step-wise motion in the other voice or at the very least contrary motion. ===Third species=== In third species counterpoint, four (or three, etc.) notes move against each longer note in the given part. Three special figures are introduced into third species and later added to fifth species, and ultimately outside the restrictions of species writing. There are three figures to consider: The nota cambiata, double neighbor tones, and double passing tones. Double neighbor tones: the figure is prolonged over four beats and allows special dissonances. The upper and lower tones are prepared on beat 1 and resolved on beat 4. The fifth note or downbeat of the next measure should move by step in the same direction as the last two notes of the double neighbor figure. Lastly a double passing tone allows two dissonant passing tones in a row. The figure would consist of 4 notes moving in the same direction by step. The two notes that allow dissonance would be beat 2 and 3 or 3 and 4. The dissonant interval of a fourth would proceed into a diminished fifth and the next note would resolve at the interval of a sixth. ===Fourth species=== In fourth species counterpoint, some notes are sustained or suspended in an added part while notes move against them in the given part, often creating a dissonance on the beat, followed by the suspended note then changing (and "catching up") to create a subsequent consonance with the note in the given part as it continues to sound. As before, fourth species counterpoint is called expanded when the added-part notes vary in length among themselves. The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates syncopation. A dissonant interval is allowed on beat 1 because of the syncopation created by the suspension. While it is not incorrect to start with a half note, it is also common to start 4th species with a half rest. \relative c' { \new PianoStaff << \new Staff { \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible a'2 d~ d c~ c bes~ \key d \minor bes a b cis d1 \bar "\|." } \new Staff { d, f g f e d \bar "\|." } >> } Short example of "fourth species" counterpoint ===Fifth species (florid counterpoint)=== In fifth species counterpoint, sometimes called florid counterpoint, the other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added parts. In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species, and the final bar is first species. In florid counterpoint it is important that no one species dominates the composition. \relative c' { \new PianoStaff << \new Staff { r2 a' d c b4 c d e f e d2~ d4 cis8 b cis2 d1 \bar "\|." } \new Staff { d, f g f e d \bar "\|." } >> } Short example of "Florid" counterpoint ==Contrapuntal derivations== Since the Renaissance period in European music, much contrapuntal music has been written in imitative counterpoint. In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element. The fantasia, the ricercar, and later, the canon and fugue (the contrapuntal form par excellence) all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in choral works such as motets and madrigals. Imitative counterpoint spawned a number of devices, including: Melodic inversion: The inverse of a given fragment of melody is the fragment turned upside down—so if the original fragment has a rising major third (see interval), the inverted fragment has a falling major (or perhaps minor) third, etc. (Compare, in twelve-tone technique, the inversion of the tone row, which is the so-called prime series turned upside down.) (Note: in invertible counterpoint, including double and triple counterpoint, the term inversion is used in a different sense altogether. At least one pair of parts is switched, so that the one that was higher becomes lower. See Inversion in counterpoint; it is not a kind of imitation, but a rearrangement of the parts.) Retrograde: Whereby an imitative voice sounds the melody backwards in relation to the leading voice. Retrograde inversion: Where the imitative voice sounds the melody backwards and upside-down at once. Augmentation: When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are extended in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced. Diminution: When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are reduced in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced. ==Free counterpoint== Broadly speaking, due to the development of harmony, from the Baroque period on, most contrapuntal compositions were written in the style of free counterpoint. This means that the general focus of the composer had shifted away from how the intervals of added melodies related to a cantus firmus, and more toward how they related to each other. Nonetheless, according to Kent Kennan: "....actual teaching in that fashion (free counterpoint) did not become widespread until the late nineteenth century." Young composers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, such as Mozart, Beethoven, and Schumann, were still educated in the style of "strict" counterpoint, but in practice, they would look for ways to expand on the traditional concepts of the subject. Main features of free counterpoint: All forbidden chords, such as second-inversion, seventh, ninth etc., can be used freely as long as they resolve to a consonant triad Chromaticism is allowed The restrictions about rhythmic-placement of dissonance are removed. It is possible to use passing tones on the accented beat Appoggiatura is available: dissonance tones can be approached by leaps. ==Linear counterpoint== Linear counterpoint is "a purely horizontal technique in which the integrity of the individual melodic lines is not sacrificed to harmonic considerations. "Its distinctive feature is rather the concept of melody, which served as the starting-point for the adherents of the 'new objectivity' when they set up linear counterpoint as an anti-type to the Romantic harmony." The voice parts move freely, irrespective of the effects their combined motions may create." In other words, either "the domination of the horizontal (linear) aspects over the vertical" is featured or the "harmonic control of lines is rejected." ==Dissonant counterpoint== Dissonant counterpoint was originally theorized by Charles Seeger as "at first purely a school-room discipline," consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint must be all dissonances, establishing "dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule," and consonances are "resolved" through a skip, not step. He wrote that "the effect of this discipline" was "one of purification". Other aspects of composition, such as rhythm, could be "dissonated" by applying the same principle. Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to theorize and promote it. Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include Johanna Beyer, John Cage, Ruth Crawford-Seeger, Vivian Fine, Carl Ruggles, Henry Cowell, Carlos Chávez, John J. Becker, Henry Brant, Lou Harrison, Wallingford Riegger, and Frank Wigglesworth.	[ "Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)", "figured bass", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "double bass", "choir", "Richard Wagner", "Consonance and dissonance", "microtonal music", "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg", "Twelve-tone technique", "John J. Becker", "My Way", "syncopation", "J. S. Bach", "Johann Joseph Fux", "Music education", "Venetian School (music)", "Benjamin Boretz", "aspects of music", "Henry Brant", "Igor Stravinsky", "Piano Sonata No. 27 (Beethoven)", "The New Oxford Companion to Music", "development section", "ricercar", "Diminution", "Kent Kennan", "Carlos Chávez", "chord progression", "Augmentation (music)", "Knud Jeppesen", "Wallingford Riegger", "the Well-Tempered Clavier", "Baroque music", "Gordon Jacob", "Robert Schumann", "Johanna Beyer", "Canon (music)", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "cantus firmus", "Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)", "Charles Seeger", "neoclassicism (music)", "Mode (music)", "The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians", "Antony Hopkins", "renaissance music", "John Rahn", "Nonchord tone", "Polyphony", "music theory", "parallel fifths", "BWV", "Donald Tovey", "Vivian Fine", "Ode to Joy", "Carl Ruggles", "Ukulele Orchestra of Great Britain", "Frank Wigglesworth", "Frère Jacques", "Hauptstimme", "common practice period", "Contrary motion", "Hypodorian", "twelve-tone technique", "Dorian mode", "Glen Haydon", "Fugue", "Gioseffe Zarlino", "Imitation (music)", "round (music)", "Part (music)", "interval (music)", "invertible counterpoint", "Retrograde (music)", "fugue", "leading tone", "chromaticism", "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina", "cello", "Music Perception", "rhythm", "Gradus ad Parnassum", "Steps and skips", "Florida State University College of Music", "Octet (Stravinsky)", "Latin", "Lou Harrison", "cadence", "classical music", "madrigal (music)", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "fantasia (music)", "bassoon", "solfeggio", "G-sharp minor", "Mozart", "Beethoven", "Pitch contour", "Henry Cowell", "András Schiff", "Lodovico Zacconi", "Simon P. Keefe", "Guerino Mazzola", "cambiata", "Polyrhythm", "Sergei Taneyev", "Consecutive fifths", "Retrograde inversion", "The Well-Tempered Clavier", "Renaissance music", "Melodic inversion", "tritone", "Invertible counterpoint", "John Cage", "Counter-melody", "harmonically", "Life on Mars (song)", "viola", "Voice leading", "Hypoaeolian", "Three Blind Mice", "Baruch Spinoza", "Ruth Crawford Seeger", "motet", "Inventions and Sinfonias (Bach)", "Inversion (music)" ]
5,910	Cyanide	In chemistry, cyanide () is an inorganic chemical compound that contains a functional group. This group, known as the cyano group, consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. Ionic cyanides contain the cyanide anion . This anion is extremely poisonous. Soluble cyanide salts such as sodium cyanide (NaCN), potassium cyanide (KCN) and tetraethylammonium cyanide () are highly toxic. Covalent cyanides contain the group, and are usually called nitriles if the group is linked by a single covalent bond to carbon atom. For example, in acetonitrile , the cyanide group is bonded to methyl . In tetracyanomethane , four cyano groups are bonded to carbon. Although nitriles generally do not release cyanide ions, the cyanohydrins do and are thus toxic. The cyano group may be covalently bonded to atoms different than carbon, e.g., in cyanogen azide , phosphorus tricyanide and trimethylsilyl cyanide . Hydrogen cyanide, or , is a highly volatile toxic liquid that is produced on a large scale industrially. It is obtained by acidification of cyanide salts. ==Bonding== The cyanide ion is isoelectronic with carbon monoxide and with molecular nitrogen N≡N. A triple bond exists between C and N. The negative charge is concentrated on carbon C. ==Occurrence== ===In nature=== Cyanides are produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae. It is an antifeedant in a number of plants. Cyanides are found in substantial amounts in certain seeds and fruit stones, e.g., those of bitter almonds, apricots, apples, and peaches. Chemical compounds that can release cyanide are known as cyanogenic compounds. In plants, cyanides are usually bound to sugar molecules in the form of cyanogenic glycosides and defend the plant against herbivores. Cassava roots (also called manioc), an important potato-like food grown in tropical countries (and the base from which tapioca is made), also contain cyanogenic glycosides. The Madagascar bamboo Cathariostachys madagascariensis produces cyanide as a deterrent to grazing. In response, the golden bamboo lemur, which eats the bamboo, has developed a high tolerance to cyanide. The hydrogenase enzymes contain cyanide ligands attached to iron in their active sites. The biosynthesis of cyanide in the NiFe hydrogenases proceeds from carbamoyl phosphate, which converts to cysteinyl thiocyanate, the donor. ===Interstellar medium=== The cyanide radical •CN has been identified in interstellar space. Cyanogen, , is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds. ===Pyrolysis and combustion product=== Hydrogen cyanide is produced by the combustion or pyrolysis of certain materials under oxygen-deficient conditions. For example, it can be detected in the exhaust of internal combustion engines and tobacco smoke. Certain plastics, especially those derived from acrylonitrile, release hydrogen cyanide when heated or burnt. An example of a nitrile is acetonitrile, . Nitriles usually do not release cyanide ions. A functional group with a hydroxyl and cyanide bonded to the same carbon atom is called cyanohydrin (). Unlike nitriles, cyanohydrins do release poisonous hydrogen cyanide. ==Reactions== ===Protonation=== Cyanide is basic. The pKa of hydrogen cyanide is 9.21. Thus, addition of acids stronger than hydrogen cyanide to solutions of cyanide salts releases hydrogen cyanide. ===Hydrolysis=== Cyanide is unstable in water, but the reaction is slow until about 170 °C. It undergoes hydrolysis to give ammonia and formate, which are far less toxic than cyanide: ===Redox=== The cyanide ion is a reductant and is oxidized by strong oxidizing agents such as molecular chlorine (), hypochlorite (), and hydrogen peroxide (). These oxidizers are used to destroy cyanides in effluents from gold mining. ===Metal complexation=== The cyanide anion reacts with transition metals to form M-CN bonds. This reaction is the basis of cyanide's toxicity. The high affinities of metals for this anion can be attributed to its negative charge, compactness, and ability to engage in π-bonding. Among the most important cyanide coordination compounds are the potassium ferrocyanide and the pigment Prussian blue, which are both essentially nontoxic due to the tight binding of the cyanides to a central iron atom. Prussian blue was first accidentally made around 1706, by heating substances containing iron and carbon and nitrogen, and other cyanides made subsequently (and named after it). Among its many uses, Prussian blue gives the blue color to blueprints, bluing, and cyanotypes. ==Manufacture== The principal process used to manufacture cyanides is the Andrussow process in which gaseous hydrogen cyanide is produced from methane and ammonia in the presence of oxygen and a platinum catalyst. Sodium cyanide, the precursor to most cyanides, is produced by treating hydrogen cyanide with sodium hydroxide: Tissues that depend highly on aerobic respiration, such as the central nervous system and the heart, are particularly affected. This is an example of histotoxic hypoxia. Hydrogen cyanide, which is a gas, kills by inhalation. For this reason, working with hydrogen cyanide requires wearing an air respirator supplied by an external oxygen source. Hydrogen cyanide can be produced by adding acid to a solution containing a cyanide salt. Alkaline solutions of cyanide are safer to use because they do not evolve hydrogen cyanide gas. Oral ingestion of a small quantity of solid cyanide or a cyanide solution of as little as 200 mg, or exposure to airborne cyanide of 270 ppm, is sufficient to cause death within minutes. ===Antidote=== Hydroxocobalamin reacts with cyanide to form cyanocobalamin, which can be safely eliminated by the kidneys. This method has the advantage of avoiding the formation of methemoglobin (see below). This antidote kit is sold under the brand name Cyanokit and was approved by the U.S. FDA in 2006. An older cyanide antidote kit included administration of three substances: amyl nitrite pearls (administered by inhalation), sodium nitrite, and sodium thiosulfate. The goal of the antidote was to generate a large pool of ferric iron () to compete for cyanide with cytochrome a3 (so that cyanide will bind to the antidote rather than the enzyme). The nitrites oxidize hemoglobin to methemoglobin, which competes with cytochrome oxidase for the cyanide ion. Cyanmethemoglobin is formed and the cytochrome oxidase enzyme is restored. The major mechanism to remove the cyanide from the body is by enzymatic conversion to thiocyanate by the mitochondrial enzyme rhodanese. Thiocyanate is a relatively non-toxic molecule and is excreted by the kidneys. To accelerate this detoxification, sodium thiosulfate is administered to provide a sulfur donor for rhodanese, needed in order to produce thiocyanate. ===Sensitivity=== Minimum risk levels (MRLs) may not protect for delayed health effects or health effects acquired following repeated sublethal exposure, such as hypersensitivity, asthma, or bronchitis. MRLs may be revised after sufficient data accumulates. ==Applications== ===Mining=== Cyanide is mainly produced for the mining of silver and gold: It helps dissolve these metals allowing separation from the other solids. In the cyanide process, finely ground high-grade ore is mixed with the cyanide (at a ratio of about 1:500 parts NaCN to ore); low-grade ores are stacked into heaps and sprayed with a cyanide solution (at a ratio of about 1:1000 parts NaCN to ore). The precious metals are complexed by the cyanide anions to form soluble derivatives, e.g., (dicyanoargentate(I)) and (dicyanoaurate(I)). Silver is less "noble" than gold and often occurs as the sulfide, in which case redox is not invoked (no is required). Instead, a displacement reaction occurs: The "pregnant liquor" containing these ions is separated from the solids, which are discarded to a tailing pond or spent heap, the recoverable gold having been removed. The metal is recovered from the "pregnant solution" by reduction with zinc dust or by adsorption onto activated carbon. This process can result in environmental and health problems. A number of environmental disasters have followed the overflow of tailing ponds at gold mines. Cyanide contamination of waterways has resulted in numerous cases of human and aquatic species mortality. Aqueous cyanide is hydrolyzed rapidly, especially in sunlight. It can mobilize some heavy metals such as mercury if present. Gold can also be associated with arsenopyrite (FeAsS), which is similar to iron pyrite (fool's gold), wherein half of the sulfur atoms are replaced by arsenic. Gold-containing arsenopyrite ores are similarly reactive toward inorganic cyanide. ===Industrial organic chemistry=== The second major application of alkali metal cyanides (after mining) is in the production of CN-containing compounds, usually nitriles. Acyl cyanides are produced from acyl chlorides and cyanide. Cyanogen, cyanogen chloride, and the trimer cyanuric chloride are derived from alkali metal cyanides. ===Medical uses=== The cyanide compound sodium nitroprusside is used mainly in clinical chemistry to measure urine ketone bodies mainly as a follow-up to diabetic patients. On occasion, it is used in emergency medical situations to produce a rapid decrease in blood pressure in humans; it is also used as a vasodilator in vascular research. The cobalt in artificial vitamin B12 contains a cyanide ligand as an artifact of the purification process; this must be removed by the body before the vitamin molecule can be activated for biochemical use. During World War I, a copper cyanide compound was briefly used by Japanese physicians for the treatment of tuberculosis and leprosy. ===Illegal fishing and poaching=== Cyanides are illegally used to capture live fish near coral reefs for the aquarium and seafood markets. The practice is controversial, dangerous, and damaging but is driven by the lucrative exotic fish market. Poachers in Africa have been known to use cyanide to poison waterholes, to kill elephants for their ivory. ===Pest control=== M44 cyanide devices are used in the United States to kill coyotes and other canids. Cyanide is also used for pest control in New Zealand, particularly for possums, an introduced marsupial that threatens the conservation of native species and spreads tuberculosis amongst cattle. Possums can become bait shy but the use of pellets containing the cyanide reduces bait shyness. Cyanide has been known to kill native birds, including the endangered kiwi. Cyanide is also effective for controlling the dama wallaby, another introduced marsupial pest in New Zealand. A licence is required to store, handle and use cyanide in New Zealand. Cyanides are used as insecticides for fumigating ships. Cyanide salts are used for killing ants, and have in some places been used as rat poison (the less toxic poison arsenic is more common). ===Niche uses=== Potassium ferrocyanide is used to achieve a blue color on cast bronze sculptures during the final finishing stage of the sculpture. On its own, it will produce a very dark shade of blue and is often mixed with other chemicals to achieve the desired tint and hue. It is applied using a torch and paint brush while wearing the standard safety equipment used for any patina application: rubber gloves, safety glasses, and a respirator. The actual amount of cyanide in the mixture varies according to the recipes used by each foundry. Cyanide is also used in jewelry-making and certain kinds of photography such as sepia toning. Although usually thought to be toxic, cyanide and cyanohydrins increase germination in various plant species. ====Human poisoning==== Deliberate cyanide poisoning of humans has occurred many times throughout history. Common salts such as sodium cyanide are involatile but water-soluble, so are poisonous by ingestion. Hydrogen cyanide is a gas, making it more indiscriminately dangerous, however it is lighter than air and rapidly disperses up into the atmosphere, which makes it ineffective as a chemical weapon. ====Food additive==== Because of the high stability of their complexation with iron, ferrocyanides (Sodium ferrocyanide E535, Potassium ferrocyanide E536, and Calcium ferrocyanide E538) do not decompose to lethal levels in the human body and are used in the food industry as, e.g., an anticaking agent in table salt. ==Chemical tests for cyanide== Cyanide is quantified by potentiometric titration, a method widely used in gold mining. It can also be determined by titration with silver ion. Some analyses begin with an air-purge of an acidified boiling solution, sweeping the vapors into a basic absorber solution. The cyanide salt absorbed in the basic solution is then analyzed. ===Qualitative tests=== Because of the notorious toxicity of cyanide, many methods have been investigated. Benzidine gives a blue coloration in the presence of ferricyanide. Iron(II) sulfate added to a solution of cyanide, such as the filtrate from the sodium fusion test, gives prussian blue. A solution of para-benzoquinone in DMSO reacts with inorganic cyanide to form a cyanophenol, which is fluorescent. Illumination with a UV light gives a green/blue glow if the test is positive.	[ "carbon", "coral reef", "bronchitis", "nucleophile", "enzyme inhibitor", "Acyl cyanide", "Inner mitochondrial membrane", "cyanide radical", "cyanogen chloride", "aquarium", "sodium nitrite", "ferric", "trimethylsilyl cyanide", "blood pressure", "iron pyrite", "tetracyanomethane", "Kiwi (bird)", "Salt (chemistry)", "ketone bodies", "apple", "Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry", "nitrogen", "triple-bond", "NiFe hydrogenase", "sodium hypochlorite", "iron", "Cyanide poisoning", "algae", "chloride", "Molecular cloud", "cystein", "enzyme", "electron transport chain", "Andrussow process", "Worth Publishers", "potentiometric titration", "chemistry", "chemical weapon", "fluorescent", "nitrile", "ferricyanide", "Acid", "oxidizing agent", "bitter almond", "heart", "zinc", "peach", "transition metals", "potassium cyanide", "prussian blue", "carbamoyl phosphate", "fungi", "World War I", "interstellar space", "thiocyanate", "New Zealand", "Iron(II) sulfate", "apricot", "Cyanide hydrolase", "leprosy", "golden bamboo lemur", "Common Brushtail Possum in New Zealand", "cyanotype", "blueprints", "diabetic", "chlorine", "CICAD", "mitochondria", "functional group", "activated carbon", "coyote", "sodium fusion test", "tapioca", "hemoglobin", "calcium cyanide", "CRC Press", "plastic", "Single bond", "oxidize", "Phytochemistry (journal)", "formate", "M44 (cyanide device)", "methyl chloride", "UV light", "exhaust gas", "cyanogen azide", "sulfur dioxide", "catalyst", "sodium cyanide", "cytochrome c", "Cyanogen", "arsenic", "inorganic", "adenosine triphosphate", "photography", "potassium ferrocyanide", "potato", "table salt", "oxygen", "Cassava", "Volatility (chemistry)", "methane", "methyl", "Covalent", "amyl nitrite", "sugar", "synthon", "cytochrome c oxidase", "tailing pond", "chemical compound", "acetonitrile", "pyrolysis", "internal combustion engine", "insecticide", "acrylonitrile", "isoelectronic", "oxidation", "covalent bond", "glycoside", "nitrite", "carbon monoxide", "antifeedant", "acids", "phenol", "bronze sculpture", "dama wallaby", "Nigeria", "Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology", "silver", "tobacco", "jewelry", "Noble metal", "cyanohydrin", "platinum", "dimethyl sulfoxide", "hydrogenase", "Sodium ferrocyanide", "Hydroxocobalamin", "Prussian blue", "histotoxic hypoxia", "sodium hydroxide", "Vitamin B12", "Cathariostachys madagascariensis", "Angewandte Chemie", "ammonia", "ligand", "parts per million", "clinical chemistry", "tuberculosis", "aerobic respiration", "Madagascar", "gold", "Cyanometalate", "bacterium", "vasodilator", "1,4-Benzoquinone", "urine", "methemoglobin", "halide", "organic compound", "Peroxysulfuric acid (disambiguation)", "Potassium ferrocyanide", "anion", "IUPAC Gold Book", "cytochrome oxidase", "mitochondrial", "hypochlorite", "List of gold mining disasters", "Eukaryote", "bluing (fabric)", "asthma", "hydrogen peroxide", "adsorption", "catalyzes", "central nervous system", "cyanocobalamin", "hydrolysis", "cyanuric chloride", "effluent", "rhodanese", "Hydrogen cyanide", "tetraethylammonium cyanide", "phosphorus tricyanide", "sodium nitroprusside", "Invasive species in New Zealand", "sepia toning", "anticaking agent", "cyanide process", "sodium thiosulfate", "gold mining", "Japan", "hydrogen cyanide", "IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry", "mining", "reducing agent", "herbivore" ]
5,912	Carbonate	A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid, (), characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula . The word "carbonate" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate group . The term is also used as a verb, to describe carbonation: the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water. In geology and mineralogy, the term "carbonate" can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock (which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals), and both are dominated by the carbonate ion, . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock. The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate, , the chief constituent of limestone (as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons); dolomite, a calcium-magnesium carbonate ; and siderite, or iron(II) carbonate, , an important iron ore. Sodium carbonate ("soda" or "natron"), , and potassium carbonate ("potash"), , have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation, as well as for the manufacture of glass. Carbonates are widely used in industry, such as in iron smelting, as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture, in the composition of ceramic glazes, and more. New applications of alkali metal carbonates include: thermal energy storage, catalysis and electrolyte both in fuel cell technology as well as in electrosynthesis of Hydrogen peroxide\| in aqueous media. ==Structure and bonding== The carbonate ion is the simplest oxocarbon anion. It consists of one carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms, in a trigonal planar arrangement, with D3h molecular symmetry. It has a molecular mass of 60.01 g/mol and carries a total formal charge of −2. It is the conjugate base of the hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate) ion, , which is the conjugate base of , carbonic acid. The Lewis structure of the carbonate ion has two (long) single bonds to negative oxygen atoms, and one short double bond to a neutral oxygen atom. This structure is incompatible with the observed symmetry of the ion, which implies that the three bonds are the same length and that the three oxygen atoms are equivalent. As in the case of the isoelectronic nitrate ion, the symmetry can be achieved by a resonance among three structures: This resonance can be summarized by a model with fractional bonds and delocalized charges: ==Chemical properties== Metal carbonates generally decompose on heating, liberating carbon dioxide leaving behind an oxide of the metal. Exhaled depletes , which in turn consumes , causing the equilibrium of the first reaction to try to restore the level of carbonic acid by reacting bicarbonate with a hydrogen ion, an example of Le Châtelier's principle. The result is to make the blood more alkaline (raise pH). By the same principle, when the pH is too high, the kidneys excrete bicarbonate () into urine as urea via the urea cycle (or Krebs–Henseleit ornithine cycle). By removing the bicarbonate, more is generated from carbonic acid (), which comes from produced by cellular respiration. Crucially, a similar buffer operates in the oceans. It is a major factor in climate change and the long-term carbon cycle, due to the large number of marine organisms (especially coral) which are made of calcium carbonate. Increased solubility of carbonate through increased temperatures results in lower production of marine calcite and increased concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. This, in turn, increases Earth temperature. The amount of available is on a geological scale and substantial quantities may eventually be redissolved into the sea and released to the atmosphere, increasing levels even more. ==Carbonate salts== Carbonate overview: ==Presence outside Earth== It is generally thought that the presence of carbonates in rock is strong evidence for the presence of liquid water. Recent observations of the planetary nebula NGC 6302 show evidence for carbonates in space, where aqueous alteration similar to that on Earth is unlikely. Other minerals have been proposed which would fit the observations. Small amounts of carbonate deposits have been found on Mars via spectral imaging and Martian meteorites also contain small amounts. Groundwater may have existed at Gusev and Meridiani Planum.	[ "sodium bicarbonate", "carbon", "formal charge", "Meridiani Planum", "carbonic acid", "nitrate", "geology", "Cap carbonate", "lime kiln", "conjugate acid", "chemical equilibrium", "calcination", "Lithium carbonate", "Peroxocarbonate", "Sodium carbonate", "carbonate minerals", "carbonated water", "Orthocarbonic acid", "trigonal planar", "aqueous solution", "pH", "Resonance (chemistry)", "sedimentary rock", "Lewis structure", "ceramic glaze", "Carbon trioxide", "lattice energy", "mineralogy", "caesium carbonate", "Hard water", "limestone", "buffer solution", "carbon dioxide", "Transition metal carbonate and bicarbonate complexes", "Portland cement", "water softening", "siderite", "Le Châtelier's principle", "functional group", "Hydrogen peroxide", "cellular respiration", "potassium carbonate", "limescale", "rubidium carbonate", "triphosgene", "organic chemistry", "calcium carbonate", "Oxygen", "oxygen", "glass", "iron ore", "salt (chemistry)", "Bicarbonate", "iron(II) carbonate", "urea cycle", "calcium oxide", "isoelectronic", "ethylene carbonate", "sodium carbonate", "calcite", "bicarbonate", "resonance (chemistry)", "Sodium percarbonate", "Molecular symmetry", "delocalization", "lime (mineral)", "oxocarbon anion", "coral", "anion", "Rock (geology)", "Carbon", "Molar mass", "NGC 6302", "Oxalate", "carbonate rock", "dimethyl carbonate", "carbonate ester", "carbonation", "mollusc", "Gusev crater", "Dolomite (mineral)", "Carbonates on Mars", "propylene carbonate", "polyatomic ion", "planetary nebula", "ammonium carbonate" ]
5,914	Catalysis	Catalysis () is the increase in rate of a chemical reaction due to an added substance known as a catalyst (). Catalysts are not consumed by the reaction and remain unchanged after it. If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst recycles quickly, very small amounts of catalyst often suffice; mixing, surface area, and temperature are important factors in reaction rate. Catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form intermediates that subsequently give the final reaction product, in the process of regenerating the catalyst. The rate increase occurs because the catalyst allows the reaction to occur by an alternative mechanism which may be much faster than the noncatalyzed mechanism. However the noncatalyzed mechanism does remain possible, so that the total rate (catalyzed plus noncatalyzed) can only increase in the presence of the catalyst and never decrease. Catalysis may be classified as either homogeneous, whose components are dispersed in the same phase (usually gaseous or liquid) as the reactant, or heterogeneous, whose components are not in the same phase. Enzymes and other biocatalysts are often considered as a third category. Catalysis is ubiquitous in chemical industry of all kinds. Estimates are that 90% of all commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture. The term "catalyst" is derived from Greek , kataluein, meaning "loosen" or "untie". The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist Elizabeth Fulhame, based on her novel work in oxidation-reduction experiments. ==General principles== ===Example=== An illustrative example is the effect of catalysts to speed the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen: 2 HO → 2 HO + O This reaction proceeds because the reaction products are more stable than the starting compound, but this decomposition is so slow that hydrogen peroxide solutions are commercially available. In the presence of a catalyst such as manganese dioxide this reaction proceeds much more rapidly. This effect is readily seen by the effervescence of oxygen. The catalyst is not consumed in the reaction, and may be recovered unchanged and re-used indefinitely. Accordingly, manganese dioxide is said to catalyze this reaction. In living organisms, this reaction is catalyzed by enzymes (proteins that serve as catalysts) such as catalase. Another example is the effect of catalysts on air pollution and reducing the amount of carbon monoxide. Development of active and selective catalysts for the conversion of carbon monoxide into desirable products is one of the most important roles of catalysts. Using catalysts for hydrogenation of carbon monoxide helps to remove this toxic gas and also attain useful materials. ===Units=== The SI derived unit for measuring the catalytic activity of a catalyst is the katal, which is quantified in moles per second. The productivity of a catalyst can be described by the turnover number (or TON) and the catalytic activity by the turn over frequency (TOF), which is the TON per time unit. The biochemical equivalent is the enzyme unit. For more information on the efficiency of enzymatic catalysis, see the article on enzymes. ===Catalytic reaction mechanisms=== In general, chemical reactions occur faster in the presence of a catalyst because the catalyst provides an alternative reaction mechanism (reaction pathway) having a lower activation energy than the noncatalyzed mechanism. In catalyzed mechanisms, the catalyst is regenerated. As a simple example occurring in the gas phase, the reaction 2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3 can be catalyzed by adding nitric oxide. The reaction occurs in two steps: 2NO + O2 → 2NO2 (rate-determining) NO2 + SO2 → NO + SO3 (fast) The NO catalyst is regenerated. The overall rate is the rate of the slow step ===Reaction energetics=== Catalysts enable pathways that differ from the uncatalyzed reactions. These pathways have lower activation energy. Consequently, more molecular collisions have the energy needed to reach the transition state. Hence, catalysts can enable reactions that would otherwise be blocked or slowed by a kinetic barrier. The catalyst may increase the reaction rate or selectivity, or enable the reaction at lower temperatures. This effect can be illustrated with an energy profile diagram. In the catalyzed elementary reaction, catalysts do not change the extent of a reaction: they have no effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction. The ratio of the forward and the reverse reaction rates is unaffected (see also thermodynamics). The second law of thermodynamics describes why a catalyst does not change the chemical equilibrium of a reaction. Suppose there was such a catalyst that shifted an equilibrium. Introducing the catalyst to the system would result in a reaction to move to the new equilibrium, producing energy. Production of energy is a necessary result since reactions are spontaneous only if Gibbs free energy is produced, and if there is no energy barrier, there is no need for a catalyst. Then, removing the catalyst would also result in a reaction, producing energy; i.e. the addition and its reverse process, removal, would both produce energy. Thus, a catalyst that could change the equilibrium would be a perpetual motion machine, a contradiction to the laws of thermodynamics. Thus, catalysts do not alter the equilibrium constant. (A catalyst can however change the equilibrium concentrations by reacting in a subsequent step. It is then consumed as the reaction proceeds, and thus it is also a reactant. Illustrative is the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of esters, where the produced carboxylic acid immediately reacts with the base catalyst and thus the reaction equilibrium is shifted towards hydrolysis.) The catalyst stabilizes the transition state more than it stabilizes the starting material. It decreases the kinetic barrier by decreasing the difference in energy between starting material and the transition state. It does not change the energy difference between starting materials and products (thermodynamic barrier), or the available energy (this is provided by the environment as heat or light). ===Related concepts=== Some so-called catalysts are really precatalysts, which convert to catalysts in the reaction. For example, Wilkinson's catalyst RhCl(PPh) loses one triphenylphosphine ligand before entering the true catalytic cycle. Precatalysts are easier to store but are easily activated in situ. Because of this preactivation step, many catalytic reactions involve an induction period. In cooperative catalysis, chemical species that improve catalytic activity are called cocatalysts or promoters. In tandem catalysis two or more different catalysts are coupled in a one-pot reaction. In autocatalysis, the catalyst is a product of the overall reaction, in contrast to all other types of catalysis considered in this article. The simplest example of autocatalysis is a reaction of type A + B → 2 B, in one or in several steps. The overall reaction is just A → B, so that B is a product. But since B is also a reactant, it may be present in the rate equation and affect the reaction rate. As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of B increases and can accelerate the reaction as a catalyst. In effect, the reaction accelerates itself or is autocatalyzed. An example is the hydrolysis of an ester such as aspirin to a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. In the absence of added acid catalysts, the carboxylic acid product catalyzes the hydrolysis. Switchable catalysis refers to a type of catalysis where the catalyst can be toggled between different ground states possessing distinct reactivity, typically by applying an external stimulus. This ability to reversibly switch the catalyst allows for spatiotemporal control over catalytic activity and selectivity. The external stimuli used to switch the catalyst can include changes in temperature, pH, light, electric fields, or the addition of chemical agents. A true catalyst can work in tandem with a sacrificial catalyst. The true catalyst is consumed in the elementary reaction and turned into a deactivated form. The sacrificial catalyst regenerates the true catalyst for another cycle. The sacrificial catalyst is consumed in the reaction, and as such, it is not really a catalyst, but a reagent. For example, osmium tetroxide (OsO4) is a good reagent for dihydroxylation, but it is highly toxic and expensive. In Upjohn dihydroxylation, the sacrificial catalyst N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO) regenerates OsO4, and only catalytic quantities of OsO4 are needed. ===Classification=== Catalysis may be classified as either homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous catalysis is one whose components are dispersed in the same phase (usually gaseous or liquid) as the reactant's molecules. A heterogeneous catalysis is one where the reaction components are not in the same phase. Enzymes and other biocatalysts are often considered as a third category. Similar mechanistic principles apply to heterogeneous, homogeneous, and biocatalysis. ==Heterogeneous catalysis== Heterogeneous catalysts act in a different phase than the reactants. Most heterogeneous catalysts are solids that act on substrates in a liquid or gaseous reaction mixture. Important heterogeneous catalysts include zeolites, alumina, higher-order oxides, graphitic carbon, transition metal oxides, metals such as Raney nickel for hydrogenation, and vanadium(V) oxide for oxidation of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide by the contact process. Diverse mechanisms for reactions on surfaces are known, depending on how the adsorption takes place (Langmuir-Hinshelwood, Eley-Rideal, and Mars-van Krevelen). The total surface area of a solid has an important effect on the reaction rate. The smaller the catalyst particle size, the larger the surface area for a given mass of particles. A heterogeneous catalyst has active sites, which are the atoms or crystal faces where the substrate actually binds. Active sites are atoms but are often described as a facet (edge, surface, step, etc.) of a solid. Most of the volume but also most of the surface of a heterogeneous catalyst may be catalytically inactive. Finding out the nature of the active site is technically challenging. For example, the catalyst for the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen is often described as iron. But detailed studies and many optimizations have led to catalysts that are mixtures of iron-potassium-calcium-aluminum-oxide. The reacting gases adsorb onto active sites on the iron particles. Once physically adsorbed, the reagents partially or wholly dissociate and form new bonds. In this way the particularly strong triple bond in nitrogen is broken, which would be extremely uncommon in the gas phase due to its high activation energy. Thus, the activation energy of the overall reaction is lowered, and the rate of reaction increases. Another place where a heterogeneous catalyst is applied is in the oxidation of sulfur dioxide on vanadium(V) oxide for the production of sulfuric acid. ===Electrocatalysts=== In the context of electrochemistry, specifically in fuel cell engineering, various metal-containing catalysts are used to enhance the rates of the half reactions that comprise the fuel cell. One common type of fuel cell electrocatalyst is based upon nanoparticles of platinum that are supported on slightly larger carbon particles. When in contact with one of the electrodes in a fuel cell, this platinum increases the rate of oxygen reduction either to water or to hydroxide or hydrogen peroxide. ==Homogeneous catalysis== Homogeneous catalysts function in the same phase as the reactants. Typically homogeneous catalysts are dissolved in a solvent with the substrates. One example of homogeneous catalysis involves the influence of H on the esterification of carboxylic acids, such as the formation of methyl acetate from acetic acid and methanol. High-volume processes requiring a homogeneous catalyst include hydroformylation, hydrosilylation, hydrocyanation. For inorganic chemists, homogeneous catalysis is often synonymous with organometallic catalysts. Many homogeneous catalysts are however not organometallic, illustrated by the use of cobalt salts that catalyze the oxidation of p-xylene to terephthalic acid. ===Organocatalysis=== Whereas transition metals sometimes attract most of the attention in the study of catalysis, small organic molecules without metals can also exhibit catalytic properties, as is apparent from the fact that many enzymes lack transition metals. Typically, organic catalysts require a higher loading (amount of catalyst per unit amount of reactant, expressed in mol% amount of substance) than transition metal(-ion)-based catalysts, but these catalysts are usually commercially available in bulk, helping to lower costs. In the early 2000s, these organocatalysts were considered "new generation" and are competitive to traditional metal(-ion)-containing catalysts. Organocatalysts are supposed to operate akin to metal-free enzymes utilizing, e.g., noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding. The discipline organocatalysis is divided into the application of covalent (e.g., proline, DMAP) and noncovalent (e.g., thiourea organocatalysis) organocatalysts referring to the preferred catalyst-substrate binding and interaction, respectively. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021 was awarded jointly to Benjamin List and David W.C. MacMillan "for the development of asymmetric organocatalysis." ===Photocatalysts=== Photocatalysis is the phenomenon where the catalyst can receive light to generate an excited state that effect redox reactions. Singlet oxygen is usually produced by photocatalysis. Photocatalysts are components of dye-sensitized solar cells. ===Enzymes and biocatalysts=== In biology, enzymes are protein-based catalysts in metabolism and catabolism. Most biocatalysts are enzymes, but other nonprotein-based classes of biomolecules also exhibit catalytic properties including ribozymes, and synthetic deoxyribozymes. Biocatalysts can be thought of as an intermediate between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts, although strictly speaking soluble enzymes are homogeneous catalysts and membrane-bound enzymes are heterogeneous. Several factors affect the activity of enzymes (and other catalysts) including temperature, pH, the concentration of enzymes, substrate, and products. A particularly important reagent in enzymatic reactions is water, which is the product of many bond-forming reactions and a reactant in many bond-breaking processes. In biocatalysis, enzymes are employed to prepare many commodity chemicals including high-fructose corn syrup and acrylamide. Some monoclonal antibodies whose binding target is a stable molecule that resembles the transition state of a chemical reaction can function as weak catalysts for that chemical reaction by lowering its activation energy. Such catalytic antibodies are sometimes called "abzymes". ==Significance== Estimates are that 90% of all commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture. In 2005, catalytic processes generated about $900 billion in products worldwide. Catalysis is so pervasive that subareas are not readily classified. Some areas of particular concentration are surveyed below. ===Energy processing=== Petroleum refining makes intensive use of catalysis for alkylation, catalytic cracking (breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into smaller pieces), naphtha reforming and steam reforming (conversion of hydrocarbons into synthesis gas). Even the exhaust from the burning of fossil fuels is treated via catalysis: Catalytic converters, typically composed of platinum and rhodium, break down some of the more harmful byproducts of automobile exhaust. 2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO + N With regard to synthetic fuels, an old but still important process is the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons from synthesis gas, which itself is processed via water-gas shift reactions, catalyzed by iron. The Sabatier reaction produces methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Biodiesel and related biofuels require processing via both inorganic and biocatalysts. Fuel cells rely on catalysts for both the anodic and cathodic reactions. Catalytic heaters generate flameless heat from a supply of combustible fuel. ===Bulk chemicals=== Some of the largest-scale chemicals are produced via catalytic oxidation, often using oxygen. Examples include nitric acid (from ammonia), sulfuric acid (from sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide by the contact process), terephthalic acid from p-xylene, acrylic acid from propylene or propane and acrylonitrile from propane and ammonia. Methanol is prepared from carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide but using copper-zinc catalysts. Bulk polymers derived from ethylene and propylene are often prepared using Ziegler–Natta catalyst. Polyesters, polyamides, and isocyanates are derived via acid–base catalysis. Most carbonylation processes require metal catalysts, examples include the Monsanto acetic acid process and hydroformylation. ===Fine chemicals=== Many fine chemicals are prepared via catalysis; methods include those of heavy industry as well as more specialized processes that would be prohibitively expensive on a large scale. Examples include the Heck reaction, and Friedel–Crafts reactions. Because most bioactive compounds are chiral, many pharmaceuticals are produced by enantioselective catalysis (catalytic asymmetric synthesis). (R)-1,2-Propandiol, the precursor to the antibacterial levofloxacin, can be synthesized efficiently from hydroxyacetone by using catalysts based on BINAP-ruthenium complexes, in Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation: ===Food processing=== One of the most obvious applications of catalysis is the hydrogenation (reaction with hydrogen gas) of fats using nickel catalyst to produce margarine. Many other foodstuffs are prepared via biocatalysis (see below). ===Environment=== Catalysis affects the environment by increasing the efficiency of industrial processes, but catalysis also plays a direct role in the environment. A notable example is the catalytic role of chlorine free radicals in the breakdown of ozone. These radicals are formed by the action of ultraviolet radiation on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Cl + O → ClO + O ClO + O → Cl + O ==History== The term "catalyst", broadly defined as anything that increases the rate of a process, is derived from Greek καταλύειν, meaning "to annul", or "to untie", or "to pick up". The concept of catalysis was invented by chemist Elizabeth Fulhame and described in a 1794 book, based on her novel work in oxidation–reduction reactions. The first chemical reaction in organic chemistry that knowingly used a catalyst was studied in 1811 by Gottlieb Kirchhoff, who discovered the acid-catalyzed conversion of starch to glucose. The term catalysis was later used by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1835 to describe reactions that are accelerated by substances that remain unchanged after the reaction. Fulhame, who predated Berzelius, did work with water as opposed to metals in her reduction experiments. Other 18th century chemists who worked in catalysis were Eilhard Mitscherlich who referred to it as contact processes, and Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner who spoke of contact action. He developed Döbereiner's lamp, a lighter based on hydrogen and a platinum sponge, which became a commercial success in the 1820s that lives on today. Humphry Davy discovered the use of platinum in catalysis. In the 1880s, Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig University started a systematic investigation into reactions that were catalyzed by the presence of acids and bases, and found that chemical reactions occur at finite rates and that these rates can be used to determine the strengths of acids and bases. For this work, Ostwald was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Vladimir Ipatieff performed some of the earliest industrial scale reactions, including the discovery and commercialization of oligomerization and the development of catalysts for hydrogenation. ==Inhibitors, poisons, and promoters== An added substance that lowers the rate is called a reaction inhibitor if reversible and catalyst poisons if irreversible. Inhibitors are sometimes referred to as "negative catalysts" since they decrease the reaction rate. In heterogeneous catalysis, coking inhibits the catalyst, which becomes covered by polymeric side products. The inhibitor may modify selectivity in addition to rate. For instance, in the hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes, a palladium (Pd) catalyst partly "poisoned" with lead(II) acetate (Pb(CHCO)) can be used (Lindlar catalyst). Without the deactivation of the catalyst, the alkene produced would be further hydrogenated to alkane. The inhibitor can produce this effect by, e.g., selectively poisoning only certain types of active sites. Another mechanism is the modification of surface geometry. For instance, in hydrogenation operations, large planes of metal surface function as sites of hydrogenolysis catalysis while sites catalyzing hydrogenation of unsaturates are smaller. Thus, a poison that covers the surface randomly will tend to lower the number of uncontaminated large planes but leave proportionally smaller sites free, thus changing the hydrogenation vs. hydrogenolysis selectivity. Many other mechanisms are also possible. Promoters can cover up the surface to prevent the production of a mat of coke, or even actively remove such material (e.g., rhenium on platinum in platforming). They can aid the dispersion of the catalytic material or bind to reagents. ==Prebiotic catalysis in the origin of life== Life is based on an interplay between information processing and catalytic activity carried out by biological polymers. A possible evolutionary pathway for the emergence of catalytic functions in prebiotic information coding polymers was proposed.	[ "propane", "activation energy", "carbon", "alkylation", "Heck reaction", "Abzyme", "sulfuric acid", "water gas shift reaction", "chlorofluorocarbon", "Electrocatalyst", "transition metal", "Döbereiner's lamp", "Autocatalysis", "Catalytic resonance theory", "metal", "homogeneous catalysis", "Methanol", "BIG-NSE", "Gibbs free energy", "Biodiesel", "triple bond", "chemical equilibrium", "polymer", "electrochemistry", "ultraviolet", "RNA", "Argonne National Laboratory", "terephthalic acid", "catalase", "ester", "nanoparticles", "catalytic cracking", "BINAP", "nitrogen", "coking", "propylene", "Monsanto acetic acid process", "SI derived unit", "iron", "hydrogen", "excited state", "metabolism", "Ziegler–Natta catalyst", "ACS Nano", "hydrocyanation", "University of Minnesota", "enzyme", "hydrogen bonding", "enzyme unit", "Greek language", "silicon dioxide", "binding (molecular)", "wikt:καταλύω", "chemical industry", "Haber process", "nickel", "perpetual motion machine", "Wilkinson's catalyst", "catalytic cycle", "mol%", "margarine", "Eilhard Mitscherlich", "N-methylmorpholine N-oxide", "SUMO enzymes", "Scanning tunneling microscopy", "manganese dioxide", "fuel cell", "Catalysis Letters", "reaction inhibitor", "dye-sensitized solar cell", "Chemical & Engineering News", "deoxyribozyme", "Phase-boundary catalysis", "Friedel–Crafts reaction", "Eley–Rideal mechanism", "carbon dioxide", "alkene", "petroleum naphtha", "hydrogenation", "autocatalysis", "Gottlieb Kirchhoff", "Enzyme", "lead(II) acetate", "reactions on surfaces", "organometallic chemistry", "contact process", "Murburn concept", "Catalysis Science & Technology", "high-fructose corn syrup", "methanol", "chlorine", "alumina", "Limiting reagent", "activated carbon", "Thermal desorption spectroscopy", "protein", "Chemical reaction", "ozone", "acrylamide", "thermodynamics", "ribozyme", "Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation", "p-xylene", "free radical", "catalyst poisoning", "alkyne", "aspirin", "reaction mechanism", "Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson", "sulfur dioxide", "Elizabeth Fulhame", "zeolite", "calcium carbonate", "Jöns Jakob Berzelius", "chemical reaction", "dissociation (chemistry)", "thiourea organocatalysis", "reaction intermediate", "abzyme", "catabolism", "chirality (chemistry)", "gas", "micropump", "oxygen", "hydrocarbon", "catalyst support", "lighter (fire starter)", "Enzyme catalysis", "methane", "Acid catalysis", "acid–base catalysis", "acetic acid", "methyl acetate", "Catalytic converter", "Industrial catalysts", "Catalytic heater", "alkane", "induction period", "alcohol (chemistry)", "Fischer–Tropsch synthesis", "ethylene", "acrylonitrile", "evolution", "reaction rate", "palladium", "barium sulfate", "carbon monoxide", "titanium dioxide", "effervescence (chemistry)", "hydroformylation", "proline", "desorption", "Petroleum", "second law of thermodynamics", "energy profile (chemistry)", "precatalyst", "tandem catalysis", "turnover number", "Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner", "Lindlar catalyst", "hydrogenolysis", "levofloxacin", "platinum", "substrate (chemistry)", "reactant", "synthesis gas", "Life", "heterogeneous catalysis", "Ribozyme", "homogeneity and heterogeneity", "osmium tetroxide", "electrode", "ammonia", "Reagent", "elementary reaction", "biocatalysis", "half reaction", "nitric acid", "Sabatier reaction", "Pharmaceutic adjuvant", "Humphry Davy", "Environmental triggers", "Photocatalysis", "Raney nickel", "oxide", "sulfur trioxide", "fine chemicals", "Vladimir Ipatieff", "reaction mixture", "Leipzig University", "Substrate (chemistry)", "vanadium(V) oxide", "liquid", "heterogeneous", "amount of substance", "acrylic acid", "transition state", "formaldehyde", "4-Dimethylaminopyridine", "steam reforming", "radiation", "Wilhelm Ostwald", "Temperature-programmed reduction", "carbonylation", "water dimer", "Singlet oxygen", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "esterification", "phase (matter)", "diffusion", "hydrogen peroxide", "adsorption", "monoclonal antibodies", "nitric oxide", "hydrolysis", "rhodium", "reactants", "Product (chemistry)", "Kelvin probe force microscope", "in situ", "biological membrane", "Upjohn dihydroxylation", "zeolites", "asymmetric synthesis", "hydroxide", "hydrosilylation", "carboxylic acid", "solid", "Dirk Willem van Krevelen", "catalytic reforming", "isocyanate", "Fuel cell", "Phase transfer catalyst", "katal" ]
5,916	Circumference	In geometry, the circumference (from Latin circumferens, meaning "carrying around") is the perimeter of a circle or ellipse. The circumference is the arc length of the circle, as if it were opened up and straightened out to a line segment. More generally, the perimeter is the curve length around any closed figure. Circumference may also refer to the circle itself, that is, the locus corresponding to the edge of a disk. The is the circumference, or length, of any one of its great circles. == Circle == The circumference of a circle is the distance around it, but if, as in many elementary treatments, distance is defined in terms of straight lines, this cannot be used as a definition. Under these circumstances, the circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of the perimeters of inscribed regular polygons as the number of sides increases without bound. The term circumference is used when measuring physical objects, as well as when considering abstract geometric forms. === Relationship with === The circumference of a circle is related to one of the most important mathematical constants. This constant, pi, is represented by the Greek letter \pi. Its first few decimal digits are 3.141592653589793... Pi is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference C to its diameter d: \pi = \frac{C}{d}. Or, equivalently, as the ratio of the circumference to twice the radius. The above formula can be rearranged to solve for the circumference: {C} = \pi \cdot{d} = 2\pi \cdot{r}.\! The ratio of the circle's circumference to its radius is equivalent to 2\pi. This is also the number of radians in one turn. The use of the mathematical constant is ubiquitous in mathematics, engineering, and science. In Measurement of a Circle written circa 250 BCE, Archimedes showed that this ratio (written as C/d, since he did not use the name ) was greater than 3 but less than 3 by calculating the perimeters of an inscribed and a circumscribed regular polygon of 96 sides. This method for approximating was used for centuries, obtaining more accuracy by using polygons of larger and larger number of sides. The last such calculation was performed in 1630 by Christoph Grienberger who used polygons with 1040 sides. == Ellipse == Some authors use circumference to denote the perimeter of an ellipse. There is no general formula for the circumference of an ellipse in terms of the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipse that uses only elementary functions. However, there are approximate formulas in terms of these parameters. One such approximation, due to Euler (1773), for the canonical ellipse, \frac{x^2}{a^2} + \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1, is C_{\rm{ellipse}} \sim \pi \sqrt{2\left(a^2 + b^2\right)}. Some lower and upper bounds on the circumference of the canonical ellipse with a\geq b are: 2\pi b \leq C \leq 2\pi a, \pi (a+b) \leq C \leq 4(a+b), 4\sqrt{a^2+b^2} \leq C \leq \pi \sqrt{2\left(a^2+b^2\right)}. Here the upper bound 2\pi a is the circumference of a circumscribed concentric circle passing through the endpoints of the ellipse's major axis, and the lower bound 4\sqrt{a^2+b^2} is the perimeter of an inscribed rhombus with vertices at the endpoints of the major and minor axes. The circumference of an ellipse can be expressed exactly in terms of the complete elliptic integral of the second kind. More precisely, C_{\rm{ellipse}} = 4a \int_0^{\pi/2} \sqrt{1 - e^2 \sin^2\theta}\ d\theta, where a is the length of the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity \sqrt{1 - b^2/a^2}.	[ "diameter", "Measurement of a Circle", "arc length", "radius", "Limit (mathematics)", "ratio", "canonical form", "complete elliptic integral of the second kind", "unit circle", "Greek letter", "Circumscribed circle", "line segment", "Locus (geometry)", "Archimedes", "perimeter", "semi-major and semi-minor axes", "pi", "great circle", "mathematical constant", "Tau (mathematical constant)", "Christoph Grienberger", "geometry", "regular polygon", "rhombus", "curve length", "Pi (letter)", "Constant (mathematics)", "Edge (geometry)", "Inscribed figure", "concentric circle", "ellipse", "Disk (geometry)", "Turn (angle)", "circle", "radian", "Vertex (geometry)" ]
5,918	Continuum mechanics	Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the deformation of and transmission of forces through materials modeled as a continuous medium (also called a continuum) rather than as discrete particles. Continuum mechanics deals with deformable bodies, as opposed to rigid bodies. A continuum model assumes that the substance of the object completely fills the space it occupies. While ignoring the fact that matter is made of atoms, this provides a sufficiently accurate description of matter on length scales much greater than that of inter-atomic distances. The concept of a continuous medium allows for intuitive analysis of bulk matter by using differential equations that describe the behavior of such matter according to physical laws, such as mass conservation, momentum conservation, and energy conservation. Information about the specific material is expressed in constitutive relationships. Continuum mechanics treats the physical properties of solids and fluids independently of any particular coordinate system in which they are observed. These properties are represented by tensors, which are mathematical objects with the salient property of being independent of coordinate systems. This permits definition of physical properties at any point in the continuum, according to mathematically convenient continuous functions. The theories of elasticity, plasticity and fluid mechanics are based on the concepts of continuum mechanics. ==Concept of a continuum== The concept of a continuum underlies the mathematical framework for studying large-scale forces and deformations in materials. Although materials are composed of discrete atoms and molecules, separated by empty space or microscopic cracks and crystallographic defects, physical phenomena can often be modeled by considering a substance distributed throughout some region of space. A continuum is a body that can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with local material properties defined at any particular point. Properties of the bulk material can therefore be described by continuous functions, and their evolution can be studied using the mathematics of calculus. Apart from the assumption of continuity, two other independent assumptions are often employed in the study of continuum mechanics. These are homogeneity (assumption of identical properties at all locations) and isotropy (assumption of directionally invariant vector properties). If these auxiliary assumptions are not globally applicable, the material may be segregated into sections where they are applicable in order to simplify the analysis. For more complex cases, one or both of these assumptions can be dropped. In these cases, computational methods are often used to solve the differential equations describing the evolution of material properties. ==Major areas== An additional area of continuum mechanics comprises elastomeric foams, which exhibit a curious hyperbolic stress-strain relationship. The elastomer is a true continuum, but a homogeneous distribution of voids gives it unusual properties. ==Formulation of models== Continuum mechanics models begin by assigning a region in three-dimensional Euclidean space to the material body \mathcal B being modeled. The points within this region are called particles or material points. Different configurations or states of the body correspond to different regions in Euclidean space. The region corresponding to the body's configuration at time t is labeled \kappa_t(\mathcal B). A particular particle within the body in a particular configuration is characterized by a position vector \mathbf x = \sum_{i=1}^3 x_i \mathbf e_i, where \mathbf e_i are the coordinate vectors in some frame of reference chosen for the problem (See figure 1). This vector can be expressed as a function of the particle position \mathbf X in some reference configuration, for example the configuration at the initial time, so that \mathbf{x}=\kappa_t(\mathbf X). This function needs to have various properties so that the model makes physical sense. \kappa_t(\cdot) needs to be: continuous in time, so that the body changes in a way which is realistic, globally invertible at all times, so that the body cannot intersect itself, orientation-preserving, as transformations which produce mirror reflections are not possible in nature. For the mathematical formulation of the model, \kappa_t(\cdot) is also assumed to be twice continuously differentiable, so that differential equations describing the motion may be formulated. ==Forces in a continuum== A solid is a deformable body that possesses shear strength, sc. a solid can support shear forces (forces parallel to the material surface on which they act). Fluids, on the other hand, do not sustain shear forces. Following the classical dynamics of Newton and Euler, the motion of a material body is produced by the action of externally applied forces which are assumed to be of two kinds: surface forces \mathbf F_C and body forces \mathbf F_B. Thus, the total force \mathcal F applied to a body or to a portion of the body can be expressed as: \mathcal F = \mathbf F_C + \mathbf F_B ===Surface forces=== Surface forces or contact forces, expressed as force per unit area, can act either on the bounding surface of the body, as a result of mechanical contact with other bodies, or on imaginary internal surfaces that bound portions of the body, as a result of the mechanical interaction between the parts of the body to either side of the surface (Euler-Cauchy's stress principle). When a body is acted upon by external contact forces, internal contact forces are then transmitted from point to point inside the body to balance their action, according to Newton's third law of motion of conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum (for continuous bodies these laws are called the Euler's equations of motion). The internal contact forces are related to the body's deformation through constitutive equations. The internal contact forces may be mathematically described by how they relate to the motion of the body, independent of the body's material makeup. The distribution of internal contact forces throughout the volume of the body is assumed to be continuous. Therefore, there exists a contact force density or Cauchy traction field \mathbf T(\mathbf n, \mathbf x, t) that represents this distribution in a particular configuration of the body at a given time t\,\!. It is not a vector field because it depends not only on the position \mathbf x of a particular material point, but also on the local orientation of the surface element as defined by its normal vector \mathbf n. Any differential area dS\,\! with normal vector \mathbf n of a given internal surface area S\,\!, bounding a portion of the body, experiences a contact force d\mathbf F_C\,\! arising from the contact between both portions of the body on each side of S\,\!, and it is given by d\mathbf F_C= \mathbf T^{(\mathbf n)}\,dS where \mathbf T^{(\mathbf n)} is the surface traction, also called stress vector, traction, or traction vector. The stress vector is a frame-indifferent vector (see Euler-Cauchy's stress principle). The total contact force on the particular internal surface S\,\! is then expressed as the sum (surface integral) of the contact forces on all differential surfaces dS\,\!: \mathbf F_C=\int_S \mathbf T^{(\mathbf n)}\,dS In continuum mechanics a body is considered stress-free if the only forces present are those inter-atomic forces (ionic, metallic, and van der Waals forces) required to hold the body together and to keep its shape in the absence of all external influences, including gravitational attraction. Stresses generated during manufacture of the body to a specific configuration are also excluded when considering stresses in a body. Therefore, the stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced by deformation of the body, sc. only relative changes in stress are considered, not the absolute values of stress. ===Body forces=== Body forces are forces originating from sources outside of the body that act on the volume (or mass) of the body. Saying that body forces are due to outside sources implies that the interaction between different parts of the body (internal forces) are manifested through the contact forces alone. These forces arise from the presence of the body in force fields, e.g. gravitational field (gravitational forces) or electromagnetic field (electromagnetic forces), or from inertial forces when bodies are in motion. As the mass of a continuous body is assumed to be continuously distributed, any force originating from the mass is also continuously distributed. Thus, body forces are specified by vector fields which are assumed to be continuous over the entire volume of the body, i.e. acting on every point in it. Body forces are represented by a body force density \mathbf b(\mathbf x, t) (per unit of mass), which is a frame-indifferent vector field. In the case of gravitational forces, the intensity of the force depends on, or is proportional to, the mass density \mathbf \rho (\mathbf x, t)\,\! of the material, and it is specified in terms of force per unit mass (b_i\,\!) or per unit volume (p_i\,\!). These two specifications are related through the material density by the equation \rho b_i = p_i\,\!. Similarly, the intensity of electromagnetic forces depends upon the strength (electric charge) of the electromagnetic field. The total body force applied to a continuous body is expressed as \mathbf F_B=\int_V\mathbf b\,dm=\int_V \rho\mathbf b\,dV Body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead to corresponding moments of force (torques) relative to a given point. Thus, the total applied torque \mathcal M about the origin is given by \mathcal M= \mathbf M_C + \mathbf M_B In certain situations, not commonly considered in the analysis of the mechanical behavior of materials, it becomes necessary to include two other types of forces: these are couple stresses (surface couples, contact torques) and body moments. Couple stresses are moments per unit area applied on a surface. Body moments, or body couples, are moments per unit volume or per unit mass applied to the volume of the body. Both are important in the analysis of stress for a polarized dielectric solid under the action of an electric field, materials where the molecular structure is taken into consideration (e.g. bones), solids under the action of an external magnetic field, and the dislocation theory of metals. Materials that exhibit body couples and couple stresses in addition to moments produced exclusively by forces are called polar materials. Non-polar materials are then those materials with only moments of forces. In the classical branches of continuum mechanics the development of the theory of stresses is based on non-polar materials. Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with respect to the origin of the coordinate system) in the body can be given by \mathcal F = \int_V \mathbf a\,dm = \int_S \mathbf T\,dS + \int_V \rho\mathbf b\,dV \mathcal M = \int_S \mathbf r \times \mathbf T\,dS + \int_V \mathbf r \times \rho\mathbf b\,dV ==Kinematics: motion and deformation== A change in the configuration of a continuum body results in a displacement. The displacement of a body has two components: a rigid-body displacement and a deformation. A rigid-body displacement consists of a simultaneous translation and rotation of the body without changing its shape or size. Deformation implies the change in shape and/or size of the body from an initial or undeformed configuration \kappa_0(\mathcal B) to a current or deformed configuration \kappa_t(\mathcal B) (Figure 2). The motion of a continuum body is a continuous time sequence of displacements. Thus, the material body will occupy different configurations at different times so that a particle occupies a series of points in space which describe a path line. There is continuity during motion or deformation of a continuum body in the sense that: The material points forming a closed curve at any instant will always form a closed curve at any subsequent time. The material points forming a closed surface at any instant will always form a closed surface at any subsequent time and the matter within the closed surface will always remain within. It is convenient to identify a reference configuration or initial condition which all subsequent configurations are referenced from. The reference configuration need not be one that the body will ever occupy. Often, the configuration at t=0 is considered the reference configuration, \kappa_0 (\mathcal B). The components X_i of the position vector \mathbf X of a particle, taken with respect to the reference configuration, are called the material or reference coordinates. When analyzing the motion or deformation of solids, or the flow of fluids, it is necessary to describe the sequence or evolution of configurations throughout time. One description for motion is made in terms of the material or referential coordinates, called material description or Lagrangian description. ===Lagrangian description=== In the Lagrangian description the position and physical properties of the particles are described in terms of the material or referential coordinates and time. In this case the reference configuration is the configuration at t=0. An observer standing in the frame of reference observes the changes in the position and physical properties as the material body moves in space as time progresses. The results obtained are independent of the choice of initial time and reference configuration, \kappa_0(\mathcal B). This description is normally used in solid mechanics. In the Lagrangian description, the motion of a continuum body is expressed by the mapping function \chi(\cdot) (Figure 2), \mathbf x=\chi(\mathbf X, t) which is a mapping of the initial configuration \kappa_0(\mathcal B) onto the current configuration \kappa_t(\mathcal B), giving a geometrical correspondence between them, i.e. giving the position vector \mathbf{x}=x_i\mathbf e_i that a particle X, with a position vector \mathbf X in the undeformed or reference configuration \kappa_0(\mathcal B), will occupy in the current or deformed configuration \kappa_t(\mathcal B) at time t. The components x_i are called the spatial coordinates. Physical and kinematic properties P_{ij\ldots}, i.e. thermodynamic properties and flow velocity, which describe or characterize features of the material body, are expressed as continuous functions of position and time, i.e. P_{ij\ldots}=P_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf X,t). The material derivative of any property P_{ij\ldots} of a continuum, which may be a scalar, vector, or tensor, is the time rate of change of that property for a specific group of particles of the moving continuum body. The material derivative is also known as the substantial derivative, or comoving derivative, or convective derivative. It can be thought as the rate at which the property changes when measured by an observer traveling with that group of particles. In the Lagrangian description, the material derivative of P_{ij\ldots} is simply the partial derivative with respect to time, and the position vector \mathbf X is held constant as it does not change with time. Thus, we have \frac{d}{dt}[P_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf X,t)]=\frac{\partial}{\partial t}[P_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf X,t)] The instantaneous position \mathbf x is a property of a particle, and its material derivative is the instantaneous flow velocity \mathbf v of the particle. Therefore, the flow velocity field of the continuum is given by \mathbf v = \dot{\mathbf x} =\frac{d\mathbf x}{dt}=\frac{\partial \chi(\mathbf X,t)}{\partial t} Similarly, the acceleration field is given by \mathbf a= \dot{\mathbf v} = \ddot{\mathbf x} =\frac{d^2\mathbf x}{dt^2}=\frac{\partial^2 \chi(\mathbf X,t)}{\partial t^2} Continuity in the Lagrangian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity of the mapping from the reference configuration to the current configuration of the material points. All physical quantities characterizing the continuum are described this way. In this sense, the function \chi(\cdot) and P_{ij\ldots}(\cdot) are single-valued and continuous, with continuous derivatives with respect to space and time to whatever order is required, usually to the second or third. ===Eulerian description=== Continuity allows for the inverse of \chi(\cdot) to trace backwards where the particle currently located at \mathbf x was located in the initial or referenced configuration \kappa_0(\mathcal B). In this case the description of motion is made in terms of the spatial coordinates, in which case is called the spatial description or Eulerian description, i.e. the current configuration is taken as the reference configuration. The Eulerian description, introduced by d'Alembert, focuses on the current configuration \kappa_t(\mathcal B), giving attention to what is occurring at a fixed point in space as time progresses, instead of giving attention to individual particles as they move through space and time. This approach is conveniently applied in the study of fluid flow where the kinematic property of greatest interest is the rate at which change is taking place rather than the shape of the body of fluid at a reference time. Mathematically, the motion of a continuum using the Eulerian description is expressed by the mapping function \mathbf X=\chi^{-1}(\mathbf x, t) which provides a tracing of the particle which now occupies the position \mathbf x in the current configuration \kappa_t(\mathcal B) to its original position \mathbf X in the initial configuration \kappa_0(\mathcal B). A necessary and sufficient condition for this inverse function to exist is that the determinant of the Jacobian matrix, often referred to simply as the Jacobian, should be different from zero. Thus, J = \left\| \frac{\partial \chi_i}{\partial X_J} \right\| = \left\| \frac{\partial x_i}{\partial X_J} \right\| \neq 0 In the Eulerian description, the physical properties P_{ij\ldots} are expressed as P_{ij \ldots}=P_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf X,t)=P_{ij\ldots}[\chi^{-1}(\mathbf x,t),t]=p_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf x,t) where the functional form of P_{ij \ldots} in the Lagrangian description is not the same as the form of p_{ij \ldots} in the Eulerian description. The material derivative of p_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf x,t), using the chain rule, is then \frac{d}{dt}[p_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf x,t)]=\frac{\partial}{\partial t}[p_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf x,t)]+ \frac{\partial}{\partial x_k}[p_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf x,t)]\frac{dx_k}{dt} The first term on the right-hand side of this equation gives the local rate of change of the property p_{ij\ldots}(\mathbf x,t) occurring at position \mathbf x. The second term of the right-hand side is the convective rate of change and expresses the contribution of the particle changing position in space (motion). Continuity in the Eulerian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity and continuous differentiability of the flow velocity field. All physical quantities are defined this way at each instant of time, in the current configuration, as a function of the vector position \mathbf x. ===Displacement field=== The vector joining the positions of a particle P in the undeformed configuration and deformed configuration is called the displacement vector \mathbf u(\mathbf X,t)=u_i\mathbf e_i, in the Lagrangian description, or \mathbf U(\mathbf x,t)=U_J\mathbf E_J, in the Eulerian description. A displacement field is a vector field of all displacement vectors for all particles in the body, which relates the deformed configuration with the undeformed configuration. It is convenient to do the analysis of deformation or motion of a continuum body in terms of the displacement field, In general, the displacement field is expressed in terms of the material coordinates as \mathbf u(\mathbf X,t) = \mathbf b+\mathbf x(\mathbf X,t) - \mathbf X \qquad \text{or}\qquad u_i = \alpha_{iJ}b_J + x_i - \alpha_{iJ}X_J or in terms of the spatial coordinates as \mathbf U(\mathbf x,t) = \mathbf b+\mathbf x - \mathbf X(\mathbf x,t) \qquad \text{or}\qquad U_J = b_J + \alpha_{Ji}x_i - X_J \, where \alpha_{Ji} are the direction cosines between the material and spatial coordinate systems with unit vectors \mathbf E_J and \mathbf e_i, respectively. Thus \mathbf E_J \cdot \mathbf e_i = \alpha_{Ji}=\alpha_{iJ} and the relationship between u_i and U_J is then given by u_i=\alpha_{iJ}U_J \qquad \text{or} \qquad U_J=\alpha_{Ji}u_i Knowing that \mathbf e_i = \alpha_{iJ}\mathbf E_J then \mathbf u(\mathbf X,t)=u_i\mathbf e_i=u_i(\alpha_{iJ}\mathbf E_J)=U_J\mathbf E_J=\mathbf U(\mathbf x,t) It is common to superimpose the coordinate systems for the undeformed and deformed configurations, which results in \mathbf b=0, and the direction cosines become Kronecker deltas, i.e. \mathbf E_J \cdot \mathbf e_i = \delta_{Ji}=\delta_{iJ} Thus, we have \mathbf u(\mathbf X,t) = \mathbf x(\mathbf X,t) - \mathbf X \qquad \text{or}\qquad u_i = x_i - \delta_{iJ}X_J or in terms of the spatial coordinates as \mathbf U(\mathbf x,t) = \mathbf x - \mathbf X(\mathbf x,t) \qquad \text{or}\qquad U_J = \delta_{Ji}x_i - X_J ==Governing equations== Continuum mechanics deals with the behavior of materials that can be approximated as continuous for certain length and time scales. The equations that govern the mechanics of such materials include the balance laws for mass, momentum, and energy. Kinematic relations and constitutive equations are needed to complete the system of governing equations. Physical restrictions on the form of the constitutive relations can be applied by requiring that the second law of thermodynamics be satisfied under all conditions. In the continuum mechanics of solids, the second law of thermodynamics is satisfied if the Clausius–Duhem form of the entropy inequality is satisfied. The balance laws express the idea that the rate of change of a quantity (mass, momentum, energy) in a volume must arise from three causes: the physical quantity itself flows through the surface that bounds the volume, there is a source of the physical quantity on the surface of the volume, or/and, there is a source of the physical quantity inside the volume. Let \Omega be the body (an open subset of Euclidean space) and let \partial \Omega be its surface (the boundary of \Omega). Let the motion of material points in the body be described by the map \mathbf{x} = \boldsymbol{\chi}(\mathbf{X}) = \mathbf{x}(\mathbf{X}) where \mathbf{X} is the position of a point in the initial configuration and \mathbf{x} is the location of the same point in the deformed configuration. The deformation gradient is given by \boldsymbol{F} = \frac{\partial \mathbf{x}}{\partial \mathbf{X}} = \nabla \mathbf{x} ~. ===Balance laws=== Let f(\mathbf{x},t) be a physical quantity that is flowing through the body. Let g(\mathbf{x},t) be sources on the surface of the body and let h(\mathbf{x},t) be sources inside the body. Let \mathbf{n}(\mathbf{x},t) be the outward unit normal to the surface \partial \Omega . Let \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x},t) be the flow velocity of the physical particles that carry the physical quantity that is flowing. Also, let the speed at which the bounding surface \partial \Omega is moving be u_n (in the direction \mathbf{n}). Then, balance laws can be expressed in the general form \cfrac{d}{dt}\left[\int_{\Omega} f(\mathbf{x},t)~\text{dV}\right] = \int_{\partial \Omega } f(\mathbf{x},t)[u_n(\mathbf{x},t) - \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x},t)\cdot\mathbf{n}(\mathbf{x},t)]~\text{dA} + \int_{\partial \Omega } g(\mathbf{x},t)~\text{dA} + \int_{\Omega} h(\mathbf{x},t)~\text{dV} ~. The functions f(\mathbf{x},t), g(\mathbf{x},t), and h(\mathbf{x},t) can be scalar valued, vector valued, or tensor valued - depending on the physical quantity that the balance equation deals with. If there are internal boundaries in the body, jump discontinuities also need to be specified in the balance laws. If we take the Eulerian point of view, it can be shown that the balance laws of mass, momentum, and energy for a solid can be written as (assuming the source term is zero for the mass and angular momentum equations) { \begin{align} \dot{\rho} + \rho (\boldsymbol{\nabla} \cdot \mathbf{v}) & = 0 & & \qquad\text{Balance of Mass} \\ \rho~\dot{\mathbf{v}} - \boldsymbol{\nabla} \cdot \boldsymbol{\sigma} - \rho~\mathbf{b} & = 0 & & \qquad\text{Balance of Linear Momentum (Cauchy's first law of motion)} \\ \boldsymbol{\sigma} & = \boldsymbol{\sigma}^T & & \qquad\text{Balance of Angular Momentum (Cauchy's second law of motion)} \\ \rho~\dot{e} - \boldsymbol{\sigma}:(\boldsymbol{\nabla}\mathbf{v}) + \boldsymbol{\nabla} \cdot \mathbf{q} - \rho~s & = 0 & & \qquad\text{Balance of Energy.} \end{align} } In the above equations \rho(\mathbf{x},t) is the mass density (current), \dot{\rho} is the material time derivative of \rho, \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x},t) is the particle velocity, \dot{\mathbf{v}} is the material time derivative of \mathbf{v}, \boldsymbol{\sigma}(\mathbf{x},t) is the Cauchy stress tensor, \mathbf{b}(\mathbf{x},t) is the body force density, e(\mathbf{x},t) is the internal energy per unit mass, \dot{e} is the material time derivative of e, \mathbf{q}(\mathbf{x},t) is the heat flux vector, and s(\mathbf{x},t) is an energy source per unit mass. The operators used are defined below. With respect to the reference configuration (the Lagrangian point of view), the balance laws can be written as { \begin{align} \rho~\det(\boldsymbol{F}) - \rho_0 &= 0 & & \qquad \text{Balance of Mass} \\ \rho_0~\ddot{\mathbf{x}} - \boldsymbol{\nabla}_{\circ}\cdot\boldsymbol{P} -\rho_0~\mathbf{b} & = 0 & & \qquad \text{Balance of Linear Momentum} \\ \boldsymbol{F}\cdot\boldsymbol{P}^T & = \boldsymbol{P}\cdot\boldsymbol{F}^T & & \qquad \text{Balance of Angular Momentum} \\ \rho_0~\dot{e} - \boldsymbol{P}^T:\dot{\boldsymbol{F}} + \boldsymbol{\nabla}_{\circ}\cdot\mathbf{q} - \rho_0~s & = 0 & & \qquad\text{Balance of Energy.} \end{align} } In the above, \boldsymbol{P} is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, and \rho_0 is the mass density in the reference configuration. The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is related to the Cauchy stress tensor by \boldsymbol{P} = J~\boldsymbol{\sigma}\cdot\boldsymbol{F}^{-T} ~\text{where}~ J = \det(\boldsymbol{F}) We can alternatively define the nominal stress tensor \boldsymbol{N} which is the transpose of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor such that \boldsymbol{N} = \boldsymbol{P}^T = J~\boldsymbol{F}^{-1}\cdot\boldsymbol{\sigma} ~. Then the balance laws become { \begin{align} \rho~\det(\boldsymbol{F}) - \rho_0 &= 0 & & \qquad \text{Balance of Mass} \\ \rho_0~\ddot{\mathbf{x}} - \boldsymbol{\nabla}_{\circ}\cdot\boldsymbol{N}^T -\rho_0~\mathbf{b} & = 0 & & \qquad \text{Balance of Linear Momentum} \\ \boldsymbol{F}\cdot\boldsymbol{N} & = \boldsymbol{N}^T\cdot\boldsymbol{F}^T & & \qquad \text{Balance of Angular Momentum} \\ \rho_0~\dot{e} - \boldsymbol{N}:\dot{\boldsymbol{F}} + \boldsymbol{\nabla}_{\circ}\cdot\mathbf{q} - \rho_0~s & = 0 & & \qquad\text{Balance of Energy.} \end{align} } ====Operators==== The operators in the above equations are defined as \begin{align} \boldsymbol{\nabla} \mathbf{v} &= \sum_{i,j = 1}^3 \frac{\partial v_i}{\partial x_j}\mathbf{e}_i\otimes\mathbf{e}_j = v_{i,j}\mathbf{e}_i\otimes\mathbf{e}_j ~; \\[1ex] \boldsymbol{\nabla} \cdot \mathbf{v} &= \sum_{i=1}^3 \frac{\partial v_i}{\partial x_i} = v_{i,i} ~; \\[1ex] \boldsymbol{\nabla} \cdot \boldsymbol{S} &= \sum_{i,j=1}^3 \frac{\partial S_{ij}}{\partial x_j}~\mathbf{e}_i = \sigma_{ij,j}~\mathbf{e}_i ~. \end{align} where \mathbf{v} is a vector field, \boldsymbol{S} is a second-order tensor field, and \mathbf{e}_i are the components of an orthonormal basis in the current configuration. Also, \begin{align} \boldsymbol{\nabla}_{\circ} \mathbf{v} &= \sum_{i,j = 1}^3 \frac{\partial v_i}{\partial X_j}\mathbf{E}_i\otimes\mathbf{E}_j = v_{i,j}\mathbf{E}_i\otimes\mathbf{E}_j ~; \\[1ex] \boldsymbol{\nabla}_{\circ}\cdot\mathbf{v} &= \sum_{i=1}^3 \frac{\partial v_i}{\partial X_i} = v_{i,i} ~; \\[1ex] \boldsymbol{\nabla}_{\circ}\cdot\boldsymbol{S} &= \sum_{i,j=1}^3 \frac{\partial S_{ij}}{\partial X_j}~\mathbf{E}_i = S_{ij,j}~\mathbf{E}_i \end{align} where \mathbf{v} is a vector field, \boldsymbol{S} is a second-order tensor field, and \mathbf{E}_i are the components of an orthonormal basis in the reference configuration. The inner product is defined as \boldsymbol{A}:\boldsymbol{B} = \sum_{i,j=1}^3 A_{ij}~B_{ij} = \operatorname{trace}(\boldsymbol{A}\boldsymbol{B}^T) ~. ===Clausius–Duhem inequality=== The Clausius–Duhem inequality can be used to express the second law of thermodynamics for elastic-plastic materials. This inequality is a statement concerning the irreversibility of natural processes, especially when energy dissipation is involved. Just like in the balance laws in the previous section, we assume that there is a flux of a quantity, a source of the quantity, and an internal density of the quantity per unit mass. The quantity of interest in this case is the entropy. Thus, we assume that there is an entropy flux, an entropy source, an internal mass density \rho and an internal specific entropy (i.e. entropy per unit mass) \eta in the region of interest. Let \Omega be such a region and let \partial \Omega be its boundary. Then the second law of thermodynamics states that the rate of increase of \eta in this region is greater than or equal to the sum of that supplied to \Omega (as a flux or from internal sources) and the change of the internal entropy density \rho\eta due to material flowing in and out of the region. Let \partial \Omega move with a flow velocity u_n and let particles inside \Omega have velocities \mathbf{v}. Let \mathbf{n} be the unit outward normal to the surface \partial \Omega . Let \rho be the density of matter in the region, \bar{q} be the entropy flux at the surface, and r be the entropy source per unit mass. Then the entropy inequality may be written as \cfrac{d}{dt}\left(\int_{\Omega} \rho~\eta~\text{dV}\right) \ge \int_{\partial \Omega} \rho~\eta~(u_n - \mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{n}) ~\text{dA} + \int_{\partial \Omega} \bar{q}~\text{dA} + \int_{\Omega} \rho~r~\text{dV}. The scalar entropy flux can be related to the vector flux at the surface by the relation \bar{q} = -\boldsymbol{\psi}(\mathbf{x})\cdot\mathbf{n}. Under the assumption of incrementally isothermal conditions, we have \boldsymbol{\psi}(\mathbf{x}) = \cfrac{\mathbf{q}(\mathbf{x})}{T} ~;~~ r = \cfrac{s}{T} where \mathbf{q} is the heat flux vector, s is an energy source per unit mass, and T is the absolute temperature of a material point at \mathbf{x} at time t. We then have the Clausius–Duhem inequality in integral form: { \cfrac{d}{dt}\left(\int_{\Omega} \rho~\eta~\text{dV}\right) \ge \int_{\partial \Omega} \rho~\eta~(u_n - \mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{n}) ~\text{dA} - \int_{\partial \Omega} \cfrac{\mathbf{q}\cdot\mathbf{n}}{T}~\text{dA} + \int_\Omega \cfrac{\rho~s}{T}~\text{dV}. } We can show that the entropy inequality may be written in differential form as { \rho~\dot{\eta} \ge - \boldsymbol{\nabla} \cdot \left(\cfrac{\mathbf{q}}{T}\right) + \cfrac{\rho~s}{T}. } In terms of the Cauchy stress and the internal energy, the Clausius–Duhem inequality may be written as { \rho~(\dot{e} - T~\dot{\eta}) - \boldsymbol{\sigma}:\boldsymbol{\nabla}\mathbf{v} \le - \cfrac{\mathbf{q}\cdot\boldsymbol{\nabla} T}{T}. } ==Validity== The validity of the continuum assumption may be verified by a theoretical analysis, in which either some clear periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and ergodicity of the microstructure exist. More specifically, the continuum hypothesis hinges on the concepts of a representative elementary volume and separation of scales based on the Hill–Mandel condition. This condition provides a link between an experimentalist's and a theoretician's viewpoint on constitutive equations (linear and nonlinear elastic/inelastic or coupled fields) as well as a way of spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure. When the separation of scales does not hold, or when one wants to establish a continuum of a finer resolution than the size of the representative volume element (RVE), a statistical volume element (SVE) is employed, which results in random continuum fields. The latter then provide a micromechanics basis for stochastic finite elements (SFE). The levels of SVE and RVE link continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics. Experimentally, the RVE can only be evaluated when the constitutive response is spatially homogenous. ==Applications== Continuum mechanics Solid mechanics Fluid mechanics Engineering Civil engineering Mechanical engineering Aerospace engineering Biomedical engineering Chemical engineering	[ "inverse function", "torque", "solid mechanics", "Kinematics", "Cauchy elastic material", "Movable cellular automaton", "elasticity (physics)", "homogeneity (physics)", "Kronecker delta", "rigid bodies", "Chemical engineering", "Cauchy stress tensor", "Clausius–Duhem inequality", "Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor", "atom", "force", "electromagnetic force", "constitutive equations", "point particle", "mechanics", "electric charge", "Equation of state", "Configurational mechanics", "Isaac Newton", "conservation of momentum", "Fluid mechanics", "conservation of mass", "gravitational force", "Surface forces", "d'Alembert", "van der Waals force", "displacement field (mechanics)", "plasticity (physics)", "Leonhard Euler", "Deformation (mechanics)", "continuous function", "displacement (vector)", "Finite strain theory", "Transport phenomena", "Solid mechanics", "conservation of energy", "fluid mechanics", "Tensor derivative (continuum mechanics)", "Peridynamics", "Stress measures", "isotropy", "Statistical physics", "Tensor calculus", "Euclidean space", "Homogeneity (physics)", "gravitational field", "Conservation laws", "microstructure", "Euler's laws", "mass", "Constitutive equation", "differential equation", "continuity (mathematics)", "Aerospace engineering", "continuously differentiable", "calculus", "coordinate vector", "ionic bond", "Finite deformation tensors", "Mechanical engineering", "Jacobian matrix and determinant", "Stress (physics)", "Curvilinear coordinates", "Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field", "Theory of elasticity", "crystallographic defects", "fictitious force", "second law of thermodynamics", "Deformation (physics)", "Body forces", "elastomeric foam", "material", "constitutive equation", "Civil engineering", "tensor", "surface integral", "orientation-preserving", "ergodicity", "infinitesimal", "Knudsen number", "frame of reference", "Hyperelastic material", "deformation (mechanics)", "coordinate system", "metallic bond", "Bernoulli's principle", "Vector space", "Newton's laws of motion", "Engineering", "Biomedical engineering", "linear momentum", "function (mathematics)", "angular momentum" ]
5,919	Constitutional law	Constitutional law is a body of law which defines the role, powers, and structure of different entities within a state, namely, the executive, the parliament or legislature, and the judiciary; as well as the basic rights of citizens and, in federal countries such as the United States and Canada, the relationship between the central government and state, provincial, or territorial governments. Not all nation states have codified constitutions, though all such states have a , or law of the land, that may consist of a variety of imperative and consensual rules. These may include customary law, conventions, statutory law, judge-made law, or international law. Constitutional law deals with the fundamental principles by which the government exercises its authority. In some instances, these principles grant specific powers to the government, such as the power to tax and spend for the welfare of the population. Other times, constitutional principles act to place limits on what the government can do, such as prohibiting the arrest of an individual without sufficient cause. In most nations, such as the United States, India, and Singapore, constitutional law is based on the text of a document ratified at the time the nation came into being. Other constitutions, notably that of the United Kingdom, rely heavily on uncodified rules, as several legislative statutes and constitutional conventions, their status within constitutional law varies, and the terms of conventions are in some cases strongly contested. ==Legal structure== Constitutional laws can be considered second order rule making or rules about making rules to exercise power. It governs the relationships between the judiciary, the legislature and the executive with the bodies under its authority. One of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power. For example, in a unitary state, the constitution will vest ultimate authority in one central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities. When a constitution establishes a federal state for instance as seen in India, it will identify multiple levels of government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement. Some federal states, most notably the United States, have separate and parallel federal and state judiciaries, with each having its own hierarchy of courts with a supreme court for each state. India, on the other hand, has one judiciary divided into district courts, high courts, and the Supreme Court of India. ==Human rights== Human rights or civil liberties form a crucial part of a country's constitution and uphold the rights of the individual against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a codified constitution, with a bill of rights. Canada is an example where the constitution is not codified, but includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms to protect human rights for Canadian citizens and residents. Some countries like the United Kingdom have no entrenched document setting out fundamental rights; in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of statute, case law and convention. A case named Entick v. Carrington is a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. John Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sherriff Carrington. Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax was valid authority, even though there was no statutory provision or court order for it. The court, led by Lord Camden stated that, The common law and the civil law jurisdictions do not share the same constitutional law underpinnings. Common law nations, such as those in the Commonwealth as well as the United States, derive their legal systems from that of the United Kingdom, and as such place emphasis on judicial precedent, whereby consequential court rulings (especially those by higher courts) are a source of law. Civil law jurisdictions, on the other hand, place less emphasis on judicial review and only the parliament or legislature has the power to effect law. As a result, the structure of the judiciary differs significantly between the two, with common law judiciaries being adversarial and civil law judiciaries being inquisitorial. Common law judicatures consequently separate the judiciary from the prosecution, thereby establishing the courts as completely independent from both the legislature and law enforcement. Human rights law in these countries is as a result, largely built on legal precedent in the courts' interpretation of constitutional law, whereas that of civil law countries is almost exclusively composed of codified law, constitutional or otherwise. There are also international enactments to protect human rights. One example is the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union which was intended included in the Treaty of Lisbon. Perhaps the most important international example is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the UN Charter. These are intended to ensure basic political, social and economic standards that a nation state, or intergovernmental body is obliged to provide to its citizens but many do include its governments. ==Legislative procedure== Another main function of constitutions may be to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate. For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution. In bicameral legislatures, there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can enter into force. Alternatively, there may further be requirements for maximum terms that a government can keep power before holding an election. ==Study of constitutional law== Constitutional law is a major focus of legal studies and research. For example, most law students in the United States are required to take a class in Constitutional Law during their first year, and several law journals are devoted to the discussion of constitutional issues. == The rule of law == The doctrine of the rule of law dictates that government must be conducted according to law. This was first established by British legal theorist A. V. Dicey. Dicey identified three essential elements of the British Constitution which were indicative of the rule of law: Absolute supremacy of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power; Equality before the law; The Constitution is a result of the ordinary law of the land. Dicey's rule of law formula consists of three classic tenets. The first is that the regular law is supreme over arbitrary and discretionary powers. "[N]o man is punishable ... except for a distinct breach of the law established in the ordinary legal manner before the ordinary courts of the land." The second is that all men are to stand equal in the eyes of the law. "...no man is above the law...every man, whatever be his rank or condition, is subject to the ordinary law of the realm and amenable to the jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals" The third is that the general ideas and principles that the constitution supports arise directly from the judgements and precedents issued by the judiciary. "We may say that the constitution is pervaded by the rule of law on the ground that the general principles of the constitution... are with us the result of judicial decisions determining the rights of private persons in particular cases brought before the courts" ==The separation of powers== Separation of powers is often regarded as a second limb functioning alongside the rule of law to curb the powers of the government. In many modern nation states, power is divided and vested into three branches of government: The legislature, the executive, and the judiciary are known as the horizontal separation of powers. The first and the second are harmonized in traditional Westminster system. Vertical separation of powers is decentralization. == Election law == Election law is a subfield of constitutional law. It includes the rules governing the process of elections. These rules enable the translation of the will of the people into functioning democracies. Election law addresses issues who is entitled to vote, voter registration, ballot access, campaign finance and party funding, redistricting, apportionment, electronic voting and voting machines, accessibility of elections, election systems and formulas, vote counting, election disputes, referendums, and issues such as electoral fraud and electoral silence.	[ "Executive (government)", "France", "custom (law)", "referendum", "Rule according to higher law", "rule of law", "Election silence", "parliament", "Westminster system", "Redistribution (election)", "precedent", "Monism and dualism in international law", "common law", "Apportionment (politics)", "law journals", "constitution", "Entick v. Carrington", "Supreme Court of India", "Philosophy of law", "Canada", "Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution", "Rechtsstaat", "unitary state", "nation state", "accessibility", "United States", "electronic voting", "Oxford University Press", "executive (government)", "bill of rights", "voter registration", "statute", "Voting", "United Kingdom", "Public law", "Constitutionalism", "Separation of powers", "Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden", "Equality before the law", "Judicial interpretation", "Constitution", "Constitution of the United Kingdom", "campaign finance", "election", "case law", "vote counting", "Civil law (legal system)", "History of the United States Constitution", "civil liberties", "legislature", "State (polity)", "Common law", "inquisitorial system", "Electoral system", "George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax", "Convention (norm)", "Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union", "jus commune", "statutory law", "ballot access", "UN Charter", "Election law", "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms", "Treaty of Lisbon", "Constitution of India", "electoral fraud", "Democracy", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "Constitutional economics", "Rule of law", "United States constitutional law", "Constitutional review", "A. V. Dicey", "Constitution of Singapore", "John Entick", "voting machine", "Legal system of India", "Political party funding", "arbitrary power", "federal state", "international law", "Constitutional convention (political custom)", "Constitutional rights", "judiciary", "stare decesis", "adversarial system" ]
5,920	Celtic languages	The Celtic languages ( ) are a branch of the Indo-European language family, descended from the hypothetical Proto-Celtic language. The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707, following Paul-Yves Pezron, who made the explicit link between the Celts described by classical writers and the Welsh and Breton languages. During the first millennium BC, Celtic languages were spoken across much of Europe and central Anatolia. Today, they are restricted to the northwestern fringe of Europe and a few diaspora communities. There are six living languages: the four continuously living languages Breton, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Welsh, and the two revived languages Cornish and Manx. All are minority languages in their respective countries, though there are continuing efforts at revitalisation. Welsh is an official language in Wales and Irish is an official language across the island of Ireland and of the European Union. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as endangered by UNESCO. The Cornish and Manx languages became extinct in modern times but have been revived. Each now has several hundred second-language speakers. Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic form the Goidelic languages, while Welsh, Cornish and Breton are Brittonic. All of these are Insular Celtic languages, since Breton, the only living Celtic language spoken in continental Europe, is descended from the language of settlers from Britain. There are a number of extinct but attested continental Celtic languages, such as Celtiberian, Galatian and Gaulish. Gaulish is more closely related to Insular Celtic than either of these two are to Celtiberian; together, Gaulish and Insular Celtic form the Nuclear Celtic subfamily. Beyond that, there is no agreement on the subdivisions of the Celtic language family. They may be divided into P-Celtic and Q-Celtic. The Celtic languages have a rich literary tradition. The earliest specimens of written Celtic are Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC in the Alps. Early Continental inscriptions used Italic and Paleohispanic scripts. Between the 4th and 8th centuries, Irish and Pictish were occasionally written in an original script, Ogham, but Latin script came to be used for all Celtic languages. Welsh has had a continuous literary tradition from the 6th century AD. == Living languages == SIL Ethnologue lists six living Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers. These are: the Goidelic languages (Irish and Scottish Gaelic, both descended from Middle Irish) and the Brittonic languages (Welsh and Breton, descended from Common Brittonic). The other two, Cornish (Brittonic) and Manx (Goidelic), died out in modern times with their presumed last native speakers in 1777 and 1974 respectively. Revitalisation movements in the 2000s led to the reemergence of native speakers for both languages following their adoption by adults and children. By the 21st century, there were roughly one million total speakers of Celtic languages, increasing to 1.4 million speakers by 2010. === Demographics === === Mixed languages === Beurla Reagaird, Highland travellers' language Shelta, based largely on Irish and Hiberno-English (some 86,000 speakers in 2009). == Classification == Celtic is divided into various branches: Lepontic, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC). Celtiberian, also called Eastern or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic, spoken in the ancient Iberian Peninsula, in the eastern part of Old Castile and south of Aragon. Modern provinces: Segovia, Burgos, Soria, Guadalajara, Cuenca, Zaragoza and Teruel. The relationship of Celtiberian with Gallaecian, in northwest Iberia, is uncertain. Gallaecian, also known as Western or Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, anciently spoken in the northwest of the peninsula (modern Northern Portugal, and the Spanish regions of Galicia, Asturias and northwestern Castile and León). Gaulish languages, including Galatian and possibly Noric. These were once spoken in a wide arc from Belgium to Turkey. They are now all extinct. Brittonic, spoken in Great Britain and Brittany. Including the living languages Breton, Cornish, and Welsh, and the lost Cumbric and Pictish, though Pictish may be a sister language rather than a daughter of Common Brittonic. Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century, there may have been a Brittonic language there. The theory of a Brittonic Ivernic language predating Goidelic speech in Ireland has been suggested, but is not widely accepted. Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) make the primary distinction between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages based on the replacement of initial Q by initial P in some words. Most of the Gallic and Brittonic languages are P-Celtic, while the Goidelic and Hispano-Celtic (or Celtiberian) languages are Q-Celtic. The P-Celtic languages (also called Gallo-Brittonic) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages. According to Ranko Matasović in the introduction to his 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic: "Celtiberian ... is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early." The Breton language is Brittonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter, having been introduced from Southwestern regions of Britain in the post-Roman era and having evolved into Breton. In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages (see Schmidt). In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brittonic is seen as being late. The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray & Atkinson but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. A controversial paper by Forster & Toth included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture, though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong. There are legitimate scholarly arguments for both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-/Q-Celtic theory found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on the Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation -nm- > -nu (Gaelic / Gaulish , Old Welsh 'names'), that is less accidental than only one. The discovery of a third common innovation would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a Gallo-Brittonic dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986). The interpretation of this and further evidence is still quite contested, and the main argument for Insular Celtic is connected with the development of verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated theory. Stifter affirms that the Gallo-Brittonic view is "out of favour" in the scholarly community as of 2008 and the Insular Celtic hypothesis "widely accepted". When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brittonic". How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used: "Insular Celtic hypothesis" Proto-Celtic Continental Celtic Celtiberian Gallaecian Gaulish Insular Celtic Brittonic Goidelic "P/Q-Celtic hypothesis" Proto-Celtic Q-Celtic Celtiberian Gallaecian Goidelic P-Celtic Gaulish Brittonic === Eska (2010) === Eska evaluates the evidence as supporting the following tree, based on shared innovations, though it is not always clear that the innovations are not areal features. It seems likely that Celtiberian split off before Cisalpine Celtic, but the evidence for this is not robust. On the other hand, the unity of Gaulish, Goidelic, and Brittonic is reasonably secure. Schumacher (2004, p. 86) had already cautiously considered this grouping to be likely genetic, based, among others, on the shared reformation of the sentence-initial, fully inflecting relative pronoun i̯os, i̯ā, *i̯od into an uninflected enclitic particle. Eska sees Cisalpine Gaulish as more akin to Lepontic than to Transalpine Gaulish. Celtic Hispano-Celtic Celtiberian Gallaecian Nuclear Celtic Cisalpine Celtic: Lepontic → Cisalpine Gaulish Core Celtic (secure) Transalpine Gaulish ("Transalpine Celtic") Insular Celtic Goidelic Brittonic Eska considers a division of Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic into Transalpine and Insular Celtic to be most probable because of the greater number of innovations in Insular Celtic than in P-Celtic, and because the Insular Celtic languages were probably not in great enough contact for those innovations to spread as part of a sprachbund. However, if they have another explanation (such as an SOV substratum language), then it is possible that P-Celtic is a valid clade, and the top branching would be: Core Celtic (P-Celtic hypothesis) Goidelic Gallo-Brittonic Transalpine Gaulish ("Transalpine Celtic") Brittonic === Italo-Celtic === Within the Indo-European family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the Italic languages in a common Italo-Celtic subfamily. This hypothesis fell somewhat out of favour after reexamination by American linguist Calvert Watkins in 1966. Irrespectively, some scholars such as Ringe, Warnow and Taylor and many others have argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic grouping in 21st century theses. == Characteristics == Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. consonant mutations (Insular Celtic only) inflected prepositions (Insular Celtic only) two grammatical genders (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders, although Gaulish may have merged the neuter and masculine in its later forms) a vigesimal number system (counting by twenties) Cornish "fifty-six" (literally "sixteen and two twenty") verb–subject–object (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only) an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a passive or intransitive Welsh "I teach" vs. "is taught, one teaches" Irish "I teach" vs. "is taught, one teaches" no infinitives, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or verbnoun frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc. use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativisers particles for negation, interrogation, and occasionally for affirmative declarations pronouns positioned between particles and verbs lack of simple verb for the imperfective "have" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition Cornish "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat to me" Welsh "I have a cat", literally "a cat is with me" Irish "I have a cat", literally "there is a cat at me" use of periphrastic constructions to express verbal tense, voice, or aspectual distinctions distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and copula bifurcated demonstrative structure suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns use of singulars or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared Examples: (Literal translation) Do not bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you. is the genitive of . The the result of affection; the is the lenited form of . is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition . The order is verb–subject–object (VSO) in the second half. Compare this to English or French (and possibly Continental Celtic) which are normally subject–verb–object in word order. (Literally) four on fifteen and four twenties is a mutated form of , which is ("five") plus ("ten"). Likewise, is a mutated form of . The multiples of ten are . === Comparison table === The lexical similarity between the different Celtic languages is apparent in their core vocabulary, especially in terms of actual pronunciation. Moreover, the phonetic differences between languages are often the product of regular sound change (i.e. lenition of into or Ø). The table below has words in the modern languages that were inherited direct from Proto-Celtic, as well as a few old borrowings from Latin that made their way into all the daughter languages. There is often a closer match between Welsh, Breton and Cornish on the one hand and Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx on the other. For a fuller list of comparisons, see the Swadesh list for Celtic. † Borrowings from Latin. === Examples === Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. == Possible members of the family == Several poorly-documented languages may have been Celtic. Ancient Belgian Camunic is an extinct language spoken in the first millennium BC in the Val Camonica and Valtellina valleys of the Central Alps. It has recently been proposed that it was a Celtic language. Ivernic Ligurian, on the Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling the southeast French and northwest Italian coasts, including parts of Tuscany, Elba and Corsica. Xavier Delamarre argues that Ligurian was a Celtic language similar to Gaulish. The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999). Ancient Ligurian is listed as either Celtic (epigraphic), or Para-Celtic (onomastic). Lusitanian, spoken in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers of western Iberia (a region straddling the present border of Portugal and Spain). Known from only five inscriptions and various place names. It is also possible that the Q-Celtic languages alone, including Goidelic, originated in western Iberia (a theory that was first put forward by Edward Lhuyd in 1707) or shared a common linguistic ancestor with Lusitanian. Secondary evidence for this hypothesis has been found in research by biological scientists, who have identified (1) deep-rooted similarities in human DNA found precisely in both the former Lusitania and Ireland, and; (2) the so-called "Lusitanian distribution" of animals and plants unique to western Iberia and Ireland. Both phenomena are now generally thought to have resulted from human emigration from Iberia to Ireland, in the late Paleolithic or early Mesolithic eras. Other scholars see greater linguistic affinities between Lusitanian, Old Gallo-Italic (particularly with Ligurian) and Old European. Prominent modern linguists such as Ellis Evans, believe Gallaecian-Lusitanian was in fact one same language (not separate languages) of the "P" Celtic variant. Rhaetic, spoken in central Switzerland, Tyrol in Austria, and the Alpine regions of northeast Italy. Documented by a limited number of short inscriptions (found through Northern Italy and Western Austria) in two variants of the Etruscan alphabet. Its linguistic categorisation is not clearly established, and it presents a confusing mixture of what appear to be Etruscan, Indo-European, and uncertain other elements. Howard Hayes Scullard argues that Rhaetian was also a Celtic language. Tartessian, spoken in the southwest of the Iberia Peninsula (mainly southern Portugal and southwest Spain). Tartessian is known by 95 inscriptions, with the longest having 82 readable signs. John T. Koch argues that Tartessian was also a Celtic language.	[ "intransitive verb", "BBC News Online", "areal feature", "Cornwall", "affirmation and negation", "Northern Ireland", "Brest, France", "loanword", "Tuscany", "consonant mutation", "copula (linguistics)", "Middle Irish", "University of Innsbruck", "Truro", "Nova Scotia", "Katherine Forsyth", "imperfective aspect", "wikt:Appendix:Celtic Swadesh lists", "Camunic language", "inflected preposition", "Celts", "Europe", "grammatical gender", "Breton language", "Pictish language", "Edward Lhuyd", "Old Castile", "Lusitania", "dialect continuum", "continental Celtic languages", "Celtic literature", "Pritennic", "University of California Press", "Old Gallo-Italic language", "Italic languages", "Brill Publishers", "Welsh Language Board", "Elba", "Jonathan Cape", "Common Brittonic", "BBC", "Lepontic language", "Rhaetic", "Ogham", "Spain", "Belgium", "Cork (city)", "Hiberno-English", "Asturias", "British Council", "phonetics", "Argentina", "grammatical aspect", "UNESCO", "Paul-Yves Pezron", "Welsh-language literature", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "Nature (journal)", "Canada", "Proto-Celtic language", "Beurla Reagaird", "Tartessian language", "Portugal", "Chubut Province", "United States", "Megabyte", "Language family", "Cornish Language Partnership", "Y Wladfa", "last speaker of the Cornish language", "lexical similarity", "Val Camonica", "Oxford University Press", "Belfast", "Brittonic languages", "Transalpine Gaulish", "TheJournal.ie", "Corsica", "Cisalpine Gaulish", "Iverni", "Holger Pedersen (linguist)", "European Union", "Stratum (linguistics)", "Turkey", "periphrasis", "Galatian language", "Gallia Narbonensis", "Swadesh list", "Gaulish", "Ned Maddrell", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America", "Mesolithic", "phonetic transcription", "Iberian Peninsula", "Castile and León", "Lusitanian language", "England", "Gallaecian", "Calvert Watkins", "revived language", "Oxbow Books", "Newport, Wales", "Cornish language", "ABC-CLIO", "Great Britain", "Statistics Canada", "Berkeley, California", "Kilobyte", "Central Alps", "Insular Celtic languages", "Dublin", "Edinburgh", "Paleolithic", "Northern Portugal", "Aragon", "Paleohispanic scripts", "Latin alphabet", "Irish language", "Welsh language", "Etruscan alphabet", "Celtic League", "Ranko Matasović", "Italy", "Galway", "Etruscan language", "Q-Celtic", "The Guardian", "verbnoun", "affection (linguistics)", "Welsh Government", "Wales", "Nantes", "Isle of Man", "Subject–verb–object", "Galicia (Spain)", "Cumbric", "Manx language", "Rennes", "Ellis Evans", "Valtellina", "Swansea", "List of language regulators", "comparative method", "Anatolia", "Switzerland", "Ancient Belgian language", "Aberdeen", "Celtic diaspora (disambiguation)", "Noricum", "La Tène culture", "sound change", "Foras na Gaeilge", "Coonceil ny Gaelgey", "disjunct distribution", "British Museum", "Cladistics (journal)", "Welsh Language Commissioner", "endangered language", "Cisalpine Celtic", "Latin", "vigesimal", "Gaeltacht", "Goidelic languages", "Hispano-Celtic languages", "SIL Ethnologue", "Tyrol (state)", "demonstrative", "Scottish Gaelic", "Brittany", "infinitive", "Insular Celtic", "Republic of Ireland", "Celts (modern)", "Celtiberian language", "Noric language", "Hallstatt culture", "Douglas, Isle of Man", "Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg", "grammatical particle", "Celtic Congress", "Scotland", "Italo-Celtic", "Nuclear Celtic", "passive voice", "Glasgow", "Old European hydronymy", "Gallaecian language", "Bòrd na Gàidhlig", "Cardiff", "Kenneth H. Jackson", "John T. Koch", "historical linguistics", "Gallo-Brittonic languages", "Language revitalization", "Irish initial consonant mutations", "Austria", "Shelta", "United States Census Bureau", "Indo-European languages", "Urnfield culture", "lenition", "Howard Hayes Scullard", "Nuclear Celtic languages", "Lusitanians", "Ireland", "Continental Celtic languages", "Akademi Kernewek", "Bangor, Gwynedd", "language family", "Old Italic script", "sprachbund", "Ligurian (ancient language)" ]
5,921	Color	Color (or colour in Commonwealth English; see spelling differences) is the visual perception based on the electromagnetic spectrum. Though color is not an inherent property of matter, color perception is related to an object's light absorption, reflection, emission spectra, and interference. For most humans, colors are perceived in the visible light spectrum with three types of cone cells (trichromacy). Other animals may have a different number of cone cell types or have eyes sensitive to different wavelengths, such as bees that can distinguish ultraviolet, and thus have a different color sensitivity range. Animal perception of color originates from different light wavelength or spectral sensitivity in cone cell types, which is then processed by the brain. Colors have perceived properties such as hue, colorfulness (saturation), and luminance. Colors can also be additively mixed (commonly used for actual light) or subtractively mixed (commonly used for materials). If the colors are mixed in the right proportions, because of metamerism, they may look the same as a single-wavelength light. For convenience, colors can be organized in a color space, which when being abstracted as a mathematical color model can assign each region of color with a corresponding set of numbers. As such, color spaces are an essential tool for color reproduction in print, photography, computer monitors, and television. Some of the most well-known color models and color spaces are RGB, CMYK, HSL/HSV, CIE Lab, and YCbCr/YUV. Because the perception of color is an important aspect of human life, different colors have been associated with emotions, activity, and nationality. Names of color regions in different cultures can have different, sometimes overlapping areas. In visual arts, color theory is used to govern the use of colors in an aesthetically pleasing and harmonious way. The theory of color includes the color complements; color balance; and classification of primary colors (traditionally red, yellow, blue), secondary colors (traditionally orange, green, purple), and tertiary colors. The study of colors in general is called color science. == Physical properties == Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength (or frequency) and its intensity. When the wavelength is within the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive, approximately from 390 nm to 700 nm), it is known as "visible light". Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations. In fact, one may formally define a color as a class of spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes would vary widely among different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species. In each such class, the members are called metamers of the color in question. This effect can be visualized by comparing the light sources' spectral power distributions and the resulting colors. === Spectral colors === The familiar colors of the rainbow in the spectrum—named using the Latin word for appearance or apparition by Isaac Newton in 1671—include all those colors that can be produced by visible light of a single wavelength only, the pure spectral or monochromatic colors. The spectrum above shows approximate wavelengths (in nm) for spectral colors in the visible range. Spectral colors have 100% purity, and are fully saturated. A complex mixture of spectral colors can be used to describe any color, which is the definition of a light power spectrum. The spectral colors form a continuous spectrum, and how it is divided into distinct colors linguistically is a matter of culture and historical contingency. Despite the ubiquitous ROYGBIV mnemonic used to remember the spectral colors in English, the inclusion or exclusion of colors is contentious, with disagreement often focused on indigo and cyan. Even if the subset of color terms is agreed, their wavelength ranges and borders between them may not be. The intensity of a spectral color, relative to the context in which it is viewed, may alter its perception considerably. For example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is brown, and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive green. Additionally, hue shifts towards yellow or blue happen if the intensity of a spectral light is increased; this is called Bezold–Brücke shift. In color models capable of representing spectral colors, such as CIELUV, a spectral color has the maximal saturation. In Helmholtz coordinates, this is described as 100% purity. === Color of objects === The physical color of an object depends on how it absorbs and scatters light. Most objects scatter light to some degree and do not reflect or transmit light specularly like glasses or mirrors. A transparent object allows almost all light to transmit or pass through, thus transparent objects are perceived as colorless. Conversely, an opaque object does not allow light to transmit through and instead absorbs or reflects the light it receives. Like transparent objects, translucent objects allow light to transmit through, but translucent objects are seen colored because they scatter or absorb certain wavelengths of light via internal scattering. The absorbed light is often dissipated as heat. == Color vision == === Development of theories of color vision === Although Aristotle and other ancient scientists had already written on the nature of light and color vision, it was not until Newton that light was identified as the source of the color sensation. In 1810, Goethe published his comprehensive Theory of Colors in which he provided a rational description of color experience, which 'tells us how it originates, not what it is'. (Schopenhauer) In 1801 Thomas Young proposed his trichromatic theory, based on the observation that any color could be matched with a combination of three lights. This theory was later refined by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz. As Helmholtz puts it, "the principles of Newton's law of mixture were experimentally confirmed by Maxwell in 1856. Young's theory of color sensations, like so much else that this marvelous investigator achieved in advance of his time, remained unnoticed until Maxwell directed attention to it." At the same time as Helmholtz, Ewald Hering developed the opponent process theory of color, noting that color blindness and afterimages typically come in opponent pairs (red-green, blue-orange, yellow-violet, and black-white). Ultimately these two theories were synthesized in 1957 by Hurvich and Jameson, who showed that retinal processing corresponds to the trichromatic theory, while processing at the level of the lateral geniculate nucleus corresponds to the opponent theory. In 1931, an international group of experts known as the Commission internationale de l'éclairage (CIE) developed a mathematical color model, which mapped out the space of observable colors and assigned a set of three numbers to each. === Color in the eye === The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells in the retina to light of different wavelengths. Humans are trichromatic—the retina contains three types of color receptor cells, or cones. One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that is perceived as blue or blue-violet, with wavelengths around 450 nm; cones of this type are sometimes called short-wavelength cones or S cones (or misleadingly, blue cones). The other two types are closely related genetically and chemically: middle-wavelength cones, M cones, or green cones are most sensitive to light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 540 nm, while the long-wavelength cones, L cones, or red cones, are most sensitive to light that is perceived as greenish yellow, with wavelengths around 570 nm. Light, no matter how complex its composition of wavelengths, is reduced to three color components by the eye. Each cone type adheres to the principle of univariance, which is that each cone's output is determined by the amount of light that falls on it over all wavelengths. For each location in the visual field, the three types of cones yield three signals based on the extent to which each is stimulated. These amounts of stimulation are sometimes called tristimulus values. The response curve as a function of wavelength varies for each type of cone. Because the curves overlap, some tristimulus values do not occur for any incoming light combination. For example, it is not possible to stimulate only the mid-wavelength (so-called "green") cones; the other cones will inevitably be stimulated to some degree at the same time. The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human color space. It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different colors. The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod, has a different response curve. In normal situations, when light is bright enough to strongly stimulate the cones, rods play virtually no role in vision at all. On the other hand, in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response (furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive to light in the "red" range). In certain conditions of intermediate illumination, the rod response and a weak cone response can together result in color discriminations not accounted for by cone responses alone. These effects, combined, are summarized also in the Kruithof curve, which describes the change of color perception and pleasingness of light as a function of temperature and intensity. === Color in the brain === While the mechanisms of color vision at the level of the retina are well-described in terms of tristimulus values, color processing after that point is organized differently. A dominant theory of color vision proposes that color information is transmitted out of the eye by three opponent processes, or opponent channels, each constructed from the raw output of the cones: a red–green channel, a blue–yellow channel, and a black–white "luminance" channel. This theory has been supported by neurobiology, and accounts for the structure of our subjective color experience. Specifically, it explains why humans cannot perceive a "reddish green" or "yellowish blue", and it predicts the color wheel: it is the collection of colors for which at least one of the two color channels measures a value at one of its extremes. The exact nature of color perception beyond the processing already described, and indeed the status of color as a feature of the perceived world or rather as a feature of our perception of the world—a type of qualia—is a matter of complex and continuing philosophical dispute. From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO. Area V4 was initially suggested by Semir Zeki to be exclusively dedicated to color, and he later showed that V4 can be subdivided into subregions with very high concentrations of color cells separated from each other by zones with lower concentration of such cells though even the latter cells respond better to some wavelengths than to others, a finding confirmed by subsequent studies. The presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color but it is worth noting that the orientation selective cells within V4 are more broadly tuned than their counterparts in V1, V2, and V3. ==== Tetrachromacy ==== Outside of humans, which are mostly trichromatic (having three types of cones), most mammals are dichromatic, possessing only two cones. However, outside of mammals, most vertebrates are tetrachromatic, having four types of cones. This includes most birds, reptiles, amphibians, and bony fish. An extra dimension of color vision means these vertebrates can see two distinct colors that a normal human would view as metamers. Some invertebrates, such as the mantis shrimp, have an even higher number of cones (12) that could lead to a richer color gamut than even imaginable by humans. The existence of human tetrachromats is a contentious notion. As many as half of all human females have 4 distinct cone classes, which could enable tetrachromacy. However, a distinction must be made between retinal (or weak) tetrachromats, which express four cone classes in the retina, and functional (or strong) tetrachromats, which are able to make the enhanced color discriminations expected of tetrachromats. In fact, there is only one peer-reviewed report of a functional tetrachromat. It is estimated that while the average person is able to see one million colors, someone with functional tetrachromacy could see a hundred million colors. ==== Synesthesia ==== In certain forms of synesthesia, perceiving letters and numbers (grapheme–color synesthesia) or hearing sounds (chromesthesia) will evoke a perception of color. Behavioral and functional neuroimaging experiments have demonstrated that these color experiences lead to changes in behavioral tasks and lead to increased activation of brain regions involved in color perception, thus demonstrating their reality, and similarity to real color percepts, albeit evoked through a non-standard route. Synesthesia can occur genetically, with 4% of the population having variants associated with the condition. Synesthesia has also been known to occur with brain damage, drugs, and sensory deprivation. The philosopher Pythagoras experienced synesthesia and provided one of the first written accounts of the condition in approximately 550 BCE. He created mathematical equations for musical notes that could form part of a scale, such as an octave. === Afterimages === After exposure to strong light in their sensitivity range, photoreceptors of a given type become desensitized. For a few seconds after the light ceases, they will continue to signal less strongly than they otherwise would. Colors observed during that period will appear to lack the color component detected by the desensitized photoreceptors. This effect is responsible for the phenomenon of afterimages, in which the eye may continue to see a bright figure after looking away from it, but in a complementary color. Afterimage effects have also been used by artists, including Vincent van Gogh. === Color constancy === When an artist uses a limited color palette, the human visual system tends to compensate by seeing any gray or neutral color as the color which is missing from the color wheel. For example, in a limited palette consisting of red, yellow, black, and white, a mixture of yellow and black will appear as a variety of green, a mixture of red and black will appear as a variety of purple, and pure gray will appear bluish. The trichromatic theory is strictly true when the visual system is in a fixed state of adaptation. In reality, the visual system is constantly adapting to changes in the environment and compares the various colors in a scene to reduce the effects of the illumination. If a scene is illuminated with one light, and then with another, as long as the difference between the light sources stays within a reasonable range, the colors in the scene appear relatively constant to us. This was studied by Edwin H. Land in the 1970s and led to his retinex theory of color constancy. Both phenomena are readily explained and mathematically modeled with modern theories of chromatic adaptation and color appearance (e.g. CIECAM02, iCAM). There is no need to dismiss the trichromatic theory of vision, but rather it can be enhanced with an understanding of how the visual system adapts to changes in the viewing environment. == Reproduction == Color reproduction is the science of creating colors for the human eye that faithfully represent the desired color. It focuses on how to construct a spectrum of wavelengths that will best evoke a certain color in an observer. Most colors are not spectral colors, meaning they are mixtures of various wavelengths of light. However, these non-spectral colors are often described by their dominant wavelength, which identifies the single wavelength of light that produces a sensation most similar to the non-spectral color. Dominant wavelength is roughly akin to hue. There are many color perceptions that by definition cannot be pure spectral colors due to desaturation or because they are purples (mixtures of red and violet light, from opposite ends of the spectrum). Some examples of necessarily non-spectral colors are the achromatic colors (black, gray, and white) and colors such as pink, tan, and magenta. Two different light spectra that have the same effect on the three color receptors in the human eye will be perceived as the same color. They are metamers of that color. This is exemplified by the white light emitted by fluorescent lamps, which typically has a spectrum of a few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous spectrum. The human eye cannot tell the difference between such light spectra just by looking into the light source, although the color rendering index of each light source may affect the color of objects illuminated by these metameric light sources. Similarly, most human color perceptions can be generated by a mixture of three colors called primaries. This is used to reproduce color scenes in photography, printing, television, and other media. There are a number of methods or color spaces for specifying a color in terms of three particular primary colors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the particular application. No mixture of colors, however, can produce a response truly identical to that of a spectral color, although one can get close, especially for the longer wavelengths, where the CIE 1931 color space chromaticity diagram has a nearly straight edge. For example, mixing green light (530 nm) and blue light (460 nm) produces cyan light that is slightly desaturated, because response of the red color receptor would be greater to the green and blue light in the mixture than it would be to a pure cyan light at 485 nm that has the same intensity as the mixture of blue and green. Because of this, and because the primaries in color printing systems generally are not pure themselves, the colors reproduced are never perfectly saturated spectral colors, and so spectral colors cannot be matched exactly. However, natural scenes rarely contain fully saturated colors, thus such scenes can usually be approximated well by these systems. The range of colors that can be reproduced with a given color reproduction system is called the gamut. The CIE chromaticity diagram can be used to describe the gamut. Another problem with color reproduction systems is connected with the initial measurement of color, or colorimetry. The characteristics of the color sensors in measurement devices (e.g. cameras, scanners) are often very far from the characteristics of the receptors in the human eye. A color reproduction system "tuned" to a human with normal color vision may give very inaccurate results for other observers, according to color vision deviations to the standard observer. The different color response of different devices can be problematic if not properly managed. For color information stored and transferred in digital form, color management techniques, such as those based on ICC profiles, can help to avoid distortions of the reproduced colors. Color management does not circumvent the gamut limitations of particular output devices, but can assist in finding good mapping of input colors into the gamut that can be reproduced. === Additive coloring === Additive color is light created by mixing together light of two or more different colors. Red, green, and blue are the additive primary colors normally used in additive color systems such as projectors, televisions, and computer terminals. === Subtractive coloring === Subtractive coloring uses dyes, inks, pigments, or filters to absorb some wavelengths of light and not others. The color that a surface displays comes from the parts of the visible spectrum that are not absorbed and therefore remain visible. Without pigments or dye, fabric fibers, paint base and paper are usually made of particles that scatter white light (all colors) well in all directions. When a pigment or ink is added, wavelengths are absorbed or "subtracted" from white light, so light of another color reaches the eye. If the light is not a pure white source (the case of nearly all forms of artificial lighting), the resulting spectrum will appear a slightly different color. Red paint, viewed under blue light, may appear black. Red paint is red because it scatters only the red components of the spectrum. If red paint is illuminated by blue light, it will be absorbed by the red paint, creating the appearance of a black object. The subtractive model also predicts the color resulting from a mixture of paints, or similar medium such as fabric dye, whether applied in layers or mixed together prior to application. In the case of paint mixed before application, incident light interacts with many different pigment particles at various depths inside the paint layer before emerging. === Structural color === Structural colors are colors caused by interference effects rather than by pigments. Color effects are produced when a material is scored with fine parallel lines, formed of one or more parallel thin layers, or otherwise composed of microstructures on the scale of the color's wavelength. If the microstructures are spaced randomly, light of shorter wavelengths will be scattered preferentially to produce Tyndall effect colors: the blue of the sky (Rayleigh scattering, caused by structures much smaller than the wavelength of light, in this case, air molecules), the luster of opals, and the blue of human irises. If the microstructures are aligned in arrays, for example, the array of pits in a CD, they behave as a diffraction grating: the grating reflects different wavelengths in different directions due to interference phenomena, separating mixed "white" light into light of different wavelengths. If the structure is one or more thin layers then it will reflect some wavelengths and transmit others, depending on the layers' thickness. Structural color is studied in the field of thin-film optics. The most ordered or the most changeable structural colors are iridescent. Structural color is responsible for the blues and greens of the feathers of many birds (the blue jay, for example), as well as certain butterfly wings and beetle shells. Variations in the pattern's spacing often give rise to an iridescent effect, as seen in peacock feathers, soap bubbles, films of oil, and mother of pearl, because the reflected color depends upon the viewing angle. Numerous scientists have carried out research in butterfly wings and beetle shells, including Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke. Since 1942, electron micrography has been used, advancing the development of products that exploit structural color, such as "photonic" cosmetics. == Optimal colors == Optimal colors are the most chromatic colors that surfaces can have. That is, optimal colors are the theoretical limit for the color of objects*. For now, we are unable to produce objects with such colors, at least not without recurring to more complex physical phenomena. (with classical reflection. Phenomena like fluorescence or structural color may produce objects whose color lies outside the optimal color solid) The plot of the gamut bounded by optimal colors in a color space is called the optimal color solid or Rösch–MacAdam color solid. The reflectance spectrum of a color is the amount of light of each wavelength that it reflects, in proportion to a given maximum, which is total reflection of light of that wavelength, and has the value of 1 (100%). If the reflectance spectrum of a color is 0 (0%) or 1 (100%) across the entire visible spectrum, and it has no more than two transitions between 0 and 1, or 1 and 0, then it is an optimal color. With the current state of technology, we are unable to produce any material or pigment with these properties. Thus four types of "optimal color" spectra are possible: The transition goes from zero at both ends of the spectrum to one in the middle, as shown in the image at right. It goes from one at the ends to zero in the middle. It goes from 1 at the start of the visible spectrum to 0 in some point in the middle until its end. It goes from 0 at the start of the visible spectrum to 1 at some point in the middle until its end. The first type produces colors that are similar to the spectral colors and follow roughly the horseshoe-shaped portion of the CIE xy chromaticity diagram (the spectral locus), but are, in surfaces, more chromatic, although less spectrally pure. The second type produces colors that are similar to (but, in surfaces, more chromatic and less spectrally pure than) the colors on the straight line in the CIE xy chromaticity diagram (the line of purples), leading to magenta or purple-like colors. The third type produces the colors located in the "warm" sharp edge of the optimal color solid (this will be explained later in the article). The fourth type produces the colors located in the "cold" sharp edge of the optimal color solid. In optimal color solids, the colors of the visible spectrum are theoretically black, because their reflectance spectrum is 1 (100%) in only one wavelength, and 0 in all of the other infinite visible wavelengths that there are, meaning that they have a lightness of 0 with respect to white, and will also have 0 chroma, but, of course, 100% of spectral purity. In short: In optimal color solids, spectral colors are equivalent to black (0 lightness, 0 chroma), but have full spectral purity (they are located in the horseshoe-shaped spectral locus of the chromaticiy diagram). If B is the complementary wavelength of wavelength A, then the straight line that connects A and B passes through the achromatic axis in a linear color space, such as LMS or CIE 1931 XYZ. If the reflectance spectrum of a color is 1 (100%) for all the wavelengths between A and B, and 0 for all the wavelengths of the other half of the color space, then that color is a maximum chroma color, semichrome, or full color (this is the explanation to why they were called semichromes). Thus, maximum chroma colors are a type of optimal color. === Associations === Individual colors have a variety of cultural associations such as national colors (in general described in individual color articles and color symbolism). The field of color psychology attempts to identify the effects of color on human emotion and activity. Chromotherapy is a form of alternative medicine attributed to various Eastern traditions. Colors have different associations in different countries and cultures. Different colors have been demonstrated to have effects on cognition. For example, researchers at the University of Linz in Austria demonstrated that the color red significantly decreases cognitive functioning in men. The combination of the colors red and yellow together can induce hunger, which has been capitalized on by a number of chain restaurants. Color plays a role in memory development too. A photograph that is in black and white is slightly less memorable than one in color. Studies also show that wearing bright colors makes one more memorable to people they meet. === Terminology === Colors vary in several different ways, including hue (shades of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, etc.), saturation, brightness. Some color words are derived from the name of an object of that color, such as "orange" or "salmon", while others are abstract, like "red". In the 1969 study Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay describe a pattern in naming "basic" colors (like "red" but not "red-orange" or "dark red" or "blood red", which are "shades" of red). All languages that have two "basic" color names distinguish dark/cool colors from bright/warm colors. The next colors to be distinguished are usually red and then yellow or green. All languages with six "basic" colors include black, white, red, green, blue, and yellow. The pattern holds up to a set of twelve: black, gray, white, pink, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, and azure (distinct from blue in Russian and Italian, but not English).	[ "Edwin H. Land", "principle of univariance", "emission spectra", "human eye", "YUV", "congenital red–green color blindness", "tan (color)", "Additive color", "MIT Press", "functional neuroimaging", "Chromotherapy", "scattering", "white", "Color analysis", "Glob (visual system)", "primary color", "Wiley-Interscience", "purple", "opacity (optics)", "ultraviolet", "color photography", "Chromaticity diagram", "black", "Impossible color", "Neutral color", "frequency", "light absorption", "power spectrum", "Semir Zeki", "CIE Lab", "complementary colors", "Aristotle", "ventral stream", "pink", "trichromatic", "teleost", "trichromacy", "Italian language", "Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect", "visual arts", "red", "ROYGBIV", "Theory of Colors", "Siegfried Rösch", "color symbolism", "metamerism (color)", "Vincent van Gogh", "heat", "soap bubble", "visual perception", "University of California Press", "secondary color", "mirror", "LMS color space", "colorfulness", "transmittance", "Violet (color)", "Isaac Newton", "tetrachromacy", "orange (colour)", "olive green", "violet (color)", "hue", "yellow", "gamut", "colorimetry", "blue", "Colorfulness", "spectral colors", "Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution", "lateral geniculate nucleus", "color palette", "spectral power distribution", "Visible spectrum", "Subtractive color", "Kelvin", "qualia", "Color in Chinese culture", "list of colors (compact)", "brain", "RGB", "additive color", "Heat", "color model", "afterimage", "synesthesia", "line of purples", "Pseudocolor", "color constancy", "color term", "anomalous trichromacy", "grapheme–color synesthesia", "color management", "dominant wavelength", "brightness", "color wheel", "magenta", "YCbCr", "CIECAM02", "color rendering index", "Wiley (publisher)", "specular", "color printing", "Primary color", "Kruithof curve", "visible spectrum", "electromagnetic spectrum", "Complementary colors", "color models", "rod cell", "Planckian locus", "color theory", "light", "Bezold–Brücke shift", "HSL and HSV", "subtractive color", "color balance", "brown", "Lists of colors", "glass", "color vision", "Adobe RGB", "black-and-white", "salmon (color)", "Chromophore", "matter", "nanometre", "transparency (optics)", "Red", "retina", "reflectance", "color psychology", "color solid", "wavelength", "rainbow", "national colors", "tertiary color", "luminance", "ICC profile", "thin-film optics", "wikt:sensation", "photoreceptor cell", "Hermann von Helmholtz", "reflection (physics)", "David MacAdam", "Symmetry", "amphibian", "Brent Berlin", "spectral sensitivity", "color television", "green", "translucent", "Reflectance", "iridescent", "harmony (color)", "Electromagnetic radiation", "English in the Commonwealth of Nations", "Color solid", "cone cell", "visual system", "spectral color", "spectral locus", "chromaticity", "wave interference", "reptile", "half-line (geometry)", "aesthetics", "luminous intensity", "Paul Kay", "Latin", "American and British English spelling differences", "color space", "alternative medicine", "Tyndall effect", "color blindness", "cerebral achromatopsia", "CIE 1931 color space", "peacock", "International Color Consortium", "opponent process", "dichromacy", "International Commission on Illumination", "Thomas Young (scientist)", "monochromacy", "white point", "tetrachromatic", "Russian language", "Ewald Hering", "Wilhelm Ostwald", "Goethe", "opal", "indigo", "chromesthesia", "Color mapping", "color reproduction", "CMYK", "diffraction grating", "James Clerk Maxwell", "Illuminant D65", "azure (color)", "Business Insider", "complementary color", "mantis shrimp", "half", "gray", "mother of pearl", "Pearlescent coating", "cyan", "emotion", "Basic Color Terms", "CIELUV", "absorbance", "electron microscope", "color science", "bird", "nationality", "photonic" ]
5,926	Computation	A computation is any type of arithmetic or non-arithmetic calculation that is well-defined. Common examples of computation are mathematical equation solving and the execution of computer algorithms. Mechanical or electronic devices (or, historically, people) that perform computations are known as computers. Computer science is an academic field that involves the study of computation. == Introduction == The notion that mathematical statements should be 'well-defined' had been argued by mathematicians since at least the 1600s, but agreement on a suitable definition proved elusive. A candidate definition was proposed independently by several mathematicians in the 1930s. The best-known variant was formalised by the mathematician Alan Turing, who defined a well-defined statement or calculation as any statement that could be expressed in terms of the initialisation parameters of a Turing machine. Other (mathematically equivalent) definitions include Alonzo Church's lambda-definability, Herbrand-Gödel-Kleene's general recursiveness and Emil Post's 1-definability. Despite the widespread uptake of this definition, there are some mathematical concepts that have no well-defined characterisation under this definition. This includes the halting problem and the busy beaver game. It remains an open question as to whether there exists a more powerful definition of 'well-defined' that is able to capture both computable and 'non-computable' statements. Some examples of mathematical statements that are computable include: All statements characterised in modern programming languages, including C++, Python, and Java. Gualtiero Piccinini's summary of this account states that a physical system can be said to perform a specific computation when there is a mapping between the state of that system and the computation such that the "microphysical states [of the system] mirror the state transitions between the computational states." === The semantic account === Philosophers such as Jerry Fodor have suggested various accounts of computation with the restriction that semantic content be a necessary condition for computation (that is, what differentiates an arbitrary physical system from a computing system is that the operands of the computation represent something). This notion attempts to prevent the logical abstraction of the mapping account of pancomputationalism, the idea that everything can be said to be computing everything. === The mechanistic account === Gualtiero Piccinini proposes an account of computation based on mechanical philosophy. It states that physical computing systems are types of mechanisms that, by design, perform physical computation, or the manipulation (by a functional mechanism) of a "medium-independent" vehicle according to a rule. "Medium-independence" requires that the property can be instantiated by multiple realizers and multiple mechanisms, and that the inputs and outputs of the mechanism also be multiply realizable. In short, medium-independence allows for the use of physical variables with properties other than voltage (as in typical digital computers); this is imperative in considering other types of computation, such as that which occurs in the brain or in a quantum computer. A rule, in this sense, provides a mapping among inputs, outputs, and internal states of the physical computing system. == Mathematical models == In the theory of computation, a diversity of mathematical models of computation has been developed. Typical mathematical models of computers are the following: State models including Turing machine, pushdown automaton, finite-state automaton, and PRAM Functional models including lambda calculus Logical models including logic programming Concurrent models including actor model and process calculi Giunti calls the models studied by computation theory computational systems, and he argues that all of them are mathematical dynamical systems with discrete time and discrete state space. He maintains that a computational system is a complex object which consists of three parts. First, a mathematical dynamical system DS with discrete time and discrete state space; second, a computational setup H=\left(F, B_F\right), which is made up of a theoretical part F, and a real part B_F; third, an interpretation I_{DS,H}, which links the dynamical system DS with the setup H.	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5,928	Clown	A clown is a person who performs physical comedy and arts in an open-ended fashion, typically while wearing distinct makeup or costuming and reversing folkway-norms. The art of performing as a clown is known as clowning or buffoonery, and the term "clown" may be used synonymously with predecessors like jester, joker, buffoon, fool, or harlequin. Clowns have a diverse tradition with significant variations in costume and performance. The most recognisable clowns are those that commonly perform in the circus, characterized by colorful wigs, red noses, and oversized shoes. However, clowns have also played roles in theater and folklore, like the court jesters of the Middle Ages and the jesters and ritual clowns of various indigenous cultures. Their performances can elicit a range of emotions, from humor and laughter to fear and discomfort, reflecting complex societal and psychological dimensions. Through the centuries, clowns have continued to play significant roles in society, evolving alongside changing cultural norms and artistic expressions. == History == The most ancient clowns have been found in the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt, around 2400 BC. Unlike court jesters, clowns have traditionally served a socio-religious and psychological role, and traditionally the roles of priest and clown have been held by the same persons. For this reason, clowning is often considered an important part of training as a physical performance discipline, partly because tricky subject matter can be dealt with, but also because it requires a high level of risk and play in the performer. In anthropology, the term clown has been extended to comparable jester or fool characters in non-Western cultures. A society in which such clowns have an important position are termed clown societies, and a clown character involved in a religious or ritual capacity is known as a ritual clown. Many native tribes have a history of clowning, such as the Pueblo clown of the Kachina culture. A Heyoka is an individual in Lakota and Dakota cultures who lives outside the constraints of normal cultural roles, playing the role of a backwards clown by doing everything in reverse. The Heyoka role is sometimes best filled by a Winkte. Canadian First Nations also feature jester-like ritual performers, translated by one Anishinaabe activist as "Harlequins", though the exact nature of their role is kept secret from non-members of the tribe into the present day. The Canadian clowning method developed by Richard Pochinko and furthered by his former apprentice, Sue Morrison, combines European and Native American clowning techniques. In this tradition, masks are made of clay while the creator's eyes are closed. A mask is made for each direction of the medicine wheel. During this process, the clown creates a personal mythology that explores their personal experiences. The circus clown tradition developed out of earlier comedic roles in theatre or Varieté shows during the 19th to mid 20th centuries. This recognizable character features outlandish costumes, distinctive makeup, colorful wigs, exaggerated footwear, and colorful clothing, with the style generally being designed to entertain large audiences. The modern clowning school of comedy in the 21st century diverged from white-face clown tradition, with more of an emphasis on personal vulnerability and heightened sexuality. === Origin === The clown character developed out of the zanni rustic fool characters of the early modern commedia dell'arte, which were themselves directly based on the rustic fool characters of ancient Greek and Roman theatre. Rustic buffoon characters in Classical Greek theater were known as sklêro-paiktês (from paizein: to play (like a child)) or deikeliktas, besides other generic terms for rustic or peasant. In Roman theater, a term for clown was fossor, literally digger; labourer. The English word clown was first recorded c. 1560 (as clowne, cloyne) in the generic meaning rustic, boor, peasant. The origin of the word is uncertain, perhaps from a Scandinavian word cognate with clumsy. It is in this sense that Clown is used as the name of fool characters in Shakespeare's Othello and The Winter's Tale. The sense of clown as referring to a professional or habitual fool or jester developed soon after 1600, based on Elizabethan rustic fool characters such as Shakespeare's. The harlequinade developed in England in the 17th century, inspired by Arlecchino and the commedia dell'arte. It was here that Clown came into use as the given name of a stock character. Originally a foil for Harlequin's slyness and adroit nature, Clown was a buffoon or bumpkin fool who resembled less a jester than a comical idiot. He was a lower class character dressed in tattered servants' garb. The now-classical features of the clown character were developed in the early 1800s by Joseph Grimaldi, who played Clown in Charles Dibdin's 1800 pantomime Peter Wilkins: or Harlequin in the Flying World at Sadler's Wells Theatre, where Grimaldi built the character up into the central figure of the harlequinade. ===Modern circuses === The circus clown developed in the 19th century. The modern circus derives from Philip Astley's London riding school, which opened in 1768. Astley added a clown to his shows to amuse the spectators between equestrian sequences. American comedian George L. Fox became known for his clown role, directly inspired by Grimaldi, in the 1860s. Tom Belling senior (1843–1900) developed the red clown or Auguste (Dummer August) character c. 1870, acting as a foil for the more sophisticated white clown. Belling worked for Circus Renz in Vienna. Belling's costume became the template for the modern stock character of circus or children's clown, based on a lower class or hobo character, with red nose, white makeup around the eyes and mouth, and oversized clothes and shoes. The clown character as developed by the late 19th century is reflected in Ruggero Leoncavallo's 1892 opera Pagliacci (Clowns). Belling's Auguste character was further popularized by Nicolai Poliakoff's Coco in the 1920s to 1930s. The English word clown was borrowed, along with the circus clown act, by many other languages, such as French clown, German Clown, Russian (and other Slavic languages) кло́ун, Greek κλόουν, Danish/Norwegian klovn, Romanian clovn etc. Italian retains Pagliaccio, a Commedia dell'arte zanni character, and derivations of the Italian term are found in French Paillasse, Spanish payaso, Catalan/Galician pallasso, Portuguese palhaço, Greek παλιάτσος, Turkish palyaço, German Bajass or Bajazzo, Yiddish פּאַיאַץ (payats), Russian пая́ц, Romanian paiață. === 20th-century North America === In the early 20th century, with the disappearance of the rustic simpleton or village idiot character of everyday experience, North American circuses developed characters such as the tramp or hobo. Examples include Marceline Orbes, who performed at the Hippodrome Theater (1905), Charlie Chaplin's The Tramp (1914), and Emmett Kelly's Weary Willie based on hobos of the Depression era. Another influential tramp character was played by Otto Griebling during the 1930s to 1950s. Red Skelton's Dodo the Clown in The Clown (1953), depicts the circus clown as a tragicomic stock character, "a funny man with a drinking problem". In the United States, Bozo the Clown was an influential Auguste character since the late 1950s. The Bozo Show premiered in 1960 and appeared nationally on cable television in 1978. McDonald's derived its mascot clown, Ronald McDonald, from the Bozo character in the 1960s. Willard Scott, who had played Bozo during 1959–1962, performed as the mascot in 1963 television spots. The McDonald's trademark application for the character dates to 1967. Based on the Bozo template, the US custom of birthday clown, private contractors who offer to perform as clowns at children's parties, developed in the 1960s to 1970s. The strong association of the (Bozo-derived) clown character with children's entertainment as it has developed since the 1960s also gave rise to Clown Care or hospital clowning in children's hospitals by the mid-1980s. Clowns of America International (established 1984) and World Clown Association (established 1987) are associations of semi-professionals and professional performers. The shift of the Auguste or red clown character from his role as a foil for the white in circus or pantomime shows to a Bozo-derived standalone character in children's entertainment by the 1980s also gave rise to the evil clown character, with the attraction of clowns for small children being based in their fundamentally threatening or frightening nature. The fear of clowns, particularly circus clowns, has become known by the term "coulrophobia." == Types == There are different types of clowns portrayed around the world. They include Auguste Blackface Buffoon Harlequin Jester Mime artist Pierrot Pueblo Rodeo clown Tramp Whiteface === Circus === === Pierrot and Harlequin === The classical pairing of the White Clown with Auguste in modern tradition has a precedent in the pairing of Pierrot and Harlequin in the Commedia dell'arte. Originally, Harlequin's role was that of a light-hearted, nimble and astute servant, paired with the sterner and melancholic Pierrot. In the 18th-century English Harlequinade, Harlequin was now paired with Clown. As developed by Joseph Grimaldi around 1800, Clown became the mischievous and brutish foil for the more sophisticated Harlequin, who became more of a romantic character. The most influential such pair in Victorian England were the Payne Brothers, active during the 1860s and 1870s. ===White and Auguste === The white clown, or clown blanc in French, is a sophisticated character, as opposed to the clumsy Auguste. The two types are also distinguished as the sad clown (blanc) and happy clown (Auguste). The Auguste face base makeup color is a variation of pink, red, or tan rather than white. Features are exaggerated in size, and are typically red and black in color. The mouth is thickly outlined with white (called the muzzle) as are the eyes. Appropriate to the character, the Auguste can be dressed in either well-fitted garb or a costume that does not fit – oversize or too small, either is appropriate. Bold colors, large prints or patterns, and suspenders often characterize Auguste costumes. The Auguste character-type is often an anarchist, a joker, or a fool. He is clever and has much lower status than the whiteface. Classically the whiteface character instructs the Auguste character to perform his bidding. The Auguste has a hard time performing a given task, which leads to funny situations. Sometimes the Auguste plays the role of an anarchist and purposefully has trouble following the whiteface's directions. Sometimes the Auguste is confused or is foolish and makes errors less deliberately. The contra-auguste plays the role of the mediator between the white clown and the Auguste character. He has a lower status than the white clown but a higher status than the Auguste. He aspires to be more like the white clown and often mimics everything the white clown does to try to gain approval. If there is a contra-auguste character, he often is instructed by the whiteface to correct the Auguste when he is doing something wrong. There are two major types of clowns with whiteface makeup: The classic white clown is derived from the Pierrot character. His makeup is white, usually with facial features such as eyebrows emphasized in black. He is the more intelligent and sophisticated clown, contrasting with the rude or grotesque Auguste types. Francesco Caroli and Glenn "Frosty" Little are examples of this type. The second type of whiteface is the buffoonish clown of the Bozo type, known as Comedy or Grotesque Whiteface. This type has grotesquely emphasized features, especially a red nose and red mouth, often with partial (mostly red) hair. In the comedic partnership of Abbott and Costello, Bud Abbott would have been the classic whiteface and Lou Costello the comedy whiteface or Auguste. Traditionally, the whiteface clown uses clown white makeup to cover the entire face and neck, leaving none of the underlying natural skin visible. America's first great whiteface clown was stage star George "G.L." Fox. Inspired by Grimaldi, Fox popularised the Humpty Dumpty stories throughout the U.S. in the 1860s. === In horror === The scary clown, also known as the evil clown or killer clown, is a subversion of the traditional comic clown character, in which the playful trope is instead depicted in a more disturbing nature through the use of horror elements and dark humor. The character can be seen as playing on the sense of unease felt by those with coulrophobia, the fear of clowns. The modern archetype of the evil clown was popularized by DC Comics character the Joker starting in 1940 and again by Pennywise in Stephen King's novel It, which introduced the fear of an evil clown to a modern audience. In the novel, the eponymous character is a pan-dimensional monster which feeds mainly on children by luring them in the form of a clown, named "Pennywise", and then assuming the shape of whatever the victim fears the most. === Character === The character clown adopts an eccentric character of some type, such as a butcher, a baker, a policeman, a housewife or hobo. Prime examples of this type of clown are the circus tramps Otto Griebling and Emmett Kelly. Red Skelton, Harold Lloyd, Buster Keaton, Charlie Chaplin, Rowan Atkinson and Sacha Baron Cohen would all fit the definition of a character clown. The character clown makeup is a comic slant on the standard human face. Their makeup starts with a flesh tone base and may make use of anything from glasses, mustaches and beards to freckles, warts, big ears or strange haircuts. The most prevalent character clown in the American circus is the hobo, tramp or bum clown. There are subtle differences in the American character clown types. The primary differences among these clown types is attitude. According to American circus expert Hovey Burgess, they are: The Hobo: Migratory and finds work where he travels. Down on his luck but maintains a positive attitude. The Tramp: Migratory and does not work where he travels. Down on his luck and depressed about his situation. The Bum: Non-migratory and non-working. == Organizations == The World Clown Association is a worldwide organization for clowns, jugglers, magicians, and face painters. It holds an annual convention, mainly in the United States. Clowns of America International is a Minnesota-based non-profit clown arts membership organization which aims "to share, educate, and act as a gathering place for serious minded amateurs, semiprofessionals, and professional clowns". Clowns International is a British clowning organisation dating back to the 1940s. It is responsible for the Clown Egg Register. == Terminology == === Roles and skills === In the circus, a clown might perform other circus roles or skills. Clowns may perform such skills as tightrope, juggling, unicycling, Master of Ceremonies, or ride an animal. Clowns may also "sit in" with the orchestra. Other circus performers may also temporarily stand in for a clown and perform their skills in clown costume. === Frameworks === Frameworks are the general outline of an act that clowns use to help them build out an act. Frameworks can be loose, including only a general beginning and ending to the act, leaving it up to the clown's creativity to fill in the rest, or at the other extreme a fully developed script that allows very little room for creativity. Shows are the overall production that a clown is a part of, it may or may not include elements other than clowning, such as in a circus show. In a circus context, clown shows are typically made up of some combination of entrées, side dishes, clown stops, track gags, gags and bits. === Gags, bits and business === Business – the individual motions the clown uses, often used to express the clown's character. Gag – very short piece of clown comedy that, when repeated within a bit or routine, may become a running gag. Gags are, loosely, the jokes clowns play on each other. A gag may have a beginning, a middle, and an end – or may not. Gags can also refer to the prop stunts/tricks or the stunts that clowns use, such as a squirting flower. Bit – the clown's sketch or routine, made up of one or more gags either worked out and timed before going on stage, or impromptu bits composed of familiar improvisational material === Menu === Entrée — clowning acts lasting 5–10 minutes. Typically made up of various gags and bits, usually within a clowning framework. Entrées almost always end with a blow-off — the comedic ending of a show segment, bit, gag, stunt, or routine. Side dish — shorter feature act. Side dishes are essentially shorter versions of the entrée, typically lasting 1–3 minutes. Typically made up of various gags and bits, side dishes are usually within a clowning framework. Side dishes almost always end with a blow-off. === Interludes === Clown Stops or interludes are the brief appearances of clowns in a circus while the props and rigging are changed. These are typically made up of a few gags or several bits. Clown stops will always have a beginning, a middle, and an end to them, invariably culminating in a blow-off. These are also called reprises or run-ins by many, and in today's circus they are an art form in themselves. Originally they were bits of business usually parodying the preceding act. If for instance there had been a tightrope walker the reprise would involve two chairs with a piece of rope between and the clown trying to imitate the artiste by trying to walk between them, with the resulting falls and cascades bringing laughter from the audience. Today, interludes are far more complex, and in many modern shows the clowning is a thread that links the whole show together. === Prop stunts === Among the more well-known clown stunts are: squirting flower; the too-many-clowns-coming-out-of-a-tiny-car stunt; doing just about anything with a rubber chicken, tripping over one's own feet (or an air pocket or imaginary blemish in the floor), or riding any number of ridiculous vehicles or clown bicycles. Individual prop stunts are generally considered individual bits. == Gallery == File:Joseph-Grimaldi-head.jpg\|Joseph Grimaldi as Clown, showing his own make-up design (1820) File:Actor in clown costume - Weir Collection.jpg\|Actor in a clown costume () File:SAND Maurice Masques et bouffons 05.jpg\|The Italian of c. 1600 (Maurice Sand, Masques et bouffons (Comedie Italienne), 1860) File:Chuchin the clown.jpg\|Chuchín (José de Jesus Medrano), a famous Mexican circus clown from the late 1960s to 1984 File:Arm & Hammer Brand Soda poster ca. 1900.jpg\|A circus clown in an Arm & Hammer Brand Soda advertisement poster () File:Auguste clown with a pie at a parade.jpg\|Clowns are often associated with the pie-in-the-face gag. An auguste clown holds a pie at a parade. File:Paul Cézanne- Pierrot and Harlequin.JPG\|Pierrot and Harlequin by Paul Cézanne (1898) File:Smilie 2.JPG\|Smilie The Clown File:Geclown.jpg\|Swedish actor Gösta Ekman senior (1890–1938) as a whiteface clown in the play Han som får örfilarna (He Who Gets Slapped) by Leonid Andreyev (1926) File:Lasse Beischer (2686825990).jpg\|Typical aspects of an Auguste; white muzzle and eyes (Swedish actor in a performance of , 2008 photograph) File:Inger-Nilsson-1970-in-Helsinki.jpg\|10-year-old Swedish actress Inger Nilsson during her visit to Helsinki, Finland in February 1970; she is here seen with the Finnish clown Onni Gideon in Helsinki Ice Hall File:Bozo's Circus 1968.JPG\|1968 postcard, main cast of Bozo's Circus (WGN-TV); left to right, Ringmaster Ned (Ned Locke), Mr. Bob (bandleader Bob Trendler), Bozo the Clown (Bob Bell), Oliver O. Oliver (Ray Rayner), Sandy the Clown (Don Sandburg) File:Colorful Clown 3.jpg\|Toddles The Clown File:Clown chili peppers.jpg\|Clown at a Memorial Day parade, 2004 File:Clown dusseldorf.jpg\|Clown of Düsseldorf File:Joker.jpg\|Joker Clown File:Carnival Joker.jpg\|Carnival Joker File:AU Wien, Prater, arlekin 1, 2011.08.05 (4) COR.jpg\|A sculpture of a clown at the Wurstelprater amusement park, Vienna File:Bhutanese clown, Paro.jpg\|Bhutanese clown in Paro, Bhutan File:Clown Dog (8126571992).jpg\|Clown Dog File:Clown costume.jpg\|A man dressed in clown costume File:-Clown- MET DP325372.jpg\|Clown, circa 1860 File:Clown Bassie.jpg\|Clown Bassie from Bassie & Adriaan File:34 Ulica - Teatr Pinezka - Epidemia śmiechu - 20210709 1829 8275.jpg\|Teatr Pinezka in the show "An Epidemic of Laughter" at 34. ULICA – The International Festival of Street Theatres in Kraków File:Harry Payne clown slnsw.jpg\|Portrait of Englishman Harry Payne, a clown, between 1863 and 1867	[ "court jester", "MC", "indigenous cultures", "Clown car", "pantomime", "Stephen King", "Helsinki Ice Hall", "comedy", "Pueblo Clowns", "tramp", "Nicolai Poliakoff", "Charles Dibdin the younger", "New York Hippodrome", "Buster Keaton", "Inger Nilsson", "Clowns Gallery-Museum", "Theatre of ancient Rome", "orchestra", "running gag", "Emmett Kelly", "Paul Cézanne", "circus", "Blackface", "luck", "commedia dell'arte", "He Who Gets Slapped", "cosmetics", "Clown (Harlequinade)", "University of Sheffield", "Francesco Caroli", "comedian", "hobo", "Heyoka", "Otto Griebling", "World Clown Association", "Mime artist", "Commedia dell'arte", "Pieing", "Marceline Orbes", "Düsseldorf", "Ruggero Leoncavallo", "Red Skelton", "clown bicycle", "DC Comics", "Gösta Ekman (senior)", "Bassie & Adriaan", "Penguin Random House", "mime artist", "Ronald McDonald", "Harlequin", "Dakota tribe", "Ned Locke", "Harlequinade", "Pierrot", "Horror and terror", "Paro, Bhutan", "Bouffon", "zanni", "Hovey Burgess", "It (character)", "Shakespearean fool", "ritual clown", "dark humor", "Joseph Grimaldi", "Philip Astley", "Winkte", "Pagliacci", "Sadler's Wells Theatre", "medicine wheel", "circus clown", "Attitude (psychology)", "unicycling", "Helsinki", "tightrope", "Improvisational theatre", "The Tramp", "Clown Care", "physical comedy", "Othello", "It (novel)", "Charlie Chaplin", "The Clown (1953 film)", "Theatre Royal, Drury Lane", "Circus Renz", "physical theatre", "costume", "Joker (character)", "English Renaissance theatre", "Stewart Lee", "wikt:clown", "Abbott and Costello", "Physical comedy", "Kinew, Wab", "Harold Lloyd", "The Winter's Tale", "Glen Little (clown)", "Royal Opera House", "Sacha Baron Cohen", "Memorial Day", "McDonald's", "George L. Fox (clown)", "film", "Don Sandburg", "Smithsonian", "Bob Trendler", "Ray Rayner", "Chuchín", "rubber chicken", "acting", "juggling", "Fifth Dynasty of Egypt", "Wurstelprater", "television", "Lakota tribe", "Theatre of ancient Greece", "Rodeo clown", "Schweizerisches Idiotikon", "Willard Scott", "Phobia", "WGN-TV", "University of Michigan Museum of Art", "The Bozo Show", "contemporary circus", "Bozo the Clown", "harlequinade", "tightrope walker", "Canadian First Nations", "clown society", "Clowns of America International", "Jester", "social norm", "Leonid Andreyev", "List of clowns", "Pueblo clown", "Kachina", "Bozo's Circus", "Bob Bell (actor)", "I clowns", "Canadian clowning", "priest", "theatre", "modern clowning", "Richard Pochinko", "Circus clown", "evil clown", "Mr. Bean (character)", "arts", "Middle Ages", "Vienna" ]
5,930	Coffea	{{stack \|{{Automatic taxobox \|image = Coffee Flowers.JPG \|image_caption = Flowering branches of Coffea arabica \|taxon = Coffea \|authority = L. \|type_species = Coffea arabica \|type_species_authority = L. \| synonyms = * Buseria Cafe Cofeanthus Hexepta Leiochilus Nescidia Paracoffea Paolia Pleurocoffea Psilanthopsis Psilanthus Solenixora \| synonyms_ref = == Cultivation and use == There are over 130 species of Coffea, which is grown from seed. The two most popular are Coffea arabica (commonly known simply as "Arabica"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and Coffea canephora (known as "Robusta"), which accounts for about 20–40%. C. arabica is preferred for its sweeter taste, while C. canephora has a higher caffeine content. C. arabica has its origins in the highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau of Sudan, and came about as the result of a hybrid between C. canephora and C. eugenioides. The trees produce edible red or purple fruits that are either epigynous berries or indehiscent drupes. The fruit is often referred to as a "coffee cherry", and it contains two seeds, called "coffee beans". Despite these terms, coffee is neither a true cherry (the fruit of certain species in the genus Prunus) nor a true bean (seeds from plants in the family Fabaceae). In any coffee crop, about 5–10% of fruits contain only a single bean. Called a peaberry, it is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean. When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree that usually grows to a height of . Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations, but do not tolerate freezing temperatures. The Coffea arabica tree grows fruit after three to five years, producing for an average of 50 to 60 years, though up to 100 years is possible. The white flowers are highly scented. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen. == Ecology == The caffeine in coffee beans serves as a toxic substance that protects against insects and other pests, a form of natural plant defense against herbivory. Caffeine simultaneously attracts pollinators, specifically honeybees, by creating an olfactory memory that signals bees to return to the plant's flowers. Not all Coffea species contain caffeine, and the earliest species had little or no caffeine content. Caffeine has evolved independently in multiple lineages of Coffea in Africa, perhaps in response to high pest predation in the humid environments of West-Central Africa. This suggests that caffeine production is an adaptive trait in coffee and plant evolution. The fruit and leaves also contain caffeine, and can be used to make coffee cherry tea and coffee-leaf tea. The fruit is also used in many brands of soft drink as well as pre-packaged teas. Several insect pests affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle (Hypothenemus hampei) and the coffee leafminer (Leucoptera caffeina). Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, Dalcera abrasa, turnip moth and some members of the genus Endoclita, including E. damor and E. malabaricus. == Research == New species of Coffea are still being identified in the 2000s. In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, named seven from the mountains of northern Madagascar, including C. ambongensis, C. boinensis, C. labatii, C. pterocarpa, C. bissetiae, and C. namorokensis. In 2008, two new species were discovered in Cameroon: Coffea charrieriana, which is caffeine-free, and Coffea anthonyi. By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without caffeine and self-pollination. In 2011, Coffea absorbed the twenty species of the former genus Psilanthus due to the morphological and genetic similarities between the two genera. Historically, the two have been considered distinct genera due to differences in the length of the corolla tube and the anther arrangement: Coffea with a short corolla tube and exserted style and anthers; Psilanthus with a long corolla tube and included anthers. However, these characteristics were not present in all species of either respective genus, making the two genera overwhelmingly similar in both morphology and genetic sequence. This transfer expanded Coffea from 104 species to 124, and extended its native distribution to tropical Asia and Australasia. The coffee genome was published in 2014, with more than 25,000 genes identified. This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in tea, cacao and other such plants. A robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published in 2017. For the study, scientists used DNA extraction and SSR marker analysis. This technique or similar ones may allow for several improvements to coffee production such as improved information for farmers as to the susceptibility of their coffee plants to pests and disease, a professionalized coffee seed system, and transparency and traceability for buyers of green, un-roasted coffee. == Species == As of May 2024, Plants of the World Online includes: Coffea abbayesii J.-F. Leroy Coffea affinis De Wild. Coffea alleizettii Dubard Coffea ambanjensis J.-F. Leroy Coffea ambongenis J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis Coffea andrambovatensis J.-F. Leroy Coffea ankaranensis J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis Coffea anthonyi Stoff. & F. Anthony Coffea arabica L. Coffea arenesiana J.-F. Leroy Coffea augagneurii Dubard Coffea bakossii Cheek & Bridson Coffea benghalensis B. Heyne ex Schult. Coffea bertrandii A. Chev. Coffea betamponensis Portères & J.-F. Leroy Coffea bissetiae A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea boinensis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea boiviniana A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea bonnieri Dubard Coffea brassii (J.-F. Leroy) A. P. Davis Coffea brevipes Hiern Coffea bridsoniae A. P. Davis & Mvungi Coffea buxifolia A. Chev. Coffea callmanderi Coffea canephora ("Coffea robusta") Pierre ex A. Froehner Coffea carrissoi A. Chev. Coffea charrieriana Stoff. & F. Anthony Coffea cochinchinensis Pierre ex Pit. Coffea commersoniana (Baill.) A. Chev. Coffea congensis A. Froehner Coffea costatifructa Bridson Coffea coursiana J.-F. Leroy Coffea dactylifera Robbr. & Stoff. Coffea darainensis Coffea decaryana J.-F. Leroy Coffea dubardii Jum. Coffea ebracteolata (Hiern) Brenan Coffea eugenioides S. Moore Coffea fadenii Bridson Coffea farafanganensis J.-F. Leroy Coffea floresiana Boerl. Coffea fotsoana Stoff. & Sonké Coffea fragilis J.-F. Leroy Coffea fragrans Wall. ex Hook. f. Coffea gallienii Dubard Coffea grevei Drake ex A. Chev. Coffea heimii J.-F. Leroy Coffea × heterocalyx Coffea homollei J.-F. Leroy Coffea horsfieldiana Miq. Coffea humbertii J.-F. Leroy Coffea humblotiana Baill. Coffea humilis A. Chev. Coffea jumellei J.-F. Leroy Coffea kalobinonensis Coffea kapakata (A. Chev.) Bridson Coffea kianjavatensis J.-F. Leroy Coffea kihansiensis A. P. Davis & Mvungi Coffea kimbozensis Bridson Coffea kivuensis Lebrun Coffea labatii A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea lancifolia A. Chev. Coffea lebruniana Germ. & Kester Coffea leonimontana Stoff. Coffea leroyi A. P. Davis Coffea liaudii J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis Coffea liberica Hiern Coffea ligustroides S. Moore Coffea littoralis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea lulandoensis Bridson Coffea mabesae (Elmer) J.-F. Leroy Coffea macrocarpa A. Rich. Coffea madurensis Teijsm. & Binn. ex Koord. Coffea magnistipula Stoff. & Robbr. Coffea malabarica (Sivar., Biju & P. Mathew) A.P.Davis Coffea mangoroensis Portères Coffea mannii (Hook. f.) A. P. Davis Coffea manombensis A. P. Davis Coffea mapiana Sonké, Nguembou & A P. Davis Coffea mauritiana Lam. Coffea mayombensis A. Chev. Coffea mcphersonii A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea melanocarpa Welw. ex Hiern Coffea merguensis Ridl. Coffea microdubardii Coffea millotii J.-F. Leroy Coffea minutiflora A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea mogenetii Dubard Coffea mongensis Bridson Coffea montekupensis Stoff. Coffea montis-sacri A. P. Davis Coffea moratii J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea mufindiensis Hutch. ex Bridson Coffea myrtifolia (A.Rich. ex DC.) J.-F. Leroy Coffea namorokensis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea neobridsoniae A. P. Davis Coffea neoleroyi A. P. Davis Coffea perrieri Drake ex Jum. & H. Perrier Coffea pervilleana (Baill.) Drake Coffea pocsii Bridson Coffea pseudozanguebariae Bridson Coffea pterocarpa A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea pustulata Coffea racemosa Lour. Coffea rakotonasoloi A. P. Davis Coffea ratsimamangae J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea resinosa (Hook. f.) Radlk. Coffea rhamnifolia (Chiov.) Bridson Coffea richardii J.-F. Leroy Coffea rizetiana Coffea rupicola Coffea sahafaryensis J.-F. Leroy Coffea sakarahae J.-F. Leroy Coffea salvatrix Swynn. & Philipson Coffea sambavensis J.-F. Leroy ex A. P Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea sapinii (De Wild.) A. P. Davis Coffea schliebenii Bridson Coffea semsei (Bridson) A. P. Davis Coffea sessiliflora Bridson Coffea stenophylla G. Don Coffea tetragona Jum. & H. Perrier Coffea togoensis A. Chev. Coffea toshii A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea travancorensis Wight & Arn. Coffea tricalysioides J.-F. Leroy Coffea tsirananae J.-F. Leroy Coffea vatovavyensis J.-F. Leroy Coffea vavateninensis J.-F. Leroy Coffea vianneyi J.-F. Leroy Coffea vohemarensis A. P. Davis & Rakotonas. Coffea wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Coffea zanguebariae Lour.	[ "pollinator", "Coffea mongensis", "Coffea sapinii", "Coffea pustulata", "Coffea ambanjensis", "Coffea sakarahae", "Coffea montis-sacri", "Émile Auguste Joseph De Wildeman", "Emilio Chiovenda", "Coffea rakotonasoloi", "Coffea racemosa", "butterfly", "Coffea ebracteolata", "Coffea melanocarpa", "Coffea commersoniana", "Spencer Le Marchant Moore", "Prunus", "Johannes Elias Teijsmann", "cherry", "Coffea costatifructa", "turnip moth", "Coffea humbertii", "Carl Linnaeus", "tea", "Coffea boiviniana", "Diane Mary Bridson", "Coffea bakossii", "Coffea pseudozanguebariae", "George Arnott Walker-Arnott", "shrub", "Jean-François Leroy (botanist)", "Coffea wightiana", "Coffee Research Institute", "gene", "Coffea mogenetii", "Coffea manombensis", "Cameroon", "Coffea farafanganensis", "Coffea dactylifera", "Dalcera", "Coffea arabica", "Corolla (botany)", "Coffea abbayesii", "Coffea andrambovatensis", "moth", "Coffea labatii", "Coffea ligustroides", "Coffea dubardii", "Africa", "Coffea floresiana", "Coffea tetragona", "Coffea alleizettii", "Hypothenemus hampei", "Coffea montekupensis", "Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew", "Coffea bonnieri", "Coffea pterocarpa", "George Don", "Coffea grevei", "Augustin Pyramus de Candolle", "plant defense against herbivory", "Coffea cochinchinensis", "Coffea mauritiana", "Coffea bissetiae", "Coffea merguensis", "Coffea fragrans", "Coffea rhamnifolia", "Coffea eugenioides", "Joseph Dalton Hooker", "Coffea magnistipula", "Microsatellite", "Coffea kihansiensis", "Coffea ratsimamangae", "Theobroma cacao", "export", "Coffea carrissoi", "Coffea perrieri", "Coffea sambavensis", "Coffea darainensis", "Coffea toshii", "coffee-leaf tea", "Coffea myrtifolia", "Camellia", "Coffea augagneurii", "Coffea namorokensis", "Coffea minutiflora", "Coffea humilis", "Coffea mannii", "Coffea bridsoniae", "Coffea travancorensis", "coffee bean", "genome", "Henri Ernest Baillon", "Coffea millotii", "João de Loureiro", "Coffea togoensis", "Robert Wight", "Coffea gallienii", "Coffea horsfieldiana", "Coffea macrocarpa", "Coffea neoleroyi", "Coffea brevipes", "Coffea mabesae", "Coffea ambongenis", "Coffea pervilleana", "Coffea littoralis", "Coffea tsirananae", "Family (biology)", "Coffea decaryana", "flowering plant", "Coffea kianjavatensis", "Coffea lancifolia", "bean", "Friedrich Welwitsch", "Coffea malabarica", "Coffea lebruniana", "Coffea pocsii", "Coffea fragilis", "Coffea leonimontana", "Lepidoptera", "Coffea mapiana", "Achille Richard", "Coffea kapakata", "anther", "Josef August Schultes", "Endoclita malabaricus", "peaberry", "seed", "Elmar Robbrecht", "Emmanuel Drake del Castillo", "Coffea × heterocalyx", "Coffea mangoroensis", "Coffea congensis", "Coffea vatovavyensis", "caffeine", "Coffea anthonyi", "commodity crop", "Coffea kivuensis", "Coffea betamponensis", "Asia", "Jean-Baptiste Lamarck", "Coffea microdubardii", "Coffea bertrandii", "Henry Nicholas Ridley", "Coffea fadenii", "Effects of climate change on agriculture", "William Philip Hiern", "Coffea mayombensis", "Coffea schliebenii", "Adaptation", "Nathaniel Wallich", "Coffea homollei", "Coffea resinosa", "coffee cherry", "Coffea rupicola", "genus", "Fabaceae", "Coffea buxifolia", "Coffea humblotiana", "Coffea ambongensis", "Madagascar", "Coffea sessiliflora", "Coffea callmanderi", "Coffea semsei", "Coffea liaudii", "Coffea vohemarensis", "tree", "Coffea vianneyi", "coffee", "Coffea sahafaryensis", "Auguste Jean Baptiste Chevalier", "self-pollination", "Coffea zanguebariae", "Coffea moratii", "Coffea liberica", "Coffea arenesiana", "Coffea fotsoana", "Time (magazine)", "Coffea jumellei", "John Hutchinson (botanist)", "Coffea vavateninensis", "cocoa bean", "Coffea kalobinonensis", "epigynous berries", "Coffea kimbozensis", "Coffea neobridsoniae", "Coffea charrieriana", "Coffea leroyi", "Coffea lulandoensis", "Coffea madurensis", "Rubiaceae", "Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel", "coffee cherry tea", "Theobroma", "Coffea ankaranensis", "Coffea heimii", "Dehiscence (botany)", "Simon Binnendijk", "Coffea mufindiensis", "Coffea coursiana", "Coffea canephora", "Coffea boinensis", "Leucoptera caffeina", "Coffea stenophylla", "Robusta coffee", "Coffea benghalensis", "Toxin", "Plants of the World Online", "Coffea rizetiana", "Coffea brassii", "Coffea affinis", "Endoclita", "drupe", "Endoclita damor", "Coffea mcphersonii", "Coffea tricalysioides", "Coffea salvatrix", "Coffea richardii" ]
5,931	Cycling	Cycling, also known as bicycling or biking, is the activity of riding a bicycle or other types of pedal-driven human-powered vehicles such as balance bikes, unicycles, tricycles, and quadricycles. Cycling is practised around the world for purposes including transport, recreation, exercise, and competitive sport. ==History== Cycling became popularized in Europe and North America in the latter part and especially the last decade of the 19th century. Today, over 50 percent of the human population knows how to ride a bike. ===War=== The bicycle has been used as a method of reconnaissance as well as transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. In this it has taken over many of the functions of horses in warfare. In the Second Boer War, both sides used bicycles for scouting. In World War I, France, Germany, Australia and New Zealand used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march or "roll" through Malaya in World War II. Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while the British employed airborne "Cycle-commandos" with folding bikes. In the Vietnam War, communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The last country known to maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was Switzerland, which disbanded its last unit in 2003. ==Equipment== In many countries, the most commonly used vehicle for road transport is a utility bicycle. These have frames with relaxed geometry, protecting the rider from shocks of the road and easing steering at low speeds. Utility bicycles tend to be equipped with accessories such as mudguards, pannier racks and lights, which extend their usefulness on a daily basis. Since the bicycle is so effective as a means of transportation, various companies have developed methods of carrying anything from the weekly shop to children on bicycles. Certain countries rely heavily on bicycles and their culture has developed around the bicycle as a primary form of transport. In Europe, Denmark and the Netherlands have the most bicycles per capita and most often use bicycles for everyday transport. Road bikes tend to have a more upright shape and a shorter wheelbase, which make the bike more mobile but harder to ride slowly. The design, coupled with low or dropped handlebars, requires the rider to bend forward more, making use of stronger muscles (particularly the gluteus maximus) and reducing air resistance at high speed. Road bikes are designed for speed and efficiency on paved roads. They are characterized by their lightweight frames, skinny tires, drop handlebars, and narrow saddles. Road bikes are ideal for racing, long-distance riding, and fitness training. Other common types of bikes include gravel bikes, designed for use on gravel roads or trails, but with the ability to ride well on pavement; mountain bikes, which are designed for more rugged, undulating terrain; and e-bikes, which provide some level of motorized assist for the rider. There are additional variations of bikes and types of biking as well. The price of a new bicycle can range from US$50 to more than US$20,000 (the highest priced bike in the world is the custom Madone by Damien Hirst, sold at US$500,000), depending on quality, type and weight (the most exotic road bicycles can weigh as little as 3.2 kg (7 lb)). However, UCI regulations stipulate a legal race bike cannot weigh less than 6.8 kg (14.99 lbs). Being measured for a bike and taking it for a test ride are recommended before buying. The drivetrain components of the bike should also be considered. A middle grade dérailleur is sufficient for a beginner, although many utility bikes are equipped with hub gears. If the rider plans a significant amount of hillclimbing, a triple-chainrings crankset gear system may be preferred. Otherwise, the relatively lighter, simpler, and less expensive double chainring is preferred, even on high-end race bikes. Much simpler fixed wheel bikes are also available. Many road bikes, along with mountain bikes, include clipless pedals to which special shoes attach, via a cleat, enabling the rider to pull on the pedals as well as push. Other possible accessories for the bicycle include front and rear lights, bells or horns, child carrying seats, cycling computers with GPS, locks, bar tape, fenders (mud-guards), baggage racks, baggage carriers and pannier bags, water bottles and bottle cages. For basic maintenance and repairs cyclists can carry a pump (or a CO2 cartridge), a puncture repair kit, a spare inner tube, and tire levers and a set of allen keys. Cycling can be more efficient and comfortable with special shoes, gloves, and shorts. In wet weather, riding can be more tolerable with waterproof clothes, such as cape, jacket, trousers (pants) and overshoes and high-visibility clothing is advisable to reduce the risk from motor vehicle users. Items legally required in some jurisdictions, or voluntarily adopted for safety reasons, include bicycle helmets, generator or battery operated lights, reflectors, and audible signalling devices such as a bell or horn. Extras include studded tires and a bicycle computer. Bikes can also be heavily customized, with different seat designs and handle bars, for example. Gears can also be customized to better suit the rider's strength in relation to the terrain. ==Skills== Many schools and police departments run educational programs to instruct children in bicycle handling skills, especially to introduce them to the rules of the road as they apply to cyclists. In some countries these may be known as bicycle rodeos, or operated as schemes such as Bikeability in the UK. Education for adult cyclists is available from organizations such as the League of American Bicyclists. Beyond simply riding, another skill is riding efficiently and safely in traffic. One popular approach to riding in motor vehicle traffic is vehicular cycling, occupying road space as car does. Alternately, in countries such as Denmark and the Netherlands, where cycling is popular, cyclists are often segregated into bike lanes at the side of, or more often separate from, main highways and roads. Many primary schools participate in the national road test in which children individually complete a circuit on roads near the school while being observed by testers. ==Infrastructure== Cyclists, pedestrians and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts. Some jurisdictions give priority to motorized traffic, for example setting up one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads. Others share priority with cyclists so as to encourage more cycling by applying varying combinations of traffic calming measures to limit the impact of motorized transport, and by building bike lanes, bike paths and cycle tracks. The provision of cycling infrastructure varies widely between cities and countries, particularly since cycling for transportation almost entirely occurs in public streets. And, the development of computer vision and street view imagery has provided significant potential to assess infrastructure for cyclists. In jurisdictions where motor vehicles were given priority, cycling has tended to decline while in jurisdictions where cycling infrastructure was built, cycling rates have remained steady or increased. Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur. In Shanghai, where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transport, bicycle travel on a few city roads was banned temporarily in December 2003. In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using bicycle stands, lockable mini-garages, and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft. Local governments promote cycling by permitting bicycles to be carried on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles. Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling. Extensive cycling infrastructure may be found in some cities. Such dedicated paths in some cities often have to be shared with in-line skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Dedicated cycling infrastructure is treated differently in the law of every jurisdiction, including the question of liability of users in a collision. There is also some debate about the safety of the various types of separated facilities. Bicycles are considered a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and relatively shorter distances when used for transport (compared to recreation). Case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate this kind of functional cycling in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport. A number of cities, including Paris, London and Barcelona, now have successful bike hire schemes designed to help people cycle in the city. Typically these feature utilitarian city bikes which lock into docking stations, released on payment for set time periods. Costs vary from city to city. In London, initial hire access costs £2 per day. The first 30 minutes of each trip is free, with £2 for each additional 30 minutes until the bicycle is returned. In the Netherlands, many roads have one or two separate cycleways alongside them, or cycle lanes marked on the road. On roads where adjacent bike paths or cycle tracks exist, the use of these facilities is compulsory, and cycling on the main carriageway is not permitted. Some 35,000 km of cycle-track has been physically segregated from motor traffic, equal to a quarter of the country's entire 140,000 km road network. A quarter of all trips in the country are made on bicycles, one quarter of them to work. Even the prime minister goes to work by bicycle, when weather permits. This saves the lives of 6,000 citizens per year, prolongs life expectancy by 6 months, saves the country 20 million dollars per year, and prevents 150 grams of from being emitted per kilometer of cycling. ==Types== ===Utility=== Utility cycling refers both to cycling as a mode of daily commuting transport as well as the use of a bicycle in a commercial activity, mainly to transport goods, mostly accomplished in an urban environment. The postal services of many countries have long relied on bicycles. The British Royal Mail first started using bicycles in 1880; now bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the UK, 25,700 in Germany, 10,500 in Hungary and 7000 in Sweden. In Australia, Australia Post has also reintroduced bicycle postal deliveries on some routes due to an inability to recruit sufficient licensed riders willing to use their uncomfortable motorbikes. The London Ambulance Service has recently introduced bicycling paramedics, who can often get to the scene of an incident in Central London more quickly than a motorized ambulance. The use of bicycles by police has been increasing, since they provide greater accessibility to bicycle and pedestrian zones and allow access when roads are congested. In some cases, bicycle officers have been used as a supplement or a replacement for horseback officers. Bicycles enjoy substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many countries. In the UK and North America, as their first jobs, generations of teenagers have worked at delivering newspapers by bicycle. London has many delivery companies that use bicycles with trailers. Most cities in the West, and many outside it, support a sizeable and visible industry of cycle couriers who deliver documents and small packages. In India, many of Mumbai's Dabbawalas use bicycles to deliver home cooked lunches to the city's workers. In Bogotá, Colombia the city's largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles. Even the car industry uses bicycles. At the huge Mercedes-Benz factory in Sindelfingen, Germany workers use bicycles, color-coded by department, to move around the factory. ===Recreational=== ====Bicycle touring==== Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. Bicycle touring, also known as cyclotourism, involves touring and exploration or sightseeing by bicycle for leisure. Bicycle tourism has been one of the most popular sports for recreational benefit. A brevet or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride. One popular Dutch pleasure is the enjoyment of relaxed cycling in the countryside of the Netherlands. The land is very flat and full of public bicycle trails and cycle tracks where cyclists are not bothered by cars and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling recreation. Many Dutch people subscribe every year to an event called fietsvierdaagse — four days of organised cycling through the local environment. Paris–Brest–Paris (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over and imposes a 90-hour time limit. Similar if smaller institutions exist in many countries. A study conducted in Taiwan improved the environmental quality for bicyclist tourists which demonstrated greater health benefits in tourists and even in natives. The number of bicyclists in Taiwan increased from 700,000 in 2008 to 5.1 million in 2017. Thus, this resulted in more and safer bicycle routes to be established. When cycling, cyclists take into account the safety on the road, bicycle lanes, smooth roads, diverse scenery, and ride length. Thus, the environment plays a huge role in people's decision factor to use bicycle touring more. This study used many questionnaires and conducted statistical analysis to come up with the conclusion of cyclists' top 5 factors that they consider before making a decision to bike are: safety, lighting facility, design of lanes, the surrounding landscape, and how clean the environment is. Thus, after improving these 5 factors, they found much more recreational benefits to bicycle tourism. ====Organized rides==== Many cycling clubs hold organized rides in which bicyclists of all levels participate. The typical organized ride starts with a large group of riders, called the mass, bunch or even peloton. This will thin out over the course of the ride. Many riders choose to ride together in groups of the same skill level to take advantage of drafting. Most organized rides, for example cyclosportives (or gran fondos), Challenge Rides or reliability trials, and hill climbs include registration requirements and will provide information either through the mail or online concerning start times and other requirements. Rides usually consist of several different routes, sorted by mileage, and with a certain number of rest stops that usually include refreshments, first aid and maintenance tools. Routes can vary by as much as . Some organized rides are entirely social events. One example is the monthly San Jose Bike Party which can reach attendance of one to two thousand riders in Summer months. ====Mountain==== Mountain biking began in the 1970s, originally as a downhill sport, practised on customized cruiser bicycles around Mount Tamalpais. Most mountain biking takes place on dirt roads, trails and in purpose-built parks. Downhill mountain biking has just evolved in the recent years and is performed at places such as Whistler Mountain Bike Park. Slopestyle, a form of downhill, is when riders do tricks such as tailwhips, 360s, backflips and front flips. There are several disciplines of mountain biking besides downhill, including: cross country (often referred to as XC), all mountain, trail, free ride, and newly popular enduro. In 2020, due to COVID-19, mountain bikes saw a surge in popularity in the US, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under US$1000. ====Other==== The Marching and Cycling Band HHK from Haarlem (the Netherlands) is one of the few marching bands around the world which also performs on bicycles. ===Racing=== Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large races became popular during the 1890s "Golden Age of Cycling", with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well. At one point, almost every major city in the US had a velodrome or two for track racing events, however since the middle of the 20th century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particularly in the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain. The most famous of all bicycle races is the Tour de France. This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world. In 1899, Charles Minthorn Murphy became the first man to ride his bicycle a mile in under a minute (hence his nickname, Mile-a-Minute Murphy), which he did by drafting a locomotive at New York's Long Island. As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed. Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from the one-day road race, criterium, and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's Grand Tours. Recumbent bicycles were banned from bike races in 1934 after Marcel Berthet set a new hour record in his Velodyne streamliner (49.992 km on 18 November 1933). Track bicycles are used for track cycling in Velodromes, while cyclo-cross races are held on outdoor terrain, including pavement, grass, and mud. Cyclocross races feature human-made features such as small barriers which riders either bunny hop over or dismount and walk over. Time trial races, another form of road racing require a rider to ride against the clock. Time trials can be performed as a team or as a single rider. Bikes are changed for time trial races, using aero bars. In the past decade, mountain bike racing has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport. Professional racing organizations place limitations on the bicycles that can be used in the races that they sanction. For example, the Union Cycliste Internationale, the governing body of international cycle sport (which sanctions races such as the Tour de France), decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules which prohibit racing bicycles weighing less than 6.8 kilograms (14.96 pounds). The UCI rules also effectively ban some bicycle frame innovations (such as the recumbent bicycle) by requiring a double triangle structure. ==Activism== Many broad and correlated themes run in bicycle activism: one is about advocating the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport, and another is about the creation of conditions to permit and/or encourage bicycle use, both for utility and recreational cycling. Although the first emphasizes the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use, is relatively undisputed, the second is the subject of much debate. It is generally agreed that improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation (including greater provision for cycle carriage on such services) create conditions to encourage bicycle use. However, there are different opinions on the role of various types of cycling infrastructure in building bicycle-friendly cities and roads. Some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisers) seek the construction of bike paths, cycle tracks and bike lanes for journeys of all lengths and point to their success in promoting safety and encouraging more people to cycle. Some activists, especially those from the vehicular cycling tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of such facilities with suspicion. They favor a more holistic approach based on the 4 'E's: education (of everyone involved), encouragement (to apply the education), enforcement (to protect the rights of others), and engineering (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). Some groups offer training courses to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic. Critical Mass is an event typically held on the last Friday of every month in cities around the world where bicyclists take to the streets en masse. While the ride was founded with the idea of drawing attention to how unfriendly the city was to bicyclists, the leaderless structure of Critical Mass makes it impossible to assign it any one specific goal. In fact, the purpose of Critical Mass is not formalized beyond the direct action of meeting at a set location and time and traveling as a group through city streets. There is a long-running cycle helmet debate among activists. The most heated controversy surrounds the topic of compulsory helmet use. It is paradoxical that in many developing countries cycling is in decline as bicycles are replaced by motorbikes and cars, while in many developed countries cycling is on the rise. Studies from large-scale representative data from Germany show that people with higher levels of education cycle substantially more often than those with lower levels of education. Even for trips of the same distance and among people from the same city with the same income level, those with higher education cycle more. As a result, there are various forms of activism focused on diversifying the cycling community. Inspired by the Black Lives Matter movement are organizations such as Street Riders NYC that seek to protest while on bicycles about systemic racism and police brutality. An incidental experience for Street Riders NYC protest participants is the inequity in where safe bicycling infrastructure exists by neighbourhood, which is interpreted as a form of classism within cycling and urbanism. The bicycle has acted as a means for women's liberation and thus has links to feminism. ==Associations== Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, bike maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals (energy conservation, pollution reduction, promotion of fitness). Some bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In the United States, the League of American Wheelmen lobbied for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national Good Roads Movement. Their model for political organization, as well as the paved roads for which they argued, facilitated the growth of the automobile. In Europe, the European Cyclists' Federation represents around 70 local, regional and national civil society organisations across more than 40 countries that work to promote cycling as a mode of transport and leisure. As a sport, cycling is governed internationally by the Union Cycliste Internationale in Switzerland, USA Cycling (merged with the United States Cycling Federation in 1995) in the United States, (for upright bicycles) and by the International Human Powered Vehicle Association (for other HPVs, or human-powered vehicles). Cycling for transport and touring is promoted on a European level by the European Cyclists' Federation, with associated members from Great Britain, Japan and elsewhere. Regular conferences on cycling as transport are held under the auspices of Velo City; global conferences are coordinated by Velo Mondial. ==Cycling as a means of transportation== Cycling is widely regarded as an effective and efficient mode of transportation optimal for short to moderate distances. Bicycles provide numerous possible benefits in comparison with motor vehicles, including the sustained physical exercise involved in cycling, easier parking, increased maneuverability, and access to roads, bike paths and rural trails. Cycling also offers a reduced consumption of fossil fuels, less air and noise pollution, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and greatly reduced traffic congestion. These have a lower financial cost for users as well as for society at large (negligible damage to roads, less road area required). By fitting bicycle racks on the front of buses, transit agencies can significantly increase the areas they can serve. Among the disadvantages of cycling are the requirement of bicycles (excepting tricycles or quadricycles) for the rider to have certain level of basic skill to remain upright, the reduced protection in crashes in comparison to motor vehicles, often longer travel time (except in densely populated areas), vulnerability to weather conditions, difficulty in transporting passengers, and the fact that a basic level of fitness is required for cycling moderate to long distances. ==Health effects== Cycling provides a variety of health benefits and reduces the risk of cancers, heart disease, and diabetes that are prevalent in sedentary lifestyles. Mortality rate reduction was found to be directly correlated to the average time spent cycling, totaling to approximately 6500 deaths prevented by cycling. Cycling in the Netherlands is often safer than in other parts of the world, so the risk-benefit ratio will be different in other regions. Overall, benefits of cycling or walking have been shown to exceed risks by ratios of 9:1 to 96:1 when compared with no exercise at all, including a wide variety of physical and mental outcomes. ===Exercise=== The physical exercise gained from cycling is generally linked with increased health and well-being. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), physical inactivity is second only to tobacco smoking as a health risk in developed countries, and is associated with 20-30% increased risk of various cancers, heart disease, and diabetes and tens of billions of dollars of healthcare costs. The WHO's 2009 report It has been estimated that, on average, approximately 20 life-years are gained from the health benefits of road bicycling for every life-year lost through injury. Bicycles are often used by people seeking to improve their fitness and cardiovascular health. Recent studies on the use of cycling for commutes have shown that it reduces the risk of cardiovascular outcomes by 11%, with slightly more risk reduction in women than in men. In addition, cycling is especially helpful for those with arthritis of the lower limbs who are unable to pursue sports that cause impact to the knees and other joints. Since cycling can be used for the practical purpose of transportation, there can be less need for self-discipline to exercise. Cycling while seated is a relatively non-weight bearing exercise that, like swimming, does little to promote bone density. Cycling up and out of the saddle, on the other hand, does a better job by transferring more of the rider's body weight to the legs. However, excessive cycling while standing can cause knee damage It used to be thought that cycling while standing was less energy efficient, but recent research has proven this not to be true. Other than air resistance, there is no wasted energy from cycling while standing, if it is done correctly. Cycling on a stationary cycle is frequently advocated as a suitable exercise for rehabilitation, particularly for lower limb injury, owing to the low impact which it has on the joints. In particular, cycling is commonly used within knee rehabilitation programs, to strengthen the quadriceps muscles with minimal stress on the knee ligaments. Further stress of the knee can be relieved by changing seat heights and pedal position to improve the rehabilitation. Cycling is also used for rehabilitation after hip surgery to manage soft-tissue healing, control swelling and pain, and allow a larger range of motion to the nearby muscles earlier during recovery. As a result, many institutions have established a rehabilitation protocol that involves stationary cycling as part of the recovery process. One such protocol offered by Mayo Clinic recommends 2–4 weeks of cycling on an upright stationary bike following hip arthroscopy, starting from 5 minutes per session and slowly increasing to 30 minutes per session. The goal of these sessions are to reduce joint inflammation and maintain the widest range of motion possible with limited pain. As a response to the increased global sedentary lifestyles and consequent overweight and obesity, one response that has been adopted by many organizations concerned with health and environment is the promotion of Active travel, which seeks to promote walking and cycling as safe and attractive alternatives to motorized transport. Given that many journeys are for relatively short distances, there is considerable scope to replace car use with walking or cycling, though in many settings this may require some infrastructure modification, particularly to attract the less experienced and confident. An Italian study assessed the impact of cycling for commute on major non-communicable diseases and public healthcare costs. Using a health economic assessment model, the study found a lower incidence of type 2 diabetes, acute myocardial infarction, and stroke in individuals that cycled compared to those that did not actively commute. This model estimated that public healthcare costs would reduce by 5% over a 10-year period. Illinois designated cycling as its official state exercise in 2007. === Mental health === The effects of cycling on overall mental health have often been studied. A European study surveying participants from seven cities about self-perceived health based on primary modes of transportation reported favorable results in the bicycle use population. The bicycle use group reported predominantly good self-perceived health, less perceived stress, better mental health, better vitality, and less loneliness. The study attributed these results to possible economic benefits and senses of both independence and identity as a member of a cyclist community. An English study recruiting non-cyclist older adults aged 50 to 83 to participate as either conventional pedal bike cyclists, electrically assisted e-bike cyclists, or a non-cyclist control group in outdoor trails measured cognitive function through executive function, spatial reasoning, and memory tests and well-being through questionnaires. The study did not find significant differences in spatial reasoning or memory tests. It did, however, find that both cyclists groups had improved executive function and well-being, both with greater improvement in the e-bike group. This suggested that non-physical factors of cycling such as independence, engagement with the outdoor environment, and mobility play a greater role in improving mental health. A 15-month randomized controlled trial in the U.S. examined the impact of self-paced cycling on cognitive function in institutionalized older adults without cognitive impairment. Researchers used three cognitive assessments: Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Fuld object memory evaluation, and symbol digit modality test. The study found that long-term cycling for at least 15 minutes per day in older adults without cognitive impairment had a protective effect on cognition and attention. Cycling has also been shown to be effective adjunct therapy in certain mental health conditions. ==Bicycle safety== Cycling suffers from a perception that it is unsafe. This perception is not always backed by hard numbers, because of under reporting of crashes and lack of bicycle use data (amount of cycling, kilometers cycled) which make it hard to assess the risk and monitor changes in risks. In the UK, fatality rates per mile or kilometre are slightly less than those for walking. In the US, bicycling fatality rates are less than 2/3 of those walking the same distance. However, in the UK for example the fatality and serious injury rates per hour of travel are just over double for cycling than those for walking. Injuries (to cyclists, from cycling) can be divided into two types: Physical trauma (extrinsic) Overuse (intrinsic) ===Physical trauma=== Acute physical trauma includes injuries to the head and extremities resulting from falls and collisions. Most cycle deaths result from a collision with a car or heavy goods vehicle. Drivers are at fault in the majority of these crashes. Segregated cycling infrastructure reduces the rate of crashes between bicycles and motor vehicles. Although a majority of bicycle collisions occur during the day, bicycle lighting is recommended for safety when bicycling at night to increase visibility. ===Overuse injuries=== Of a study of 518 cyclists, a large majority reported at least one overuse injury, with over one third requiring medical treatment. The most common injury sites were the neck (48.8%) and the knees (41.7%), as well as the groin/buttocks (36.1%), hands (31.1%), and back (30.3%). Women were more likely to suffer from neck and shoulder pain than men. Many cyclists suffer from overuse injuries to the knees, affecting cyclists at all levels. These are caused by many factors: Incorrect bicycle fit or adjustment, particularly the saddle. Incorrect adjustment of clipless pedals. Too many hills, or too many miles, too early in the training season. Poor training preparation for long touring rides. Selecting too high a gear. A lower gear for uphill climb protects the knees, even though muscles may be well able to handle a higher gear. Overuse injuries, including chronic nerve damage at weight bearing locations, can occur as a result of repeatedly riding a bicycle for extended periods of time. Damage to the ulnar nerve in the palm, carpal tunnel in the wrist, the genitourinary tract or bicycle seat neuropathy may result from overuse. Recumbent bicycles are designed on different ergonomic principles and eliminate pressure from the saddle and handlebars, due to the relaxed riding position. Note that overuse is a relative term, and capacity varies greatly between individuals. Someone starting out in cycling must be careful to increase length and frequency of cycling sessions slowly, starting for example at an hour or two per day, or a hundred miles or kilometers per week. Bilateral muscular pain is a normal by-product of the training process, whereas unilateral pain may reveal "exercise-induced arterial endofibrosis". Joint pain and numbness are also early signs of overuse injury. A Spanish study of top triathletes found those who cover more than 186 miles (300 km) a week on their bikes have less than 4% normal looking sperm, where normal adult males would be expected to have from 15% to 20%. ===Saddle related=== Much work has been done to investigate optimal bicycle saddle shape, size and position, and negative effects of extended use of less than optimal seats or configurations. Excessive saddle height can cause posterior knee pain, while setting the saddle too low can cause pain in the anterior of the knee. An incorrectly fitted saddle may eventually lead to muscle imbalance. A 25 to 35-degree knee angle is recommended to avoid an overuse injury. Although cycling is beneficial to health, men can be negatively affected by cycling more than three hours a week due to the significant weight on their perineum, an area located between the scrotum and the anus which hold some of the nerves and arteries that pass to the penis. This weight for continuous hours a week can cause men to experience numbness or tingling which can lead to them losing the ability to achieve an erection due to reduced blood flow; which 13% of males did experience in a study by Norwegian researchers who gathered data from 160 men participating in a long-distance bike tour. Fitting a proper sized seat can prevent this effect. In extreme cases, pudendal nerve entrapment can be a source of intractable perineal pain. Some cyclists with induced pudendal nerve pressure neuropathy gained relief from improvements in saddle position and riding techniques. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has investigated the potential health effects of prolonged bicycling in police bicycle patrol units, including the possibility that some bicycle saddles exert excessive pressure on the urogenital area of cyclists, restricting blood flow to the genitals. Their study found that using bicycle seats without protruding noses reduced pressure on the groin by at least 65% and significantly reduced the number of cases of urogenital paresthesia. A follow-up found that 90% of bicycle officers who tried the no-nose seat were using it six months later. NIOSH recommends that riders use a no-nose bicycle seat for workplace bicycling. Despite rumors to the contrary, there is no scientific evidence linking cycling with testicular cancer. ===Exposure to air pollution=== One concern is that riding in traffic may expose the cyclist to higher levels of air pollution, especially cyclists regularly traveling on or along busy roads. Some authors have claimed this to be untrue, showing that the pollutant and irritant count within cars is consistently higher, presumably because of limited circulation of air within the car and due to the air intake being directly in the stream of other traffic. Other authors have found small or inconsistent differences in concentrations but claim that exposure of cyclists is higher due to increased minute ventilation and is associated with minor biological changes. A 2010 study estimated that the gained life expectancy from the health benefits of cycling (approximately 3–14 months gained) greatly exceeded the lost life expectancy from air pollution (approximately 0.8–40 days lost). The significance of the associated health effect, if any, is unclear but probably much smaller than the health impacts associated with accidents and the health benefits derived from additional physical activity.	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5,932	Carbohydrate	A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. The typical hydrogen-to-oxygen atomic ratio is 2:1, analogous to that of water, and is represented by the empirical formula (where m and n may differ). This formula does not imply direct covalent bonding between hydrogen and oxygen atoms; for example, in , hydrogen is covalently bonded to carbon, not oxygen. While the 2:1 hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio is characteristic of many carbohydrates, exceptions exist. For instance, uronic acids and deoxy-sugars like fucose deviate from this precise stoichiometric definition. Conversely, some compounds conforming to this definition, such as formaldehyde and acetic acid, are not classified as carbohydrates. The term is predominantly used in biochemistry, functioning as a synonym for saccharide (), a group that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose, which was originally taken from the word glucose (), and is used for almost all sugars (e.g., fructose (fruit sugar), sucrose (cane or beet sugar), ribose, lactose (milk sugar)). Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve as an energy store (e.g., starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods and fungi). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Carbohydrates are central to nutrition and are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide and is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey is often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber. Although it is not digestible by humans, cellulose and insoluble dietary fiber generally help maintain a healthy digestive system by facilitating bowel movements. Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include resistant starch and inulin, which feed some bacteria in the microbiota of the large intestine, and are metabolized by these bacteria to yield short-chain fatty acids. ==Terminology== In scientific literature, the term "carbohydrate" has many synonyms, like "sugar" (in the broad sense), "saccharide", "ose", "hydrate of carbon" or "polyhydroxy compounds with aldehyde or ketone". Some of these terms, especially "carbohydrate" and "sugar", are also used with other meanings. In food science and in many informal contexts, the term "carbohydrate" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams, and desserts). This informality is sometimes confusing since it confounds chemical structure and digestibility in humans. The term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") refers also to dietary fiber, which is a carbohydrate, but, unlike sugars and starches, fibers are not hydrolyzed by human digestive enzymes. The term "carbohydrate" was first proposed by German chemist Carl Schmidt (chemist) in 1844. In 1856, glycogen, a form of carbohydrate storage in animal livers, was discovered by French physiologist Claude Bernard. == Structure == Formerly the name "carbohydrate" was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm (H2O)n. Following this definition, some chemists considered formaldehyde (CH2O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed that title for glycolaldehyde. Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula. For example, while the above representative formulas would seem to capture the commonly known carbohydrates, ubiquitous and abundant carbohydrates often deviate from this. For example, carbohydrates often display chemical groups such as: N-acetyl (e.g., chitin), sulfate (e.g., glycosaminoglycans), carboxylic acid and deoxy modifications (e.g., fucose and sialic acid). Natural saccharides are generally built of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharides with general formula (CH2O)n where n is three or more. A typical monosaccharide has the structure H–(CHOH)x(C=O)–(CHOH)y–H, that is, an aldehyde or ketone with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group. Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehydes. However, some biological substances commonly called "monosaccharides" do not conform to this formula (e.g., uronic acids and deoxy-sugars such as fucose) and there are many chemicals that do conform to this formula but are not considered to be monosaccharides (e.g., formaldehyde CH2O and inositol (CH2O)6). The open-chain form of a monosaccharide often coexists with a closed ring form where the aldehyde/ketone carbonyl group carbon (C=O) and hydroxyl group (–OH) react forming a hemiacetal with a new C–O–C bridge. Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides) in a large variety of ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetyl glucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose. ==Division== Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives and their polymers having linkages of the acetal type. They may be classified according to their degree of polymerization, and may be divided initially into three principal groups, namely sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. ==Monosaccharides== Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups. The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H2O)n, literally a "carbon hydrate". Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids. The smallest monosaccharides, for which n=3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes. ===Classification of monosaccharides=== The α and β anomers of glucose. Note the position of the hydroxyl group (red or green) on the anomeric carbon relative to the CH2OH group bound to carbon 5: they either have identical absolute configurations (R,R or S,S) (α), or opposite absolute configurations (R,S or S,R) (β). Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on. These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone). Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are asymmetric, making them stereo centers with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. Using Le Bel-van't Hoff rule, the aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H2O)6, of which four of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 24=16 possible stereoisomers. In the case of glyceraldehydes, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are enantiomers and epimers. 1, 3-dihydroxyacetone, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehydes, is a symmetric molecule with no stereo centers. The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. The "D-" and "L-" prefixes should not be confused with "d-" or "l-", which indicate the direction that the sugar rotates plane polarized light. This usage of "d-" and "l-" is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry. ===Ring-straight chain isomerism=== The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal, forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form. During the conversion from straight-chain form to the cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the anomeric carbon, becomes a stereogenic center with two possible configurations: The oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers is called anomers. In the α anomer, the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (trans) of the ring from the CH2OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH2OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the β anomer. ===Use in living organisms=== Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for metabolism, and glucose is an energy-rich molecule utilized to generate ATP in almost all living organisms. Glucose is a high-energy substrate produced in plants through photosynthesis by combining energy-poor water and carbon dioxide in an endothermic reaction fueled by solar energy. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed, they are often converted to more space-efficient (i.e., less water-soluble) forms, often polysaccharides. In animals, glucose circulating the blood is a major metabolic substrate and is oxidized in the mitochondria to produce ATP for performing useful cellular work. In humans and other animals, serum glucose levels must be regulated carefully to maintain glucose within acceptable limits and prevent the deleterious effects of hypo- or hyperglycemia. Hormones such as insulin and glucagon serve to keep glucose levels in balance: insulin stimulates glucose uptake into the muscle and fat cells when glucose levels are high, whereas glucagon helps to raise glucose levels if they dip too low by stimulating hepatic glucose synthesis. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose. The most abundant carbohydrate, cellulose, is a structural component of the cell wall of plants and many forms of algae. Ribose is a component of RNA. Deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Lyxose is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human heart. Ribulose and xylulose occur in the pentose phosphate pathway. Galactose, a component of milk sugar lactose, is found in galactolipids in plant cell membranes and in glycoproteins in many tissues. Mannose occurs in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins. Fructose, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during digestion, and found in semen. Trehalose, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight. ==Disaccharides== Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide, the simplest kind of polysaccharide. Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula of unmodified disaccharides is C12H22O11. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose Their ring types: glucose is a pyranose and fructose is a furanose How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2 of D-fructose. The -oside suffix indicates that the anomeric carbon of both monosaccharides participates in the glycosidic bond. Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The systematic name for lactose is O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and cellobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose. ==Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides== ===Oligosaccharides=== Oligosaccharides are saccharide polymers composed of three to ten units of monosaccharides, connected via glycosidic linkages, similar to disaccharides. They are usually linked to lipids or amino acids glycosic linkage with oxygen or nitrogen to form glycolipids and glycoproteins, though some, like the raffinose series and the fructooligosaccharides, do not. They have roles in cell recognition and cell adhesion. ===Polysaccharides=== ==Nutrition== Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per gram for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Refined carbohydrates from processed foods such as white bread or rice, soft drinks, and desserts are readily digestible, and many are known to have a high glycemic index, which reflects a rapid assimilation of glucose. By contrast, the digestion of whole, unprocessed, fiber-rich foods such as beans, peas, and whole grains produces a slower and steadier release of glucose and energy into the body. Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose. Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first. In Escherichia coli, for example, the lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present, the lac operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie). Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides such as chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose, fermenting it to caloric short-chain fatty acids. Even though humans lack the enzymes to digest fiber, dietary fiber represents an important dietary element for humans. Fibers promote healthy digestion, help regulate postprandial glucose and insulin levels, reduce cholesterol levels, and promote satiety. The Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 45 and 65% of dietary energy from whole-grain carbohydrates. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55–75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates). A 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect cardiovascular disease. ===Classification=== The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex if they are polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides). Carbohydrates are sometimes divided into "available carbohydrates", which are absorbed in the small intestine and "unavailable carbohydrates", which pass to the large intestine, where they are subject to fermentation by the gastrointestinal microbiota. Expressed numerically as GI, carbohydrate-containing foods can be grouped as high-GI (score more than 70), moderate-GI (56-69), or low-GI (less than 55) relative to pure glucose (GI=100). A "meta-analysis, of moderate quality," included as adverse effects of the diet halitosis, headache and constipation. Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced. An Endocrine Society scientific statement said that "when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet." The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood insulin levels, but a more balanced diet that restricts refined carbohydrates can also reduce serum glucose and insulin levels and may also suppress lipogenesis and promote fat oxidation. However, as far as energy expenditure itself is concerned, the claim that low-carbohydrate diets have a "metabolic advantage" is not supported by clinical evidence. Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects cardiovascular health, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of cardiovascular disease risk. Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional healthy diet in preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes, but for people with type 2 diabetes, they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with glycemic control. The American Diabetes Association recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients. An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the ketogenic diet – is established as a medical diet for treating epilepsy. The British Dietetic Association named it one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018".	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system", "Carrot", "Fischer glycosidation", "Ferrier rearrangement", "Monosaccharide", "Springer Science+Business Media", "nutrition", "xylulose", "phytochemical", "life", "cellular respiration", "Fructose 6-phosphate", "Pectin", "monosaccharide", "Banana", "Consortium for Functional Glycomics", "aldohexose", "Sugar cane", "Onion", "citric acid cycle", "organic chemistry", "Chirality (chemistry)", "glycolaldehyde", "epimer", "British Dietetic Association", "chitin", "sucrose", "chirality (chemistry)", "catabolism", "adenosine triphosphate", "American Diabetes Association", "metabolic pathway", "Nef reaction", "Carl Schmidt (chemist)", "oxygen", "Bioplastic", "molecular weight", "Cellulose", "dehydration reaction", "biological tissue", "termite", "fructose", "ketose", "U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs", "pyranose", "systematic name", "sugar", "Yam (vegetable)", "Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate", "heterocyclic compound", "acetic acid", "resistant starch", "Human gastrointestinal microbiota", "lac operon", "insomnia", "Glycome", "side effect", "Glycobiology", "Galactose", "Glycosyl", "National Academies Press", "World Health Organization", "pentose", "Amadori rearrangement", "degree of polymerization", "jam", "Hemicellulose", "chemical formula", "heterocyclic", "cell wall", "covalent bond", "fermentation", "glycemic index", "Endocrine Society", "Glucose 6-phosphate", "Carbohydrate synthesis", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "hemiketal", "Sugar beet", "halitosis", "bread", "scientific nomenclature", "Glycogen", "Escherichia coli", "macronutrient", "Starch", "honey", "headache", "Polysaccharide", "amylopectin", "Ruminant", "mannitol", "Benzyl", "sialic acid", "developmental biology", "glycemic control", "fertilization", "Hydrocolloid", "insulin", "bowel movements", "Oligosaccharide", "large intestine", "Maize", "Grape", "furanose", "Apricot", "Plum", "Cell–cell recognition", "hydroxyl", "aerobic respiration", "Maltodextrin", "stereoisomer", "Polarization (waves)", "inositol", "Institute of Medicine", "carbonyl", "cardiovascular health", "fad", "Saccharic acid", "isomaltulose", "Lyxose", "Ficus", "protecting group", "ketohexose", "Ferrier II reaction", "cell membrane", "Hydroxy group", "Glycolipid", "dietary fiber", "arabinoxylans", "Glycoinformatics", "Ribulose", "formaldehyde", "Flavin adenine dinucleotide", "glycosidic linkage", "calorie restriction", "ketogenic diet", "United States Department of Agriculture", "raffinose", "water", "starch", "biomolecule", "Koenigs–Knorr reaction", "-ose", "galactolipid", "food science", "Amylose", "glucose", "Diauxie", "Sweet potato", "cell adhesion", "oligosaccharide", "uronic acid", "hydrolysis", "anomer", "triose", "anomeric carbon", "healthy diet", "Adenosine triphosphate", "Chili pepper", "Chemical glycosylation", "Wohl degradation", "Tipson-Cohen reaction", "Cis-trans isomerism", "microbiota", "organic reaction", "open-chain", "cellulose", "stachyose", "glycosaminoglycan", "Carbohydrate NMR", "carboxylic acid", "Macromolecule", "biomolecules", "N-acetyl glucosamine", "α", "Sorbitol", "P-methoxybenzyl", "Navel orange" ]
5,933	CSS Virginia	CSS Virginia was the first steam-powered ironclad warship built by the Confederate States Navy during the first year of the American Civil War; she was constructed as a casemate ironclad using the razéed (cut down) original lower hull and engines of the scuttled steam frigate . Virginia was one of the participants in the Battle of Hampton Roads, opposing the Union's in March 1862. The battle is chiefly significant in naval history as the first battle between ironclads. ==USS Merrimack becomes CSS Virginia== When the Commonwealth of Virginia seceded from the Union in 1861, one of the important US military bases threatened was Gosport Navy Yard (now Norfolk Naval Shipyard) in Portsmouth, Virginia. Accordingly, orders were sent to destroy the base rather than allow it to fall into Confederate hands. On the afternoon of 17 April, the day Virginia seceded, Engineer in Chief B. F. Isherwood managed to get the frigate's engines lit. However, the previous night secessionists had sunk light boats between Craney Island and Sewell's Point, blocking the channel. On 20 April, before evacuating the Navy Yard, the U. S. Navy burned Merrimack to the waterline and sank her to preclude capture. When the Confederate government took possession of the fully provisioned yard, the base's new commander, Flag Officer French Forrest, contracted on May 18 to salvage the wreck of the frigate. This was completed by May 30, and she was towed into the shipyard's only dry dock (today known as Drydock Number One), where the burned structures were removed. The wreck was surveyed and her lower hull and machinery were discovered to be undamaged. Stephen Mallory, Secretary of the Navy decided to convert Merrimack into an ironclad, since she was the only large ship with intact engines available in the Chesapeake Bay area. Preliminary sketch designs were submitted by Lieutenants John Mercer Brooke and John L. Porter, each of whom envisaged the ship as a casemate ironclad. Brooke's general design showed the bow and stern portions submerged, and his design was the one finally selected. The detailed design work would be completed by Porter, who was a trained naval constructor.Porter had overall responsibility for the conversion, but Brooke was responsible for her iron plate and heavy ordnance, while William P. Williamson, Chief Engineer of the Navy, was responsible for the ship's machinery. ===Reconstruction as an ironclad=== The hull's burned timbers were cut down past the vessel's original waterline, leaving just enough clearance to accommodate her large, twin-bladed screw propeller. A new fantail and armored casemate were built atop a new main deck, and a v-shaped (bulwark) was added to her bow, which attached to the armored casemate. This forward and aft main deck and fantail were designed to stay submerged and were covered in iron plate, built up in two layers. The casemate was built of of oak and pine in several layers, topped with two layers of iron plating oriented perpendicular to each other, and angled at 36 degrees from horizontal to deflect fired enemy shells. From reports in Northern newspapers, Virginias designers were aware of the Union plans to build an ironclad and assumed their similar ordnance would be unable to do much serious damage to such a ship. It was decided to equip their ironclad with a ram, an anachronism on a 19th-century warship. Merrimack's steam engines, now part of Virginia, were in poor working order; they had been slated for replacement when the decision was made to abandon the Norfolk naval yard. The salty Elizabeth River water and the addition of tons of iron armor and pig iron ballast, added to the hull's unused spaces for needed stability after her initial refloat, and to submerge her unarmored lower levels, only added to her engines' propulsion issues. As completed, Virginia had a turning radius of about and required 45 minutes to complete a full circle, which would later prove to be a major handicap in battle with the far more nimble Monitor. The ironclad's casemate had 14 gun ports, three each in the bow and stern, one firing directly along the ship's centerline, the two others angled at 45° from the center line; these six bow and stern gun ports had exterior iron shutters installed to protect their cannon. There were four gun ports on each broadside; their protective iron shutters remained uninstalled during both days of the Battle of Hampton Roads. Virginias battery consisted of four muzzle-loading single-banded Brooke rifles and six smoothbore Dahlgren guns salvaged from the old Merrimack. Two of the rifles, the bow and stern pivot guns, were caliber and weighed each. They fired a shell. The other two were cannon of about , one on each broadside. The 9-inch Dahlgrens were mounted three to a side; each weighed approximately and could fire a shell up to a range of (or 1.9 miles) at an elevation of 15°. Both amidship Dahlgrens nearest the boiler furnaces were fitted-out to fire heated shot. On her upper casemate deck were positioned two anti-boarding/personnel 12-pounder Howitzers. Virginias commanding officer, Flag Officer Franklin Buchanan, arrived to take command only a few days before her first sortie; the ironclad was placed in commission and equipped by her executive officer, Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones. ==Battle of Hampton Roads== The Battle of Hampton Roads began on March 8, 1862, when Virginia engaged the blockading Union fleet. Despite an all-out effort to complete her, the new ironclad still had workmen on board when she sailed into Hampton Roads with her flotilla of five CSN support ships: (serving as Virginias tender) and , , , and . The first Union ship to be engaged by Virginia was the all-wood, sail-powered , which was first crippled during a furious cannon exchange, and then rammed in her forward starboard bow by Virginia. As Cumberland began to sink, the port side half of Virginias iron ram was broken off, causing a bow leak in the ironclad. Seeing what had happened to Cumberland, the captain of ordered his frigate into shallower water, where she soon grounded. Congress and Virginia traded cannon fire for an hour, after which the badly-damaged Congress finally surrendered. While the surviving crewmen of Congress were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on Virginia. Outraged at such a breach of war protocol, in retaliation Virginias now angry captain, Commodore Franklin Buchanan, gave the order to open fire with hot-shot on the surrendered Congress as he rushed to Virginias exposed upper casemate deck, where he was injured by enemy rifle fire. Congress, now set ablaze by the retaliatory shelling, burned for many hours into the night, a symbol of Confederate naval power and a costly wake-up call for the all-wood Union blockading squadron. Virginia did not emerge from the battle unscathed, however. Her hanging port side anchor was lost after ramming Cumberland; the bow was leaking from the loss of the ram's port side half; shot from Cumberland, Congress, and the shore-based Union batteries had riddled her smokestack, reducing her boilers' draft and already slow speed; two of her broadside cannon (without shutters) were put out of commission by shell hits; a number of her armor plates had been loosened; both of Virginias cutters had been shot away, as had both 12-pounder anti-boarding/anti-personnel howitzers, most of the deck stanchions, railings, and both flagstaffs. Even so, the now-injured Buchanan ordered an attack on , which had run aground on a sandbar trying to escape Virginia. However, because of the ironclad's draft (fully loaded), she was unable to get close enough to do any significant damage. It being late in the day, Virginia retired from the conflict with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the destruction of the remaining Union blockaders. Later that night, arrived at Union-held Fort Monroe. She had been rushed to Hampton Roads, still not quite complete, all the way from the Brooklyn Navy Yard, in hopes of defending the force of wooden ships and preventing "the rebel monster" from further threatening the Union's blockading fleet and nearby cities, like Washington, D.C. While under tow, she nearly foundered twice during heavy storms on her voyage south, arriving in Hampton Roads by the bright firelight from the still-burning triumph of Virginias first day of handiwork. The next day, on March 9, 1862, the world's first battle between ironclads took place. The smaller, nimbler, and faster Monitor was able to outmaneuver the larger, slower Virginia, but neither ship proved able to do any severe damage to the other, despite numerous shell hits by both combatants, many fired at virtually point-blank range. Monitor had a much lower freeboard and only its single, rotating, two-cannon gun turret and forward pilothouse sitting above her deck, and thus was much harder to hit with Virginias heavy cannon. After hours of shell exchanges, Monitor finally retreated into shallower water after a direct shell hit to her armored pilothouse forced her away from the conflict to assess the damage. The captain of the Monitor, Lieutenant John L. Worden, had taken a direct gunpowder explosion to his face and eyes, blinding him, while looking through the pilothouse's narrow, horizontal viewing slits. Monitor remained in the shallows, but as it was late in the day, Virginia steamed for her home port, the battle ending without a clear victor. The captain of Virginia that day, Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones, received advice from his pilots to depart over the sandbar toward Norfolk until the next day. Lieutenant Jones wanted to continue the fight, but the pilots emphasized that the Virginia had "nearly three miles to run to the bar" and that she could not remain and "take the ground on a falling tide." To prevent running aground, Lieutenant Jones reluctantly moved the ironclad back toward port. Virginia retired to the Gosport Naval Yard at Portsmouth, Virginia, and remained in drydock for repairs until April 4, 1862. In the following month, the crew of Virginia were unsuccessful in their attempts to break the Union blockade. The blockade had been bolstered by the hastily ram-fitted paddle steamer , and SS Illinois as well as the and , which had been repaired. Virginia made several sorties back over to Hampton Roads hoping to draw Monitor into battle. Monitor, however, was under strict orders not to re-engage; the two combatants would never battle again. On April 11, the Confederate Navy sent Lieutenant Joseph Nicholson Barney, in command of the paddle side-wheeler , along with Virginia and five other ships in full view of the Union squadron, enticing them to fight. When it became clear that Union Navy ships were unwilling to fight, the CS Navy squadron moved in and captured three merchant ships, the brigs Marcus and Sabout and the schooner Catherine T. Dix. Their ensigns were then hoisted "Union-side down" to further taunt the Union Navy into a fight, as they were towed back to Norfolk, with the help of . By late April, the new Union ironclads USRC E. A. Stevens and had also joined the blockade. On May 8, 1862, Virginia and the James River Squadron ventured out when the Union ships began shelling the Confederate fortifications near Norfolk, but the Union ships retired under the shore batteries on the north side of the James River and on Rip Raps island. ==Destruction== On May 10, 1862, advancing Union troops occupied Norfolk. Since Virginia was now a steam-powered heavy battery and no longer an ocean-going cruiser, her pilots judged her not seaworthy enough to enter the Atlantic, even if she were able to pass the Union blockade. Virginia was also unable to retreat further up the James River due to her deep draft (fully loaded). In an attempt to reduce it, supplies and coal were dumped overboard, even though this exposed the ironclad's unarmored lower hull, but this was still not enough to make a difference. Without a home port and no place to go, Virginias new captain, flag officer Josiah Tattnall III, reluctantly ordered her destruction in order to keep the ironclad from being captured. The ship was destroyed by Catesby Jones and John Taylor Wood, who set fire to scattered gunpowder and cotton strewn across the ship's deck. Early on the morning of May 11, 1862, off Craney Island, the fire reached the ironclad's magazine, leading to a massive explosion that obliterated the ship. What remained of Virginia then sank to the harbor floor. After the war, the government determined that the wreck of Virginia needed to be removed from the channel. In 1867, Captain D. A. Underdown salvaged 290,000 pounds of iron from the site, much of which was taken from the ship's ram and cannons. The following year, Underdown detonated explosives under the Virginia's hulk to fully clear the river, but the attempt did not totally remove the wreck. In 1871, E.J. Griffith recovered an additional 102,883 pounds of iron from the seabed, and in 1876, the "remaining timbers" of the ship were raised. In 1982, the National Underwater and Marine Agency explored the area around Craney Island and found that "there are no large areas of either concentrated or scattered debris associated with the Virginia lying on the river bottom within the survey area." Most of the recovered iron was melted down and sold for scrap (notably, some of the ship's iron was used to craft Pokahuntas Bell in 1907). Other pieces of the ship have been preserved in museums: The ship's brass bell is held at the Hampton Roads Naval Museum, and one of the Virginia's anchors now rests in front of the American Civil War Museum in Richmond. Numerous souvenirs, ostensibly made from salvaged iron and wood raised from Virginias sunken hulk, have found a ready and willing market among Civil War enthusiasts and eastern seaboard residents. However, the provenance of many of these artifacts is impossible to prove, which has given rise to the humorous adage that "if you took all the iron and all the wood supposedly collected from the [wreck of the CSS Virginia], you'd have enough to outfit a fleet of ironclads." hence "the Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimac". Both spellings are still in use in the Hampton Roads area. ==Memorial, heritage== A large exhibit at the Jamestown Exposition held in 1907 at Sewell's Point was the "Battle of the Merrimac and Monitor," a large diorama that was housed in a special building. A small community in Montgomery County, Virginia, near where the coal burned by the Confederate ironclad was mined, is now known as Merrimac. The name of the Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel, built in Hampton Roads in the general vicinity of the famous engagement, with both Virginia and federal funds.	[ "Craney Island (Virginia)", "diorama", "Washington, D.C.", "Confederate States Secretary of the Navy", "Richmond, Virginia", "Newburyport, Massachusetts", "razee", "Battle of Hampton Roads", "John L. Porter", "Rip Raps", "flag officer", "Dahlgren gun", "Jamestown Exposition", "Scuttling", "graving dock", "Confederate States of America", "12-pounder", "Portsmouth, Virginia", "gun port", "Bibliography of early American naval history", "Joseph Nicholson Barney", "Pemigewasset River", "HarperCollins", "pilothouse", "USS Pawnee (1859)", "naval ram", "New Hampshire", "marine salvage", "Union Navy", "French Forrest", "executive officer", "Casemate ironclad", "casemate ironclad", "Brooklyn Navy Yard", "Casemate", "Sewell's Point", "East Coast of the United States", "The Post and Courier", "John L. Worden", "boiler (steam generator)", "Massachusetts", "screw propeller", "Montgomery County, Virginia", "Elizabeth River (Virginia)", "ironclad warship", "Heated shot", "Virginia", "Poop deck", "heated shot", "Arcadia Publishing", "James River", "caliber (artillery)", "Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel", "Proverb", "Deck (ship)", "Naval architecture", "Broadside (naval)", "Chesapeake Bay", "Marine steam engine", "provenance", "USS Germantown (1846)", "James Phinney Baxter", "steam frigate", "stanchions", "pivot gun", "USS Merrimack (1855)", "Confederate States Navy", "Merrimac, Virginia", "USS Pennsylvania (1837)", "draft (hull)", "Winnipesaukee River", "Richmond Times-Dispatch", "Merrimack River", "Lieutenant", "Union (American Civil War)", "Norfolk Naval Shipyard", "confluence", "Fort Monroe", "shipwreck (accident)", "USS Naugatuck (1844)", "Benjamin F. Isherwood", "John Mercer Brooke", "USS Columbus (1819)", "scuttling", "National Underwater and Marine Agency", "Muzzleloader", "Commodore (rank)", "pig iron", "Howitzer", "flotilla", "Atlantic Ocean", "Franklin Buchanan", "Franklin, New Hampshire", "guard rail", "Drydock Number One, Norfolk Naval Shipyard", "howitzer", "Pokahuntas Bell", "American Civil War Museum", "shell (projectile)", "Flag Officer", "USS Columbia (1836)", "USS Raritan (1843)", "USS United States (1797)", "USS Dolphin (1836)", "Belt armor", "Stephen Mallory", "Hampton Roads", "cutter (boat)", "smoothbore", "Hampton Roads Naval Museum", "American Civil War", "The New York Times", "USS Delaware (1820)", "USS Plymouth (1844)", "Brooke rifle", "Catesby ap Roger Jones", "James River Squadron", "Josiah Tattnall III", "List of ships of the line of the United States Navy", "Norfolk, Virginia" ]
5,934	Canon	Canon or Canons may refer to: == Arts and entertainment == Canon (fiction), the material accepted as officially written by an author or an ascribed author Literary canon, an accepted body of works considered as high culture Western canon, the body of high culture literature, music, philosophy, and works of art that is highly valued in the West Canon of proportions, a formally codified set of criteria deemed mandatory for a particular artistic style of figurative art Canon (music), a type of composition Canon (hymnography), a type of hymn used in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Canon (album), a 2007 album by Ani DiFranco Canon (film), a 1964 Canadian animated short Canon (manga), by Nikki Canonical plays of William Shakespeare The Canon (Natalie Angier book), a 2007 science book by Natalie Angier The Canon (podcast), concerning film == Brands and enterprises == Canon Inc., a Japanese imaging and optical products corporation Château Canon (disambiguation), a number of wineries UBM Canon, a media company headquartered in Los Angeles ==People== Canon (rapper) (born Aaron McCain, 1989) Fernando Canon (1860–1938), Filipino revolutionary general, poet, inventor, engineer, musician and chess player Lou Canon, stage name of Leanne Greyerbiehl, a Canadian indie pop singer-songwriter ==Places== Canon, Georgia, United States Canons Park, London, United Kingdom Canon Row, a street in Westminster, London Cañon City, Colorado, United States Cañon Fiord, on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada == Religion == : some religious texts are accepted or categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical Biblical canon, a set of texts regarded by a Christian or Jewish community as part of the Bible Canon law, the whole judicial system in Christian churches Canon (canon law), a law or ordinance promulgated by a synod, ecumenical council, or individual bishop (within the canon law system of that Church). Canon (clergy), a title of certain Christian priests Canon regular, a priest who lives in community under a rule Canon (hymnography), a kind of hymn in Eastern Orthodox Christianity Pāli Canon, scriptures of Theravāda Buddhism (these include the Sutta Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidhamma Pitaka) == Other uses == Canon (basic principle), an accepted body of rules Canon, in bellfounding, one or more hanging loops cast integrally with the crown The Canon of Medicine, a 1025 CE medical encyclopedia by Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) Canon Yaoundé, a Cameroonian association football club based in the capital city of Yaoundé Canons High School, Edgware, Greater London	[ "The Canon (Natalie Angier book)", "Canon (basic principle)", "Literary canon", "Canon (canon law)", "Canon (music)", "Canon Yaoundé", "Canonization", "Canon (film)", "Canon Row", "Canon (hymnography)", "Canaan", "Shakespeare's plays", "Cañon City, Colorado", "The Canon (podcast)", "Kanon (disambiguation)", "Canon (album)", "Biblical canon", "Canon (rapper)", "Lou Canon", "Canon (clergy)", "Canons Park", "Pāli Canon", "Canon (manga)", "Château Canon (disambiguation)", "Canon law", "Canon Inc.", "Cañon Fiord", "UBM Canon", "Kanoon (disambiguation)", "Canon, Georgia", "Canonical", "Cannon (disambiguation)", "Qanun (disambiguation)", "The Canon of Medicine", "bellfounding", "Fernando Canon", "Canon regular", "Western canon", "Canyon (disambiguation)", "Canons High School", "Canon of proportions", "Canon (fiction)" ]
5,935	The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints	the church's name was later changed to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. In 1831, the church moved to Kirtland, Ohio, and began establishing an outpost in Jackson County, Missouri,}} However, in 1833, Missouri settlers violently expelled the Latter Day Saints from Jackson County.}} culminating in a dedication of the building similar to the day of Pentecost. However, church members self-identify as Christians. The faith itself views other modern Christian faiths as having departed from true Christianity by way of a general apostasy and maintains that it is a restoration of 1st-century Christianity and the only true and authorized Christian church. Church leaders assert it is the only true church and that other churches do not have the authority to act in Jesus' name. ===Cosmology and plan of salvation=== The church's cosmology and plan of salvation include the doctrines of a pre-existence, an earthly mortal existence, three degrees of heaven This view on the doctrine of theosis is also referred to as becoming a "joint-heir with Christ". The process by which this is accomplished is called exaltation, a doctrine which includes the reunification of the mortal family after the resurrection and the ability to have spirit children in the afterlife and inherit a portion of God's kingdom. Thus, there is a common view within the LDS Church that though prohibited by the LDS Church in mortality, polygamy or "plural marriage" will exist in the afterlife. "In the case of a man marrying a wife in the everlasting covenant who dies while he continues in the flesh and marries another by the same divine law, each wife will come forth in her order and enter with him into his glory."}} Children may also be sealed to their biological or adoptive parents to form permanent familial bonds, thus allowing all immediate and extended family relations to endure past death. The most significant LDS ordinances may be performed via proxy in behalf of those who have died, such as baptism for the dead. The church teaches that all will have the opportunity to hear and accept or reject the gospel of Jesus Christ, either in this life or the next. Within church cosmology, the fall of Adam and Eve is seen positively. The church teaches that it was essential to allow humankind to experience separation from God, to exercise full agency in making decisions for their own happiness. ===Restorationism=== The LDS Church teaches that, subsequent to the death of Jesus and his original apostles, his church, along with the authority to act in Jesus Christ's name and the church's attendant spiritual gifts, were lost, due to a combination of external persecutions and internal heresies. The "Restoration"—as begun by Joseph Smith and embodied in the church itself—refers to a return of the authentic priesthood power, spiritual gifts, ordinances, living prophets and revelation of the primitive Church of Christ. This restoration is associated with a number of events which are understood to have been necessary to re-establish the early Christian church found in the New Testament, and to prepare the earth for the Second Coming of Jesus. ===Leadership=== The church is led by a president. Within the church, he is referred to as "the Prophet." He is considered to be a "prophet, seer and revelator," and is the only person who is authorized to receive revelation from God on behalf of the whole world or entire church. As such, the church teaches that he is essentially infallible when speaking on behalf of God—although the exact circumstances when his pronouncements should be considered authoritative are debated within the church. In any case, modern declarations with broad doctrinal implications are often issued by joint statement of the First Presidency; they may be joined by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles as well. Church members believe Joseph Smith was the first modern-day prophet. Following the death of church president Thomas S. Monson on January 2, 2018, senior apostle Russell M. Nelson was announced as president on January 16. Normally, the president chooses two other ordained apostles to serve alongside him in the First Presidency, the presiding body of the church; twelve other apostles form the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. When a president dies, his successor is chosen from the remaining apostles. By longstanding convention, the longest-tenured apostle becomes the next president of the church. In recent years, this process has contributed to the church's leadership being of increasingly advanced age. New apostles are chosen by the church president after the death of an existing apostle. The First Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, first two Quorums of Seventy and the Presiding Bishopric make up the general authorities of the church. The general presidencies of the church-wide Relief Society, Sunday School, Young Women, Young Men, and Primary organizations make up the general officers of the church. Women serve as presidents and counselors in the presidencies of the Relief Society, Young Women, and Primary, while men serve as presidents and counselors of the Sunday School and Young Men.}} The proclamation also promotes specific roles essential to maintaining the strength of the family unit—the traditional roles of a husband and father as the family's breadwinner and those of a wife and mother as a nurturing caregiver. It concludes by inviting its audience to "promote those measures designed to maintain and strengthen the family as the fundamental unit of society". Senior church leaders have continued to emphasize conservative teachings on marriage and gender to the present time. LDS Church members are encouraged to set aside one evening each week, typically Monday, to spend together in "Family Home Evening" (FHE), which typically consists of gathering as a family to study the faith's gospel principles, and other family activities. Daily family prayer is also encouraged. The Book of Mormon is a foundational sacred book for the church; the terms "Mormon" and "Mormonism" come from the book itself. The LDS Church teaches that the Angel Moroni told Smith about golden plates containing the record, guided him to find them buried in the Hill Cumorah, and provided him the means of translating them from Reformed Egyptian. It claims to give a history of the inhabitants from a now-extinct society living on the American continent and their distinct Judeo-Christian teachings. The Book of Mormon is very important to modern Latter-day Saints, who consider it the world's most correct text. The Bible, also part of the church's canon, is believed to be the word of God—subject to an acknowledgment that its translation may be incorrect, or that authoritative sections may have been lost over the centuries. Most often, the church uses the Authorized King James Version. of the more doctrinally significant verses from the translation are included as excerpts in the current LDS Church edition of the Bible. Other revelations from Smith are found in the D&C, and in the Pearl of Great Price. and that they are therefore authorized teachers of God's word. In addition to doctrine given by the church as a whole, individual members of the church believe that they can also receive personal revelation from God in conducting their lives, and in revealing truth to them, especially about spiritual matters. Generally, this is said to occur through thoughts and feelings from the Holy Ghost, in response to prayer. Similarly, the church teaches its members may receive individual guidance and counsel from God through blessings from priesthood holders. In particular, patriarchal blessings are considered special blessings that are received only once in the recipient's life, which are recorded, transcribed, and archived. For some ordinances, the act is tied to a covenant between the ordinance recipient and God. The ordinance of baptism is believed to bind its participant to Jesus Christ, who saves them in their imperfection if they continually keep their promises to him. Baptism is performed by immersion, and is typically administered to children starting at age eight. Other ordinances performed in the church include confirmation, the sacrament (analogous to the Eucharist or holy communion), priesthood ordination, patriarchal blessing, anointing of the sick, and priesthood blessings. ===Diet and health=== The LDS Church asks its members to adhere to a dietary code called the Word of Wisdom, in which they abstain from the consumption of alcohol, coffee, tea, tobacco, and illicit or harmful substances. The Word of Wisdom also encourages the consumption of herbs and grains along with the moderate consumption of meat. ===Sexuality=== Church members are expected to follow a moral code called the law of chastity, which prohibits adultery, homosexual behavior, and sexual relations before or outside of marriage. As part of the law of chastity, the church strongly opposes pornography, and considers masturbation an immoral act. Law of chastity violations can be grounds for church discipline; resulting penalties may include having access to the temple and sacrament revoked, as well as excommunication. The church discourages romantic dating until around the age of 16. ===Tithing and other donations=== Church members are expected to donate one-tenth of their income to support the operations of the church. After initially relying on a communal lifestyle known as the law of consecration throughout most of the 1830s, the church created the law of tithing in July 1838 when the membership was concentrated in Missouri. Church members would frequently tithe by giving ten percent of their livestock and produce; nowadays donations are generally done with money. to $33 billion}} Members are also encouraged to fast (abstain from food and drink) on the first Sunday of each month for two consecutive meals. They donate at least the cost of the two skipped meals of the fast as a "fast offering", which the church uses to assist people in need and expand its humanitarian efforts. Local leadership is not paid, and is expected to tithe as well. Full-time missionaries, however, are not expected to pay tithing as they are usually paying to be a missionary. ===Missionary service=== All able-bodied LDS young men are expected to serve a two-year, full-time proselytizing mission. Missionaries do not choose where they serve or the language in which they will proselytize, and are expected to fund their missions themselves or with the aid of their families. All proselytizing missionaries are organized geographically into administrative areas called missions. The efforts in each mission are directed by an older adult male mission president. , there are 450 missions of the LDS church. Although missionary service is expected for men, it is not compulsory and is not a requirement for retaining church membership. Unmarried women between the ages of 19 and 29 may also serve as missionaries, generally for a term of 18 months. Retired couples are also encouraged to serve missions, with terms ranging from six to 23 months. Unlike younger missionaries, these senior missionaries may serve in non-proselytizing capacities such as humanitarian aid workers or family history specialists. ===Sabbath day observance=== Church members are expected to set aside Sundays as a day of rest and worship. Typically, weekly worship meetings occur solely on Sundays. Shopping and recreation are discouraged on Sundays as well. ==Worship and meetings== ===Weekly meetings=== Meetings for worship and study are held at meetinghouses, which are typically utilitarian in character. Also included in weekly meetings are times for Sunday School, or separate instructional meetings based on age and gender, including the Relief Society for women. Church congregations are organized geographically. ===Temple worship=== In LDS theology, a temple is considered to be a holy building, dedicated as a "House of the Lord" and held as more sacred than a typical meetinghouse or chapel. In temples, church members participate in ceremonies that are considered the most sacred in the church, including marriage, and an endowment ceremony that includes a washing and anointing, receiving a temple garment, and making covenants with God. Baptisms for the dead—as well as other temple ordinances on behalf of the dead—are performed in the temples as well. Then after the temple is dedicated, permission to enter is reserved only for church members who pass periodic interviews with ecclesiastical leaders and receive a special recommendation card, called a temple recommend, that they present upon entry. To perform ordinances in temples on behalf of deceased family members, the church emphasizes genealogical research, and encourages its lay members to participate in genealogy. It operates FamilySearch, the largest genealogical organization in the world. ===Conferences=== Twice each year (the first weekend of April and October), general authorities and general officers address the worldwide church through general conference. General conference sessions are translated into as many as 80 languages and are broadcast from the 21,000-seat Conference Center in Salt Lake City. During this conference, church members formally acknowledge, or "sustain", the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles as prophets, seers, and revelators. Individual stakes also hold formal conferences within their own boundaries biannually; wards hold conferences annually. ==Organization and structure== ===Name and legal entities=== The church teaches that it is a continuation of the Church of Christ restored in 1830 by Joseph Smith. This original church underwent several name changes during the 1830s, being changed to "The Church of the Latter Day Saints", "The Church of Jesus Christ", "The Church of God", Finally, after Smith died, Brigham Young and the largest body of Smith's followers incorporated the church in 1851 by legislation of the Utah Territory under the name "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", which included a hyphenated "Latter-day" and a British-style lower-case d. Common informal names for the church include the LDS Church, the Mormon Church, and the Latter-day Saints Church. The church requests that the official name be used when possible or, if necessary, shortened to "the Church" or "the Church of Jesus Christ". According to its statistics, the church is the fourth largest religious body in the United States. Although the church does not publish attendance figures, researchers estimate that attendance at weekly LDS worship services globally is around 4 million. Members living in the U.S. and Canada constitute 46 percent of membership, Latin America 38 percent, and members in the rest of the world 16 percent. Church members and some others from the U.S. colonized this region in the mid-to-late 1800s, dispossessing several Indigenous tribes. the Book of Mormon explicitly says it was written in a Reformed Egyptian text. Also, general archaeological and genetic evidence has not supported the book's statements about any known Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Since its publication in 1842, the Book of Abraham (currently published as part of the canonical Pearl of Great Price) has also been a major source of controversy. Numerous non-Mormon Egyptologists, beginning in the late 19th century, have disagreed with Joseph Smith's explanations of the book's facsimiles. Translations of the original papyri—by both Mormon and non-Mormon Egyptologists—do not match the text of the Book of Abraham as purportedly translated by Joseph Smith. Indeed, the transliterated text from the recovered papyri and facsimiles published in the Book of Abraham contain no direct references to Abraham. From 1844 to 1978, the church barred Black people from participating in temple ordinances necessary for the highest level of salvation; prevented most men of Black African descent from being ordained to the church's lay, all-male priesthood; supported racial segregation in its communities and schools; taught that righteous Black people would be made White after death; and opposed interracial marriage. Leaders taught on many occasions during this time that Black people were less righteous in the pre-existence. following public pressure during the United States' civil rights movement.{{efn\|Examples of public pressure include: In 1963, Hugh B. Brown made a statement on civil rights during General Conference to avert a planned protest of the conference by the NAACP. During the late 1960s and 1970s, Black athletes at some universities refused to compete against teams from church owned Brigham Young University as a form of protest. A protest in 1974 was in response to the exclusion of Black scouts to become leaders in church sponsored Boy Scout troops. In 2018, the Church formed an alliance with the NAACP in an effort to improve race relations. ====Native American people==== Over the past two centuries, the relationship between Native American people and the LDS Church has included friendly ties, displacement, battles, massacres, slavery, education placement programs, official and unofficial discrimination, and criticism. More recently, LDS researchers and publications generally favor a smaller geographic footprint of Lamanite descendants. In December 2019, a whistleblower alleged the church held over $100 billion in investment funds through its investment management company, Ensign Peak Advisors (EP); that it used these funds in for-profit ventures rather than charity; and that it misled contributors and the public about the usage and extent of those funds. The church's First Presidency stated that "the Church complies with all applicable law governing our donations, investments, taxes, and reserves," and that "a portion" of funds received by the church are "methodically safeguarded through wise financial management and the building of a prudent reserve". The church has not directly addressed the fund's size to the public, but third parties have treated the disclosures as legitimate. The disclosure has led to criticism that the church's wealth may be excessive. The church has transferred more than a billion dollars of tithing collected in Canada, tax-free, to church universities over a 15-year period. In October 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald announced that while the church publicly claimed to have donated US$1.35 billion to charity between 2008 and 2020, its private financial reports showed that it donated only US$0.177 billion. In February 2023, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a $5 million penalty to the church and its investment company, EP. The SEC alleged that the church concealed its investments and their management in multiple Shell companies from 1997 to 2019; the SEC believes these shell companies were approved by senior church leadership to avoid public transparency. The church released a statement that in 2000 EP "received and relied upon legal counsel regarding how to comply with its reporting obligations while attempting to maintain the privacy of the portfolio." After initial SEC concern in June 2019, the church stated that EP "adjusted its approach and began filing a single aggregated report."	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Brown", "Moody Publishers", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Second Great Awakening", "LDS fiction", "ResearchGate", "Book of Moses", "Seminary (LDS Church)", "Mormonism and violence", "CBS Television", "LDS cinema", "LGBTQ rights and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Resurrection of Jesus", "The Daily Beast", "Book of Abraham", "Pew Center", "Religion Dispatches", "Equality Act (United States)", "Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought", "Associated Press", "Law of chastity", "hymn", "Utah Territorial Legislative Assembly", "Springer International Publishing", "ComeUntoChrist.org", "Bishop's storehouse", "Salt Lake City Weekly", "Yahoo! News", "same-sex marriage", "Black people and temple and priesthood policies in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "John Whitmer Books", "Council of Fifty", "washing and anointing", "The Washington Post", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints membership statistics", "Holy Ghost", "Continuous revelation", "PBS", "Ensign College", "University of Virginia Press", "Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)", "gender-affirming surgery", "pastor", "NPR", "Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)", "District (LDS Church)", "Mission (LDS Church)", "Peter Whitmer", "The New York Times", "Association for the Sociology of Religion", "Alston Rivers", "Joseph Smith–Matthew", "Random House", "The Conversation (website)", "Auxiliary organization (LDS Church)", "University of Nebraska Press", "LDS Seminary", "Equal Rights Amendment", "Curses of Cain and Ham and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Governor of Utah", "Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)", "plural marriage", "Black segregation and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Son of God (Christianity)", "List of Latter Day Saint periodicals", "Ensign Peak Advisors", "Brigham Young University–Hawaii", "University of North Carolina Press", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Church Administration Building", "American Journal of Public Health", "Brigham Young", "KSTU", "Fayette, New York", "Tithing (Latter Day Saints)", "San Francisco", "Alfred A. Knopf", "Deseret News", "Chicago Tribune", "Utah Mormon War", "Mormon foodways", "divinity of Jesus", "Fawn Brodie", "prayer", "Encyclopedia.com", "City Creek Center", "Messiah", "Apocryphal", "Los Angeles Times", "Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)", "CBC News", "HarperCollins", "Temple Square", "Signature Books", "feminizing surgery", "masculinizing surgery", "theocratic", "Mormonism", "Covenant (Latter Day Saints)", "Wakara's War", "National Medal of Arts", "Meridian Magazine", "Religious Studies Center", "substitutionary atonement", "Lilburn Boggs", "family history", "social trinitarianism", "Reformed Egyptian", "Heavenly Mother (Mormonism)", "resurrection", "Bible", "501(c)(3) organization", "Salon.com", "List of new religious movements", "National Council of Churches of Christ", "Catholic Relief Services", "LDS Living", "CNN", "2008 California Proposition 8", "Church membership council", "USD", "Simon & Schuster", "Boy Scouts of America", "Plan of salvation in Mormonism", "Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible", "American Association of Geographers", "Charity Navigator", "Washington University in St. Louis", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Utah Territory", "Plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints)", "Journal of Religion & Health", "Shell companies", "Index of articles related to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "List of pageants of the LDS Church", "State of Deseret", "Endowment (Mormonism)", "creed", "standard works", "Stake (Latter Day Saints)", "meetinghouse", "Kirtland Safety Society", "Gale (publisher)", "Apotheosis", "Kirtland Temple", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)", "patriarchal blessing", "Reynolds v. United States", "Perpetual Education Fund", "IRS", "Mormons", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in America", "celibacy", "mission president", "Catholic", "Brigham Young University", "The Daily Gazette", "Spirit body", "adultery", "One true church", "Theodemocracy", "BYU", "First Presidency", "News-Topic", "Sunstone (magazine)", "Joseph F. Smith", "The Guardian", "Second Manifesto", "LDS Church", "Intermountain West", "Mormonism and Christianity", "NBC News", "Grammy Award", "Daviess County, Missouri", "Salt Lake Tabernacle", "Revelation (Latter Day Saints)", "Premortal life (Latter Day Saints)", "Electronic Frontier Foundation", "second anointing", "U.S. Census Bureau", "U.S. Supreme Court", "Fasting", "Respect for Marriage Act", "List of missions of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Episcopal polity", "Nontrinitarian", "Community of Christ", "Burned-over district", "Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs", "Taylor & Francis", "fasting", "general authorities", "Sabbath in Christianity", "Word of Wisdom", "Review of Religious Research", "Spencer Cox (politician)", "Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)", "ecumenical creeds", "scriptural texts", "Mountain Meadows massacre", "Herald Publishing House", "Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)", "John Wiley & Sons", "The Atlantic", "Georgetown University", "Laying on of hands", "Baptism (Mormonism)", "U.S. government", "Utah Constitutional Convention of 1895", "chest reconstruction", "Independence, Missouri", "First Vision", "Mesa Arizona Easter Pageant", "LDS Conference Center", "Mixed-orientation marriage and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "University of Utah", "Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions", "LDS denominations", "Anti-Mormonism", "KSL-TV", "Humanitarianism", "Covenant (biblical)", "Barack Obama", "gender", "Harvard University Press", "Biblical canon", "humanitarian aid", "Divinization (Christian)", "Republican Party (United States)", "LGM-118 Peacekeeper", "Mormon War (1838)", "Bishop (Latter Day Saints)", "Mormon Times", "Jerald and Sandra Tanner", "New Jerusalem", "John Taylor (Mormon)", "Utah State Historical Society", "Expulsion of Mormons from Jackson County, Missouri", "United States Army", "Trinity", "Reed Smoot hearings", "John Whitmer Historical Association", "Internet Archive", "PTSD", "Bonneville International", "Columbia University Press", "Bear River Massacre", "BBC", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Missouri", "United Press International", "U.S. Episcopal Church", "U.S. National Park Service", "Axios (website)", "Great Apostasy", "historicity of the Book of Mormon", "List of temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith", "Early Christianity", "Religious Research Association", "psychotherapy", "Degrees of glory", "Oxford University Press", "Resurrection of Jesus Christ", "Missouri", "genealogical research", "Gethsemane", "Pearson Education", "Homoousian", "sermon", "1838 Mormon War", "Deseret Industries", "Current state of polygamy in the Latter Day Saint movement", "Governor (United States)", "Encyclopedia of American Religions", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Sunday School (LDS Church)", "FamilySearch", "Church Office Building", "Complementarianism", "Peabody Awards", "evangelicals", "Islamic Relief", "The American Indian Quarterly", "Agency (sociology)", "Daily Herald (Utah)", "Greenwood Press", "ceremony", "Parish (Catholic Church)", "Christian denomination", "List of denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Australia", "The New Yorker", "Primary (LDS Church)", "Western Folklore", "Protestant", "Psychology Today", "celestial marriage", "U.S. Government Printing Office", "Care International", "Angel Moroni", "Kirtland, Ohio", "The Wall Street Journal", "Wilford Woodruff", "Adam and Eve in Mormonism", "Far West, Missouri", "KSL-FM", "Mississippi River", "Alfred Cumming (governor)", "Cambridge University Press", "Temple (LDS Church)", "KTVX", "World Religion News", "Young Women (organization)", "Independence Hall Association", "List of attacks against Latter-day Saint churches", "Hill Cumorah", "Zion (Latter Day Saints)", "Encyclopedia of Mormonism", "new religious movement", "Time (magazine)", "temple garment", "Prophet, seer, and revelator", "Church Historian", "The Farmville Herald", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Salt Lake City", "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo", "Religious calling", "corporation sole", "Heber J. Grant", "McGraw Hill", "Zion's Camp", "Mormonism and Judaism", "Godhead (Latter Day Saints)", "Utah", "Criticism of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "USA Today", "President of the Church", "Salt Lake City", "law of consecration", "Religion News Service", "Exaltation (Latter Day Saints)", "Missionaries (LDS Church)", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in India", "developing nations", "Family Home Evening", "Bloomberg Businessweek", "Mormon Corridor", "Priesthood Correlation Program", "baptism for the dead", "The John Whitmer Historical Association Journal", "Salt Lake City, Utah", "Catholic Church", "Killing of Joseph Smith", "BBC News Online", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States", "civil rights movement", "nontrinitarian", "civil rights", "bishop's storehouse", "Columbia Encyclopedia", "Mormon missionary", "Nebraska", "American Experience", "McFarland & Company", "clergy–penitent privilege", "All Things Considered", "Oxford Research Encyclopedias", "Relationship counseling", "Granite Mountain Records Vault", "Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health", "Brigham Young University–Idaho", "Nauvoo Expositor", "Mormon fundamentalism", "LGBTQ Nation", "Major depressive disorder", "Endowment (Latter Day Saints)", "Seventy (LDS Church)", "Time Magazine", "Excommunication", "Truth & Transparency Foundation", "Eucharist", "Mormon teachings on skin color", "Indian Placement Program", "golden plates", "Dedication (ritual)", "Harvest House Publishers", "Terry Mattingly", "afterlife", "Very Short Introductions", "Ordain Women", "New Testament", "Belknap Press of Harvard University Press", "Ward (LDS Church)", "Ritual", "Priesthood (LDS Church)", "University of Illinois Press", "Marlin K. Jensen", "Latin America", "Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act", "Mormonism and Islam", "White House", "Slate (magazine)", "Intervention (counseling)", "pre-existence", "Philanthropy Roundtable", "Google Books", "Routledge", "Penguin Books", "Membership statistics of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (United States)", "Mark Hofmann", "Judeo-Christian", "Mormon corridor", "1890 Manifesto", "ABC-CLIO", "The Book of Mormon (musical)", "Mainline Protestant", "Second Coming (LDS Church)", "Apostle (Latter Day Saints)", "East Valley Tribune", "Journal of Discourses", "Fast Sunday", "WBUR-FM", "Presiding Bishop (LDS Church)", "Carthage, Illinois", "polygamy", "Richmond Times-Dispatch", "FamilySearch Library", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "University of Virginia", "restorationist", "Latter Day Saint movement", "LGBTQ Mormon suicides", "Crucifixion of Jesus", "The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)", "Journal of Counseling Psychology", "Manti Utah Temple", "Authorized King James Version", "Manchester (town), New York", "British English", "Mormonism and slavery", "Social Science Research Network", "Nevada", "Lamanites", "Monongahela, Pennsylvania", "Jello salad", "Daily Utah Chronicle", "resurrection of Jesus", "Area (LDS Church)", "Missouri Executive Order 44", "prophet, seer, and revelator", "Baptism for the dead", "Mormon Tabernacle Choir", "funeral potatoes", "Sacrament (LDS Church)", "Atonement in Christianity", "Degrees of Glory", "priesthood blessing", "Universal Publishers (United States)", "Nephites", "God in Mormonism", "Utah Medical Cannabis Act initiative", "Beirut, Lebanon", "prophet, seer and revelator", "KUTV", "Anachronisms in the Book of Mormon", "family", "Scouting", "Christianity Today", "Mormon pioneers", "Mormonism and polygamy", "apostolic succession", "Joseph Smith", "Young Men (organization)", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in South Africa", "LDS edition of the Bible", "Death of Joseph Smith", "KGO-TV", "Orthodox Christian", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints views on cannabis", "Academia.edu", "Bertel Thorvaldsen", "Nauvoo, Illinois", "Mormonism and women", "Relief Society", "curse of Ham", "McFarland Publishing", "J. Willard Marriott Library" ]
5,936	Chemical thermodynamics	Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics involves not only laboratory measurements of various thermodynamic properties, but also the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and the spontaneity of processes. The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics. Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the "fundamental equations of Gibbs" can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics. ==History== In 1865, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, in his Mechanical Theory of Heat, suggested that the principles of thermochemistry, e.g. the heat evolved in combustion reactions, could be applied to the principles of thermodynamics. Building on the work of Clausius, between the years 1873-76 the American mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs published a series of three papers, the most famous one being the paper On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. In these papers, Gibbs showed how the first two laws of thermodynamics could be measured graphically and mathematically to determine both the thermodynamic equilibrium of chemical reactions as well as their tendencies to occur or proceed. Gibbs’ collection of papers provided the first unified body of thermodynamic theorems from the principles developed by others, such as Clausius and Sadi Carnot. During the early 20th century, two major publications successfully applied the principles developed by Gibbs to chemical processes and thus established the foundation of the science of chemical thermodynamics. The first was the 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall. This book was responsible for supplanting the chemical affinity with the term free energy in the English-speaking world. The second was the 1933 book Modern Thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs written by E. A. Guggenheim. In this manner, Lewis, Randall, and Guggenheim are considered as the founders of modern chemical thermodynamics because of the major contribution of these two books in unifying the application of thermodynamics to chemistry. In this manner, chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes: Chemical reactions Phase changes The formation of solutions The following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics: Internal energy (U) Enthalpy (H) Entropy (S) Gibbs free energy (G) Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions. The three laws of thermodynamics (global, unspecific forms): The energy of the universe is constant. In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in entropy of the universe. The entropy of a perfect crystal (well ordered) at 0 Kelvin is zero. ==Chemical energy== Chemical energy is the energy that can be released when chemical substances undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction. Breaking and making chemical bonds involves energy release or uptake, often as heat that may be either absorbed by or evolved from the chemical system. Energy released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between chemical substances ("reactants") is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants. This change in energy is called the change in internal energy of a chemical system. It can be calculated from \Delta_{\rm f}U^{\rm o}_{\mathrm {reactants}}, the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules related to the bond energies of the molecules under consideration, and \Delta_{\rm f}U^{\rm o}_{\mathrm {products}}, the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The change in internal energy is equal to the heat change if it is measured under conditions of constant volume (at STP condition), as in a closed rigid container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, at constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat is usually not equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change; in this case the widely tabulated enthalpies of formation are used.) A related term is the heat of combustion, which is the chemical energy released due to a combustion reaction and of interest in the study of fuels. Food is similar to hydrocarbon and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized, its energy release is similar (though assessed differently than for a hydrocarbon fuel — see food energy). In chemical thermodynamics, the term used for the chemical potential energy is chemical potential, and sometimes the Gibbs-Duhem equation is used. ==Chemical reactions== In most cases of interest in chemical thermodynamics there are internal degrees of freedom and processes, such as chemical reactions and phase transitions, which create entropy in the universe unless they are at equilibrium or are maintained at a "running equilibrium" through "quasi-static" changes by being coupled to constraining devices, such as pistons or electrodes, to deliver and receive external work. Even for homogeneous "bulk" systems, the free-energy functions depend on the composition, as do all the extensive thermodynamic potentials, including the internal energy. If the quantities { Ni }, the number of chemical species, are omitted from the formulae, it is impossible to describe compositional changes. ===Gibbs function or Gibbs Energy=== For an unstructured, homogeneous "bulk" system, there are still various extensive compositional variables { Ni } that G depends on, which specify the composition (the amounts of each chemical substance, expressed as the numbers of molecules present or the numbers of moles). Explicitly, G = G(T,P,\{N_i\})\,. For the case where only PV work is possible, \mathrm{d}G = -S\, \mathrm{d}T + V \, \mathrm{d}P + \sum_i \mu_i \, \mathrm{d}N_i \, a restatement of the fundamental thermodynamic relation, in which μi is the chemical potential for the i-th component in the system \mu_i = \left( \frac{\partial G}{\partial N_i}\right)_{T,P,N_{j\ne i},etc. } \,. The expression for dG is especially useful at constant T and P, conditions, which are easy to achieve experimentally and which approximate the conditions in living creatures (\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = \sum_i \mu_i \, \mathrm{d}N_i\,. ===Chemical affinity=== While this formulation is mathematically defensible, it is not particularly transparent since one does not simply add or remove molecules from a system. There is always a process involved in changing the composition; e.g., a chemical reaction (or many), or movement of molecules from one phase (liquid) to another (gas or solid). We should find a notation which does not seem to imply that the amounts of the components ( Ni ) can be changed independently. All real processes obey conservation of mass, and in addition, conservation of the numbers of atoms of each kind. Consequently, we introduce an explicit variable to represent the degree of advancement of a process, a progress variable ξ for the extent of reaction (Prigogine & Defay, p. 18; Prigogine, pp. 4–7; Guggenheim, p. 37.62), and to the use of the partial derivative ∂G/∂ξ (in place of the widely used "ΔG", since the quantity at issue is not a finite change). The result is an understandable expression for the dependence of dG on chemical reactions (or other processes). If there is just one reaction (\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = \left( \frac{\partial G}{\partial \xi}\right)_{T,P} \, \mathrm{d}\xi.\, If we introduce the stoichiometric coefficient for the i-th component in the reaction \nu_i = \partial N_i / \partial \xi \, (negative for reactants), which tells how many molecules of i are produced or consumed, we obtain an algebraic expression for the partial derivative \left( \frac{\partial G}{\partial \xi} \right)_{T,P} = \sum_i \mu_i \nu_i = -\mathbb{A}\, where we introduce a concise and historical name for this quantity, the "affinity", symbolized by A, as introduced by Théophile de Donder in 1923.(De Donder; Progogine & Defay, p. 69; Guggenheim, pp. 37, 240) The minus sign ensures that in a spontaneous change, when the change in the Gibbs free energy of the process is negative, the chemical species have a positive affinity for each other. The differential of G takes on a simple form that displays its dependence on composition change (\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = -\mathbb{A}\, d\xi \,. If there are a number of chemical reactions going on simultaneously, as is usually the case, (\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = -\sum_k\mathbb{A}_k\, d\xi_k \,. with a set of reaction coordinates { ξj }, avoiding the notion that the amounts of the components ( Ni ) can be changed independently. The expressions above are equal to zero at thermodynamic equilibrium, while they are negative when chemical reactions proceed at a finite rate, producing entropy. This can be made even more explicit by introducing the reaction rates dξj/dt. For every physically independent process (Prigogine & Defay, p. 38; Prigogine, p. 24) \mathbb{A}\ \dot{\xi} \le 0 \,. This is a remarkable result since the chemical potentials are intensive system variables, depending only on the local molecular milieu. They cannot "know" whether temperature and pressure (or any other system variables) are going to be held constant over time. It is a purely local criterion and must hold regardless of any such constraints. Of course, it could have been obtained by taking partial derivatives of any of the other fundamental state functions, but nonetheless is a general criterion for (−T times) the entropy production from that spontaneous process; or at least any part of it that is not captured as external work. (See Constraints below.) We now relax the requirement of a homogeneous "bulk" system by letting the chemical potentials and the affinity apply to any locality in which a chemical reaction (or any other process) is occurring. By accounting for the entropy production due to irreversible processes, the equality for dG is now replaced by \mathrm{d}G = - S \, \mathrm{d}T + V \, \mathrm{d}P -\sum_k\mathbb{A}_k\, \mathrm{d}\xi_k + \mathrm{\delta} W'\, or \mathrm{d}G_{T,P} = -\sum_k\mathbb{A}_k\, \mathrm{d}\xi_k + \mathrm{\delta} W'.\, Any decrease in the Gibbs function of a system is the upper limit for any isothermal, isobaric work that can be captured in the surroundings, or it may simply be dissipated, appearing as T times a corresponding increase in the entropy of the system and its surrounding. Or it may go partly toward doing external work and partly toward creating entropy. The important point is that the extent of reaction for a chemical reaction may be coupled to the displacement of some external mechanical or electrical quantity in such a way that one can advance only if the other also does. The coupling may occasionally be rigid, but it is often flexible and variable. ===Solutions=== In solution chemistry and biochemistry, the Gibbs free energy decrease (∂G/∂ξ, in molar units, denoted cryptically by ΔG) is commonly used as a surrogate for (−T times) the global entropy produced by spontaneous chemical reactions in situations where no work is being done; or at least no "useful" work; i.e., other than perhaps ± P dV. The assertion that all spontaneous reactions have a negative ΔG is merely a restatement of the second law of thermodynamics, giving it the physical dimensions of energy and somewhat obscuring its significance in terms of entropy. When no useful work is being done, it would be less misleading to use the Legendre transforms of the entropy appropriate for constant T, or for constant T and P, the Massieu functions −F/T and −G/T, respectively. ==Non-equilibrium== Generally the systems treated with the conventional chemical thermodynamics are either at equilibrium or near equilibrium. Ilya Prigogine developed the thermodynamic treatment of open systems that are far from equilibrium. In doing so he has discovered phenomena and structures of completely new and completely unexpected types. His generalized, nonlinear and irreversible thermodynamics has found surprising applications in a wide variety of fields. The non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how ordered structures e.g. the biological systems, can develop from disorder. Even if Onsager's relations are utilized, the classical principles of equilibrium in thermodynamics still show that linear systems close to equilibrium always develop into states of disorder which are stable to perturbations and cannot explain the occurrence of ordered structures. Prigogine called these systems dissipative systems, because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes which take place because of the exchange of energy between the system and its environment and because they disappear if that exchange ceases. They may be said to live in symbiosis with their environment. The method which Prigogine used to study the stability of the dissipative structures to perturbations is of very great general interest. It makes it possible to study the most varied problems, such as city traffic problems, the stability of insect communities, the development of ordered biological structures and the growth of cancer cells to mention but a few examples. ===System constraints=== In this regard, it is crucial to understand the role of walls and other constraints, and the distinction between independent processes and coupling. Contrary to the clear implications of many reference sources, the previous analysis is not restricted to homogeneous, isotropic bulk systems which can deliver only PdV work to the outside world, but applies even to the most structured systems. There are complex systems with many chemical "reactions" going on at the same time, some of which are really only parts of the same, overall process. An independent process is one that could proceed even if all others were unaccountably stopped in their tracks. Understanding this is perhaps a "thought experiment" in chemical kinetics, but actual examples exist. A gas-phase reaction at constant temperature and pressure which results in an increase in the number of molecules will lead to an increase in volume. Inside a cylinder closed with a piston, it can proceed only by doing work on the piston. The extent variable for the reaction can increase only if the piston moves out, and conversely if the piston is pushed inward, the reaction is driven backwards. Similarly, a redox reaction might occur in an electrochemical cell with the passage of current through a wire connecting the electrodes. The half-cell reactions at the electrodes are constrained if no current is allowed to flow. The current might be dissipated as Joule heating, or it might in turn run an electrical device like a motor doing mechanical work. An automobile lead-acid battery can be recharged, driving the chemical reaction backwards. In this case as well, the reaction is not an independent process. Some, perhaps most, of the Gibbs free energy of reaction may be delivered as external work. The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and phosphate can drive the force-times-distance work delivered by living muscles, and synthesis of ATP is in turn driven by a redox chain in mitochondria and chloroplasts, which involves the transport of ions across the membranes of these cellular organelles. The coupling of processes here, and in the previous examples, is often not complete. Gas can leak slowly past a piston, just as it can slowly leak out of a rubber balloon. Some reaction may occur in a battery even if no external current is flowing. There is usually a coupling coefficient, which may depend on relative rates, which determines what percentage of the driving free energy is turned into external work, or captured as "chemical work", a misnomer for the free energy of another chemical process.	[ "spontaneous process", "electric current", "Solution (chemistry)", "Identity (mathematics)", "Willard Gibbs", "Ilya Prigogine", "phosphate", "Work (thermodynamics)", "Calorimeter", "Gibbs free energy", "electrochemistry", "E. A. Guggenheim", "automobile", "bond energy", "distance", "Open system (systems theory)", "laws of thermodynamics", "mechanical work", "Entropy", "electric motor", "thermodynamic potentials", "Rudolf Clausius", "heat", "chemistry", "thermodynamic equilibrium", "atom", "force", "stoichiometric coefficient", "balloon", "Thermodynamic databases for pure substances", "organelle", "conservation of mass", "wire", "Variable (mathematics)", "expression (mathematics)", "biochemistry", "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", "combustion", "internal energy", "muscle", "phase transition", "food energy", "dissipative systems", "dimensional analysis", "Standard enthalpy change of formation", "isobaric process", "entropy production", "state function", "heat of combustion", "ion", "Chemical reaction", "thermodynamics", "energy", "isotropy", "extensive quantity", "mole (unit)", "life", "chloroplast", "rubber", "extent of reaction", "Enthalpy", "Conservation of energy", "Phase changes", "Merle Randall", "chemical reaction", "degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)", "redox", "cell (biology)", "thermodynamic state", "thermochemistry", "isothermal process", "lead", "battery (electricity)", "chemical compound", "coefficient", "Gilbert N. Lewis", "Joule heating", "Mitochondrion", "component (thermodynamics)", "partial derivative", "second law of thermodynamics", "Théophile de Donder", "thermodynamic system", "fundamental thermodynamic relation", "chemical substance", "chemical species", "chemical potential", "electrode", "Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot", "piston", "acid", "Gibbs function", "surroundings", "Legendre transformation", "symbiosis", "thought experiment", "Combustion", "chemical kinetics", "non-equilibrium thermodynamics", "entropy", "chemical affinity", "enthalpy", "hydrolysis", "Adenosine triphosphate", "adenosine diphosphate", "fuels", "Gibbs-Duhem equation", "dissipation", "thermodynamic free energy", "Internal energy" ]
5,938	Standard works	The Standard Works of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church, the largest in the Latter Day Saint movement) are the four books that currently constitute its open scriptural canon. The four books of the standard works are: The Authorized King James Version (KJV) as the official scriptural text of the Bible (other versions of the Bible are used in non-English-speaking countries) The Book of Mormon, subtitled since 1981 "Another Testament of Jesus Christ" The Doctrine and Covenants (D&C) The Pearl of Great Price (containing the Book of Moses, the Book of Abraham, Joseph Smith–Matthew, Joseph Smith–History, and the Articles of Faith) The Standard Works are printed and distributed by the LDS Church both in a single binding called a quadruple combination and as a set of two books, with the Bible in one binding, and the other three books in a second binding called a triple combination. Current editions of the Standard Works include a number of non-canonical study aids, including a Bible dictionary, photographs, maps and gazetteer, topical guide, index, footnotes, cross references, and excerpts from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. The scriptural canon is "open" due to the Latter-day Saint belief in continuous revelation. Additions can be made to the scriptural canon with the "common consent" of the church's membership. Other branches of the Latter Day Saint movement reject some of the Standard Works or add other scriptures, such as the Book of the Law of the Lord and The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel. ==Differences in canonicity across sects== Canons of various Latter Day Saint denominations reject some of the Standard Works canonized by the LDS Church or have included additional works. For instance, the Bickertonite sect does not consider the Pearl of Great Price or D&C to be scriptural. Rather, they believe that the New Testament scriptures contain a true description of the church as established by Jesus Christ, and that both the King James Version of the Bible and the Book of Mormon are the inspired word of God. Some Latter Day Saint denominations accept earlier versions of the Standard Works or work to develop corrected translations. Others have purportedly received additional revelations. The Community of Christ points to Jesus Christ as the living Word of God, and it affirms the Bible, along with the Book of Mormon, as well as its own regularly appended version of D&C as scripture for the church. While it publishes a version of the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible—which includes material from the Book of Moses—Community of Christ also accepts the use of other English translations of the Bible, such as the standard King James Version and the New Revised Standard Version. Like the Bickertonites, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) rejects the D&C and the Pearl of Great Price, as well as the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, preferring to use only the King James Bible and the Book of Mormon as doctrinal standards. The Book of Commandments is accepted as being superior to the D&Cs as a compendium of Smith's early revelations but is not accorded the same status as the Bible or the Book of Mormon. The Word of the Lord and The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel are two related books considered to be scriptural by Fettingite factions that separated from the Temple Lot church. Both books contain revelations said to be given to former Church of Christ (Temple Lot) apostle Otto Fetting by an angelic being who said he was John the Baptist. The latter title (120 messages) contains the entirety of the former's material (30 message) with additional revelations (90 messages) said to be given to William A. Draves by this same being, after Fetting's death. Neither are accepted by the larger Temple Lot body of believers. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) considers the Bible (when correctly translated), the Book of Mormon, and editions of the D&C published prior to Joseph Smith's death (which contained the Lectures on Faith) to be inspired scripture. They also hold the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible to be inspired, but do not believe modern publications of the text are accurate. Other portions of the Pearl of Great Price, however, are not considered to be scriptural—though are not necessarily fully rejected either. The Book of Jasher was consistently used by both Joseph Smith and James Strang, but as with other Latter Day Saint denominations and sects, there is no official stance on its authenticity, and it is not considered canonical. This sect likewise holds as scriptural several prophecies, visions, revelations, and translations printed by James Strang, and published in the Revelations of James J. Strang. An additional work, called The Book of the Law of the Lord, is also accepted as inspired scripture by the Strangites. They likewise hold as scriptural several prophecies, visions, revelations, and translations printed by James Strang, and published in the Revelations of James J. Strang. Among other things, this text contains his purported "Letter of Appointment" from Joseph Smith and his translation of the Voree plates. The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) accepts the following as scripture: the Inspired Version of the Bible (including the Book of Moses and Joseph Smith–Matthew), the Book of Mormon, and the 1844 edition of the D&C (including the Lectures on Faith). However, the revelation on tithing (section 107 in the 1844 edition; 119 in modern LDS Church editions) is emphatically rejected by members of this church, as it is not believed to be given by Joseph Smith. The Book of Abraham is rejected as scripture, as are the other portions of the Pearl of Great Price that do not appear in the Inspired Version of the Bible. Many Latter Day Saint denominations have also either adopted the Articles of Faith or at least view them as a statement of basic theology. (They are considered scriptural by the LDS Church and are included in the Pearl of Great Price.) At times, the Articles of Faith have been adapted to fit the respective belief systems of various faith communities. ==Process of addition or alteration== The D&C teaches that "all things must be done in order, and by common consent in the church". This applies to adding new scripture. LDS Church president Harold B. Lee taught "The only one authorized to bring forth any new doctrine is the President of the Church, who, when he does, will declare it as revelation from God, and it will be so accepted by the Council of the Twelve and sustained by the body of the Church." There are several instances of this happening in the LDS Church: June 9, 1830: First conference of the church, The Articles and Covenants of the Church of Christ, now known as D&C 20. If the Bible and Book of Mormon were not sustained on April 6 then they were by default when the Articles and Covenants were sustained. (see D&C 20:8-11) August 17, 1835: Select revelations from Joseph Smith were unanimously accepted as scripture. These were later printed in the D&C. October 10, 1880: The Pearl of Great Price was unanimously accepted as scripture. Also at that time, other revelations in the Doctrine and Covenants – which had not been accepted as scripture in 1835 because they were received after that date – were unanimously accepted as scripture. October 6, 1890: Official Declaration 1 was accepted unanimously as scripture. It later began to be published in the Doctrine and Covenants. April 3, 1976: Two visions (one received by Joseph Smith and the other by Joseph F. Smith) were accepted as scripture and added to the Pearl of Great Price. (The two visions were later moved to the D&C as sections 137 and 138.) September 30, 1978: Official Declaration 2 was accepted unanimously as scripture. It immediately was added to the Doctrine and Covenants. When a doctrine undergoes this procedure, the LDS Church treats it as the word of God, and it is used as a standard to compare other doctrines. Lee taught: It is not to be thought that every word spoken by the General Authorities is inspired, or that they are moved upon by the Holy Ghost in everything they speak and write. Now you keep that in mind. I don't care what his position is, if he writes something or speaks something that goes beyond anything that you can find in the standard works, unless that one be the prophet, seer, and revelator—please note that one exception—you may immediately say, "Well, that is his own idea!" And if he says something that contradicts what is found in the standard works (I think that is why we call them "standard"—it is the standard measure of all that men teach), you may know by that same token that it is false; regardless of the position of the man who says it. ==The Bible== English-speaking Latter-day Saints typically study a custom edition of the KJV, which includes custom chapter headings, footnotes referencing books in the Standard Works, and select passages from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. Though the KJV was always commonly used, it was officially adopted in the 1950s when J. Reuben Clark, of the church's First Presidency, argued extensively that newer translations, such as Revised Standard Version (RSV) of 1952, were of lower quality and less compatible with LDS Church tradition. After publishing its own KJV edition in 1979, the First Presidency announced in 1992 that the KJV was the church's official English Bible, stating: "[w]hile other Bible versions may be easier to read than the King James Version, in doctrinal matters latter-day revelation supports the King James Version in preference to other English translations." In 2010, this statement was written into the church's Handbook, which directs official church policy and programs. A Spanish version, with a similar format and using a slightly revised version of the 1909 Reina-Valera translation, was published in 2009. Latter-day Saints in other non-English speaking areas may use other versions of the Bible. Though the Bible is part of the LDS Church's canon and members believe it to be the word of God, they believe that errors, omissions, and mistranslations are present in even the earliest known Biblical manuscripts. They state that the errors in the Bible have led to incorrect interpretations of certain passages. Thus, as Joseph Smith explained, the church believes the Bible to be the word of God "as far as it is translated correctly". The LDS Church teaches that "[t]he most reliable way to measure the accuracy of any biblical passage is not by comparing different texts, but by comparison with the Book of Mormon and modern-day revelations". and therefore it is not included in the LDS Church's canon and is rarely studied by its members. However, it is still printed in every version of the KJV published by the church. ===The Apocrypha=== Although the Apocrypha was part of the 1611 edition of the KJV, the LDS Church does not currently use the Apocrypha as part of its canon. Joseph Smith taught that while the contemporary edition of the Apocrypha was not to be relied on for doctrine, it was potentially useful when read with a spirit of discernment. ===Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible=== Joseph Smith translated selected verses of the Bible, working by subject. His complete work is known as the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, or the Inspired Version. Although this selected translation is not generally quoted by church members, the English Bible issued by the church and commonly used by Latter-day Saints contains cross-references to the Joseph Smith Translation (JST), as well as an appendix containing longer excerpts from it. Excerpts that were too long to include in the Bible appendix are included in the Pearl of Great Price as the Book of Moses (for Genesis 1:1-6:13) and Joseph Smith-Matthew (for Matthew 23:39-24:51 and Mark 13). ==The Book of Mormon== LDS Church members, and others in the Latter Day Saint movement, consider the Book of Mormon a volume of holy scripture comparable to the Bible. It contains a record of God's dealings with the prophets and ancient inhabitants of the Americas. The introduction to the book asserts that it "contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting gospel. The book was written by many ancient prophets by the spirit of prophecy and revelation. Their words, written on gold plates, were quoted and abridged by a prophet-historian named Mormon." Segments of the Book of Mormon provide an account of the culture, religious teachings, and civilizations of some of the groups who immigrated to the New World. One came from Jerusalem in 600 B.C., and afterward separated into two nations, identified in the book as the Nephites and the Lamanites. Some years after their arrival, the Nephites met with a similar group, the Mulekites who left the Middle East during the same period. An older group arrived in America much earlier, when the Lord confounded the tongues at the Tower of Babel. This group is known as the Jaredites and their story is condensed in the Book of Ether. The crowning event recorded in the Book of Mormon is the personal ministry of Jesus Christ among Nephites soon after his resurrection. This account presents the doctrines of the gospel, outlines the plan of salvation, and offers men peace in this life and eternal salvation in the life to come. The latter segments of the Book of Mormon detail the destruction of these civilizations, as all were destroyed except the Lamanites. The book asserts that the Lamanites are among the ancestors of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. According to his record, Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon by gift and power of God through a set of interpreters, later referred to as the Urim and Thummim. Eleven witnesses signed testimonies of its authenticity, which are now included in the preface to the Book of Mormon. The Three Witnesses testified to have seen an angel present the golden plates and to have heard God bear witness to its truth. Eight others stated that Joseph Smith showed them the golden plates and that they handled and examined them. ==The Doctrine and Covenants== The LDS Church's D&C is a collection of revelations, policies, letters, and statements given to the modern church by past church presidents. This record contains points of church doctrine and direction on church government. The book has existed in numerous forms, with varying content, throughout the history of the church and has also been published in differing formats by the various Latter Day Saint denominations. When the church chooses to canonize new material, it is typically added to the D&C; the most recent changes were made in 1981. ==The Pearl of Great Price== The Pearl of Great Price is a selection of material produced by Joseph Smith and deals with many significant aspects of the faith and doctrine of the church. Many of these materials were initially published in church periodicals in the early days of the church. The Pearl of Great Price contains five sections: Selections from the Book of Moses: portions of the Book of Genesis from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. The Book of Abraham: a translation from papyri acquired by Smith in 1835, dealing with Abraham's journeys in Egypt. The work contains many distinctive Mormon doctrines such as exaltation. Joseph Smith–Matthew: portions of the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Mark from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. Joseph Smith–History: a first-person narrative of Smith's life before the founding of the church. The material is taken from Documentary History of the Church and is based on a history written by Smith in 1838. The Articles of Faith: concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of Mormonism composed by Smith in 1842. ==Table of canonicity== All denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement listed below use the same canon of the Book of Mormon. Other uses and content vary among their respective canons.	[ "baptism for the dead", "Independence, Missouri", "plural marriage", "Quorum (Latter Day Saints)", "theology", "degrees of glory", "continuous revelation", "Plates of Nephi", "Quorum of the Twelve", "Moses", "Book of Mormon", "President of the Church (LDS Church)", "Thomas B. Marsh", "Brigham Young", "Church of Christ (Fettingite)", "1978 Revelation on Priesthood", "Religious text", "List of non-canonical revelations in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Hyrum Smith", "Presiding Bishopric (Community of Christ)", "Jesse Gause", "Deseret News", "Gospel of Matthew", "Lectures on Faith", "1 Corinthians", "Joseph Smith–History", "United Order", "David W. Patten", "Graceland University", "Bishop (Latter Day Saints)", "Satan", "Nauvoo House", "Revised Standard Version", "Letter of Appointment (Mormonism)", "New Revised Standard Version", "Bible errata", "Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)", "William Marks (Latter Day Saints)", "Americas", "Branch (Latter Day Saint movement)", "Sacred texts", "Reynolds Cahoon", "Book of Joseph (Latter Day Saints)", "William E. McLellin", "The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel", "John Whitmer", "Plural marriage", "W. W. Phelps (Mormon)", "John Gould (Mormon)", "The Book of the Law of the Lord", "Kinderhook plates", "resurrection", "papyrus", "New Testament", "Exaltation (Mormonism)", "Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite)", "Christian biblical canons", "Eight Witnesses", "Elijah", "sealing power", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Reina-Valera", "Ziba Peterson", "Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible", "Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)", "Ensign (LDS magazine)", "Wentworth letter", "Oliver Granger", "Gospel of Mark", "Orson Hyde", "Angel", "Book of Ether", "Book of the Law of the Lord", "Parable of the Tares", "s:The Book of Mormon", "Egypt", "Mormon", "Documentary History of the Church", "Mulekites", "Harold B. Lee", "Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints)", "Patriarch (Latter Day Saints)", "Kirtland Temple", "Church Educational System", "Sidney Rigdon", "Jackson County, Missouri", "King James Version", "1890 Manifesto", "scripture", "Newel K. Whitney", "Tower of Babel", "W. A. Draves", "Jaredite", "Handbook (LDS Church)", "Jesus Christ", "List of denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement", "John the Apostle", "Brigham Young University", "History of the Church (Joseph Smith)", "Articles of Faith (Latter Day Saints)", "Common consent (Latter Day Saints)", "Common consent (Mormonism)", "Lyman E. Johnson", "Doctrine and Covenants", "celestial marriage", "Latter Day Saint movement", "Otto Fetting", "Discernment of spirits", "God the Father", "Nauvoo Temple", "The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)", "Book of Isaiah", "gazetteer", "First Presidency", "First Presidency (LDS Church)", "s:The Pearl of Great Price", "Seer stone (Latter Day Saints)", "Book of Commandments", "List of presidents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Council on the Disposition of the Tithes", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Joseph F. Smith", "One Mighty and Strong", "s:Bible (King James)", "Handbook 2: Administering the Church", "Urim and Thummim (Latter Day Saints)", "Far West, Missouri", "Stake (Mormonism)", "Authorized King James Version", "Book of Moses", "Sefer haYashar (midrash)", "Tithe", "Official Declaration 2", "Book of Abraham", "English language", "s:The Doctrine and Covenants", "John the Baptist", "Lamanites", "Luke Johnson (Mormon)", "Millennial Star", "Second Coming", "Moroni (Book of Mormon prophet)", "U.S. Library of Congress", "Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)", "Enoch (ancestor of Noah)", "Presiding high council", "language", "Zion (Latter Day Saints)", "Three Witnesses", "Adam-ondi-Ahman", "John Murdock (Mormon)", "Bible translations into English", "Parley P. Pratt", "Joseph Smith Papyri", "Nephites", "Apocrypha", "Church of Christ (Temple Lot)", "The Word of the Lord", "United States Constitution", "Community of Christ", "Jared Carter (Latter Day Saints)", "Lyman R. Sherman", "James Strang", "Zion's Camp", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Official Declaration 1", "Word of Wisdom", "Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)", "Joseph Smith", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "LDS edition of the Bible", "Death of Joseph Smith", "Joseph Smith–Matthew", "Temple (Latter Day Saints)", "Mormon pioneer", "Independence Temple", "Bible Dictionary (LDS Church)", "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)", "Book of Revelation", "Spirit world (Latter Day Saints)", "Frederick G. Williams", "Warren A. Cowdery", "Voree plates", "angel", "Song of Solomon", "Iowa", "J. Reuben Clark", "Abraham" ]
5,942	History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints	The history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has three main periods, described generally as: the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, which is in common with most Latter Day Saint movement churches; the "pioneer era" under the leadership of Brigham Young and his 19th-century successors; the modern era beginning in the early 20th century as the practice of polygamy was discontinued and many members sought reintegration into U.S. society. The LDS Church originated in the burned-over district within Western New York. Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was raised in this region during the Second Great Awakening. Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon, which he said was a translation of inscriptions found on a set of golden plates buried near his home in Upstate New York by an Indigenous American prophet named Moroni. On April 6, 1830, at the home of Peter Whitmer in Fayette, New York, Smith organized the religion's first legal church entity, the Church of Christ, which grew rapidly under Smith's leadership. The main body of the church moved first to Kirtland, Ohio, in the early 1830s, then to Missouri in 1838, where the 1838 Mormon War with other Missouri settlers ensued. On October 27, 1838, Lilburn W. Boggs, the Governor of Missouri, signed Missouri Executive Order 44, which called to expel adherents from the state. Approximately 15,000 Mormons fled to Illinois after their surrender at Far West on November 1, 1838. After fleeing from Missouri, Smith founded the city of Nauvoo, Illinois, which grew rapidly. When Smith was killed, Nauvoo had a population of about 12,000 people, nearly all members of Smith's church. After his death, a succession crisis ensued and the majority voted to accept the Quorum of the Twelve, led by Brigham Young, as the church's leading body. After suffering persecution in Illinois, Young left Nauvoo in 1846 and led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, to Salt Lake Valley. The Mormon pioneers then branched out to pioneer a large state called Deseret, establishing colonies that spanned from Canada to Mexico. Young incorporated the LDS Church as a legal entity and governed his followers as a theocratic leader, assuming both political and religious positions. He also publicized the previously secret practice of plural marriage, a form of polygamy. By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Latter-day Saints and other Americans, largely as a result of the teachings on polygamy and theocracy. During the Utah War, from 1857 to 1858, the United States Army conducted an invasion of Utah, after which Young agreed to be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial Governor, Alfred Cumming. The church, however, still wielded significant political power in Utah Territory. Even after Young died in 1877, many members continued the practice of polygamy despite opposition by the United States Congress. When tensions with the U.S. government came to a head in 1890, the church officially abandoned the public practice of polygamy in the United States and eventually stopped performing official polygamous marriages altogether after a Second Manifesto in 1904. Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating members who were found to be practicing polygamy, and today seeks to actively distance itself from polygamist fundamentalist groups. During the 20th century, the church became an international organization. The church first began engaging with mainstream American culture, and then with international cultures. It engaged especially in Latin American countries by sending out thousands of missionaries. The church began publicly supporting monogamy and the nuclear family, and at times played a role in political matters. One of the official changes to the organization during the modern era was the participation of black members in temple ceremonies, which began in 1978, reversing a policy originally instituted by Young. The church has also gradually changed its temple ceremony. There continue to be periodic changes in the structure and organization of the church. ==Early history (1820s to 1846)== Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was raised in Western New York during the Second Great Awakening. Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon. He stated that the book was a translation of characters from an ancient script called reformed Egyptian that he stated was inscribed on gold plates which had been buried near his residence in western New York by an indigenous American prophet. Smith said he had been given the plates from the angel Moroni. On April 6, 1830, in western New York, Smith organized the religion's first legal church entity, the Church of Christ. The church rapidly gained a following who viewed Smith as their prophet. In late 1830, Smith envisioned a "City of Zion", a utopian city in Native American lands near Independence, Missouri. In October 1830, he sent his Assistant President, Oliver Cowdery, and others on a mission to the area. Passing through Kirtland, Ohio, the missionaries converted a congregation of Disciples of Christ led by Sidney Rigdon, and in 1831, Smith decided to temporarily move his followers to Kirtland until lands in the Missouri area could be purchased. In the meantime, the church's headquarters remained in Kirtland from 1831 to 1838 and there the church built its first temple and continued to grow in membership from 680 to 17,881 members. While the main church body was in Kirtland, many of Smith's followers attempted to establish settlements in Missouri but were met with resistance from other Missourians who believed Mormons were abolitionists or who distrusted their political ambitions. After Smith and other Mormons in Kirtland emigrated to Missouri in 1838, hostilities escalated into the 1838 Mormon War, culminating in adherents being expelled from the state under an Extermination Order signed by Lilburn W. Boggs, the governor of Missouri. After Missouri, Smith founded the city of Nauvoo, Illinois as the new church headquarters, and served as the city's mayor and leader of the Nauvoo Legion. As church leader, Smith also instituted the then-secret practice of plural marriage and taught a political system he called "theodemocracy", to be led by a Council of Fifty which had secretly and symbolically anointed him king of this millennial theodemocracy. On June 7, 1844, a newspaper called the Nauvoo Expositor, edited by dissident Mormon William Law, issued a scathing criticism of polygamy and the Nauvoo theocratic government, including a call for church reform based on earlier Mormon principles. In response to the newspaper's publication, Smith and the Nauvoo City Council declared the paper a public nuisance, and ordered the press destroyed. The town marshal carried out the order during the evening of June 10. The destruction of the press led to charges of riot against Smith and other members of the council. After Smith surrendered on the charges, he was also charged with treason against Illinois. While in state custody, he and his brother Hyrum Smith, who was second in line to the church presidency, were killed in a firefight with an angry mob attacking the jail on June 27, 1844. After Smith's death, a succession crisis ensued. In this crisis a number of church leaders campaigned to lead the church. Most adherents voted on August 8, 1844, to accept the leadership of Brigham Young, the senior apostle. Later, adherents bolstered their succession claims by referring to a March 1844 meeting in which Joseph committed the "keys of the kingdom" to a group of members within the Council of Fifty that included the apostles. In addition, by the end of the 1800s, several of Young's followers had published reminiscences recalling that during Young's August 8 speech, he looked or sounded similar to Joseph Smith, which they attributed to the power of God. ==Pioneer era (c. 1846 to c. 1900)== ===Migration to Utah and colonization of the West=== Under the leadership of Brigham Young, church leaders planned to leave Nauvoo, Illinois in April 1846, but amid threats from the state militia, they were forced to cross the Mississippi River in the cold of February. They eventually left the boundaries of the United States to what is now Utah, where they founded Salt Lake City. The groups that left Illinois for Utah became known as the Mormon pioneers and forged a path to Salt Lake City known as the Mormon Trail. The arrival of the Mormon Pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, is commemorated by the Utah State holiday Pioneer Day. Groups of converts from the United States, Canada, Europe, and elsewhere were encouraged to gather in Utah in the following decades. Both the original Mormon migration and subsequent convert migrations resulted in many deaths. Brigham Young organized a great colonization of the American West, with Mormon settlements extending from Canada to Mexico. Notable cities that sprang from early Mormon settlements include San Bernardino, California, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Mesa, Arizona. ===Brigham Young's early theocratic leadership=== Following the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young stated that the church should be led by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (see succession crisis). Later, after the migration to Utah had begun, Young was sustained as a member of the First Presidency on December 25, 1847, and then as President of the Church on October 8, 1848. In the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded the area to the United States. As a result, Brigham Young sent emissaries to Washington, D.C. with a proposal to create a vast State of Deseret, of which Young would be the first governor. Instead, Congress created the much smaller Utah Territory in 1850, and Young was appointed governor in 1851. Because of his religious position, Young exercised much more practical control over the affairs of Mormon and non-Mormon settlers than a typical territorial governor of the time. For most of the 19th century, the LDS Church maintained an ecclesiastical court system parallel to federal courts, and required Mormons to use the system exclusively for civil matters, or face church discipline. ===Mormon Reformation=== In 1856–1858, the church underwent what is commonly called the Mormon Reformation. In 1855, a drought struck the flourishing territory. Very little rain fell, and dependable mountain streams ran very low. An infestation of grasshoppers and crickets destroyed whatever crops the Mormons had managed to salvage. During the winter of 1855–56, flour and other basic necessities were very scarce and costly. In September 1856, as the drought continued, the trials and difficulties led to an explosion of religious fervor. Jedediah M. Grant, a counselor in the First Presidency and a well-known conservative voice in the extended community, preached three days of fiery sermons to the people of Kaysville, Utah territory. He called for repentance and a general recommitment to moral living and religious teachings. 500 people presented themselves for "re-baptism"—a symbol of their determination to reform their lives. The message spread from Kaysville to surrounding Mormon communities. Church leaders traveled around the territory, expressing their concern about signs of spiritual decay and calling for repentance. Members were asked to seal their rededication with re-baptism. Several sermons Willard Richards and George A. Smith had given earlier in the history of the church had touched on the concept of blood atonement, suggesting that apostates could become so enveloped in sin that the voluntary shedding of their own blood might increase their chances of eternal salvation. On September 21, 1856, while calling for sincere repentance, Brigham Young took the idea further, and stated: This belief became ingrained in the church's public image during that period and drew widespread ridicule in Eastern newspapers, particularly in connection with the practice of polygamy. The notion faced consistent criticism from numerous Mormons and was ultimately disavowed as an official doctrine by the LDS Church in 1978. Nevertheless, in contemporary times, critics of the church and some popular writers continue to associate a formal doctrine of blood atonement with the Church. Throughout the winter, special meetings were held and Mormons were urged to adhere to the commandments of God and the practices and precepts of the church. Preaching placed emphasis on the practice of plural marriage, adherence to the Word of Wisdom, attendance at church meetings, and personal prayer. On December 30, 1856, the entire all-Mormon territorial legislature was re-baptized for the remission of their sins, and confirmed under the hands of the Twelve Apostles. As time went on, however, the sermons became intolerant and hysterical. ===Utah War and Mountain Meadows massacre=== In 1857–1858, the church was involved in an armed conflict with the U.S. government, now known as the Utah War. The settlers and the United States government battled for hegemony over the culture and government of the territory. Tensions over the Utah War, the murder of Mormon apostle Parley P. Pratt in Arkansas, and threats of violence from the Baker-Fancher wagon train (and possibly other factors), resulted in rogue Mormon settlers in southern Utah massacring a wagon train from Arkansas, known as Mountain Meadows massacre. The result of the Utah War was the succeeding of the governorship of the Utah territory from Brigham Young to Alfred Cumming, an outsider appointed by President James Buchanan. ===Brigham Young's later years=== The church had attempted unsuccessfully to institute the United Order numerous times, most recently during the Mormon Reformation. In 1874, Young once again attempted to establish a permanent Order, which he called the "United Order of Enoch" in at least 200 LDS Church-established communities, beginning in St. George, Utah on February 9, 1874. In Young's Order, producers typically transferred ownership of their property to the Order itself. All members within the order would then collectively partake in the cooperative's net income, often distributed in proportion to the value of the property initially contributed. Occasionally, members received wages for their labor on the shared property. Much like Joseph Smith's United Order, Young's Order had a brief existence. By the time Young died, most of these Orders had faltered. As the 19th century drew to a close, these Orders had effectively become extinct. Young died in August 1877, but the First Presidency was not reorganized until 1880, when he was succeeded by John Taylor, who in the interim had served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. ===Polygamy and the United States "Mormon question"=== For several decades, polygamy was preached as God's law. Brigham Young, the church's second president, had 56 wives during his life; many other church leaders were also polygamists. This early practice of polygamy caused conflict between church members and the broader American society. In 1854, the Republican party referred in its platform to polygamy and slavery as the "twin relics of barbarism." In 1862, the U.S. Congress enacted the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, signed by Abraham Lincoln, which made bigamy a felony in the territories punishable by $500 or five years in prison. The law also permitted the confiscation of church property without compensation. However, this law was not enforced by the Lincoln administration or by Mormon-controlled territorial probate courts. Moreover, as Mormon polygamist marriages were performed in secret, it was difficult to prove when a polygamist marriage had taken place. In the meantime, Congress was preoccupied with the American Civil War. In 1874, after the war, Congress passed the Poland Act, which transferred jurisdiction over Morrill Act cases to federal prosecutors and courts, which were not controlled by Mormons. In addition, the Morrill Act was upheld in 1878 by the United States Supreme Court in the case of Reynolds v. United States. After Reynolds, Congress became even more aggressive against polygamy, and passed the Edmunds Act in 1882. The Edmunds Act prohibited not just bigamy, which remained a felony, but also bigamous cohabitation, which was prosecuted as a misdemeanor, and did not require proof an actual marriage ceremony had taken place. The Act also vacated the Utah territorial government, created an independent committee to oversee elections to prevent Mormon influence, and disenfranchised any former or present polygamist. Further, the law allowed the government to deny civil rights to polygamists without a trial. In 1887, Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act, which allowed prosecutors to force plural wives to testify against their husbands, abolished the right of women to vote, disincorporated the church, and confiscated the church's property. and the church organization itself had been disincorporated. With the reduction in federal pressure afforded by the Manifesto, however, the church began to re-establish its institutions. ===World Wars=== Throughout both World Wars, the LDS Church maintained a stance of neutrality, focusing on supporting its members spiritually and materially without endorsing any political sides. The church's leaders guided members through these challenging times by bolstering welfare programs and emphasizing faith. The wars notably influenced the LDS Church's international expansion and its role as a global religious organization committed to humanitarian efforts. ==== LDS Church in World War I ==== During World War I, the LDS Church was led by Joseph F. Smith, who navigated the church through the tumultuous period with a focus on neutrality and peace. Many members served in the military, and the church organized welfare and support efforts for those affected by the war. ==== LDS Church in World War II ==== In World War II, the LDS Church, under the leadership of Heber J. Grant, continued its tradition of non-partisanship in global conflicts, while still supporting its members’ decisions to serve in their respective countries’ military forces. The church's extensive welfare system was pivotal during this time, providing support for both members and non-members affected by the war. ===Post-Manifesto polygamy and the Second Manifesto=== The 1890 Manifesto did not, itself, eliminate the practice of new plural marriages, as they continued to occur clandestinely, mostly with church approval and authority. In addition, most Mormon polygamists and every polygamous general authority continued to cohabit with their polygamous wives. Mormon leaders, including Woodruff, maintained that the Manifesto was a temporary expediency designed to enable Utah to obtain statehood and that at some future date, the practice would soon resume. Nevertheless, the 1890 Manifesto provided the church breathing room to obtain Utah's statehood, which it received in 1896 after a campaign to convince the American public that Mormon leaders had abandoned polygamy and intended to stay out of politics. Despite being admitted to the United States, Utah was initially unsuccessful in having its elected representatives and senators seated in the United States Congress. In 1898, Utah elected general authority B.H. Roberts to the United States House of Representatives as a Democrat. Roberts, however, was denied a seat there because he was practicing polygamy. In 1903, the Utah legislature selected Reed Smoot, also an LDS Church general authority but also a monogamist, as its first senator. From 1904 to 1907, the United States Senate conducted a series of Congressional hearings on whether Smoot should be seated. Eventually, the Senate granted Smoot a seat and allowed him to vote. However, the hearings raised controversy as to whether polygamy had actually been abandoned as claimed in the 1890 Manifesto, and whether the LDS Church continued to exercise influence on Utah politics. In response to these hearings, church president Joseph F. Smith issued a Second Manifesto denying that any post-Manifesto marriages had the church's sanction, and announcing that those entering such marriages in the future would be excommunicated. The Second Manifesto did not annul existing plural marriages within the church, and the church tolerated some degree of polygamy into at least the 1930s. However, eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today seeks to actively distance itself from Mormon fundamentalist groups still practicing polygamy. In modern times, members of the Mormon religion do not practice polygamy. ===Involvement in national politics=== ====Relationship to the women's suffrage movement==== In 1870, the Utah Territory had become one of the first polities to grant women the right to vote—a right which the U.S. Congress revoked in 1887 as part of the Edmunds-Tucker Act. As a result, a number of LDS women became active and vocal proponents of women's rights. Of particular note was the LDS journalist and suffragist Emmeline B. Wells, editor of the Woman's Exponent, a Utah feminist newspaper. Wells, who was both a feminist and a polygamist, wrote vocally in favor of a woman's role in the political process and public discourse. National suffrage leaders, however, were somewhat perplexed by the seeming paradox between Utah's progressive stand on women's rights, and the church's stand on polygamy. In 1890, after the church officially renounced polygamy, U.S. suffrage leaders began to embrace Utah's feminism more directly, and in 1891, Utah hosted the Rocky Mountain Suffrage Conference in Salt Lake City, attended by such national feminist leaders as Susan B. Anthony and Anna Howard Shaw. The Utah Woman Suffrage Association, which had been formed in 1889 as a branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association (which in 1890 became the National American Woman Suffrage Association), was then successful in demanding that the constitution of the nascent state of Utah should enfranchise women. In 1896, Utah became the third state in the U.S. to grant women the right to vote. ====Debate over temperance and prohibition==== The LDS Church was actively involved in support of the temperance movement in the 19th century, and later the prohibition movement under the presidency of Heber J. Grant. ====Relationship with socialism and communism==== Mormonism has had a mixed relationship with socialism in its various forms. In the earliest days of Mormonism, Joseph Smith had established a form of Christian communalism, an idea made popular during the Second Great Awakening, combined with a move toward theocracy. Mormons referred to this form of theocratic communalism as the United Order, or the law of consecration. While short-lived during the life of Joseph Smith, the United Order was re-established for a time in several communities of Utah during the theocratic political leadership of Brigham Young. Some aspects of secular socialism also found a place in the political views of Joseph Smith. He ran for President of the United States on a platform that included a nationalized bank aimed at addressing the abuses of private banks. As a secular political leader in Nauvoo, Joseph Smith introduced collective farms to support those lacking property, ensuring sustenance for the poor and their families. Upon reaching Utah, Brigham Young guided the church leadership in advocating for collective industry ownership. In 1876, a circular issued by them emphasized the importance of wealth distribution for liberty, warning against tyranny, oppression, and the vices arising from unequal wealth distribution. The circular, signed by the Quorum of the Twelve and the First Presidency, cautioned that continuous wealth concentration among the rich and deepening poverty among the poor could lead the nation toward disaster. In addition to religious socialism, many Mormons in Utah were interested in the secular socialist movement that began in America during the 1890s. During the 1890s to the 1920s, the Utah Social Democratic Party, which became part of the Socialist Party of America in 1901, elected about 100 socialists to state offices in Utah. An estimated 40% of Utah Socialists were Mormon. Many early socialists visited the Church's cooperative communities in Utah with great interest and were well received by the church leadership. Prominent early socialists such as Albert Brisbane, Victor Prosper Considerant, Plotino Rhodakanaty, Edward Bellamy, and Ruth & Reginald Wright Kauffman showed great interest in the successful cooperative communities of the church in Utah. For example, while doing research for what would become a best selling socialist novel, Looking Backward, Edward Bellamy toured the Church's cooperative communities in Utah and visited with Lorenzo Snow for a week. Ruth & Reginald Wright Kauffman also wrote a book, though this one non-fiction, after visiting the Church in Utah. Their book was titled The Latter Day Saints: A Study of the Mormons in the Light of Economic Conditions, which discussed the Church from a Marxist perspective. Socialist Plotino Rhodakanaty also became a prominent early church member in Mexico, after being baptized by a group of missionaries which included Moses Thatcher. Thatcher kept in touch with Rhodakanaty for years following and was himself perhaps the most prominent member of the church to have openly identified himself as a socialist supporter. Albert Brisbane and Victor Prosper Considerant also visited the church in Utah during its early years, prompting Considerant to note that "thanks to a certain dose of socialist solidarity, the Mormons have in a few years attained a state of unbelievable prosperity". Attributing the peculiar socialist attitudes of the early Mormons to their success in the desert of the western United States was common even among those who were not themselves socialist. For instance, in his book History of Utah, 1540–1886, Hubert Howe Bancroft points out that the Mormons "while not communists, the elements of socialism enter strongly into all their relations, public and private, social, commercial, and industrial, as well as religious and political. This tends to render them exclusive, independent of the gentiles and their government, and even in some respects antagonistic to them. They have assisted each other until nine out of ten own their farms, while commerce and manufacturing are to large extent cooperative. The rights of property are respected; but while a Mormon may sell his farm to a gentile, it would not be deemed good fellowship for him to do so." While religious and secular socialism gained some acceptance among Mormons, the church was more circumspect about Marxist Communism because of its acceptance of violence as a means to achieve revolution. From the time of Joseph Smith, the church had taken a favorable view as to the American Revolution and the necessity at times to violently overthrow the government, however the church viewed the revolutionary nature of Leninist Communism as a threat to the United States Constitution, which the church saw as divinely inspired to ensure the agency of man. In 1936, the First Presidency issued a statement which stated in part that “to support Communism is treasonable to our free institutions, and no patriotic American citizen may become either a Communist or supporter of Communism. ... [N]o loyal American citizen and no faithful church member can be a Communist.” The strident atheism of Marxist thought may have also been considered incompatible with the church's fundamentally religious worldview. In later years, such leaders as Ezra Taft Benson would take a stronger anti-Communist position publicly, his anti-Communism often being anti-leftist in general. However, the stridency of Benson's views was strongly disliked by others in the church's leadership, and even considered a point of embarrassment for the church. Later, Benson would become church president and backed off of his political rhetoric. Toward the end of his presidency, the church even began to discipline church members who had taken Benson's earlier hardline right-wing speeches too much to heart, some of whom claimed that the church had excommunicated them for adhering too closely to Benson's right-wing ideology. ===Institutional reforms=== ====Developments in Church financing==== Soon after the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church was in a dire financial condition. It was recovering from the U.S. crackdown on polygamy, and had difficulty reclaiming property that had been confiscated during polygamy raids. Meanwhile, there was a national recession beginning in 1893. By the late 1890s, the church was about $2 million in debt, and near bankruptcy. In response, Lorenzo Snow, then President of the Church, conducted a campaign to raise the payment of tithing, of which less than 20% of LDS had been paying during the 1890s. After a visit to Saint George, Utah, which had a much higher-than-average percentage of full 10% tithe-payers, Snow felt that he had received a revelation. As a result of Snow's vigorous campaign, tithing payment increased dramatically from 18.4% in 1898 to an eventual peak of 59.3% in 1910. From that time, payment of tithing has been a requirement for temple worship within the faith. During this timeframe, changes were made in stipends for bishops and general authorities. Bishops once received a 10% stipend from tithing funds, but are now purely volunteer. General authorities receive stipends, and formerly received loans from church funds. ====Changes to meeting schedule==== In earlier times, Latter-day Saint meetings occurred every Sunday morning and evening, with additional gatherings throughout the week. This structure was convenient for Utah Saints, as they typically resided within walking distance of a church building. However, outside of Utah, this meeting schedule presented logistical challenges. In 1980, the church implemented the "Consolidated Meeting Schedule," consolidating most church meetings into a three-hour block on Sundays. In 2019, the meeting schedule was condensed into a two-hour block, with meetings during the second hour alternating between Sunday School and gendered (Relief Society / Priesthood) meetings. ====Changes to missionary service==== In 1982, the First Presidency announced that the length of service of male full-time missionaries would be reduced to 18 months. In 1984, a little more than two years later, it was announced that the length of service would be returned to its original length of 24 months. Starting in 1990, paying for a mission became easier on those called to work in industrialized nations. Missionaries began paying into a church-wide general missionary fund instead of paying on their own. The amount paid into the fund does not vary by location; therefore, missionaries serving in low-cost-of-living-areas effectively subsidize missionaries serving in areas with higher costs. ====Changes to church hierarchy and structure==== During the 1960s, the church pursued a Priesthood Correlation Program, which streamlined and centralized the structure of the church. It had begun earlier in 1908, as the Correlation Program. The program increased church control over viewpoints taught in local church meetings. During this time period, priesthood editorial oversight was established of formerly priesthood-auxiliary-specific YMMIA, YLMIA, Relief Society, Primary, and Sunday School magazines. In 1911, the church adopted the Scouting program for its male members of appropriate age. The Priesthood-Auxiliary movement (1928–1937) re-emphasized the church hierarchy around Priesthood, and re-emphasized other church organizations as "priesthood auxiliaries" with reduced autonomy. ===LDS multiculturalism=== As the church began to collide and meld with cultures outside of Utah and the United States, the church began to jettison some of the parochialisms and prejudices that had become part of Latter-day Saint culture but were not essential to Mormonism. During and after the civil rights movement, the church faced a critical point in its history, where its previous attitudes toward other cultures and people of color, which had once been shared by much of the Anglo-American mainstream, carried racist and neocolonialist connotations. The mid-20th century saw the church critiqued over its positions on Black and Native American matters, especially the institution's bias towards European standards or norms at the expense and disregard of other racial or ethnic backgrounds' identity and humanity. ====The church and black people==== The cause of some of the church's most damaging publicity had to do with the church's policy of discrimination against black people. Black people were always officially welcome in the church, and Joseph Smith established an early precedent for it by ordaining black males to the Priesthood. Smith was also anti-slavery, going so far as to run on an anti-slavery platform as a candidate for the presidency of the United States. At times, however, Smith had shown sympathy for the belief that black people were the cursed descendants of Cain, a belief which was commonly held in his day. In 1849, church doctrine taught that while black people could be baptized, black men could not be ordained to the Priesthood and black people could not enter LDS temples. Journal histories and public teachings of the time reflect that Young and others stated that God would some day reverse this policy of discrimination. By the late 1960s, the church had expanded into Brazil, the Caribbean, and the nations of Africa, but it was also being criticized for its policy of racial discrimination. In the case of Africa and the Caribbean, the church had not yet begun large-scale missionary efforts in most areas. There were large groups of people who desired to join the church in Ghana and Nigeria and there were also many faithful church members who were of African descent in Brazil. On June 9, 1978, under the administration of Spencer W. Kimball, the church's leadership changed the long-standing policy. Today, there are many black members of the church, and there are also many predominantly black congregations. In the Salt Lake City area, black members organized branches of a monthly gathering and activity arm called the Genesis Group that provided group members with additional support. ====The church and Native Americans==== During the post-World War II period, the church also began to focus on expansion into a number of Native American cultures, as well as Oceanic cultures, which many Mormons considered to be the same ethnicity. These peoples were called "Lamanites", because they were all believed to descend from the Lamanite group in the Book of Mormon. In 1947, the church began the Indian Placement Program, where Native American students (upon request by their parents) were voluntarily placed in Anglo Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year, where they would attend public schools and become assimilated into Mormon culture. In 1955, the church began ordaining black Melanesians to the Priesthood. The church's policy toward Native Americans also came under fire during the 1970s. In particular the Indian Placement Program was criticized as neocolonial. In 1977, the U.S. government commissioned a study to investigate accusations that the church was using its influence to push children into joining the program. However, the commission rejected these accusations and found that the program was beneficial in many cases, and provided well-balanced American education for thousands, allowing the children to return to their cultures and customs. One issue was that the time away from family caused the assimilation of Native American students into American culture, rather than allowing the children to learn within, and preserve, their own culture. By the late 1980s, the program had been in decline, and in 1996, it was discontinued. In 2016, three lawsuits against the LDS Church were filed in the Navajo Nation District Court, alleging that participants in the program were sexually abused in their foster homes. The church asked for the lawsuits to be dismissed on jurisdictional grounds, arguing that the alleged abuse took place outside the reservation. ====Evolution==== The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy for some members of the church. The first official statement on the issue of evolution was in 1909, which marked the centennial of Charles Darwin's birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork, On the Origin of Species. In that year, the First Presidency, led by Joseph F. Smith as president, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of creationism, and calling human evolution one of the "theories of men", but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil. Soon after the 1909 statement, Joseph F. Smith professed in an editorial that "the church itself has no philosophy about the modus operandi employed by the Lord in His creation of the world." In 1925, as a result of publicity from the "Scopes Monkey Trial" concerning the right to teach evolution in Tennessee public schools, the First Presidency reiterated its 1909 stance, stating that "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, basing its belief on divine revelation, ancient and modern, declares man to be the direct and lineal offspring of Deity." In the early 1930s there was an intense debate between liberal theologian and general authority B. H. Roberts and some members of the Council of the Twelve Apostles over attempts by B. H. Roberts to reconcile the fossil record with the scriptures by introducing a doctrine of pre-Adamite creation, and backing up this speculative doctrine using geology, biology, anthropology, and archeology. More conservative members of the Twelve Apostles, including Joseph Fielding Smith, rejected his speculation because it contradicted the idea that there was no death until after the fall of Adam. James E. Talmage published a book through the LDS Church that explicitly stated that organisms lived and died on this earth before the earth was fit for human habitation. The debate over pre-Adamites has been interpreted by LDS proponents of evolution as a debate about organic evolution. This view, based on the belief that a dichotomy of thought on the subject of evolution existed between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, has become common among pro-evolution members of the church. As a result, the ensuing 1931 statement has been interpreted by some as official permission for members to believe in organic evolution. Later, Joseph Fielding Smith published his book Man: His Origin and Destiny, which denounced evolution without qualification. Similar statements of denunciation were made by Bruce R. McConkie, who in 1980 denounced evolution as one of "the seven deadly heresies." Evolution was also denounced by the conservative apostle Ezra Taft Benson, who in 1975 called on church members to use the Book of Mormon to combat evolution and several times denounced evolution as a "falsehood" on a par with socialism, rationalism, and humanism. A dichotomy of opinion exists among church members today. Largely influenced by Smith, McConkie, and Benson, evolution is rejected by a large number of conservative church members. A minority accept evolution, supported in part by the debate between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, in part by a large amount of scientific evidence, and in part by Joseph F. Smith's words that "the church itself has no philosophy about the modus operandi employed by the Lord in His creation of the world." Meanwhile, Brigham Young University, the largest private university owned and operated by the church, not only teaches evolution to its biology majors, but has also done significant research in evolution. BYU-I, another church-run school, also teaches it. A 2018 study in PLOS One researched the attitudes toward evolution of Latter-day Saint undergraduates. The study revealed that there has been a recent shift of attitude towards evolution among LDS undergraduates, from antagonistic to more accepting. The researchers cited examples of more acceptance of fossil and geological records, as well as an acceptance of the old age of the earth. The researchers attributed this attitude change to several factors including primary-school exposure to evolution and a reduction in the number of anti-evolution statements from the First Presidency. ====Reacting to pluralism==== The church was opposed to the Equal Rights Amendment. In 1995, the church issued The Family: A Proclamation to the World. The church opposes same-sex marriage, but does not object to rights regarding hospitalization and medical care, fair housing and employment rights, or probate rights, so long as these do not infringe on the integrity of the family or the constitutional rights of churches and their adherents to administer and practice their religion free from government interference. The church supported a gay rights bill in Salt Lake City which bans discrimination against gay men and lesbians in housing and employment, calling them "common-sense rights." Some church members have formed a number of unofficial support organizations, including Evergreen International, Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons, North Star, Disciples2, Wildflowers, Family Fellowship, GLYA (Gay LDS Young Adults), LDS Reconciliation, Gamofites and the Guardrail foundation. Church leaders have met with people from Evergreen International, Inc. and several gay rights leaders. ====Challenges to fundamental church doctrine==== In 1967, a set of papyrus manuscripts were discovered in the Metropolitan Museum of Art that appear to be the manuscripts from which Joseph Smith said to have translated the Book of Abraham in 1835. These manuscripts were presumed lost in the Chicago fire of 1871. Analyzed by Egyptologists, the manuscripts were identified as The Book of the Dead, an ancient Egyptian funerary text. Moreover, the scholars' translations of the scrolls disagreed with Smith's purported translation. This discovery forced many Mormon apologists to moderate the earlier prevailing view that Smith's translations were literal one-to-one translations. In the early 1980s, the apparent discovery of an early Mormon manuscript, which came to be known as the "Salamander Letter", received much publicity. This letter, reportedly discovered by a scholar named Mark Hofmann, alleged that the Book of Mormon was given to Joseph Smith by a being that changed itself into a salamander, not by an angel as the official church history recounted. The document was purchased by private collector Steven Christensen, but was still significantly publicized and even printed in the church's official magazine, the Ensign. The document, however, was revealed as a forgery in 1985, and Hofmann was arrested for two murders related to his forgeries. ====Mormon dissidents and scholars==== In 1989, George P. Lee, a Navajo member of the First Quorum of the Seventy who had participated in the Indian Placement Program in his youth, was excommunicated. The church action occurred not long after he had submitted to the Church a 23-page letter critical of the program and the effect it had on Native American culture. In October 1994, Lee confessed to, and was convicted of, sexually molesting a 13-year-old girl in 1989. It is not known if church leaders had knowledge of this crime during the excommunication process. In the late 1980s, the administration of Ezra Taft Benson formed what it called the Strengthening Church Members Committee, to keep files on potential church dissidents and collect their published material for possible later use in church disciplinary proceedings. The existence of this committee was first publicized by an anti-Mormon ministry in 1991, when it was referred to in a memo dated July 19, 1990 leaked from the office of the church's Presiding Bishopric. At the 1992 Sunstone Symposium, dissident Mormon scholar Lavina Fielding Anderson accused the Committee of being "an internal espionage system," which prompted Brigham Young University professor and moderate Mormon scholar Eugene England to "accuse that committee of undermining the Church," a charge for which he later publicly apologized. The publicity concerning the statements of Anderson and England, however, prompted the church to officially acknowledge the existence of the committee. The Church explained that the Committee "provides local church leadership with information designed to help them counsel with members who, however well-meaning, may hinder the progress of the church through public criticism." Official concern about the work of dissident scholars within the church led to the excommunication or disfellowshipping of six such scholars, dubbed the September Six, in September 1993. ===Latter-day Saint public relations=== In the 1960s, the church formed the Church Information Service with the goal of being ready to respond to media inquiries and generate positive media coverage. The organization kept a photo file to provide photos to the media for such events as Temple dedications. It also worked to get stories covering Family Home Evening, the church welfare plan and the church's youth activities in various publications. As part of the church's efforts to re-position its image as that of a mainstream religion, the church began to moderate its earlier anti–Roman Catholic rhetoric. In Bruce R. McConkie's 1958 edition of Mormon Doctrine, he had stated his unofficial opinion that the Catholic Church was part of "the church of the devil" and "the great and abominable church" because it was among organizations that misled people away from following God's laws. In his 1966 edition of the same book, the specific reference to the Catholic Church was removed. According to Riess and Tickle, early Mormons rarely quoted from the Book of Mormon in their speeches and writings. It was not until the 1980s that it was cited regularly in speeches given by LDS Church leaders at the biannual general conferences. In 1982, the LDS Church subtitled the Book of Mormon "Another Testament of Jesus Christ." Apostle Boyd K. Packer stated that the scripture now took its place "beside the Old Testament and the New Testament. Riess and Tickle assert that the introduction of this subtitle was intended to emphasize the Christ-centered nature of the Book of Mormon. They assert that the LDS "rediscovery of the Book of Mormon in the late twentieth century is strongly connected to their renewed emphasis on the person and nature of Jesus Christ." In 1995, the church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words "JESUS CHRIST" in large capital letters, and de-emphasized the words "The Church of" and "of Latter-day Saints". == 21st century == On January 1, 2000, the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles released a proclamation entitled "The Living Christ: The Testimony of the Apostles". This document commemorated the birth of Jesus and set forth the church's official view regarding Christ. The church has participated in several interfaith cooperation initiatives. The church has opened its broadcasting facilities (Bonneville International) to other Christian groups and has participated in the VISN Religious Interfaith Cable Television Network. The church has also participated in numerous joint humanitarian efforts with other churches. Lastly, the church has agreed not to baptize Holocaust victims by proxy. Beginning in 2001, the church also sponsors or sponsored a low-interest educational loan program known as the Perpetual Education Fund, which provides or provided educational opportunities to students from developing nations. In 2004, the church endorsed an amendment to the United States Constitution banning homosexual marriage. The church also announced its opposition to political measures that "confer legal status on any other sexual relationship" than a "man and a woman lawfully wedded as husband and wife." On November 5, 2015, an update letter to LDS Church leaders for the Church Handbook was leaked. The policy banned a "child of a parent living in a same-gender relationship" from baby blessings, baptism, confirmation, priesthood ordination, and missionary service until the child was not living with their homosexual parent(s), was "of legal age", and "disavow[ed] the practice of same-gender cohabitation and marriage", in addition to receiving approval from the Office of the First Presidency. The policy update also added that entering a same-sex marriage as a type of "apostasy", mandating a disciplinary council. The next day, in a video interview, apostle D. Todd Christofferson clarified that the policy was "about love" and "protect[ing] children" from "difficulties, challenges, conflicts" where "parents feel one way and the expectations of the Church are very different". On November 13, the First Presidency released a letter clarifying that the policy applied "only to those children whose primary residence is with a couple living in a same-gender marriage or similar relationship" and that for children residing with parents in a same-sex relationship who had already received ordinances the policy would not require that "privileges be curtailed or that further ordinances be withheld". The next day around 1,500 members gathered across from the Church Office Building to submit their resignation letters in response to the policy change with thousands more resigning online in the weeks after Two months later, in a satellite broadcast, apostle Russell M. Nelson stated that the policy change was "revealed to President Monson" in a "sacred moment" when "the Lord inspired [him] ... to declare ... the will of the Lord". In April 2019, the church—then led by Nelson—reversed these policies, citing efforts to be more accepting to people of all kinds of backgrounds. For over 100 years, the church was a major sponsor of Scouting programs for boys, particularly in the United States. The LDS Church was the largest chartered organization in the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), having joined the BSA as its first charter organization in 1913. In 2020, the church ended its relationship with the BSA and began an alternate, religion-centered youth program, which replaced all other youth programs. Prior to leaving the Scouting program, LDS Scouts made up nearly 20 percent of all enrolled Boy Scouts, more than any other church. ===Legal entities and merger=== In 1887, the LDS Church was legally dissolved in the United States by the Edmunds–Tucker Act because of the church's practice of polygamy. For more than the next hundred years, the church as a whole operated as an unincorporated entity. During that time, tax-exempt corporations of the LDS Church included the Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which managed non-ecclesiastical real estate and other holdings; and the Corporation of the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which governed temples, other sacred buildings, and the church's employees. By 2021, the two had been merged into one corporate entity, legally named "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints." ===Ensign Peak Advisors=== In December 2019, a whistleblower alleged the church held over $100 billion in investment funds through its investment management company, Ensign Peak Advisors (EP); that it failed to use the funds for charitable purposes and instead used them in for-profit ventures; and that it misled contributors and the public about the usage and extent of those funds. In response, the church's First Presidency stated that "the Church complies with all applicable law governing our donations, investments, taxes, and reserves," and that "a portion" of funds received by the church are "methodically safeguarded through wise financial management and the building of a prudent reserve for the future". The church has not directly addressed the fund's size to the public, but third parties have treated the disclosures as legitimate. In February 2023, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a $5 million penalty to the church and its investment company, EP. The SEC alleged that the church concealed its investments and their management in multiple shell companies from 1997 to 2019; the SEC believes these shell companies were approved by senior church leadership to avoid public transparency. The church released a statement that in 2000 EP "received and relied upon legal counsel regarding how to comply with its reporting obligations while attempting to maintain the privacy of the portfolio." After initial SEC concern in June 2019, the church stated that EP "adjusted its approach and began filing a single aggregated report."	[ "Salt Lake Valley", "B.H. Roberts", "Looking Backward", "Washington, D.C.", "The Family: A Proclamation to the World", "Book of Mormon", "President of the Church (LDS Church)", "Fireside (LDS Church)", "Hyrum Smith", "Journal of Mormon History", "Temperance organizations", "Lorenzo Snow", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "creationism", "Las Vegas, Nevada", "utopia", "publication", "Deseret Book", "Evergreen International", "Africa", "Rochester, New York", "Leninism", "Western New York", "feminism", "Lilburn W. Boggs", "Melanesia", "Latter Day Saint Historians", "Leonard J. Arrington", "Canada", "United States Congress", "Missionary (LDS Church)", "apostate", "Russell M. Nelson", "Washington Post", "slavery", "Joseph Fielding Smith", "Mormon Doctrine (book)", "Naming and blessing of children", "Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)", "black people", "History of the Latter Day Saint movement", "Saint George, Utah", "James E. Talmage", "Deseret Book Company", "Cain", "Saints (book)", "Plotino Rhodakanaty", "Anna Howard Shaw", "Kaysville, Utah", "nuclear family", "Mormon Trail", "Eugene England", "2023 Securities and Exchange Commission charges against the LDS Church and Ensign Peak Advisors", "marshal", "Standard Works", "General Conference (LDS Church)", "Doctrine and Covenants", "BYU Studies", "Salamander Letter", "Salt Lake Tribune", "Endowment (Latter-day Saints)", "First Presidency (LDS Church)", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Second Great Awakening", "Nauvoo Legion", "Chicago fire of 1871", "Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought", "Terryl Givens", "President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)", "Joseph Smith Papyri", "Native Americans in the United States", "Council of Fifty", "The Washington Post", "Pioneer Day (Utah)", "United States Constitution", "revelation", "Marxism", "Mormonism and Pacific Islanders", "North Star (organization)", "Jedediah M. 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Anthony", "James Buchanan", "Oliver Cowdery", "Europe", "Reed Smoot (U.S. Senator)", "United Order", "Mormon War (1838)", "Edmunds-Tucker Act", "The Story of the Latter-day Saints", "George P. Lee", "Mormonism and history", "John Taylor (Mormon)", "Mexico", "United States Army", "monogamy", "Reed Smoot hearings", "President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles", "Evergreen International, Inc.", "Internet Archive", "David Whitmer", "American Revolution", "Socialist Party of America", "Caribbean", "Joseph Smith, Sr.", "rationalism", "Peggy Fletcher Stack", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Missouri", "John W. Welch", "Ensign (LDS magazine)", "hegemony", "William Law (Latter Day Saints)", "Sunday School (LDS Church)", "Strengthening Church Members Committee", "Church Office Building", "theodemocracy", "YMMIA", "Daily Herald (Utah)", "Breathing Permit of Hôr", "Peter Whitmer, Sr.", "Cunning Folk Traditions and the Latter Day Saint Movement", "List of denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement", "History of the Church (Joseph Smith)", "Lamanite", "Kirtland, Ohio", "Hubert Howe Bancroft", "Council of the Twelve Apostles", "The Wall Street Journal", "Wilford Woodruff", "Far West, Missouri", "Alfred Cumming (governor)", "Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 20th-century warfare", "prohibition", "Temple (LDS Church)", "Utah-Idaho Sugar Company", "Moroni (Book of Mormon prophet)", "Brigham Young University Press", "Zion (Latter Day Saints)", "Armand L. Mauss", "Tennessee", "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo", "God", "Heber J. 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Wells", "Edmunds Act", "Philanthropy Roundtable", "Sidney Rigdon", "Governor of Missouri", "Gamofites", "1890 Manifesto", "angel Moroni", "Apostle (Latter Day Saints)", "Carthage, Illinois", "polygamy", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "Church News", "1909 Statement on the Origin of the Earth and Man", "Latter Day Saint movement", "George A. Smith", "Nauvoo City Council", "Christian communism", "Edward Bellamy", "Assistant President of the Church", "Manchester (town), New York", "World War II", "Social Science Research Network", "Woman's Exponent", "Scopes Trial", "Restoration movement", "Illinois", "disciplinary council", "Missouri Executive Order 44", "Juvenile Instructor", "blood atonement", "Peter Whitmer log home", "pre-Adamite", "KUTV", "Scouting", "Mormonism and polygamy", "Mormon pioneers", "Disciples of Christ", "On the Origin of Species", "Joseph Smith", "Death of Joseph Smith", "D. Michael Quinn", "Nauvoo, Illinois", "Relief Society" ]
5,943	Christian eschatology	Christian eschatology is a minor branch of study within Christian theology which deals with the doctrine of the "last things", especially the Second Coming of Christ, or Parousia. The word eschatology derives from two Greek roots meaning "last" () and "study" (-) – involves the study of "end things", whether of the end of an individual life, of the end of the age, of the end of the world, or of the nature of the Kingdom of God. Broadly speaking, Christian eschatology focuses on the ultimate destiny of individual souls and of the entire created order, based primarily upon biblical texts within the Old and New Testaments. Christian eschatology looks to study and discuss matters such as death and the afterlife, Heaven and Hell, the Second Coming of Jesus, the resurrection of the dead, the rapture, the tribulation, millennialism, the end of the world, the Last Judgment, and the New Heaven and New Earth in the world to come. Eschatological passages appear in many places in the Bible, in both the Old and New Testaments. Many extra-biblical examples of eschatological prophecies also exist, as well as extra-biblical ecclesiastical traditions relating to the subject. ==History== Eschatology within early Christianity originated with the public life and preaching of Jesus. Jesus is sometimes interpreted as referring to his Second Coming in Matthew 24:27; Matthew 24:37–39; Matthew 26:64; Mark 14:62. Christian eschatology is an ancient branch of study in Christian theology, informed by Biblical texts such as the Olivet Discourse (recorded in Matthew 24–25, Mark 13, and Luke 21), The Sheep and the Goats, and other discourses of end times by Jesus, with the doctrine of the Second Coming discussed by Paul the Apostle in his epistles, both the authentic and the disputed ones. Other eschatological doctrines can be found in the Epistle of James, the First Epistle of Peter, and the First Epistle of John. According to some scholars, the Second Epistle of Peter explains that God is patient and has not yet brought about the Second Coming of Christ, in order that more people will have the chance to reject evil and find salvation (3:3–9); therefore, it calls on Christians to wait patiently for the Parousia and to study scripture. Other scholars, however, believe that the New Testament epistles are an exhortation to the early church believers to patiently expect the imminent return of Jesus, predicted by himself on several occasions in the gospels. The First Epistle of Clement, written by Pope Clement I in ca. 95, criticizes those who had doubts about the faith because the Second Coming had, in his view, not yet occurred. Christian eschatology is also discussed by Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35–107 AD) in his epistles, then given more consideration by the Christian apologist, Justin Martyr (c. 100–165). Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of Tertullian (c. 160–225), and was given fuller reflection and speculation soon after by Origen (c. 185–254). The word was used first by the Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius (1612–1686) but only came into general usage in the 19th century. The growing modern interest in eschatology is tied to developments in Anglophone Christianity. Puritans in the 18th and 19th centuries were particularly interested in a postmillennial hope which surrounded Christian conversion. This would be contrasted with the growing interest in premillennialism, advocated by dispensational figures such as J. N. Darby. Both of these strands would have significant influences on the growing interests in eschatology in Christian missions and in Christianity in West Africa and Asia. However, in the 20th century, there would be a growing number of German scholars such as Jürgen Moltmann and Wolfhart Pannenberg who would likewise be interested in eschatology. In the 1800s, a group of Christian theologians inclusive of Ellen G. White, William Miller and Joseph Bates began to study eschatological implications revealed in the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation. Their interpretation of Christian eschatology resulted in the founding of the Seventh-day Adventist church. ==Christian eschatological views== The following approaches arose from the study of Christianity's most central eschatological document, the Book of Revelation, but the principles embodied in them can be applied to all prophecy in the Bible. They are by no means mutually exclusive and are often combined to form a more complete and coherent interpretation of prophetic passages. Most interpretations fit into one, or a combination, of these approaches. The alternate methods of prophetic interpretation, Futurism and Preterism which came from Jesuit writings, were brought about to oppose the Historicism interpretation which had been used from Biblical times that Reformers used in teaching that the Antichrist was the Papacy or the power of the Roman Catholic Church. ===Preterism=== Preterism is a Christian eschatological view that interprets some (partial preterism) or all (full preterism) prophecies of the Bible as events which have already happened. This school of thought interprets the Book of Daniel as referring to events that happened from the 7th century BC until the first century AD, while seeing the prophecies of Revelation as events that happened in the first century AD. Preterism holds that Ancient Israel finds its continuation or fulfillment in the Christian church at the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. Historically, preterists and non-preterists have generally agreed that the Jesuit Luis de Alcasar (1554–1613) wrote the first systematic preterist exposition of prophecy, Vestigatio arcani sensus in Apocalypsi (published in 1614), during the Counter-Reformation. ===Historicism=== Historicism, a type of method of interpretation of biblical prophecies, associates symbols with historical persons, nations or events. It can result in a view of progressive and continuous fulfillment of prophecy covering the period from biblical times to what they view as a possible future Second Coming of Christ. Most Protestant Reformers from the Reformation into the 19th century held historicist views. ===Futurism=== In Futurism, parallels may be drawn with historical events, but most eschatological prophecies are chiefly referring to events which have not yet been fulfilled, but will take place at the end of the age and the end of the world. Most prophecies will be fulfilled during a time of global chaos known as the Great Tribulation and afterwards. Futurist beliefs usually have a close association with Premillennialism and Dispensationalism. ===Idealism=== Idealism (also called the spiritual approach, the allegorical approach, the nonliteral approach, and many other names) in Christian eschatology is an interpretation of the Book of Revelation that sees all of the imagery of the book as symbols. Jacob Taubes writes that idealist eschatology came about as Renaissance thinkers began to doubt that the Kingdom of Heaven had been established on earth, or would be established, but still believed in its establishment. Rather than the Kingdom of Heaven being present in society, it is established subjectively for the individual. Barth's ideas provided fuel for the Social Gospel philosophy in America, which saw social change not as performing "required" good works, but because the individuals involved felt that Christians could not simply ignore society's problems with future dreams. Different authors have suggested that the Beast represents various social injustices, such as exploitation of workers, wealth, the elite, commerce, materialism, and imperialism. Various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the State and political power as the Beast. Other scholars identify the Beast with the Roman empire of the first century AD, but recognize that the Beast may have significance beyond its identification with Rome. For example, Craig R. Koester says "the vision [of the beast] speaks to the imperial context in which Revelation was composed, but it does so with images that go beyond that context, depicting the powers at work in the world in ways that continue to engage readers of subsequent generations." And his comments on the whore of Babylon are more to the point: "The whore [of Babylon] is Rome, yet more than Rome." It "is the Roman imperial world, which in turn represents the world alienated from God." As Stephen Smalley puts it, the beast represents "the powers of evil which lie behind the kingdoms of this world, and which encourage in society, at any moment in history, compromise with the truth and opposition to the justice and mercy of God." It is distinct from Preterism, Futurism and Historicism in that it does not see any of the prophecies (except in some cases the Second Coming, and Final Judgment) as being fulfilled in a literal, physical, earthly sense either in the past, present or future, and that to interpret the eschatological portions of the Bible in a historical or future-historical fashion is an erroneous understanding. ===Comparison of Futurist, Preterist and Historicist beliefs=== ===Preterism v. Historicism=== Expositors of the traditional Protestant interpretation of Revelation known as Historicism have often maintained that Revelation was written in AD 96 and not AD 70. Edward Bishop Elliott, in the Horae Apocalypticae (1862), argues that John wrote the book in exile on Patmos "at the close of the reign of Domitian; that is near the end of the year 95 or beginning of 96". He notes that Domitian was assassinated in September 96. Elliot begins his lengthy review of historical evidence by quoting Irenaeus, a disciple of Polycarp. Polycarp was a disciple of the Apostle John. Irenaeus mentions that the Apocalypse was seen "no very long time ago [but] almost in our own age, toward the end of the reign of Domitian". while Kenneth L. Gentry Jr., makes an exegetical and historical argument for the pre-AD 70 composition of Revelation. ===Historicism v. Futurism=== The division between these interpretations can be somewhat blurred. Most futurists are expecting a rapture of the Church, an antichrist, a Great Tribulation and a second coming of Christ in the near future. But they also accept certain past events, such as the rebirth of the State of Israel and the reunification of Jerusalem as prerequisites to them, in a manner which the earlier historicists have done with other dates. Futurists, who do not normally use the day-year principle, interpret the Prophecy of Seventy Weeks in Daniel 9:24 as years, just as historicists do. Most historicists have chosen timelines, from beginning to end, entirely in the past, but some, such as Adam Clarke, have timelines which also commenced with specific past events, but require a future fulfillment. In his commentary on Daniel 8:14 published in 1831, he stated that the 2,300-year period should be calculated from 334 BC, the year Alexander the Great began his conquest of the Persian Empire. His calculation resulted in the year 1966. He seems to have overlooked the fact that there is no "year zero" between BC and AD dates - that is, the year following 1 BC is 1 AD. Thus his calculations should have required an additional year, ending in 1967. He was not anticipating a literal regathering of the Jewish people prior to the second coming of Christ. But the date is of special significance to futurists since it is the year of Jerusalem's capture by Israeli forces during the Six-Day War. His commentary on Daniel 7:25 contains a 1260-year period commencing in 755 AD and ending in 2015. The term subsumes several similar views of the end times, and it stands in contrast to premillennialism and, to a lesser extent, amillennialism. Postmillennialism holds that Jesus Christ establishes his kingdom on earth through his preaching and redemptive work in the first century and that he equips his church with the gospel, empowers her by the Spirit, and charges her with the Great Commission (Matt 28:19) to disciple all nations. Postmillennialism expects that eventually the vast majority of people living will be saved. Increasing gospel success will gradually produce a time in history prior to Christ's return in which faith, righteousness, peace, and prosperity will prevail in the affairs of men and of nations. After an extensive era of such conditions Jesus Christ will return visibly, bodily, and gloriously, to end history with the general resurrection and the final judgment after which the eternal order follows. Postmillennialism was a dominant theological belief among American Protestants who promoted reform movements in the 19th and 20th century such as abolitionism and the Social Gospel. Postmillennialism has become one of the key tenets of a movement known as Christian Reconstructionism. It has been criticized by 20th century religious conservatives as an attempt to immanentize the eschaton. ===Amillennialism=== Amillennialism, in Christian eschatology, involves the rejection of the belief that Jesus will have a literal, thousand-year-long, physical reign on the earth. This rejection contrasts with premillennial and some postmillennial interpretations of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation. The amillennial view regards the "thousand years" mentioned in Revelation 20 as a symbolic number, not as a literal description; amillennialists hold that the millennium has already begun and is identical with the current church age. Amillennialism holds that while Christ's reign during the millennium is spiritual in nature, at the end of the church age, Christ will return in final judgment and establish a permanent reign in the new heaven and new earth. Many proponents dislike the name "amillennialism" because it emphasizes their differences with premillennialism rather than their beliefs about the millennium. "Amillennial" was actually coined in a pejorative way by those who hold premillennial views. Some proponents also prefer alternate terms such as nunc-millennialism (that is, now-millennialism) or realized millennialism, although these other names have achieved only limited acceptance and usage. ==Death and the afterlife== ===Jewish beliefs at the time of Jesus=== There were different schools of thought on the afterlife in Judea during the first century AD. The Sadducees, who recognized only the Torah (the first five books of the Old Testament) as authoritative, did not believe in an afterlife or any resurrection of the dead. The Pharisees, who accepted the Torah as well as additional scriptures, believed in the resurrection of the dead; it is known to have been a major point of contention between the two groups. The Pharisees based their belief on Biblical passages such as Daniel 12:2 which says: "Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt." ===The intermediate state=== Some traditions (notably, the Seventh-day Adventists) teach that the soul sleeps after death and will not awaken until the resurrection of the dead. Others believe the soul goes to an intermediate place where it will live consciously until the resurrection of the dead. By "soul", Seventh-day Adventist theologians mean the physical person (monism), and that no component of human nature survives death. Therefore, each human will be "recreated" at resurrection. One scripture frequently used to substantiate the assertion that souls experience mortality is found in the Book of Ezekiel: "Behold, all souls are Mine; The soul of the father as well as the soul of the son is Mine. The soul who sins shall die." (Ezekiel 18:4) ===Purgatory=== This alludes to the Catholic belief in a spiritual state known as Purgatory during which souls not condemned to Hell but not completely pure go through a final process of purification before their full acceptance into Heaven. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) says: Each man receives his eternal retribution in his immortal soul at the very moment of his death, in a particular judgment that refers his life to Christ: either entrance into the blessedness of heaven—through a purification or immediately—or immediate and everlasting damnation. (Sect. 1022) Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism do not believe in Purgatory as such, but the Orthodox Church posits a period of continued sanctification after death. While the Eastern Orthodox Church rejects the term purgatory, it acknowledges an intermediate state after death and before final judgment, and offers prayer for the dead. In general, Protestant churches reject the Catholic doctrine of purgatory (although some teach the existence of an intermediate state). The general Protestant view is that the Bible, from which Protestants exclude deuterocanonical books such as 2 Maccabees, contains no overt, explicit discussion of purgatory. ==The Great Tribulation== ===The end comes at an unexpected time=== There are many passages in the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, which speak of a time of terrible tribulation such as has never been known, a time of natural and human-made disasters on an awesome scale. Jesus said that at the time of his coming, "There will be great tribulation, such as has not been since the beginning of the world to this time, no, nor ever will be. And unless those days were shortened, no flesh would be saved; but for the elect's sake, those days will be shortened." [Matt 24:21–22] Furthermore, the Messiah's return and the tribulation that accompanies it will come at a time when people are not expecting it: Paul echoes this theme, saying, "For when they say, 'Peace and safety!' then sudden destruction comes upon them." ===The abomination of desolation=== The abomination of desolation (or desolating sacrilege) is a term found in the Hebrew Bible, in the book of Daniel. The term is used by Jesus Christ in the Olivet Discourse, according to both the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark. In the Matthew account, Jesus is presented as quoting Daniel explicitly. Matthew 24:15–26 (ESV) "So when you see the abomination of desolation spoken of by the prophet Daniel, standing in the holy place (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains." Mark 13:14 (ESV) "But when you see the abomination of desolation standing where it ought not to be (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains." This verse in the Olivet Discourse also occurs in the Gospel of Luke. Luke 21:20–21 (ESV) "But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near. Then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains..." Many biblical scholars conclude that Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14 are prophecies after the event about the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 by the Roman general Titus (see Dating of the Gospel of Mark). Preterist Christian commentators believe that Jesus quoted this prophecy in Mark 13:14 as referring to an event in his "1st century disciples'" immediate future, specifically the pagan Roman forces during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD. Futurist Christians consider the "Abomination of Desolation" prophecy of Daniel mentioned by Jesus in Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14 as referring to an event in the end time future, after the removal of the "one who now restrains", when a 7-year peace treaty will be signed between Israel and a world ruler called "the man of lawlessness", or the "Antichrist" affirmed by the writings of the Apostle Paul in 2 Thessalonians. Other scholars conclude that the Abomination of Desolation refers to the Crucifixion, an attempt by the emperor Hadrian to erect a statue to Jupiter in the Jewish temple, or an attempt by Caligula to have a statue depicting him as Zeus built in the temple. ===The Prophecy of Seventy Weeks=== Many interpreters calculate the length of the tribulation at seven years. The key to this understanding is the "seventy weeks prophecy" in the book of Daniel. The Prophecy of Seventy Septets (or literally 'seventy times seven') appears in the angel Gabriel's reply to Daniel, beginning with verse 22 and ending with verse 27 in the ninth chapter of the Book of Daniel, a work included in both the Jewish Tanakh and the Christian Bible; as well as the Septuagint. The prophecy is part of both the Jewish account of history and Christian eschatology. The prophet has a vision of the angel Gabriel, who tells him, "Seventy weeks are determined for your people and for your holy city (i.e., Israel and Jerusalem)." [Dan 9:24] After making a comparison with events in the history of Israel, many scholars have concluded that each day in the seventy weeks represents a year. The first sixty-nine weeks are interpreted as covering the period until Christ's first coming, but the last week is thought to represent the years of the tribulation which will come at the end of this age, directly preceding the millennial age of peace: The people of the prince who is to come will destroy the city and the sanctuary. The end of it will be with a flood, and till the end of the war, desolations are determined. Then he will confirm a covenant with many for one week. But in the middle of the week, he will bring an end to sacrifice and offering. And on the wing of abominations will be one who makes desolate, even until the consummation which is determined is poured out on the desolate. [Dan 9:26–27] This is an obscure prophecy, but in combination with other passages, it has been interpreted to mean that the "prince who is to come" will make a seven-year covenant with Israel that will allow the rebuilding of the temple and the reinstitution of sacrifices, but "in the middle of the week", he will break the agreement and set up an idol of himself in the temple and force people to worship it—the "abomination of desolation". Paul writes: Let no-one deceive you by any means, for that day will not come unless the falling away comes first, and the man of sin is revealed, the son of perdition, who opposes and exalts himself above all that is called God or that is worshiped, so that he sits as God in the temple of God, showing himself that he is God. [2 Thess 2:3–4] == Rapture == The rapture is an eschatological term used by certain Christians, particularly within branches of North American evangelicalism, referring to an end time event when all Christian believers—living and dead—will rise into Heaven and join Christ. Some adherents believe this event is predicted and described in Paul's First Epistle to the Thessalonians in the Bible, where he uses the Greek harpazo (ἁρπάζω), meaning to snatch away or seize. Though it has been used differently in the past, the term is now often used by certain believers to distinguish this particular event from the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to Earth mentioned in Second Thessalonians, Gospel of Matthew, First Corinthians, and Revelation, usually viewing it as preceding the Second Coming and followed by a thousand-year millennial kingdom. Adherents of this perspective are sometimes referred to as premillennialist dispensationalists, but amongst them there are differing viewpoints about the exact timing of the event. The term "rapture" is especially useful in discussing or disputing the exact timing or the scope of the event, particularly when asserting the "pre-tribulation" view that the rapture will occur before, not during, the Second Coming, with or without an extended Tribulation period. The term is most frequently used among evangelical and fundamentalist Christians in the United States. Other, older uses of "rapture" were simply as a term for any mystical union with God or for eternal life in Heaven with God. These denominations do not believe that a group of people is left behind on earth for an extended Tribulation period after the events of 1 Thessalonians 4:17. Pre-tribulation rapture theology originated in the eighteenth century, with the Puritan preachers Increase Mather and Cotton Mather, and was popularized extensively in the 1830s by John Nelson Darby and the Plymouth Brethren, and further in the United States by the wide circulation of the Scofield Reference Bible in the early 20th century. Some, including Grant Jeffrey, maintain that an earlier document called Ephraem or Pseudo-Ephraem already supported a pre-tribulation rapture. ==The Second Coming== === Signs of Christ's return === The Bible states: Now when He had spoken these things, while they watched, He was taken up, and a cloud received Him out of their sight. And while they looked steadfastly toward heaven as He went up, behold, two men stood by them in white apparel, who also said, "Men of Galilee, why do you stand gazing up into heaven? This same Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will so come in like manner as you saw Him go into heaven." [Acts 1:9–11] Many, but not all, Christians believe: The coming of Christ will be instantaneous and worldwide. "For as the lightning comes from the east and flashes to the west, so also will the coming of the Son of Man be." ~ Matthew 24:27 The coming of Christ will be visible to all. "Then the sign of the Son of Man will appear in heaven, and then all the tribes of the earth will mourn, and they will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory." Matthew 24:30 The coming of Christ will be audible. "And He will send His angels with a great sound of a trumpet, and they will gather together His elect from the four winds, from one end of heaven to the other." Matthew 24:31 The resurrection of the righteous will occur first. "For the Lord Himself will descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of an archangel, and with the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will rise first." ~ 1 Thessalonians 4:16 In one single event, the saved who are alive at Christ's coming will be caught up together with the resurrected to meet the Lord in the air. "Then we who are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And thus we shall always be with the Lord." ~ 1 Thessalonians 4:17 === Last Day Counterfeits === In Matthew 24 Jesus states: For then there will be great tribulation, such as has not been since the beginning of the world until this time, no, nor ever shall be. For false christs and false prophets will rise and show great signs and wonders to deceive, if possible, even the elect. [Matthew 24:21, 24 NKJV] These false Christs will perform great signs and are no ordinary people "For they are spirits of demons, performing signs, which go out to the kings of the earth and of the whole world, to gather them to the battle of that great day of God Almighty." (Revelation 16:14) Satan's angels will also appear as godly clergymen, and Satan will appear as an angel of light. "For such are false apostles, deceitful workers, transforming themselves into apostles of Christ. And no wonder! For Satan himself transforms himself into an angel of light. Therefore it is no great thing if his ministers also transform themselves into ministers of righteousness, whose end will be according to their works." (2 Corinthians 11:13–15) ===The Marriage of the Lamb=== After Jesus meets his followers "in the air", the marriage of the Lamb takes place: "Let us be glad and rejoice and give him glory, for the marriage of the Lamb has come, and his wife has made herself ready. And to her was granted that she should be arrayed in fine linen, clean and bright, for the fine linen is the righteous acts of the saints" [Rev 19:7–8]. Christ is represented throughout Revelation as "the Lamb", symbolizing the giving of his life as an atoning sacrifice for the people of the world, just as lambs were sacrificed on the altar for the sins of Israel. His "wife" appears to represent the people of God, for she is dressed in the "righteous acts of the saints". As the marriage takes place, there is a great celebration in heaven which involves a "great multitude" [Rev 19:6]. == Resurrection of the dead == ===Doctrine of the resurrection predates Christianity=== The word resurrection comes from the Latin resurrectus, which is the past participle of resurgere, meaning to rise again. Although the doctrine of the resurrection comes to the forefront in the New Testament, it predates the Christian era. There is an apparent reference to the resurrection in the book of Job, where Job says, "I know that my redeemer lives, and that he will stand at the latter day upon the earth. And though... worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh I will see God" [Job 19:25–27]. Again, the prophet Daniel writes, "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, some to shame and everlasting contempt" [Dan 12:2]. Isaiah says: "Your dead will live. Together with my dead body, they will arise. Awake and sing, you who dwell in dust, for your dew is like the dew of herbs, and the earth will cast out the dead" [Isa. 26:19]. This belief was still common among the Jews in New Testament times, as exemplified by the passage which relates the raising of Lazarus from the dead. When Jesus told Lazarus' sister, Martha, that Lazarus would rise again, she replied, "I know that he will rise again in the resurrection at the last day" [Jn 11:24]. Also, one of the two main branches of the Jewish religious establishment, the Pharisees, believed in and taught the future resurrection of the body [cf Acts 23:1–8]. ===Two resurrections=== An interpretation of the New Testament is the understanding that there will be two resurrections. Revelation says: "Blessed and holy is he who has part in the first resurrection. Over such, the second death has no power, but they will be priests of God and of Christ, and will reign with him a thousand years" [Rev 20:6]. The rest of the dead "did not live again until the thousand years were finished" [Rev 20:5]. Despite this, there are various interpretations: According to the premillennial posttribulational position there will two physical resurrections, separated by a literal thousand years (one in the Second Coming along with the Rapture; another after a literal 1,000 year reign). According to premillennial pre-tribulationists, there will be three further physical resurrections (one in the Rapture at the beginning of tribulation; another in the Second Coming at the final tribulation; and the last one after a literal 1,000 year reign). They claim that the first resurrection includes the resurrection in the Rapture, and that the resurrection in the Second Coming, the second resurrection, would be after the 1,000 year reign. According to premillennial midtribulationists, too, there will be three physical resurrections (one in the rapture at the middle of tribulation; another in the Second Coming at the end of the tribulation; and the last one after a literal 1,000 year reign). And the first resurrection would be the resurrection in the Rapture, and the resurrection in the Second Coming, the second resurrection, would be after the 1,000 year reign. According to amillennial position there will are two resurrections. The first resurrection would be in a spiritual sense (the resurrection of the soul), according to Paul and John as participation, right now, in the resurrection of Christ through faith and baptism, according to Colossians 2:12 and Colossians 3:1 as occurring within the millennium interpreted as an indefinite period between the foundation of the Church and the Second Coming of Christ, the second resurrection would be the general resurrection (the resurrection of the body) that would occur at the time of Jesus' return. ===The resurrection body=== The Gospel authors wrote that our resurrection bodies will be different from those we have now. Jesus said, "In the resurrection, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like the angels of God in heaven" [Mt 22:30]. Paul adds, "So also is the resurrection of the dead: the body... is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body" [1 Co. 15:42–44]. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church the body after resurrection is changed into a spiritual, imperishable body: Both the righteous and the wicked will rise with immortal bodies. However, only the righteous will rise with four endowments: impassibility (incorruptibility), subtility (spirituality), agility (power), and clarity (glory). In some ancient traditions, it was held that the person would be resurrected at the same spot where they died and were buried (just as in the case of Jesus' resurrection). For example, in the early medieval biography of St Columba written by Adomnan of Iona, Columba at one point prophesies to a penitent at the monastery on Iona that his resurrection would be in Ireland and not in Iona, and this penitent later died at a monastery in Ireland and was buried there. ===Other views=== Although Martin Luther personally believed and taught resurrection of the dead in combination with soul sleep, this is not a mainstream teaching of Lutheranism and most Lutherans traditionally believe in resurrection of the body in combination with the immortal soul. Several churches, such as the Anabaptists and Socinians of the Reformation, then Seventh-day Adventist Church, Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, and theologians of different traditions reject the idea of the immortality of a non-physical soul as a vestige of Neoplatonism, and other pagan traditions. In this school of thought, the dead remain dead (and do not immediately progress to a Heaven, Hell, or Purgatory) until a physical resurrection of some or all of the dead occurs at the end of time. Some groups, Christadelphians in particular, consider that it is not a universal resurrection, and that at this time of resurrection that the Last Judgment will take place. ===Armageddon=== Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley, and twice with reference to "the plain of Megiddo", most probably simply meaning "the plain next to the city". None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in Revelation 16:16 also makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, but instead seems to predict only that "they (will gather) the kings together to .... Armageddon". The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the "place called Armageddon" is "for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location. R. J. Rushdoony says, "There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place." Other scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew moed (), meaning "assembly". Thus, "Armageddon" would mean "Mountain of Assembly," which Jordan says is "a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion."}} ==The Millennium== Millennialism (from millennium, Latin for "a thousand years"), or chiliasm (from the Greek equivalent), is the belief that a Messianic Age will occur on Earth prior to the final judgment and future eternal state of the "World to Come". Christian millennialism developed out of a Christian interpretation of Jewish apocalypticism. Christian millennialist thinking is primarily based upon the Book of Revelation, specifically 20:1–4, which describes the vision of an angel who descended from heaven with a large chain and a key to a bottomless pit, and captured Satan, imprisoning him for a thousand years: The Book of Revelation then describes a series of judges who are seated on thrones, as well as his vision of the souls of those who were beheaded for their testimony in favor of Jesus and their rejection of the mark of the beast: Thus, Revelation characterizes a millennium where Christ and the Father will rule over a theocracy of the righteous. While there are an abundance of biblical references to such a kingdom of God throughout the Old and New Testaments, this is the only reference in the Bible to such a period lasting one thousand years. The literal belief in a thousand-year reign of Christ is a later development in Christianity, as it does not seem to have been present in first century texts. ==The End of the World and the Last Judgment== ===Satan released=== According to the Bible, the Millennial age of peace all but closes the history of planet Earth. However, the story is not yet finished: "When the thousand years have expired, Satan will be released from his prison and will go out to deceive the nations which are in the four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them together to battle, whose number is as the sand of the sea." [Rev 20:7–8] There is continuing discussion over the identity of Gog and Magog. In the context of the passage, they seem to equate to something like "east and west". There is a passage in Ezekiel, however, where God says to the prophet, "Set your face against Gog, of the land of Magog, the prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal, and prophesy against him." [Ezek 38:2] Gog, in this instance, is the name of a person of the land of Magog, who is ruler ("prince") over the regions of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal. Ezekiel says of him: "You will ascend, coming like a storm, covering the land like a cloud, you and all your troops and many peoples with you..." [Ezek 38:2] Despite this huge show of force, the battle will be short-lived, for Ezekiel, Daniel, and Revelation all say that this last desperate attempt to destroy the people and the city of God will end in disaster: "I will bring him to judgment with pestilence and bloodshed. I will rain down on him and on his troops, and on the many peoples who are with him: flooding rain, great hailstones, fire and brimstone." [Ezek 38:22] Revelation concurs: "Fire came down from God out of heaven and devoured them." [Rev 20:9] It may be that the images of fire raining down are an ancient vision of modern weapons, others would say a supernatural intervention by God, yet others that they refer to events in history, and some would say they are symbolic of larger ideas and should not be interpreted literally. ===The Last Judgment=== Following the defeat of Gog, the last judgment begins: "The devil, who deceived them, was cast into the lake of fire and brimstone where the beast and the false prophet are, and they will be tormented day and night forever and ever" [Rev 20:10]. Satan will join the Antichrist and the False Prophet, who were condemned to the lake of fire at the beginning of the Millennium. Following Satan's consignment to the lake of fire, his followers come up for judgment. This is the "second resurrection", and all those who were not a part of the first resurrection at the coming of Christ now rise up for judgment: John had earlier written, "Blessed and holy is he who has part in the first resurrection. Over such the second death has no power" [Rev 20:6]. Those who are included in the Resurrection and the Rapture are excluded from the final judgment, and are not subject to the second death. Due to the description of the seat upon which the Lord sits, this final judgment is often referred to as the Great White Throne Judgment. A decisive factor in the Last Judgement will be the question, if the corporal works of mercy were practiced or not during lifetime. They rate as important acts of charity. Therefore, and according to the biblical sources (Matt 5:31–46), the conjunction of the Last Judgement and the works of mercy is very frequent in the pictorial tradition of Christian art. ==New Heaven and New Earth== But, in accordance with his promise, we wait for new heavens and a new earth, where righteousness is at home. ===New Jerusalem=== The focus turns to one city in particular, the New Jerusalem. Once again, we see the imagery of the marriage: "I, John, saw the holy city, New Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband" [Rev 21:2]. In the New Jerusalem, God "will dwell with them, and they will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God..." [Rev 21:3]. As a result, there is "no temple in it, for the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are its temple." Nor is there a need for the sun to give its light, "for the glory of God illuminated it, and the Lamb is its light" [Rev 21:22–23]. The city will also be a place of great peace and joy, for "God will wipe away every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death, nor sorrow, nor crying; and there will be no more pain, for the former things have passed away" [Rev 21:4]. ====Description==== The city itself has a large wall with twelve gates in it which are never shut, and which have the names of the twelve tribes of Israel written on them. Each of the gates is made of a single pearl, and there is an angel standing in each one. The wall also has twelve foundations which are adorned with precious stones, and upon the foundations are written the names of the twelve apostles. The gates and foundations are often interpreted as symbolizing the people of God before and after Christ. The city and its streets are pure gold, but not like the gold we know, for this gold is described as being like clear glass. The city is square in shape, and is twelve thousand furlongs long and wide (fifteen hundred miles). If these are comparable to earthly measurements, the city will cover an area about half the size of the contiguous United States. The height is the same as the length and breadth, and although this has led most people to conclude that it is shaped like a cube, it could also be a pyramid. ===The Tree of Life=== The city has a river which proceeds "out of the throne of God and of the Lamb". Next to the river is the tree of life, which bears twelve fruits and yields its fruit every month. The last time we saw the tree of life was in the Garden of Eden [Gen 2:9]. God drove Adam and Eve out from the garden, guarding it with cherubim and a flaming sword, because it gave eternal life to those who ate of it In the New Jerusalem, the tree of life reappears, and everyone in the city has access to it. Genesis says that the earth was cursed because of Adam's sin, but the author of John writes that in the New Jerusalem, "there will be no more curse". The Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (Baker, 1984) says:	[ "First Epistle of John", "Heaven (Christianity)", "Premillennialism", "Catholic Church", "Heaven in Christianity", "Purgatory", "Origen", "Holy See", "Four kingdoms of Daniel", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Realized eschatology", "vaticinium ex eventu", "early Christianity", "John A. Hardon", "Caligula", "Hebrew Bible", "Pope", "book of Daniel", "Hellenic Institute of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies in Venice", "William Miller (preacher)", "Ellen G. 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Kline", "Biblical prophecy", "Galba", "prayer for the dead", "Last Judgment", "Hell in Christianity", "Epistle of James", "Puritans", "pretribulationism", "Anabaptists", "Christian mission", "World to Come", "Jacques Ellul", "prophecy", "Inaugurated eschatology", "Reformed Christianity", "Septuagint", "Rapture", "Christian church", "Legalism (theology)", "C. C. Torrey", "Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire", "Messianism", "Seven hills of Rome", "Olivet Discourse", "Jewish", "James B. Jordan", "Apocalypse of Pseudo-Ephraem", "New Studies in Biblical Theology", "Karl Barth", "2 Maccabees", "Kingdom of God (Christianity)", "Daniel's final vision", "Old Testament", "Lutheranism", "second coming", "Catechism of the Catholic Church", "Valley of Josaphat", "Historicism (Christian eschatology)", "premillennialism", "Sanctification in Christianity", "Jesus Christ", "Christianity", "Great Tribulation", "siege of Jerusalem (70)", "Renaissance", "N. T. Wright", "Ministry of Jesus", "John Nelson Darby", "soul", "State (polity)", "Man of sin", "First Epistle to the Corinthians", "antichrist", "Tribulation", "exploitation of labour", "John Darby (evangelist)", "Adomnan of Iona", "Oxford", "Social Gospel", "deuterocanonical books", "Seventh-day Adventist church", "Jesus", "Protestant Reformation", "Gospel of Luke", "Plymouth Brethren", "Protestant Reformers", "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology", "Futurism (Christian eschatology)", "Great White Throne Judgment", "immortal soul", "Titus", "universal resurrection", "Christian ethics", "2 Thessalonians", "Seudat nissuin", "Salvation in Christianity", "Dispensationalism", "resurrection of the dead", "tribulation", "Fundamentalist Christianity", "Second Coming", "day-year principle", "Jezreel Valley", "damnation", "Progressive dispensationalism", "R. J. Rushdoony", "Gabriel", "Christianity in the 1st century", "millennialism", "Hebrew language", "Christian views on Hades", "English Standard Version", "Socinians", "William Hendriksen", "apocalypticism", "Supersessionism", "Seventh-day Adventist Church", "rapture", "Millennialism", "New covenant", "Preterism", "Judea (Roman province)", "Tertullian", "amillennialism", "Iona", "second death", "The Beast (Revelation)", "Prophecy of Seventy Weeks", "Pharisees", "First Epistle of Clement", "Horae Apocalypticae", "Neoplatonism", "Ralf van Bühren", "New Earth (Christianity)", "Book of Daniel", "Wolfhart Pannenberg", "Daniel Chapter 11", "Western Christianity", "St Columba", "Julius Caesar", "The Day of the Lord", "Second Coming of Christ", "First Epistle to the Thessalonians", "Second Epistle to the Thessalonians", "Final Judgment", "Last Roman Emperor", "Tel Megiddo", "Christianity in Asia", "Cotton Mather", "Last judgment", "Torah", "monism", "Bible prophecy", "death", "Christian theology", "Katechon", "Earth", "Daniel 8", "Ussher chronology", "Scofield Reference Bible", "soul sleep", "Book of Revelation", "Messianic Age", "Evangelical Christianity", "Millenarianism", "Unfulfilled Christian religious predictions", "last judgment", "millennium", "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse", "postmillennialism", "Armageddon" ]